erat hy CVOrLE baer by cee tftetey ihaeerts i ‘ayeeiyss UU NIUSS SER ELT rane one i Vereray OR PIMC SUB ER ESSE POSE OE e eee Teed Pees Rae (pectEeee sear Vercgaeeieee PEOFUR} IIR PAS RtE] EDISEROTENET TURE L TEST IEEE RC TET Y) FOVETE TINE TION an (Oneiaey titareyes TR ee r tree ayy {CUP soete sys, ee ever y vevenys ASOT SERED i Presi y pede it Chai tt hey bey ftys PSV ES PIED ET Se VDOC ETS EDO P NESS EN EE ety PRPP PPD EEE Egy Vat dee ope ed Tt PD reer eR teed : Seer ureter ey SOP Det ede TY ote CLEVE Tee Pb Peo ee sb POSE dee be OP eer tebe eee ceg gered sabres eee peti beri ody oe ey eebea? CUPETYSSTOTELY SUNT ITIR YT bear tdade rarer ns eedydredaaoras tre bd SAVES BS FF Sys Seyptbee chp cee boreee Vee eye ede Tey oeeed Peer P de bOEDy Eber opIeeeD ARAPAR ARREARS SEPP RR Pde EE tees bb eotysereees bey seprsyys PIEUTTIRNTINS SEIN TTI ENT eee der egy) OMe neers tae ‘ PPT HOR Sere eee ge ager ape erets Phe Sort asee dre raat yee BD Ut Db Eee Hes b yer ergy Ves pees et ery ead (SE Crys aya seer gears LERVILM eer PPP ISP bert sears esi Pe ere tees oyiaetrert PORSYOEN TERT TICS SCATERN EET ASU D Crary Pteiadoey tang ees dpe reese ee Peslegecl MNES Lesh eee rhifae OVERERISESITESOOORS SANE SOLD) MERA OR RELIED ORS ee LE ttre atayy ver) etpleee sorrypereree - PS ELDER Y PEE perser es debe egy te rte) RASA eae REREAD a Peepee sees ee reve gees PR ES TOM Ear oh) eee een) 3) ERROR OERIARS LASER) Peboren eer tyro veee PPee eye pee rote Sato pees ey tess tHeevbbas spare es VEEERSES TIER TDCC ESET S Ya yee LA YEP Nn sayy ends yee ea yyy reeisy ba ents eee VOF pepe ay beet ae Hye errr tyes sevisiggye? ‘tery bh CUSSRE SURES IOROOAUESENS SER LOSERS FIRE! Opti tboese syettyt Jv es AA E EY Tyee yy es POUEU ER RSE DE Pere eyey eee ae toe vpsee ey Yorodeiye ribet ryy ey ree eshevayrvgy! Hy oU age aya ayy i } SHNSUN EN Ts sss ota ee VIE ay shot daretteregaos sboseraegg yy ers reaerrnv esa eens ESRITIINY y Vash eeaya 4 ovERES NRTERE peace Ai RRPARE REE te ASS, bianvany ye Bs TVET ENS Nose Me eres >*s 4 A i i : yan ' Vo et tesabetyeretaa a} ' pene RIDERS SESS RIED KS ‘ ) er irs Paste bth } f rae ‘ poe yr cts FP poy wy few sya “4 > f ' i ty ee a J ‘ . fy ir. 4 aL . 4 ; ‘ . fy ay ee ye Oe ‘ ple dQ. ‘ ' ' ‘ > > by / + % ¢ ‘ ¥ ‘, : nee sy . Wr eErayy ao DORR ES) , ‘ 7 ' : id . avrg tS ar) : nf r Ee } y ' ae (hs (Saltbaeeyy ' ae itt vied SFY " Y hea tte 44 wr! ‘ shuns ‘ *s U ae ; : v6 , ' , yi ‘ . ¥ ‘ ‘ ’ j aé i bike , 1 f pa 4 1m ) t : 4 ‘ , > » tal ‘ ' A 4 ; ree PEC AME SE ade Ta aay I (eeu ‘ ae tos vous '" Wisk Rtaa Ree ten 44 ‘ t+, ‘ , ee s ‘ w ‘ a ! 4 : t i ' ? rf y ih?) ' eli CaatRCcRYE. “beth tad it it ; ; i vbape vay Weddouus ; , ca) 7 ‘sf 1 19Ngs : i ae P ibve i Becvdstaa ' eibtaelt F ‘ - ‘ ' i ay) i } ’ eon ins i ‘ ay ° ts ’ sit trot ' 4 “4 ' ' " waved ioe ‘ i is ' ‘ P ‘ \ i : : > + : . ‘ve. Pi 4 t i t Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by , Letitia Armistead Hanson b& HN as NAS NC THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY EDITOR: JOHN HYDE ASSOCIATE EDITORS A. W. GREELY DaviID J. HILL, MARCUS BAKER W J McGEE- CHARLES H. ALLEN O. P. AUSTIN HENRY GANNETT WILLIS L. MOORE ELIzA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE C. Hart MERRIAM H. S. PRITCHETT CARL, LOUISE GARRISON ASSISTANT EDITOR: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR WAONU DG NA Doaulenetkers)s, WASHINGTON THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 1899 En SONIA NOV 5 1981 LIBRARIES WASHINGTON, D. C. JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS 1899 CONTENTS Page The Stikine River in 1898; ExtzA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE.............- 1 The U. 8S. Board on Geographic Names and its Foreign Critics...... 16 The West Indian Hurricane of ea HOS also Siero teeieabs (GiMARORT. ood boldkdoDsaaod Ob. colo a Hii es ole AU al ey AURA are al nal 17 Colonial Svstems of the World; O. P. AusTINn ......... fea! 21 Lloyd’s Journey Across the Great LAVCAGINP MOH he ooo ae andign Mlidad el ute 26 rou Ole Maritime COMM eree aij Ninos ina sie she ackserl ate eon ny, 30 National Geographic Society............ al Bais eal ate Pre URI Ue aNSNR UL 31 Skeim@ye | DYoyol NY i aeaslel nop anVeNXOainiang elepeveumekaionaicicte te Weta ellis Marca) Meee cl Bic et 32 The Kconomie Condition of the Philippines; Max L. Tornow..... 5) ee Manila and the Philippines; Major A. FALKNER VON SONNENBURG... 65 The Original Territory of. the United States; Hon. Davin J. Hitu.. 73 ROULOME COMO E Ry alvs s Eel II a5 se:ve sce stop te mreiedens el ala ev etay Micha oketeley es eb 93 Sources of the Saskatchewan; Warmer D. WILCOX....... ......... 114 Exploration in the Canadian Rockies........ ......... bs ests diel eit 135 How Long a Whale May Carry a Harpoon; Wiuiiam H. Datt...... 136 Ship-building in the United Kingdom in 1898...................... 138 CAO O) TNO IWAN lo a coGad eobdom amc oon Hod amoomb ens auto toed His}: Proceedings of the National Geographic Society.................... 148 Major Jed Hotchkiss..........-.. Ses RUA a BED Teich a Fath ... 144 The Redwood Forest of the Pacific Conai- Henry GANNEIT......... 145 Is Climatic Aridity Impending on the Pacific Slope? The Testimony Ore Ae TNO Head ls NE AANA SG Guinn ly tb ee ol biel Wa aiaGlotho sig nice ote 160 Professor O. C. Marsh; W.J McGee...... RU Rak ene oe Un eile 182 MhevAnveaof. the Philippimesy ss... acess. ce ATES seas rien Ui Rat ee yo WBZ: The Recent Ascent of Itambe ; JCA BIR NINIER Ge eteloouel near arene 183 RVIOS GEM A ee renee se oye ener Oe Ag ie ect kenareu mer Ae) SS LAR OTIS hale de OS National Growth and National Character ; W Te MeGun: a ea Ne 186 HOLE EIR NA oVoVRR CORN RE a RNGETINT NSPE Utaret a ences enecta, HAI MeMe rs May Ie RT a eal 206 Samoa: Navigators Islands; Commander H. Wesster.............- 207 The Commercial Importance of Samoa; O. P. AusTIN.............. 218 Geourapmvtorbeachers Ou, GARRISON: (eees cela atthe wan 223 The Harriman Alaska Expedition in Codperation with the Wash- ington Academy of Seiences........ Acie rates Hite Eee creep als Big wey The Caroline Islands................ hy aren inte Se shcan danas 227 Proposed Meteorological Station in Ic sibitih eros eae SAGO UREL Pee The Belgian Antarctic Expedition................ Lier aeneyecaiamarteany 229 Geographic Literature....... iS ss OEE BANS ERI cycle ia sarah sacey Nee 23 Miscellanea i.) os. 3<555- 5 SLAG CaS eR OMY ch oR Rea ete Ma lirctetrd apm tat Ley Physiography of the Nicaragua Canal ante C. Wiuarp Hayess.. 233 Nicaragua and the Isthmian Routes; A. P. may SUN Se apne Boreas UR ate 247 The Wellman Polar Expedition; J. Howarp Gorn................ 267 The Coast and Geodetic Survey: Its Present Work; E. D. Presron.. 268 (iii) Vv CONTENTS Page IE XGOVACTONS MPA IAG Kaveh oeraschiniece cess cles sire bvoia) «cea eal ae eee 269 ites Vii sstonpotict re lecsD Lanai ere csc. ties ciecshor aaa ee eee 271 Geosraphicwmleiteravunrencs sects sce sas. Sesion eee che naan ere eee 274 GeocrapmiceMiscellamed cca te elec lack cis ea eral eee ee ae area 277 Shishaldin asa Field for Exploration; JosepH Sranuey-Brown..... 281 Magnetic Work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey; L. A. Baurr.... 288 Deep-Sea Exploring Expedition of the Steamer Albatross; Huau M. RSINUGUS Bs 6 aid 4 ley ae ERO delat pee a Re aiel annus sha Aas, ate Sw voce 29k Geocrapmicali@oneresssat berlin.) .-44-5-n se) eae eerie eee oe The Proposed American Interoceanic Canal in its Commercial As- WECES a OSE He ENTMOMOY JIRA) 2 iS chain ae Seco es ale naren ee A rae pesos 2 The Interoceanic Canal; Emory R. JOHNSON.... ..........-:..--. Silall Plans for Reaching the South Pole; GruBert H. Grosvenor....... 316 CORY loves! FRE eA Ne ee een name. erat aa iat pouGon tS c 320 IMIS Gellletin CAEL ares aires ane tus os Sv archis at uh reel SRS Sey, Se eA ae 326 Proceedings of the National Geographic Society...................- 327 The Commercial Development of Japan; O. P. AusTIN...... rele San 329 The Bad Lands of South Dakota; N. H. Darton............-...... 33 The West Indian Hurricane of August 7-14, 1899; E. B. Garriorr.. 343 hesReturnroraWellmant-a Je HowARDiGORE ser aaeee nt enere me caer 348 The International Cloud Work of the Weather Bureau; Frank H. ; IBGE TOW seeps Seats ele ipatete Sle st Seal tlh nen a ets ae Eg DE ENE Sods onl The American Association for the Advancement of Science......... 300 INOS IRechiggowerny Orr EWE JEG). oc5506cdon0scuvcescoocnndsoo0cKd 399 Rem iellman Polak xpediitlonn errs jee ee ee Cerne 2 Boll Moaromedn \aROs VOSOE IWAVNCls cast sco ovccescosvousdov0cgossougdeos 362 heasthmianiCanalseroblem) ss WrJeNic Gina srsseiacemceoeare 363 Geographic Literature............. BPC Menor tev Nery A ene Bete ES ee 364 Geoorapbic Miscella meas oi. serve weeps attra et Mae oc hacia 371 Life on a Yukon Trail; ALrrep Pearce DENNIS...... ........--... Be Uf midesiotaC hesapealke Bay :-sb 50D) RESTON cease ei ernie eet 391 The Relation of Forests and Forest Fires; Gtrrorp PINcHoT....... 393 Variations in Lake Levels and Atmospheric Precipitation; ALFRED J. EID NI RN Coes seseicee eaecaiearale eiteviciees So Sieilgg2ct RES OU Slane aha ay ea ear 403 Calculations of Population in June, 1900; Hexry FarQuHar....... 406 The Definite Location of Bouvet Island; O. H. Trrrmann.......... 413 Peary’s Work and Prospects; H. L. BrrmpGMAN..........:..-.-..--- 414 Peary’s Explorations in 1898-1899. ..... BSS aeRO wis “Ra aks. 415 The California and Nevada Boundary; C. H. Srncnair..... Shiai: 416 Georrap oi culiteraturercis 0. vc tesilepten ae ee ee mace ee ALT, Railroad srands Camas si oho. . -Scasscvracoseasdoaedd: AE era eas Jacke A crates Banners 40 SUERTE CUP Teer eH BIN [EDT Ele ie ie a epi ert ys a ro Alun are Peet feat ey VEcsarrann) tet eants Lo, © PM paa ese asain aS tL leat as Ulead aap teeth a Uni gotl ode eat ae ae 47 AWA eMe VGA INO INC On arte copa ettt| earete ch aeons mUSiM antec nre oh wane MMe NM 62 Calle San Jacinto, with Max L. Tornow’s office and tobacco godowns. 63 Mountain scenery near Lares, Puerto Rico..........-.............. 93 Wotecrestavemmy May aowez IShwets ye sca ins euneeuetrieteesiiay eter aans 94 AsmMouUntalm stream sentra Wequillons. soe ceMeciee eyelets ele: mat 95 Siureamuandevolcanic rocks; Mayaguez nt eee. anna eee ce meena te 96 MountaAmcultivation neat Maywacnezi. sa ceeiase cee skein ce 99 Chili ATO OF MHOMIMIRNI MONTINI, 6 oe00ccqccdsbasdonasdeoscsoagouc 100 BONA Ge SLE UT uO 2 are. < Selene oe alta od esol s eesl eee 100 sjmike cont RNG) LON, (ORIEN TENN Ge pu aadias sang oombonl decoold oudlacioaue 101 LANL MCOAS DOL Clan OuO linens seus eicic artae see ie Arnett iatens inte tebe aiaeis eter 102 AECELUOMSOUDMOI Sa Demarini eya soe = tecie ie sieeis oisleeicinc ileal 103 Coast hills near Cabo Rojo......... Le ec wagac dict pau Gauetotlatau Seater cone 104 MEUM GLGCeIO Ut VIMEO CK pastes nics ater che sierciecisiys crag ecslsectauahy suamvlee tes) a 107 Volcanic tuff formation of the mountains.. .......... SE Ry AS RHC 109 Source of the Little Fork of the Saskatchewan (pl. 3)...... shy iaevac wales vi ILLUSTRATIONS Page Scene on the Little Fork of the Saskatchewan ...............+....- 116 Camp scene on the North Fork of the Saskatchewan............... 120 Falls of the North Fork of the Saskatchewan....................-- 1233 View of Mount Forbes from an elevation of about 9,000 feet....... 128 Winter scene on pass between the Blaeberry and the north branch Oiab Weve Kime arl Vere ri. = \s5s\lon ee oaitel oe aes eee eRe RCE aco LBs Cuitineta redwood tree (pli4)sc6 ener 428 Vinca aes) Ometth INGE (gle desc de ethoes ou Koon eecsid on aeone os 432 NTI COUVETZ SiC altar NiOse2 (OI MBN nese al aapmaea neta cbscel cure oe NOMA rainy 432 POLIS STAIN CHT ALMA DD eaesyen sii sie lcthi esos iersy are ecto aches sera Ral WRU 437 Pe MLN EU Smerere er cies iatalenet secs cuopese to oleset SR Guar? Sraiates poet javeuce ula Ries 38 PHILO sua Otel Se lope cc ian ccsites chepersicrs jac miele ieoatacayel stsiclc ole save eoesuara tase 441 WAnadianiennapxOlels oferta c Girasaloe Move e nel eit seat: 440 EE NCLIBLAND Del Act ee ey eo Se certian ot scoters A orci yarce alee a cligto, cle orale Gnd lh ial 445 Sie IDeyoRnenrnerns We YO, UNM ccgoccocnsosoo, cosdomudbocdosocHeabonds 446 Scottish Geographical Magazine map, 1898.....................20-- 448 _ Boundary line of Americau and British claims...... .............. 454 APU TLO tO AC CR etter isc cysteine tie mteysitarctotescledselioiese:eneysho share. ol wv eieloven nese 457 SU SMP INC MIN es IGN AU eed tay Yost rol foie ceo toe icin halts Sie) ais che avalewin wy eioie aeahe ... 459 Wheelbarrow with load of 300 pounds ....................0. .00.e, 460 viii ILLUSTRATIONS Page Only two-wheeled vehicle seen on Teslin trail....... ............. 461 Gonclewil tla Gar clan lo Bs INOESOsoo600 sc. sen oco acces Dosenscece 462 English actors stranded on Teslin trail................ SA las a2 463 Cinchinesupsbeslinetrail <3 55:. 2.3 stake kee eRe eee ey ee . 465 IDNA Oi MANARONY GUNONe sactasdccacoachao0csosceceboocsssnoucdo 470 Diner lr ylang CANONS sooocecscen+50ne0 sooseesoooac sa ere AL Map On ihe seat, Olawar sin) Avice’ (ppl Aa) sree arias iar 481 Diagram showing the route of the Frithjof, 1898................... 483 IssAllth OrMMTOM, IRINA JOSS! IAINGC oconcncc os ncosnooessg nob a4c> 485 AGAIN OtawaliusikallledMtoridorstood seme een een rrr rwe 488 INOUE enh Oye INeeUMOWE oo cosc0ccs0cc0ccn cos 90ng0eD0s6 es: 489 Preparing the heaaquarters hut for winter. ....... BER eeer oer: Sere eo) Plateau at Cape Tegetthoff, showing Harmsworth house, the Well- NEI SrHSOUMON IMCAVCIOAAWENS, «5 oc cacooccs 000d coors as OCOE UDO 493 The headquarters house, from a photograph taken by moonlight dunine theiwanter michiinassseee aes ae eC ACER 494 | a beats walked up to,ourmadoo;rs) to) De snOtemnrn: ae) erase arene 498 CaperGieely. FranzeJosetalicn dh alee pyaar erin eee ee aere 501 Map of Franz Josef Land archipelago showing explorations of Well- IMAM EX pe GIMLOM es: e.ceteacte Sin eee tele Bere aedhe usc dee cern cacias ree Ue a UeEeoae 502 Mr Wellman ready to start on the sledge journey, February, 1899... 504 Nor Walliingyn im ews, ISO). oc ocsse os cosuccocsodacccons0DocKE :.. 504 Map showing route of Harriman Alaska expedition................ 506 The upper part of Port Wells, Prince Williams sound, Alaska....... 510 ” Magazine i AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY Editor: JOHN HYDE aa Associate Editors A.W. GREELY ~— W J McGEE HENRY GANNETT pe iC. HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE Ba oe foe CONTENTS me PAGE 3 STIKINE RIVER IN 1898. ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE. a With illustrations. ae ES: BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES AND ITS FOREIGN RITICS. 16 WEST INDIAN HURRICANE OF SEPTEMBER 10-11, 1898. PROF. E. B. GARRIOTT. 17 ) ONTAL SYSTEMS OF THE WORLD. O. P. AUSTIN. 21 OY¥D's JOURNEY ACROSS THE GRHAT PYGMY FOREST. 26 eer 1 OF MARITIME COMMERCE. 30 TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIBTY’S PRIZE OFFER. 31 ) : DON. MATIAS ROMERO. 32 > WASHINGTON . ae LISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Por Sate ar Brenvano’s: N Savane, New York; 1015 Pennsytvanta Avenup, WASHINGTON; Al ASH Avenue, ear AGO; 37 AVENUE DE 1’OpsrRa, Paris $2.50 a Year f oS ‘2 3 THE National Geographic Society PRESIDENT ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Vick-PRESIDENT W J McGEE Boarp or MANAGERS 1896-1899 1897-1900 1898-1901 - OBARLES J. BELL MARCUS BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL » WILLIAM H. DALL HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT DAVID T. DAY F. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY” HERBERT G. OGDEN C. HART MERRIAM - JOHN HYDE Heese RITCHHE TE WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE ELIZA R. SCIDMORE W. B. POWELL F. H. NEWELL TREASURER HENRY GANNETT RECORDING SECRETARY CoRRESPONDING SECRETARY F. H. NEWELL © : ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE I SECRETARY’S OFFICE | Rooms 117-118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N..W., Washington TREASURER’S OFFICE U. S. Geological Survey, 1330 F St. N. W., Washington - National Geographic [agazine—Back Numbers The Society is prepared to purchase Vols. I, II, III, and IV, or Nos. 2 3 and 4 of Vol. I, 2 and 4 of Vol. II, 1, 3, 5, and 6 of Vol. IV, and 6 of Vol. VET. ° Members or subscribers having these volumes or single numbers to dispose of are requested to communicate with the Secretary. ae VOL. X, 1899, PL. 1 NAT. GEOG. MAG. J ZY, ENTRANCE TO THE STIKINE RIVER FROM POINT HIGHFIELD— POINT ROTHSAY AT THE RIGHT INiehie National Geographic Magazine . Vou. X JANUARY, 1899 No. 1 THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1808 By ExizA RuHAMAH SCIDMORE The Klondike excitement of 1897 turned attention to the Stikine river as affording an easy route through the Coast range of mountains to the interior of the Northwest Territory, since it was known that Indians, Hudson’s Bay Company traders, and surveyors of the Western Union Telegraph Company had long azo used a trail from the upper Stikine across to the lakes and waterways leading to the upper Yukon. The Stikine was not an unknown or undiscovered country, but only an abandoned one, as the discovery of gold in its river bars in 1861 and richer placeis in the Cassiar country beyond in 1875 drew thousands of miners to summer camps, until the ex- haustion of the richer placers, the need of machinery, and the discoveries elsewhere drew that fickle and floating population away. Steamers were withdrawn from the river ten years ago, the old camps disappeared in underbrush, and Ft Wrangell, the post of transshipment for all this trade and travel, fell away to a mere Indian village again. The Klondikers appeared in numbers last January, and con- tinued in an unending procession over the Stikine’s frozen surface until the river opened in April, when a dozen light. draft stern- wheel steamers, fitted with powerful engines, ran, crowded to the guards, for a few weeks. The Hudson’s Bay Company put on some fine boats, and the Canadian Pacific Railway Company sent up a dozen steamers, all named for eminent Canadians, the two swiftest river boats on the Stikine appropriately bearing the names Ogilvie and McConnell, in honor of those two members of the Dominion Geological Survey. Glenora, the head of naviga- 2 THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 tion, 125 miles from Ft Wrangell, and Telegraph Creek, 12 miles beyond Glenora, are starting points on the trail that leads through an open, hilly, and grassy country for 145 miles to Lake Teslin, whence there are no interruptions to boat navigation to Dawson City, a distance of 526 miles. Bills were introduced in the Cana- dian Parliament giving rights to convert the trail into a wagon road, and a great land grant was to be conferred on the builders of arailway. The railway to Lake Teslin was to be completed by September, and this ‘“ all-Canadian route ” appealed to many, and especially to British fortune-seekers. A trail from Ashcroft, on the Fraser river, reaches the Stikine at Telegraph Creek, and many who ventured on this longest of all the land routes toward the Klondike district met with disastrous adventures in the great woods. Ft Wrangell, Alaska, where the ocean steamers landed the all- Canadian army of gold-seekers, was crowded all winter and revived its prosperity of thirty years before. A ‘‘ boom’ of extravagant proportions was well on in March and collapsed by the end of May with distressing results, when the failure of the railway land grant measure resulted from the many political entanglements and jealousies at the Canadian capital. Ft Wran- gell real estate took on absurd values while the boom lasted. The tide line was edged for a quarter of a mile with flimsy pine buildings and fragmentary footwalks on stilts; tents crowded upon every vacant spot and whitened the hillside. A score of saloons ran wide open, despite Alaska’s severe prohibition laws ; the most barefaced gambling games and swindling schemes were conducted on every side without concealment, and this “ boom- town ” of 6,000 inhabitants displayed all the worst features of such lapses in civilization. Without water supply, drainage. or sanitary measures of any kind, with all refuse dumped into the space before the first row of water-fronting buildings, and with the butcher slaughtering in the open before his shop, Ft Wran- gell, in July, was more offensive, parading more filth and smells to the ground space, than any Chinese city I have visited. Great, wharves and warehouses were built to accommodate the ocean and river travel, and the restrictions and complications of Cana- dian and American customs regulations in the bonding, trans- shipment, and interport carrying trade were endless. ‘The decla- ration of war between the United States and Spain, even the cer- tainty of it for some weeks beforehand, brought the Klondike rush to an abrupt end, the adventurous and restless Americans THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 3 seeing an easier vent to their eager spirits in enlistment, and in- vestors and investigators prudently holding back to watch the fate of war. To one remembering how quickly and entirely the Klondike retreated from general view and interest in the eastern states, after the blowing up of the Maine evén, it was not sur- prising to find that the expected summer rush to the Klondike had failed ; even Alaska tourists failed to come, and the fleet of steamers brought around Cape Horn for the busy summer ex- pected would have entailed great losses upon transportation companies but for the sudden necessity of transports for the Philippine expeditions. About the same time that the stream of gold-seekers ceased coming the Teslin railway seemed doomed never to be built, and certainly not before the railway from Skagway over the White pass. The Teslin trail proved too long and too hard for many who had undertaken it, and the river boats that went up the Stikine empty returned crowded with angry and discouraged Klondikers. The angry ones went on to try the shorter routes to the Yukon from Lynn canal; the dis- couraged ones sacrificed their outfits recklessly in their one wish to return to civilization. A dozen of the useless river steamers were boarded over at the bows and attempts made to tow them across that roughest part of the Pacific ocean to the Yukon river’s mouth, but disaster attended nearly every one of these perilous tows in the open ocean, the seams parting under the strain of waves and hawsers, and the flimsy river boats going entirely to pieces or drifting ashore in hopeless condition. While the Stikine boom lasted a first opportunity was afforded for pleasure travelers to comfortably view the magnificent scenery of that river, whose valley was aptly called by Dr John Muir “a Yosemite one hundred miles long,’ but only three tourists or actual pleasure travelers availed themselves of the chance, as far as the most diligent inquiries could establish the fact. Although so powerfully engined, the fleetest of the river boats could only average seven miles an hour against the furious current, making the average trip up to Glenora in eighteen hours, and returning in seven or nine hours, the boats always timing their departures so as to cross the flats at the mouth of the river at high tide, and navigating only during clear daylight. There were no old river captains or pilots surviving from Cassiar times to command this hastily constructed fleet, and the best “swift-water captains ” came from the Kootenai, the Snake, and the upper Columbia and learned the Stikine route for themselves, “ reading the water” as they went along. 4 THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 From Pt Highfield, at the end of Etolin island, a few miles around shore from Ft Wrangell, one has a fine view of the impos- ing entrance to the Stikine splendors, snow-capped mountains towering above the evergreen headlands, and prolonged to west- ward in that magnificent range that fronts the Alaska tourist when he emerges from Wrangell narrows. Vancouver’s men reached and named Pt Highfield; yet those admirable explorers, sent to the northwest coast expressly to find an unknown river, failed to discover the Stikine when their boats were in its muddy out- flow,as they before failed to discover the Columbia and the Fraser, and it was left for the American Captain Cleveland to discover the Stikine in 1799. Crossing the flats at the broad river’s mouth, where fishing boats from the neighboring canneries were tending nets, and skirting close to the forested slopes at the right, our steamer followed along so near the banks that we breathed all the fresh, earthy smells, the fragrance of wet wood, mosses, and cedar plumes. ‘Two miles within Pt Rothsay a little flat of in- tensely green grass at a creek’s mouth is landing place for the canoes of those who go to visit the garnet ledge high up on the steep cliff front and blast off fragments of the dark gray mica slate dotted with big almandite garnets for the tourist market at Ft Wrangell. Although the Stikine is such a swift river, its bed falling 540 feet between Glenora and Pt Rothsay, it is not deep save where compressed in its cahons. It wanders between its steep moun- tain walls, cutting out islands from one densely forested bank and the other, heaping driftwood on bars in midstream until they form islands and their thickets change to cottonwood forests. These islands are inundated each season and sometimes washed away in unusual freshets, and then the debris accumulates in other places and new islands divert the stream. Cottonwood island, a first such forested bar, was a busy place last winter, when steamers, canoes, and small boats, pushing through the loose river ice of the flats, landed the Klondikers at the lower end of the island, to begin their march over the solid ice that extended unbroken from the further point of Cottonwood’s shores. Stikine City grew upon the snow; there was wild spec- ulation in town lots, and tents crowded in lines between the trees and bushes, where sky-scraping business blocks were soon to stand; but the boom had burst by the time the frost was out of the ground, and the vegetation of one Alaskan summer effaced nearly all the traces of Stikine City’s ground plan. Tales are THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 5 told of the Klondikers trembling and becoming breathless as they landed on Cottonwood’s shores, as frantic and crazed as if Dawson City and the gold nuggets were in sight. All along the Stikine there is such a panorama and sky line of snow peaks on either hand as would be enough to make the fame of a whole territory, save in Alaska, where scenery con- tinues on such a scale and with such unusual features that one takes snow peaks and glaciers almost for granted, as obligatory, conventional backgrounds for every scene. The first object of special distinction along these river walls is the Popoff or Little Glacier, ten miles above Pt Rothsay,a narrow blue tongue thrust from great snow-fields and showing in profile beyond forested slopes, whose greens intensify the exquisite pale pure blue of this star-sapphire mass—this slender, steeply-plunging cataract of ice seemingly arrested on the mountain’s side. It shows a dirty terminal moraine and a grimy forefoot to those who land and approach it, but from the river this blue ribbon, unrolled frony the clouds and the snow-fields, is most exquisite of Stikine glaciers, the color of its hard clear ice divinely blue in the early morning, fading at midday, and intensifying again as the shadows stretch across it. With the windings of the river, one has the Popoff in view from many points as the boat progresses toward, faces, and manceuvres within range. None of the Stikine gla- ciers have been explored to their sources, mapped, measured, or studied in any sense, and they are virtually unknown glaciers, the region a paradise and happy hunting ground for the glacial geologist. Prof. W. P. Blake, the geologist, who chanced to be- in Japan in 1863, was asked to accompany the corvette Rynda, which Admiral Popoff despatched to the American coast by order of the Czar to learn if Stikine miners were working within the thirty-mile strip of Russian soil, which had so long been leased to the Hudson’s Bay Company. Professor Blake examined the bars and rock formations and made a running survey of the river, naming the glaciers and principal landmarks, and his map was published with his report on the Stikine as a congressional doc- ument at the time of the purchase of Russian America by the United States. Dr John Muir made a canoe trip up the river in 1879, “ prospecting for glaciers” in a general way, and making notes and thumbnail sketches for his own entertainment. Cana- dian surveyors have made general maps of the river, and Messrs Tittmann and Ogden, of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, have surveyed and mapped the lower end of the Stikine in con- 6 THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 nection with the surveys for determining the international boundary line; and to Mr O. H. Tittmann I am very greatly in- debted for several of these accompanying illustrations, repro- duced from photographs taken during the boundary survey. The international boundary line has moved up and down stream on the charts for these thirty-odd years, and Canadian custom-houses and Hudson’s Bay Company posts wandered with it, five different places having been accepted as the temporary boundary until a commission can determine it. The place last settled upon for the passing of the imaginary line is a few miles above the Popoff glacier, near the Great bend. In this past summer of 1898 the United States was temporarily and econom- ically represented by a custom-house in a tent on the river bank, to whose canvas sides a small and faded flag was pinned, like an outworn towel. Two men and a dog constituted the Amer- ican force, both men looking very weary, bored, and homesick, as one lounged down for his mail and fresh beef, and the other whistled in his doorway. Thereisa station of Canadian mounted police on the river bank a few rods beyond, an officer and twenty men occupying a group of hewn-log buildings on a knoll, with the red flag of the Dominion flying from a tall pole. Their storehouses were on the bank, and men in canvas working- clothes were putting company gardens in order and giving an appearance of permanency, trimness, and order to the edges of British domain. The Iskoot river, which enters by a long, deep valley from southward, is said to present greater scenic spectacles along its way than even the Stikine river. The Stikine region is the best “bear country ” on the northwest coast, and the finest grizzly, cinnamon, and black bears hold the Iskoot wildernesses almost undisturbed, since few sportsmen come this way. Mountain sheep, mountain goat, deer, and elk tempt the big-game stalker, to whom the Stikine and Iskoot would be perfect paradise were it not for the plagues of mosquitoes and gnats. The sharp needle-peaks of the lofty Glacier range are aligned along the Iskoot’s course, and there are unnamed and untrodden peaks, passes, glaciers, and snow-fields to occupy Alpine club climbers for many years along the Iskoot’s course. The Orlebar or Great glacier of the Stikine shows first in dis- tant profile as a grayish white mass pressing out between two mountain slopes and spreading in a great curving, fan-shaped front of boulders and dirty ice for fully two miles along the river THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 7 bank, the crest of one terminal moraine towering in cliffs of de- bris far above the tree tops of the river bank. Beyond this first forested edge of the river, there is a lake or backwater cut, on which moraines and ice slopes front, and the steamers pass more than a mile away from the ice itself. When directly abreast of the Orlebar, one can see its grayish surface, striped with the fine lines of medial moraines and cross-hatched with the seams of crevasses, sloping up and disappearing through further gaps to- ward great snow-fields half seen on the shoulders of distant peaks. This glacier has been visited by several geologists, but none have had time to explore it back to the source of its main stream, to follow its tributary branches, to note its rapid motion, or arrive at any idea of its recent retreat and shrinkage. . Two young Russian officers once came down from Sitka to explore it, but never returned from their expedition, and prospectors are said to have been lost in its crevasses. Miners who knew it in early Cassiar days, when there was a busy trading station at the hot springs on the opposite side of the river, claim that the front has receded and the whole glacial mass shrunk surprisingly, and Dr John Muir’s visit in 1879, although but a reconnaissance, proved to him a very rapid recession within recent times. A small elacier descends through a gap on the opposite shore directly facing the Orlebar, fed by the snow-fields of Mt Laura, which is so perfectly framed in the opening, and Indian tradi- tions tell that this little glacier once joined with the Orlebar and the river ran through a tunnel in the ice. The Indians, who had come down stream from the interior, were convinced by the annual runs of strange fish that the river must reach the sea, and chose the two oldest members to test the theory—since these aged ones must soon die anyhow. The veterans ran the tunnel safely, and, returning in due time, were held in great veneration for the rest of their lives. : From Orlebar glacier on to the Little cafion, the Stikine pre- sents its most splendid panorama on either hand. The scenery is on such a seale and of such magnificence, with hardly an in- terval of ordinary or commonplace mountain scenery, that one loses all measure of comparison and hardly appreciates to the full the unusual grandeur of his surroundings.. There are ela- ciers everywhere and of every type—hanging on the mountain side, plunging down ravines and through gaps, curving around spurs, fretting and pricking through the surface of vast snow- fields, and everywhere debouching toward the river’s edge in GNAOWNMOVA NI GONVY WOVAMVS — UAATM ANIMNIGS THE TO NONVO ATLUIT THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 9 spreading fans of boulders and muddy ice. One can count a dozen great glaciers at once from a certain point of view, and easily accepts Dr John Muir’s count of 100 glaciers seen from his canoe, and of 300 glaciers seen by climbs and tramps ashore, all draining directly into the Stikine. There is a feast and al- most a surfeit of glaciers in the next fifty miles, the Dirt or Mud glacier, greatest of all, being almost the replica of the Orlebar glacier, save that it is a dirt covered, dark-brown mass instead of a dirty white one. The Dirt glacier remains longer in view, by the serpentine windings of the river, than any one object save the Eagle crag, a great, detached, snow-striped peak with a triple, sharply dentated crown, that one sees ahead, to right and lett, in foreground, background, full front, and profile all day long ; this peak and the earth-covered glacier omnipresent appearing and reappearing from new points of view, to the utter confusion of one’s compass and topographical ideas. There was a superb view, too, of Kate’s Needle, over forested points and river fore- grounds, as its dark summit pricked sharply through snow-fields to the very sky. There is one superb glacier, just above the Dirt glacier, whose névé is held in a broad amphitheater, whose re- taining walls are buttressed on the further side by the finest ar- rangement of peaks and palisades seen anywhere along the Sti- kine; and in some far recess near there hides that mysterious Flood glacier, which several times each season breaks away a natural dam and sends a torrent of muddy water roaring out to the river, sensibly raising its level for a time. We had met signs of the recent rush of ‘Klondike travel all along the Stikine banks, rows of cordwood neatly piled showing as melancholy reminders of abandoned camps and hopes and ventures. Shrewd Klondikers who went up on the snow cut wood diligently, counting upon quick returns for their labor when the fleet of river steamers ard the campers in small boats should come in the spring. All the Canadian Pacific boats burned coal and kept their extra supplies on anchored boats along the river. The Hudson’s Bay Company had gangs of Chinese cutting cordwood for their boats long before the ice moyed, and the independent prospectors in canoes were few. Signs of *‘ Wood and water,” “ Wood for sale,” and the laconic * $4.50 per cord,” or only “‘ $4,” met one along the banks—mon- uments of wasted energy, with pitiful epitaphs. Wherever the valley broadened and the river ran its most ser- pentine course there were acres of bleached logs and tree roots 10 THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 stranded on bars and banks—enough fuel gone to waste to supply all the river boats and the people of a great city ; and each day the remorseless current cut further into some wooded bank and sent other tall cottonwoods to snags and driftwood. One longed to make a grand bonfire of these unsightly skeletons strewing every bar; but the two snag-boats at work on the river had too much real and necessary work to do. In some stretches the banks seemed to be upholding groves of elms, where the river had washed away the front ranks of cottonwoods and brought to view the tall elm trees that had had to struggle upward in the crowded forest without lower branches, spreading out in ereat arching crowns that had all the grace of New England elms. There were novelties in navigation on board the Ogilvie that eave great interest to the Stikine trip, as the “‘ swift-water cap- tain” sought channels and fought the stiff currents that charged around bends and combed against the bows of the river boat as if she were at sea. He “read the water’ by a dozen signs, even the different wheezes, groans, and panting of the engine declaring the depth of water to his trained ear, and the swell rolling away at either side another sign telling the depth as cer- tainly asa lead plummet. At each riffle he steered into the midst of the foam where the current ran strongest, and in some of these places, where the river raced in a narrow channel, the water stood higher in midstream than at either bank, and the boat rode high on the turtle-backed flood. | Just below the dreaded Little cafion the Ogilvie crept up be- side the anchored coal-boat and took on more fuel. We could look straight up the quarter-mile rock flume, whose sides rise perpendicularly for less than 100 feet and then slope away into wooded foothills, far above which towers the great sky-line of the Sawback range, the continental divide. A white disk shot out from a tree branch overhanging the cafion’s mouth as signal to our boat that the way was clear to ascend, the reverse of the disk showing a black warning to any boat at the upper end that it must not enter, since two boats cannot pass in that narrow cut, where the broad river is compressed and turned on edge. The incline of foaming water between jagged rock walls that ap- proach within 60 and 100 feet of each other was running with a mild current—only a little over 10 miles an hour that day—and with full steam and forced draught our boat was able to climb the hill of running water in thirteen minutes. In flood times THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 bt steamers were forced to wait for the fury to subside and to “ line up” by reeling in on the capstan wire cables fastened. to the largest trees ashore. ‘There was a deafening roar from the boil- ers and the boat shook as if all its upper works would be loosened, while it worked its way upward, dipping, careening, quivering in all its solid frame, and shipping waves at the bows, and there was more personal excitement and tension in this struggle with the Stikine’s fury than we had any idea of until we came out to wider and slower reaches and tied up for the night. GLENORA FROM THE LANDING We were then “over the range,” ‘east of the mountains,”’ “across the divide,” and there was a great difference in the character of the country. There were grassy benches and hills, stretches of burned forests, and every sign of a scorching, dry, interior climate. The Kloochman’s cafion, named because the Indian canoeman, exhausted with his day of frantic tracking and paddling through the Little cation, leaves this bit of navi- gation to his kloochman, or squaw, was only a stiff millrace of water running for one or two hundred yards between green banks. We easily surmounted its slope, and turning sharply 12 THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 where a bald cliff met the flood, speedily climbed the Big riffle of the Stikine—only a stretch of dashing rapids over a stony bed. Green benches or terraces along the river bank, open and grassy stretches, with towering peaks in the background, gave one the idea of approaching civilization again and the group of log- houses and buildings at Hudson’s Bay Flats, or Shakesville, seemed quite in keeping. A great sign on the banks of “ Cassiar Central Railway’? marked the terminal or initial point of that enterprise, the great trunk road whose fortunes were then bal- ancing—whether to be or not tobe. Two miles beyond, Glenora showed a row of log-houses along the river bank, with innumer- able tents beyond, and a most discouraged, homesick-looking company of men straggled to the mud bank to watch the tying- up, every man with both hands pocketed. The postmaster car- ried his mail-bags ashore, the mounted police watched the land- ing and stowing far above the water line of the dressed lumber and fittings for the gold commissioner’s read y-made house, and Glenora subsided into the stagnation of a rainy Sunday in a mining camp whence the boom had twice fled. Glenora, “the lively camp ” of so long ago, had been galvanized to a far livelier condition in the spring of 1898, to fall away again as the difficulties of the long, boggy Teslin trail became known, and as the chances for wagon road and railway building lessened, the army of the disappointed, the faint-hearted, and also the sturdy ones bent on trying the other trails from points further up the coast, had all gone from Glenora, and there remained only those who could not get away and those who felt themselves fix- tures there. Everything on the bank was for sale, apparentl y— tents, blankets, provisions, horses, mules, dogs, sleds, snowshoes, aluminum boats, harness, pick-axes, shovels, pans, forges, quick- silver, and scales—so rough notices at every door-sill and tent- flap told. Great tents served as hotels, stores, and storage ware- houses, a charge of five dollars a ton each month leaving these storage depositories banked full of overdue trunks and valises containing the civilized clothes of those gone on into the wilder- ness, and of “ outfits” for which there were no means to have carried over the trail with the owners at the time of the rush, and no claimants later. The reckless extravagance of the mad Klondikers surpasses anything told of them, even their cruelty to animals, and outfits that cost hundreds of dollars were thrown away and left behind at Glenora in the mad race for Dawson, or in the discomfited return toward civilization, while thousands \ THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 13 of dollars went to the bottom of the Stikine through breaking ice, overturned canoes, flooded camps,and caches. There were at least four dogs to each inhabitant of Glenora—splendid,shagey animals that sported in the swift, cold river and breasted its six- mile current in pursuit of sticks in sheer excess of strength and spirits. Nearly all of them had been over the Teslin trail, each one carrying a fifty-pound sack of flour on his back or dragging a three-hundred-pound sled-load over ice and snow, worn to skin and bones by such long-continued exertions and hardships on scant food. These dogs were then living in plenty at Glenora, and were evidently well cared for by kind owners, to judge from the way they capered and jumped and barked around certain men who lounged along the one river bank road; but the tales one hears of the inhuman cruelties to animals inflicted along all the Klondike trails would put a stain upon any gold that is ever brought out of the district. ‘It was a trail of blood from Stikine City to Glenora, and I never want to see such sickening sights again,” one rough frontiersman summed itup. Ignorance, ereed, and callousness were evenly combined in this inhuman work. Every kind of a dog was bought or stolen in the States and brought up in midwinter on the open steamer decks, where the half-fed creatures were crowded together in sleet, snow, rain, and bitter winds without shelter or drink. ‘Tied in strings to the fences, they were left to howl the nights out at Ft Wrangell, and were in poor condition to pull the cruel loads when driven off over ice and snow to be beaten, clubbed, and kicked as long as they could stand in harness. All animals were treated as cruelly—horses and oxen brought to Ft Wrangell without food or drink on the way, and left as uncared for on the river steamers, until certain humane captains took the matter in hand, broke into the bales of fodder that the owners were saving for use on the trail, and under threats made those owners give water to the animals erying with thirst as the river ran beside them. The owner of a flock of goats tied them to the Ft Wrangell wharf stringers at low tide and returned to find them all drowned by the usual eighteen-foot rise of water, the crowds of wharf loafers having enjoyed the spectacle as their idea of a joke on the poor distracted goat herder, who had put his every dollar into this Klondike venture. There was no movement of pack-trains out over or in from the trail for the two days the Ogilvie waited at Glenora, and a few incoming packers reported that the corduroying of the bogs 14 THE STIKINE RIVER IN 1898 between the succession of stony hills had been completed for some 30 miles, nearly to the Hudson’s Bay Company’s post, and that the detachment of mounted police at Lake Teslin were rap- idly putting up their buildings and laying out a permanent post. The current is very swift between Glenora and Telegraph Creek, twelve miles above, where the Teslin trail strikes away to north- ward, and as there was no freight to carry and no passengers to be called for, we did not see that last outpost reached by the Western Union Telegraph Company’s wires in 1866, when their THE STEAMER AT GLENORA surveys for a land line across Siberia to Europe were brought to an end by the success of the Atlantic cable. + MAMMOTH ORY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT . NE OF =F @ © WOODWARD & LOTHROP @ © @eeeeeoeeoeeoseeeooocesoeen Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are ae on Be The attention of those who anticipate purchasing . BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in ony number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in otic and 10 a 250. design: Three or more pieces 6 CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . «. WASHINGTON, D. C. SOOoe peeeoun NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE TYTN OOOO Oe — SS YT YET EON Yv TRL MELE TM EET AAAS LENIN TEN EN ET NSN VATA SD SNS a>—a—_ sa a SaaS SSS SED a nr WS s Shortest Line _ St, Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest GHICAGO GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. ‘“*« Maple Leaf Route ”’ A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. cH Che Smith... Pretiiier Cyupewriters Superior on This Fcint as Well as on All Others. i < i a i The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., OtILY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. DARADARADDRADDRDADRADRRARDM DDR RRANRRARRRRARRARRRRARRRAAE Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 519 Eleventh Street. NATATAIAATA AYALA VAWAVAUAVAVAVAVALAUALUALUALL AVAL NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE : THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST. The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology in | all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in its twelfth year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, ETHNOL- | OGY, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SocroLoGy, HISTORY, SOMATOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PHILOoLOGY. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name cn the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Swdbscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Illustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XII Begins with January, 1899. ApprEess: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 1399. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico............. ... $3.50 a year — Morotier subscribers imethe Postal Wmionk ee aecmeee em mere ee en eee 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two’ volumes are completed; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is, taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on. a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. In addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., Minneapouis, Minn, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS On the PHySIcCAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOTLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - - ~ ) GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - = = 2 > J. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - J BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - Cc. Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - . - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for one set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets to one address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati 5 Chicago RR es ERT OE EN SURV Ow Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY An International Quarterly Journal Conducted by L. A. BAUER and THOMAS FRENCH, Jr., With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians and Electricians. ITH the March, 1899, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism, Atmos- pheric Electricity, and allied subjects, such as Karth Currents, Auroras, etc., entered on its fourth volume. The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. The geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Com- mander Davis, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Littlehales, McAdie, Rlicker, Schmidt, Schuster, de Tillo, von Bezold, Mascart, and Abbe. Future numbers will contain contributions by Mascart, Rticker, Elster and Geitel, Kschenhagen, Hellmann, Hayford, Littlehales, Sclhimidt, and others. Special features in future numbers will be full abstracts and reviews of recent publications prepared by competent reviewers and the series of fine half tone portraits of eminent magueticians. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 256 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars and fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Two dollars and seventy-five cents. Address: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ? \ + \ EOPLE like to read about the great * \ Dae Ae Me \ and wonderful country of the < N Southwest ; of its quaint and curious ss A charming book covering these ww : : Rites : , ee facts is issued by the \ towns, its ancient civilizations, its * \ 3 PASSENGER DEPARTMENT N tural l They like t tales i \ natural marvels. ey like to getac- &% _ (OF THE \ Curate information about California + Southern Pacific Railway, NS oes tos 3, and will be sent to an tpaid WSS ‘ ae y one, postpaid, \ and the Pacific Coast. This is because * on receipt of TEN CENTS. \ most people want to some day see these ¥ 113 . re? \ : Ese . UOWIMES HOP WHATSONVES 55 6 os 6 6 6 0 a & ee Nite ey iat a ea eee \ a MPP MOH OH OH OO Fo, hg MP OOOO OOOO MaMa Ka Ka aaa Kaa MaMa Nana Ma ass) ° NN Sa Ss a a Se a te te a oo oe BS oe oe ae BS ee “e cs ¢, 7 - THE BOOK IS ENTITLED * BS & e fo : “Through Storyland = oe oe : rougn Storylan : of Seo 2 ae : S S 0 : % 4 : to Sunset Seas, : +e + : é “e eo “eo fo OS Se Woe soe loa loa lea onto soaseeeelee eel ee lee oalea see oes borer error eseesressoeroereernereeceeceseceessesceeseeeteens sostesterteatortestectete Rostorierteslostestoctostoctosloelostostoetectentestestestostestoates oe 3 oe 3 AG * AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- Re ¢ SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, You can get a copy by writing to % co WITT 160 TEU SiVAss @ NS reas S. F. B. MORSE, “ t F General Passenger Agent, ihe papen usedmis> FINE, BeAr Southern Pacific, Re $ 1 2 NEw fOrledne) nce PAPER, and every typographical de S 2, tere are : \N andsending 10 cts. to defray postage, Bs tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ is ; : S * four people saw on just such a trip as \ Se + 2 o¢ \ * you would Nike toy malkely., ss acmeme oe ; t3 a Vy fd Wi Y WS. Sey neton on The KLOND send for the April, | /Nationat. Grocrapxic Mhelaee ue large official map and numerous: illus ; By mail for 25 cents. i ae Ae iy 1808, ae of Tie 3 GrocRapHic Maeazine, containing m ‘maps, diagrams, and: illustrations, inch ee of aie Chas. ». Sigsbee, ps Rink i if V4 } } \ \ Y, re Ha Wo a AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHL 7 ; tN \ | vi é j A ; | } | | & H , a | Editor: JOHN HYDE He | | | ee | \ 2 Associate Editors | | Been ee TERT EO, So BN, A.W. GREELY ‘|W J McGEE Boy HENHY GaNAus | ty | Leahey aie C\ HART MERRIAM BLIZA RUHAMAH ScIDMOR J ee eee Fish | sea ae / fe / NE apne any ae f fr \ —— fom / f 2 ~ d Oo O Z is 3) Z 4 sf if ~ f >< ba / ts ; YER if Pa | er al \ \ \ }} ia / \ Aer Dias | If AY / Be ECONOMIC CONDITION\ OF THE PHILIPPINES. ee sf / PWith illustrations; \~ | i ¢~/MAX ZL. TORNOW, "33 /. + {i jo \ Da \ 4 S raf s ; ofS Aba: AND THE PHILIPPINES. | By Dye | - MAJOR A. FALKNER VON SONNENBURG. 66 nae é WASHINGTON \ ! PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL/GEOGRAPHIO, SOCIETY ~“ / For Sate at BrentaNo’s: \ Pie ne ni a Unto Si rane, New York;~ 1015 | Pennxsytvasta Avenvr, WaAsHInerton ; Boi Fa aN hi a a \ RIS cat a aie HICAGOS// 37 VENUS 7OPERA, PARIS iti $2.50 a Year — ashington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter - * fice in WwW seh rh Et Poet 4 ct ae | aun THE National Geographic Society PRESIDENT ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Vicr- PRESIDENT W J McGEE Boarp or MANAGERS 1896-1899 1897-1900 1898-1901 CHARLES J. BELL MARCUS BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL WILLIAM H. DALL HENRY F, BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT DAVID T. DAY F, V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY HERBERT G. OGDEN C. HART MERRIAM JOHN HYDE H. S. PRITCHETL WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE ELIZA R. SCIDMORE W. B. POWELL F. H. NEWELL TREASURER HENRY GANNETT RECORDING SECRETARY CORRESPONDING SECRETARY F. H. NEWELL ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE SECRETARY’S OFFICE Rooms 147-118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N. W., Washington TREASURER’S OFFICE U. S. Geological Survey, 1330 F St. N. W., Washington National Geographic Magazine—Back Numbers The Society is prepared to purchase Vols. I, I], III, and IV, or Nos. 2 and 4 of Vol. I, 2 and 4 of Vol. II, 1, 8, 5, and 6 of Vol. LV, and 6 of Vol. VII. Members or subscribers having these volumes or single numbers to dispose of are requested to communicate with the Secretary. OGNONIA NI LSSYLS IWdlIONIYd —VL1O0SS 3411V9 Le CO ; : NALD Z “Id ‘6681 ‘X “10A : ‘OVW "DOSED “LVN Wels National Geographic Magazine Vou. X FEBRUARY, 1899 Nog THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES By Max L. Tornow, of Berlin and Manila General interest in the Philippines, a group of islands long all but forgotten by the rest of the world, has been again thoroughly awakened by the recent cannonade off Cavite. Even with the final settlement of the Philippine question, it is scarcely to be expected that the islands can again fall into forgetfulness. A elance, therefore, at the economic condition of the country, with a few of the more important statistics, will not be out of place, for an exhaustive consideration of the subject would occupy far more space than the present article admits of. AGRICULTURE Commencing with the products of the soil, two important points strike us as testifying to the varied and fertile character of the land: the geographical position of the islands, embrac- ing 16 degrees of latitude, and the plentiful supply of water On the other hand, in addition to smaller obstacles raised by the administration, particularly as regards large plantations, the want of labor militates seriously against industrial exten- sion, so that of the arable land only a very small part is today under cultivation. The result is that, notwithstanding the rich- ness of the soil, we find that the total returns are nothing like what they should be. Not only do all tropical fruits flourish, but also the plants of the temperate zones, such as wheat, barley, and potatoes. Ex- periments were made some years ago with wheat and barley and 34 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES met with every success; and there is today a German planter in Benguet cultivating potatoes. I am fully convinced that in certain™ parts the vine could be grown, and at all events those fruits which demand a mild climate. Attempts have been made with tea to a limited extent, and the results have not been un- favorable; but to all extensive planting—and this is the only way in which it is remunerative—the want of railways, good roads, andj laborers presents the greatest difficuity. Not less annoying is the attitude assumed by the Spanish officials and the monks, unless the planter is ready to dance at their command. The principal agricultural products exported are sugar, hemp, and tobacco, and to a less extent coffee, the cultivation of which, however, has of late greatly decreased. Indigo, sapan-wood, and copra must not be left unmentioned, for they may certainly be expected to take a higher place in the Philippine trade in the future than is the case at present. Rice and maize are grown only for home consumption, and even for this purpose the sup- ply is not large enough. Rice is imported from Saigon and Bangkok and cocoa from Java, although the extremely fertile soil of the Philippines could produce all that is required at home and enough to admit of a large export trade as well. Formerly— from 1850 to 1860, and perhaps later—rice was exported from the islands, but the quantity gradually decreased until expor- tation ceased altogether, and finally the grain began to be im- ported. The blame hes with the miserable administration of the country. The planter can no longer compete with Rangoon, Saigon, and Bangkok, where the authorities know how to meet the farmers when necessary, and where ships are not exposed to endless chicanery, such as is practiced by the Manila custom- house officials. For this reason most foreign vessels are careful to steer clear of the latter port. Sugar is chiefly exported from the Visayas islands, and the trade is almost exclusively via Loilo, the largest place after Manila, situate on the island of Panay. Cebu, the third largest port of the archipelago, does now but a small and steadily declining trade in hemp. The best tobacco grows in the north of Luzon, in the province Isabella, and the south of Cagayan, the most northern province of that island, in the valley of the Rio Grande de Cagayan. The northern provinces of Luzon, from the Gulf of Lingayen, in the west, to the Pacific, are separated from Manila by a range of high mountains, the Caraballo, over which there is, with the excep- tion of a path and the telegraph, no road whatever, much less a = THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 35 railway. The tobacco, therefore, is sent on covered boats, called ‘“barangaijanes,’ down the Rio Grande to Aparri, and there shipped by steamer to Manila. A flat-bottomed steamboat also runs from Ilagan, when the water allows it; otherwise it goes only as far as Tuguegarao. In this way the transport from the CUTTING THE HEMP TREE, MUSA TEXTILIS most southern tobacco center, Echague (which as the crow flies is only about 150 miles), often takes as much as three weeks. Tobacco has also been planted on the west coast of the north- ern part of Luzon and on the Visayas islands. This, however, is of inferior quality, and is mostly exported to Spain. In 36 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES Manila it is not used, except, perhaps, by the Chinese factories for inferior cigarettes. Regarding the tobacco monopoly, abol- ished in 18838, I shall have some remarks to make later. An important and world-famed article is Manila hemp, or abaca, a product of the Musa textilis. It is remarkable that, although there are the most various species of the musa flourish- ing all over the tropics and in warm climates generally, the Musa textilis appears to thrive to the best advantage only in the Philippines. Attempts to grow the plant in other places have been uniformly unsuccessful. Like its better-known relative, the edible banana (Musa paradisiaca), the stem of the plant is formed by the leaf-stalks, in the center of which again is the blossom-stem. The finest growth is obtained in the voleanic and rainy districts of the Philippines, more particularly in Camarines Sur, Albay, Samar, Leite, Marinduque, Cebu, and in some of the small neighboring islands, as well as in Negros and Mindanao. The valuable hemp-fiber is found in the peti- oles, from which it is taken before the plant has borne fruit, as otherwise the fibers lose in elasticity and luster. In two or SEPARATING THE PETIOLES OF THE MUSA TEXTILIS THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES — 37 three years the plant has usually attained such growth that it can be cut down, the leaves removed, the green epidermis stripped from the stem, and either the bast-strips torn off lengthwise, or the petioles separated singly, and the inner membrane, with — the pulpy portion of the plant, removed. The bast-strips thus THE BAST STRIPS OF THE MUSA TEXTILIS DRAWN FOR THE FIRST TIME UNDER THE KNIFE obtained are then drawn under a knife in order to scrape away any pulp that may have remained on them. The product, after having been dried in the sun, is then ready for ship- | ment. This process, though simple, involves a great loss of fiber, which might be avoided by the use of more efficient strip- ping machines. It is difficult to accustom the natives to any- thing novel, but when once progress has gained a general footing headway will soon be made in particular paths also. Manila hemp has so far been equaled by none, much less excelled. The principal article is fair current, with its higher and lower erades. Of less importance are quilot and the silk-like lupiz, 38 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES which, besides their use in the manufacture of fine native fab- ries, are also employed for superior toilet articles in Europe, especially in the ladies’ hat trade. From the current sorts excellent ships’ cables and miners’ ropes are made, and in America, where great quantities are consumed, they are used to make grain-binders for harvesting. Hemp comes into the market in bales of two Spanish piculs (280 pounds English). The price varies much, being subject often to great fluctuations, which naturally give rise to speculation. About the middle of THE BAST STRIPS OF THE MUSA TEXTILIS AFTER BEING DRAWN SEVERAL TIMES UNDER THE KNIFE the present century the price ranged between $4.00 and $5.00 (with high course of exchange), steadily rising. In the sixties we find it from $7.00 to $9.00, and in the eighties $11.00 was the average. In 1890 it was artificially pushed up to $17.00, an immense crash being the natural result, and all this at a high or even higher course (3 /32d—-3/11d per$). The course now be- gan to fall steadily, until after the outbreak of the war it stood at 1/102d. Of late the prices for fair current have been between $6.00 and $9.00 per picul, at a course of 2/, and at the end of THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 39 April the ton was sold in London at £19. During the blockade of Manila the price was pushed up to nearly £40. At the end of the war it fell again to £28 10. In 1818, 261 piculs, worth $4.00 per picul, were exported. After that there is no record of the exportation of hemp until 1840. In that year the amount exported is stated to have been 136,034 piculs (8,502 tons). Thirty years later, in 1870, the amount had risen to 488,560 piculs (50,535 tons). The export then increased still more considerably. The following figures show how it has stood during the past six years : Piculs. Tons English. [USO cls ai GOR ee Me beeen 1,581,100 98,818 GON ees eR Re Catn gaat 1,282,942 80,184 UAC s Ss Met en Ue IRS RRR Crain 1,591,962 99,497 HR coats Aiea cane aS Ba he pre ob So ot 1,664,590 104,038 SVE Se oe Re AY Mie ee 1,531,810 95,73 SOR Viti a witien waar Neat 1,689,754* 105,610 The chief consumers are England and the United States. The relative consumption by the different countries in 1896 is seen from the following table: Piculs. Tons English. bi aKer Key ao Ie enact easel pees eee ere es one .... 815,044 50,940 Wmited’ Statess esi. ou Se cuts Se a 615,554 38,473 Shumaamdy Sapam cua wa c Bates nee ie 49,494 3,093 BP AUIS Craigs ste ene is eit eee tak 33,892 TS ingapore and Indiae .. 52. 12. 06-3 oi) AURIS) 760 European continent............ aiarevalers 5,660 304 1,531,810 95,738 The difference between the large export to England and the small amount which goes to the continent, the very last on the list, is striking. England, however, acts here only as middle- man, selling extensively again to the continent, which accord- ingly buys at second, or rather third, hand. Various species of the cocoanut palm are found dispersed throughout the whole archipelago, though the exportation has been considerable only during the last few years. Under a more satisfactory state of affairs in the interior of the country, the export trade in copra promises to increase still further in spite of the large consumption of the nuts by the natives them- selves. The meat of the cocoanut forms a staple article of food, both raw and prepared. *From Manila only. \ 40 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES The archipelago is very rich in timber, notwithstanding that the exploitation for building purposes has been going on for over 300 years, and exportation was once very large; nor have new plantations ever been thought of. Sapan-wood for dyeing purposes is also a product of the islands, and there is a regular, though small, export trade done in it. That the Philippines are among the most fertile colonies on the face of the earth is well known and has been frequently commented upon. It is less generally known that they are also among the most neglected colonies in the world. According to the Spanish authorities themselves, only one-tenth of the avail- able arable land is under cultivation; as a matter of fact the amount is much less. What might not be made of this beau- tiful country were this mismanagement to be brought to an end. Cattle-breeding has been carried on by some mestizos for many years, evidently with success or the business would have died out. | Of late it has been found more profitable to import the extremely cheap Queensland cattle. But the fact that cattle thrive almost everywhere is a proof that cattle-breeding on an extensive scale is possible. A small number of sheep are imported from China STREET IN BINONDO, WITH BUFFALO CARTS Lov ta ie THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 41 for consumption by foreigners. It is by no means improbable, however, that in some provinces, at any rate, they would thrive well. There are but few goats. Of swine and poultry, on the other hand, there is a surplus, the flesh of the former especially forming a favorite article of diet with the natives. In addition to the small but very tough horses, resembling those of Java, that most useful of domestic animals, the “ cara- bao,” or black (gray) buffalo, thrives abundantly. The white species is also occasionally to be found. The buffalo is em- ployed for many purposes—for working the pumps on planta- tions, for sugar presses, and for draught purposes. In the moun- tains the buffalo is met with in the wild state. It is, however, undoubtedly only the domestic species that-has been neglected. Nevertheless, in the course of years the degeneration has been so great that there now exists a clear distinction between the wild and the domestic buffalo. The wild animal has a more compact head and short horns, while the domestic animal has a long head with long, broad horns. Neither the horse nor the buffalo is indigenous to the Philippines; both have been im- ported by the Spaniards. MINERALS But the arable land does not form the only resource of the country, little regarded as it has unfortunately hitherto been. There is another and doubtless not less valuable property in the mineral riches now slumbering beneath the ground. The islands yield pit-coal, iron, gold, silver, copper, etc., for the most part of good quality ; and recently petroleum has been struck. Careful and expert explorations have several times been undertaken by engineers, yet never to the extent necessary to start lucrative mining, nor yet over a sufficiently extensive area. The former “inspector general de montes,” Don José Centeno, and Don Antonio Hernandez are deserving of special mention for their work in this direction. Coal is probably spread over the whole archipelago. It was first discovered in 1827, in the island of Cebu; then in Negros and Mindanao; on the island of Luzon, in Camarines and Albay, and in many other islands. The wealth thus appears almost inexhaustible. The coal in Cebu is of the best quality, numer- ous experiments having shown it to be equal to Newcastle coal. Hernandez found four seams running parallel from north to south at a small depth and 95 miles long. In 1874 four further 42 THE ECONOMIC CONDITI ON OF THE PHILIPPINES seams were found about 7 miles from the coast, near Compostela, where Don [saac Con-ui worked the Caridad and Esperanza collieries in a small way. in Albay, one mile southeast of the small harbor of Sugod, is one of the most extensive of the many seams which have been found in Albay. Itis 5 or 6 yards deep and runs for a Jong distance. From this mine, from different places over a distance of a mile or more, 130 tons of coal were dug and practically tested onsome steamers. According to the reports of the man-of-war Berenguela and the steamships Butuan and Corregidor, which experimented with the coal, the latter resembles that of Australia, with the advantage of being less bituminous. This is in agreement with the scientific analyses and trials of the coal made in Madrid. Small workings were begun, but exploitation corresponding to the value of the coal fields could not be looked for, as with the fickle government and administrative mismanagement, capitalists feared to finance such undertakings. Especially were foreigners subjected by the gov- ernment to every possible hindrance, so that a profitable return seemed questionable and the capital invested in danger. The workings were consequently very limited, and up to this day Australia and Japan export coal to Manila—a state of things which, it may be hoped, will soon be changed. Iron also has been found in many of theislands. The best is that in Luzon, in the provinces of Morong, Laguna, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampamga, and Camarines, which, according to Centeno, compares most favorably in quality with that of Sweden. The ore contains from 75 to 80 per cent pure iron, and is found in the midst of immense forests, so that there is thus a permanent supply of fuel, if properly used. In addition to this, there is often water-power in the neighborhood which could be profitably utilized. In the above-mentioned provinces Centeno discovered large masses of almost pure magnetic iron oxide (hierro oxidulado magnetico, casi puro). After what has been said above, it is not surprising that here also there has been no thorough exploitation. In the province of Bulacan the natives manufacture a very primitive iron plowshare and pots for cooking (carahays), but even here there has been a gradual decline since the commencement of this century. Copper exists in the provinces of Tayabas, Camarines Sur, and Antique, and on Masbate; the best quality, however, in the district of Lepanto (Luzon), near Mancayan, Suyuc, Bumuan, and Agbao. Here mines were worked by the Compania Canta- THE ECONOMIC CONDI1ION OF THE PHILIPPINES 43 bro-Filipina, but abandoned after about ten years, in spite of the wealth of mineral, on account of the scarcity of labor. The first specimen of black copper was obtained in 1864. In 1567 the output was 2,464 quintals (2,231 ewt. 85 Ibs.) of fine cop- per; in, 1870, 4,020 quintals (8,641 ewt. 8 lbs.). The want of workmen then caused the yield to decline, until in 1875 the mines were closed altogether. It is probable that gold occurs in every part of the archipelago. In a small way it has been extracted by the natives for many years in certain places, particularly in Luzon. It is found in- stratified and in creeks, from which the natives prefer to wash it. The best known sources are in Camarines Norte, the moun- tains of Mambulao, Paracale, and Labo and the northern spurs of the Caraballo mountains. Alluvial gold is said to exist largely in Nueva Ecija, near the village of Gapan. In Tayabas the metal is found in the mountains in the neighborhood of the village of Antimonon. In Mindanao, where gold has likewise been discovered, it is believed to be present in particularly prof- itable quantities. Mindoro, Panay, as well as some other small islands, are also places where the precious metal has been found. It now remains to inquire into the question whether it would pay to work gold mines at all, for as yet, at all events, no posi- tive proof has been furnished of gold mines being profitable, although during the last few years the subject has been much discussed. In 1893 the Mambulao Gold Mining Syndicate was formed in London, engineers were sent out, and workings were actually commenced in Mambulao. Difficulties, however, arose, the principal one no doubt being that a large part of the shares were not allotted, and the working capital was therefore too small. In general, the participators speculated on the advan- tageous sale of a part of their concession and the starting of a limited-liability company. Something of a gold fever broke out in Manila, and on all sides concessions were acquired by En- glishmen, some Germans, and Swiss. | Not one of these conces- sions, however, seemed the result of a sound bona fide project. The object in view was always the promotion of companies and disposal of the concession at a good profit, leaving all the risk to the shareholders. It is not impossible that this would actu- ally in some cases have taken place, and that it would have been followed by a speculation in shares similar to that on a former occasion in Singapore and Hongkong, to the detriment of general trade. The rebellion of 1896 fortunately put an end 44 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES to speculation. European capital for such purposes was not to be found during the disturbances, and methodical working in some provinces was equally impossible, quite apart from the other difficulties mentioned above. Centeno further states that mercury was formerly found in various places. At the end of the last century a bottle was sent to Manila from Mindanao and a second from Capiz. In 1848 mercury was discovered in Casiguron, in the province of Albay, but the general opinion was that the find was altogether insig- nificant. At all events, none of these discoveries appears to have been of any importance. At the beginning of the seventies two beds of galena were dis- covered in Cebu, in the neighborhood of the village of Consola- cion. Specimens were analyzed at the mint at Manila and showed, it is true, only 47 per cent of lead, but also 1 ounce of gold andl 9 ounces of silver per haenabraslenesternt. Nevertheless, the beds were not of sufficient significance to assure profitable working even on a small scale, so the mines were again aban- doned. The department of minesin Manila did certainly recom- mend further exploration in Cebu, but, so far as I am aware, active steps were never taken. In Mambulao and Paracale the beds of galena and red-lead ore have more than once been got ready for working and are probably very rich. The workings, however, have always been abandoned again—chiefly, it may be surmised, on account of these Spanish undertakings being insufficiently provided with capital from the commencement and because of the lack of the necessary circumspection. There is naturally an abundance of sulphur in this volcanic archipelago, that which occurs on the Buiusan, in Albay; the Taal, in Batangas, and the Apo, in Mindanao, being of fairly pure quality. Really extensive beds, worthy of exploitation, were found years agoin Leite, in the interior, not far from Dulag,and were worked on a small scale by the natives. In 1818, 3,410 piculs, at $2.50 per picul, were exported, and Dr Jagor states that the price paid in Manila for this sulphur in the fifties was from $1.50 to $4.50. For the last twenty years, however, the sulphur industry has been wholly dead. Alabaster is found in Camarines Sur, and there is a beautiful marble at Bohol and Guimaras, near Iloilo. Granite of excellent quality is quarried at the other side of the Bay of Mariveles, opposite to Manila. Rock oil was found some years ago in Cebu and Paragua and promises to be of importance. I have neither seen samples nor THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 45 come across any official report on the matter, but I have re- ceived direct information from various trustworthy Indians and mestizos. MANUFACTURES With the exception of the cigar manufacture, which until January 1, 1885, was monopolized by the government, the islands are not of industrial importance. Manila possesses two large sugar refineries, some distilleries, and rope works. Lately SUGAR DRYING AT MANILA rice mills and a flour mill have been set up in Luzon to meet the requirements of the island. The hats made by the natives of strips of reeds in Baliuag also play an important part in the export trade, being shipped largely to America and Paris. The cigar cases (petacas), likewise manufactured in Baliuag, are of less importance. Though of no great significance for the trade, the ilang-ilang essence should be mentioned, the Philippines being the only place where it is produced. The essence is made from the green blossom of the ilang-ilang tree, one of the Anonacese (Anona adoratissima according to Blanco, Cananga 46 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES adorata according to Hook), and finds its way principally to Paris. It forms the basis of all finer quality perfumes and has indeed become an almost indispensable article in the perfumery trade. The distillation of the essence and the business gener- ally connected with it are carried on exclusively by Germans. Coach-building is of great importance in Manila. The home demand is enormous, as every inhabitant of any standing has his carriage, and the wealthier mestizos excel in the luxury of their vehicles. That soap and other such articles of popular use are manu- factured, it is scarcely necessary to state. There are also three lithographic establishments, owned by Germans. Besides the Baliuag industry above referred to, the natives manufacture excellent homespun fabrics of cotton, hemp, silk, and pifia, the fibers of the pine-apple leaf. Pifia-cloth embroid- ery is also a domestic industry. These articles do not enter at all into the export trade today, but they may certainly be ex- pected to do so before long, the more so if the industry continues to advance as it has done during the past year or so, as regards not only the fabrics themselves, but also the designs and colors. Some coarse hemp textiles have already been exported within the last few years. The finer hemp and hemp and silk fabrics, though much prized by ladies for dressmaking, have not yet entered into the trade, not having so far found favor with the Parisian costumers. A most interesting display of the produce of the Philippines was made at the exhibition (Exposicion Re- gional de Filipinas) which was held at Manila by the government in 1895. It is certain that the Philippines, whose future is already assured by their mineral wealth, will play a part in the industry of the coming years equal to, if not surpassing, that of Japan. COMMERCE There seems to me to be no doubt that even before the arrival of the Spaniards these islands had relations with the Malay archipelago and China, and to a certain extent carried on barter, particularly with the latter country. Regular trade, however, first began to develop in 1571, when Legaspi established himself in Manila. The inhabitants of Cagayan related to Don Juan de Salcedo in 1572 that their cotton fabrics were brought every year by Chinese and Japanese vessels. Manila is without doubt the most advantageously situated MOdUVH VTINVW 48 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES port and trading place in the East, and forms the center of the trade between China, Japan, the Dutch archipelago, and Australia. The position of the Philippines is likewise extremely favorable for the west coast of America, and Manila should be the natural mart of eastern Asia. That it does not already oc- cupy this position is owing to the bad system of administration on the part of the government. Had it been otherwise, I am exceedingly doubtful whether Hongkong could ever have reached its present state of importance in the face of Manila. During the northeast monsoon most ships going through the straits to China run right across to Luzon to get protection against the strong adverse winds. It would therefore be quite in their course to touch at Manila, but they avoid the port for the reason stated above—the chicanery of the customs officials. For the same reason the regular steamers between Hongkong and Australia steam right past the Bay of Manila without run- ning in. Passengers from Manila to Australia have therefore first to cross to Hongkong, and then take passage from there, returning again directly past Manila and Zamboanga (so close to the latter that the people may almost be recognized on the shore), to the first touching place—Thursday island or Port Darwin. After 1572 trade commenced also between Manila and New Spain, which for individual Spaniards in Manila proved very profitable. Between 1590 and 1595, however, the citizens of Manila petitioned several times to the King for liberty of trade, but always in vain; the restriction on commerce remained as before. In 1610 the Seville merchants begged that the trade between Manila and New Spain might be closed, as they wanted to do business direct by the Cape with Manila without the inter- vention of the American colonies. This was, nevertheless, im- possible, on account principally, no doubt, of the fact that the Acapulco silk trade gave occupation to over 14,000 persons in Mexico. -Galleons were sent every year from Manila to Navidad, and from 1602 to Acapulco, containing merchandise to the value of $250,000, the maximum permitted by the government, and bringing back double the price. Later this maximum rose to $300,000, and in 1754 to $500,000. Finally the amount reached $600,000, and the home freight double the value. From Manila the galleons, called naos, took spices, cotton fabrics, silks, etc., with gold articles and other products of China, India, and the Philippines. Fifty thousand silk stockings are also especially THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 49 mentioned. (Refer: Lord Anson’s “ Journey Round the World,” 1749, and the description of Spanish commerce by J. C. §., Dresden, 1763.) The home freight consisted chiefly of silver dollars, and there were also passengers—persons going to seek their fortune in the Philippines—and officials and soldiers sent out by the Madrid government as substitutes. The merchandise yielded twice its value in Manila, and, as is recorded, sometimes even four times, which in certain cases may no doubt have happened. ‘The profit, however, did not all go into one pocket, but was divided among a number. The eovernment issued warrants (boletins) restricting the shipping of cargoes to the monasteries, pensioned officials, and other privileged persons, who then sold them to merchants. In this manner the profits were distributed. The result was that mer- chandise of very high value was shipped, and the nao often so packed with cargo that the guns had to be stowed away. On the home journey there was often over $8,000,000 value on board. As these ships were maintained at the expense of the government, it is natural that a portion of the shipping fees was reserved for the royal exchequer. Generally, the well-laden nao sailed from Cavite in July, steering northward to 30°, where, taking advantage of the west- ern winds, it made straight for the shores of California, then coasting southward to Acapulco. The voyage was always most difficult and dangerous and often very long, lasting sometimes six months or more. In later years the ships sailed more com- monly through the Straits of San Bernardino, south of Luzon, though this did. not shorten the voyage. Arrived at the Cali- fornia coast, they ran into San Lucas, where they took in pro- visions and received information as to the movements of pirate in the waters—naturally a matter of great concern, considering the value of the cargo. The home voyage to Manila was easier and quicker, seldom occupying more than two months. The ship sailed southward from Acapulco to about 10° N., whence it took the passage to the Marian (Ladrone) islands, and then further, through the Straits of San Bernardino, to Manila. As the time arrived when the nao might be expected, nightly fires were lighted on two high rocks, so that the vessel could find her way through the islands. (In old works the islands Guam and Rota are mentioned.) The naos were vessels of 1,200 tons or even more, and were manned as warships and armed with 50 or 60 cannon. Not- 4 50 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES withstanding this, they, with their costly cargo. sometimes fell a prey to privateers, pirates, and the warships of hostile powers. In June, 1748, Lord Anson, on board the Centurion, captured the Nuestra Seftora de Cubadonga, a much larger galleon, com- manded by Don Jeronimo de Montero, off Cape Espiritu Santo, on the Samar coast. The captain of a galleon, who bore the title “general,” re- ceived in the Acapulco trade a percentage amounting to about $40,000 for each voyage. The first officer also was paid a com- a5 mission. Toward the end of the last century the profits began to de- cline, decreasing more and more; sometimes the ships even found the market in Acapulco perfectly flat, without any de- mand. This was chiefly because of American traders and English merchants supplying all the requirements direct from Europe; but smuggling also played its part. Thus it often happened that the ships were unable to return for long periods of time. The last nao which left Manila in 1811 did not return from Acapulco until 1815. In 1785 the Real Compafia de Filipinas (Royal Company of the Philippines) was started, having its seat in Cadiz and with a capital of $7,000,000. This company more or less monopolized the whole trade until, on August 15, 1789, a decree was issued permitting European vessels to import Asian produce and to export only such Spanish, Philippine, and American produce as the compafiia had imported. A second decree, dated October 15, 1803, deprived the compafia of still further privileges and declared the harbor of Manila open to all nations. Certain rights, however, the compafila still retained. In 1814 absolute liberty of trade was allowed to the whole world. As the result of the introduction of the new Codigo de Comercio, July 15, 1833, the privileges of the compafiia ceased altogether in 1834. A year later the exportation of manufactured tobacco and cigars was also permitted. Until the close of the last century (1792) foreigners were not allowed to settle in Manila (although La Perouse, 1787, mentions the French merchant Sebir in connection with that town). As soon as the permission was granted the first foreign houses were established, and the number has continually increased, so that today the external trade is almost exclusively in foreign hands. The year 1851 saw the establishment of the Banco Espafiol Filipino; but by reason of bureaucratic formalities and the strict THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 51 limits imposed, transactions were much impeded. It is only in recent years that matters have improved, rendering a fair and: easy banking business possible. Up to 1860 and still later bank- ing transactions were therefore done almost wholly through two large American houses. Today we find branches of the Char- tered Bank of India, Australia and China and of the Hongkong & Shanghai Banking Corporation doing the principal business. The consulado, established in 1772 and removed on January 1, 1834, and the Junta de Comercio, founded on January 1, 1835, have done practically nothing at all for trade and ship- ping. The export and import trade, as already remarked, lies almost exclusively in the hands of foreigners, principally English, Germans, and Swiss. The retail and intermediate trade is done by the Chinese. The Spanish, in addition to the Compania General de Tabacos de Filipinas, which, however, pays but a small dividend, and some inland traders, own a number of pro- vision stores and of millinery shops for town costumes. How greatly the trade done by foreigners surpasses that of the Spanish is seen from the accompanying tables, giving the external shipping trade and tolls. Since 1896 there has been no American house in Manila. The traffic between Manila and the provinces is carried on mostly by means of 35 steamers and a large number of smaller sailing vessels. The sole railway runs from Manila to Dagupan, the port of Pangasinan, a rice-growing province on the west coast of Luzon, on the Gulf of Lingayen. The only large line of ships touching at Manila is the Compania Transatlantica, from Barcelona to Manila, which, however, also has Liverpool as a shipping port, as the steamers would otherwise scarcely be able always to secure a full cargo. The chief profits of the line are no doubt earned from the enormous transport to and fro of officials and soldiers; in nearly every ship all berths are occu- pied. There is a brisk trade done with Hongkong through four or five steamers under the British flag, for the largest part of the goods goes via Hongkong, being transshipped. A steamer runs to Singapore, meeting the French mail steamer, by which the principal European postal traffic is carried on. Despite the fact that the foreign flag was everywhere at a disadvantage and the Spanish, on the contrary, privileged, the former has always been the one really dominating. Though formerly foreign vessels were obliged to run in in ballast, they nevertheless took outward freight. The privilege allowed to the 52 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES Spanish flag remained intact until 1872, and consisted at that time in a reduction of 25 per cent on the custom-house charges. This was gradually diminished every year by 5 per cent, and in the last year by 10 per cent at once. The following table shows the state of the shipping trade in Manila in earlier years : 1827. 1828. 1829. Incom- | Outgo- Incom-. Outgo- | Incom- | Outgo- ing. ing. ing. ing. ing. ing. Foreign ships..... 96 | 98 99 89 146 145 Spanish ships .. 34 29 31 38 41 43 Mota... Pago)! Wasa Miso Mire san lies In 1868, 112 foreign vessels, aggregating 74,054 tons, mostly in ballast, entered to take up cargo, and 93 Spanish vessels entered and sailed with cargo. To show a comparison of the trade dur- ing the past two years, I have compiled the following table: | 1896. 1897. | Incoming. Outgoing. Incoming. Outgoing. [esse irs | gb b oS 3 op oh op on iene w . o ; o te oe o2) cal 102) al nM (I wm fo) , =| [oF q (oy = a, 5 (hiiees = 1S 2S S A= eS § He} S) ze} iS) Ss S) | iS) | wD a oD) A DD iS wD al | an 181 | 264,868 | 175 | 251,439 | 204 | 301,199 | 197 | 292,219 Horeignis. = Spanish ...... | 47 | 92,541] 49 | 955802) 48 | 84326) 50) | 885649 otal | 228 | 357,409 | 224 | 347,241 | 252 | 385,525 | 247 | 380,868 At the commencement of the century the imports were far greater than the exports; then the two became about equal, and finally the exported goods ranked first. In recent years the exports have always exceeded the imports by some 30 per cent, avery promising sign of the productive capacity of the country. The imports to Aragon in 1818, according to the duties paid, amounted to— Winderstonelonitlaos: te.4 certs ea ae ee rent $1,680,200 25 Uincleir SOROS TE 5 oo acn00cb0 oboboo on ocoR 616,071 85 $2,296,272 10 e THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES as against an exportation of— 261 piculs hemp, at the average price of 595 quintals cordage, 5 quintals hemp rope, $4.5 cavans coffee, 14,405 piculs sugar, 3,200 quintals indigo, 1,105 quintals liquid indigo, 18,825 piculs sapan-wood, 236 piculs shells, 31 piculs tortoise shell, 3,410 piculs sulphur, 2,610 piculs ebony, 1,532 piculs hulled rice, 42 piculs shark fins, 2,266 piculs béche-de-mer, 5.68 piculs birds’ nests, 94.24 piculs white birds’ nests, 1,332 piculs dried crabs, 1,176 piculs pure cotton, 310 piculs glue, 1,192 piculs rattan, 1,280 piculs wax, 230 taels gold, 1,391 trunks timber, 1,066 cavans cowry shells, 1,000 cavans salt, 105 gantas cocoa, 1,348 gallons rum, 580 pairs plowshares, 420 carpenters’ axes, 3,353 buffalo hides, 3,153 cow hides (tanned) 684 stag hides, 1,280 mats, 731 buri mats, 748 hats, cc oe ce ce cc a3 6c WIG OU Steer eahiny ree cen aerate 30200 sar 3,200.00 6.00 oe — © 09 j=) se ee see opooo Dod $1,044 2,775 625 507 100,835 192,000 3,867 93,531 1,888 10,850 8,525 4,567 5 2.298 672 54,384 73 301,568 7,992 25,872 775 $806,945 29 There was, therefore, nearly three times as much imported as ex ported. teresting. The list of articles exported, with their prices, is in- Of the leading articles of today, sugar was the only one of importance, and even this came after white birds’ nests and indigo. Comparing with this the table of Dr F. J. F. Meyen, on board the Prussian merchant ship Prinzess Louise, eleven a4 years later, we find a great increase in sugar tenfold, though with hemp, again, He gives the exports as follows: THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES exports—in the case of not figuring at all. 1829. 1830. SUNSENS 5 Gla Wlers AOPetReArs PenERCEN mere tose ts Gf 120,274 piculs. - 138,387 piculs. IUGYONKS OS.) ok ene ace ek ERED. IAD — Hairel oes 2 SapanlawiOOd! ser astacancs sca aeeeeeor > WL@re °° Last z ; 114,793 cavans. 197,486 cavans. Jan ercl aie ser aniema cee caimisinc nice 6 104,357 piculs. 179,532 piculs. ; . 30,830 cavans. Unhulled rice (paddy) ............ { 98,027 mice IRDNCT SAS Se ces Gato aeaeero anes iOIS S 19,551 gallons. Oheere 4,595 arobas. 4,257 arobas. PANS ers el cee ae sem eae eet eee 52,843 kilograms. 48,955 ker. The remaining less important articles are omitted. Since foreigners have ceased to be handicapped by Spanish discriminations, trade has steadily increased, even if not to the extent it should; the trade of the Philippines should be twenty times what it istoday. At the end of the twenties, imports and exports were practically equal. ‘Imports. Exports. ANS iGo ae eras ch cael isl Sactetth e oleaeoekan apctad coe pega Ecc eeactstats $1,048,680 $1,098,690 1 eos as ome eee eas NN tte pt TUR es cls RBIS IAI e 1,550,933 1,475,034 Up to the seventies both had been increased more than ten- fold, the exports considerably exceeding the imports. In round numbers, the trade for the years 1870, 1875, and 1880 may be stated as follows: Imports. Exports. SP SHO Se ayer vee rsseyeneichaeucius ta epasleectler event ameieed ey earns $14,000,000 $16,000,000 SOR Raa onic tiaras te reich tae 3 uel Nn seat eee a 13,000,000 19,000,000 TUS Kel Oars a REE Rhee Ra ayrsh ns lls Saye wim iG 17,000,000 22,000,000 The only exception is the year 1872, when the exports stood at 163 million dollars and the imports at 22 million dollars. In 1892 the exports were 33 million dollars; the imports 25 mil- lion dollars. It is a difficult matter to give statistics of the imported goods, since there are innumerable articles not entered separately at the custom-house, but placed for the purposes of duty in certain classes. Some of the leading goods may, however, be mentioned. From England, Manchester articles figure conspicuously, to- gether with a number of less important wares, such as hardware THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 55 and leather goods. From Germany come better-class textiles, tricots, hardware, paper, leather, steel and iron, machinery, etc. » From Switzerland are imported St Gall laces, muslins and silks. From France come Lyons silks, machinery for cigarette mak- ing, and paper. Austria contributes principally Vienna furni- ture and Bohemian glassware. Belgium sends glass and glass- ware, iron, paper, cement, etc., while Russia and America furnish kerosene, and the latter country also sends flour and tinned meats. Spain formerly exported little but wines and preserved foodsin tins. Within the last few years she has commenced send- ing to the Philippines other articles to compete with the wares of other countries. The Spanish goods are in every way inferior to those of foreign manufacture, and on account of their being free from import duty the prices are considerably lower. In the following table the exports during the last five years are given. The minor articles have been omitted: Principal Exports from the Philippines from January 1 to December 81, 1896 Sapan- Countries. Sugar. Hemp. | Coffee.| Tobacco.| Cigars. sar Copra. Piculs. Piculs. | Piculs. | Quintals.| Thousands. | Piculs. | Piculs. To Great Britain........ 793,165 815,044 199 47,816 35,010 3,340 33,200 To United States........ 542,874 615,554 |............ 132 EKO) Bee ssn eroue | acconaneaano Mopburopercee cere 774,852 5,660 928 | 154,930 SPI (BIl(0) I posoqooabons 548,812 MOvANUIStra LAM sees monlceescestecueee BBLS) |leacoonosbo0s 62 LAI 850) |Seisecceanc|eeesesleecens To China, Japan, and TyaXGlis saccnnsbaoomeccontecak 1,379,377 61,660 307 16,076 | 112,540 | 50,323 3,895 MOWCAN AC eresensececsces Gee VA0h| caaéesatocdoacsl messeceaeaan| lcdasecrapnoeicn Oe eer aacenaoe adaeneen sed Potaliimid'S9G\ees- ee 3,588,188 | 1,531,810 1,434 219,016 195,800 | 53,663 | 585,907 Motalin, 1895).)...-...--.-- 3,694,769 | 1,664,590 3,287 225,677 198,270 | 38,919 | 594,469 Total in 1894.............. 3,109, L08 | 1,591,962 9,008 194,500 140,075 | 75,115 | 510,633 MotalmiUDgS9sh-c cece - 4,184,296 | 1,282,942 5, 102 230,572 133,846 | 76,588 | 188,404 Total in 1892 .............. 3,954,060 | 1,581,100 | 21,801 254,063 133,404 | 52,452 | 292,536 Valwes—1894, 1895, and 1896 Articles. 1896. 1895. 1894. SUED ei: eegOC Eee DO SELICOCE- POSSE CE ECMO EU RE SE COC CORRS OAE CORE an teres | $14,000,000 | $12,239,000 | $12,590,000 ERG TINO tenteecenattes ctcerosine cancece ct eeacs suit sacee inet rate ameneabe 11,160,000 | 13,317,000 12,750,000 OL AREE) oe caccactngoCe Tac CcOORCECENOCE BTOULAOOEeCECRE ROAD DAEOCOMo nce 67,500 158,000 412,000 UNSC) eine ccteebiieceeo) CSAC UOS-ECOSCGLED COLAO RUDD SDOLECCEONECCE 2,630,000 2,707,750 2,310,000 (GETTY Reeder CeBE EL PERE CBE EEG Sinan hococe ane Eee Ee Ree eee Bere 1,990,000 1,786,200 1,500,000 Sapan-wood 70,000 58,400 102,000 GODT Eoo i eccysncecrecnnenccesacenectersstseeveavsetes 2,630,000 2,898,000 2,500,000 WEIN OU pe teeter aieiveadssuscsraccaiverivavcsescveene’ 224,000 60,800 115,000 | PU ellteeteeccansacaaircadanatade na detac Same ceniivss caiensdvseetey $32,771,500 | $33,225,150 | $32,279,000 The exports from Manila alone, the most important place to be considered, were during the past six years as follows: 56 Exports from Manila in the Years 1892-1897 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES Year. Hemp. | Cordage. Coffee. Tobacco. Cigars. Piculs. Piculs. Piculs. Quintals. | Thousands. TIE, scosobocoanvscaq5ooge000aGac00na0deGdn 1,408,444 | 1,354 21,801 254,063* 133,395 9: 1,154,766 | 2,200 5,006 230,572* 130,320 5322,000 1,800 9,000 194,500* 138,000 1,446,990 | 3,774 3,080") 222,510* 198,270 1,333,118 | 3,619 1,434 212, 706* 195,800 1,689,754 | 3,873 4,947 319,883* 183,735 Sugar : Veet Indigo SENDS Copra Shells ae wood. COPE ae Dry. Wet. Piculs. Piculs. Quintals. Piculs. Piculs. Piculs. TCP snogbedeoarbaesbeea 921,354 250,369 6,534 29,314 186,519 223 TICE By noosoppadaccodeods 1,359,737 | 521,980 971 53,767 168,122 254 1894..........c000----| 1,200,000 | 1,599 40,000 475,000 350 ED BrascdobosooadoDan000 1,440,000 | 5s 26 27,210 226,626 1,367 LE ake cSacnaencean caasae 1,456,549 | e 5,419 14,234 561,268 1,101 TSO eee A! 839,994 | 82,062 4,468 16,631 749,207 1,180 The terms in the produce market in Manila are always cash down. In business with the provinces the Manila house has frequently to make advances, which certainly involves risk, though if one is cautious with whom one deals the business is safe enough. The main thing in the case of transmarine places just springing up is to know the exact state of affairs and to be in a position to form a sound judgment at a moment’s notice. The business between the importers and the Chinese retail dealers is done either by means of acceptance (pagare) at six months or, as is now more general, cash within four to six | weeks, with 5 per cent discount; but, unfortunately, the four to six weeks are very often exceeded. Insolvencies frequently occur among the Chinese. The creditors usually prefer to come to an arrangement, for if once the matter comes before a Spanish court itis the invariable rule that the creditors get nothing at all. Fines (multas), particularly in differences with the custom- house, are imposed in a most annoying manner on,every pos- sible occasion, the officials receiving a share of the fine imposed. A ship which, for instance, does not deliver precisely the num- ber of bales stated in the manifest is fined for each bale more or less $1,000. In every bill of entry the weight must be stated beforehand,and if it is not correct a fine is inflicted. In this way there are a hundred kinds of chicanery practiced, all costing much unnecessary expenditure of money, the greater part of which goes into the pockets of the officials. * For the most part to Spain for the monopoly. THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 57 The tobacco monopoly, with all its heartless severity and im- posts, was introduced in 1781, under the governor Don José Vasco y Vargas, the government, by no means for the first time: finding itself in a critical financial condition. The population gcuessed at what was coming and opposed the new measure, which was only carried out by force ofarms. The law prescribed that every native might plant tobacco, but might only sell it to the government. In the tobacco districts every native had to erow a certain number of plants and devote all his attention to them. The collecting of caterpillars was done by women and children, just as it is today. This might have been well enough had the people been able to enjoy the fruits of their labor; but the worst has still to be said. The tobacco was sorted, “aforado’’ as it is technically called, and that unfit for use burned, so as to prevent fraud. The principal matter in sorting was the length. 18 inches and over was primera (first) class. 18-14 inches was secunda (second) class. 14-10 inches was tercera (third) class. 10-7 inches was quarta (fourth) class. Smaller but good leaves were sometimes classed as 5 and 6. For valuing the tobacco the officials used a scale, according to which the planter received some 20 to 30 per cent of the real value. But he was not paid in cash. He received a certificate, a kind of treasury bond. Had the people had security for the payment of these bonds at an early date the latter would soon, no doubt, have come into currency as paper money. But, far from this being so, no one would have them, knowing that five or six years might pass before they were redeemed. The tobacco planters lived under more miserable conditions than the worst- kept slaves, and were glad if some noble philanthropist would give them half the value of their certificates, for who could say whether the purchaser was not risking his 50 per cent. Fre- quently the bonds were practically given away. In the cigar manufactories in Manila 30,000 workpeople were employed, and were always paid in cash; so that their lot was more enviable than that of the planters. That under this system, in spite of the enormous army of officials, a profit of four or five million dollars was annually yielded can be easily understood. The savior of the unfortunate tobacco planter was one of those Spaniards in whom there was still the blood of the hidalgo, the intendant-general Don José Jimeno Agius. In his report in 98 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 1871 he relentlessly exposed the condition of affairs under the monopoly and strongly advised its abolition, unless the gov- ernment wished to destroy tobacco planting altogether and bring about the absolute ruin of the planters, who were living in the greatest misery. Furthermore, he showed that the neces- sary new buildings and plant in the factories would pretty well absorb all the profit of the ensuing year. This very competent and energetic man could not carry his wishes into effect at the time; but ten years later, in conjunction with the colonial min- ister, Fernando de Leon y Castillo, he was able to bring about the abolition of the monopoly, and on July 1, 1882, the plan- ters were freed from their chains. On January 1, 1883, the free manufacture of tobacco was also allowed. The rate of duty was, however, raised, tobacco and cigars paying an export duty, while the import duty was raised 50 per cent. In the first place, the treasury bonds had to be redeemed, and this was done by means of auctions, whereby $150,000 was redeemed monthly, prece- dence being given to those holders who offered their bonds at the lowest rate. The government had even the impudence to declare that demands for more than 80 per cent would not be regarded. The first bondholders were ready to take 45 and 55 per cent, but it was soon found that a number of holders were prepared to take vigorous steps, refusing to accept less than 80 per cent. This caused the government to hasten the redemp- tion, and at the close it had cleared a sum of two and one-half million dollars. Since January 1, 1883, various cigar factories have been estab- lished, of which, however, only a few turn out a really first-class article. The cigars manufactured by many Chinese factories and in the homes of the natives are of very inferior quality. A new tariff was introduced in 1891, which professed to be based upon a duty of 20 per cent. In reality, however, nearly all articles yielded more, some even yielding over 100 per cent on their value. Then there were various additional fees to pay on imports, and the export fees were also several times changed. Today the practice is as follows: To the import tariff, which in the case of some articles is increased by 20 per cent, are added harbor dues, amounting to 10 per cent and 8 per cent of the value of the goods, which is fixed by law. Spanish goods pay only the harbor dues and the 8 per cent of the value, thus get- ting upon the market to the disadvantage of other better and originally cheaper produce. THE ECONOMIC. CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES 59 Of the products of the country the principal ones pay export duties as follows: ) TE (QIAO ec: Gi des cia cies GO I LS Cee an sie ees $0 75 per 100 kilo., gross. INTC Lc ici a euoIE NG Skee Ice eRe nc ga 50 os ri ILiGOuKel THEN), . ch opvsnaoeeanacoaos baer rege 0d LISLE Bias 9c) ELE SIE NG EP PRE EN Cale g 2 00 a ¥ SRGDP yg ba oieiat an) ae eae ee mest AE atte ve Loy 10 vy OY WOCOAMUES ANG) COPEA Maciocia vac Ack gece s sce 10 “ a Tobacco from Cagayan and Isabella.......... 3 00 et a Tobacco from Visayas and Mindanao........ 2 00 as 0 Tobacco from other provinces ............... 1 50 oe a Wemintaciured tObaccOn cir cw sete cs setee oe: 3 00 z i and all produce pays $1.50 per 1,000 kilo. harbor dues. In 1880 the harbor dues on both exports and imports were raised—at first by 20 per cent of the import duty and 1 per cent of the export value—for the purpose of building a new harbor, and this. with some few alterations, remains so to this day. The harbor is a long way from being finished; nor will it ever be finished if the present system continues, even though of late the work has been a little expedited. Ata normal rate of work, what has been done could have been finished in one or two years. With the amount received through the increased dues, ten harbors could have been built; but probably the money no longer exists. The duty returns were, in— MG DSi depeche reteter te cde pecieee Ham ernie am geenichare aaumeree 3227 ,000 NS ZEB eae revere akeycre eee urs es eic estonia oc cer Actes soon | 2X8) IIS RS] U Were sec cat Sate are ee Ae Che ee RE ores EEE 228,061 In the last few years they have stood much higher, this being principally caused by foreign houses. For the past three years the returns were: 1895. 1896. 1897. From foreign houses... $2,818,900 $3,106,100 $3,322,500 From Spanish houses. . 361,400 425,900 903,000 Rataleeg net el $3,180,300 $3,532,000 $4,225,500 Thus the foreign houses paid of the indirect duties, in— USSG a cterere ste 3G Phe ee MENG Cho AE Once kere Sete S Amt 88 es LESS U's eu ch RCYE) EEG Bits Ce SIC Neg ee geeEUt tC OLE a a 75 uy LUpsh8 5 Fries ae cliiuae foie Matatennyfeiako re pesasc ietoieue Sushsinrerd suet « 87 per cent. 60 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES During recent years the Spanish figures have risen by reason of the increased export duties on tobacco which the Compafia General shipped for the Spanish monopoly. NECESSITIES OF THE SITUATION I now come to the question, “ What must be done in order to bring the production and trade of the colony into the condition in which they should be?” The answer follows from what has already been stated. Before all, the system of administration must be changed and commerce and shipping, industry and mining, as also planting, given free play, quite independent of the nationality of the persons concerned. If the natives are not numerous enough to supply sufficient workmen, Chinese coolies should be brought over under government supervision, in the same way as is done in Sumatra. The export duties should be wholly abolished and the import duties put on a suitable basis. The harbor works at Manila should be completed and safe land- ing places should be provided for larger steamers, and if not a free port, at all events a bonded warehouse is necessary. I mention first and principally Manilla, which will always remain the center and principal emporium. A beginning must be made by opening up Luzon, by laying down good roads and constructing bridges, of which today there is an absolute lack. The waterways should be controlled, particularly those which can be easily made navigable. The construction of railways should be continued, in order to connect the interior provinces with Manila. The most important line would be one from Manila through Nueva Ecija, the Caraballo mountains, the province of Nueva Vizcaya, into the valley of the Rio Grande de Cagayan. Then a branch of the line already existing from Manilla to Dagupan to the proposed naval port, Subig, which was recently decided upon, but has not yet been constructed. Communication with the Pacific coast and numerous branch lines wil! also gradually be required. Only a few points can be touched upon here. A railway from Manila via Mariquina to Antipolo would be of great importance to Manila itself. It would pass through an extremely well-populated country, which already supplies Manila with agricultural produce and articles for the native population, and finally, after about 20 miles, ascending with a pretty steep gradient, would reach Antipolo. THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES. 61 Antipolo, a famous place of pilgrimage in the Philippines, lies on the west spurs of the cordillera, in the province of Morong. It enjoys a cool, agreeable climate, and therefore would with- out doubt form a very suitable health resort for the inhabitants of Manila, and indeed perhaps a climatic health resort in gen- eral. For Kuropeans working under great strain such a place would be invaluable, particularly during the hot season, when the night temperature falls so little that refreshing sleep is often quite out of the question. Nor is it absolutely necessary that Antipolo itself be chosen; a still more suitable spot might per- haps be found in the neighborhood ; the chief point is to set about the matter in a practical way and properly carry through the scheme. Antipolo is frequently visited by foreigners. As far as the Pasig the route lies over what, for the Philippines, are tolerably good roads, though miserably bad ones compared to those of English colonies. After crossing the river, a half day’s journey further over roads which are nowhere good and in places are as bad as possible brings us through Cainta and Taitai to Antipolo. The effect of the journey is felt for hours afterward. In April, while the heat in Manila was unbearable, I have had to put on a summer overcoat in the evening in Antipolo. For such undertakings as I have mentioned, and which can only be carried out by companies, it is absolutely necessary that concessions be granted with promptness and dispatch. Hitherto the custom has been to dally for years, until finally all interest in the matter was lost. Once a concession was actually granted for a railway to Antipolo, but the line was never constructed. It would take us too long to deal with everything which would aid in bringing the country rapidly into a prosperous condition and lead to lucrative undertakings. What should be done is in general to be gathered from a consideration of the present unsatisfactory state of affairs. If once the first step were taken, others would follow, not only in Luzon, but over the whole archipelago, I must not omit to give some particulars of Manila itself, At the place where the river Pasig, the outlet of Lake bay, flows into the Bay of Manila, hes on the left bank the fortified part of Manila, which, being inclosed by walls, is called Intra Muros. It is inhabited by monks, officials, soldiers, and a few shopkeepers. Foreigners do not reside there, nor have they property init. Running southward along the shore of the bay 62 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES is the promenade, Luneta, where concerts are held every even- ing and where there are two suburbs, Ermita and Malate, much frequented by foreigners and containing many fine villas. On the right bank of the Pasig is the wholly unfortified part, called Binondo, where the chief business is done and where the for- eigners have their stores and warehouses. ‘The custom-house, WHARF AT BINONDO harbor office, and factories are also here. Further north, on the shore of the bay, is ‘Tondo, a suburb consisting of native huts. To the east are Meisig and Trozo. These are the places lying on the beach. Up the river, on the right bank, are the suburbs Sta Cruz, Quiapo, San Miguel, Tanduai, Sampaloc. The population today is given at 300,000, but, as a proper census has never been taken, this cannot be regarded as exact. Including the population of the suburbs, the number of inhab- itants is probably greater. In the true sense of the word, Manila cannot be said to be unhealthy. On the contrary, it is one of the more healthy of tropical towns, though malignant and intermittent fevers do occur, even if less frequently than elsewhere. Cholera, which THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES. 63 formerly was often epidemic, has been completely driven away by the excellent water supply. The water comes from Santolan, about nine miles distant, and is collected in the reservoir at San Juan del Monte and thence conducted to Manila. ‘There has been no outbreak of cholera since 1889. For the water supply the governors-general Carrriedo and Moriones are to be thanked. Of these the first in his will left a sum of money to the town for the purpose, and the second, some years later, had the work carried out when no one else thought of troubling about it. Houses have to be erected according to certain rules, laid down in order to guard against the frequent earthquakes. They are for the most part two-storied dwellings, below of stone and above of wood, with galvanized iron roofing. If the roof is tiled, the ceiling must be of planks strong enough to resist the fall of the roof. Since January 23, 1895, the town has been lighted by electricity, and the electric light has also been introduced in a number of houses. The installation was done in part by an American and has been continued by a German company. As yet there is no electric tramway, nor is electricity used industri- ally. ‘This is principally due, no doubt, to the “ Electricista ” CALLE SAN JACINTO, WITH THE AUTHOR'S OFFICE AND TOBACCO GODOWNS 64 THE ECONOMIC CONDITION OF THE PHILIPPINES Company, which has not yet been able to make its electric power station yield a good dividend. There are horse-car lines in the city, and a steam street rail- way runs to Malabon, a large village situated to the north. Besides the private vehicles, there are in the city a large num- ber of hackney coaches. ‘These are divided into three classes: the carruajes (landau, with two horses), quiles (two-wheelers, closed, door behind, one horse), and carromatas (two-wheelers, drawn by one horse). The latter are also used in the interior, so far as there are any roads. The transport of goods is carried on by means of two-wheeled carts, drawn each by a buffalo and holding some 1,000 kilos. Life for foreigners in the Philippines is quite agreeable, and particularly so in Manila, where there are comfortable resi- dences; nor is there lack of company, excursions, and other sources of recreation. In other respects, also, creature comforts are by no means neglected, provided the requirements are not too high. If once the city and its neighborhood were developed in the manner indicated, there would be little lacking to make life there thoroughly agreeable. Manila would then soon sur- pass all other tropical towns as regards health and comfort. What the future may bring to the rich and beautiful Philip- pine islands it is difficult tosay. It is, at all events, my sincere hope that this insular domain may soon blossom forth into that degree of importance to which it is by nature entitled. A RECENT report of the British vice-consul at Hodeida on the Red sea contains some interesting information concerning the province of Yemen. Mocha, once its capital and the queen of the Red sea, has now only ruins to show what its glory was in the fifteenth century. Zabud, also a city of note in ancient times, is now a center of the trade in hides and skins. Except weaving a kind of cloth, dyeing, making mats and ropes, and building sailing vessels, there are no manufacturing industries. All the food grains are cultivated, however, and but for the un- settled state of the province and the want of education, the inhabitants would, it is said, be rich and prosperous. Hodeida is connected with the outer world by a line of mail steamers, and a weekly mail is sent to the chief towns of the interior. It is also connected by telegraph with Mocha and Sana, and with foreign countries through Perim. The population of the province is estimated at 3,000,000. MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES By Masor A. FALKNER VON SONNENBURG, Imperial German Army, Late Military Attaché at Manila After Admiral Dewey’s.splendid victory at Cavite, the neutral powers sent their ships as quickly as possible to Manila bay. It was expected that the quiet waters of the capital of the Phil- ippines would become in the near future the scene of great military and naval activity, and that many still doubtful ques- tions in modern warfare would there find a practical answer. It was only by chance that Germany had at that time a rela- tively strong squadron at hand on the eastern station. The territory acquired in China only a few months before had made it necessary to assemble there two cruiser divisions, and as the news of the complete annihilation of the Spanish fleet became known, the admiral of one of these divisions had to go down from the Chinese and Japanese seas to the Philippines. The division was at that time engaged in drill and training in evo- lutions and target practice, and so it is easily to be understood that the division commander would not wish to divide his squadron, but, on the contrary, would be glad of the opportu- nity to make use of the trip down to Manila for training and evolutionary purposes. I do not believe that any order of the German government had been given to assemble a strong squad- ron at Manila. I understand that the leader of the division, who is fully responsible for the training of his men, had in this regard an absolutely free hand, as is usual in our navy and army. But besides these purely technical reasons, it was to be consid- ered that hundreds of our countrymen, who lived outside of Manila, scattered over the Philippine islands as traders, planters, or engineers, might be in a very dangerous position. The in- surrection of the Filipinos against the Spanish rule had become general, and rumors were heard that all the small ports, like Iloilo, in the different islands, each of which contained a few of our countrymen, were besieged by the insurgents, and that their lives and property were in the greatest danger. Under these circumstances it was to be expected that after the arrival of the squadron in Manila bay ships had to be detached 5 65 66 MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES and sent to the small ports to look after the safety of our country- men and the women and children of other nations. It was to be expected that of the five ships which were first concentrated in Manila bay two or three would be always at sea, patrolling the islands and visiting the places which were said to be in imminent danger from the Tagals. The two powers at war, America and Spain, could not do that. The former had to remain in front of Manila in her full strength and could not make detachments for purely humanitarian purposes, and the latter was so broken down by the fall of Cavite that she could hardly look after such matters. But there was still another reason for concentrating the divis- ion of Admiral von Diederichs in Manila bay, one worthy of special interest and consideration. By such concentration on the quiet and well-protected waters of Marwetes bay, near Corregidor, the release from the navy of more than 1,700 trained men from the different ships, the em- barking and discharging of necessary cargoes of ammunition and provisions for the men and officers could be easily done in a few days, whereas without concentration it would have taken many weeks. On June 29, 1898, the German naval division of Admiral von Diederichs had finished that work. The admiral had sent home 1,700 of his old, well-trained sailors and gunners. He had sent home two-thirds of his best and most experienced officers and men, who had been with him three years on the Asiatic station. He had replaced them with recruits, with men who had had only three months’ land drilling, who had never been on board a man-of-war before. who had never fired a gun, who were to be the sailors and gunners of coming years, but were inexperienced at this critical time. And now may I ask the question whether any responsible flag-ofiicer would or could do that if he had had the shghtest idea, or belief, or wish, or inten- tion, or instructions to meet an adversary in the near future? It was a tropical hot midday of June when I received my first impressions of Manila and Manila bay. On board the German cruiser Prinzess Wilhelm we passed first the high and wonderfully situated island of Corregidor, which commands the two passages into the interior of the wide bay, and on the top of which powerful American fortifications may be erected in later days. Next the peninsula of Cavite, on our right, came nearer and nearer, and soon the tops of the masts MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES 67 of the American fleet behind it became visible; not only these, but also the wrecks of the sunken Spanish ships came into view. The victorious American fleet was anchored on the watery battle- field, and the spoils of her glorious fighting lay between her and the shore. In front, just before the city of Manila, was a great squadron of neutral ships. There were three German, two French, two British, and one Japanese men-of-war, while between them were anchored chartered steamers full of refugees of the respect- ive nationalities which Admiral Dewey’s humanitarian warfare and broad-mindedness had allowed to be brought out of the besieged town, the only condition being that the Spanish vessels haa to fly the flags of the respective countries which were re- sponsible for their return to the American authorities after the surrender of the town. Behind the neutral fleet, whose size was changed almost every day by incoming or outgoing ships, the churches and towers of Manila, still four miles away, rose one by one out of the sea, and then the palm and banana trees and the bamboo jungles became visible, inclosing, like another green ocean, the lower houses and buildings of the old city. Far away the delicate blue line of high ranges of hills bor- dered this wonderful tropic picture with its warlike foreground, but peace seemed to rule everywhere on the beach. The steam launches of the neutral men-of-war rushed to and fro, carrying officers in white tropical dress who were making or returning calls. Boat drill was going on, and the yards of the neutral ships were hung with the laundry of their crews. Small Tagal sailing boats alongside the men-of-war. were bar- eaining with stewards about the price of fruits and vegetables. Sometimes a vessel flying a strange and hitherto unknown triang- ular flag crossed the waters of the bay from Cavite to Malabon filled with dark men—the Filipinos under their new colors. When the moon rose in her full tropical grandeur over the darkening sea, when the electric lights shone here and there on the great iron and steel structures which rocked quietly in the phosphorescent waters of the bay like big whales, then flashed out the search-lights of the American fleet over from Cavite, then could you see also the dark red fire balls of exploding shells near Malate and hear the continuous crackling of musketry. Then you knew that there was war, that another of the Filipino 68 MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES night attacks was going on, and that again men were losing their lives in the bamboo jungles and rice fields round Manila. From the refugee steamers near by the sound of Spanish guitars swept over the quiet sea, and silvery clear voices of girls could be heard and merry laughter! There they danced their national dances, the Andalusiana and Castillana, on the dirty decks of the vessels, lighted perhaps by only one smoky oil lamp, while officers of the different navies formed the enthusiastic audience of the graceful performers. Quite a different picture was to be seen in the besieged town, Manila, itself. The deep Pasig river, running down from the large lake (Laguna de Bay) to the sea, divides the town into two parts, differing in their inhabitants, their buildings, their social life, and indeed in almost everything. To the left of the river is the old town Intra Muros. This purely Spanish town is sur- rounded by the walls of the fortress and covers a space of per- haps three-quarters of a mile square. Here the conquering Spaniards first settled 300 years ago. Massive stone buildings, including the government house, the archbishop’s palace, mo- nasteries, and cathedrals, line the narrow, dirty streets and squares, in which you meet scarcely any one but monks, soldiers, and dark, proud officials. There is no modern, quick-running life in that medigval town; there are no shops, no offices, no trade. One-third of all the buildings are the property of the church or of the different orders of monks, and another third is composed of the government houses and military establishments. Having passed the dark fortress doors and the sleepy sentries before them, you feel in a foreign, long-past world. Here is the residence of that administration which believed that it could still be possible in our time to separate a gifted native popula- tion of more than seven millions from all that modern culture had produced. From this place issued those ominous decrees which prohibited the importation of any books or papers for the natives which had not the sanction of the church, and did not allow the poor man to raise more than one crop of rice a year for his own sustenance, even to prevent his coming to want. Here was settled that division of the whole island of Luzon between the four enormously wealthy and powerful orders of Augustinians, Dominicans, Franciscans, and Des Récollets, and the government could only silently approve such an arrange- ment, knowing well that in that country it could rule only by and through the omnipotent monks. Like that of medizval lords, MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES 69 their rule was autocratic and absolute—an iron regime not only for the natives but for every government official who might have dared to cross the ways of the priestly lords. Since the days when the pious Spanish discoverer, holding in one hand the sword and in the other the cross, took posses- sion of these islands, 300 long years ago, has lasted this terrible misrule over this unfortunate people. But at last the reaction against that incredibly anachronistic administration took place. A highly gifted young Tagale, educated in Europe and having great poetical talent, was able by his songs and poems to excite his countrymen against the Spanish rule, and when some years ago that man was arrested by the government and shot, without trial, on the Luneta in Manila, the Filipinos began their first in- surrection against the hated priest-government. Terrible atrocities were committed at that time on both sides, and there was hard fighting, too; but at last the Spanish govern- ment succeeded in overcoming the more open resistance. But the fire was notextinguished. A secret society, the “ Katipuna,” spread its membership over the whole island of Luzon, prepar- ing another surprise! The murdered poet had acquired the fame of a national hero and martyr, and mysterious tales were told in all the Tagale villages that he lived still in the moun- tains in the interior, to come down at the right moment to take the leadership of his people in the great fight for independence. And then the second insurrection began. The terrible scenes of cruelty were repeated, but again without any decisive result. A sort of armistice was arranged at the end of 1897 between the young Tagale leader, Aguinaldo, and the Spaniards, and this continued until the beginning of the recent American-Spanish war and the glorious battle of Cavite. Strange tales, indeed, these time-blackened government build- ings in Intra Muros can tell. They know many things about a flourishing Japanese colony that existed two hundred years ago in Manila town. Thirty thousand industrious Japanese -once filled the streets of the old city, and the best regiments of the Spanish government in those olden times were composed of Japanese warriors, but the narrow-mindedness and intolerance of the Spanish rulers drove out the followers of Buddha. The Japanese warriors, the Samurais, and the industrious and able workmen left this unfriendly and inhospitable country at the same time, and that long sleep began which was to end at last with the thunder of Admiral Dewey’s guns. 70 MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES But we will leave the old haunted town. It is an unwhole- some place, full of evil spirits and horrible memories. We will pass the Pasig river, with its resting blockaded ships, and enter the modern city of Binondo, full of life and traffic and of the great business houses of the white man. The streets are crowded with Spanish voluntarios, who are very conspicuous in their swell uniforms, filling all the cafés and beer-houses. The Spanish volunteers seemed to me to have quite a different opinion about their military duties from that held by the Americans. The former refused with indigna- tion to do duty in the trenches outside the town. They de- clared to the captain-general that they were not willing to do such poor, plain, private-soldiers’ work, and that they preferred only to make the ‘‘ guard routine” in the interior of the city, and with old Castilian pride they have done that tiresome, but rather safe work. I found the public buildings in Binondo occupied by strong detachments of well-dressed, well-nourished, and well-armed young men, who helped themselves through the hardships of the war by playing cards and smoking innu- merable cigarettes. We will leave them to their innocent doings inside the town and walk to the circle of the widely extended suburbs of Ermita and Malate. The more we advance, the more the character of the streets changes. No more the crowd of people playing at soldiering ; no more the symptoms of untroubled safety. The streets be- come absolutely empty ; all the shutters of the houses are her- metically sealed and the whistling of passing Mauser bullets can be heard; sometimes they strike the walls of the brick coun- try houses of the wealthy Manila people with a short, dry noise, or perforate the miserable bamboo huts of the natives. The only living beings you can see are small bodies of Spanish regulars, marching carelessly in the middle of the enfiladed road to the ill-famed trenches. They look haggard and worn out, but they are brave men, and do not care for whistling bullets. Silent, dull, and hopeless as are these poor unfortunate privates and their subaltern officers of the front, they do their duty scrupulously. For three months they have lived in the trenches; they sleep there, they eat there, they fight there, and they are buried there. The Spanish forces are widely extended around the suburbs of the town in a circle of sixteen miles; no carefully regulated relief service is in operation, and all military preparations give the impression of improvisations. In the trenches it is still MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES 71 worse ; the low ground has prevented the making of deep ditches, as water appears at a depth of from two to three feet, and so it was found necessary to bring out sand-bags and by other arti- . ficial means get the necessary height for the covering breast- work. Careless of the danger from whistling bullets are the Spanish soldiers lying in those miserable intrenchments; apa- thetic everywhere; no activity, not even the wish or the will to improve the very imperfect shelter ; such was the general impres- sion upon a military expert; and the tropical sun sends down its fiery arrows to the marshy land, with its numberless small creeks and water ditches, and brews there the worst enemy of the soldier—sickness. A marshy ground, tropical vegetation, jungles of bamboo, and swampy rice fields are the condition of the land that the Span- ish military leaders had to deal with. Thus modern long-range firearms can be used to their full effect only under very rare circumstances. ‘The view is nearly always limited to a hundred yards or less, and is never so extended as to make the full use of such arms possible. The artillery is, practically speaking, absolutely dependent upon the very bad roads; driving across the fields, as in European or American battlefields, is almost impossible. For the same reasons which do not allow the use of the higher sights of the rifles, the artillery fire can never de- velop that overpowering strength which we attribute to it in modern warfare. The batteries must therefore unlimber within the best range of the rifle shots, so that casualties in the artil- lery may be considered as disproportioned to its real effect. That cavalry in such a country had to remain nearly always in the rear, and that even reconnaissances are in most cases better performed by infantry, is easily to be understood. Jn brief, the character of the country seems to be almost ideal for the kind of warfare which military men call “ guerrilla fighting.” Only a very methodical and slow warfare gives reliable and enduring results. Block-houses must be built from one line to the next, fortified points must be constructed on all river passages and strategical points, if the inhabitants of a large country make a serious and continued resistance. Spain had never taken such absolutely necessary military measures, and only in view of this can it be understood that with every Tagal insurrection the whole interior of the country was in the hands of the insurgents and Spanish rule was reduced to - the maintenance of the seaports round the islands. “I bo MANILA AND THE PHILIPPINES The chronic want of money and perhaps also of energy, the influence of the monks and friars, who may have been jealous of seeing another influence than their own established in the interior of all these islands, gives explanation enough of the fact that the Spanish rule has never been powerful in that country ; but a stronger, more energetic, and more gifted race, with un- limited financial resources, may do in the future all that the former masters failed to do in three centuries. If the Spanish government was weak from the military point of view, it was not less so from the standpoint of diplomacy, in the conciliation and real pacification of the Filipino natives. Only one religious order succeeded, with its incomparable knowledge of the human heart, with its fine psychological and diplomatic means, in being loved and esteemed by native and government alike. If the friars and the various orders of monks were hated with all the energy of a long-oppressed race, the refined padres and monsignores of the famous society of the Jesuits, remained immune from all these savage feelings. They had understood that it was not the priest in his religious capa- city, but the priestly lord, the priestly landowner, who ex- cited the Filipinos, and so the Jesuits never tried to accumulate property in the interior. They built upa magnificent scientific observatory, with the most valuable instruments of astronomy, seismology, magnetism, and meteorology. They connected their observatory with all the other meteorological stations in the far east, and saved by their prompt warnings hundreds of lives and millions of dollars. When war times came over the coun- try thousands of poor, homeless, and sick Tagale men, women, and children found a home in the wide courts and arcades of the Jesuits’ colleges. They had formed a safeguard of mis- erables for their own safety with this praiseworthy mercy. They could be sure that they would remain undisturbed in their scientific work, although between the fighting lines. The same men that lived in the refined atmosphere of the highest intel- lectuality understood the necessity of mercy. The same scruti- nizing eyes that read every morning the tales of the self-regis- tering instruments understood also human nature and human hearts, and they have given to the former rulers of the islands a noble lesson. They have taught them that there are things in the world other than guns; they have taught them the eter- nal truth that science, knowledge, is and shall be power. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE P. F. VY. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenietice and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Hast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Genl. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. CALIFORNIA.. | OF course you expect to go there this spring. Let 7 i > me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads via the Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including Mt. Hood and [it. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, [It. St. Helens, Mt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged = to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, \ and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections et made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound y=} cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. CHAS.7S.) FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY © GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. : Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS -.- BETWEEN... Washington, Memphis and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knox- ville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K.C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers. ..... . The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts off - « - » MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, ——AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘ The Land of the Sky.’’ Write for Map Folders. A. S. THWEATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J.C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 KE. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOKE, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business~ - - - - ($136,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since its organization, in 1843, } - + §$437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer, ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ~ cw STPAUL Ripans Tabules cure headache. The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . fume The Overland Limited UTAH and CALIFORNIA. FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING ene OVERLAND ROUTE.’’ Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars, Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “49-96,’' E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHIGAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL RAILWAY -RONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in Iowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON : YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT as ee GGSSS00S8S086S0600080080000 + MAMMOTH DRY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT = & Sc OF Ze @ © WOODWARD & LOTHROP @ DOGO SOO OOS OOOO FOS OO SOOO OOO SO Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are always on assy ae The attention of those who anticipate purchasing : BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in ay number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUx, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in style and 10 to 250. design: Three or more pieces : CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. SOoe eeeeon & Oe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - 2 2 - Se A = aa Shortest Line St, Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest CHICAGO _ GREAT “=. WESTERN | \ ze ~ wi es ™ F a za 4 A -_A—’— A—=D——._ ——— RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, , CHICAGO. = —— ODL EOD TOOLS 1 Frye NOOO Ow YY Eee ) SN SS ER EE _ SEES RRS PUG OU UU Ww A VITAL POINT —-—<— A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith... Preimier’ Cypewriters Superior on This Pcint as Well as on All Others. i i riter Co. Perea? The Smith Premier Typewrit A PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. DREDDRADADRARADRARARADRDRDR NAVA AA AAA AVA AVA AAA D> RRRRRRRARDARARRRRRRRARARRRARARRAAE Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 519 Eleventh Street. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology in all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in its ¢wel/th year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, E/THNOL- OGY, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SoctoLoGy, HiIsTory, SOMATOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PHILOLOGY. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as. they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Swzdbscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Dlustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XII Begins with January, 1899. ApprEss: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 1899. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico............. ... $3.50 a year Movothersupscriberseim: the wsaoStaleWimit Orne e seer e rae einer rn es ieee 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two volumes are completed ; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. In addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., Minneapoiis, Minn. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE . . NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS On the PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE EKARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES = = - - - - GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - ty. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - C. Willard Hayes MrT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Price for otie set of ten monographs, $1.50. Five sets toone address, $6.00. Single monographs, 20c. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati : Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY An International Quarterly Journal Conducted by L. A. BAUER and THOMAS FRENCH, Jr., With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians and Electricians. ITH the March, 1899, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism, Atmos- pheric Electricity, and allied subjects, such as Karth Currents, Auroras, etc., entered on its fourth volume. The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. The geographer, the geologist, the astrononier, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, BOrgen, Chree, Com- mander Davis, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Littlehales, McAdie, Rlicker. Schmidt, Schuster, de Tillo, von Bezold, Mascart, and Abbe. Future numbers will contain contributions by Mascart, Rlicker, Elster and Geitel, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Hayford, Littlehales, Schmidt, and others. Special features in future numbers will be full abstracts and reviews of recent publications prepared by competent reviewers and the series of fine half-tone portraits of eminent magneticians. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 256 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars and fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Two dollars and seventy-five cents. Address: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4, NY ty Lh hy Mihi b fo) My My My My My My My My Me Mt WY fa My My y y N ; a 3 : \ EOPLE like to read about the great *% N \ d es 4 a 4 N \ and wonderful country of the ¢ \ '\ Southwest; of its quai fous oe . . uthwest; of its quaint and curious oe A charming book covering these \ \ : : ae ; : tS facts is i . towns, its ancient civilizations, its % fee \ z PASSENGER DEPARTMENT . natural marvels. They like to getac- 4 OF THE SX . . e s °° . = = < Curate information about California ~ Southern Pacific Railway, X oe : % i \ and the Pacific Coast. This is because Dg and will be sent to any one, postpaid, \ oe on receipt of TEN CENTS. \ most people want to some day see these 4 wN ; 7 NS Waving TOP UNENNSIWESI a 66 64 oc Ae 8k \ we NS O- Mo ote ee ‘ (Brbttententetintet attentions ~ SS : \ \ \ \ N % ste ste ote cte stem Se Me ote ae tea cteo ste sta cstestacteo acts N SO DK Ke aS KS KK KE KK a Ka Ka SK aK Kea KO) SS i ae \ < & WS % ‘ \ Bs g . : é N s THE BOOK IS ENTITLED “ N “ & \ * & : : “Through Storyland : NN “ye 3, < : ough Storylan : ~~ e 3 \ es + NS $3 ae 2 = S ty & i t tS : SX Ox ; 2 : O Sunset Seas, : \ “ee 3, \ “oe ss SX xs 3 \ ao. o, .%, .%. .% .% @ 3 < ssoatoetoeteeseeseogeagoatoateeteetesseoseateateatnetecteaseateateateeteeteeseateatearoeteeleeseesoatoatoeteeteeseeseors \ sostestestestestee% o, .%. .% .% .%, ., .%, .%, .%, .%, .%, .%, \ \ : oacessessesy Sesseege estestestesteeteetecteeteatoeteetontoatoatontontontontoatentonfonton SS * \ AB Ae oA < \ 2 ND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- \ xX “ \ SS Y \ N You can get a copy by writing to BS SOME OTe Se 208 eo X SN o* N . Ss. F. B. MORSE, ~ WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... \ NS OG SX NK General Passenger Agent, & i \ x ger Ag ¢ The paper used is FINE PLATE SN X Southern Pacific, SS \ \ New Orléans: x PAPER, and every typographical de- . N andsending 10 cts 5 il i \ ise Jee ; N < g odefray postage. tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ \ BS 5 ; ww < ~ four people saw on just such a trip as \ >» 7° ‘ N cae ae : : \ N + you would like to make. .-).ye ieee \ * YY, My YWyy My My YY Bt XY FX yy ”w Be oy oy x a y wy y yy y, S ~ N > NZ) “send for ‘the “Apa, 1898, “number of | ! De official map and numerous she ») By. mail for a cents. Bon the best up-to- Here CUBA, physical, political, and 1 for: the May, 1898, number of THe Nis _ Grocrarnic Macazine, containing nume maps, diagrams, and illustrations, ee Ake By mail for 25 cents, y) AN “uvsreare IN citer: JOHN a¥py | ___| Associate Editors une ‘ ee ee SN i W.\G Zana ‘\w J McGBE | HENRY “GaANNErt ' C\HART MERRIA ELIZA ui eae J lie ae \ \ r }- ' ‘ : \ ? | hg / Y ait) \ Dea Ea / -t ~T lp \ Vee rT N lee Diep iy: Ue a : ~~ eA J / y] cpm) \ ore) N Al E N T S UC ety | t \ \ \ Richins anihan ear he Soe y, ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED sva‘rns. V mA i \ Darras | | j oa N, DAVID iG HILL. 9g ; x So ie ‘ \ ty bifis ar / pC “RICO, Avie nustrations.| pattie ‘PROF. ROBERT. T. HILL, ai" ae Pe a \ } yy a, ‘ 4 - - A y, , * ) ih mM vi Ay o \ ne nt BS \ we Abert TON / ash \ ae bs popuisuet BY THE enna GogRAP ETE, so SOOrETY \ 2 Dy Me Kor/-Rane at) Ber NTAI x a Usiow. Se Ann, New. Yori; » LOL, hese reine Waspencron; pt Wan: dion Citta / 82 pail DE : WOpieay: ‘Panis nee 5 = 15 tt $2.50 a Year THE | | National Geographic Society PRESIDENT ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL ca 5 Vick- PRESIDENT f W J McGEE - 7 Boarp or MANAGERS q 1896-1899 1897-1900. 1898-1901 Me CHARLES J. BELL MARCUS BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL = WILLIAM H. DALL HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT # DAVID T. DAY F. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY : HERBERT G. OGDEN S. H. KAUFFMANN JOHN HYDE H. S. PRITCHETTL WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE ELIZA R. SCIDMORE W. B. POWELL F. H. NEWELL TREASURER HENRY GANNETT. RECORDING SECRETARY CorRESPONDING SECRETARY F. H. NEWELL ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE f SECRETARY’S OFFICE : Rooms 117-118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N. W., Washington 4 TREASURER’S OFFICE U. S. Geological Survey, 1330 F St. N. W., Washington National Geographic TMagazine—Back Numbers The Society is prepared to purchase Vols. I, II, III, and IV, or Nos. 2 and 4 of Vol. I, 2 and 4 of Vol. II, 1, 8, 5, and 6 of Vol. IV, and 6/of Vol. VII. Members or subscribers having these volumes or single numbers to dispose of are requested to communicate with the Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. Y. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Kast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. - CALIFORN IA.. OF course you expect to go there this spring. Let me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads via the Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including Tt. Hood and [1t. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, [It. St. Helens, rt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. CHAS. Ss. PEE: ‘ General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. ai NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS ... BETWEEN... Washington, Memphis and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knox- ville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K.C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers. ..... . The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts th . . ». »« MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘ The Land of the Sky.’’ Write for Map Folders. A. S. THWEKATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J.C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 EK. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business” - - - - ($1386,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since its organization, in 1843, | - = $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer, ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. /EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ~— STPAUL MINNEAPOLIS Ripans Tabules cure headache. Burlington - Route BEST LINE CHICAGO or ST. LOUIS The Fastest and Finest Train in the West.... The Overland Limited |, UTAH and CALIFORNIA. FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING “THE OVERLAND ROUTE.’ Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars, Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’' E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE GHIGAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL RAILWAY - rt ONS .. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago aud points in Iowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Pe) Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, Ill. _ WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON. YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE aS eee eee + MAMMOTH DRY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT + @ X= OF ~Ze @ © WOODWARD & LOTHROP @ D@eeSQnsoeceoeseeoqeoseooeo: Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are always. on pes cae The attention of those who anticipate purchasing \ BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in any number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in Sule and 4( £6 oY: design: Three or more pieces . CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. Oe eeoun Oe OD NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Si TD i, A, ER, I GN GN ye em em, Aa a a yaw > ( a -2- a sa SE = a x A a a A =a nm A arias Ba. / Shortest Line St, Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest CHICAGO GREAT “.. WESTERN RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to SEN ae i = = SS SA ~ 44> sa SE — —— SLD DY ELS a> aa SO — a eT eee N v 7 ANY ad F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. ARR AR RL RB RAE RAL : PAA AVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAV AVA AVA A VITAL POINT ——==ll— A ‘TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM V NAL ALAA AVAYALAUALVAVAVAULUAVAVAALLAUVALVALUALUALUALVAN on IMPROVEMENT THE CIDER OF THE AG .*’ MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith. . Premier’ Cypewriters Superior on This Point as Well as on All Others. The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., ONLY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. RRADAARADRARDDADRARARADANR D> DRDARIARERDDRDRRRDDERRAADDAARARDARR RARE Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 619 Eleventh Street. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE | THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, The only American magazine devoted-to the science of Anthropology in all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in its fwelfth year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, ETHNOL- ‘oGy, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, HISTORY, SOMATOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PHILOLOGY. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Swdbscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Illustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XII Begins with January, 1899. Appress: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GHOLOGIST, 1899. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico............. ... $3.50 a year To other Subscribers in the Postal Union...................020e eee e eee 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two volumes are completed ; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. In addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., Minneapouis, Minn. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS | On the PHySICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - - - GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - ty. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - C, Willard Hayes MrT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITs HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Single monographs, 20c. Complete set, bound in cloth, $2.50. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati 5 Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY An International Quarterly Journal Conducted by L. A. BAUER and THOMAS FRENCH, Jr., With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians and Electricians. ITH the March, 1899, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism, Atmos- pheric Electricity, and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, etc., entered on its fourth volume. The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. The geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Com- mander Davis, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Littlehales, McAdie, Riicker. Schmidt, Schuster, de Tillo, von Bezold, Mascart, and Abbe. Future numbers will contain contributions by Mascart, Rticker, Elster and Geitel, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Hayford, Littlehales, Schmidt, and others. Special features in future numbers will be full abstracts and reviews of recent publications prepared by competent reviewers and the series of fine half-tone portraits of eminent magneticians. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 256 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars and fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Two dollars and seventy-five cents. Address : TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohie. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE N ee N \ Oo SS \ EOPLE like to read about the great % \ \ and wonderful country of the % x \ : ; + \ \ Southwest; of its quaint and curious A charming book covering these \ \ ? 3 Lee ; k yy facts is issued by the N N towns, its ancient civilizations, its %¥ \ \ 2 PASSENGER DEPARTMENT N \ natural marvels. They like to get ac- 4 OF THE \ NX ate pete: Ns \ curate information about California 4 Southern Pacific Railway, \ X eee ss RS and will be sent to any one, postpaid \ S is + y »P p , NY \ and the Pacific Coast. This is because es on receipt of TEN CENTS. . SS “ N \ most people want to some day see these \ \ thi : ‘ Ni thinespiormtnemselyesis oye eee. 4 \ SX *° NX \ Do \ A iitetstetededecietetededtess OO SK OK SK OO] Se N \ NS N \ \ % Secreta teostestetetsesteo he Soho Heo Ho Ho fo SoHo toHoHoseosoteacesctececee cease ctelectactectece Sache \ \ RR eC ee A Oe se \ N “ & N \ ° 8 \ , NY 3 & \ ) N ° 3 SX \ * THE BOOK IS ENTITLED = \ N “ ts Nee \ + z \ : = “Through Storyland = ‘ SX x “ < : rougn Storylan : : SS ¢ ‘ ; \ “ : +9 No RNS RS 2, SS es to Sunset Seas,” : : Oo Sunset Seas, : . “oe So SS \ 2 eo \ oe ate SS . a * \ es ae SWS N wsealoaloaloatoatoetoetoeteetecteesesseesecseateateafeatealeaterteeteeteeteetectectecseoteeseoteateatoateatoateatoazoass \ SS “\ WS N \ Moriecgessosversecteateate neoseeeceetestoetoete fostestesfoclostestostestestoctestosteeteetoctes N SX oe \\ AS ry SS N 3 \ \ 4 ¢ AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- \ N Sh \ \ «& SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, \ — S You can get a copy by writing to * \ | NX oe SS 3 WITH: 160) TEEUSTRAMIONS | Stee S. F. B. MORSE, 2 N 9 SS General Passenger Agent, * ithe paper sed ais RINE S PIP Auge N > RS S Southern Pacific, SS - \ \ New Orleans, on, ARERR, andveveny, ky porraplicaligde: \ \ z, Uae rate : X N andsending 10 cts. to defray postage, ‘ tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ N 42 F : \ : ** four people saw on just such atripas \~ \ Me s \ \ So iO woul Ihikee: to HME, a es 7 t A Ni ue le tN eee nae ls Ly ly SN ee ee La eke et eee National Geographic Magazine Vou. X MARCH, 1899 No. 3 DHE ORIGINAL DERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES By Hon. Davip J. lelidaie. JIL, 1D). Assistant Secretary of State In retracing the development of our country we are led back to its infancy—to the cradle around which were already grouped the forces which have determined the destiny of the nation. We cannot too often be recalled to the rude simplicity of that earlier time or too often reminded of the elemental sources of our national life—so near to nature, so little affected by the art or thought of man. A great continent, an unknown wilderness, rich with every eift of nature, lies waiting for the men who are to awake it from its sleep of ages, to come across the sea. Strange ships enter its bays and harbors and penetrate its broad and navigable rivers, but it still sleeps on; for the strangers come only to gather gold among its sands, not tomake it theirs by pledges of honest toil. But at last are united the two essentials of a nation—a land and a people; for while the land lies waste and men are in ceaseless migration, a nation cannot exist. When land and people are wedded by permanent settlement, when man by toil evokes from nature her power to satisfy his domestic needs, and nature re- sponds by kindling within him the flame of local affections, the wheels of society are set in motion, the economic and _ political forces begin their operation, and the process of national evolu- tion has commenced. I. THE STRUGGLE FOR THE CONTINENT The discovery of this continent was destined to deflect all the currents of human history and to offer a home to new nations ; 6 74 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES yet for more than a century after the voyages of Columbus there were but two settlements within the present limits of the United States, and both of Spanish origin. The Atlantic slope, whose streams flow eastward from the Alleghany mountains, abounds in safe harbors and land-locked bays, in whose restful waters the ships of the early French and English navigators found shelter after their long and perilous voyages; but the dense forest frowned beyond the coast-line, the shore seemed unattract- ive, and the ships sailed southward to the fabled land of gold and precious stones. It was with surprise that the early mar- iners skirted these somber shores barring the way to India, for they believed that north of Florida, supposed to be an island, the open sea led on to the Indian ocean." A waterway across the continent was diligently sought. in the belief that America, if not an island, was but a projection of Asia, and John Smith expected by ascending the James, the Potomac, or the Hudson, to emerge upon the South sea. Among his commissions was one to seek a new route to China by ascending the Chickahominy. With the opening of the seventeenth century were planted the first English colonies in America. Humble merchants and pilgrims, wanderers going forth in frail ships to find uncertain lands, holding as their titles vague charters from King James, landed at Jamestown and on Plymouth Rock.’ With a world to divide, monarchs were generous in those days, and did their rude surveying on the council table, using parallels of latitude and unknown seas for boundaries. It mattered little that the London and Plymouth companies were granted lands overlap- ping by three degrees of latitude, for as neither was allowed to _ settle within a hundred miles of the other, there was no danger of bad neighbors. When, to rectify all errors, the London Com- pany received new boundaries,’ they were described as extending two hundred miles from Old Point Comfort along the Atlantic coast in each direction, north and south, and “up into the land from sea to sea, west and northwest’—a line which was after- ward held to give to Virginia the greater part of North America. There was no contest for possession of the continent in those early days. Hudson leisurely sailed up the river which now bears his name and claimed it for the Dutch. Gustavus Adol- phus, the “Snow King” of the North, without opposition, sent 1See Da Vinci’s map of 1512-1516. This and the other maps referred to in the notes may be found in McConn’s Historical Geography of the United’States. 2See map of King James’ Patent of 1606. See map of Reorganization of the Plymouth Company in 1620. 4 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 75 his hardy Swedes to the Delaware peninsula. The French went fishing off the foggy coasts of Newfoundland, claimed the gulf and river of St Lawrence for their King, and built their rude huts amid the snows of Acadia. The English settlements were small and feeble communities, trembling between the sea and the wilderness. There is something sublime in the spectacle of this great unexplored continent, guarding the rich treasures of its vast interior by grim sentinels of gloomy forest, confronting with a frown that narrow, halting strip of civilization, whose frail forces, in spite of early poverty and weakness, were destined to become its imperious master. Fora hundred years it seemed a most unequal contest. A handful of log-houses clustered about the fortified church, a few acres of cultivated land not far away, little groups of coarsely clad human figures laboring in the fields with rifles near at hand, the infrequent arrival of a storm-beaten ship—these were the only signs of the coming transformation which for generations met the sharp glance of the stealthy savage as he crept to the edge of the forest to observe the course of the white man’s life. The map of the Atlantic slope in 1640* reveals the cramped and perilous condition of the English colonies. Considered as a group, they were wholly inclosed between French territory on the one side and the sea on the other. Beginning with Acadia on the north, the French pressed upon the western limits of New England until their frontiers met those of the Dutch; then sweeping around the home of the powerful Iroquois Indians, who occupied the greater part of what is now the State of New York, New France, following the line of the Alleghanies, hemmed in all the seaboard settlements, cutting them off from the West, and stretching along the whole western boundary of Virginia until it ended in French Florida, covering the present states of South Carolina and Georgia, beyond which lay Spanish Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. While France thus stood as a barrier to the further penetration of the continent by the English, leay- ing them onlya slender strip of coast, the Dutch and the Swedes effectually separated the northern and southern colonies from each other. To crown all, the Indians, affiliated with the French, who fraternized and mingled freely with them, were a constant menace to the safety of the English settlements, and furnished a savage band of mercenaries for advancing the ambitious schemes of France. +See map of National Claims to the Atlantie Slope in 1640. 76 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES Considering the map alone, it would seem as if the French power was so intrenched upon this continent as to possess the keys of its destiny. But there are many factors which enter into the problem of nation-building, and the first of these is the temper and quality of men. The French colonies were a nursery, presided over by paternalism. The English threw their offspring out into the wilderness to fight their way for themselves, with no other heritage than liberty. In Canada the French colonist could not build his own house or sow his own seed or reap his own grain or raise his own cattle without the supervision of public officers receiving minute instructions from the home government. No farmer could visit the towns without permission or leave the colony without royal authorization. Public meetings were pro- hibited, initiative of every kind was forbidden, and the expres- sion of opinion was repressed. Petted, pampered, and protected by royal authority, the French colonies were stricken with paraly- sis, and instead of looking to themselves became wholly helpless and dependent. When, at last, the death-struggle came in the battle for empire, the result was inevitable. Self-government, self-reliance, and freedom were foredoomed to win. The map of 1763,° before the Peace of Paris, is the record of a hundred and twenty years of struggle and development,in which, with heroism, persistence, and patience the English-speaking col- onists fought for and conquered space. The Dutch, tenacious of their speech and manners, having themselves absorbed the Swedes, were in turn engulfed in the English expansion, but not without leaving a deep and lasting impress upon the communi- ties that overborethem. Brave little Holland, the first exchange in Europe for the commerce of the world, a cradle of art and science, a power upon the ocean, and an asylum and school of liberty when England sent her great thinkers across the North sea to sit at the feet of her worthy masters, has always lived, and still lives, in the Empire State and the nation. Her influence, even upon New England, is confessed by John Adams, when he says, “of all the countries of Hurope, Holland seems to me the most like home.” New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware com- pleted the unbroken chain of English colonies from the lawless fishing villages of Maine to the broad plantations of Georgia. Between the sea and the mountains had grown up a solid pha- lanx of self-governing colonies as jealous of the French and as 5See map of English Colonies, 1763. ifs ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 77 hostile to their pretensions as the mother country. The colonies of England, which in 1640 were threatened with being pushed into the sea, had become a continuous chain of eager contestants for supremacy, destined to sweep westward and drive the French dominion from the continent forever. The French had formed a bold and magnificent design for the possession of the vast interior west of the mountains.® Near the close of the seventeenth century a brave and brilliant explorer, La Salle, continuing the career of Champlain, who had carried the trade and dominion of France westward to Wisconsin, de- scended the valley of the Mississippi, after traversing the Great Lakes, and planted a French settlement in Louisiana. The St Lawrence, the Great Lakes, the Mississippi, these furnished the natural highway for the genius of the great Frenchman in, his progress toward the fulfillment of his splendid dream of empire; but the chief necessity for its realization was men, and these were wanting. At the close of the seventeenth century the French in all the wide region claimed by them numbered only twelve thousand souls, while the English had grown to a hun- dred thousand in New England and New York alone. ‘ The paternal providence of Versailles,” says Parkman, ‘“ mindful of their needs, sent to the colonists of Louisiana, in 1704, a gift of twenty marriageable girls, described as ‘ nurtured in virtue and piety and accustomed to work.’” But it required more than a cargo of girls to save New Francey The forces of true coloniza- tion were wanting to the French, whose adventurers were de- scribed by an officer as ‘* beggars sent out to enrich themselves,” and who expected the government to feed them while they hunted for pearls and gold mines. A weak chain of forts and trading posts, occupied chiefly by priests and friendly Indians, was the only bond that held to- eether the long interval of wilderness between the St Lawrence and the Gulf of Mexico. The governor of New France, La Jonquiére, perceived that the connecting link between these out- posts was the rich valley of the Ohio, and demanded of his King the shipment of ten thousand French peasants to populate this intermediate region. But the thought had occurred too late ; Louis was indifferent, preoccupied with the pleasures of his court ; the inevitable conflict came at last and New France was erased from the map of North America. France resisted nobly in Europe, but left the defense of her ®See map of the territory of the present United States during the French and Indian wars. 78 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES American empire to a handful of forces under the gallant Mont- calm, while England sent 9,000 men in shij)s to Quebec, and the sturdy Americans, amidst great sacrifices, pushed their way through the forest to the St Lawrence to join in the attack. Upon the plains of Abraham, whose heights were scaled by superhuman daring, was fought the battle that decided the fate of Canada, and the dying Wolfe wrung from the hand of the dying Montcalm the keys of the great West and the dominion of a continent. The destiny of America was involved in the issue of that death struggle between the paternalism of France and the forces of self-government. “ The town meeting pitted against bureau- cracy,” says Fiske, “ was like a titan overthrowing a cripple. This ruin of the French scheme of colonial empire was due to no accidental circumstance, but was involved in the very nature of the French political system. Obviously it is impos- sible for a people to plant beyond sea a colony which shall be self-supporting unless it has retained intact the power of self- government at home. It is to the self-government of England, and to no less cause, that we are to look for the secret of that boundless vitality which has given to men of English speech the uttermost parts of the earth for an inheritance.” But it was not political causes alone that effected the anni- hilation of French influence on this continent. The French, the Dutch, and the Spaniards all surpassed the English in the adventurous spirit that leads to wide exploration and brilliant discovery ; but the English had come with their wives and chil- dren, and they had come to stay. They loved agriculture and industry and knew the meaning of that potential word ‘‘ home.” They were in the best sense a sedentary people, forming attach- ments to the soil, and by honest labor with their own hands making it respond to their necessities. With plenty of food and boundless acres awaiting the culture of the toiler, the conditions of agreat population were fulfilled. They religiously obeyed the scriptural injunction to “ multiply, and replenish the earth,” and brought up their numerous children to lead frugal and well-rezulated lives, earning their bread in the sweat of their faces. A little later Franklin estimated that the population of the colonies doubled every twenty-five years without counting the immigrants. But it was not so with the French or the Span- ish, who left behind them in the wilderness their half-breed off- spring to be nurtured by Indian mothers and encounter the ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 79 hazards of a rude existence, while they themselves moved on in the path of adventure. It was the compactness of the English colonies, their industry, their frugality, and their prolific rate of increase, under the influence of home, which decided the fate of North America and made the triumph of Wolfe “the greatest turning point as vet discernible in modern history.” France emerged from the Seven Years’ War defeated, humbled, and overwhelmed. her armies beaten, her navies shattered, her possessions overrun throughout the world. The purpose of the war was colonial supremacy, and it left the map of Europe prac- tically unaltered, but the map of America was totally changed by the Treaty of Paris." France was driven from the continent, and there remained to her, of all her vast possessions in America, only a few scattered islands. Spain relinquished Florida and retired behind the Mississippi. The whole area east of that great waterway, and the entire territory north of the fiftieth parallel, were united under the dominion of the British Crown. By the Peace of Paris the American continent was thus divided be- tween England and Spain, the work of territorial consolidation under a single power between the Atlantic and the Mississippi was completed, the conditions for the development of one great nation in this vast area were supplied, and there was required to effect its formation only those measures of political reorganiza- tion which the genius of the people could not fail to accomplish. But the chief result of the war was the birth of an American people, a distinct nationality, brought to a consciousness of itself by common interests and common sufferings. It was already a composite fabric, whose warp was of English origin, but whose woof was borrowed from every European country. The indus- trious German, the thrifty Swede, the sturdy Hollander, the virtuous Huguenot, the frugal Scotchman, and the generous but turbulent Irishman were already here, and all had acquired the qualities of a new and independent race. It has been said that “God sifted three kingdoms to send forth choice grain into the wilderness,” but the statement is inadequate. The true mother- land of America is not England, it is the whole of Europe. Il. THE TERRITORIAL CLAIMS AND CESSIONS OF THE STATES It is an interesting fact that the year 1763, the date of the Treaty of Paris, marks also the beginning of that movement 7See map of the territory of the present United States after February 10, 1763. Re- sult of the French and Indian wars. 86 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES toward independence which culminated in the Declaration of 1776. The King and the Parliament, unmindful of the great services of the colonies in the destruction of the power of France, chose to regard them as mere sources of revenue for extinguish- ing the enormous debt which Great Britain had incurred in ex- tending her colonial empire. The British theory was that the colonies should pay the cost of the war. The latter, on the other hand, had made great sacrifices for the public good. The war had involved them in a large expenditure of life and money. Thirty thousand men had been killed in battle, and many of the colonies had incurred considerable debts. The imposition of special taxes upon them they considered not only unjust in principle but unwarranted by their conduct toward the British Crown, for whose glory they had bravely fought. When, in 1774, the estrangement of the colonies toward England had reached a crisis, they were thirteen separate communities, with different laws and political organizations, possessing little in common ex- cept the general use of the English language, allegiance to the same King, and the memories of fellowship in the French and Indian wars. Twenty years earlier Franklin had proposed a union for the common defense, and his telling figure of the snake severed into thirteen parts, representing the colonies, over the legend, “Join or die,” in the days of the Albany convention, made an indelible impression on the popular mind. The Union, however, had never been consummated, for it was rejected by the colonial assembles, who feared they might create a new master, and not acceptable to the English Board of Trade, because the idea was too democratic. But Franklin, who was then in England as the agent of several colonies, had written an official letter to the Massachusetts Assembly, in which he said: ‘‘ The strength of an empire depends not only on the union of its parts, but on their readiness for the united exertion of their common force;” and, to secure this end, he proposed that a general congress be as- sembled to make a solemn assertion of the rights of the colonies and to engage them with each other never to grant aid to the Crown in any general war till those rights were recognized by the King and both houses of Parliament. Accordingly a Congress, styling itself “the delegates wppointed by the good people of these colonies,” assembled at Philadelphia on the 5th of September, 1774. There was no law or precedent for such a union, and it was not even pretended that the colonial assemblies had the legal right to unite without the consent of ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 81 Parliament, and as if in some measure to break the force of this illegality, the delegates had assembled in the name of “ the peo- ple.” It was, in effect, the declaration of a new sovereignty. Patrick Henry justified it on the ground that the “ colonial gov- ernments were at an end; ” that ‘all America was thrown into one mass and was ina state of nature.” ‘‘ Where are your land- marks, your boundaries of colonies?” said he. . . . The distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers, and New Englanders are no more. J am not a Virginian; Iam an American.” His theory was premature, however, for Con- eress had not been appointed as direct representatives of the ’ people, but as committees of organized colonies which had not yet thrown off allegiance to the British Crown; but his words were prophetic and forecast the philosophy which the Declara- tion of Independence was soon to assert as the expressed con- viction ofthenation. The tendency of public thought, however, outstripped the progress of events ; and, believing the delegates to represent the whole territory claimed by the British Crown in America, the people spontaneously named the assembly the ‘Continental Congress.” To the popular mind the revolution had become the revolt of a continent against the oppression of an island. When Colonel Ethan Allen demanded the surrender of Fort Ticonderoga ‘‘in the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress,” he uttered the whole philosophy of the American Revolution. It soon became apparent that the colonists, to whom their King and Parliament denied the rights of Englishmen, were in fact reduced to “a state of nature,” and the idea of Patrick Henry gained ascendancy. The logical result was the abandonment of all allegiance to the British Crown by the Declaration of Inde- pendence. Ten days before the adoption of the Declaration, Congress had resolved that “all persons abiding within any of the united col- onies, and deriving protection from the laws of the same, owed allegiance to the said laws and were members of said colony.” Thus the same power which declared independence gave to the colonial governments all the authority which they possessed. The colonies owed their existence as independent common- wealths, not to their own separate acts and achievements, but to the united action of all combined. Whatever sovereignty they subsequently claimed was wholly derived from the union between them. Alone each colony was but an empty name; 82 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES together they were a sovereign power. It was as a continental force that the people won their independence, and the Nation is in reality older than the States. All this was felt even at the moment, and on the day the committee for drafting the Declaration of Independence was appointed another committee was directed to prepare the form of a confederation. The power which declared independence and thereby created new sovereignties knew itself to be a mere illusion, except as its acts were ratified by the force of the united nation. But when the Declaration had in effect brought into being thirteen sovereigns in place of one, new problems burst into view. Each of these new states claimed all the rights granted by its own fundamental laws, and in addition its share of the power hitherto accorded to the Crown. What, then, was to be the dis- position of those ‘“‘Crown lands” which were not within the actual bounds of any colony, although originally included in their charters—that vast territory lying between the Alleghany mountains and the Mississippi, which had been won in battle from the rule of France? ® Six states—Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia—by reason of their original char- ters or subsequent treaties, claimed the ownership of all the lands west of their actual boundaries as far as the Mississippi river. It is true that a royal proclamation had been issued in 1763 prohibiting colonial governors from granting patents of land beyond the sources of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic, and that in 1774 the ‘‘ Crown lands,” as they were called, north- west of the Ohio were annexed to the royal province of Quebec ; but these were considered by the colonies unjust encroachments, for had they not freely sacrificed lives and money to conquer thissame country from New France? The other colonies,however, hemmed in by inelastic boundaries, protested against these large pretensions, maintaining that possessions which had been acquired by the force and sacrifice of all should not be appro- priated for the aggrandizement of a part. New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and Mary- land, denied a share of this great territory, saw in the claims of the ‘‘land states ” not only an evident injustice in refusing them a part in the fruits of a common victory, but a menace to the equilibrium of the states by the arrested development of some 8See map of Land Claims of the Thirteen Original States. ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 33 and the unlimited expansion of others. It was indeed no imagi- nary danger, for by offering free lands to settlers the larger states could easily depopulate the smaller. Silas Deane, who had been sent as commissioner to France, had suggested that the North- west Territory was “a resource amply adequate, under proper regulations, for defraying the whole expense of the war.” When, therefore, in September, 1776, a resolution of Congress offered a bounty of land to soldiers enlisting for the war, Maryland, seeing that Congress had no land to give and she herself none to contrib- ute, perceived that the states without land would be compelled to buy it of those whose stock was unbounded and at their own price, thus impoverishing themselves and enriching their rivals. Virginia in her constitution maintained her charter claims, which if allowed would have made her a mighty empire, greater when developed than all the other states combined. On the 30th of October, 1776, Maryland passed a resolution asserting that Virginia’s title had ‘“‘no foundation in justice, and that if the same or any like claim is admitted, the freedom of the smaller states and the liberties of America may be thereby ereatly endangered,” and expressed the conviction that, the dominion over those lands having been established by the blood and treasure of the United States, “ such lands ought to be con- sidered a common stock, to be parceled out at proper times into convenient, free, and independent governments.” Thus by the foresight of Maryland, to which all honor will be forever due, was first posed the momentous question upon whose decision hung the whole harmonious system of govern- ment which we now enjoy. A year later, and a month before the Articles of Confederation were proposed for ratification, it was moved in Congress ‘that the United States in Congress assembled shall have the sole and exclusive right and power to ascertain and fix the western boundary of such states as claim to the Mississippi or South Sea (meaning the Pacific), and shall lay out the land beyond the boundary so ascertained into sepa- rate and independent states from time to time as the numbers and circumstances of the people may require.” Only Mary- land, battling for this great and fruitful idea and appealing to the wisdom of the people as against the ambition and avarice . of the states, voted in the affirmative; but a principle had been laid down whose wisdom was eventually to be perceived by all— a principle which has proved the keystone of the Union, sup- porting the splendid arch upon which our local liberties and national power now rest. 84 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES In 1780 New York authorized the limitation of her western boundaries and the cession of her vacant lands to the United States. ‘She ceased to use the language of royal grants and discarded the principle of succession. She came forth from among her parchments into the forum of conscience in presence of the whole American people, and recognizing the justice of their claim to territories gained by their common efforts, to secure the inestimable blessing of union, for their good and for her own, she submitted to the national will the determination of her western boundaries, and devoted to the national benefit her vast claims to unoccupied territories.” Nor can we deny to all the states a share in the honor of a wise and noble compromise. For the consummation of the Union the smaller states intrusted their liberties to the keeping of the greater, and the greater, in a spirit of generosity, finally bequeathed their large inheritance to the common good, and shared the luster of a brilliant destiny with new stars yet to rise in the firmament of liberty. Special praise should be accorded to Virginia, for “‘in her great cession of the territory northwest of the Ohio, the greatest cession of territory in the history of the world ever voluntarily made by a powerful state able to defend | it, she invited the other states to follow her example, and thus made possible the local governments and magical development of the West, while she averted the jealousy, and possibly the anarchy and bloodshed, that might have followed the assertion of her claims.” III. THE NEGOTIATIONS WITH GREAT BRITAIN When the long struggle for independence was concluded, it was not to be doubted that the young Republic would hold out with stubborn insistence for the recognition of its sovereignty over the territory east of the Mississippi. After the battles of the war, which ended with Yorktown, came the battles of diplo- macy, which were to be fought with an equal skill and daring. All the glory and pride of colonial supremacy which had ani- mated Great Britain when the Treaty of Paris was made with the French were now to be disputed by the colonies themselves. Instructed to claim the whole of the territory south of the St Lawrence and east of the Mississippi, Franklin proposed, in addition, that England should voluntarily cede Canada, in order that its lands might be sold to raise a fund for the compensation of Americans whose property had been destroyed ; to which Lord ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 85 Grenville wittily rejoined that he could not perceive what motive England had for giving away a fourteenth province because she had already lost thirteen. Although the commissioners had been directed to observe the most perfect loyalty to France, and to rely implicitly upon her counsels, we now know that the most moderate territorial pre- tensions of the United States had not one friend in Europe. Spain was represented at the French court by the Count d’Aranda, a subtle diplomatist who bore no love to the young Republic of the West. Fearing alike future encroachment upon the territory of Spain and the dangerous contagion of republican principles, with which her American colonies had already become infected, he made preposterous claims for his country and pretended that the West was the territory of free and independent nations of Indians, whose sovereignty over their soil should be considered inviolable. Sustained by such flimsy reasons, he proposed to shut the United States between the mountains and the sea, in- terposing a vast Indian territory between them and the Missis- sippi and permitting Canada to extend south to the Ohio river.’ Bound to Spain by an ancient family alliance and a secret treaty which made the cession of Gibraltar. back to Spain the price of peace with England, France proved the mere advocate of her ally and chent. The Count de Vergennes, the able but evasive Minister of Foreign Affairs, had secretly instructed the envoys of France to the United States to oppose by every wile known to the art of diplomacy the American acquisition of Canada, while yet pretending to favor American expansion. Rayneval reports, in great glee, as we now read in his dispatches, how successfully he hoodwinked the President and certain mem- bers of Congress, beguiled by his craft and the sweet influence of their tobacco pipes, and won rapturous expressions of grati- tude from the Spanish agent Mirales. “It is a part of the system of Spain, as it is also of France,” writes Vergennes, “to main- tain the English in the possession of Nova Scotia and Canada.” During the negotiations he says the same to Luzerne, and adds that, of course, “this fashion of thinking should be an impene- trable secret for the Americans.” We are not surprised, therefore, that the French court sus- tained the idea of Aranda,” and desired to crush the United ®See map of boundary lines discussed at Paris, 1782. See map of Boundaries of the United States, Canada, and the Spanish Possessions, according to the Proposal of the Court of France, 1782. 86 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES States by massing to the westward the Spanish, the Indians, and the English, leaving the territory of the colonies only a narrow fringe pendant to the broad snowy mantle of the Dominion of Canada, torn from its own shoulders in 1763, and perhaps with the dim hope of its ultimate recovery amidst the strange inter- national vicissitudes that attend defeat and victory. Regarding the fisheries as ‘‘ a great nursery for seamen,” and seeing in them a school for ultimate supremacy on the ocean, France joined England in seeking to deprive the colonies of their hereditary rights on the banks of Newfoundland and in the Gulf of St Law- rence. The keen vision of Vergennes foreknew the future strug- ele for the Mississippi valley and the possession of the Far West, and, faithful to Spain, he ridiculed “the extravagance of the American views and pretentions,” and called the demands of John Jay ‘“‘a delirium not to be seriously refuted.” Happily for their country, the American commissioners saw a way to peace without sacrificing the interests of their people, and although threatened with a vote of censure in Congress for their independent action and disregard of French counsel, they were brave and wise enough to maintain every just demand. The Treaty of Versailles not only acknowledged the independence of the United States, secured the rights of the fisheries, and opened the free navigation of the Mississippi, but it confirmed substantially the American claims in the matter of boundaries and won avast territorial empire for the United States." It was one of the greatest victories in the history of diplomacy and laid the foundation of the nation’s greatness. The Great Lakes and the Mississippi became American highways, and the path to the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific was opened to American enter- prise. The peace was received “ with a burst of approbation ” in the United States, and the refrain was taken up— “No pent-up Utica confines our powers, The whole unbounded continent is ours.”’ The completeness of the victory was resented by Spain, com- pelled to take Florida in place of Gibraltar, and regretted by France, which got nothing at all. The baffled Aranda wrote to his King: “This Federal Republic is born a pigmy. A day will come when it will be a giant—even a colossus—formidable to these countries. Liberty of conscience, the facility of estab- lishing a new population on immense lands, as well as the ad- See map of the Original Public Domain, 1787. ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 87 vantage of the new government, will draw thither farmers and artisans from all nations.” Montmorin, the successor of Ver- gennes, wrote to his envoy: “It is not advisable for France to give to America all the stability of which she is capable; she will acquire a degree of power which she will be too well dis- posed to abuse.” But that was written before the French revo- lution and from the shadow of a tottering throne. From our creat sister republic of today we would receive a different greet- ing, and among its words of amity would be expressions of gratitude for the principles and example of the United States, which have done so much toward the establishment of the French Republic. TV. THE INFLUENCE OF THK NATIONAL DOMAIN A cool and temperate Englishman, “a far-sighted man in many things,” wrote of the prospects of the Confederation soon after the peace: “As to the grandeur of America and its being a rising empire under one head, whether republican or monarch- ical, it is one of the idlest and most, visionary notions that ever was conceived, even by writers of romance. ‘The Americans can never be united into one compact empire under any species of geovernment whatever ; a disunited people till the end of time, suspicious and distrustful of each other, they will be divided and subdivided into little commonwealths or principalities, ac- cording to natural boundaries, by great bays of the sea and by vast rivers, lakes, and ridges of mountains.” The events of the time seemed to justify this dismal prophecy, and the fear of its fulfillment agitated the best minds among the American patriots. The vast Northwest Territory having been ceded to the United States by Great Britain, the question was, How was it to be held? Congress instructed General Washington to garrison the frontier posts, when surrendered, with the conti- nental troops; but after long and elaborate debates the danger of confiding so much power to the federal government was made the excuse for disbanding the troops and leaving the frontiers to the protection of a few state militia. ‘To the ambitious and jeal- ous leaders in the states, anxious to rise to power in their nar- row sovereignties, the utility of the Union seemed already passed, and the destiny of America appeared to be wrapped up in the fate of thirteen rival republics, each too feeble to protect itself against foreign aggression and all too suspicious to trust one an- other. The impotent bond of the Confederation became the 88 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES laughing-stock of Europe. To many it seemed that a return to the protection of England was the only way of salvation, for the paper money had become worthless, the fires of local insurrec- tion burst forth from the ashes of discontent, interstate com- merce was destroyed by petty frontier exactions, and the great experiment of independence seemed doomed to end in anarchy. We cannot here review the disquiet and anxiety of that troubled time, and can only briefly indicate the unexpected cure. The possession of a national domain, composed of terri- tory ceded by the states to the Confederation, proved to be the anchor of the Union. Over this area Congress had assumed a certain degree of power,and it was the only sphere in which the sovereignty of the Confederation could assert itself. In the vast unpopulated stretches of the great Northwest, Congress, by the ordinance of 1784 and the later ordinance of 1787, exercised the right of eminent domain, ruled by its laws, and sold the land to obtain anincome. The future states were bound to make their lawsin harmony with the great principles of freedom, education, and suffrage laid down by Congress, and under no circumstances could they ever be separated from the Union. “I doubt,” says Daniel Webster, ‘‘ whether one single law of any law-giver, an- cient or modern, has produced effects of more distinct, marked, and lasting character than the ordinance of 1787.” Thus grew up silently, almost unobserved, yet, as Madison remarked, “ without the least color of constitutional authority,” a national sovereignty which justified recognition at last by the formation of the Constitution. The Articles of Confederation had contemplated no such exercise of power, and the ordinance was never submitted for ratification by the States; but the ne- cessity of governing that vast territory had forced upon Congress a course as wise as it was illegal, until, as by a sudden turn in a mountain path a splendid landscape bursts into view, the great and impressive fact that a nation had been created commanded attention ; and, seeing its sublime significance, confessing its rightful claims, the whole people felt their kinship and unity, and could express their conviction in the potent phrase, “ We, the people of the United States.” The treaty of 1783 stipulated that the navigation of the Mis- sissippi from its source to the ocean should be forever free and open to the citizens of the United States. Spain, however, who was not a party to this agreement, asserted an exclusive control overthe river and denied the right of free navigation. This situa- ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 89 tion gave rise to one of the most thrilling controversies in the history of our country, now almost forgotten, but fraught with momentous consequences to the future of the American people. Franklin had foreseen the issue when he said to Jay, ‘“ Poor as we are, yet, as | know we shall be rich, I would rather buy at a great price their right on the Mississippi than sell a drop of its waters. A neighbor might as well ask me to sell my street door.” Soon after his retirement from the army, Washington made a tour into the western country, which he had known so well in his early daysand whose wealth and value he justly appreciated. His purpose was to ascertain by what means it could be most effectually bound to the Union. The population of that rich and fertile region, a bold and adventurous class, separated by the remoteness of their position from connection with the east- ern states, with little respect for the feeble rule of Congress, in which they had no representation, already showed signs of es- trangement and independence. So rich a soil, such luxuriant vegetation, had never belonged hitherto to any branch of the English-speaking race. Plains capable without cultivation of supporting millions of cattle, fields golden with heavy harvests in response to the minimum expenditure of toil, rivers affording ereat natural highways for the movement of their agricultural productions needed only an adequate market to render the great Northwest the richest portion of the globe. The Atlantic states knew little of this vast region or its untold resources. They looked upon it chiefly as a means for paying the federal debts by the sale of public lands, and did not realize its political sig- nificance until their indifference and the inefficiency of the gov- ernment had almost lost it to the Union. Washington, whose large practical intelligence was so quick to discern great issues, saw the impending danger. Returning from his western journey, he recommended the appointment of a commission to make a survey ascertaining the means of nat- ural water communication between Lake Erie and the tidewaters of Virginia. His project was to open all the possible avenues between the western territory and the Atlantic, thinking thus to identify the interests of the two sections, to offer to the West participation in the advantages of the sea and to enrich the East by making it the emporium of the western productions. But theshrewd frontiersmen who had taken up the western lands saw another avenue to the sea and another way to market. It was 7 90 ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES the Mississippi and the tributaries flowing into it which seemed Nature’s great highway ready for their use. Only one barrier op- posed them, the obstinate refusal of Spain, who held the mouth of the great river and its western bank, to permit its free navigation. An interposition so autocratic, so unjust, and so injurious roused the resentment of the strong men of the West and they resolved not to submit to this limitation of their rights. The East, fearing that the West would be lost if not held to its east- ern connections, opposed the opening of the Mississippi, pre- ferring a commercial treaty with Spain to free navigation. Con- gress met the problem with the feebleness that characterized its action after the Revolution. Diplomacy was bartering away the ' rights of the young West, when suddenly a trader, whose ship- ment had been seized by the Spanish authorities, returned to tell the story of his wrong just at the moment when news ar- rived that Congress intended to surrender the present use of the Mississippi. The whole population of the western settlements rose in wrath and indignation to protest against the folly by which they were being sacrificed. Looking out over their magnificent domain, whose soil they were redeeming from the idleness of its natural state, they felt that their abundance was turned to poy- erty if the mighty rivers which swept past their fields waving with harvests abundant to sustain the populations of Europe, were closed to them, and they themselves shut up in their fer- tile valleys, unable to exchange their wealth of cereals for the merchandise they could not create. But there at the outlet of their noble river stood the obstinate Spaniard, sword in hand, refusing them egress to the open sea and excluding them from the commerce of the world. They must despoil their luxuriant valleys to pour their tribute at his feet, and share with an alien and an enemy, “the largest return which American labor had yet reaped under the industry of its own free hands.” No; they would not. They had fought the savage and the wild beast. They had come here to accept their heritage from the hand of nature and to find justice without relying on the power of kings. They must go to the sea. If Congress opposed, it was to be defied, as the Crown of England had been in the Revolution. If the Spaniard opposed, they would drive him off the conti- nent and rid the land of an incumbrance. They set their faces like flint for the empire of the West. Twenty thousand men, trained in the field and the forest, turned their backs to the ORIGINAL TERRITORY OF THE UNITED STATES 91 Alleghanies and their faces toward the great river, resolved to march to its mouth and drive the Spaniards into the sea. Congress could not deny their plea, and yet was not strong enough to espouse their cause. The need of a closer union in place of “the-rope of sand” which bound the states together became evident. The great Northwest must be saved. A new vision burst upon the American people. “A great and inde- pendent fund of revenue,” said Madison, ‘is passing into the hands of a single body of men who can raise troops to an in- definite number and appropriate money to their support for an indefinite period of time. . . . Yet no blame has been whispered, no alarm has been sounded.” Since, then, there already existed in the Union a form of sovereign power, why not give it substance? Why not provide the nation with an adequate constitutional basis? Under these circumstances was convoked the Constitutional Convention of 1787. The lands between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi were seen to be the key to the continent. They were the old vantage ground of France. Emigration was setting toward them and in a few years they would constitute a mighty empire. They belonged to the people, not to the states, and the common pos- session bound the whole population together in a corporate in- terest. The discernment of this momentous fact created a new patriotism and flooded the intelligence of the people with a new light. Henceforth there were to be two kinds of government to correspond to the two kinds of interest that existed—that of the States, preserving their memories, their traditions, and their or- ganizations, and giving perpetuity to their laws and liberties, and that of the Nation, binding them all together in indissoluble union, preserving the common heritage of their people, giving them fraternity at home and prestige abroad, sweeping away the local barriers to trade and intercourse, gathering the whole people under the folds of one glorious flag, and sheltering the sister states under the spacious dome of a common nationality whose protection should extend over all alike. No wonder that the Constitution has been called “ the finest specimen of constructive statesmanship that the world has ever seen.” It has a character of universality about it like the great laws of nature. It was compacted of historic liberties won in a thousand battles and rendered sacred by colonial memories and revolutionary struggles, yet was made for indefinite growth and future expansion, in view of vast stretches of unoccupied wilder- 92 ORIGINAL TERRITORY.OF THE UNITED STATES ness threaded by mighty rivers destined to bear upon their bosoms the commerce of untold millions when these trackless wilds should be peopled by the makers of the Great West. The history of the United States is the story of its continued bene- dictions. Ampler vision has broadened the interpretation of its meaning, and enlarged experience has widened the application of its principles; and today, as hitherto, the Constitution is flexible enough to admit of adaptation to all the changing con- ditions of our national development, yet strong enough to hold in one harmonious system forty-five great states, spanning the continent and including within their limits every diversity of nature and every variety of man. Designed for a population of three millions, it has become the fundamental law of more than seventy ; ratified by a little fringe of people scattered along the Atlantic seaboard, it is accepted by a great continental nation ; written in a period of legalized slavery, it has laid the founda- tions of universal liberty ; expressing the final goal toward which political evolution is tending—local government for local affairs and a general government for general affairs—it presents a model for the final organization of the entire human race, when some far-distant dawn shall usher in “The parliament of man, the federation of the world.” In a recent report to the Department of State, Consul-General De Leon deals at some length with the proposed railway from Guayaquil to Quito. The track is laid for the first 60 miles, but the broadening of the gauge and the laying of new ties and rails will almost amount to a new construction. The present terminus is at the foot of the western cordillera of the Andes, at an elevation of 1,130 feet above sea-level. Between this point and Sibambe, a distance of 60 miles, there will be a gradual rise to an altitude of 8,188 feet. his is considered to be the most difficult part of the entire line, as not only does it he for the most part on the thickly forested mountain side, but the geological formation will add greatly to the difficulty of con- struction. Between Sibambe and Quito the line will have to surmount three spurs of the cordilleras, ranging from 10,000 to 12,000 feet. The road, as a whole, will be a triumph of railway construction and will open up a region of wonderful product- ivity, the mountain valleys that will be rendered accessible pos- sessing a fine climate and an exceedingly fertile soil. PORVOO RIE Ol By Ropert T. Hitt, United States Geological Survey CONFIGURATION AND GEOLOGY Porto Rico is the most eastern and the smallest of the Great Antilles, being 500 square miles less in area than Jamaica. It is 95 miles long, 85 miles wide, and has an area of 3,668 square miles.f The coast-line is about 360 milesin length. Its area is 300 square miles greater than that of Delaware, Rhode Island, and the District of Columbia combined, and 300 square miles less than that of Connecticut. At the same time, it is the most productive in proportion to area, the most densely settled, and the most established in its customs and institutions. It is also notable among the West Indian group for the reason that its preponderant population is of the white race, and that it pro- duces foodstuffs almost sufficient to supply its inhabitants as well as some of the neighboring islands. MOUNTAIN SCENERY NEAR LARES *Published by permission of the Chief of the Division of Forestry of the Depart- ment of Agriculture and the Director of the Geological Survey, under whose auspices the researches upon which this article is based were made. 7 The area of the island cannot be stated exactly. Some authorities give slightly dif- ferent figures from the above. 93 94 PORTO RICO Although it nowhere attains the great altitudes of the other Antilles, the island is practically the eastward continuation of the Antillean chain of uplifts. It rises from the shallow sub- merged bank which borders it for a few miles and is a contin- uation of the other Antilles. This bank is the upward extension of a remarkable submerged mountain slope, which, at least on the north side, descends nearly 30,000 feet to the bottom of the Brown- son Deep, until recently supposed to be the deepest hole in the worid. Its outline presents the appearance of an almost geometrically regular parallelogram nearly three times as long as broad, with its four sides following the four cardinal directions. The sea- line, unlike that of Cuba, is almost straight, and the coast is usually low, especially on the southern side, although there are afew headlands. Itisalso void of fringing keys and deep indenta- tions of its coast, such as border the island of Cuba. Porto Rico, like all the Antilles, in comparison with the United States, has a configuration ancient in aspect, although compara- tively new in geologic age, the material all being of late Cretaceous and younger periods. Of the four chief topographic features of the Great Antilles—central mountains, coast-border topography, interior plains, and inclosed mountain basins—only the central mountains and coast-border topography are represented upon this island. The central mountains, which are the largest conspicuous east- ern member of the partially submerged chain of the Great Antilles COFFEE ESTATE IN MAYAGUEZ DISTRICT PORTO RICO 95 A MOUNTAIN STREAM, SIERRA LUQUILLO and Virgin islands, are largely of one general physiographic type, while the coast-border topography is more complex and diversi- fied, consisting of three subtypes, which may be called coast hills, parting valleys, and playa plains. The mountains constitute the major surface of the island, ap- proximately nine-tenths of the whole. The other features collect- ively make an irregular and lower lying belt around the coastal margin comparable to the narrow rim of a high-crowned alpine hat. In fact, the whole island is practically an elongated elevated sierra, made up mostly of voleanic rock, surrounded by a nar- row collar or dado of limestone hills, formerly marginal marine incrustations which have been elevated. Viewed from the sea these mountains have a rugged and serrated aspect, consisting of numerous peaks and summits void of a definite crest line, rising from a general mass whose steeply sloping sides are deeply cor- rugated by drainageways, so that they have the aspect of a wrinkled handkerchief—a figure of description ascribed to Co- lumbus in telling Queen Isabella of the Antilles. Their superfice has been etched by erosion into innumerable gabled lateral ridges (cuchillas) separated by deep V-shaped gorges. This type of mountainous configuration has been described by Dayis as a dissected range, while the angular lateral ribs or salients are known in Cuba as cuchillas (knives). This sculpture is so peculiar to the central mountains of the island that it forms a ready means of differentiating them from the foothills. The mountain region has a long and relatively gentler inclination toward the north coast and falls off more ab- 96 PORTO RICO STREAM AND VOLCANIC ROCKS, MAYAGUEZ ruptly toward the south. While the general axis of uplift ex- tends east and west, the mountains do not now present a well- defined and continuous summit crest, although various terms are popularly used indicating a feature such as the ‘central back- bone range,” etc. The chief approach to such an axial feature is an irregular line of summits which can be drawn about two- thirds the distance across the island from east to west between the headwaters of the streams flowing to the north and south coasts. This feature, however, which follows more nearly the southern than the northern coast, isa line of separated peaks and passes. High peaks exceeding in altitude this so-called divide project at various places from the lateral ridges which extend between the parallel streams flowing from this drainage divide. The main crest line extends from Mayaguez on the west through Aibonito and Adjuntas to Humacoa on the east. This is called the central Cordillera west of Aibonito and the Sierra de Cayey to the east of that town. Another crest line bifurcates from this main ridge near the center of the island like a letter ~<, so that there are practically two crest lines in the eastern half of the island, This northern branch is the Sierra Luquillo, which practically extends from westward of the San Juan-Ponce mili- tary road to the northeast cape. This range, which decreases in altitude to the westward, contains the highest island summit, El] Yunque, and is nearly separated from that of the Sierra Cay ey by the valleys of the Rio Guarabo, which flows west into the PORTO RICO 97 Loiza, and the Rio Naguabo, which flows east into the Anegada passage. The summit lines of the two sierras merge near Bar- ranquitas, near the geographic center of the island. More accurately speaking, these mountains as a whole, when looked down upon from the highest points, present the aspect of a sea of conical peaks and beaded ridges, rather than a divid- ing ridge, from which angular laterals extend between the drain- ageways. ‘They rise abruptly from the sea, especially at the east and west ends of the island, or from the narrow marginal plain which separates them from it. The highest eminences of this billowy sea of summits nowhere exceed 4,000 feet, and this altitude is reached by only one peak, that of El Yunque at the extreme northeast. The height of this is given on the Spanish maps at 4,087 feet, but it is reported much lower by other authorities, with a minimum estimate of 3,200 feet. The summits of the Rou n of the island, although numerous, nowhere attain much over 2,800 feet, as shown in the following table ALTITUDES OF TYPICAL MOUNTAIN STATIONS IN PORTO RICO’ Altitudes of the Sierra Luquillo Feet EO VAUIMLG IE, 5 CASESI I SUMMA Lb siesta /ayss ore “abe us, siayeuetaiesanc) aie lone sige 2, = * 4 4000 LACIER has A. 4 SSD a 13000 oy Mt. FORBES 13400 * “7 <— Howse Pass 5300 SKETCH OF THE SOURCES OP THE SASKATCHEWAN FROM A ROUGH SURVEY BY WALTER D. WILCOX. SCALE OF MILES. ° a 4 6 8 10 117 °W, J 32 N — Mt. MURCHISON 13500 ie Ke 6700 51°40 N— <<», Upper a ea 8 a NVM@HOLVMSVS AHL FO WHOT ATLLIT GHEE NO ANWOS Reha aoa ides SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 117 small comfort to know that the fire was farther off than had been supposed, as we had to change our idea of its magnitude. As there was nothing to be gained by waiting, we moved a short march into the valley the next day. The descent into the Little Fork valley is much steeper than on the other side of the pass, and in the first three miles the trail drops about 1,000 feet. These mountain trails were used by the Indians long before the whites came into the country. In every important valley, especially where game abounds, there are trails which prove of great value to the traveler. As our horses were winding through a deep forest, a bird ap- peared which resembled a pine bullfinch, flitting from tree to tree and following us closely. Somewhat later it gave the most remarkable instance of tameness that I have ever seen. Having followed us for about two miles, it waited in a tree during the bustle and confusion of making camp, but in the afternoon, when all was quiet and some of our men were asleep, the bird became exceedingly familiar, walking on the ground near us and finally perching on our extended hands. It was soon evident that the object of our visitor was to catch mosquitoes, which were hover- ing in swarms around our heads. It pecked at a ring on my hand, at our needles, and in fact any metal article, but the cli- max was reached when by accident the bird saw its own image ina small looking-glass which lay on the ground. Then, with extended wings and open bill, it uttered cries of rage and pecked madly at the glass in which an enemy appeared. Among the solitudes of mountain forests squirrels, finches, and whiskey- jacks often show unusual confidence in man, but this particular instance is remarkable, because the bird would alight on our per- sons even after it had been momentarily though gently detained several times as a prisoner in my hand. Further investigation showed that it was possible to get our horses through the fire, which had spent its energy on a large extent of green timber, so after three hours’ travel from camp we came to the burning trees, where the fire was advancing slowly, as there was a calm. ‘Then came several miles of the recently burned area, now changed to a forest of blackened sticks, some of which were already fallen, with here and there a column of smoke rising from smouldering moss, and everything half con- cealed in a snowy covering of ashes. At the other edge of the fire there was more danger, and frequently some tree would flash up and send a scorching heat toward us. We were chiefly anx- 118 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN ious that the packs should not take fire and cause a stampede among the horses, so for a considerable distance we drove our animals along the edge of a lake and frequently waded deep in the water to avoid the heat of blazing trees. After an exhausting march of six hours we made our camp in amuskeg, or swamp, about half a mile from the fire. The wind, however, which had been increasing for a time, began to carry the fire toward us, and our situation soon became alarming when some heavy timber began to blaze and the columns of flame, shooting hundreds of feet into the air, made a terrifying roar, which caused our horses to stop feeding. At one time a funnel- shaped whirlwind about 200 feet high formed over the heated area and remained there a few moments. At the rate of progress the fire was making, we should soon have been surrounded had we not packed up and moved a mile further down the valley. The second camp was made by the side of a considerable stream, wide enough to stop the fire ; but toward evening cloud banners began to form at the peaks of the mountains, and next day, after many weeks of drought, rain fell steadily for ten hours and fortunately extinguished for a time the fires that were destroying this beautiful valley. We were now two days’ journey down the Little Fork valley, a distance of about 18 miles in a straight line. We remained in camp the next day to do a little survey work from a mountain to the east. From this point, at an altitude of 8,000 feet, the Little Fork valley appears straight, deep, and comparatively narrow, with a number of lateral valleys coming in from the west side and cutting the mountain masses into projecting spurs. The strata of the mountains are for the most part nearly hori- zontal, and the cliffs are frequently almost vertical. There were - six lakes in view from our survey point, of which two, each about a mile long, were merely expansions of the river, three were in lateral valleys, and one lay far up the valley where the river takes its source. The lateral valleys head in ‘the summit range to the west and probably have never been visited. The scenery is very grand near the lakes. A striking peak about 10,000 feet in height, with a precipitous rock face and wedge-shaped summit, stands guardian, and, together with the jagged mountains near it, helps to give a gloomy, fiord-like ap- pearance to the region. Mt Murchison is supposed to lie ina group of mountains to the east of this place, and, as seen from the Pipestone pass by Dr Hector, was estimated to be 13,600 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 119 feet high. It has never been seen from the Little Fork valley, though it cannot be more than 10 miles distant. On July 22 we marched six hours, and reached Saskatchewan river. The trail is very good, and runs for many miles through forests of splendid timber, especially in the great valley of the Saskatchewan. At the forks or junction the Saskatchewan is a rapid stream about 150 yards wide and apparently quite deep, and the pure blue waters of the Little Fork are soon lost to view in the muddy volume of the main river. The Saskatchewan valley is about four miles wide at this point, the river itself flow- ing between bluffs of glacial drift, and while the massive moun- tains on every side are between 10,000 and 12,000 feet high, they are less imposing than usual because of their distance. The main river runs about northeast, cutting through the mountain ranges, and taking its source to the southwest among the highest elacier-bearing peaks of the summit range. A very large tributary, which we called the “ North Fork,” comes in from the northwest and joins the main river about one mile above the Little Fork. This river is not correctly placed on Palliser’s map, nor was there any available information about the region whence it comes. Even Stony Indians who travel through these mountains know little of this river, because, it is said, many years ago one of their tribe was lost while hunting in that region, and they think he was destroyed by an evil spirit dwelling there. At all events, they will take no chances in visit- ing that part of the country now. Our route to the Athabasca, however, lay up this river, and our first duty was to find a ford across the Saskatchewan. A day was spent in finding asafe place, as the river was in summer flood, though not at its highest stage. Mr Barrett, with charac- teristic energy, discovered a ford about one mile upstream, where the river spreads out among low sand islands to the width of nearly half a mile. A sense of relief came when, the next day, after fording the turbulent Little Fork, we had crossed the main river, which is of great size at this point, only 30 miles from its most distant source, and were safely on its north side. Turning northward along a high bluff, we came in a short time to the North Fork, which appears to equal the so-called Middle Fork or main river. About one mile above its mouth the North Fork flows between rocky banks, and there is a fall or rapid in a constricted channel bloeked by immense masses of fallen cliff, where the water surges NVMUHOLVUSVS ANE JO MMOL WINON AHL NO ANANS dWV) SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 121 in foaming breakers and dark whirlpools. Fora mile or so above this fall there is a fine trail through a light pine forest, and then comes a burnt area with trees crossed in such confusion that it required two hours to make half a mile, and we were so much delayed here that our progress for the day could not have been more than three miles in nearly six hours. On the following two days we advanced about 10 miles up the valley, having a trail wherever there were green forests, but suf- fering much delay from burnt timber and muskegs. On one occasion when marching along a steep bank of the river a pack- horse stumbled among loose logs and rolled over into a deep pool. The horse was carrying over 200 pounds of flour, a bur- den that kept it for a short time at the bottom of the river, but after some violent struggles it came right side up and climbed out. No damage was done, however, as flour absorbs water only to a slight depth and very soon makes an impervious layer on the outside. Ten miles up the river a stream. from the west unites with the North Fork. As the two streams are about equal in size we were at a loss which one to follow in order to reach the Atha- basca. In order to get a more extended view of the country, an ascent was made of a mountain which lies between the two rivers. On the summit, at an altitude of 8,400 feet, it was seen that the western stream takes its source in a large glacier about 12 miles distant. A fair idea of the branch streams was given by the valley openings, but it must be confessed that less is known about this river than of any other source of the Sas- katchewan under discussion. As a result of this ascent we were firm in the belief that our route did not lie up the western branch. The other valley, however, seemed exceedingly deep, canyon-like,in the very short distance that it was visible at all. Though the air was smoky from forest fires, in spite of consider- able rainy weather of late, I tried some photographic work, and during a brief but fatal moment, when I was reaching for a plate- holder, the strong wind blew my camera over and broke it badly on the rough limestone rocks. The most fragile parts, the ground glass and lens, fortunately escaped, while the wood and brass work were in pieces. With a tool-box carried for such emergen- cies the camera was reconstructed after a few hours’ labor and did excellent work later in the trip. Our men returned in the evening and reported that there was a trail in the deep valley to the northwest. 122 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN The next two days we advanced only about ten miles because of the uncertainty of the trails, the rough nature of the forests, and repeated crossings of the river. Our progress was slow in spite of our custom of having one or two men explore and cut out the trail for the next day as far as possible each afternoon. In this place the river is at the bottom of a narrow valley, the sides of which are smooth precipices adorned here and there by clumps of trees clinging to the ledges. Streams and springs from far above come down in delicate curtains of spray or grace- ful waterfalls wafted from side to side by every breeze. ‘The flood of glacial waters sweeps over a erayel-wash in a network of channels, with the main body of water swinging from one side to another of the valley and washing against steep or iInaccessi- ble banks. This condition of things caused us to cross and re- cross the stream almost constantly, and, though the fords were in general not more than three feet deep, the icy waters ran with such force that our crossings were not without excitement. In spite of the best judgment and care of our packers horses got beyond their depth several times and had to swim across. As the saddle-horses are guided by riders, they rarely lose their footing, but the pack-animals, coming along in a bunch, confused by the shouting of the men and the roar of the rapids, hesitate and often enter the river a little above or below the best ford, and so get into deep water. Dangerous rapids or a log jam be- low make such occasions critical, not alone for the safety of the horses, but even for the success of an expedition in case a large quantity of provisions is lost. Pack-horses cannot swim very far with their tight cinches, and moreover the icy waters of these mountain streams paralyze their muscles very quickly. The trail at length leaves the river and makes a rapid ascent through forests on the east side of the valley, so that in an hour we had gained 1,000 feet. Throuch the trees we caught glimpses of magnificent scenery, the uniting streams in the canyon bot- tom, the mountain sides heavily timbered or rising into snow summits, and to the west an immense glacier, which was the source of the largest stream. The North Fork was rapidly di- viding into its ultimate tributaries. The sound of mountain streams falling in cascades, the picturesque train of horses, each animal cautiously picking a safe passage along the rocky path- way; the splendid trees around us, our great height, and the tremendous grandeur of the mountain scenery, all helped to make our surroundings most enjoyable. Above the sound of FALLS ON THE NORTH FORK OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 124 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN wind in the forest there was presently heard the roar of a water- fall, and half a mile beyond we saw a large stream apparently bursting from the top of a fine precipice and falling in one mag- nificent leap down a great height: Through a notch in the mountains there was another fall visible some miles distant fully twice as high as the one near us. It was learned later that every stream descended into the canyon by a fall and a succes- sion of cascades. We camped in a beautiful wooded valley with much open country at an altitude of 6,500 feet above the sea. Near our tents was the river, which at this place is a comparatively small stream of crystal clear water. In theafternoon I ascended, with one of the men, a small mountain which lay to the west of our camp. From this summit two passes were visible, one five miles to the north and the other more distant and toward the north- west. The view to the west was more extended. There was a large straight glacier directly before us, the one we had seen earlier in the day, which supplies the greater part of the water of the North Fork. At least six or seven miles of this glacier is visible, and it may extend much further behind the intervening mountains. ‘The glacier has no terminal moraine, and slopes by a very even grade toa thin knife-like edge, in which it terminates. The next day Mr Barrett went off to climb, if possible, a moun- tain over 11,000 feet in altitude, north of our camp, while one of the packers and I started to explore the pass to the northwest. The other packer spent part of the day investigating the other pass. This division of labor was a great saving of time. At our conference that evening, which did not occur till midnight, when the last member came into camp, it was decided that the pass to the north seemed unfavorable as a route to the Athabasca. Mr Barrett failed in his ascent because the mountain was more distant than it appeared. The pass to the northwest was more favorable, and on the next day we moved our camp so as to be almost onthe summit. The last and longest branch of the North Fork comes from a small glacial lake on one side of a meadow- like summit and at the base of a splendid mountain, a complex mass of rocky arétes and hanging glaciers. Upon further inquiry we learned that the valley as it descended to the northwest was blocked by a glacier that came into it, and beyond that a canyon, which made this route altogether out of the question. A high valley on the right, however, offered the last and only escape for us, and after reaching an altitude of SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 125 8,000 feet our descent began into a valley that we knew must be either the Athabasca or the Whirlpool river, which flows into the Athabasca. ‘Thus the most critical part of our expedition, the discovery of a pass from the Saskatchewan to the Athabasca, was safely accomplished. It is highly probable that ours is the first party to go over this route. Though now twenty-six days out from Laggan, we were only a little more than half way to the Athabasca pass, but a description of that country would carry us beyond the subject in hand. It was not until late in the season of 1898 that I had an op- portunity to visit the source of the Middle Fork of the Saskatch- ewan. Forthis trip | engaged as packer Wiliam Peyto, a man who had proved very efficient on previous expeditions; also a cook and an outfit of nine horses. It seemed almost foolhardy, when on October 12, against driving snow showers and a cold wind, we set out from Laggan and once more resumed our toilsome march through the many miles of burnt timber northward, as it were, into the very teeth of winter. Through constant snowstorms—for the headwaters of the Bow are a breeding place for bad weather—we passed the upper Bow lake, the divide beyond, and got six miles down the Little Fork on the third day, as a result of forced marches. During the following night there was a curious creaking sound of the tent ropes and a sagging of the canvas, and in the morn- ing our prospects for a successful trip were very gloomy indeed, with ten inches of new snow on the ground. Not wishing under these circumstances to get further away from civilization, we remained in camp all day. By afternoon the snow ceased, and the next day we were again on the march. ‘The snow was fifteen inches deep in the Little Fork valley, but only half that depth near the Saskatchewan, which we reached on the sixth day. On October 18 we crossed the Little Fork and turned westward into a region that promised to be full of interest. The weather, which had been cloudy and threatening for some days, now gave signs of improvement by the appearance of blue sky in the west. and soon after the high mountains up the Middle Fork were bathed in sunlight, the dazzling light on the snow-covered land- scape being very cheering after the days of gloom and storm. The trail penetrates a forest on the south bank and, frequently coming out on the river, allows views of the wide, log-strewn gravel-wash, the work of summer floods. 126 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN About five miles up the river a valley comes in from Glacier lake, and our camp was placed on a point of land between the confluent streams. ‘The Saskatchewan at this cold season is clear as a mountain spring and shallow enough to be fordable on foot. In summer, however, it is a raging flood that makes the region of Glacier lake very difficult to reach. From our camp I set out in the afternoon to see the lake, and found it in an hour, though not without a hard scramble through deep snow and fallen timber. The view was well worth the labor expended. The lake, which is three or four miles long, is beautifully set among high peaks, and at the farther end a snow mountain sends down a glacier nearly to its level. The setting sun sinking into a notch of the distant mountains poured shafts of light through gray, misty clouds and tinged their edges with a pale golden illumination. The lake was nearly calm and reflected the beau- tiful picture of mountain and sky from a tremulously moving surface. The water, by retreating from its summer level, had exposed a wide margin of mud-covered boulders and slippery logs—the trunks of trees carried into the lake by snow slides— but in the distance the forested banks seemed to press close upon the water. There was something wonderfully impressive in the awful solitude of such a scene under the spell of evening calm. From what had been seen of the country I decided that it was important to reach, if possible, the summit of a high mountain that lay to the east of the lake, which from its position would command a comprehensive view of the whole region and also surely reveal Mt Forbes, which was somewhere west of the lake, according to Palliser’s map. Accordingly I was afoot the next morning at nine o’clock, with a camera on my shoulders, ready for the ascent. The mountain appeared to be about 7,800 feet in altitude, or in round numbers 3,000 feet above our camp. The weather was bright and cold, nor was there a cloud in the sky, and it proved by far the best day of the trip. It appeared that the walking would be better on the other side of the Glacier Lake stream, and after some ineffectual attempts to bridge the river by felling trees, Peyto carried me across on his back in a shallow place, and so the climb was commenced with dry boots. In less than five min- utes a fine trail appeared, which saved a great deal of labor and considerable time in getting to the lake. The trail at length diverged to the east toward the mountain and went in the right direction until the altitude was 600 feet above the lake, effecting SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 127 a great saving of energy in forcing our way through the under- brush. The sunlight was painfully briluant on the snow, which was fully a foot in depth at 7,000 feet. At this altitude, in a last clump of spruce trees, | hung my camera to a branch and took a short rest, as the climb so far had been very exhausting. Altera pause of ten minutes the sharp air urged a recommence- ment of the ascent. The brilliant glare of an hour previous had given place to a somewhat cloudy sky, as a belt of heavy cirrus was drifting along over the mountains ina great line running north and south. The sun shone through it feebly, and was sur- rounded by a halo. I soon began to have doubts of my ability to succeed in the ascent, as my strength began to fail under so much exertion in the deep snow. The bushes, rocks, and other inequalities of the ground were buried, so that I frequently stumbled and fell. Moreover, it now became apparent that the size of the mountain had been much underestimated, for the heights on the right rose tremendously even after an altitude of 7,900 feet had been reached. The inclination was very steep, and the glare of the now returned sun on the vast expanse of snow and the absence of anything to fasten the eyes upon for relief produced a curious sensation of dizziness, due perhaps in part to exhaustion. I felt, however, the importance of reaching the summit, as it meant practically the success of the entire trip. Moreover, the extraordinarily fine weather on this critical day of the trip seemed too providential to be lost from any lack of exertion or ambition. Summoning, then, all my resolution, I made reasonable pro- eress for a time, but soon, in spite of every eager desire for suc- cess and ambition to reach the summit, the contest between will-power and tired muscles became doubtful, as the snow grew deeper with higher altitude, the slope steeper, and the far-off summit seemed no nearer. Every few yards-of progress was invariably terminated by a fall in the snow, and it seemed better to rest for a moment in whatever position chance had it than to get up at once. A little later a view appeared that in itself well repaid the labor of the climb. On the right was an expanse of spotless snow, exceedingly steep, vast in extent, and dazzling in bril- liancy. Its rounded contours were sharply outlined against the sky, but there was no interruption of stone or cliff in the mo- notonous covering of snow, nor any scale by which to judge of size or distance. The chief object of interest in the view was a TAT 000'6 LAOLV TO NOWLVADIA NY WOW STAMOT TNOOW TO MATA SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 129 snowy, triangular peak covered with ice, which now began to_ appear in the west. The colors of rocks and cliffs in the distant peaks and precipices seemed absolutely black in contrast with the remarkable whiteness of the snow surface on all sides. Over- head the sky was intensely blue, but marked by distinct wisps of white cirrus cloud, spun out like tufts of cotton into shreds and curving lines. At an altitude of 8,800 feet, or more than 4,000 feet above our camp, I at length reached the summit of the mountain crest. It was necessary to walk along the crest a quarter of a mile to reach a somewhat higher point, which was the true summit. The snow along this mountain ridge was in many places three or four feet deep, and, mindful of the terrible alpine accidents caused by cornices, I kept well away from the edge, below which it seemed to drop sheer several thousand feet. The snow was sparkling in the sun, and of the myriads of bright points about one-half were merely white light, like diamonds; the other half were either green, blue, or amber-colored, like emeralds, sap- phires, and topazes. From intense frost my gloves were frozen so stiff that notes and sketches had to be done with bare hands. The most conspicuous and interesting part of the whole vast panorama was the lofty summit of Mt Forbes, beyond the val- ley of Glacier lake. This mountain and another about 10 miles to the west were the two highest peaks in sight, and each is probably between 13,000 and 14,000 feet in altitude. Glaciers of very large size come from these mountains and terminate a few miles above the lake. The whole valley of the Saskatche- wan to its upper end and in the opposite direction for many miles below the mouths of the North and Little forks was clearly vis- ible. There was a very high rocky peak ina group of moun- tains east of the Little Fork that occupies the position of Hector’s Mt Murchison, which he calculated to be 13,600 feet high. This mountain is hidden away in a group that must be 75 miles in circumference, and so it is rarely seen. There was a fine view to the north, where a wild and desolate valley, thousands of feet below, was dominated by a castle-like mountain over 11,000 feet high, probably Mt Lyell, cut in ruins like ancient towers and battlements. Of four plates exposed on this mountain only one was successful, so I had a narrow escape from failing altogether in getting a view of Mt Forbes, which, because of its great height, is veiled from view by clouds and is frequently invisible for weeks at a time. 10 130 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN On Thursday, October 20, the day broke gray and unsettled, with the highest mountains touched by clouds. We continued our march up the Saskatchewan valley, and urged the horses rapidly over a level gravel plain at such speed as to make in all ten miles. On the west side of the valley there is a stupendous wall of rock between 11,000 and 12,000 feet high, which termi- nates in the giant peak of Mt Forbes, a little to the north. About four miles from our camping place there is a group of curious rounded hills rising like forested islands from the sea of gravel. There was a strong raw wind against us, and because of our water-soaked boots, half frozen by contact with snow, it was alto- gether too cold to keep in the saddle long, and every one walked most of the time. Wemade camp ina miserable place of stunted timber half killed by gravel which had been washed over the place by some change of the river’s course not many years be- fore. The river here divides into three streams. ‘The smallest, near our camp, comes from the Howse pass, less than three miles distant; the other two come from a valley to the southeast, all, curiously enough, flowing on different sides of a flat valley. In the afternoon I walked some three miles up the valley to where the lesser stream comes in from the west, and as it heads at the base of Mt Forbes, I followed it a mile or so farther, till presently the current became rapid, the valley narrow, and the water closely hemmed in by rocky banks, so that walking was very difficult. The snow was a foot deep in this little valley, where the sun and wind could not exert their influence as in the open. The stream on the other side of the valley is larger and comes from a glacier several miles distant. This whole region was very thoroughly examined last summer by Messrs Baker, Collie, and Stutfield, who not only explored the large glacier, which is sup- posed to be 10 or 15 miles long, but went up the other stream several miles to the base of Mt Forbes, in the hope of ascending it. The flood of waters that sweeps down here in summer from the long glacier has cut channels three or four feet deep, lined with immense boulders, across the whole bottom of the valley. This is the chief stream or source of the Saskatchewan. During the night the wind came up in fitful gusts; the stars were no longer bright points, but foggy spots seen through a thin mist; bands of cloud swept along the mountain sides almost as low as our camp, and at length the whole sky was overcast. The barometer was much lower at midnight. By 1 a.m. snow began SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN 131 to fall, which was a cause for no little apprehension, as we were far from the railroad. On Friday, October 21, the sky was still threatening, though very little snow had fallen. We were on the march soon after ten o’clock, and reached the summit of the Howse pass in an hour. This pass was made known to the traders of the North- west Fur Company about 1810 by a man of the name of Howse or Hawes, and was at one time much used by the Kootenai Jndians, who came over the mountains and bartered with the fur-traders at a place about three days’ journey down the Sas- katchewan, now known*from this circumstance as the Kootenai plain. This route is now impassable, as fire has run through the forests in the lower part of the Blaeberry valley, and the timber has fallen for many miles. The pass itself is about 18 miles from the Little Fork and 5,300 feet in altitude. At this point we were seven days’ journey from the railroad by either of two routes, the one by which we had come, or another, which, by going down the Blaeberry one day’s march and then over a pass to the southeast, would bring us to the Kicking Horse river, and so to Field, in British Columbia. The latter route seemed preferable, as it would be through a new region. The descent into the Blaeberry is one of the most trying ex- ploits that the mountains offer. We commenced to descend rapidly the channel of a brawling mountain torrent, crossing from side to side constantly, so that our horses were compelled to climb up and down steep banks, to scramble over immense logs, or sometimes to force a way down the boulder-strewn bed of the stream. As there was no trail, Peyto had to lead the way by whatever route appeared best, and in several places our horses had to slide on their haunches down steep banks forty or fifty feet high, jump into the torrent, cross it, and then ascend a similar bank on the other side at the greatest risk of accident and to the no little trial of our own nerves. A trail appeared after three hours of such labor, and we camped about ten miles down the valley. Itrained hard all night, turning to snow in the morning. On Saturday, October 22, we followed a branch stream which comes in from the southeast for a mile or so, and then ascended 2,600 feet without a trail through a heavy forest. The snow, which was hardly apparent in the Blaeberry valley, became eighteen inches deep near the tree-line. Snow also fell at fre- quent intervals throughout the day and shut out the landscape, so that our bearings were mostly by compass. Almost at night- 132 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN fall and in desperation we camped in the depths of a heavy forest on the mountain side. The snow was very deep and the tem- perature low, so that it was all the harder for our horses, which had to be turned loose in the timber with no chance to feed. The heavily laden spruce trees sent down avalanches of snow at every stroke of the ax, so it was very difficult to keep our camp-fire going, which was the more important as we had no water except by melting snow. On Sunday, October 23, the weather was still cold and threaten- ing. It was very hard work packing up, as all the ropes, canvas covers, tents, and blankets were frozen stiff and covered with granular ice. Our horses looked very thin after their recent hard marches and little or no feed. ‘They were hungry enough to bite off twigs and woody branches from the bushes which had a few buds on them. We did not get off till nearly noon, and then continued a traverse of the forested mountain side with a con- stant gradual descent in the hope of reaching a valley bottom that leads to the pass. We had no sooner started than a heavy snowstorm set in, shutting out everything from view. There was no trail, as the pass had never been used before this summer, In about two hours we reached a valley bottom that we supposed to be the right one, though Peyto, who had taken the only other party through that ever crossed this pass, did not recognize -it for some time. The deep snow and the constant ascent were very trying to our famished horses. One or two of us went ahead all the time and broke trail for them, but in spite of this some of our pack-animals lay down in the snow exhausted and groaned pitifully. Weat length reached the summit and camped half a mile beyond. Thesnow was 24 inches deep on the level, and in depressions of the ground it was between three and four feet. Here our horses got a little grass by pawing away the snow, a trick that they learn during the hard winters on the plains. We were now at the head of the North branch of the Kicking Horse river, and it was practically a constant descent to Field, where we arrived in three days, after having been out seventeen days. On this excursion every camp but the first was made on snow-covered ground, and there were only three days on which some snow did not fall. No small measure of our success was due to the splendid outfit of horses supplied by Mr T. E. Wil- son, of Banff, who gave me the pick of his pack-animals. Very much depends on the training and strength of the horses in a rough country, where countless obstacles have to be overcome, RIVER KICKING HORSE OF THE AND THE NORTH BRANCH BLAEBERRY THE N PASS BETWEE SCENE ON WINTER 134 SOURCES OF THE SASKATCHEWAN fallen trees passed over, swamps and rivers crossed, the close-set mazes of deep forests penetrated, and a pathway carefully selected over the treacherous holes of loose rock-slides. ‘To seize the exact hour or day, amid the changes of fickle weather, the veil- ing smoke of forest fires, and blinding snowstorms, that a par- ticular journey or mountain ascent may be accomplished rests in no small measure on the experience of the pack-horse, and it is a cause for little wonder that the traveler soon learns to take a certain pride in the faithful beasts which often do service at the sacrifice of their lives. Speaking generally of the headwaters of the Saskatchewan, the valleys are well wooded, the mountains very high for this part of the Rockies, and large areas are covered by snow-fields or gla- ciers. The general character of the scenery is remarkably grand and unfailing in variety of mountain forms, so long as the val- leys are the point of view. When viewed, however, from high suminits it is somewhat monotonous, due to the fact that thou- sands of mountains are visible in the grand panorama, all quite uniform in height, among which the higher peaks that are 11,000 or 12,000 feet above sea-level are apparently lost. All the larger streams come from glaciers, and consequently reach their highest stage during the hottest weather. Their waters are turbid with glacial mud, and they undergo a rise by day, when the sun melts the ice, and a fall at night, when freez- ing commences. The region of the Middle Fork, especially near Glacier lake and the base of Mt Forbes, is one of the grandest and most imposing, not only in the Rockies, but possibly in any mountain region of the world, even under gloomy skies and in the desolate garb of winter. In this region are some of the highest mountains between Montana and the Athabasca pass. The forests which clothe all the mountains up to a height of 7,000 feet above sea-level’ are chiefly of Engelmann’s spruce and balsam fir, with occasional areas of jack pine. The beautiful Lyall’s larch, characteristic of the mountains farther south, was never seen in these valleys. The summer season, which usually begins in June and lasts till September, is too short for extensive geographical work, so that much remains to be done in the way of exact measurement of mountains and glaciers. However, the very fact that travel among these mountains is still for the most part purely explora- tory adds not a little to the pleasure of visiting a region of such exceptional grandeur. EXPLORATION IN THE CANADIAN ROCKIES At a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, held at the University of London on February 13, Professor Norman Collie read a paper entitled “ Exploration in the Canadian Rockies: a Search for Mount Hooker and Mount Brown.” Professor Col- lie’s paper dealt with two journeys taken during 1897 and 1898 through that part of the Canadian Rockies which lies between the Kicking Horse pass on the south and the source of the Atha- basea river on the north. The most interesting problem con- nected with the first journey which presented itself to Professor Collie and his party was whether a lofty mountain—probably 14,000 to 15,000 feet high—seen from the slopes of Mount Fresh- field, from which it lay distant about 30 miles in a northwesterly direction, might be Mount Brown or Mount Hooker, which were supposed to be 16,000 feet and 15,000 feet respectively. Profes- sor Coleman, in 1893, starting from Morley, had arrived at the true Athabasca pass, found the historic Committee’s Punch-bowl, and his brother had climbed the highest peak on the north, pre- sumably Mount Brown. This peak he found to be only 9,000 feet. ‘The question presented itself,Could he have been mistaken or was it possible that there existed two Athabasca passes? Pro- fessor Collie and his companion returned to their camp on the Saskatchewan pass without having solved the question of either Mounts Brown and Hooker or the Committee’s Punch-bowl. It was finally settled on the return to England by reference to the journal of David Douglas, the naturalist, dealing with his jour- ney over the Athabasca pass. From the authentic account of the two mountains there given, it was seen that the credit of haying settled with accuracy the real height of the peaks be- longed to Professor Coleman. For nearly 70 years they had been masquerading in every map as the highest peaks in the Rocky mountains. No doubt now remained as to where Brown and Hooker and the Punch-bowl were. That Douglas climbed a peak 17,000 feet high in an afternoon (as narrated in his acs count) was impossible; the Mount Brown of Professor Coleman, 9,000 feet, was much more likely. There was only one Atha- basea pass, and on each side of its summit might be found a peak—Mount Brown, 9,000 feet, on the north—the higher of the 135 ‘ 136 HOW LONG A WHALE MAY CARRY A HARPOON two—and Mount Hooker on the south. Between them lay a small tarn, 20 feet in diameter—the Committee’s Punch-bowl. The peaks to the south, among which the party wandered last August, were therefore new, and they probably constituted the highest point of the Canadian Rocky Mountain system. HOW LONG A WHALE MAY CARRY A HARPOON In a lecture before the National Geographic Society on Feb- ruary 21, 1895, the Hon. George C. Perkins, U. S. Senator from California, mentioned the fact that a “togele” harpoon head which he exhibited, and afterward generously donated to the Society, had been obtained from a whale in Bering sea. The harpoon bears the following inscription : MonTooooo The first four letters are the mark of the American whaler Montezwma, which was engaged in whaling in Bering sea and the North Pacific about 1850-754. The five circles represent the number of the boat to which this particular iron was assigned. Taking the latest date (1854) as the date when the whale was struck, it appears that the whale must have carried it thirty-six years. The following abstract of Senator Perkins’ remarks gives some of the circumstances : ‘“The harpoon was perfect, as you see it, and in a splendid state of preservation, but the shank had been eaten away close up to the skin of the animal by the action of the salt water. A little rubbing revealed the name. ‘“‘During the war of the rebellion, in 1861, Charleston was blockaded by the federal fleet. The blockade-runners again and again successfully eluded the fleet and carried supplies to the beleaguered city. To stop this the federal government bought a number of old whalers that were lying in the harbor of New Bedford, patched them up and sent them to Charleston filled with stones, and sank them across the entrance to the harbor. The vessels have been known ever since as the ‘stone fleet,’ and the Montezuma was one of them. This was thirty years ago, and the Montezuma was built sixty years prior to that. She was at one timea British man-of-war, and was bought by New Bedford people and turned into a whaler. It will thus be seen that it is safe to say that the harpoon head found by the Beluga had been carried by the whale fully thirty-six years. Ever since whaling became an industry it has been the custom for each whaling firm to have the name of the vessel stamped on each harpoon. This is done in case two or more boats from different vessels should be surrounding one of the animals, in order to show which of the vessels has struck it, if the animal gets away and isafterward found dead.” HOW LONG A WHALE MAY CARRY A HARPOON 137 The following note from Captain Knowles, of the Pacific Steam Whaling Company, was attached to the harpoon when presented to Senator Perkins: ‘* Harpoon head found in a whale taken in Bering sea in August, 1890, by steam whaling bark Beluga, Captain R. D. Wicks, of the Pacific Steam Whaling Company’s fleet. This iron was from the whaling bark Monte- zuma, as you will see by the mark. The Montezuma was sunk in Charles- ton harbor during the war of the rebellion. She was in Bering sea some ten years previous to being sold to the government, so this iron must have been in the whale forty years. J. N. KNow tes.” I was discussing the matter recently with Capt. EK. P. Heren- deen, of the U. S. National Museum, and mentioning cases re- ported where whales struck in Greenland waters had got away and afterward been taken in Bering strait with the first iron in them, or vice versa, when Captain Herendeen observed : “In regard to the whale iron or harpoon found in a whale with the name of a ship on it which had never been in the Greenland fisheries and had always been employed in this in- dustry in the region of Bering strait, | can only say that while it is most likely that the whale does make the passage from the vicinity of Point Barrow to the waters around Greenland and Hudson bay, still I do not think the evidence of the irons con- clusive, for the following reasons: Ships were often changing ownership and being withdrawn from the service and their in- ventory of whaling implements sold and put on board other ships, and while it is true that the ship receiving such weapons would erase the marks of the former ship if put im use, there re- mains the possibility of such irons being given or traded to the Eskimo, and such a whale may have been struck by an Eskimo in the vicinity of its final capture with a second-hand iron from which the name had not been erased. “ We know that the ships of the Franklin search expedition approached very near each other to the east of Banks land, and we know the whale is able to make long journeys beneath the summer ice floes, for they easily see any places where the light shows through the ice, which denotes a possible breathing place. “| have often heard whales blowing among the ice when I could not see any sign of water anywhere.” These notes appear to have a certain interest on account of the stories current from time to time of whales supposed to have made the northwest or northeast passage, and also throw light on the possible age which may be attained by these animals. Wn. H. DAL. SHIPBUILDING IN THE UNITED KINGDOM IN 1808 Lloyd’s returns of shipbuilding show that, exclusive of warships, 761 vessels of 1,367,570 tons gross (viz., 744 steamers of 1,363,318 tons and 17 sailing vessels of 4,252 tons) were launched in the United Kingdom in 1898. The warships launched at both government and private yards amounted to 41 of 191,555 tons displacement. The total output of the United Kingdom for the year was, therefore, S02 vessels of 1,559,125 tons. The total output of the world during 1898 (exclusive of warships) ap- pears to have been about 1,893,000 tons (1,779,000 steam, 114,000 sail). Lloyd’s Register Wreck Returns show that the tonnage of all nationalities totally lost, broken up, ete., in the course of 12 months amounts to about 733,000 tons (328,000 steam, 405,000 sail). It will thus be seen that, while the sailing tonnage of the world has been reduced by about 290,000 tons during 1898, the steam tonnage has increased by about 1,450,000 tons. The net increase of the world’s mercantile tonnage is, therefore, 1,160,000 tons. The output of the yearin the United Kingdom has surpassed all earlier records. In some previous returns of this kind the figures for 1889 have been taken for comparative purposes as a rough approximation to the maximum productive capacity of the shipbuilding yards of the United Kingdom. The fact that the output of that year has now been exceeded by 158,000 tons as regards merchant vessels, and by upward of 150,000 tons as regards war vessels, indicates alike the remarkable character of the year’s work and the great resources of British shipbuilders. Comparing the present returns with those for the past two years it will be seen that the tonnage launched in 1896 and 1897 was less by 208,000 tons and 415,000 tons respectively than that launched in 1898. Concur- - rently with this increased output of mercantile tonnage during 1898 the 1897 figures for war vessels have been doubled, and those for 1896 have been exceeded by 28,000 tons. It is noteworthy, moreover, that the output of 1898 is, with inconsid- erable exceptions, entirely composed of steam tonnage. . . . Of the total output 1,057,775 steam tons and 3,867 sailing tons, or 1,061,642 tons in all (nearly 78 per cent), belong to ports in the United Kingdom. In this connection it may be noted that the losses, etc., of United Kingdom vessels during 12 months are shown by Lloyd’s Register Wreck Returns to average 276,000 tons (194,000 steam, 82,000 sail). Sales to foreign and colonial owners for the 12 months ended October, 1898, reached the large total of 583,000 tons (426,000 steam, 137,000 sail). On the other hand, purchases from foreign and colonial owners during the same period amounted to 104,000 tons (100,000 steam, 4,000 sail). The sailing ton- nage of the United Kingdom would thus appear to have decreased by about 211,000 tons, while the steam tonnage has increased by 538,000 tons. The net increase of United Kingdom tonnage during 1898 is there- fore aboat 327,000 tons. This figure exceeds the similar estimates for 1895, 138 P< > oo GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 139 1896, and 1897 by 198,000 tons, 110,000 tons, and 279,000 tons respectively. . Of the vessels launched in the United Kingdom 654 of 1,131,237 tons have been built under the society’s inspection: with a view to classifica- tion in Lloyd’s Register Book. As regards the movements of the shipbuilding industry during the course of 1898, Lloyd’s Register Returns show that, irrespective of war- ships, the total tonnage under construction in the United Kingdom on December 31, 1898, exceeded by about 387,000 tons, or over 38 per cent, that under construction 12 months previously. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE The Educational Series of Rock Specimens Collected and Distributed by the United States Geological Survey. By Joseph Silas Diller. Pp. 400, with 65 illustrations. Bulletin No. 150. U.S. Geological Survey, Charles D. Walcott, Director. Washington, 1898. 25 cents. A good many yearsago Major J. W. Powell, then Director of the Geolog- ical Survey, conceived the happy idea of distributing among the leading educational institutions of the country collections of specimens of typical rocks for use in the study of certain branches of geology. The collection, classification, and distribution of the material was an undertaking of no small magnitude, and it is only recently that it has been completed. Concurrently with such completion there has been published a treatise on the study of rocks, in which the educational specimens are minutely described—69 of them by Mr J. 8. Diller, who has been almost wholly responsible for their selection and arrangement, and 87 by other well- known geologists. While fulfilling in a way that leaves nothing to be desired its primary function as a handbook to the mineral collections, this work has an educational value that is entirely its own, as an attract- ively written and handsomely and instructively illustrated manual to the study of lithology and petrography. With a courage and good sense worthy of general emulation, Mr Diller, although dealing with an exceed- ingly technical subject, has not disdained to make himself intelligible to the non-scientific reader, some of his definitions even recalling Huxley’s famous Norwich lecture ‘‘ On a Piece of Chalk,’’ that marvelous example of lucid exposition which every scientific writer reaching out to a popular audience may with so much advantage make his model. Jee The Mechanical Composition of Wind Deposits. By Johan August Udden. Pp. 69. Rock Island, Illinois. 1898. A few years ago, Dr Johannes Walther, a distinguished German geog- rapher and traveler in many lands, visited this country, and became in- terested in the efficiency of our western winds in geographic develop- ment. He was especially impressed with the work of the winds in erosion; and, in a widely-quoted article in THe Nationa GrOGRAPHIC MaGazine, he described this agency appreciatively, designating it defla- tion. Now comes Professor Udden, of Augustana College. with a still more elaborate memoir dealing with the work of the wind as an agent of 140 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE transportation and deposition. His inquiry was suggested, and indeed started, by a question of the eolic origin of the loess of the Mississippi valley; afterward it extended to dunes and other deposits of drifted sand; still later he turned his attention to the air itself, devised inge- nious appliances for collecting atmospheric dust, and proceeded to ex- amine and sort the material with infinite patience. The various materials from dunes and lee-slopes and air were classified into groups or grades of eleven diameters, and the quantities (including, of course, the relative proportions of each) were carefully determined, and are represented graphically in the memoir. The determinations indicate that the wind is an assorting agent of great delicacy ; for the range in magnitude of particles in any particular deposit is slight and consistent. The general result of the study is to establish criteria for discriminating wind deposits and ascertaining the conditions under which they were laid down. The bearing of the inquiry on the origin of the much-discussed loess of the Mississippi valley is noted, though Professor Udden judiciously refrains from final expression; it may be hoped that his excellent work will stimulate corresponding investigation of the mechanical composition of glacier mud and river silt. Professor Udden’s memoir is bound to become a standard. Wie Jive Tweljth Annual Report of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Advance copy without appendices. Pp. 91. Washington, January 11, 1899. Tenth Annual Report on the Statistics of Railways in the United States for the year ending June 80, 1897. Prepared by the Statistician to the Com- mission. Advance copy without tables. Pp. 114 and map. The announcement of the practical failure of the interstate commerce law contained in the Eleventh Annual Report of the Commission was so distinct and unequivocal that it has been difficult to anticipate what would be added after another twelve months of legislative inaction. In the language of the present report, ‘‘to state that the law in its present condition cannot be enforced is only to repeat what has already been said,’’ and the commission, after a brief though emphatic characteriza- tion and a few pertinent illustrations of the situation as it was at the close of 1898, passes to the discussion of practicable remedies. Compar- ing the rather definite intimations in this connection with the significant omissions in that of last year, one feels warranted in describing the later emission as a record of the progress of the commission toward a fuller appreciation and fairer expression of the necessities of the railway situa- tion and of the fact that railway corporations and investors have rights to protect as well as duties to perform. It is not that the recommenda- tions of last year’s report were in themselves objectionable, or that they reappear substantially altered in form or substance; it is rather the change in the order in which they are presented and the transference of emphasis that is remarkable and significant. Last year there was a great deal in regard to the power to correct rates, the imperfections of the long and short haul clause, the lack of finality accorded the proceed- ings before the commission, but very little concerning the desirability and means of restraining competition, and that little expressed in exceed- GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 141 ingly indefinite and general terms. The following extracts from the: present report are expressed in terms neither indefinite nor unnecessarily general. ‘‘A railroad is essentially a monopoly. This is literally true as to all local points upon its line which are reached by it alone. It is only at competitive points—that is, at points where trattic can be carried by two or more lines—that the railroads become actual competitors. It results from this fact that, as a rule, competitive points gain at the expense of non-competitive points. . . . The natural result of railway compe- tition, it may be fairly said, is to create preferences between localities. e . oe “The same thing is true of preferences between individuals. : Considered a priori, therefore, we should expect that railway competition would produce preferences and discriminations between communities and between persons.» What might toa large extent be expected has actually occurred beyond all legitimate excuse. “One of theoutcomes of these railway abuses was the act to regulate com- merce. The purpose of that act was largely to do away with preferences and discriminations. It also aimed to keep alive competition between railways by prohibiting pooling arrangements. In other words, it en- deavored to eradicate the results and to perpetuate the cause. SU ae Toone familiar with actual conditions it seems practically out of the ques- tion to establish rates that are relatively just without conference and agreement; but when rates have once been established the act itself re- quires that they shall be observed until changes are announced in the manner provided. Certainly it ought not to be unlawful for carriers to confer and agree for the purpose of doing what the law enjoins. . . . The logical way to remove these evils would be to remove their cause. If unrestricted competition produces discrimination, one obvious way to prevent such discrimination is to restrict competition. . . . Weare inclined to think . . . that time has demonstrated the futility of attempting by criminai enactments to secure absence of discrimination in railway rates so long as independent ownership and unrestrained com- petition exists. Weare inclined to think that competition should be restricted; but if the railroads are allowed to agree for that purpose, such conditions should be imposed as will fully protect the public interest.’’ While the ideas of the commission have developed they have not vacillated. The conditions which must be imposed in the interest of the public are those that were advocated a year ago, though it is now easier to discover the broad and intelligent spirit of compromise which no one doubts will lead the commission, whenever amendatory legislation can be secured, and would have led it at any time in the past, to make every reasonable concession which will not endanger the rights of the public. The report contains the usual review of the year’s work in railway regulation and a brief historical sketch of traffic associations. It is rather curious that the attention of the commission does not ap- pear to have been directed to the very remarkable and unusually success- ful Chicago-Omaha pool, which antedated by four years the ‘‘ Saratoga conference,” and, unlike the latter, produced substantial results. It was an investigation of the operations of this pool that led the Railroad Com- mission of Iowa to declare that pools constitute ‘‘ the only agency that can compel the through traffic to bear, as it should, its proportion of the interest on the cost of maintaining and operating the roads.” One turns with relief from the report of the commission, with its dis- heartening record of legislative inefficiency and inertia, to the report of 142 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE its statistician. The formal excellence of the latter leaves nothing to be desired, and the most critical statistician might well prefer to expend whatever space can be given for review in praise rather than to call atten- tion to its few shortcomings. It is no fault of Professor Adams that this report affords so incomplete a presentation of the transportation busi- ness, that the accounts upon which it is based are by no means uni- form, that important agencies of railway transportation are excluded, that it appears eighteen months after the close of the year to which it relates, or that many of its averages are based upon such widely divergent facts as to be much less representative of actual conditions than is both practicable and desirable. These imperfections and inadequacies also are results of legislative inertia. Until the frequently repeated recommenda- tions of the statistician on these points receive the attention they merit, he will be powerless to secure better results in either of these particulars. The statement that less work was done during 1896-97 ‘‘ by both pas- senger and freight locomotives than during any previous year of which this office has record,” on page 24, is not supported by the summary to which it refers on page 23. The latter shows the work of passenger loco- motives to have been greater than during 1895, and that of freight locomo- tives greater than during 1894 or 1895. It is difficult to believe that Pro- fessor Adams would claim that any considerable value attaches to the figure alleged to represent capitalization of new mileage given on page 49, or to the average derived therefrom. The foot-note on the same page is also of questionable accuracy, as it very materially understates the probable effect of changes in capitalization due to reorganizations. Exception must be taken also to the statement on page 61 that there has been no reduction in railway passenger charges corresponding with that in freight rates. While verbally accurate, this is not unlikely to mislead those who are not students of transportation. The movement of an article of freight between any two points is part of acommercial trans- action that cannot be very materially varied. There are differences in safety and speed; but common carriers have always been insurers of the goods they move, while the acceleration of the speed of freight trains, even within the past fifty years, isa matter of more importance to the railways in enabling them to handle increased traffic than to ordinary shippers. The service of moving an individual by rail does, on the other hand, admit ef changes of great importance. Safety is a primary con- sideration which no insurance can eliminate, while time and general com- fort en route are elements of scarcely secondary importance. American travelers have demanded and obtained improved facilities, superior sig- naling apparatus and other safeguards, more comfortable cars and more rapid trains, rather than actual decreases in rates; but the purchasing power of their dollars, in connection with passenger transportation, has none the lessincreased. One can illustrate this by comparing the charges for such services with those for hotel accommodations during former and recent years. When in 1848 the novel luxury and unprecedented’splendor of the Astor House were greater marvels to the transient visitor to New York than is the Waldorf-Astoria to his least sophisticated successor, the rate per diem for meals and room at the former was but two dollars. The NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 143 railway rate at that time from New York to Boston was just what it is today, though it is undeniable that the inferiority of the railway accom- modations to those of the present time was much greater than that of the Astor House to the finest hotel of the present. At the same time the journey by rail from New York to Philadelphia required five hours and cost four dollars, while the rate is now $2.50 and the trip can be accom- plished in two hours. H. T. Newcome. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, SESSION 1898-’99 Special Meeting, December 9, 1898.—Acting-President McGee in the chair. The chairman announced the election to honorary membership of the President of the United States, and stated that the committee—consist- ing of the Acting-President, the Secretary, Col. H. F. Blount, Mr C. J. Bell, and Prof. Willis L. Moore—appointed to notify President McKinley of the action of the Society, called at the Executive Mansion on December 8 and tendered to the President the certificate of election, at the same time explaining to him that it was the design of the Society to signalize the beneficent changes of the year in the modification of the civil geog- raphy of the world, and that the action was to be understood as an in- dorsement by one of the leading scientific organizations of the country of the course of the President as a great national leader. The President, the chairman continued, accepted the election and expressed his high appreciation of it, especially as coming from the most conservative class of citizens. Characteristically disclaiming credit for the recent extension of enlightenment by means of changes in civil geography, he observed that the results flowed from the efforts of an entire people, among whom he was but a single individual; he added that the full extent of the changes could not be stated pending the completion of the Treaty of Paris remarking, however, that the last direct advices were favorable. He also explained that only the pressure of public business would prevent him from attending the ensuing meeting of the Society. The announce- ment of the election of the President was received with applause. Hon. Robert Adams, Jr., M. C., U. S. Minister to Brazil, 1889-90, gave a lecture on Brazil and its Revolution, illustrating his remarks by numer- ous colored lantern slides. Regular Meeting, December 16, 1898.—Acting-President MeGee in the chair. Col. F. F. Hilder gave an illustrated lecture on Fashoda and the Valley of the Nile. Special Meeting, December 23, 1898.—Acting-President McGee in the chair. Mr H. W. Turner, U. 8. Geological Survey, delivered an address on the Yosemite and the High Sierra, and discussed the origin of their topographical features. The lecture was illustrated by lantern slides. Special Meeting, January 6, 1899.—Acting-President McGee in the chair. Mr Willard D. Johnson, U. 8. Geological Survey, gave an illustrated lec- ture on Glaciers and their Work in High Mountains. 144 MAJOR JED HOTCHKISS Regular Meeting, January 18, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. The Rey. David Macrae, of Scotland, gave an illustrated lecture on the Na- tional Characteristics of the English, Scotch, and Irish. Special Meeting, January 20, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Mr Gifford Pinchot gave a lecture on the Protection and Administration of our Public Forests, illustrating his remarks by lantern slides showing the various forest reserves of the United States. Regular Meeting, January 27, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Mr Arthur P. Davis, U. S. Geological Survey, gave an illustrated lecture on the Hydrography of Nicaragua. Eections.—New members have been elected as follows: December 16, 1898.—Amos Reed Buck, Miss Virginia Butler, General James A. Dumont, R. H. Duncan, E. W. Gone Hon. J. L.Slayden, M C., Alonzo H. Stewart, Miss M. B. Warren. December 28, 1898.—Rey. Wilbur F. Crafts, Dr Basil H. Dutcher, Louis H. Perley, Prof. Frank J. Polley, Dr William L. Ralph, George T. Rob- erts, Miss Lewanna Wilkins. January 8, 1899.—Dr C. Evelyn Gilbert, Henry Cleveland Perkins, Miss Margaret P. Smith. January 18, 1899.—Albert H. Bumstead, Miss M. R. Hays, A. J. Henry, Gust. Moser, Mr Tam Ye. January 27, 1899.—E. Eckfeld, Mrs Emily J. Harris, Mrs W. Keiller, Miss Estell Reel, Henry E. Sawyer, Mrs Fanny Bullock Workman. MAJOR JED HOTCHKISS Major Hotchkiss died at his residence in Staunton, Virginia, on Jan- uary 17. He was prominent as a topographer and mining geologist, his researches being mainly devoted to the development of the resources of the Virginias, in which work he has borne a very prominent part. During the Civil war he served as topographer upon the staffs of Generals Robert E. Lee and ‘‘Stonewall’”’ Jackson, and prepared most of the maps w a which these officers conducted their campaigns. The maps of Virginia, between the time of the Civil war and the re- cent work of the United States Geological Survey in that state, were due almost entirely to Major Hotchkiss’ work. On the death of William B. Rogers, leaving much of his work as State Geologist of Virginia unpub- lished, Major Hotchkiss was selected by Mrs Rogers to prepare the results of her husband’s work for publication. Major Hotchkiss has been a member of the National Geographic Society from its organization and has contributed largely to the success of its lecture courses and excursions. Many members will recall the delightful trip to Shendon, Virginia, on which occasion Major Hotchkiss was the host, and entertained the Society with true Virginia hospitality. The Society owes much to him. Personally and socially he was one of the most genial and lovable of men. His health had been failing for some time when he was attacked by meningitis, resulting in his sudden death. eG NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Hast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. CALIFORNIA.. _ “4 OF course you expect to go there this spring. - Let me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads via the Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. ; Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including Mt. Hood and It. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, [It. St. Helens, Mt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections A made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound =} cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. CHAS. S. FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ss SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS ... BETWEEN... Washington, Memphis and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knox- ville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K.C. M. & B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day Coaches. Additional Trains for local travelers... ... . The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts a - . . » MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—‘ The Land of the Sky.”’ Write for Map Folders. A. S. THWEATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J.C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 E. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOKH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - — - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - " - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business - - - ($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since its organization, in 1848, t - + $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE EaaSTPAUL sant’ x MINNEAPOLIS CHICAGO or ST. LOUIS The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . ad The he Overlane Limited MM Mi My < es x “O's picron™ FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING “THE OVERLAND ROUTE.”’ Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars. Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’' E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND SY. PAUL RAILWAY :- RONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and poiuts in Iowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE este PCOSSOOSSOOOSOSSOOSOSSSS OOS + MAMMOTH DRY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT + @ er OF 7e @ © WOODWARD & LOTHROP @ BOOS SO OS OO OOOO 6 OOO OO OS OO OG O® Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are aoe on me The attention of those who anticipate purchasing ‘ BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in ny number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUx, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in atv and 10 ns 250. design: Three or more pieces n CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. SOoe peceou Be NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE =a, az ZA AA’ z= A A A ~~ a—-_>—_————~- | 2 ee See Shortest Line : St. Paul and Minneapolis ! = Rg GG GO el tn SN ZS SEIN aN EN EN ERIN Ra ER SERS TE fa a —S — {f and the Northwest ; CHICAGO © GREAT | mt. WESTERN | | RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to a Ni a i, GG, a = a IN a aN SN EN aN a aN So 9 er a ed F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. Ose DSS SS oS a ES TI a aes aa IES SER EES ERIS ERS RES RES EES ES aN ea “~~ ~~ ~~ a>—————- a = SAN —>—%-; AL ASS BAVA VA AVAVAVAVAV AV AVA VA VV VA VA VA VU NALA ALY AL AAA VALVULAR ALAN A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- THIS POINT IS OF STRUCTED. UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. aw Che Sith. . Premier Cyupewriters Superior on This Pcint as Well as on All Others. pil A ma y) 5 i i i ewriter Co. > ee The Smith Premier Typew - PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U. S. A. DEDDRARADEDRADRADRRRARADRAN DREEREADRDDRRRRRAARRRRERERRAAAARRRADE Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 519 Eleventh Street. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology in all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in its /wel/th year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, E’THNOL- OGY, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SocroLoGy, History, SOMATOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PHILOLOGY. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Subscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Illustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XII Begins with January, 1899. ApprEss: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 1899. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico............. ... $3.50 a year To other Subscribers in the Postal Union.......... Lieo dah he uae tt eet oie eRe 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two volumes are completed ; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. In addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., Mrinneapo.ris, Minn. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ee = NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MONOGRAPHS © On the PHysIcCAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - = - - - GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - ty. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - C. Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITS HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Single monographs, 20c. Complete set, bound in cloth, $2.50. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati o Chicago Ripans Tabules assist digestion. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY An International Quarterly Journal Conducted by L. A. BAUER and THOMAS FRENCH, Jr., With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians and Electricians. ITH the March, 1899, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism, Atmos- pheric Electricity, and allied subjects, such as Earth Currents, Auroras, etc., entered on its fourth volume. ‘The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. The geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism. It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Com- mander Davis, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Littlehales, McAdie, Rticker. Schmidt, Schuster, de Tillo, von Bezold, Mascart, and Abbe. Future numbers will contain contributions by Mascart, Rticker, Elster and Geitel, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Hayford, Littlehales, Schmidt, and others. Special features in future numbers will be full abstracts and reviews of recent publications prepared by competent reviewers and the series of fine half-tone portraits of eminent magneticians. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 256 pages. Domestic subscription price; Two dollars and fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Two dollars and seventy-five cents. Address: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, The University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ° 7% ’ Y ZY < Ue. oe DANS 1 $ NN EOPLE like to read about the great *% N 28 2 N and wonderful country of the # \ \ Southwest; of its quaint and curious A charming book covering these \ \ , 2 ee ee z : 8 facts is issued by the NS N: towns, its ancient civilizations, its %¥ \ \ Be PASSENGER DEPARTMENT N “natural marvels. They like to getac- ¥¢ OF THE \ ~~ > Ss S ; 3 ee : *? see . w \ curate information about California 4 Southern Pacific Railway, \ N are ae x d will be sent t tpaid) \ N and the Pacifi oast. % and wi e sent to any one, postpaid, NS \ cific Coast. This is because BS on receipt of TEN CENTS. \ \ most people want to some day see these ¥ . SS 7 . ONIMGS, Oe WMEMNSEWESS obo 5 6 6 5 © oS ee \ \ ae N \oateateateateateateateateateateatesteate Soe oeseesedioeceeteeceesoese. oeee Soeseeoess “e N NS \ N \ \ \ N SN \ \ SS OC % \ & So . SX “se “e N \ x & N \ * = \ \ 63 3 N \ * THE BOOK IS ENTITLED < \ ~\ $ 3 X N e WN \ ** R ~ \ < : “Through Storyland : x : ough Storylan : . \ OG “ \ \ oe OG SS N “ if t 4 Do WN \ s Oo OUNSEe Cas, += \ \ z * \ WN re ¢ NX \ “se eo \ SS ote oS SN 53 ; NS N QE OVO ROR NE 0eteetee. 0 Fo Fe o% a xn nnn tn etn natant eaten te oF ea % eo %e Fe Fe FO, .% .% % \ SW Mee egreg eee e terre regres eee eee rege eres ees re OM Oe PUPP OH OF PU OU HO OU OU PU PE OH OF OO OF SOU OF 0 00.9 N \S \ \ N ease sverze Sosgeate stesso oeteevesteslostesvestestosteereeteeroeteereereereereetestesteere ses, . N te N aN m3 NS N 4 \N \ oft ME < AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- \ N 63 WN X “se NV . ~ SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, \< S< You can get a copy by writing. to N N OO NSS NN S. F. B. MORSE ‘ With 1o0 Tee USTRRARIONSs nee \ \ General Passenger Agent, —*¢ Whey paper jusedi is) EINE AGEN N Southern Pacific, ae 3 \ \ & PAPER, and every typographical de- SN N New Orleans, 3, y N ~~ , hs ota ; SX N andsending 10 cts. to defray postage, Bs tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ NN °° : ‘ \ * four people saw on just such atripas ~\ . Mt * \ \ «you would like tommakes i.) 0. eme . o-¢ t3 N S, Mit, UAB BR EP MLE PE RE EE ys “by, We Mh LD ee Me My y Mi i My My YE Sy \N “send a he on Nationa | Grograriic “Macazine, ce i, ce ‘May, 1898, Spek ae aie Grocrarnic Macazine i containing ay A Pe oS mall fe > ee ot | ‘Jupp & DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, D. Magazine > f/ AN ILMUSTRATED MONTHLY 9 77 @ GRAP f VTS NO a | 4 on hs Salix: P, | | Editor: JOHN HYDE % Associate Editors A. W. GREELY “WJ McGEE | HENRY GANNETT -C, HART MERRIAM ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE CONTENTS ; PAGE EDWOOD FOREST OF THE PACIFIC COAST. ith map \and illustrations. HENRY GANNETT, 145 y ATIC ARIDITY IMPENDING ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE? ie , \ pce J. B. LEIBERG. 160 ~ AS fi ee ee ISOR O, C. MARSH. WJ McGBE, 181 BA OF THE PHILIPPINES. GEORGE DAVIDSON. 182 ~ RECENT ASCENT OF ITAMBE. 188i ae BLL NEA. . , 184 ke WASHINGTON PUBBISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ne f $55 For Sane av BRenrano’s: are, New York; 1015 Peynsyitvanta-Avenur, Wasninaron; Asm Avenur, CutcaGo; 37 AVENUE DE w’Opkita, Paris 2.50 a Year THE National Geographic Society PRESIDENT ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Vick-PRESIDENT W J McGEE Boarp oF MANAGERS 1896-1899 1897-1900 ° 1898-1901. CHARLES J. BELL MARCUS BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL WILLIAM H. DALL HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT DAVID T. DAY F. V. COVILLE ©. A.W. GREELY HERBERT G. OGDEN ' §. H. KAUFFMANN JOHN HYDE HS PRITCHE DE WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE ELIZA R. SCIDMORE W. B. POWELL F. H. NEWELL TREASURER HENRY GANNETT - RECORDING SECRETARY CORRESPONDING SECRETARY F. A. NEWELL ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE SECRETARY’S OFFICE Rooms 117-118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N. W., Washington TREASURER’S OFFICE U. S. Geological Survey, 1330 F St. N. W., Washington National Geographic TMagazine—Back Numbers The Society is prepared to purchase Vols. I, II, III, and LV; or Nogn2 and 4 of Vol. I, 2 and 4 of Vol. II, 1, 3, 5, and 6 of Vol. IV, and 6 of Vol. VII. Members or subscribers having these volumes or single numbers to dispose of are requested to communicate with the Secretary. | 3 NSS CDR SAGE T ONS: i BANGS MAP SHOWING THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF REDWOOD ON THE PACIFIC COAST Area covered by forest indicated in black REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIIIC COAST 147 ward through northern California, nearly to the bay of San Francisco. Indeed, a few scattering groves are found south of the bay, in Santa Cruz county and other localities, and there are evidences that not many centuries ago it extended over the Coast ranges as far south as Los Angeles; but in all this region it is now practically extinct. The densest forests are found in Hum- boldt county. In Del Norte county, on the north, the area is comparatively small and the forests somewhat less dense ; while in Mendocino county, on the south, where the redwood area is even greater than in Humboldt, the forests are not as dense, and in Sonoma county, still farther south, the timber becomes more scattering, thinning out into groves. Its habitat is a region of heavy rainfall, which comes in the winter, and of fogs which sweep in from the Pacific at all times of the year. It is a very moist, temperate region, both of which conditions appear to be essential to the growth of the species. On the north its range is probably limited by temperature, since the humidity is even greater in Oregon and Washington than in California. On the south it is probably limited by the diminishing amount of hu- oy r=) REDWOOD FOREST SCENE, ILLUSTRATING DENSITY OF GROWTH 148 REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST midity. The species seems to require for its development a rather nice adjustment of temperature and moisture conditions, which are not found elsewhere, and, as will be seen later, do not at present fully meet the needs of the species, even in its present habitat. This is probably the densest forest on earth, as measured by the amount of merchantable timber—that is, of timber suitable for the saw-mill—contained per acre. It is not the size of the trees alone which produces this, although they are exceptionally large, even in this state of large things, but it is the great num- ber of trees on each acre, the closeness of their stand. In a red- wood forest the sun never shines—it is always twilight. You are, as it were, under the roof of a vast temple, a roof of foliage, supported by great tree columns. In order to obtain a conception of the enormous stand of timber in the redwood strip, let me commence with some fa- miliar examples for comparison. The great pineries of the southern states contain, on an ayer- age, about 5,000 feet, board measure, of standing timber per acre. Of white pine the heaviest county in Minnesota is esti- mated to contain an average of 5,000 feet, while others, regarded as forested, contain 1,000 to 2,000 feet; and a tract containing 10,000 feet per acre is regarded as heavily forested. Contrast these figures with the following: The average stand of redwood upon 173,000 acres in Mendocino county is 44,000 feet per acre. There is here nearly nine times as much timber on an acre as in the southern pineries; yet even this is exceeded in Humboldt county. Upon 96,443 acres in this county the average stand is 84,000 feet per acre, nearly seventeen times as great as in the southern states. The Jumber companies around Eureka, Cali- fornia, the principal center of the redwood industry, have real- ized, since they commenced operations, an average of between 75,000 and 100,000 feet per acre, and one of these companies has for ten years cut an average of 84,000 feet per acre of red- wood alone, besides fir and spruce, which would increase the amount to nearly 100,00) feet. These last figures are not in any way estimates, but the actual products of the mills. The dis- proportion is even greater than appears here, for the standard for lumber used in the redwood country is much higher than in the east, and consequently the estimates of the amount of timber are correspondingly less. For instance, whereas in the east logs REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 149 eight inches in diameter are cut and sent to the mill, and knotty - stuff is sawed, on the Pacific coast nothing less than 16 inches in diameter is sawed, and clear lumber only. If the redwood were used as economically as the southern pine, these estimates of its stand might easily be 50 per cent greater. The forests of Washington and Oregon are very heavy, but they by no means equal the redwoods in density. The most heavily forested county in Washington, Skagit, contains an average on its forest land of but, 28,000 feet per acre, and in Oregon the stand is no greater. Of course, there are in these states individual acres, and even square miles, which are vastly more heavily forested; but so, also, are there in the redwood strip. On Mad river, near Kureka, a lumber company is at work in a tract of several square miles which actually cuts 150,000 feet per acre. Thereis onrecord asingle acre, near Garberville, which yielded in the mill 1,431,530 feet in lumber. There was sufficient lum- ber on this acre to have covered it with a solid block of frame dwellings ten stories high. A redwood tree of average size, say five feetin diameter at the butt, furnishes enough lumber to build an ordinary cottage, and many trees have been cut each of which would suffice for half a dozen such houses. One tree is on rec- ord as having scaled 66,500 feet. A tree was felled in a lumber camp near Eureka in 1898 which was 16 feet in diameter inside the bark, and which scaled over 100,000 feet, and there is stand- ing 1n the same neighborhood a tree 22 feet in diameter which scales nearly twice as much. Such examples of wonderful yield night be multiplied to any extent, but this would merely in- volve repetition. The redwood strip is composed of the westernmost of the Coast ranges, with the valleys between them. It is narrow at the north, in Del Norte county, where it is not over five to six miles in breadth. It widens in Humboldt county to an average of 10 to 12 miles; then south of Eel river, in the southern part of the county, its continuity is broken for a few miles. At the north edge of Mendocino county it commences again, and in the cen- tral part of that county attains it greatest breadth, of perhaps 2) miles. Farther south, especially in Sonoma county, the red- woods scatter, being found in detached clumps and groves, which become more and more scattering southward. The trees, how- ever, remain as large as elsewhere. The closest and finest growth is in Humboldt county, near the northernend. ‘That portion in Mendocino and Sonoma counties AS SPROULED REDWOOD ON CUL ARE REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 151 is not as heavy or continuous, nor are the trees as valuable for . lumber, as they branch lower down. ‘The wood is, however, of slower growth, is denser and harder, and perhaps more durable. The best lumber and the heaviest growth is everywhere in the valleys and on the flats. On the hillsides the trees are smaller and not so close. Nowhere is there any young growth. The youngest trees, which are found only in the northern portion of the belt, are several hundred years of age. When the timber has been cut there is no sign of reproduction from seed. In many localities sprouts are growing from stumps in the cut areas, but even this form of reproduction is limited. Indeed, everything appears to indicate that for some reason, probably a progressive drying of the climate, the present environ- ment is not favorable to the growth of redwood, and that with the clearing away of the present forests the end of the species as a source of lumber will be at hand. The area of the redwood belt has been carefully mapped, and is, as nearly as can be estimated, 2,000 square miles, or 1,280,000 acres. The stand of timber on this area is not so easy to ascer- tain. The figures given above in this article are the best that have been obtained. I will recapitulate them with additions. In Del Norte county, out of 67,000 acres of redwood land. 11,000 acres are estimated to contain an average stand of 60,000 feet. In Humboldt county, out of an area of 500,000 acres, 96,448 acres have an average stand of 84,000 feet, with a range in different tracts from 25,000 to 200,000 feet. ‘These figures are corrobo- rated by the result of all the cutting done in the neighborhood of Eureka, where nearly all the lumbering of the county is done: The companies report an average yield of between 75,000 and 100,000 feet per acre. In Mendocino county, out of a redwood area of 640,000 acres, 175,000 acres are reported to contain an average of 44,000 feet, with a range from 12,000 to 75,000 feet. In Sonoma county the timber is so scattering that the total amount, which is spread over an area of some 75,000 acres, is comparatively slight. Using the above figures, we obtain as the amount of standing redwood the following: Feet IWelINonte rCOUD tye o)an.nc Meco ee armel 4,000,000,000 slivvanll oxo) elit, Colom, sidcobanusodaon Mes Ses omllacees 42,000,000,000 NIETTUOEITONCOUNLY Maat ee acisse cee .... 28,160,000,000 SOMONE) (ODUM NY, SEiZc ocean Labadbleoeba cod enc 1,000,000,000 75, 160,000,000 152 REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST To appreciate the magnitude of these figures, it may be said that the annual cut of lumber in all the mills of the United States is about one-third of this amount. The redwood strip alone would therefore supply the entire country with mill timber for three years. Many estimates of the amount of standing redwood have been made, with results widely at variance with one another. The area of the belt has long been pretty well known, and the dis- crepancies among the estimates seem to be due mainly to differ- ences in the estimated stand peracre. The first estimate that I find was made in 1881 by John Dolbeer, of Eureka, who gave 23,650 million feet. At about the same time Mr E. Ll Allen, secretary of the Redwood Manufacturers’ Association of San Francisco, made the estimate published in the report of the tenth census, which was 25,825 millions. In 1885 Mr Hubert Vischer published, in the report of the California State Board of Forestry, an estimate of 50,500 millions, and in 1890 Capt. A. C. Tibbetts, secretary of the Humboldt Lumber Manufacturers’ Association of Eureka, estimated it at 97,500 million feet. The area seems to be generally agreed upon as being from 1,000,000 to 1,280,000 acres. The measurements from the best map available, that of the State Board of Forestry, give the latter figures. It is out of the question that the redwood lands yield, on an average, so little as 20,000 to 50,000 feet per acre. All estimates of stand and all records of cut show yields far in excess of these figures; and it cannot be contended successfully that these estimates and records relate only to selected areas far above the average. There is,as yet, very little selection of timber lands taking place. The whole territory is so heavily forested that it is no advantage to select those most thickly clothed with. timber, but rather a disadvantage. The only selection yet made has been on the score of accessibility by stream in earlier times and by rail route at present. I consider, therefore, that the fig- ures quoted above, which represent 280,000 acres out of 1,280,000, or nearly one-fourth of the entire area, together with the records of the entire amount cut in Humboldt county, furnish a fair sample of the stand in the belt. Captain Tibbetts’ estimate seems to me, under present logging conditions, much too high, but I have no reasonable doubt that his amount will eventually be cut from the belt, owing to the economies to be effected in the future. The annual cut by the mills, excluding other uses to which the wood is put, such as firewood, shingles, ties, posts, and poles— SCENE TYPICAL REDWOOD FOREST 154 REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST for such uses are not considered in the estimate of the stand—is 250,000,000 feet. At the present rate of cutting, therefore, the supply will probably last for three hundred vears. The rate of cutting will, however, increase and, as transporta- tion is cheapened, may increase many hundred per cent. For instance, the completion of an isthmian canal will open up the entire market of the eastern states, where redwood will inevita- bly replace white pine. causing an immense demand. On the other hand, with the increased demand will come increased economy in the utilization of the wood. At present only about one-third of the tree emerges from the mill as sawn lumber. Nothing but clear lumber is sawed. One may go through miles of lumber yards at Eureka and examine millions of feet of lum- ber without finding a knot or, indeed, an imperfection of any kind. The upper branched third of the tree is left in the woods. In felling the tree there is much damage done. Although great careand skill are exercised, the fall of one of these giants, weigh- ing scores of tons, not infrequently splinters them; occasionally, too, a tree falls across its fallen fellows and thus produces great destruction. In the mill the amount of lumber is diminished, first, by the slabs cut from the outside of the log, and, second, by the saw- dust. This last is an item of great importance, especially where circular saws are used. ‘lhe great saws used in the first cutting of the logs makea cut five-eighths of an inch in thickness. This means that if the log were cut directly into inch boards, more than one-third of the wood would be converted into sawdust ; but this is not often done. The log is commonly first cut into thick planks and beams, and these are subsequently cut into smaller dimensions by smaller, thinnersaws. Moreover, in most of the great mills today the first cutting is done by band saws, which are much thinner, and consequently convert less of the log into sawdust. There is one cause of destruction from which this tree is en- tirely exempt—that is, fire. Containing no pitch, but, on the other hand, a large amount of water, it will not burn when green. No fire can run in a redwood forest. We shall, beyond reason- able question, have the use of our supply of redwood ; shall not have the pain of seeing it go up insmoke. It is the only one of our coniferous lumber trees which is thus exempt. The redwood is entirely in private hands, having long ago passed from government ownership. It is mainly held in small REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST 155 tracts by a great number of persons, but a few of the lumber - companies have large holdings. Classifying the 280,000 acres above spoken of by holdings, it appears that— Of a quarter section, 160 acres or less, there were... 6 holdings From } section to a section (640 acres) ........... 7 if From 1 section to 4 sections................. 8 ae From 4 sections to 18 sections.......... .......... 11 i From 18 sections to a township............-. 7 ay OVEIsa COW ANSI Dane oso tes mieheneledaraacysaereea a eieustecebtcons 3 a4 The last were tracts of 30,000, 80,000, and 27,000 acres. The above are the holdings of lumber and mill companies. Whether this classification properly represents the character of the hold- ings of the entire belt is doubtful. It is probable that the hold- ings of those not owners of mills or logging camps are smaller. The forest is nearly pure redwood. Occasionally spruce and Oregon pine—that is, red fir—are found, forming perhaps 10 per cent of the forest only. The southern part of the strip is, on the whole, composed of older trees than the northern part, and the wood is denser and of less rapid growth. In the north are some tracts covered with trees not more than 200 or 300 years old, while the age of the mature trees reaches several hundred, perhaps a thousand years. The annual rings show that in the north, especially in damp valleys, the growth is several times as rapid as in the southern part of the strip. The methods used in logging are, in the main, similar to those employed in the great fir forests of Washington, but with slight modifications to fit different conditions. The use of animals, such as oxen and mules, for dragging the logs from the woods is over; so are the days for driving logs in streams. More modern methods are universally employed. Indeed, the most modern methods of labor saving are here in use. In every re- spect a redwood logging camp and a redwood lumber mill are thoroughly up to date—nay, more, they are the pioneers in labor- saving devices. The trees are felled in this wise: They are chopped half-way through on the side on which they are to fall, and then the other half is cut with the saw. Two days’ work of two men is required to fell a tree five feet in diameter. The felling must be done with the utmost accuracy, as the trees stand so thickly that when felled they cover the ground completely, and yet they must not be allowed to fall on one another, as that would involve great loss by breakage. 156 REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST The felling is done in the winter, the season of rains, when the ground is soft, and the trees are left lying on the ground until late spring, when things have become drier, when the whole thing is set on fire. This fire burns the brush and branches and much of the bark, but does not injure the trees themselves, which are still too wet to burn. Then the work of cutting up the trees and getting the logs out begins. ‘The trees are sawed by hand, with whipsaws, into logs, generally 16 feet in length, although greater lengths are not infrequently cut for special needs. The big logs are split into halves and quarters for convenience in handling and sawing. From the end of the railroad, for railroads have taken the place of streams in the transportation of logs, a road is built to the logged area. This may be merely a dirt road, of hard, compact clay, kept wet and muddy by liberal applica- tions of water, packed in bags on horses, or it may be askid road, paved with small logs, laid crosswise at short intervals, and like- wise kept slippery. A force of 50 to 75 men is employed, and two donkey engines. ‘The latter do all the work, taking the place of oxen and mules, and to a great extent of men, in the labor of moving logs about in the woods and dragging them down to the railroad. The donkey enzine in the woods is anchored by wire cables to stumps, at a strategic point, so that in subsequent operations it will move the loz and not itself. Then a wire cable, attached to a drum on the engine, is carried through pulleys to the log to be moved, and is attached by hooks, so that by winding up the cable on the drum the log is moved to the desired position- Often much ingenuity is required for the proper placing of pul- leys in order to produce the desired result, but in all cases the machine, directed by experienced heads, does its work quickly and effectively. It is extremely interesting to watch the varied operations of a donkey engine in handling the logs and clearing away the waste lumber and not the least interesting part of it is the quickness and clear comprehension of the men. There is no fuss or noise; everything in the varied operations goes on quietly and smoothly. If the foreman gives instructions they are general ones, and in detail each man knows his part, recog- nizes what he has to do, and when to do it. Soon a train of logs, 10 to 12 in number, is on the road chained together tandem ; then the cable-donkey is called upon. This is a stationary en- gine, located at the end of the railroad. From its drum goes a wire cable along the road up to the slashings, just like the cable CABLE HAULING LOGS BY 158 REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC COAST of a street-car line, except that the cable is on the surface in- stead of below it. This cable is fastened to the leading log of the train, the engine is started, and the train moves railroad- ward. Just in advance of the train walks a man with a bucket with which he dips water from tubs along the road and wets the track. Arrived at the end of the railroad, a third engine is put to use in loading the logs on the railroad trucks by the use of wire cables. Here the logs are scaled and measurements re- A TRAIN LOAD OF LOGS eorded. When the train is loaded it is hauled down to the mill and the logs dumped into the water, there to lie until their turn comes for conversion into lumber. x The work in the woods is hard. Although every device is used to reduce manual labor, there remains sufficient to make this one of the most wearing of physical occupations, and it is said that few men can stand the strain for any great period. The work is also extremely dirty, owing to the burning, so that the men look like stokers. Naturally, this work commands high pay. and with high pay a superior class of men, both physically and mentally, are obtained. I took dinner one day in a camp REDWOOD FORESTS OF THE PACIFIC (COAST 159 with about 75 men, all splendid specimens of manhood and all black as negroes—faces, hands, and clothing—from the charcoal in which they work, but well read, intelligent, and interested in the doings of the outside world. The mills of the redwood strip are as progressive and up to date as are the logging operations. The logs and the lumber are moved and handled everywhere by machinery in the most complete and ingenious manner. They are drawn from the pond up into the mills and are rolled on to the carriage and moved into place for the saw by ingenious devices operated by steam. The logs are sawed by band saws—a continuous band of steel, with teeth cut on one edge, running over drums above and below. This is preferable to the circular saw for two rea- sons: it can saw a log of almost any size, which the buzz saw or any combination of buzz saws cannot do; and, second, since it can be made much thinner than the buzz saw, there is less waste of wood in sawdust. In some mills the band saws have teeth cut on each edge, so that a cut may be made both as the log moves forward and backward. The boards, beams, joists, plank, etc., as they come from the band saw, are distributed by rollers, steam-worked, to the proper parts of the mill for future cutting, while the slabs and other waste are similarly carried off to waste- heaps. The lumber, as it comes from the band saw, is edged, cut to smaller dimensions, ete., by small circular saws, in some cases harnessed in ganes, so that several cuts are made at once. To watch the wheels go round in one of these big mills is a most entrancing occupation. Redwood is in almost universal use on the California coast. In the construction of houses little other timber is used, even as far south as Los Angeles and San Diego. It is exported as far south as Valparaiso, Chili, and westward to Japan and Australia. Indeed, considering its cheapness, $14 per thousand feet in Kureka for the best, it seems strange that it has not found its way in quantity to the Atlantic coast. Certain it is that before many years redwood will supplant the now vanishing white pine in eastern markets, IS CLIMATIC ARIDITY IMPENDING ON THE PACIFIC SEORE thE: HESMIMON OR nim @ hess: By J. B. LErBEre The extension of explorations and observations in the region of country west of the Rocky mountains tends in many ways to develop and confirm the proposition that a steadily progress- ive aridity is slowly replacing former more humid climatic con- ditions. This changeis manifest in various ways—most conspic- uously in the decreasing volume of water in many of the lakes and streams throughout the region, as shown by the existence of former beach lines at higher levels, and in the profound dis- turbances and modifications taking place in the native flora. The phenomena which follow the advance of aridity are not limited by altitude; for, while the desert conditions at low ele- vations exhibit them in their most intense aspect, they are also clearly traceable to the highest summits, where gradually dwin- dling glaciers and abnormally high extensions of certain lowland types of forest show the general trend of the climatic change. In the general exhibition of increasing aridity there are to be noted two important distinctions. One is dependent upon cli- matic effects, the other upon the relief of a region as affecting the drainage, and is termed soil aridity. Excellent examples of the latter occur on the plains of the Columbia, where the great coulées or sunken water channels, which traverse the plains in all directions, are separated by comparatively narrow blocks of plateau-like country. The drainage from these elevated tracts isextremely rapid. Asa consequence, their summits and slopes are left without sufficient soil moisture during the growing season to maintain a forest stand, although the annual precipitation is high enough to make tree growth possible, were the drainage conditions different. Similar examples occur in the forested subhumid and humid regions, where any large area on which temperature and precipitation are practically the same through- out often shows a growth of species belonging to the drier areas in the midst of the humid groups of trees, merely because the angle of slope in some localities favors a more rapid drainage than upon the contiguous areas. Similar effects are sometimes 160 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 161 produced by excessive porosity of soil. Loose sand and gravel or voleanic ashes are poor conservators of moisture, and part with it readily, both through evaporation and percolation. Soils of these sorts are not common, however, in these regions, where, as a rule, moisture-retentive qualities are the predominant char- acteristics. In the following discussion the question of soil aridity is eliminated and the effects of climatic aridity alone are considered. The variations of plant life which accompany the encroach- ments of aridity are diverse and often very complex. Innumer- able general modifications and adaptations occur, mostly tend- ing toward a more or less successful resistance to the stress imposed by drier climatic conditions. Local peculiarities, de- pending on adjacent heights or depressions, specialize—that is to say, they lessen or increase the general degree of aridity prev- alent over any large area, thereby favoring minute adaptations or gradual transitions to more extensive and pronounced modi- fications. In the region west of the Rocky mountains, the forest as a unit is the type of vegetation which, aside from the purely aquatic element of the flora, suffers a more profound disturbance of its equilibrium and is more quickly and thoroughly driven out by the advancing aridity than any other. In the herbaceous and to a lesser extent in the suffrutescent flora there is a gradual evolution of new forms, or of entire groups of certain types, to meet the changing environments. It is doubtless true that many herbaceous and shrubby species have gone under in this strug- gle within recent geologic times, while others are so rare and scattered as to warrant the assumption that they, too, are rap- idly approaching extinction; but, on the other hand, there are many groups possessing the power of adaptation in a high de- gree, and through the slow development of modifications or by evolution of what we term species, they are enabled for a time to withstand successfully very adverse conditions. It is different with the forest growth in this region. Over- whelmingly composed of cone-bearing trees, representing com- paratively few species, it has an extremely narrow margin for the evolution of new forms or species. The fact stands out clear and distinct that most of the types and species of the order of coniferze west of the Rocky mountains possess the power of adap- tation only in a very limited degree. Their outlying forms are few and only vaguely definable. It is true that we can recog- 12 162 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE nize differences such as that of texture and color of wood, varia- tions in bark characteristics, or in the general port of the various individuals of a species upon any given area, but the differences are not such as to indicate that they constitute a definite and sharply determined trend in adaptability. They rather convey the impression that they are a series of expiring gasps of a type of vegetation which reached its culminating point of develop- ment immensely far back in time, and is now on the road toward complete extinction. The forest areas in this region which have been more closely examined than any other in relation to the effects of increasing aridity are the tracts adjacent to and encircling the Columbia watershed in Idaho, eastern Oregon, and eastern Washington. We shall first examine the tracts lying within these limits, thence passing to others elsewhere, not so well known. When the coniferous flora of the region is investigated it is found that certain species have a far higher ratio of endurance to conditions of aridity than have others. This might be taken to indicate a certain degree of adaptability, but the strongly marked characters which separate the species were acquired ages ago, and, with the exception of one or two species, do not in our region in the present age show any marked evolutionary tendencies. : The minor effects of the encroachment of aridity upon the forested areas are many, but comparatively unimportant. The greater effects are contained in one general phase, which strikes at the very foundation of the species’ existence. It con- sists in a gradual loss of reproductive power in the individual trees, and hence in the species as a unit, and is marked by two periods. In the first we have a gradual crowding back to more humid tracts of such species as require a considerable devree of soil and atmospheric moisture for their growth. They are re- placed by others capable of enduring subhumid or distinctly semi-arid environments. In the second period we havea gradual crowding out or a complete extinction of the species of replace- ment, hastened or caused in the latter, as in the former, case by a loss of reproductive vigor, and a final complete deforestation of the particular area and the creation of a treeless region. There are three general types of climatic conditions to which the term arid will apply. They are semi-arid, arid, and desert. As here employed, the semi-arid are regions not necessarily de- forested, but which support a tree growth of peculiar species in THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 163 other localities than in proximity to streams and lakes; -the arid are regions completely deforested, away from streams and jakes, natural or artificial, but which bear an often rich and varied flora of herbaceous and suffrutescent vegetation ; the desert are tracts without vegetation. ‘The two former are abundantly represented in this region by very large areas, as we shall see. The third, or the desert, does not exist here. It is common to speak of “ the desert regions of eastern Oregon,” for example, but the fact is that in no place has aridity reached its third and last stage. When herbaceous vegetation is absent, as on certain alkali flats east of Steins mountains, or on drifting sand-dunes along the Columbia and on the plains of eastern Washington and north- eastern Oregon, it is due to local soil conditions, not to absence of sufficient precipitation. To facilitate a more detailed examination of the various forest conditions, as modified by increasing aridity, the region under consideration will be divided into certain classes or zones. These zonal distinctions have reference solely to the amount of pre- cipitation which each class receives without regard to altitudinal limitations, and will be designated arid, semi-arid, subhumid; and humid areas. THE REGIONS OF ARIDITY The regions of greatest aridity north of the 42d parallel of lati- tude between the Rocky mountains and the Cascades are found : in Idaho, on the Snake River plains; in eastern Oregon, on the plateau areas between the Snake and the Owyhee rivers on the one hand and the Steins mountains on the other; in the region bounded by Crooked river and Malheur lakes and river on the north, Steins mountains on the east and the northern boundary of Nevada on the south, and in the Deschutes depression be- tween the Blue mountains and the Cascades; in eastern Wash- ington, north of the Snake and east and south of the Columbia river. The aridity which prevails upon these areas is of various de- grees of intensity, depending more or less upon local conditions and the proximity or distance of humid, snowy mountain ranges. In eastern Washington the driest section is situated at the east- ern base of the Cascades, and extends eastward some 60 or 70 miles, gradually merging into uniform semi-arid and subhumid conditions as the moisture-condensing Bitter Root ranges are approached. In eastern Oregon the most arid tracts are found 164 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE to the west of the Owyhee, extending in a westerly and north- erly direction 100 to 120 miles. In eastern Washington the Cas- cade range evidently contributes largely to the aridity which exists on its east slope, and is therefore a local factor; but in eastern Oregon the most arid tracts le at a distance of 200 miles or more east from the Cascades, and owe their origin to the interception of the moisture-laden westerly and southwest- erly winds by the Sierra Nevada, and in a lesser degree by other intermediate ranges. Irrespective of local conditions, however, it can be stated as a general proposition, borne out by observed facts, that the crest of the advancing wave of aridity in the in- termontane region of southern Idaho, eastern Oregon, and east- ern Washington is traveling from the southeast toward the north and northwest. The tracts termed arid bear-no forests. It is true that narrow fringes of trees skirt many of the rivers or creeks which meander through these areas, but the growth is made pos- sible only by the humid or subhumid soil conditions due to proximity of streams, and cease at short distances from their banks. Looking backward in time, there are abundant proofs that many of the now treeless tracts once bore a forest covering. Silicified wood is found in thousands of localities in the region where no tree growth is now possible, owing to insufficient pre- cipitation, and its occurrence on the surface of these plains, not as transported material, but in place, argues in favor of the hy- pothesis that the extinction of this forest growth does not date back so very many centuries. The fossil wood, where it occurs on the treeless areas, is found resting directly on the volcanic rocks, indicating that sufficient time has not passed since the forest grew there to change the surface in any perceptible de- gree. The fossil woods referred to consist of remains of oak and probably of pines and junipers, and if not wholly identical with species that now exist in the adjacent regions are very closely related. Thereare also many localities on these arid tracts where are found fossil plants of Tertiary age imbedded in rock, deeply covered with basalt, but they belong to a period when specific- ally distinct climatic conditions, as compared with those of our age, prevailed in the region, and are not here considered. The areas classed as arid exist in many localities in this intermon- tane region. The most extensive have already been noticed ; but, favored by local conditions, many small lobes from the main body of aridity stretch out on all sides. That they should penetrate THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 165 into the areas we term semi-arid is to be expected, as they are: but a step removed, but it is rather surprising to find them in the midst of subhumid conditions; yet such is exactly the case. Along the eastern base of the Cascades many of the south and east-facing slopes are distinctly arid, though surrounded by and adjoining decidedly subhumid regions. Similar conditions are encountered on the east, south, and west slopes of the Powder River mountains, on the plateau areas between the Clearwater and the Salmon rivers, in Idaho, and even in scattered localities north of the Snake, among the terminations of the western spurs of the Bitter Roots. Crossing the Bitter Roots and entering the basins and plateaus on the west slope of the main range of the Rocky mountains, we once more meet these extensions of arid con- ditions projecting into the subhumid regions. They are very well marked in the region of the Blackfoot basins, where they cross the main range and connect with the arid upper Missouri plains through the comparatively low passes at the head of the Blackfoot tributaries; thence stretching westward, they cover large areas of the Clark fork of the Columbia basin, and follow- ing the valley of this stream approach to within 60 or 70 miles of the eastern Washington plains. In the Clark fork watershed these arid extensions are usually bordered by a margin of semi- aridity—their penumbra, as it were—but in many places they join and exist in the midst of the subhumid timbered tracts without any semi-arid transitions. The causes which operate _to bring about these apparently erratic and sporadic advances of arid conditions are not very clear. Where they occur in prox- imity to the general body of aridity their presence is easily ex- plained, but we find such tracts covered with herbaceous and shrubby vegetation peculiar to very arid regions in the midst of a forest of yellow pine, or even higher, where the elevation borders on the subalpine. These isolated spots might be com- pared to sparks wafted far inadvance of a coming conflagration, each one constituting a nucleus for the further spread of its own peculiar conditions. The altitude of the arid tracts varies considerably. At the junction of Snake and Columbia rivers it amounts to less than 150 feet above sea-level. On the southeastern Oregon plateau it rises to fully 6,000 feet on the slopes of various ranges, such as Steins mountains, the ranges to the east of Warner lake, and on unnamed heights between the Paulinas and Malheur lake. Farther north we find the arid tracts at elevations varying from 166 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 600 feet to 3,000 feet on the eastern Washington plains and from 4,000 feet to 5,000 feet in the regions between the Bitter Roots and the main crest of the Rocky mountains. THE REGIONS OF SEMI-ARIDITY From the arid regions we enter those termed semi-arid. We meet here a forest growth. It is one which throughout these regions is strictly typical of semi-arid environments. As it comes most closely in contact with the highest degree of aridity and has to bear the full force of the ultimate and permanent defor- esting processes, its condition and aspect become doubly inter- esting. This forest growth is wholly composed of junipers belonging to the following species : Juniperus monosperma, One-seeded juniper. Juniperus occidentalis, Western juniper. Juniperus scopulorum, Mountain juniper. They occur in the various semi-arid districts as follows: West- ern juniper, in eastern Oregon and probably on the Snake River plains; mountain juniper, on the areas between the Rocky and Bitter Root mountains, thence extending into the eastern Wash- ington plains; one-seeded juniper, on the Snake River plains and along the hills bordering this river valley nearly to its con- fluence with the Clearwater. The western juniper is the most abundant of these species and forms true forests. It occurs as close and absolutely pure stands in many localities. The most extensive are found in Crook and Wasco counties, in Oregon, where it covers areas of over 100 square miles, with a stand twice as heavy as the ordinary stand of yellow pine in Oregon and Washington. Outside of these large tracts the species occurs in small groves or aggregates, or as scat- tered individuals, throughout most of the plains region of east- ern Oregon. These juniper forests exhibit clearly the second period of the general phase of progressive extinction, that of deficient reproductive capacity. The western juniper reaches large dimensions on the eastern Oregon plains. Individuals occur with basal diameters up to six feet. It is a species of slow growth, centuries being required to produce such large trees as just noted. In examining the stand, one is struck by the great preponderance of old trees, the com- paratively small percentage of young, and the marked deficiency of seedling or sapling growth. It is noticeable that the older trees produce enormous quantities of galbuls—juniper berries— THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 167 but on examination one finds that most of them contain only aborted seeds. Round about the trees the ground is thickly strewn with berries, but the lack of seedlings proves how few of the seeds possess germinating power and indicates that the gen- eral climatic conditions are not favorable to seed germination. In many localities extensive burns are found. They have rav- aged the edges of the forests or plowed wide swaths through what once were very dense and uniform stands. Some of these burns are very old, the stumps indicating that perhaps a century or more has passed since the fires. Others are comparatively re- cent. Reforestation does not take place on the burned-over areas. They become a part of the adjacent, arid, treeless tracts. Places occur in the midst of heavy stands entirely devoid of trees and stumps. Itis probable that they represent extremely ancient burns, showing that reforestation in the juniper growth has prac- tically ceased on areas contiguous to the main body of aridity. It is not alone when fire has swept the juniper forest out of ex- istence that one notices a lack of reforestation. It is also to be seen adjacent to settlements where the growth has been cut clean for domestic uses, and the great number of detached groves and scattered individuals dispersed over the plains are arguments in the same general line. It is, of course, impossible to say with absolute certainty that all these outlying groups are parts of a uniform juniper forest, which once extended over the entire plains regions of eastern Oregon, yet from analogy we are justi- fied in concluding that such is the fact. The fires and direct human agencies which are cutting into the larger bodies of for- est at the present time produce just such detached groves and scattered individuals, and the gaps give every promise of remain- ing permanently deforested. The forest of western juniper extends up to the subhumid areas, where it meets the western yellow pine. It even goes be- yond a strict line of demarcation and penetrates several miles into. the yellow-pine areas. It has been noticed that in many places the juniper produces an abundance of fully developed seeds and a plentiful supply of seedlings where it comes in con- tact with the subhumid regions. Such would bea natural result of the more favorable moisture conditions prevalent there. Accompanying the front of the semi-arid wave, comes a tree which, in these regions, can endure neither the same high degree of aridity as the juniper nor so great a humidity as the yellow pine. This-is the mountain mahogany, Cercocarpus ledifolius, 168 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE which therefore furnishes an excellent indication of the limits of the quasi semi-arid and lower subhumid conditions which mark the front of the semi-arid advance and the rear of the sub- humid retreat. The mountain mahogany occurs, therefore, in numerous localities all along the edge of this debatable ground and mingles not alone with the yellow pine, but in many in- stances also with the lodgepole pine, ascending to elevations of 7,000 feet. Crossing from the eastern Oregon plains to those of the Snake, in southern Idaho, we find a growth of the one-seeded juniper, Juniperus monosperma. Comparatively little is known of the growth and distribution of the junipers on the Snake River plains, but this species is one which prevails largely on the arid regions in Utah, and should, perhaps, be regarded as being pushed toward the north through the stress of increasing aridity farther south. Coming into the interior Rocky Mountain region, we meet a juniper much resembling the Virginian juniper or red cedar of the east. It is the species named mountain juniper, Juniperus scopulorum, a small tree or shrub. It occupies more or less closely the semi-arid regions on the west slope of the range, doubtless extending across to the eastern declivities along the lines of semi-aridity. This juniper can endure a greater degree of humidity than the other two species mentioned. So far as it has come under my observation, it reproduces itself freely. It has not yet encountered a stress of arid conditions excessive enough to lower its seed-producing capacity beyond the balance point. It extends along various of the mountain streams into the plains of eastern Washington, usually keeping close to the streams. It does not spread into the open plateau region of this state to any noticeable extent, indicating that the semi-aridity of the interior Rocky Mountain basins, where the tree grows on hillsides and in valleys alike, is not so intensive as on the open plains of eastern Washington. THE SUBHUMID REGIONS Adjoining the region of semi-aridity le the subhumid belts. Four species of conifers are of common occurrence here. They are: Western yellow pine, Pinus ponderosa ; red fir, Pseudotsuga mucronata; lodgepole pine, Pinus murrayana, and great silver fir, Abies grandis. Their endurance of dry soil and climatic con. ditions is in the order named, the yellow pine ranking highest and the great silver fir lowest in the scale. THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACLFIC SLOPE 169 The western yellow pine occurs generally throughout the en- tire subhumid area in this region. In course of time it has succeeded in establishing a high degree of adaptability to the desiccating climatic changes, and it therefore forms the extreme rear of the coniferous growth in the subhumid belt, receiving the full force of the oncoming semi-aridity. While the tree thus shows its drought-resisting power, itis erroneous to suppose that it has reached a stage of adaptation where it absolutely requires dry regions for its development. The heaviest stands of western yellow pine that have come under my notice, varying from 80,000 to 50,000 feet B. M. per acre, occur in small patches in the Selway basin of the Bitter Root forest reserve, where the precipitation probably is not less than 70 or 80 inches per annum. Where the species is found under such conditions, it is fair to assume that it represents the more ancient form, capable of enduring more humid environments than the forms which now make up the bulk of the species in these regions. Asarule, however, the tree occupies the lower areas of the subhumid regions, and is mostly of open or scattered growth. Coming now to the effects of semi-aridity upon the growth of this species, we may observe that as a rule it has not progressed far enough to seriously affect its reproductive capacity over any very large area. We find, however, where the species borders the semi-arid tracts of greatest intensity or where here and there long narrow tongues, lobes, or thin lines of it project several miles from the main body of growth into them, that in such localities the reproductive capacity of the tree is exceedingly limited or altogether wanting. In other places, especially in eastern Oregon, where a few small groves or single trees are found crowning some isolated eminence entirely cut off from all direct connection with the species elsewhere, the same condition is noticeable; and, precisely as is the case with the western juni- per, the ovules are generally unfertilized, or, if fertilized, most of them abort, and those that are fertile and develop into perfect seeds fail to germinate. In consequence, seedlings are rare or altogether lacking in such localities. One of the phenomena noticeable in this species, when much exposed to the desiccat- ing influences proceeding from contiguous arid tracts, is a re- markable dwindling in its cone dimensions. Normally, in these regions, the mature cones are from three to four inches in length ; but where the species occurs in proximity to the deforested areas on the eastern Oregon plains, the cones are frequently not more 170 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE than one and a half to two inches in length. A most conspic- uous example of this phenomenon are the yellow-pine forests on the northern slopes of the Paulina mountains, where thousands of individuals bear cones but a trifle longer than those of the lodgepole pine, and the cone dimensions of the entire growth are far below the normal. As this tract of forest is separated only by a narrow strip of semi-aridity from areas of intense aridity, it is naturally under a high stress of the latter condition of climate, and the inference is fully warranted that the decrease in cone dimensions is a forerunner to general sterility in the species upon these particular areas. Going farther northward there are seen thousands of localities throughout the yellow-pine areas which are absolutely deforested or contain a few, very old, loneindividuals. Some of these tracts consist of south-facing hillsides, which receive the full force of the desiccating rays of the sun. If they, in addition, possess a high angle of slope, causing too rapid drainage, soil aridity is likely to result, with consequent deforestation. But many bare tracts exist when soil aridity is not a factor, and the influence which prevents the spread of the adjacent forest into such areas must be climatic, so far as can be determined. The middle and upper portions of the subhumid belts carry, in addition to the yellow pine, the other species enumerated. Two of them exhibit clear traces of yielding to the effects of semi-aridity. They are the great silver firand the red fir. The former is exceedingly deficient in cone production, but yields a high percentage of seeds with germinating power; the latter is a free cone producer, but matures an insignificant proportion of its ovules. In this respect it acts exactly similarly to the west- ernjuniper. The great silver fir possesses small powers of adapt- ability. On the western spurs of the Bitter Roots it has devel- oped a type of tree low, small in diameter, soft and sappy in its wood, short-lived, and with extremely scanty cone production. This form takes a lower place in the subhumid zone—that is to say, nearer to the line of semi-aridity—than does the larger and more fruitful type. The adaptability of the red fir is of a much highertypethan the foregoing. Notwithstanding its deficientseed production, there is no evidence that it is not maintaining the in- teerity of its stands throughout our region. Itis not confined to subhumid areas exclusively, thriving and developing its largest dimensions in extremely humid situations on the west slope THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 171 of the Cascades; but in the region under consideration it be- longs to the subhumid areas, and, as before remarked, it is here deficient in seed production. A factor enters here to be consid- ered later. This is temperature conditions. It is evident that unless a certain ratio of increase in the mean annual tempera- ture accompanies the aridity, there is a limit of tolerance beyond which certain species cannot be forced. When this limit is reached the species must succumb, and this is probably the reason why the red fir does not push far into the humid areas in these regions. The lodgepole pine possesses the highest power of adaptability among the subhumid group of trees. It ranges from the humid down through the subhumid and well into the lower edge of the semi-arid belts. While not a, plentiful producer of perfected seeds, most of the ovules aborting, it amply makes up for this deficiency by its multitude of cones and the early age at which it begins to produce them. If the present vigor of the species continues, it promises to become the dominant one on all sub- humid and humid areas in our region. In the subhumid forests of eastern Oregon, along the lower slopes of the Cascades, three species enter which are lacking farther north. They are: Abies concolor, White fir ; LTibocedrus decurrens, Incense cedar ; Pinus lambertiana, Sugar pine. The white fir, perhaps not specifically distinct from the great silver fir, occupies the same general place in the subhumid group of trees on the more southern areas that the latter does on the northern. We might even suppose that the great silver fir is a modification of the white fir evolved to meet changing tempera- ture and humidity conditions. It is evident from the relative position which the white fir occupies that its limits of endurance to increased temperatures and lower humidity are far higher than those of the great silver fir. The incense cedar and sugar pine come into the middle areas of the subhumid belts. Their distribution or retreat northward, or into the humid areas, is limited by temperature considera- tions. As they show no adaptability to meet them, their exten- sion northward is precluded and their extinction will be rapid, compared with other species in this region. Thesugar pine isa free cone and seed producer, while the incense cedar appears to be deficient in this respect. 1 bo THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE “I THE HUMID REGIONS From the subhumid tracts we come to the humid ones. These are chiefly limited to the mountain regions. When they extend into the plains or into areas of lower humidity, they do so only in the bottoms or on the northern slopes of deep canyons or the northern slopes of ridges. On the other hand, it is everywhere noticeable that the subhumid areas send long, strong lobes and extensions into the humid tracts, carrying their characteristic trees with them and indicating the coming ascendancy of drier climatic conditions. The trees which compose the forests in this zone group them- selves into three divisions, according to their altitudinal range. The first group, occupying the higher elevations, contains the following species: Laria lyallii, Lyall larch ; Pinus albicaulis, White-bark pine; Tsuga pattonii, Mountain hemlock. The second group contains species which most generally oc- cupy areas at the lowest elevations in the zone. They are: Thuja plicata, Pacific arbor-vite ; Larix occidentalis, Western larch ; Tsuga mertensiana, Western hemlock ; Pinus monticola, Mountain white pine. The third group contains species which. range indiscriminately from the upper to the lower areas of the humid zone and are as follows: Abies lasiocarpa, Alpine fir ; Picea engelmanni, Engelmann spruce ; Pinus murrayana, Lodgepole pine. Of the species included in this group, the Alpine fir possesses the least power of adaptability, the lodgepole pine the highest. In addition to the species enumerated, there are the following whose behavior as to altitudinal extensions and limitations are not very thoroughly known. ‘They are: Tibocedrus decurrens, Incense cedar ; Chamecyparis nootkatensis, Yellow cedar ; Abies amabilis, Amabilis fir ; Abies nobilis, Noble fir ; Abies shastensis, Shasta fir ; Pinus flevilis, Limber pine ; Pinus lambertiana, Sugar pine. / THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 173 With the exception of the limber pine, most of these species are, in these regions, confined to the Cascades, and do not extend very far from the high, upper slopes of the range. Only the sugar pine and incense cedar come into contact with regions of subhumidity. I have already noted that strong and broad projections from the subhumid areas push far into the humid belts. This is most marked along deeply eroded valleys, where high summer temperatures prevail. Not only do the subhumid conditions become conspicuous in the humid belts along such lines, but one meets occasionally spots of true aridity in their midst. Such localities present the anomalous spectacle of permanently de- forested areas supporting species of grasses and other herbaceous plants peculiar to the arid plains at subalpine altitudes, and in regions where the situation seemingly should insure an abun- dance of precipitation. Excellent examples of these phases are seen in the Bitter Root forest reserve in Idaho. This region lies within an area of sufficiently heavy precipitation to be generally classed as humid above the 5,000-feet level; but arid and sub- humid conditions have extended up the Clearwater and Salmon river valleys, in places reaching the main range, and overleap- ing this barrier have joined the arid regions of the interior Rocky mountain basins. The subhumid and semi-arid conditions have spread upward from the valley bottoms along the mountain slopes to elevations of 6,000 feet to 7,000 feet, carrying their pe- culiar shrubs and trees with them. We cannot account for the permanency of these arid and semi-arid extensions, except by adopting the proposition that a progressive diminution of the annual precipitation is now an established and general climatic feature in this region. Coexistent with the advance of drier climatic conditions into the humid areas, we find, as already noted, many of the trees and shrubs of the semi-arid and subhumid tracts, while the entire forest has been profoundly disturbed in its equilibrium. Among the shrubs of the arid and semi-arid regions which have thus penetrated into the humid areas may be mentioned Cerco- carpus ledifolius, Kunzia tridentata, Artemisia tridentata, Artemisia arbuscula, and one or two species of Forsellesia. These shrubs abound on the arid regions of the plains, to which they properly belong. They are found following the subhumid areas into the humid ones in the Bitter Roots, in the Rocky mountains, and in the Cascades. Their presence and distribution here proves un- 174 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE mistakably progressive semi-aridity into the subhumid tracts, subhumid extensions into the humid areas. In the semi-arid belt we noted the occurrence of detached ageregates and scattered individuals of its forest growth sepa- rated from the main body by deforested lanes and wide stretches. They were taken to represent the effects of a gradual invasion of the adjacent arid conditions, creating a sort of fringe or frayed edge of timber growth along the edge of the forest. If our ideas of progressively drier conditions extending throughout the dif- ferent belts of humidity are in accordance with facts, we have a right to expect analogous phenomena in the humid and sub- humid areas. That is exactly what we find, but they differ from those which exist in the arid and semi-arid region in this way: that the edge of the advancing semi-aridity into the subhumid tracts and the front of the subhumidity where it penetrates into the humid areas are not typically marked by deforested open- ings. Instead, they present detached groups of the species,which belong to the upper and more humid tracts of each of the zones, entirely surrounded by heavy bodies of the kinds which belong to the lower zones and which are capable of withstanding greater dryness. In examining the phenomena of forest growth in the humid areas, as changed or in process of modification by the shifting climatic conditions, we can find no localities within these regions that present the various phases so clearly and indisputably as does the west slope of the Bitter Root mountains. This area is truly a debatable ground. Its forest growth is subject to great and extensive stress—on the east from the arid conditions of the Rocky Mountain regions, on the west from those which prevail on the treeless plains of the Columbia River plateau. It is seamed, furrowed, and crossed in various places by extensions from those two great tracts. At the same time it contains very large areas of extremely humid slopes, where the drying effects of the changing climate are as yet scarcely felt, if at all. These conditions provide numerous transition grounds for the study of the forest modifications. Beginning with the group of summit trees, as they might be called, we have three species which are in the Pacific northwest true timber-line trees. Nowhere, however, in the Bitter Roots do these species form a timber-line zone, for no peak in the range is high enough to reach it. As summits exist 10,150 feet in height above sea-level, it follows that the absolute timber-line THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 175 is here phenomenally high—a significant fact in connection with the wide extensions of subhumid and semi-arid conditions into the interior of this range, and a possible consequent rise of the mean annual temperature. ‘The absence of a timber-line even at the highest peaks was noted and commented upon by the various parties engaged in the first surveys for a northern trans- continental railroad route, but was generally ascribed to the effects produced by a current of warm air supposed to move eastward from the plains of the Columbia in this latitude. None of the three species contained in the summit group of trees possesses any marked power of adaptation. The Lyall larch is wholly deficient in this respect. The white-bark pine ranks slightly higher, and the mountain hemlock somewhat above the latter, as shown by its occurrence within undoubted subhumid conditions in some localities, as in the middle portion of the Deschutes basin in Oregon. In the Bitter Roots we find the Lyall larch along the high crests of the main range from a point just north of Nez Perce pass to an as yet undetermined northern point. However, it does not go very far beyond the ridges which bound the north fork of Clearwater basin. It is found on both the east and west slopes of the range, extending three to four miles away from the crest on either side. The western spurs of the range present one or two outlying small groves of the species on the divide between the Lochsa and Selway forks. Its habitats in the Bitter Root range are abso- lutely cut off from all connection with others elsewhere by gaps of low altitudes a hundred miles or more in width, which now cannot possibly bespanned by the species. In these regions this larch is clearly approaching extinction. Its cone and seed pro- duction are extremely scanty. Its growth is excessively slow. Most of the individuals which make up the stands are far ad- vanced in age. Seedlings or saplings are rare and scattered. No farther back than three centuries there must have been abundant seed production, as a majority of the trees are approximately of this age. Three centuries hence the stands, if existing at all, will show great diversity of age, unless the cone-bearing periods run in cycles, long intervals of barrenness being followed by periods of fertility. Whatever rotation may exist in this respect (and that some does occur admits of no doubt) it operates only within narrow limits of time, producing what are called “ off years,” and does not impress itself very strongly upon the stand of the species as a whole. 176 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE Passing to the white-bark pine, we find it extending over all the ridges and spurs of the Bitter Roots having elevations above 6,000 feet. On the north the range of the tree is intercepted by the valleys of the Clark fork and the Bitter Root river. On the south it follows the crest of the ridges into the Rocky mountains. The species is lacking in vigor and is not maintaining its former stands. It is a conspicuously shy cone producer throughout all this region. The staminate blossoms or aments are borne in the greatest profusion, but the pistillate are very rare. In conse- quence, but few cones are seen, and the seedlings, while not wholly absent, are very sparse and scattered. The mountain hemlock occurs on the ridges above 5,500 feet elevation throughout the central areas of the Bitter Root system. It is cut off on all sides from connection with the species else- where by wide stretches where it is wholly lacking. Inthe north- ern portion of its range itis an abundant cone and seed producer, and is maintaining the average densities of-its stands. Its south- ern boundary in this region lies along the crest which separates the north and middle forks of Clearwater. All along this south- ern edge it abuts upon the subhumid tracts which spread up- ward along the slopes of the low-lying valley of the middle or Lochsa fork of the Clearwater. A low ratio of cone and seed- bearing capacity marks the southern edge of its range, and its seedlings are far from sufficient in number to keep the stands at their maximum density. Throughout the entire Bitter Root region the declining vitality of the species is indicated by its small cones, which do not average one-half of the normal size for the more vigorous type of the species. The habit of the three summit species is inimical to survival under very great stress of subhumidity. Their place of growth is invariably on drained slopes. If through adaptation they should acquire the power to grow in wet or saturated soil, they would stand a far better chance of survival, but no evidence exists of any such modifications. Below the summit group of trees are the species of the second group. Among these the western larch possesses the greatest power of adaptation, next the mountain white pine, then the Pacific arbor-vite, and last the western hemlock. The western larch is able to endure subhumid conditions which, in places, almost border on semi-aridity. Of the trees distinctly belonging to the humid areas, it is the last to retreat before the advancing line of climatic siccation. All these species are at home in wet THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE 177 or swampy localities, and are therefore better fitted for a lengthy resistance than would otherwise be the case. Their northward range extends indefinitely to the limits where the mean temper- ature becomes too low fortheir growth. Their southward bound- ary in the Bitter Root region lies a few miles north of a line drawn east and west through the crest of the divide which sep- arates the Salmon river from the Clearwater drainage. North- eastward they cross the Bitter Roots into the Rocky Mountain ranges, while in the northwest they extend through the moun- tains between the Fraser river and the Columbia into the Cas- cades. Owing to the circumstance already mentioned—that the species can exist in swampy ground—they hold their own against the subhumid encroachments everywhere but along their south- ern edge. Their retreat is here marked, exactly as in the case of other species, by deficient cone and seed production and by the occurrence of detached bodies of the species along the line of retreat. The third group of the humid series of trees contains species whose adaptability to varying altitude and moisture conditions is of the highest. This is owing to their capacity for enduring very diverse habitats. They are equally at home on dry, well- drained slopes, or in wet places, where their roots are continually immersed in circulating water. Among the three, the lodgepole pine has the greatest endurance, and all appearances indicate that it is the species which eventually will supplant the other species in the humid regions. The Alpine fir ranges throughout the entire extent of the Bitter Root mountains, and extends indefinitely north and south, east and west, along the crests of connecting ridges. It is a fair producer of cones and seeds, and is maintaining its stands in most localities. Its susceptibility to adverse subhumid conditions is found in the occurrence of large deforested tracts occupied by the tree within comparatively recent times, but which now show no evidence of a return to forest cover. Such tracts are frequent everywhere throughoutits rangein these regions. Generally they front on some broad valley, along whose slopes the subhumid or semi-arid changes are advancing into the meuntains. The Engelmann spruce and the lodgepole pine have a uni- versal range throughout the mountains in this region. Both have developed forms to meet drier conditions. Engelmann spruce neyer reaches its greatest development except in swampy localities, where it grows to be a large, well-formed tree. On dry 13 178 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE ridges it exists as a small, knotty, branchy, undersized tree. The lodgepole pine follows the same general rule. ‘The reproduction of these two species is excellent, and they are constantly occupy- ing new ground to the exclusion of the other species. The forest fires which ravage the mountains show how closely balanced are the majority of the humid species and how slim a hold they possess on existence along the front line of the spread- ing subhumidity. It is a fact patent to every one who studies the after-effect of a forest fire in this region that the increased evaporation from the denuded surfaces causes intense soil aridity. This condition is not alike in all places. Some localities, by reason of local topography or exposure, suffer more severely than others. There are thus on south-facing hillsides, near the larzer valleys, numerous places where centuries ago the subalpine’ forest was destroyed by fire, and arid conditions set in to the extent of absolutely preventing reforestation to this day ; but in the majority of cases the first burning of the forest destroys only the more tender species and favors the growth of those which possess greater power of adaptability. This in the humid areas means a preponderance of the lodgepole pine, because of its wide limit of tolerance to different climatic conditions. Fires in the humid growths hardly ever destroy the forest completely over any very large area. Small patches are left untouched, though surrounded by wide lanes of burned forest. The growth of lodgepole pine which comes in after the fires, because better fitted than any other species to endure soil aridity, follows the denuded areas and often covers them with dense stands. In so doing it cuts off these shces of unburned forest from all chance of regaining their former connection with the main body of their own type of growth, and gives rise to conditions which are some- what analogous to those in the semi-arid belts, where deforested areas, supporting types of vegetation peculiar to arid regions, separate the outlying groves of forest. It is not alone in the region of the Columbia river watershed that the increasing climatic aridity is modifying or disturbing the forest types and their ancient balance. Vhesame phenomena are repeated in California,and are doubtless general throughout the Rocky mountains and the areas collectively termed “ The Pacific Coast.” A conspicuous example occurs in southern Cali- fornia, in the behavior of the big cone fir, Pseuwdotsuga macrocarpa, and the redwood, Sequoia sempervirens. The big cone fir is a common species on the slopes of the mountain ranges in south- THREATENED ARIDITY ON THI PACIFIC SLOPE 179 ern California. On the west slopes of the San Bernardino - and San Jacinto ranges,its main body of growth is above the 4,000-feet contour line. Below this the tree thins out rapidly, and at elevations of 3,000 feet practically ceases. In the San Gabriel mountains it begins to grow at elevations of 1,000 feet above sea-level; at 5,000 feet it forms very numerous groves in the midst of the chaparral. Now, there are the clearest evi- dences that not very far back in time a nearly uniform forest of this species covered many of the slopes of the San Gabriel moun- tains between the 2,000-feet and 3,000 feet contour levels. The numerous single trees and old stumps in the chaparral are the remnants of this growth. Moreover, when the big cone fir 1s burned out on the slopes below the 4,000-feet level, neither it nor any other species of conifers reforest the denuded areas, show- ing that conditions exist which are inimical to forest growth. In the San Bernardino and San Jacinto ranges the lower edge of the big cone fir forest is tolerably compact and well defined. The outlying patches on the slopes that one sees so frequently 1n the San Gabriel are lacking. The extensions from the main body of erowth are along the streams and gorges where abundant moist- ure exists. TheSan Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains are farther from the ocean than the San Gabriel; hence for same elevations they do not receive so heavy a precipitation, and have in consequence a higher limit for the lower edge of the range of the big cone fir. The San Gabriel mountains, being nearer the ocean, receive a greater precipitation ; hence have an ulterior limit for the inferior edge of the big cone fir at a considerably lower elevation than the other two ranges; but the lack of re- forestation on areas where the growth is destroyed and the many detached patches below the main body of growth prove that the species is retreating toward regions of greater humidity. As the process is aided and accelerated by forest fires of modern date, another generation will not pass before the lower limit for the growth of the tree in the San Gabriel mountains will be at quite as high altitude as itis in the San Bernardino and San Jacinto ranges. In comparison with the allied northern Pseu- dotsuga mucronata, or red fir, the species is more definite in cone and seed production. The redwood is a tree of extreme susceptibility to temperature and humidity conditions, and apparently possesses a very low ratio of adaptability. It ranges along the California coast from Los Angeles county to the northern boundary of the state and across 180 THREATENED ARIDITY ON THE PACIFIC SLOPE into Oregon. At its extreme southern end it is represented by small scattered groups of trees—a few hundred individuals only are reported—and a long gap intervenes before its appearance farther north. The heaviest stands of the species are found in Mendocino and Humboldt counties, in California. It thins out toward the Oregon line and finally disappears a few miles north of the boundary. The northward extension of the species is evidently limited by a mean annual temperature lower than its ultimate point of endurance. Southern extensions are impos- sible, owing to an insufficiency of rainfall in that section of Cal- ifornia, and its spread into the interior, away from the proximity of the ocean, is precluded by adverse conditions of both temper- ature and humidity. The reproduction of the species is said to be very low. Cut-over areas show no evidences of reforestation with the same,species. Thus hemmed in by inimical climatic conditions and unable to maintain its stands, its extinction seems assured at no very remote period. SUMMARY The salient points brought out by a study of the forest condi- tions in these regions, so far as they relate to the effects of climatic aridity, can be stated concisely as follows: The arid, non-forested plains regions of eastern Oregon yield silicified remains of arborescent vegetation identical or nearly so with existing species on adjacent areas, proving the presence of forest growth on these timberless lands at no very remote period. The forests on the semi-arid tracts, although consisting of species capable of enduring dry climatic conditions, show every- where a persistent and gradual dwindling in extent and density. Their stands, consisting mostly of old trees, show a conspicuous deficiency in seed production, an enormous percentage of the ovules aborting, and a notable scarcity of seedlings. When, from any cause, a tract of the old stands is deforested, reforesta- tion does not occur, as a rule; this results in the formation of detached groves and individuals whose reproductive powers become even more limited and weakened and the extinction of which is merely a matter depending on the age limit of the in- dividual trees. In the subhumid forest there is a slow and apparently inef- fectual adaptative evolution of smaller forms of the various species to replace the larger ones, which require more moisture for their growth. There is also a conspicuous shortage of cone PROFESSOR O. C. MARSH 181 and seed production in the group of trees which form the upper subhumid types, and a pushing of the lower subhumid types which grow in drier atmospheric and soil conditions into the areas of the upper types, and frequently a complete and perma- nent replacement of the upper subhumid types with those be- longing to the lower groups when such upper types have been destroyed by fire or other means. In the humid forest are found the same phenomena as noted for the subhumid tracts, with areas in the upper humid belts, where certain species occupy tracts separated by long distances (sometimes a hundred miles or more) from the next appearance of the species elsewhere. ‘These intervals, which break the con- tinuity of the range of such species, are held to indicate more humid conditions in the part favoring extensions across these gaps, which are now precluded and cut off by adverse climatic changes in the direction of aridity. BRORESSOR OC WARS Othniel Charles Marsh, LL.D.,Ph.D., Professor of Paleontology in Yale University, Vertebrate Paleontologist of the U.S. Geolog- ical Survey, anda member of the National Geographic Society, died in New Haven, Connecticut, March 18, 1899. His death removes an eminent contributor to American science. Born in Lockport, New York, October 29,1831, Marsh grew up an athlete and sportsman, rather than student, until his observa- tions on nature directed his attention to the natural sciences. In 1852 he went to the Phillips-Exeter academy at Andover, whence he graduated as the valedictorian of his class. In 1856 he matriculated at Yale, graduating with honors in 1860. Sub- sequently he retained almost constant connection with his alma mater, to whose prestige he contributed much, the longest inter- ruption occurring in the early sixties when he was engaged in special work in European universities. In 1866 he was made Professor of Paleontology, a position retained until his death. The nephew and heir of George Peabody, he was the possessor of means enabling him to exercise his strong individuality freely in the prosecution of scientific researches. His best-known work was that of explorer in the western territories and collector of vertebrate fossils, by which the museum of Yale and U.S. Na- tional Museum were enriched; yet his most enduring monument takes the form of original contributions to vertebrate paleon- 182 THE AREA OF THE PHILIPPINES tology. His researches were conducted with remarkable vigor, notable acumen, and exceptionally clear recognition of the prin- ciples of biology. To the general surveyor of the field of organic life, past and present, several of Professor Marsh’s contributions seem to be of the first magnitude: The modern method of seek- ing and quarrying for complete skeletons to be used as material for study, in lieu of resting content with fragments, was largely due to his broad views and pertinacious industry, and his lib- eral expenditure of private means; partly by reason of this method, he was able to classify extinct forms, and trace their relations to living organisms in a superior manner; while his improved methods in field and laboratory enabled him to give unprecedented vitality and living interest to the animals of ages past and the life history of the earth primeval. Among his special contributions, the tracing of the phylogeny of the horse attracted world-wide attention, while his development of the principle of cephalization is of exceeding service to biologists and anthropologists, as well as to specialists in his own domain. During the last decade he turned attention to geology, and his researches in the Atlantic Coastal plain have received much attention and yielded results of permanent value. Professor Marsh’s scientific work brought recognition from various institutions. He held honorary connection with several HKuropean academies of science, and was the recipient of the Cu- vier prize of the Institute of France and of the Bigsby medal of the Geological Society of London; he was President of the Amer- ican Association for the Advancement. of Science in 1878, and President of the National Academy of Sciences for twelve years, 1883-1895. A bachelor and the last of his line, he bequeathed practically the whole of his considerable property to Yale Uni- versity. ; W JM. PMHE AREA OF THE PHILIPPINES In a recent communication to the Geographical Society of the Pacific, of which he is President, Prof. George Davidson writes as follows : In several government documents the statement is made that the area of the Philippine islands is something over 114,000 square miles. In the latest one just received it is given as 114,326. This error has doubtless arisen from a hurried examination of the Spanish documents. We find in the “‘ Guia Oficial de las Islas Filipinas, para 1898; Publicada por la Secretaria del Gobierno General; Manila, 1898,”’ the statement that the THE RECENT ASCENT OF ITAMBE 183 archipelago comprises an area of 355,000 square kilometers, without in- cluding the Jolo (Sulu) group. It thenspecifies about thirty of the prin- cipal islands, and their areas aggregate 298,485 square kilometers. That, of course, leaves a multitude of the smaller islands not specified in the guide, but covered by the larger area. As the number of square kilo- meters multiplied by .3886052 will give the number of square miles, the area of the islands specified amounts to 115,238 square miles, and the area of all the islands, less the Jolo group, amounts to 137,057 square miles. Further, the statement is generally made that the Archipelago of the Philippines contains from 1,000 to 2,000 islands, and the ‘‘ Guia Oficial ”’ says the number is more than 1,200. But in examining the ‘‘ Derrotero del Archipielago Filipino, Madrid, 1879’’—that is, the Coast Pilot of the Philippines, covering more than 1,200 pages—we find that the Islas, Islitas, Isletas, Islotes, Islotillas, and Farallones therein described amount to 583. Of course, this does not include reefs, rocks, or hidden dangers. I submit that these figures of the areas and of the number of islands and islets be accepted until replaced by government surveys. THE RECENT ASCENT OF ITAMBE In his letter referring to the ascent of Itambeé, Lieutenant Ship- ton states (this magazine, November, 1898, p.476) that “we are supposed to have been the first men ever on the summit of this peak.” Itambé was ascended and measured by Spix and Mar- tius in 1818. Those authors say of it: “The peak of Itambé, the highest one ascended and measured by us in all our travels through Brazil, has an elevation of 5,590 Parisian feet.”* This measurement was made with a mercurial barometer, and, so far as 1 know, it has never been repeated. The fact that Itambé has not been ascended is due to its being in a thinly populated, untraveled country, rather than to any particular difficulty in getting up the peak itself. It dominates almost the entire diamond district of Minas, and in my own travels through that region I was constantly reminded of what Dr Santos says—that this peak served the old gold and diamond hunters instead of a compass, for they never got lost so long as it was in sight. “It was a granite light-house to travelers—the center of a circle, seventy leagues in diameter, in which they could revolve without fear of getting lost.” f J. C. BRANNER. Stanford University. * Reise in Brasilien von Dr J. B. von Spix und Dr C. F. P. yon Martius, ii, 456, Mtin- ehen, 1828; also Beitrage zur Gebirgskunde Brasiliens von W. L. von Eschwege, 334, Berlin, 1832. +Memorias do Districto Diamantino, por J. F. dos Santos, p. 8, Rio de Janeiro, 1868. MISCELLANEA The total imports of the Samoan islands amounted in i895 to $418,840 and the total exports to $256,758. The share of the United States was but $60,624 in the imports and $33,050 in the exports. The government of Haiti has imposed a surplus tax of 25 per cent on all importations, in effect from March 14, 1899. The proceeds are to be applied to the withdrawal of the paper money now in circulation. The Austrian Lloyds have recently established a direct service between ' Trieste and Calcutta. Austria is becoming an important factor in the rivalry of the greater European powers for the markets of the far East. The Simplon tunnel, when completed, will be 21,580 yards long. It will contain only a single track, but a second tunnel is to be constructed parallel to it, at a distance of 19 yards. The northern entrance to the tun- nel is about a mile and a half from the station at Brieg, at an elevation of 2,254 feet. The exit on the Italian side will be 800 yards from Isella. To prevent the extinction of india-rubber trees in the Congo Free State, the government has decreed that for every ton of rubber yielded annually there must be planted not less than 150 trees. The law which prohibits gathering rubber except through incisions in the bark is to be more strictly enforced, and violations will be punished by a fine up to $2,000, or by imprisonment. An English syndicate has begun the construction of additional quays and magazines at Genoa. In 1897, 5,000,000 tons of merchandise passed through the warehouses of this port, and it is calculated that with the completion of the Simplon tunnel and the consequent improvement in railway communication, the annual tonnage will rise as high as 10,000,000. Genoa will then be the most important port of the Mediterranean. In arecent report to the Department of State, Mr Thomas E. Moore, U.S. Commercial Agent at Weimar, gives some valuable statistics concerning the balance of trade and the increase of population in Germany. The rap- idly increasing population has caused a corresponding increase in the imports of provisions and raw materials, the home products not being sufficient to meet home demands. The population of the German Cus- toms Union has. risen from 50,960,000 in 1898 to 54,530,000 on July 1, 1898, an increase of 3,570,000, or 7 per cent within five years. The value of imports has increased by 29.5 per cent, and that of exports by 27 per cent. With the increase of population has also come a very apparent expansion of the productive capacity of the manufacturing industries. This is especially well shown by the steady output of steam-engines. The total horse-power of the steam-engines built in 1888 was 1,683,000, while in 1898 the total was 3,422,000. The most significant figures, however, are those of the manufacture of stationary engines during the last three years. In 1896 the total horse-power was 2,534,000; in 1897, 2,714,000 ; in 1898, 2,947,000. Agriculture does not show a corresponding develop- ment, as the limits of the grain-growing area can be extended but slowly. 184 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. VY. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Peunsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Hast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. OS GRR Re RR mT: “4 § CALIFORNIA... OF course you expect to go there this spring. Let me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads via the Northern Pacitic-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including lt. Hood and [1t. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, Pit. St. Helens, Mt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where > such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections | made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound ; cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. CHAS. S. FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Pau/, Minn. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE es SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Penetrates with its main line or branches eight States South of the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers, and in con- junction with its friendly allied connections reaches all the commercial centers of the South and Southwest... DOUBLE DAILY VESTIBULED LIMITED TRAINS - BETWEEN... Washington, Memphis and Nashville via Salisbury, Asheville, Knox- ville and Chattanooga. Washington and Tampa via Columbia, Savannah and Jacksonville. Washington and Memphis via Atlanta, Birmingham and K.C. M.& B. Washington and New Orleans via Atlanta, Montgomery and Mobile. Norfolk and Chattanooga via Salisbury, Asheville and Knoxville. Pullman Sleeping Cars—Dining Cars—Day pica ee Additional Trains for local travelers. . . tin eG The direct line to the FLORIDA, GULF COAST and TEXAS, Winter Resorts ot | - - « »« MEXICO and CALIFORNIA, —AND THE BEST—— Through Car Line to and from Asheville and Hot Springs—“ The Land of the Sky.”’ Write for Map Folders. A. S. THWEATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y: J.C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 EK. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, 1D)5 (Cp W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOKH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - . - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business”~ - - - - ($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy- -holders since its organization, in 1848, | - += $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Route ST PAUL ceases os MINNEAPOLIS Ripans Tabules cure headache. Burlington The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . Paci The Overland Limited Je UTAH and CALIFORNIA. FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING “THE OVERLAND ROUTE.’ Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars. Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,"' E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND SP. PAUL RAILWAY -RONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and poiuts in Iowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. WHENEVER YOU VISIT WASHINGTON. YOU ARE INVITED TO INSPECT THE eS ee ©) + MAMMOTH DRY GOODS ESTABLISHMENT + @ n=- OF 72 @ ® WOODWARD & LOTHROP © J e@@eoeeeeoceeessoeseececore: Where the LATEST PARIS NOVELTIES are ae on ee The attention of those who anticipate purchasing \ BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX Is invited especially to extreme PARIS NOVELTIES in matched sets of French Hand-made Lingerie, including Gowns, Skirts, Chemises, Drawers, Corset Covers, &c. These can be furnished in any number of pieces desired. HAND-MADE BRIDAL TROUSSEAUX, personally selected in Paris and exclusive in otyie and 40 to 250. design: Three or more pieces : CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED. MAIL ORDERS RECEIVE PROMPT AND CAREFUL ATTENTION. TENTH, ELEVENTH, AND F STREETS N. W. . . . . WASHINGTON, D. C. Oe een oD @ es oe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Ss TR en en ad == = = = = sn = a= SED ON MEO, M4 VET a TNA ~Y v4 NS y Y MEINE Y ES \ —o a> A— «=> —— a — . SSS ra eo fo \ S Shortest Line St, Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest GHICAGO GREAT + SDSS Sees ‘« Maple p . Leaf ( Route ’’ 4 RAILWAY \ For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply ( to your home agent or write to ( F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, , CHICAGO. Ol LOD OOOO SS. LOLOL OS OOOO OOOO OOOO SRI N AER N/ 5 S S +. * ?, e204. EOPLE like to read about the great and wonderful country of the >, .¢, .¢ Oe, 0ee | \ Mt : N ¢, “e +. 4 Southwest ; of its quaint and curious A charming book covering these facts is issued by the PASSENGER DEPARTMENT OF THE Southern Pacific Railway, +, .¢ 10%, 0¢. towns, its ancient civilizations, its Oe +0 9,% natural marvels. They like to get ac- +, .¢ eee ¢, ? curate information about California and the Pacific Coast. This is because 2) *, *, and will be sent to any one, postpaid, ou receipt of TEN CENTS. +, 4%, oP % Yi, We ¢, re? *, Yih ee) KY most people want to some day see these 00 082 08008. 7 UMS TOR WASMISS NCS, 5 g-5 65 6 od 4 te. Y LZ “¢ %' SO, Ge % 3% o%o ote atoctectoctectostectocste hectectectectectoetent +. 6%. 5% 5%eo%aotectaets OMe MP HOF HO HOU SUPP OU SU OUD MaMa Ka Ka Kaa Kaa Na Maa a Ka eaten] ? wy Ut. Ly My Lj 5 4% % te teste stestestesteoQeteoteote Se Sio foie fatosoto to focofeoicococdaveocvecosceocecteceociose SPP Me Me MP Mh MP HOU O NOU IU LULU OU OV OV OU OU ON GY OV IU OULU ONIN DY LV OY OV DY OU OU ONLY IN IU OWS 3 oS Yi 2, oe 2 Wa ° +, My *, oO oF ote o% POC COO) Le Lie *, 6%, 9,2 %,% U1. Se ate Vb oats hook “Ya % THE BOOK IS ENTITLED “Through Storyland to Sunset Seas,” °, % o 2 ° fo cx) . > At Ms Yi Se UW 7 5 2, 49 o, o #8 Vy U1. >, > O re ?, shot Yy YU, oo ste ‘2 +9 <7 “e Wy Lee ooo ate ege toate ake “ED Yj MWA S * 7 oo > 0 oe o, re MY YM SIZ > 2 09% > OMe % MP0 O80, 05% % oo % eo %o5%0 08057092055 ntncee te etes estes %eetont eg eatnetestcctnctcctcc testes ae%ea%ec%ne%es%na%na%ee%, Sara a aaa ae Maia aaa aa aaa aaa aaa a aa aaa a aK aaa a) oe RX eo Z YU My Wp Mo ote ate cto ctectestostoete fecte ete se cte efecto ste cte ste fe ctecte ste ste cfec este cte facts ctected POPUP OPV OV OU OOOO oe +2, 9 *0: 990%, a> a0 %0*, ro, ?*, Mara? re, a aX a a aE oe *, + ty Vid oe Yd ++, 7 ° “My Wi. AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... Whe paper used is EINE eA PAPER, and every typographical: de- $4, 2, ¢ te St *, . Y Lp oes) “ty Zp oafe-' 7 O 1 You can get a copy by writing to S. F. B. MORSE, General Passenger Agent, aXe aX Yi YEO J): 2, 6%, at Yj >, Z Wee Southern Pacific, Li My oates Ui 7 ° Z Uy, New Orleans, <7 ° Vy +2, Z Wi, and sending 10 cts. to defray postage, tail is artistic. It is a story of what ox LY , ‘? Mi 14. .& Wi GC) \/ < four people saw on just such a trip as > ox Ub iba \7 Oo 2 Wa Pe 2 7 S Wy Uy you would like tosmake. yam te Wi $ x 4 4 “WY % “4 vy “ 4 ” “4 “4 “4 \ \ \ x < N \ Vt: ZZ “attractive Cea on ie ‘xLONDE - send for the April, oan number of J : Bs’ lca containing - num nas diagrams, and illustrations, includin x _ portrait of Captain Chas. D. Sigsbee, | Uy ‘By mail for ee cents. nae ve as sia! ao onl for 2% aes agazine . oy | ax Ce ~~ } LAO, Nip Saraee | : ; Ao) ie aS AN ILLU STRATED MONTHLY rene / j | J} Mok Des ‘ Ni ‘ f : Nf \ \ \ Psi , { \ Bei ek hk Bajtor: JOHN HYDE, Geter (18) \ * aes ECT IN ACY oft tite O-S- Departolentey Agri gricu (i od Ay ‘ banadeiatd Fditurs , Chief Sighal Officers IU. S. drmy3) we MeGEE, E: eis in Charge, Bureau 2 Biknolosy; HENRY |GANNETY, Chief Geozrapher,. U..S-Geological Survey ; MERRIAM, Biologisi of ihe U.S. “Departinent of Agriculture ; DAVID J; HILL, Sistant Secretary of State; CHARLES H. ALLEN, Assistant Secretary of the Navy ; UI 48 L. Moore, Chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau, B.S: ‘PRITCHETT, Sz- bevinlendent of the U.S Coast and Geodetic Survey; MARCUS BAKER, U. S, “Geological Survey; OP. Austin, ‘Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, UG. A fe yeasury Depariment; ELIZA ren ScIDMORE, Author ~~ of ‘Java, the Garden of the East,’ etc.; CART. LOUISE) GAR- . aaron “acai of Phelps bee ‘Washington, DG | rade ‘ SS istant Baitor: ‘GILBERT mee _GROSVENOR, Ss ca cadena D. IC. A | sige Sn ea | : Pe eat) \ “CONTENTS | | bey La ae EN. “nuz0N) ee, / ae 4h i ROWTH AND NATIONAL CHARACTER, —w'5 McGEE. /185 OR. O..H. TITTMANN, 206 if 7 1G ATORS ISLANDS. ‘Commander. WEBSTER,U.S:N. 207 a | Be eCeray cH oF SAMOA. O. P. AUSTIN. 21s / i JOHN HYDE. 220, , Xe HACKERS. | . Moo > CEN GARRISON, (223 ~S one EXPEDITION. ad wag AN pie at Gtation: in Iceland, p, 228; The Belgian Anpavotit nea i Pa a \ iat Dyueeei 760 P SSBVENANTS “Avenue, WASHINGTON ; 37 AVENUE a Aaa NS Paris National Geographic Society” ; 1897-1900 MARCUS BAKER HENRY F. BLOUNT RV. COVILLE S. H. KAUFFMANN WILLIS L. MOORE W. B. POWELL THE PRESIDENT ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Vics-PRESIDENT W J McGEE Boarp or MANAGERS 1898-1901 A. GRAHAM BELL HENRY GANNETT A. W. GREELY JOHN HYDE W J McGKE F. H. NEWELL 1899-1902 CHARLES J. BELL G. K. GILBERT DAVID J. HILL C. HART MERRIAM . H. S. PRITCHETT J. STANLEY-BROWN TREASURER HENRY GANNETT CorRESPONDING SECRETARY WILLIS L. MOORE RECORDING SECRETARY F. H. NEWELL . ForriGNn SecrerARY ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE SECRETARY’S OFFICE Rooms 117, 118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N. W., Washington TREASURER’S OFFICE U.S. Geological Survey, 1330 F St. N. W., Washington The National Geographic Society, the object of which is the in- crease and diffusion of geographic knowledge, has a total membership of 1,700. Its membership is not restricted to practical geographers, but is open to any person in good standing who may be sufficiently interested in its work to seek admission. The annual subscription is, for active members, $5.00 per annum; for corresponding members, $2.00 per annum. The annual dues may be commuted and life membership acquired by the payment at one time of $50.00 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and other publications of the Society are sent regularly to all members. Prizes of $150.00 and $75.00 will be awarded December 31, 1890, for essays on Norse Discoveries in America. _ Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter * 4 { National Geographic Magazine Vou. X JUNE, 1899 No. 6 NATIONAL GROWTH AND NATIONAL CHARACTER * By W J MoGEg, Vice-President of the National Geographic Society On July 4, 1776, the dawn of a new era brightened humanity’s horizon. The harbinger of enlightenment, the American Decla- ration of Independence was itself the product of antecedent forces and conditions of great significance. Some of these forces and conditions demand special attention from those who would trace aright the growth of modern nations. For more than a century, the world’s most vigorous attempt at colonization had been in progress along the Atlantic coast of North America. Viewed in the light of later knowledge, the stirring conquests of Alexander and Ceesar were little more than predatory forays in which the conquered gradually absorbed their conquerors; the epoch-marking expeditions of the Spaniards three centuries before and of the Norsemen four centuries earlier *An address delivered before the National Geographic Society, March 28, 1899, as a summary of a series of lectures on “The Territorial Growth of the United States.” These lectures, forming the ‘‘ Lenten Course” for the year, delivered in Columbia Theater, Washington, D. C., during February and March, were as follows: ‘‘ The Orig- inal Territory of the United States,” by Honorable David J. Hill, LL. D., Assistant Seeretary of State (printed in the March number of the National Geographic Magazine yol. x, 1899, pp. 73-92); ‘“* The Louisiana Purchase, Oregon, and Florida,’ by Professor Albert Bushnell Hart, of Harvard University; ‘‘ Texas and the Mexican Accessions,”’ by Professor John Bach McMaster, of the University of Pennsylvania; ‘‘Alaska,’’ by J. Stanley-Brown; ‘‘ Hawaii,’ by Professor Edwin V. Morgan. {~~ 4a a” SRS SES Ssz OTe aS a a a em as a F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. pe eR RRR RG RE SER NN V NATAL AL AA ALALVALVALALAAUAUAUAUAUAVAAAA AAN A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. | Che Smith. . Prettier Cyupewriters Superior on This Point as Well as on All Others. ee. The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., 3 PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. E DDREDAAARRRERRDDDRRNRAAAARRDARAR RAAT Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 519 Eleventh Street. DREDIDRARADRARADADRDRARARAR NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST. The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology in all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in its /welfth year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, ETHNOL- OGY, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SocroLoGy, History, SomMATOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PuHILoLoGy. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Swbscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Illustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XII Begins with January, 1899. ApprEess: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, LS oe The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico............. ... $3.50 a year Morother Subscribers im the LostalllWmionmesesassccs soci eee eee 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two volumes are completed ; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. In addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., Minneapouis, Minn, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC ‘MONOGRAPHS Ou the PHySICAL FEATURES OF THE EARTH’S SURFACE, designed especially to supply to teachers and students of geography fresh and interesting material with which to supplement the regular text-book. LIST OF MONOGRAPHS COMPRISING VOLUME I: GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC PROCESSES - - - - - - ) GENERAL PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATURES - - - - - - J. W. Powell PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES - - - j BEACHES AND TIDAL MARSHES OF THE ATLANTIC Coast Prot. N. S. Shaler PRESENT AND EXTINCT LAKES OF NEVADA - - - - Prof. I. C. Russell APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—NORTHERN SECTION - - - Bailey Willis APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS—SOUTHERN SECTION - - - Cc. Willard Hayes MT. SHASTA—A TYPICAL EXTINCT VOLCANO - - - - J. S. Diller THE NEW ENGLAND PLATEAU - - - - - - - Prof. W. M. Davis NIAGARA FALLS AND ITs HISTORY - - - - - - G. K. Gilbert Single monographs, 20c. Complete set, bound in cloth, $2.50. Remit with order to AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York - Cincinnati A Chicago HENRY ROMEIKE’S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS, 110 Fifth Avenue, New York, Reads every paper of importance published in the United States, and through its European agencies in London, Paris, Berlin, and Vienna every paper of importi nce published in Europe and the British Colonies. One subscription on any given sub- ject will bring notices from the United States, and if desired also from the European papers. Write for terms. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM AND ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY An International Quarterly Journal Conducted by L. A. BAUER, With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians and Electricians. ITH the March, 1899, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism, Atmos- pheric Electricity, and allied subjects, such as Karth Currents, Auroras, etc., entered on its fourth volume. The hearty co- operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. ‘The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in coSmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. The geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Com- mander Davis, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Iittlehales, McAdie, Rticker. Schmidt, Schuster, de ‘Tillo, von Bezold, Mascart, and Abbe. Future numbers will contain contributions by Mascart, Rticker, Elster and Geitel, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Hayford, Littlehales, Schmidt, and others. Spectal features in future numbers will be full abstracts and reviews of recent publications prepared by competent reviewers and the series of fine halftone portraits of eminent magneticians. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 256 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars and fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Two dollars and seventy-five cents. Address: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D.C. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE y Mii Vis Vi Wid ty, S UY yY ws a Se tt Ye Yy44 +, > ro? <) Vy Yj EOPLE like to read about the great and wonderful country of the Southwest; of its quaint and curious Mi sy, YB oe + ¢ 4+ 9,9 99 %,9 0 oe yp MMO WMI WII WIM Li, 7 ro? My A charming book covering these facts is issued by the PASSENGER DEPARTMENT OF THE Southern Pacific Railway, and will be sent to any one, postpaid, on receipt of TEN CENTS. WY Ue fe. .? ops fo ?. towns, its ancient civilizations, its OL XIE) M0 natural marvels. They like to get ac- so ote 8 Wi curate information about California Sy o aioe Uy 4H YY Uy and the Pacific Coast. This is because Cy So: Vin “My “1. C2) Yj ?: My Zi W. ogo MN; +, '° Wi most people want to some day see these My Ue MW; YY Wij fee; of ? re? Yt. ONTOS HO WNSNISISNVESS Sa ois A oo) 3 ote +, Vp fo My O, .O, .%. % ©. OO. ©... OO. ©, Oe o%e a%e 0% 3%e 3% 5% oon oto otectoctoetectectectoeteeteen 0 Se Ho a0 120 HONE ILO HOMO O NO Le MOL ONT OTOL OO OT LU IM OTS HOT OU GOTOH OTS bie Zs Ue W U, We Ubi OG Oe Ge 0% Me os 0% o%e sn gn tect cto cto sto oso socn MP Mt Lye OO % 0,9, O00 OOOO. 90,09 POO OO 40 OMENS O99, My Z Oe 5% %e a che Mo Coen ctocte Mocte ste ese Mo Sesteacm% gh a0 OS Mgt Mee HP 0,9 O CS Se ee a. A os Re ote 0 ‘e rg? Me WM Li 2°, > Mia %, % 42 c >. % *, Sy YY %,s 2, 1 “173 fo fo af0 fe We >.% *. ° feate ° O 2 ao THE BOOK IS ENTITLED “Through Storyland to Sunset Seas,” c o, ee % testes Mie o> .% 00,2 9,9 09%, On Pos 920 a%o-efo oy bi bi ¢ o CG My OS * fo! WY i? ° Ys > oe: 2, oC Uy Uy VC LA s fe ro she So eke : *, '- > Se 4, > i Yj, Mi. 2, Ci 0¢ 0 05005 , fo 2% .> Yy UWA 2 oes stoke. Wi YU +, .%, © .%, . © 1%. Oo. 1%. oo. Oo © © oo 0 6. Oo © 6 © © © 6 © © © © © © © 6 © OPPO eo PO PO Pe PF Po 000 POSH PO POPE OF OH SOOO OH OO FO OO OF OU HO OO OF OF OF OO OO OF OU OU 0000.9 Ubi My Ht, My Zs | Vi Mi Mb “My Wa %. .%, .%, .%. .%, ©, .%, .@. .%, .%, .%. OO, o © © © o © o © © © © @ © © & © © © - POPUP UO U PU OU SO MPM PO PP OF FF OOF OF OF OS 98 9 OF OY OF OY OV OY OO OU OU OF OF \7 +e Mey Zs oe YH, 4, Sac LY ee >, * etd 0 AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... The papey used us) FINES PieAgis PAPER, and every typographical de- Ly >, ° Me 04S) Ws Z Y WH, 2 O MY 1. oefoe' Mi You can get a copy by writing to S. F. B. MORSE, General Passenger Agent, 04 Fo s%oa%eo% aha ha a 06 oy Ye ++, Southern Pacific, >, .%, Sata ‘S MY Zs We New Orleans, oe YL , yy Wt, tail is artistic. It is a story of what o, .% Oo > and sending 10 cts. to defray postage, Ms *, cox My Le 7 oO oe, Ubi four people saw on just such a trip as 7 ° Vy Z Ui Me Me r08es' 2. ? as you would ike stor makes ts) cn lem fea Mi: Z N \ \ \ BS se a “y % 4 yy 4 7 % My ty “4 % % WW Wii , ( political i ee of me fe Ss ace Greeoais ABBE Cyrus C. ADAMS Cyrus C. Bars Capt. J. R. Barrierr, U.S. N. “Dr Georce F. Becker Hon. Emory F. Brsr Prof. F. H. Brartow James H. BLopGerr Hon. J. B. Browne Lieut. J. C. Cantwenn, U.S. A. Frank M. CHarman Ropert H. Charman Dr E. L. CorrHenu Dr Evxiiorr Cours BF. V. Covinte Hon. Winiiam E. Curris Frank H. CusuineG Hon. CHarurs W. Dasnry Dr Witrram H. Dann Prof. Gporgr Davipson Artuur P. Davis Winiiam M. Davis Dr Davin T. Day W. A. Dickry J.S. Dinurr * Lieut. C: P. Biuiorr, U: 8. A. S. F. Emons Dr Wa.trer H. Evans Davin G. Farrcuitp Prof. B. E. Fernow GC. H. Fire Hon. Joun W. Foster ' Capt. D. D. Gamuarp, U.S. A. ~ Hamuin GarLanp Prof. K. B. Garriorr ~ Avperr 8S. Garscuer President, D. C. Giuman Capt. L. OC. Gumnn, U.S. A, Ricnarp U. Goons rof eee ip Shacite DNOR RE, ee W. Fneeiwaray rof. ALBERT Busine Harr Harcrer > enuaR Hayes , i H ees PHIC Macazne is a Seema of geography, physical, commer- It aims to convey new information and current opinion on geographic nd to bea medium of communication between geographers in America and Its editorial staff includes officer s ae experts of the different scientific bureaus ie ae most pe tventie De ants intelligence Faia thes Gainpraect Hs oe GhOGRA PHIC. Sie hea Si among its cage the following ALEXANDER GraHaAm Bruu, LL.D., ete. Prof. Ratepa S. Tarr ~ Hon. Cuaknes D. Watcorr Battery WILis 0) ene Prof. Dax C. Wonecstier tae with Arctic enon, the Bering Sea controversy, the Alaska and nezuela boundary disputes, or the new commercial and political questions arising from pees the ais cooperation of ae Siu a Werte H. Houmes Dr Emin Houus, Vienna CorNnELIA HorsFoRD Dr SHELDON JACKSON t} M.S. W. Jerrerson b Wiiiarp D. Jounson . ie J. Scorr Ketriz, LL.D., ete. as GEORGE KENNAN M. B. Kerr : Prof. S. P. Laneiry J. B. Lersere Prof. Wiiut1am Lipsey G.W. LrrrnpHates Se Prof. £. McCuurer , ie Prof. Joun Bace McMasrrr Woes Hon. Ernest A. Man _Prof. O.'T. Mason Ms Dr T. C> MEenDENHALL i KK. W. NEtson Pag F. HW. Neweri Oy. Hereert G. OGDEN a Lieut. Roperr E. Prary yi Groree C. Perkins, U.S. S. Prof. W. H. PickERING c GIrrorD PINcHOT Major J. W. PowELu Prof. W. B. PowE Lu E. D. Preston Hon. J. R. Procrer G. R. Purnam Prof. IsraEu C. Russenu Dr N. 8. SHALER Major W. A. Srreson, U.S. A.” Capt. C. D. Siespen, U.S. N. Maj. A. Fankner von SONNENBERG J. STANLEY- ee Gen. G. M. Srarnpure Commander Z. L. TANNER Max L. Tornow FOC aa O. H. Tirrm ann ’ ! wey Mrs Fannie B. Warp . ht Commander H. Wesster, U.S. N. President B. L. WHtrman aN Watrer D. WiLtcox Hon. Wiuiram L. Witson ie Dr F. H. WINES Aus tt Wh = physical, le GrooraPinc ee a. a for : 25 en ee a Bl, Magazine AN ILLUSTRATED. MONTHLY ox Editor: JOHN HYD#, Statistician Bf the|U. S. Department of Agriculture Wucneite Editors GREELY, Chief Signal Officer, U.S. Army; WJ McGur, Ethnologist in Charge, Bureau American Ethnology ; HENRY Gannett, Chief Geozrapher, U. S\ Geological, Survey ; mc. HART MERRIAM, Biologist of the US. Department Of, Agriculture; DAVID J.\HILL, ) Assi stant Secretary af State; CHARLES H. ALLEN, Assistant Secretary of the Navy ; Wiis L. Moore, Chief of the U.S. Weather Burean ;\-S- PRITCHETT, S2- perintendent of the U.S Coast and Geodetic Suxvey,; MARCUS BAKER, U.S. Geological Survey ; O. P, Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, OOS. Ds veasury Department; BLizk RUBAMAH ScipMoRE, Author of ‘Java, the Garden of the East,” etc.;/CARL LOUISE GAR- . RISON, Principal of Phelps School, Washington, D.C. Assistant Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, Washington, D. C. ‘CONTENTS | PAGE 7 Hi POLAR REGIONS—Map. Is SHALDIN, AS A FIELD FOR EXPLORATION. Vith illustrations. \ if JOSEPH STANLEY- BROWN. 281 ; ETIC WORK OF THE COAST AND GHODETIC SURVEY. | L. A. BAUER. 288 BA EXPLORING EXPEDITION OF STEAMER “ALBATROSS.” / | With illustrations. HUGH M. SMITH. 291 : 4 PROPOSED INTEROCEANIC CANAL (IN ITS COMMERCIAL _ ASPECTS. ; JOSEPH NIMMO, Jr., LL.D. 297 TEROCEANIC’ CANAL. EMORY R. JOHNSON. 311 Be RNS THE SOUTH POLE, GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. 316 A erature} Baedeker s ‘The United States,’ p.320; Ripley’s ‘The Ra@es f uirope,” ” p. 320; Sven Hedin’s “Through Asia,’ p: 322;. Miscellanea, p. 324; dings ‘of the’ National Geyerapire ‘Society, p. 327.\ a 4 vA A | ™ Mh , San etoN ‘ “da are EAT Pherae: QUARE, Naw York; 1015 Pennsytyanta AVENUE, WASHINGTON; 'ABASH AVENUE, Curcaco; 37 AVENUE DE L’OpEraA, Paris ($2.50 a Year — SR SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. TO ALL POINTS SOUTH, SOUTHEAST, AND SOUTHWEST. Through Pullman Drawing Room Sleeping Cars from New York and Washington to New Orleans, Memphis, Tampa, Jacksonville, Augusta, and intermediate points—First-class Day Co aches—Dining Car Service. Fast Trains for the SOUTH leave Washington Daily at 11.15 A. M., 9.20 P. M.,and 10.45 P. M. Through Tourist car on the 11.15 A. M. Train every Tuesday and Friday for Texas, Arizona, and California points, without change. Direct line to the Summer Resorts in Virginia and the Carolinas and the — Winter Resorts of Florida, Gulf Coast, Texas, Mexico, and California. Direct Through Car Line to and from Asheville, Hot Springs, and other Western North Carolina points— THE LAND OF THE SKY.” _ For Map Folders, Summer Homes Guide Book and Book on ‘ASHEVILLE AND THEREABOUTS” write to— A. S. THWHATT, HKastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 EK. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W. , Washington, D.C. W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. \ J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business” - - - - ($136,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since its organization, in 1843, , - = $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President, EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter rem ager my NAT. GEOG. MAG. NAT. GEOG, MAG, VOL. x, 1899, PL. { ctystan acini FSi Bh SOUTH POLAR REGIONS —SHOWING ROUTES OF THE PROPOSED ANTARCTIC EXPEDITIONS AON AS, = Salsa ae a ROHONT SHY AL EA TURK omiw Pickle National Geographic Magazine Vou. X AUGUST, 1899 No. 8 SHISHALDIN AS A FIELD FOR EXPLORATION By JosEPH STANLEY-BRrown The areas within the boundaries of the United States yet untrod by the geologist or explorer are rapidly becoming fewer and fewer, while fields offering wnique features of interest to either class of investigators are indeed rare. Even Alaska, for- merly shunned, is now much in evidence, and is being traversed by private and governmental exploring parties to an extent which promises soon to gridiron that northern wilderness with mail routes and traveled trails, while from the systematic work being carried on by means of river, land, and sea we may expect at no distant day far more satisfactory geologic and topographic maps of the territory’s vast and previously little known interior than have heretofore existed. Leaving these broader areas to those having special reasons and ample financial resources for surmounting the great obstacles they offer, attention is asked to a limited field of exploration which for compactness, accessi- bility, economy of effort and expense, and probable richness of returns stands unrivaled today within our borders. The route from Sitka to Unalaska has been one of continuous travel by sea-going vessels for many years. While making this journey hundreds of voyagers have looked on and exclaimed over the majestic beauty of Mt Shishaldin, but so far as known no white man’s foot has yet trod the higher slopes of this splen- did cone, which rears its snow-clad crest nearly 9,000 feet above the adjacent sea.* The eastern half of Unimak island is oceu- * Professor Pinart’s claim that he ascended Shishaldin is untenable, being evidently based on a misunderstanding of the name of the mountain he climbed, The ascent eould not haye been made in the limited time in which he states it was done. 20 282 SHISHALDIN AS A FIELD FOR EXPLORATION pied by it and the associated peaks. This island, some 70 miles long, with an average width of 15 or 20 miles, crowded with extinct volcanoes and separated only by a shallow pass from the Alaskan peninsula, is the first member of the Aleutian archi- pelago—that chain of submerged mountains which with its pro- longation, the Commander islands, sweeps from continent to continent, describing across the North Pacific ocean an arc of more than a thousand miles. Shishaldin: is undoubtedly still an active voleano, but how active cannot be accurately known until some explorer stands on its summit. There are recent stories by some who claim to have seen flame-colored vapors rising from it, and by others who assert they saw columns of smoke ascending. In 1897 I saw SKETCH MAP OF ALASKA Showing mail route and suggested field for exploration what appeared to be banners of steam issuing from it; but fogs are frequent here and snow carried by the winds about the peaks of mountains of high altitudes play deceitful pranks. There are two very intelligent and well-to-do traders (Charles Rosenberg and Charles Swanson) who live with their families at Morshovia village, near the base of the mountain. While on a trip in their schooner to Dutch Harbor, Unalaska bay, last summer for sup- plies they told me that the volcano is now in astate of eruption, and that at night they had seen, high on the slopes, tongues of molten lava creeping slowly down the mountain side and branching around obstacles lying in their course, thus leaving islands between the fiery streams. They asserted also that ashes are ejected from the crater, and that on hunting trips they had ascended far enough to detect the heat and recognize the sul- phurous fumes. SMNVdd GALVIOOSSV GNV NI@TVHSINS ODVTAdIHOUVY NVI TAATY — GNVISI NVGTOAMV SHISHALDIN AS A FIELD FOR EXPLORATION 285 The determination of the real conditions is an inviting task. It will probably be found that Shishaldin is a gigantic cinder cone, one of the largest in the world, and of a symmetry equal- ing, if not surpassing, that of Fuji-yama. The accompanying reproduced photographs show not only the wonderful regularity and beauty of this cone, but also that it has a neighbor appar- ently its equal in magnitude and probably the true volcano as well as the elder of the two. The relationship may be similar to that existing between Lassen peak and the Black Butte cinder cone. As seen from a distance there appears to have been a lava discharge from the side of Shishaldin which cut a huge gash, while the castellated character of the adjacent peak suggests a well-formed crater with rock walls. The view of this most inter- esting mountain mass as given in the illustration must be in- terpreted with caution, for the apparent uniformity in the size of the two peaks may be due to varying distances from the camera. which was on the deck of a vessel at least 10 miles from the shore, Unimak island alone, with the story of volcanism it has to tell, is well worth a summer’s work, but near by within a circle of a hundred miles’ radius there are other volcanoes with more or less residual life, which, with Shishaldin, form a group so favorably situated for exploration that its systematic study could be ac- complished without great expense and-in a short field season. Pogrumnoi, on the western end of Unimak, is extinct, but on Akutan, the next island, there is an active volcano of the same name. One unusually favorable day in August, 1892, Mr Charles H. Townsend, of the United States Fish Commission, and I climbed one of the peaks of Unalaska bay, which brought Akutan in full view. To our great surprise, we saw gigantic rings of smoke, such as sometimes come in miniature from the smokestacks of locomotives, issuing from the crater at regular intervals of about twenty minutes. As each succeeding ring appeared, its prede- cessor was slowly breaking up and fading away in the air. Four such rings were seen, but how long the display lasted it was not possible to determine, as the peak became obscured in drifting banners of fog. . On Unalaska island is the huge volcanic mass of Makushin, between 5,000 and 6,000 feet high. From the reports of those who have ascended Makushin, it would seem that fumarole action is all that is left of its plutonic fires; but earthquakes, some of de- cided vigor, are annually felt in the locality, while the many ad- jacent cinder cones and craters testify to the activity of other days. 286 SHISHALDIN AS A FIELD FOR EXPLORATION Some 40 or 50 miles from Unalaska in a north of west direc- tion are the two tiny dots of rock which compose Bogosloy (Joanna Bogosl6va), whose origin was within historic time and whose form has undergone changes quite recently. Columns of steam steadily rise from one of the mounds, and here the warm earth temperature is now utilized, as some one has playfully sug- gested, to assist in the hatching of the eggs of the myriads of guil- lemots which,in company with a colony of sea-lions, occupy these volcanic remnants. The other member of the group, connected with its neighbor by a low-lying strip of sand, is without heat. Suggestions concerning the exploration of these areas would be incomplete without reference to methods of reaching them. A mail boat now makes a monthly trip from Sitka to Unalaska. This boat is under the control of the Pacific Steam Whaling Company, a corporation which would willingly extend a helping hand to such work. It would not be difficult to get this vessel to stop at the village of Morshovia, past which it goes, where could be readily secured the services of such men as Rosenberg and Swanson, who own a hunting cabin at the base of Shishaldin and have boats and suitable equipments for transportation. They could also obtain from among their Indian friends the necessary packers. The approach would have to be made from the Pacific side, as here the ground is high, barren, and rolling, while on the Bering Sea side there are lakes and swamps which would make travel difficult if not impossible. From Morshovia the mail steamer on its next monthly trip could move the party to Unalaska bay, where are located the comfortable stations of the North American Commercial Com-: pany and the Alaska Commercial Company, both of which cor- porations would doubtless render all possible assistance to such an expedition. Here also the aid of a revenue. cutter or that of a small schooner could be secured to make the short trips to Akutan and Bogoslov. The Revenue Cutter Service has won a high place for itself in the field of travel and of exploration, | and is always in sympathy with such matters. At Akutan, some twenty or thirty miles from Unalaska, there is an Indian village within a beautiful land-locked harbor. Here the party could be left for ten days or two weeks, guides ana packers secured from the Indian village, and the ascent and exploration of the volcano of Akutan readily accomphshed. Bogoslov could be explored in a round trip of two days or possibly less from Unalaska, if the conditions for landing were favorable. Using the commer- ODVITdIHOWVY NVILAUTVY —SANVISI AOTSONOR 288 MAGNETIC WORK OF COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY cial company’s stations as a base of supplies and assistance, the ascent of Makushin could be made direct from Unalaska, and that voleano fully investigated in about three or four days. Dr Dall,* in his work on Alaska, has presented a very inter- esting and instructive chronological tabulation of the activities of the volcanoes of Alaska, from which it would appear that there has been great diminution of energy with the passage of time. The systematic exploration and study of these volcanoes, as well as the associated volcanic areas, are well worth the atten- tion of geographic societies in America, or those who can com- mand leisure and a little money; but perhaps we shall have to wait, as in the case of Mt St Elias, for another Prince Luigi to come and tell us the facts concerning Shishaldin and Akutan. MAGNEMEG WORK OF PEE COASH AND, GEO DERE SURVEY By LL. A. Bauer, Chief of Division of Terrestrial Magnetism From the date of the organization of the Coast Survey the supplying of magnetic data to the land surveyor and the mariner has formed one of the chief functions of its work. With every year the demand for such data has become more and more press- ing, so that the present superintendent, Dr Henry 8. Pritchett, has found it necessary to form a distinct division for magnetic work. The work that it is proposed to carry out with the en- larged opportunities may be briefly classified as follows: 1. Magnetic Survey of Land Areas wader the Jurisdiction of the United States. The three elements, magnetic declination or “variation of compass,’ magnetic inclination or dip, and the intensity of the magnetic force, will be determined at stations on the average 25 to 50 miles apart. As the endeavor will be to observe at about 500 stations per annum, it is estimated that the complete survey of the country will take about ten years. The short-period variations, as the diurnal variation of the magnetic declination, will be eliminated with the aid of the con- tinuous observations at the magnetic observatories, while the * Dall (W. H.): Alaska and its Resources, pp. 467-470. MAGNETIC WORK OF COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY 289 corrections for secular variation will be made with the aid of observations repeated at certain intervals at so-called “ repeat ” or “secular variation ” stations. The Survey likewise is codper- ating with the various state geologists in the carrying out of detailed state magnetic surveys. This work consists in the estab- lishment, at the county-seats, of true meridian lines for the use of the surveyor and in the detection and mapping out of regional magnetic disturbances and the correlation of the latter with geologic formations. 2. Magnetic Survey of Ocean Areas. When the great rdle which the compass plays in the art of navigation is recalled, it seems remarkable that our country has done so little systematic work in the determination of magnetic elements at sea. In supplying compass directions on its charts the Survey is feeling keenly the need of more accurate data. It is a well-known fact that at the very places—near coast lines and over submerged land areas— where danger from shipwrecks is greatest the compass directions, taken from present charts of the lines of ‘ equal magnetic varia- tion,” are weakest. At these places these lines will present the same peculiar curvatures and interlacings that we find over the land areas. The Survey therefore proposes to contribute its ade- quate share toward remedying these defects and is making ample provision for carrying on such work systematically in the future. This work will be of a twofold character: a. Determination of magnetic elements at shore stations. b. Determination of magnetic elements at sea, the dip and relative intensity being obtained with the Fox dip circles. 3. Continuous Observations at Magnetic Observatories. ‘To make possible the rapid and economical execution of the plans just set forth, three well-equipped magnetic observatories will be established, viz., one near Washington city (this to be the cen- tral or standard observatory, at which the constants of all mag- netic instruments will be determined). one on the Pacific coast, and another on the Hawaiian islands. These observatories, with the codperation of those at Toronto, Habana, Mexico, and Manila, and some temporarily established observatories for re- cording the variations of the declination, will suffice for the practical needs of the magnetic survey work. Their function will be to record and to fix the countless variations and fluctua- tions of the earth’s magnetism and thus make possible the re- duction of all magnetic observations to a common epoch. SSOULVATV FHL os DEEE-ceA EXPLORING “EXPEDITION OF THE STEAMER ‘“‘ALBATROSS ”’ By Hucu M. Smiry, . U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries Unusual public interest has been manifested in the recent announcement of Hon. George M. Bowers, United States Com- missioner of Fish and Fisheries, that the steamer Albatross, be- longing to the Commission, would soon be dispatched on an exploring expedition to the Pacific ocean, the President having approved the detail of the vessel for that purpose. With the main objects of the expedition fully determined on, the arrange- ments for the cruise about completed, and the itinerary mapped out, it is now possible to give an outline of the leading features of the voyage. The Albatross is the best-equipped vessel afloat for deep-sea investigation, for which work she was especially constructed for the Fish Commission in 1882, at a cost of nearly $200,000. She is a twin-screw steamer of 384 tons burden, 254 feet long and 27% feet beam. The coal capacity is about 240 tons, and the steaming radius with that supply, in good weather. is over 4,500 miles, allowing a speed of eight knots an hour and a daily coal consumption of 10 tons. A full account of the construction of the Albatross and her appliances for marine investigation has been given in the admirable work on “ Deep-sea Exploration,” by Commander Z. L. Tanner, U.S. N., under whose direction the vessel was built and who was in command from the date of her launching until 1894. The reputation long enjoyed by the Alba- tross of being unequaled in effectiveness for marine research will be more than ever deserved on the approaching cruise because of the extensive improvements and repairs she has recently undergone, including the installation of new boilers, ice-making machine, cold-storage plant, etc., together with the thorough re- plenishing of the scientific outfit. The Albatross will pass through the Golden Gate on August 21 and begin her long voyage to certain groups of islands in the middle of the Pacific ocean, both north and south of the equator, whose local fauna is almost unknown, while in the adjacent 291 292 DEEP-SEA EXPLORING EXPEDITION waters little or no scientific investigation has been carried on. The Society islands will be first visited, although the vessel will touch at the Marquesas islands for coal. Between San Fran- cisco and Tahiti, a distance of 3,500 miles, dredging and sound- ing will be carried on at regular intervals on a section of the sea-bottom almost wholly unexplored. ‘Tahiti will be the head- quarters while the Society islands and the Paumota islands are being explored. In the latter archipelago, which is about 600 miles long, six or eight weeks will be spent and important sci- entific discoveries should be made. In the Tonga or Friendly islands, distant about 1,500 miles from the Society group, a week or ten days will be passed. The vessel will then proceed to the Fiji islands, where a short stay wil] be made, and thence 1,700 miles to the Marshall islands, in which interesting archi- pelago, of whose natural history almost nothing is known, six or seven weeks will be devoted to exploration. The Ellice and Gilbert islands, lying between the Fiji and Marshall islands, will also be visited. It was originally the intention to have the Albatross proceed from the Marshall islands to the Hawaiian islands and thence to San Francisco, running a line of deep-sea dredgings along the entire route; but, owing to the prevalence of head winds at the time when the vessel will be ready to leave the Marshall islands, this plan has been abandoned, and instead the vessel will sail for Japan, making frequent use of the dredge and the deep-sea tow-net and setting the trawl in the moderately deep water off the Japan coast, where the fishermen are contin- ually bringing up curious forms. The voyage of nearly 20,000 miles will come to an end at Yokohama, where the Albatross will arrive in April, 1900, and refit for a summer cruise to Alaska to - resume the systematic examination of the salmon streams begun several years ago. The leading features of the expedition will be deep-sea dredg- ing, trawling, and sounding, and some special appliances for such work have been constructed. A wire dredge-rope 6,000 fathoms Jong has been made to order, and to accommodate this enormous quantity a special drum has had to be prepared. It is expected that both the dredge and the beam-trawl will be hauled in deeper water than heretofore. One of the novel pieces of collecting apparatus is a beam-trawl of unprecedentedly large size, espe- cially designed for the capture of larger animals than can be taken with the usual apparatus. What results may attend its use can only be conjectured. The iron framework consists of DEEP-SEA EXPLORING EXPEDITION 293 two runners 6 feet long and 4 feet high, connected by a 20- foot beam, which has an up- ward curve of 2 feet from the horizontal in order to increase the size of the entrance of the net. Fitted to this frame is a bag 30 feet long. made of =3;- inch twine, with an 8-inch mesh ; a funnel-shaped throat is attached 7 feet back from the lead-line. The mouth of this trawl is twice the size of that of the largest trawl here- tofore constructed. The wide mesh permits the escape of the mud and finer bottom ma- terial which contribute so much to the weight when the ordinary small-mesh trawls are lifted. While the deep-sea investi- gations will receive the most attention, surface and interme- diate towing,shore-seining,and fishing trials with lines, gill- nets, and other appliances will be regularly carried on and will undoubtedly yield rich collections. This is a region abounding in atolls and _ ele- vated reefs, many of which will be visited and studied for the purpose of obtaining data bear- ing on the disputed question of the origin of coral reefs. The Albatross is manned by about 10 officers and 70 petty officers and enlisted men of the United States Navy. The com- manding officer is Lieutenant Commander Jefferson F. Moser, U.S. N. The civilian staff on GNASNMOL ‘H ‘0 AG GANDISAG — TMVUL-NVAT a4 SOS Bos? ‘ ( KS PD WV SSS OSE ( y Sete: * : SS ee SSS SSS 5 SS SSS Ss =< —=_— Se Ss SS — a = SS \ ane iy YY SSS SS SSS a = ! => — SSS SS SS Ss = SSS SSS SSS SSS = — as =e eS | i) , Ky i Me ! nt i i | h, i eee 0 Poa. SHOWEVAE OOO, TO ANTT UVINOIGNAGUAd V WON AdOU-aPGAUa TO NOTLVIATA DNTAONS WVUSVId =. —— a ——— eel : a — SS ee —S= Sg ar te 5 iene aS pea Se Sag TP eee di SSS Ai 2 eS ep ee Go eae ——— fl SERRE Ws SS SS DEEP-SEA EXPLORING EXPEDITION 299 this expedition consists of Professor Alexander Agassiz, in charge of the scientific work, who will be accompanied by his son and his personal assistants, Dr W. McM. Woodworth and Dr A. G. Mayer, of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy, Cambridge, Mass.; Dr H. F. Moore, chief naturalist of the Albatross; Mr Charles H. Townsend, former naturalist, now chief of the fish- eries division of the U.S. Fish Commission; Mr A. B. Alexan- der, fishery expert, and Mr H. G. Fassett, photographer, both of the U.S. Fish Commission. Opportunity will undoubtedly be afforded for conducting a number of important collateral inquiries without detriment to the regular scientific work. Advantage will be taken of every chance to obtain for the National Museum specimens of the mammals, birds, insects, and other land animals of the various islands visited. A study of the aboriginal fishing methods, ap- paratus, and boats, and the collection of specimens of the native fishing appliances will be in charge of the fishery expert. The Smithsonian Institution has specially requested that the Fish Commission make an effort to trace the origin of some of the ethnological specimens brought back from the Pacific islands by the Wilkes Exploring Expedition. Owing to the indifferent care which the collection received during early years, many of the labels were lost and the articles thus rendered practically worthless. Photographs and descriptions of such specimens will be furnished by the Smithsonian Institution in the hope that the Albatross may ascertain something about them. Inas- much as such an opportunity may never again arise to secure for the National Museum articles illustrating the arts and cus- toms of the natives of these isolated islands, which are rapidly yielding to the influences of civilization, Commissioner Bowers has notified the Smithsonian Institution that the naval and civil attachés of the vessel will be given special instructions to be on the lookout for desirable ethnological material. In order that the movements of the vessel in the islands to be visited may be facilitated, the Department of State has, through our ambassadors, notified the British, French, and German au- thorities of the approaching cruise, and asked that tariff and other regulations be waived. There is every reason to believe that this expedition will yield valuable scientific results and will be creditable to the country. It promises to be by far the most important marine expedition on which the Fish Commission has embarked and 296 GEOGRAPHICAL CONGRESS AT BERLIN one of the most pretentious scientific enterprises in which the government has ever engaged. It is a matter for congratulation that, in the activity in exploration of the seas now being exhibited by the British, German, French, Dutch, and Norwegian govern- ments, the United States will participate under such favorable auspices and be represented by a scientist of such wide expe- rience in deep-sea investigation as Professor Agassiz. GEOGRAPHICAL CONGRESS AT BERLIN The delegates of the National Geographic Society to the Sey- enth International Geographical Congress, which will be held at Berlin from Thursday, September 28. to Wednesday, October 4, under the auspices of * die Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde zu Ber- lin,” are as follows: Dr Alexander Graham Bell, President of the Society; Gen. A. W. Greely, U.S. A.,also designated by President McKinley to represent the United States government; Hon. Andrew D. White, U.S. Ambassador to Germany ; Prof. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the Weather Bureau ; Miss Eiiza Ruhamah Scidmore, Foreign Secretary of the Society ; Mr Marcus Baker, of the U. 8. Geological Survey; Dr L. A. Bauer, of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and Prof. Wm M. Davis, of Harvard University. : Antarctic exploration will occupy the most prominent place in the deliberations, for Captain Drygalski and Dr Neumayer and Sir Clements Markham will earnestly strive for the definite cooperation of the German and British expeditions that are to be sent out in the autumn of 1901. Prof. Penck, of Vienna, will reopen the discussion of his proposed map of the world on a scale of 1: 1,000,000, which at the last Congress, in London, 1896, was referred to a committee for report at this meeting. In the section of physical geography Prof. Wm. M. Davis will con- tribute a paper on The Geographical Cycle, and also one on Land Forms due to Glacial Erosion, while Poultney Bigelow, under the head of political geography, will discuss Colonial Government in different parts of the World. Other papers will be contributed by Prof. Supan, Sir John Murray, Prof. Wagner, Dr Oscar Lenz, the Prince of Monaco, Dr Futterer, and Miss L. A. Owen, of St Joseph, Mo. The committee in charge of the Congress have arranged for a delightful series of excursions to places of geographic interest within a day’s reach of Berlin. THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL IN ITS COMMERCIAL ASPECTS By JoserpH Nimmo, Jr, LL. D. The question as to the practicability of either the Nicaragua or the Panama Canal project depends upon three classes of consid- erations, viz., those relating to its engineering aspects, involving questions as to cost; those relating to its commercial possibilities, and those relating to its military importance. The government of the United States has thus far confined its inquiries almost exclusively to the engineering features of the project. During the last four years three engineering commis- sions have been appointed, viz., the “ Ludlow Commission,” authorized by act of January 28, 1895; the ** Walker Commis- sion,” authorized by act of June 4, 1897, and a commission of nine persons, authorized by act of March 3, 1899, and appointed by the President June 9, 1899. Rear-Admiral Walker is also chairman of this commission. There was appropriated by Con- cress for the Ludlow Commission $26,176; forthe commission of 1897 the sum of $300,000, and for the commission of 1899 the sum of $1,000,000. Soit appears that the total sum of $1,326,176 has been appropriated within four years for the purpose of ascer- taining the engineering features and the cost of constructing an American interoceanic canal, but up to the present time not one cent has been appropriated by Congress for the purpose of ascer- taining the probable commercial value of the project—. e., the amount of shipping. which would pass through it. The pro-. ponents of the Nicaragua Canal scheme have from the beginning opposed any governmental investigation whatsoever as to the practicability of their project. Such objections have been over- ruled by Congress as to the engineering aspects of the enterprise, but, singularly enough, have prevailed with respect to the com- mercial, the economic, and the military aspects of the scheme. The advocates of the canal declare that the commercial necessity for its construction is so clear that it needs no investigation. That is monstrous. It goes in the face of common sense and of every dictate of prudence. Section 231 of the Revised Statutes of the United States provides that “ there shall be prepared and 21 297 298 THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL submitted to Congress, in connection with the reports of exam- inations and surveys of rivers and harbors hereafter made to Congress, full statements of all existing facts tending to show to what extent the general commerce of the country will be pro- moted by the several works of improvement contemplated by such examinations and surveys.” But, in the face of this pro- vision of law touching the ascertainment of the commercial value of improvements of navigation within our own borders, the pro- ponents of the Nicaragua Canal in Congress and out of Congress have for years been urging the government to lend them one hundred million dollars for the construction of a canal in a foreign country, more than one thousand miles from our shores, without any official inquiry whatsoever as to its probable com- mercial value. In his book entitled ‘““ The Nicaragua Canal and the Monroe Doctrine,” Professor Keasbey says: “ What we need is another board of experts to study the commercial effects of the canal.” The Hon. Thomas B. Reed, in his article in the North American Review for May, 1899, in referring to “the possible tonnage which would pass through the Nicaragua Canal,” says: ‘It would seem, therefore, that after the question of cost is determined, or perhaps while it is being determined, a commission of compe- tent persons, unprejudiced, should be invited to study this part of the subject. We shall then be equipped with the necessary facts to enable us to judge of the commercial success of the undertaking.”’ Near the close of the last Congress the fact seemed to have dawned upon the minds of certain leading Senators and mem- bers of Congress that the commercial inquiry should have pre- ceded any appropriation for the construction of the canal; but the act of March 5, 1899, appropriating one million dollars for the examination of both the Nicaragua and the Panama routes, refers only to the engineering, the proprietary, and the financial features of those schemes, and contains not a word as to their ccmmercial, economic, or military aspects. Action has, how- ever, been taken whereby a committee of three of the commis- sion of nine has been assigned to the duty of inquiring into these particular aspects of the subject. This is not in terms authorized by law, but it appears to be the beginning of an inquiry of deepest interest to the people of the United States. It is the object of this paper to present some of the more im- portant geographic, commercial, and economic conditions which THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL 299 determine the commercial possibilities of any American isthmian canal, and to show the importance of their thorough investiga- tion by specific provision of law before committing the govern- ment to any financial obligations for construction. Neither the Nicaragua Canal nor the Panama Canal would afford the shortest or the most practicable route for the trade of the Atlantic seaports of the United States or for the trade of the countries of Europe with Asia or Australasia. This is placed beyond all question by the following statement of distances fur- nished to me, under date of June 10, 1898, by the Superintend- ent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey : From Manila to New York: Nautical miles. MMOL SUCZ CANA ery beans yah haiy ante alae ae 11,565 Mar sigarpieie, Ohmi cosoasedcnosedudcoodobose 11,746 ° From Manila to London: ac Suez Cama verersea es angler fe ay aA Aen IDs 9,600 VaosNicaragua@ amass tics sae ele ee 14,680 This indicates that the Suez route has an advantage of 181 miles over the Nicaragua route for the trade of New York with Manila, and an advantage of 5,080 miles over the Nicaragua route for the trade of London with Manila. The Suez Canal is, however, a sea-level canal, whereas the Nicaragua Canal involves 220 feet of lockage. In respect to the important consideration of coaling facilities, having regard both to location of coaling stations.and the price of coal, the Suez Canal route is also greatly superior to either the Nicaragua or the Panama route. Taking all these facts into consideration, it is evident that the Suez Canal possesses an equivalent advantage of fully 1,500 miles aver the Nicaragua or the Panama Canal route with respect to the commerce of the Atlantic seaports of the United States with Asia and Australasia, and of fully 6,000 miles with respect to the commerce of the various countries of Europe with Asia and Australasia. The rainfall at the eastern end of the Nicaragua Canal has amounted to 25 feet in a single year, whereas the average an- nual rainfall at Suez is only about two inches. The enormous precipitation at Nicaragua not only vitally affects the question as to the permanence of earthworks but has a material bearing upon the question of navigation. A careful observer of engi- neering works on the American isthmus and contiguous territory declares that all maximum estimates of cost of construction in, 300 THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL the United States should be multiplied by 22 in order to obtain the cost of similar earthworks on the American isthmus on ac- count of the enormous precipitation in that part of the globe. It is claimed by the proponents of the two American inter- oceanic canal projects that the commerce of the Pacifie Coast states of the United States with that portion of the country which lies east of the Rocky mountains will afford a large amount of traffic for either of the proposed canals. This has little support in commercial, geographic, or economic conditions. About two- thirds of the people of the United States reside west of the Ap- palachian range. ‘The principal commerce of our Pacific Coast states is with that portion of the country which lies west of this line and east of the Rocky Mountain range. ‘The average dis- tance from all points of production and consumption in the Pacific Coast states to all points of production and consumption in the area between the Rocky Mountain range and the Appa- lachian range by direct rail lines is only about one-third the average distance between such points by the Nicaragua or Pan- ama route. Besides, the direct rail route is greatly superior to the water route with respect to speed, facilities for the collection and distribution of freights, and the avoidance of those trans- shipments of cargo which would be necessary in the case of goods shipped by the canal route. The same is true as to mer- chandise of all sorts shipped from points east of the Rocky mountains to both interior points and to seaports of the Pacific Coast states. It is also beyond all question that the transconti- nental rail lines will for all time secure the entire carriage of passengers, the mails, bullion, express goods, perishable goods, and fast freights generally, and that by an inevitable law of the economics of transportation they will also secure the carriage of nearly all the rest of the traffic in general merchandise be- tween the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts. This is matter of common experience throughout the country. The transconti- nental railroads are now extensively engaged in the transpor-_ tation of raw material and gross products for long distances. Among these commodities may be mentioned coal, lumber, ores, and agricultural products of every description. It is mani- festly absurd to assume that Chicago, St Louis, Cincinnati, and hundreds of other centers of trade will ever engage in trade with the Pacific Coast states by the way of the Nicaragua or Panama Canal; such traffie will for all time be carried on over direct rail lines. This is an inevitable result of the wonderful re- THE PROPOSED. AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL 301 duction which has been made in the cost of transportation by rail. The average rail rate in the United States is now only about one-third the average of the rates which prevailed thirty years ago. A report, prepared in 1898, under the direction of the Statistician of the Department of Agriculture, on Changes in the Rates of Charge for Railway and other Transportation Services, shows (p. 49) that rail rates per 100 pounds on carload lots from Pacific Coast terminals tothe port of New York were in the years 1870 and 1897 as follows: Rate on canned goods, $3.66 in 1870 and 75 cents in 1897; on dried fruit, $3.66 in 1870 and $1.00 in 1897; on raisins, $3.66 in 1870 and $1.00 in 1897; on wine in wood, $4.79 in 1870 and 75 cents in 1897, and on hops, $3.66 in 1870 and $1.50 in 1897. A corresponding table on page 50 of the report just mentioned shows that rates per 100 pounds from New York to Pacific Coast terminals in carloads were reduced as follows: On stoves, from $5.66 in 1870 to $1.10 in 1897; on glassware, from $5.66 in 1870 to 85 cents in 1897, and on agricultural implements, from $3.48 in 1870 to $1.15 in 1897. The foregoing characteristic data indicate that the present rail rates between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States are only about one-fourth the rates which prevailed during the year 1870. There is a pressing need that these important com- mercial facts shall be brought to the attention of Congress and of the country by acompetent and impartial commission charged with that duty. The assumption that large quantities of cotton would be shipped from New Orleans and other Gulf ports to Asia via the Nicaragua or Panama Canal is negatived by the fact that at cur- rent rates cotton can be shipped more quickly and at jess ex- pense from points of production in our southern states to San Francisco by rail and thence by ship to Asia. here is a differ- ence of more than 2.000 miles in favor of the overland route. The assumption that coal ean be profitably transported from the mines of Virginia and West Virginia to San Francisco is also absolutely negatived by current prices of coal at Atlantic and at Pacific’ports, the cost of transportation and the canal toll, assuming it to be $1.80, the present Suez Canal rate. Neverthe- less, through false representations, the assumptions as to cotton and coal have to some extent taken possession of the public mind, and therefore should become the subject of careful investigation by a properly organized governmental commission. 302 THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL In this connection there arises an important question as to markets. The value of the products of all industries in the states of the Pacific coast and in the so-called arid region is fully $700,000,000 annually. This gives rise to an enormous com- merce with the states east of the Missouri river. Chicago, St Louis, St Paul, Minneapolis, Cincinnati, and other interior cities are now the centers of that commerce over direct lines. Hence arises the important question as to whether the people of those cities and of the entire western and northwestern states are or are not in favor of the payment of a capital subvention probably amounting to at least $200,000,000 and an additional subvention on account of interest and maintenance of works amounting annually to at least $9,000,000 for the purpose of diverting this great trade to rival commercial centers. The utter absurdity of the proposition that the Nicaragua Canal would be of any possible benefit to the great interior cities or to the entire western and northwestern section of this country is also indicated by the following statement of distances : San Francisco to Chicago : Miles. Bye dire chiral laliime cea lesen cram se ndeete a reiaia neenenee he 2,396 By, Nicaraeuasroube amaenailliecen eine eee ene . 5,808 The seaport cities of the Pacific Coast have also to face the ques- tion as to whether they are or are not in favor of such Panama or Nicaragua Canal subventions having in view the object of diverting our commerce with Asia and Australasia from Pacific Coast ports. This inquiry is accentuated by the fact that Hono- lulu, the intermediate coaling station of the Pacific Ocean, is 1,142 statute miles south of San Francisco. I have no faith in the potentiality of such subventions upon the course of commerce for reasons of an economic and commercial nature herein set forth, but merely allude to the obvious purpose and tendency of such subventions and to the necessity for honest and thorough official inquiry into the matter. Neither the Panama nor the Nicaragua Canal will ever be available for sailing vessels on account of lack of wind and tow- age charges. This constitutes one of the most important con- ditions affecting the practicability of any American interoceanic canal. It would be necessary not only to tow sailing vessels through any American canal, butalso,as a rule, to tow them toand from the canal through the Doldrums. For the same reasons no THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL 303 sailing vessel ever passes through the Suez Canal. The enormous precipitation at Nicaragua and at Panama increases the difficulty at the American isthmus. Proponents of the American canals imagine, however, that upon the completion of their projects sailing vessels will give place to steamships. That is highly problematical. Sailing tonnage is fairly holding its own in the ports of the globe, es- pecially for long voyages. The following was the composition of the American merchant marine for the year 1898: Tons. Monnacexoh Sailing: VESSelSye eal sehen ele ne see cael 2,377,815 Monnage) Of Steann VESSel Saris tieys ecu ois) clave mike tere Zot L923 This shows the tonnage of sailing vessels to be somewhat in ex- cess of that of steam vessels. Besides the carrying capacity of sailing vessels considerably exceeds that of steam vessels on ac- count of space occupied on the latter by boilers, engines, and coal. The total tonnage of vessels entered at and cleared from ports of the Pacific coast of the United States in trade with Europe during the year 1898 amounted to 821,010 tons, of which only 1,199 was steam tonnage, the rest being composed of large sailing vessels. Sailing vessels pursuing the Cape Horn route require much more time than would steamers by the canal route, but are much more cheaply operated and afford the important advantage of storage at sea. Besides, steam vessels would incur the expense of tolls on the canal, which at the rate lately current on the Suez Canal— $1.80 per ton—would amount to $7,200 on a 4,000-ton steamer for each passage. Sailing vessels are still largely employed in the trade of Great Britain with Australia and with China and Japan. Such vessels pursue the route via the Cape of Good Hope and never take the Suez Canal route. This is a subject which should be carefully investigated and reported upon by a compe- tent and impartial commission duly authorized by order of Con- eress. There is now a large number of sailing vessels in course of construction in this country and the owners of these vessels face the future with confidence in the success of their ventures. The commerce of the western coast of South America, includ- ing Chile, Peru, Ecuador, and the United States of Colombia on the Pacific, is sharply conditioned by that broken and irreg- ular mountain range which extends from Alaska to Cape Horn— the most striking orological feature of the western continent. That part of this range known as the Andes skirts the western shore of South America and practically limits the foreign com- 304 THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL merce of this coast to the narrow strip of country embraced within its western slope. This commerce centers at Valparaiso, the chief seaport of Chile, and is carried on mainly by means of steamer lines which pursue the Straits of Magellan route and ply between Valparaiso and New York and between Valparaiso and ports in Europe. The commercial success of the vessels of these lines depends very largely upon the fact that they touch and trade at ports on the eastern coast of South America. The principal of these ports are Buenos Ayres, Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, and Para; also ports in the West Indies. Itis certain that for the reason just stated no consider- able part of this commerce would be diverted to any American isthmian canal. Besides, the exportable products of the west coast of South America are essentially sailing-vessel cargoes, consisting mainly of the nitrates, copper, wheat, coal, manganese ore, barley, cop- per ore, and wheat flour. A considerable part of the import cargoes into the countries of this coast are also sailing-vessel cargoes; but, as before shown, it will be entirely impracticable to navigate sailing vessels through any American isthmian canal- There is a comparatively small amount of commerce which moves northward to Panama. According to the best available data, it amounts to about 250,000 tons of shipping annually. The possibility of its development is confined mainly to a nar- row strip of country comprising the west slope of the Andes, north of Callao. The attempt has many times been made to prove inferentially that an American isthmian canal must succeed because the Suez Canal has proved to.be a success. This is not argument; it is idle vaporing. Inferences may be projected from similar but not from dissimilar circumstances and conditions. It would be quite as logical to infer the failure of the Nicaragua or Panama Canal from the failure of canals in various parts of the world as the result of railroad competition as to infer the success of such canal from the success of the Suez Canal or of the Sault Ste Marie Canal of the United States. The commercial failure of the Man- chester Canal, the Kiel Canal, and the Corinth Canal are examples in point; so is the abandonment of canals in all parts of this country, notably the recent abandonment of the Delaware and Hudson Canal. The President of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, which is now exclusively a railroad company, THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL 308 states in his last annual report that the canal belonging to that company was abandoned because “ the cost of transportation by that route was too great as compared with other methods.’ In a letter dated July 8, 1899, the secretary of the company in- forms me that the views expressed in the report just mentioned “have been more than vindicated by subsequent results in the company’s operations.” “The enormous falling-off in the tonnage of the Erie and Welland Canals, and the changes and astounding reductions in the traffic of rivers in all sections of this country as a result of the competition of rival railroads point in the same direction. During the 16 years from 1876 to 1892 the tonnage of freights transported on the lower Mississippi fell 413 per cent, the ton- nage on competing railroads increased 350 per cent, and the sea traffic of New Orleans increased 70 per cent. ‘This deflection of commerce from the Mississippi to competing railroads is still going on. The Sault Ste Marie Canal has no parallel in the world as to the commodities which pass through it or the conditions under which its commerce exists. Any attempt, therefore, to predict the success of the Nicaragua or Panama Canal from the success of the Sault Ste Marie Canal is glaringly absurd. The Suez Canal connects ‘great commercial and industrial na- tions, whereas the most striking physical aspect of any American isthmian canal is that it would’ connect two vast unproductive oceans. The Suez Canal has no competing railroad. but the wonderful. progress of railroad building in Asia and the grand schemes of railroad construction now being agitated in Europe and in Persia, India, and China seem to forecast an era of rail- road construction which in time will seriously affect the traffic of the Suez Canal. A single competing railroad as effective as any one of the transcontinental lines which connect the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States would at once take from the Suez Canal the entire carriage of! passengers, the mails, express goods. perishable goods, and fast freights generally, leaving to it only the lower class of freights, for which sailing vessels, by the old Cape of Good Hopé route, would be, as they are today, sharp competitors. This is an economic fact beyond all question. Let the government of the United States institute a thorough and impartial investigation of all these conditions, and no longer leave them to be determined by the speculations of canal pro- ponents, who not only fail to make known the facts upon which 306 THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL their own estimates of tonnage are based, but vigorously oppose any governmental attempt to institute practical inquiries into the subject, at the same time being ardent applicants for enormous subventions from the national treasury in aid of their particular undertakings. The idea that the Nicaragua or Panama Canal route, even at the present-rate of tolls charged on the Suez Canal, about $1.80 per net ton of shipping, will secure the traffic in wheat and lumber from the Pacific coast to the countries of Europe or to other countries and islands on the eastern side of the American continent is subject to serious question. Wheat, lumber, and coal transported on long voyages are essentially sailing-vessel cargoes; but, as before shown, it will for all time be impracti- cable to navigate sailing vessels through any American inter- oceanic canal, for the same reason that no sailing vessel ever passes through the Suez Canal. The records of commerce across the Isthmus of Panama dur- ing the last fifty years serve to throw light upon the question as to the practicability of an American interoceanic canal. ‘The construction of the Panama Railroad was begun in the month of May, 1850, and it was opened for traffic January 28,1855. The length of the road is 472 miles. The cost of its construction was $8,000,000. It continued to be the principal avenue for commerce between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States until the completion of the first transcontinental railroad, the Union and Central Pacific, on May 10, 1869. During the year ended June 30, 1869, the total value of merchandise shipped from New York to San Francisco and from San Francisco to New York via Panama amounted to $70,202,029. As the result of transconti- nental railroad competition, it fell in the following year, to $18,594,255. During the year ended June 30, 1898, it amounted to only $4,887,289. Upon the completion of the Union and Central Pacific railroad line in 1869, the carriage of passengers: the mails, coin and bullion, express goods, perishable goods, and all the more valuable “ fast freights ” was at once deflected to the transcontinental railroad, nevermore to be transferred to any possible trans-isthmian rail or water route. Since the'year 1869 eight other transcontinental lines and parts of lines have been constructed, and direct connections have been formed with lines reaching to every center of trade and of production in this country from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Canada to the Gulf. THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL 307 Thus an enormous internal and transcontinental traffic has sprung up. The total freight traffic of the Panama Railroad, through and local, embracing freights to and from the entire western coast of North America, Central America, and South America, amounted during the year 1897 to only 290,651 tons, whereas the tonnage carried across the continental divide by rail, according to the best means of information, amounted to over 3,000,000 tons, and included freights of every class, from the highest to the lowest. Besides, an enormous local traffic has sprung up along the transcontinental lines and their branches. A vast area has thus been reclaimed to the arts of civilization. The seventy-ton steel locomotive and the eighty-pound steel rail have become the chief instrumentalities of the grandest and most efficient system of transportation ever seen on this globe, and the demand for still larger achievements is imperative. The one- hundred-ton steel locomotive has been built, the one-hundred- pound steel rail has been laid,and the practicability of the one- hundred-and-ten-pound steel rail is affirmed. ‘The determining economic factor in the case is not railroad grades or mountain summits or continental slopes, but coal, the price of coal. It is mere question of fuel, and nature has granted to our country superabundant supplies of that invaluable source of power. The result is that the quest of the early navigators for a natural water- way through the western world and the vagaries of American interoceanic canal propagandists have become or are fast becom- ing things of the past—the mouldy past. The commerce of Colon at the eastern terminus of the Panama Canal is very largely incidental to other and more important traffic. Steamers embark from ports in Europe for ports in South America, Central America, and the West India islands, touching at Colon, as they do at other ports en route. The same is toa considerable extent true as to the commerce of Panama at the Pacific terminus of the Panama Railroad. In a word, neither the Panama Canal nor the Nicaragua Canal is on the line of any creat independent commercial movement, but if completed would occupy the position of lateral lines to comparatively small com- mercial movements, the terminus of either canal being merely points at which certain ocean steamer lines would touch and trade. In December, 1898, the American interoceanic canal question assumed a new aspect. ‘The “ New Panama Canal Company,” a French enterprise (as was its predecessor, the Panama Canal 308 THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL Company, of which the late Count de Lesseps was president), presented to Congress and to the President of the United States certain picturesque and elaborately prepared documents with the object in view of proving that it would be much better for the government of the United States to grant large financial aid for the completion of that enterprise than to construct the Nicaragua canal. Under the title “ The Traffic of the Panama Canal,” the report presented by this company merely states that ithhas adopted a new method of computing the probable tonnage of the proposed canaland that the results obtained are mostexact. But,strangely enough, like all the deliverances of the Nicaragua Canal pro- ponents, it fails to state what those results are, from what par- ticular commercial movements the expected tonnage is to come, or of what products its traffic is expected to be composed. The amount of shipping which would probably pass through either of the proposed canals is the vital point upon which the practi- cability of any American isthmian canal must turn. Failure to state it, at this time, must therefore stand as a confession of the commercial unworthiness of any trans-isthmian scheme until the question as to its commercial possibilities has been placed beyond all doubt. Nevertheless the proponents of the Panama Canal were able to lead Congress to ordera new American interoceanic canal commission, at the enormous outlay of one million dollars, for the purpose of ascertaining the cost of the two rival projects and the practicability of placing either one of them ‘‘ under the control, management, and ownership of the United States.” Un- fortunately, in this statutory enactment, no provision was made for the investigation of the many and difficult economic and com- mercial problems upon the proper solution of which depends the vitally important question as to the commercial value of any American interoceanic canal. The important question as to the military value of an Ameri- can interoceanic canal has never yet been determined by any thorough and impartial governmental inquiry. Thus far pro- ponents of canal schemes have been able to prevent such inquiry by order of Congress. The governmental reports touching upon this- feature of the proposed canals are, on the whole, unfavor- able. It is now seen that if the Nicaragua Canal had been com- pleted before the outbreak of the late war with Spain the U.S. battleship Oregon would not have passed through it, for the rea- son that the warships which would have been required for the THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL 309 defense of its eastern entrance and the troops which would have been required for the defense of the entire line were then needed for other service. The whole question as to the military value of the Nicaragua Canal to the United States in time of war is, however, fatally compromised by the blundering Clayton- Bulwer treaty of 1850. That treaty secures to Great Britain and other foreign nations equal rights for the passage of ships both of com- merceand war. Such neutralization of the Nicaragua Canal was clear to Mr Blaine and was stated by him, as Secretary of State, to Mr Lowell, our Minister to England, in a letter dated Novem- ber 19, 1881. There is no feature of the American interoceanic canal scheme which demands more patient and thorough govy- ernmental investigation than does that as to its military aspects. As the shipping of Great Britain and other nations engaged in international commerce greatly exceeds that of American vessels thus employed, either the Nicaragua Canal or the Panama Canal, if completed, would be much more subservient of foreign than of American shipping interests. This is indicated by the fol-: lowing facts: During the six months ended June 30, 1898, the total tonnage which passed through the Suez Canal amounted to 4,842,078 tons, of which 5,252,654 tons, or 67 per cent, was British ; 471,571 tons, or nearly 10 per cent, was German ; 459,001 tons, or 9 per cent, was French, and only 1,531 tons, or three one-. hundredths of one per cent, was American. Again, during the year ended June 30, 1898, the tonnage entered at ports of the United States from foreign countries amounted to 21,700,311 tons, of which 18,337,836 tons, or 84 per cent, was foreign and only 3,362,475 tons, or 16 per cent, was American. Surely it would be better for the country to adopt an efficient policy for the restoration of the American merchant marine before enter-. ing upon the construction of a canal, at least 90 per cent of the benefits of which, if any, would inure to the ships of other nations, under the provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer treaty. The fact that the proponents of the canal companies who now seek governmental aid have been unable to float their securities. in the money markets of the globe constitutes overwhelming presumptive evidence of the unworthiness of their project from the commercial point of view. It is idle to assume that the scheme is too large for private enterprise, when hundreds and 310 THE PROPOSED AMERICAN INTEROCEANIC CANAL even thousands of millions of dollars are continually being secured for commercial and industrial enterprises of merit. When M. de Lesseps visited this country in the year 1880 I was invited by the American Society of Civil Engineers in my then official capacity as Chief of the Bureau of Statistics in the Treasury Department to compute the amount of tonnage which would probably pass through an American interoceanic canal. This I did, under an order of the Secretary of the Treasury, in- vestigating the available sources of geoyraphic, economic, and commercial information. The work was one of considerable magnitude. It was begun in the month of February and com- pleted in the month of August, 1880. I reported a possible ton- nage of 1,625,000 tons per annum for any one of the proposed canals. Since the year 1880 seven transcontinental lines and parts of lines have been completed, the facilities for transporta- tion by rail have been greatly increased, there has been an enor- mous development of transcontinental traffic, and, as already shown, rates have greatly fallen. In a word, the general trend of the evolution of transportation facilities during the last twenty years has been in the direction of reducing the possible tonnage ofany American interoceanic canal. From a computation based upon all the controlling conditions of the present day, I con- clude that not more than 400,000 tons of shipping annually can be confidently expected to pass through any such canal. The receipts of any American interoceanic canal from tolls would therefore be insufficient to meet the expenses of its maintenance and administration, with nothing for interest on cost of construc- tion, amounting probably to eight million dollars a year. During the last ten years I have from time to time plead for a thorough and impartial investigation of the economic and com- mercial aspects of the proposed American interoceanic canal project by a commission upon which there should be placed no advocate or opponent of any one of the proposed schemes, and now through THE NarronaL GrocraPHic MaGazine I submit to the criticism and impartial judgment of geographers, econ- omists, and students of commercial problems throughout the world my conception of the nature and scope of a proper gov- ernmental inquiry, and the main facts and conditions upon which such inquiry should be based. eh THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL * By Emory R. Jounson, Assistant Professor of Transportation and Commerce in the University of Pennsylvania The nature and scope of the influences which a canal across the American isthmus will exert have not been so thoroughly studied as have been the engineering and political questions connected with the enterprise. Congress has established several . “ boards of engineers to survey the canal routes and to report upon the technical problems and to estimate the probable cost of the work; but as yet there has been no official report upon the industrial and commercial effects that will follow from the construction of the waterway. It is not altogether obvious what economic changes will be brought about by the canal, and it would seem desirable that we should understand more clearly than we now do why this waterway is essential, if it be so, to the wellare of the American people and the American nation. The construction of an isthmian canal is proposed for the general purpose of shortening distances between the Atlantic and Pacific. The route for sailing vessels between San Fran- cisco and New Orleans, the route now being by way of Cape Horn, will be shortened 11,000 miles, that from San Francisco to New York 10,000 miles, and to Liverpool 7,200 miles. For steamers the distances saved will be about 2,000 miles less, be- cause they pass through the Straits of Magellan instead of round- ing the Horn, and also follow a more direct course than sailers can. The canal will make Valparaiso 1,000 miles nearer to our *\s a writer on the industrial and commercial aspects of the Isthmian Canal problem, known toregard favorably the proposed construction of a waterway across the Republic of Nicaragua, Professor Emory R. Johnson was inyited to contribute an article on the subject to this number of THe Nariona, GroGRapuic MaGazine. His engagements being such as entirely to preclude him from accepting the invitation, he has, at the special request of the Editor, kindly revised for this issue the article which he wrote a few months ago for the Independent, in which the benefits which he considers likely to accrue to American commerce from the construction of an Isthmian Canal are very clearly and foreibly set forth. If any justification were needed for the virtual reproduction in this Magazine of an article that has recently appeared in so widely-read a journal as the Independent, it should be sought in the desire of the Editor to present both sides of that most important question, whether the benefit to be derived by the United States from the construction of an Isthmian Canal would be such as to justify a large Congressional subvention.—Eb. 311 312 THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL Atlantic ports than to Europe, and will bring our Atlantic and Gulf cities nearer than Liverpool and other European cities (their route being through the Suez Canal) to Australia, Japan, and China from Shanghai north. How will these modifications in distances affect our navy, our industries, and our commerce? We have had some recent illus- trations of the way in which an isthmian canal would affect the efficiency of ournavy. he battleship Oregon left San Francisco March 19 and arrived at Jupiter inlet, Florida, May 25, having been 67 days en route. If there had been a canal across the isth- mus, the Oregon could have reached Florida in 15 days. She would have saved 52 days’ sailing and made the trip in one- fourth the time. We are now sending two men-of-war from the Atlantic to the Philippines. It takes these vessels about 50 days longer to reach their destination by rounding South Amer- ica than it would by way of an isthmian canal. With the canal constructed we shall be able to accomplish much more with the war ships in our possession, and will need to construct and maintain fewer ships than will otherwise be necessary. If we do not construct the canal, we shall need to put a third of what the waterway would have cost into additional naval vessels. The expense of maintaining these ships would cover more than one third the cost of operating and maintaining the waterway. The effects which the canal will have upon our economic inter- ests will be, in general, those which will result from lengthening the radius of the circle within which the industries of our coun- try may exchange commodities. Shorter and cheaper transpor- tation, such as an isthmian canal will afford, stimulates existing industries by giving them moreand larger markets and enabling them to secure more advantageously the raw materials which they require. Improved transportation also leads to the estab- lishment of new business enterprises and develops domestic and | foreign trade. That the isthmian waterway will affect these general results in the United States may be shown by consider- ing how it will change our relation to the lines of the world’s commerce and by noting the way in which the canal will affect the industries in the eastern, southern, central, and western sec- tions of our country. The leading industrial nations of the world are adjacent to the North Atlantic These countries originate the larger part of the world’s commerce; the main streams of international trade THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL 313 are those which connect these countries with each other and with those regions of the earth less highly developed industri- ally. Inasmuch as the land masses of the earth lie mainly in the northern hemisphere, and, indeed, very largely north of the Tropic of Cancer, the primary routes of commerce are those which follow the parallels of latitude proceeding from the North Atlantic as a center east and west to reach developing regions in America, Asia, and the Orient generally. The routes of traffic of secondary but increasing importance run with the lines of longitude connecting the lands of the north temperate zone with the tropical regions and the countries which occupy the rela- tively restricted land areas of the south temperate belt. The Isthmus of Suez, just north of the Tropic of Cancer, and the Isthmus of Panama, a short distance south of that line, were the only barriers which nature placed across an otherwise con- tinuous water route around the earth in the northern hemi- sphere. These barriers diverted the lhnes which the world’s largest volume of traffic tends to follow far to the south around Africa and South America, or did so until 1879, when Europe overcame the barrier of most consequence to her by the construc- tion of the Suez Canal. Since the opening of that waterway Ku- rope has enjoyed trade advantages far superior to those enjoyed by our country. Our regions most highly developed industrially are tributary to the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico. To the east of us lies Europe, a region of great industrial advancement, de- manding little more than our surplus food products and raw materials; to the south are the countries of the South Atlantic lying along the line of the world’s secondary commercial routes ; countries, moreover, whose trade we can secure only in direct competition with Europe, which has already forestalled us at many points. In pushing their trade westward the industrial states of the United States—and they are found in the eastern half of our country—find that the possibilities of a traffic by land are restricted within narrow bounds by the heavy costs of a long haul over the elevated Cordilleran Mountain ranges, while shipments by water have to take the circuitous and expensive route around South America, Until an isthmian canal is con- structed the United States will be very seriously handicapped in its competition with Europe for the trade of all countries bor- dering the Pacific ocean. Such being the general relation which the canal will bear to the commercial development of the eastern half of the United 22 314 THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL States, how will it affect the leading industries of the different sections of the country? The northeastern section is one of varied manufactures and corresponds roughly with western Kurope in industrial development. The manufacturers of this part of our country can hardly hope to build up a large trade with Europe, but can unquestionably develop large markets for their wares in the western third of the United States and in the markets of the Orient when the time and expenses of transpor- tation have been reduced by an isthmian waterway. A trade of some importance, though not large, can be established in western South America. Our southern states are now producing much more cotton than the mills of Europe and our own country can use, and are anxious to increase their sales both of the raw staple and of cotton manufactures in the Pacific countries. Besides develop- ing the cotton textile industry the South is opening up her rich coal and iron mines and manufacturing iron and steel, and these industries must also look to the West for their chief markets. The states north of the Ohio and Missouri rivers include our richest agricultural resources, our most productive iron mines, our chief stores of bituminous coal, and also have forests of large extent. The industries of these states, though still mainly extractive, are to a large and rapidly growing extent composed of manufactures. Their millsand factories turn out large quan- tities of iron and steel, machinery, ships, furniture, wooden wares, and flour. That these states in the central part of our large country are enjoying such a phenomenal industrial de- velopment is due mainly to the transportation facilities which have been provided by the railroad trunk lines to the Atlantic and the Gulf, the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, the Great Lakes, and the Erie Canal. Whatever cheapens transportation accom- plishes surprising economic results in this section of our country. The canal across the American isthmus will give the central West a chance to increase its traffic with the trans-Cordilleran states and with the foreign countries that border the Pacific. What the Great Lakes and the Erie Canal have done for the eastern trade of these states, the interoceanic canal will do for its western trade. The section of our country tributary to the Pacific is devoted mainly to agriculture, stock-raising, farming, lumbering, and the mining of the precious metals. Most of the products of these industries are bulky, and only the precious metals, fruits, and a THE INTEROCEANIC CANAL 315 few forest products of high value can bear the costs of transporta- tion by rail over the mountains to the eastern states. The people of the Pacific states are eager to increase their trade with Hurope and the eastern half of the United States, and are clamoring for an isthmian canal. The waterway will do for the eastern trade of the Pacific section what it will do for the western trade of the eastern, southern, and central states. In considering the general commercial and industrial changes which an interoceanic canal will effect, attention may well be directed to three things which the waterway will not accomplish: First. It is possible that the traffic through the canal will not grow more rapidly than did the commerce through the Suez route. British India, the East Indies, and other countries with which Great Britain and the continental nations trade by way of the Suez Canal had, when the Suez route was opened, more extensive industries and a larger and longer established com- merce than have many of the Pacific countries whose commerce is to cross the American isthmus. In the case of the Suez Canal it was largely a question of increasing an existing trade. The American isthmian canal traffic will consist mainly of a newly created trade and only to a small extent of an existing traffic diverted from present routes. The American canal, however, will have the advantage of connecting the two coasts of the United States, and the commerce between these sections will in- crease rapidly. In the second place, it must not be expected that the canal will give us control of the Pacific trade unless we accompany the construction of the canal with the establishment of other agencies that give our Huropean competitors greater trade ad- vantages than we now possess. There must be international banking facilities provided; we must have cable connections with the South American and Pacific countries, and, most im- portant of all, we must bring about the establishment of more lines of vessels plying regularly between American and foreign ports. These auxiliaries of commerce, as well as the canal, are essential to commercial expansion. Thirdly. The canal is not going to be a detriment to the trans- continental railroads. Some peoplesuppose that it will, but the history of the competition of waterways and railroads does not warrant such a conclusion. The railways to the Pacific will find that their traffic will increase more than pari passu with the growth of the business done through the canal. Some of the 316 PLANS FOR REACHING THE SOUTH POLE freight now carried by rail will be diverted, but the amount will be small, and will be more than made good by the increased traffic that will result from the industrial and commercial de- velopment produced by the canal. The railroads having the heaviest traffic in the United States are those which serve the ter- ritory adjacent to our Great Lakes, upon which there is an enormous freight business done. In Germany the railroads carrying the largest volumes of traffic are in Westphalia, through which flows the Rhine, the busiest waterway on the continent of Europe. The interoceanic canal will not only increase the total volume of business done by the transcontinental railroads, but it will also increase the ratio which the local freight will bear to the total traffic. The canal can only carry its traffic between the seaports; the railroads must collect and distribute the com- modities it transports, and that means a larger amount of local freight, the business from which the roads derive their best profits. The policy of territorial expansion which we have apparently decided to adopt is fraught with many duties and not a few dangers. Some public leaders are opposing the acquisition of colonies, but no one is opposed to the acquisition of trade and the expansion of our commerce. The necessity for promoting our foreign trade is recognized by all parties and sections, and our attention is being directed more and more to securing our full share of the prospectively large trade of the countries of the Pacific. In order to compete successfully with Europe in the Pacific we need the canal across the American isthmus. | PEANS PORT REACHING Wines S@UdTmZOle By Gitsert H. GRosvENOR The return of the Belgica in early spring, with the splendid record of being the first vessel to pass a winter within the Ant- arctic circle, and the bold landing of Captain Borchgrevink and his scientific staff on Victoria Land, where they are now making the first attempt ever made by man to winter on Antarctic land, have given great impetus to the projected Antarctic expeditions from England and Germany. Announcement is made that the British government is ready to grant a subsidy of $200,000 for the Antarctic expedition that is to set out in the summer of 1901 under the joint patronage of the Royal Society and of the Royal PLANS FOR REACHING THE SOUTH POLE ol7 Geographical Society, and unless the promoters of the German expedition are being misled in their expectations, the Reichstag will soon guarantee substantial aid to the German National ex- pedition. As one of the main subjects to be dealt with at the approaching International Geographical Congress at Berlin will be the mutual codperation of these two expeditions, it may not be inopportune to review briefly the plan and route of each. It was originally intended by the Antarctic Committee, repre- senting the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society, that the English expedition should consist of two ships, and that it should be under naval disciplineand led by naval officers. In consequence, however, of the unwillingness of the government to consider such a plan with favor, the committee finally determined to equip but one vessel and to make an appeal for funds to the general public. The appeal has met with so generous a response that, including the splendid gift of $125,000 by Colonel Longstaff, $200,000 has been obtained. The plans of the expedition have not yet been finally determined in all their details, but it has been decided that the ship shall follow what is known as the South American route, sailing from the South Shetland islands southward to Alexandria Land. Here, at about 70° south by 90° west, a landing will be made, if practicable, and the first station established. Continuing onward, their course being dependent, as shown in the map (plate 8), upon the amount of ice encoun- tered, the party expect to establish on Cape Adare, Victoria Land, a second station, from which the great dash for the South Pole will be attempted, and in the vicinity of which the principal scientific work will be accomplished. The movement for a distinctly German expedition to the South Pole may be said to date back to the early seventies, when Dr Neumayer, the originator and organizer of the entire undertak- ing, began his agitation to that end. But his untiring advocacy of Antarctic research gained no practical recognition until 1895, when the Bremen meeting of the German Geographentage ac- knowledged itsimportance. Finally, somewhat over a year ago, plans took such definite shape that Dr Erich von Drygalski, professor at the Imperial University of Berlin, was chosen as the leader of the expedition. Since then the route to be followed has been carefully determined, and nearly all the details for a two years’ exploration have been arranged. The principal danger to navigation in the Antarctic region is not ice pressure, for the currents radiate outward and not in- 318 PLANS FOR REACHING THE SOUTH POLE ward, but rather the stormy nature of the sea. Captain Drygalski proposes, therefore, to construct his ship on lines that will insure seaworthiness. This he believes can be secured by a vessel stanchly built of wood, with strong internal supports, which will at the same time afford protection against powerful magnetic influences. The Kerguelen islands, lying in the Indian ocean at 70° east by 50° south and open to navigation at all seasons of the year, are to be the starting point. From these islands the route fol- lows a line southwestward to some point on Wilkes Land, where a winter station will be built upon the edge of the ice-sheet and systematic observations taken. In the early spring an advance will be attempted on sleds across the ice in the direction of the magnetic pole, and in the fall a return will be made in a west- erly direction along the little-known coast of Wilkes Land. Perhaps the party will be able to reach the most southerly known land, Victoria Land, discovered by Ross in 1842. As the English explorers are to build a station on the edge of this same Victoria Land and thence proceed southward as well as along Wilkes Land, Victoria Land will be the objective meeting ground of both expeditions. But naturally no geographic limits can be set in a region about which scarcely a single conclusion ean be formed. Captain Drygalski has repeatedly emphasized a condition now prevailing in southern waters which is especially noteworthy in view of the statement of Dr Supan that we are now passing through an unusually warm-temperature period. This condi- tion, as stated by him, is as follows: “The unusual quantity of drift-ice which first appeared in the South Atlantic ocean in 1891 and 1894, and then in the Indian ocean froin 1894 to 1897, has each year advanced further toward the east and has now reached the Kerguelen islands, which are for the most part beyond the northern limit of drift-ice. From its nature we are able to de- termine that it is land-ice which has at last broken away after years of confinement to the mainland, a phenomenon well known as happening at long intervals in the northern parts of Green- land. Similar unusual variations in the conditions of the ice in the Antarctic region have been previously remarked. Though Captain Weddell, in 1825, from the South Orkney islands was able to advance unchecked as far as 74 degrees of latitude, and thence reported a sea free of ice as far as the eye could reach, all subsequent explorers have found an impenetrable barrier in front of them long before reaching that point.” Inasmuch as a PLANS FOR REACHING THE SOUTH POLE 319 less obstructed advance than hitherto will be possible after the disappearance of this remarkable quantity of drift-ice, the next few years will be especially favorable for the resumption of Ant- arctic exploration. Apart from purely scientific reasons, an ambition to advance German naval prestige is a prominent motive in the advocacy of a national expedition. The following paragraph, quoted from the K élnische Zeitung, tends to show that the same logic that prompted the purchase of the Caroline and Mariana islands will be the most convincing argument for any vote by the Reich- stag in favor of a large subsidy for the expedition: ‘‘ For naval supremacy are necessary not only men-of-war and a merchant marine, but also an active participation in those scientific under- takings which lead to man’s conquest of the sea. Such enter- prises we Germans formerly left to others. Then we not only considered strategic points in distant seas unnecessary for our- selves, but actually surrendered to foreign hands, one after an- other, the approaches to our own harbors. Each course was equally inglorious; but about 1860 a desire arose for a personal share in the exploration of the North Polar regions, and from this feeling has grown the demand for a German fleet and the renewal of the plan for a canal to the North sea and of other similar projects. The honest conviction has come that all these enterprises are mutually dependent and but parts of one whole. To be strong at sea in the knowledge of readiness to fight, to be strong at sea in the consciousness of a peaceful commerce that carries our flag into every port, to be strong because of a scien- tific and intellectual conquest of the sea, are the rights of a great people working for one end—national development. Therefore let us hope that the German Antarctic expedition will not only add great honor to our scientists, but also bring new glory to German valor at sea.” The advantages, both from a geographic and general scientific point of view, of a further exploration of the South Polar regions have been so repeatedly set forth that it is hardly necessary to enlarge upon them here. Briefly they may be stated as: the verification or disproof of the existence of a vast Antarctic con- tinent; the determination of the origin of the cold ocean currents which have their rise in the south; the study of the nature of ice itself, of the differences between land-ice, sea-ice, river-ice, etc; and the investigation of the conditions of atmospheric press- ure and temperature, of volcanic action, and of terrestrial mag- netism within the Antarctic circle. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE The United States, with an Excursion into Mexico. Handbook for Travel- lers. Edited by Karl Baedeker. Pp. ¢ +579, with 19 maps and 24 plans. Second revised edition. Leipsic: Karl Baedeker. 1899. Sole agents for the United States: Charles Scribner’s Sons, New York. $3.60 net. To those who are not already familiar with Baedeker’s famous guide books no brief review of this, his latest and perhaps his most successful volume, will convey any adequate idea of the prodigious amount of in- formation that has been compressed into it or of the judgment and skill with which the attractions of the country for the traveler are set forth. Opening the volume at random, one is at once struck by the clearness and beauty of the maps and plans which accompany the descriptions of the principal cities, mountains, and other places of interest, even to bat- tlefields and public buildings. The minuteness of the information con- cerning routes of travel, hotels, restaurants, and theaters creates almost as instantaneous and favorable an impression, while upon closer exami- nation the wealth of information brought together and the remarkable discriminating intelligence displayed in the enumeration of the different objects of interest come as the crowning surprise to those who have no previous knowledge of the thoroughness which is characteristic of a Baedeker guide book. No other publication, great or small, can compare with this little volume as a compendium of information concerning the United States, and, guide book though it is, there is no school Jibrary in the country too well equipped to find it a useful acquisition. Vo Jel. The Races of Europe. By William Z. Ripley, Ph. D., Assistant Professor of Sociology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lecturer on Anthropology at Columbia University. New York: D. Appleton & Company. 1899. $6. This book isa monument of careful and profound scholarship. There is nothing about it superficial. Whether the reader agrees with or dis- sents from its arguments and conclusions, he will carry throughout its perusal a sympathetic and never-abating admiration for its honesty of purpose and for the wide learning of its author. In the preface Professor Ripley states that his aim has been “to co- ordinate, illustrate, and interpret the vast mass of original material’’ concerning race or physical relationship which has been accumulated by investigators and observers in all parts of Europe. In the oriental tale the Persian khan imposes upon his librarian the task of reducing to a single volume the many hundred manuscripts of his library, and at the same time of omitting nothing which those many manuscripts contain. A task as immense this author imposes upon himself. Too high tribute cannot be paid to the conscientious faithfulness with which he has per- formed his task. It is manifest on every page and in every line. The 320 GHOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 321 writings of each authority accessible, and none seem to have escaped a tireless vigilance, have been scrupulously studied, their contents mas- tered, and their opinions presented without bias or distortion. Collig- non, Beddoe, Virchow, La Pouge, even Deniker, can complain of no misrepresentation on these pages. But the author attempts not merely to condense and put together what- ever the collaborators in his chosen field have observed and noted down ; he endeavors to present a digest of all that has been achieved in the domain of anthropology and ethnology. From what he considers dem- onstrated facts he seeks to deduce principles and construct a system. For years anthropologists have enjoyed many advantages; governments have assisted in their researches; tape-lines and calipers have been worn out in experiments ; thousands of measurements have been taken ; inter- minable tables of figures have been built up. But how many definite results haye been gained by all the toil? How much can be discerned distinct in the bewildering maze? If anything, what? These and sim- ilar questions Professor Ripley endeavors to answer. His subject-matter he treats in twenty-one chapters. Chapter III is strongly written and contains the main proposition, the text and test of all, in the cephalic index. Chapter VI, on The Three European Races, is the application of chapter III and is no less ably and forcibly con- structed. The other chapters, except the twenty-first, on Acclimatiza- tion, are subsidiary to or extension of chapter III. Introduced at fre- quent intervals are 85 maps with which the author fortifies or from which he develops many of his deductions. These are generally approx- imative rather than demonstrative, inasmuch as based on a limited num- ber of data. For example, observations on 800 skulls in the Nether- lands, where there are more than 5,000,000 living persons and a vastly greater host of dead, or on 1,200 heads in the British islands, where the population exceeds 40,000,000, may point to probabilities but cannot be accepted as proofs. The 235 ‘‘ portrait types” are of interest and impor- tance, yet often they seem selected by the deductive rather than the inductive method. Apparently the conception is first formed as to what a national type should be, and then from the pictures of that nationality one is picked out conformable. Like all the rest of us, Professor Ripley has his pet theories. These theories are never mere preconceptions, but are always based on examina- tion and reflection, and are therefore entitled to respect. A theory he has once adopted he regards as atruth and clings to it firmly. Whatever militates against that truth must be argued away. If obstinately it re- fuses to vanish, he takes refuge in the comfortable adage. ‘‘ the exception proves the rule,’ and passes on. He almost carries us captive in the sweep of his logic and learning. But what do his 650 close-packed pages reveal? Instead of a consensus of authorities, we find constant absence of agreement and contradiction of oneanother. Nor does this dissonance limititself to matters of detail; the investigators press along on divergent paths to different goals. The reason of this isnot hard to seek. Anthro- pology is a science of recent, almost contemporaneous, birth. It moves with the uncertain feet of a child beginning to walk. Its disciples are 322 j GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE pushing out upon an unknown sea, for which they have themselves im- provised discordant charts. Soit becomes them to be humble or, at least, if not humble, tolerant of philology and history. Yet even Professor Ripley, judicial and courteous as he usually is, descends to ejaculations like this, ‘‘ May the day come when philologists shall have an eye to the common decencies,”’ p. 457, and discants on ‘‘ the current mouthings about Aryans and pre-Aryans,” p. 104, and annihilates an inference of Motley with the assertion, “ Nothing could be more erroneous,” p. 293, 294. Chap- ters XIV, XV, and XVI form the least valuable portion of the book. Here sometimes the author’s punctilious carefulness seems to fail him. He re- fers to the Jews in a manner satisfactory to the ardent anti-Semite and chips at Polish history in accommodation of a theory. He hardly appre- ciates the meaning of the historic term ‘‘ Osmanli.’’ For no conceivable purpose he even states, ‘‘ The only name recognized by the Osmanli them- selves is that of Turk,” p. 415, oblivious of the fact that this name they never use, but consider an insult. Most astounding is his eulogium of the Circassians, ‘‘ In character the Circassians are preéminent,’’ p. 442. His style is in general clear, often graphic, sometimes eloquent. The unique ethnical conditions of the Caucasus have never been better por- trayed than in these words, ‘‘ Up against such a mountain system have swept great currents of human life from every quarter of the Eastern hemisphere. They have not blended. There has been continuous isola- tion, to coin a phrase, ample in supply for all.”’ In a splendid sentence, referring to the tenacious Celts of Brittany, he speaks of that “‘ ethnic struggle, unsuspected by the statesmen who were building a nation on the shifting sands of race.” The concluding paragraph of chapter X VIII is specially fine. Such limpid, transparent English is rare in scientific treatises. Doubtless the ‘‘ remorseless criticism,” to which we owe the delightful and chivalric reference in his preface, is in part responsible for this admirable result. Bound separately from the major volume is a comprehensive Bibliog- raphy of the Anthropology and Ethnology of Europe, containing nearly two thousand titles. To remark the exceeding value of this supplement of 160 pages would be superfluous. Epwin A. GROSVENOR. Amherst College. Through Asia. By Sven Hedin. With nearly Three Hundred Illustra- tions from Sketches and Photographs by the Author. ‘Two vols. Royal 8vo, vol. 1, pp. i-xvili + 1-649; vol. 2, i-xii + 650-1255 and maps. New York: Harper and Bros., 1899. $10. As the itinerary of one of the noteworthy explorations of recent years, this sumptuous two volume work is a book of the decade. It was pre- pared for the press during an interval of rest from exploration; and it'is reported that, before his recent redeparture for Thibet, the author pre- sented to some royal dignitary (all of whom he delights to honor) half a dozen copies of the book, printed in as many different languages. The demand attested by this extensive reprinting gives little occasion for sur- prise ; for Sven Hedin—newly graduated under the influence of Europe’s famous geographer Baron von Richthofen, and with one interesting Asian GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 323 trip already to his credit—conceived and successfully carried out a plan for exploration so strikingly novel and ambitious that his name and fame had spread throughout the thinking world even before his book was put on the press. Whatever his future, Hedin has already earned a place among the great explorers of history ; and “‘ Through Asia”’ is the popular account of exploratory work hardly surpassable in inter- est. Dr Hedin’s journeys began with his departure from Stock- holm, October 16, 1893; they practically ended with his arrival at Peking in the middle of February, 1897—for the return by post across Siberia was over trodden paths, and gave no opportunity for new observation. The serious work began with a winter journey over the Pamir—the Roof of the World,—where weeks of wintry weather were spent in tedious mapping at altitudes averaging about that of the highest crests of Rockies and Sierra; thence it extended eastward, attaining especial value in the desert of Gobi (Takla-makan), and on the bleak and cloud-swept heights of northern Thibet; the original work ended with the passage through the country of the Tangut robbers (whose heads bear the blood of earlier explorers), near the headwaters of the great Hwang-hoand west of myth- shrouded Koko-nor, the great saline lake of western China. Route-maps were carried forward constantly; most were drawn on the scale of 1 : 95,000 ; on the flat deserts the scale was reduced to 1: 200,000, and in regions of complex morphology it was increased to 1: 50,000. The length of the route covered by the mapping was 6,520 miles, of which 2,020 were pre- viously untrodden by Europeans; and there were over 8,000 miles of in- cidental travel to and from the field of work. Most of the geographic details are necessarily omitted from the itinerary, though two main and several minor maps elucidate the text satisfactorily ; the more technical results, geographic, anthropologic, geologic, phytologic, and meteorologic, are reserved for special publications. Ample illustrative material was col- lected, photographs in the earlier part of the work, pencil or ink sketches after the photographie outfit was lost in the desert; and an abundance of these, with a few artistic pictures, executed in Sweden under the author’s direction, enliven and embellish the itinerary. The first winter’s work in the Pamir derives interest from the great altitude at which it was conducted, with the attendant climatic peculiarities. There are five principal passes from the Siberian plains over the northernmost range of this stupendous protuberance of the earthcrust, averaging 13,250 feet in altitude; then comes Alai valley, a singular trough 75 miles long and from 8,200 to 10,500 feet (7. e., from a mile and a half to two miles) in altitude; next begins the Pamir proper in the Trans-Alai mountains, cul- minating in Kaufmann peak, 23,000 feet high. Thence southward toward the Himalayan front stretches a plateau, corrugated in east-west ranges and divided by alabyrinth of valleys among which gather the waters of several of the great rivers of the earth, flowing northward to the Arctic, southward to the Indian ocean, and westward to inland seas. The air is wrung dry in ascending the mighty slopes, so that the summer rainfall is limited and the winter snowfall meager; but the light atmosphere is capricious and unstable, so that storms, sudden and severe, lurk always about the passes and harass the valleys. The more tolerable part of the o24 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE region is sparsely inhabited by patriarchal and often migratory Kirghiz tribes of pastoral habit; travel is possible for horses and for camels, but the higher districts and snowier stretches repel all burden-beasts save the mountain-born yak, whose peculiar capacities made possible some valuable work. Save for a single earlier Asian journey, the Pamir survey was the author’s apprenticeship in exploration, and this part of his itin- erary is rich in detail and plentifully seasoned with adjectives; yet it is asurprise, in view of the altitude and latitude (no less than the adjectives), to find the ‘‘ inconceivable” cold of Hedin’s lowest thermometric record — 36.8° Fahrenheit, and the “‘ incredible’’ depth of soil-frost three and a half feet—in many ways a striking contrast to the congealed mercury and six feet of soil-frost in the upper Mississippi valley last winter. Dr Hedin’s most minute surveys were those of glacier-clothed Mustaghata (Father of the Ice Mountains), ‘‘the loftiest mountain of the Pamirs, and one of the loftiest mountains in the world, [ which] towers up to the height of 25,600 feet, and like a mighty bastion overlooks the barren wastes of cen- tral Asia” (p. 217). More than once did he circumscribe it ; dwelling long on its flanks and about its base at the height of world-famed mountains, he learned the legends to which its majesty has given birth in the simple minds of the natives, surveyed its glaciers, and studied their behavior at different seasons, and strove repeatedly but vainly to reach the culminating dome. The slopes are not inaccessible, but a barrier—haif deified by the Kirghiz as the Soroche of the Andes is deified by the Peruvians—exists in the rarity and chill of the air; horses lose their powers little above the plateau level, and men yield to the strain of climbing ere half way up the slopes; the big-lunged and phlegmatic yak might indeed be forced within climbing distance of the crest, but Hedin found that he and his Kirghiz were incapacitated by camping at the 20,000-foot level. So the icy crest, standing guard over bleak Pamir and sun-parched Takla-makan, and looking down on all but the lightest of clouds. remains unhonored by human tread. Of no less geographic interest were the more gen- eral surveys in the desert of Gobi (Takla-makan) and the studies of long- mysterious Lob-nor—the shifting lake in which the waters gathering from the eastern Pamir and northern Thibet are lost through evaporation and absorption. The desert work involved several trips, including an ill-starred (and ill-started) journey in which two men, half a dozen camels and some other livestock, as well as much of the instrumental outfit, were sacrificed, the author and his Asian mentor, Islam Bai, escaping with their lives through a succession of accidents with which ordinary fore- sight had little to do. Partly because of its stress, even this desert ex- perience isa contribution to knowledge; probably no better record of the effects of hungerand thirst on men and animals has been written—though the trip was made with a thermometric range from about 90° downward (i. e., at a temperature considerably lower than that of the blood), so that the march of physiologic events by no means kept pace with that ob- served in our own Death valley and Mojave desert and Papagueria, where the midday thermometer reaches 130° in the shade and 160° in the sun, or far above normal blood-heat. The later desert trips were productive * GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 325 in other ways; at least two sand-buried cities of considerable antiquity were brought to light ; the camel was found wild, under such conditions as to suggest to the author a domesticated ancestry ; and the shiftings of Lob-nor, which, with so slender observational basis, have given rise to so voluminous literary discussion in the last lustrum, were analyzed with no little acumen. One of the most fruitful trips was the final journey eastward from Khotan through northern Thibet to Tsaidam desert and the Koko-nor; a full half of the route traversing a desolate. plateau, uninhabitable by reason of aerial rarity and consequent sterility. The plateau, fronted on the north by the Kuen-lun mountains, is corru- gated in east-west ridges like the Pamir; but they rise so far above the zone of vapor-weighted clouds that the precipitation is insufficient to produce waterways opening to the sea, and the intervening valleys are lined with wind-blown as well as water-borne detritus and dotted with saline lakes, while the slopes are mantled with frost-fractured de- bris well toward the crests. Here the classic khulan (wild ass) and the wild yak live, enjoying a seclusion so perfect that the passing car- avans awaken curiosity rather than fear. The plains over which they skurry, and even the lakes whose shores they haunt, are amid the higher clouds, 15,000 to 18,000 feet above tide; the low pass in the second range (Arka-tagh) stands 18,180 feet; and even in midsummer the mountain chill is below freezing, always by night and often by day. The trip was not made without effort; all suffered from mountain sick- ness, Islam Bai narrowly surviving, while the Chinese interpreter was sent back; and of the six camels, twenty-one horses, and twenty-nine donkeys of which the caravan consisted at the outset, but three camels, three horses, and one donkey crawled feebly down to the settlements on the borders of Tsaidam. Yet the observations, geographic and geologic, with studies of yak and khulan and smaller life, well repaid the cost. As the party pushed eastward through Tsaidam, the to-be-expected brush with Tangut robbers—who slew Dutreuil de Rhins and assailed Przhe- valsky and Roborovsky—was realized; yet by some chance (or trick of Tangut superstition) the explorers, with three rifles, five revolvers, and two marksmen (not including the leader) escaped actual assault. The exploration was conducted under patronage of King Oscar of Sweden, the Nobel family, and other donors of the $8,000 or $10,000 expended ; the support finding its warrant in the admirable outline of past and pro- spective Asian exploration incorporated in the introductory chapters, and finding justification in the important results attained by Dr Hedin. The narrative is naive, and reveals the personality of the author in attractive fashion. By the vigorous and self-reliant explorers and sur- veyors who have pushed geographic knowledge over the North Ameri- can continent, this quiet, spectacled student, chronically homesick and frequently helpless, would be voted a tenderfoot; yet the fact remains that good chance and persistence carried him through stress of weather, hunger and thirst, tricky theft and threatened robbery, with all other explorers’ ills, and enabled him to consummate a memorable task in mak- ing known the previously unknown world. W J Mz. MISCELLANEA Dr Sven Hedin is on his way to Central Asia for a two anda half years’ further exploration of that region. i Tue heaviest rainfall in the world, sometimes over 180 inches in a single month, occurs at Cherapungee, in India, on a hillside about 4,000 feet above sea-level. Tue address of Mr F. H. Newell, Chief Hydrographer of the U. 8. Geological Survey, before the Trans-Mississippi Commercial Congress at Wichita, Kansas, is published in the June number of Irrigation Age. ‘‘Wuar Glaciers Have Done for Iowa,” the subject of an article by Prof. Samuel Calvin in the July number of Annals of Iowa (Des Moines, Towa), demonstrates that glaciers and glacial action have contributed in a very large degree to the making of that magnificent state. Tue scientific staff dispatched by the government of France, in charge of Captain Maurain, of the Engineers, and Captain Lacombe, of the Ar- tillery, for the remeasurement of the Arc of Peru and its extension, so as to include five to six degrees of latitude, reached Quito in July. Tue “shrinkage” in the distance between Point Viento and Ponce, Puerto Rico, previously given on Spanish charts as 50 miles, but on re- measurement by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey the past winter found to be only 43 miles, is a convincing proof of the necessity of a careful resurvey of the new possessions of the United States. Tue Monthly Weather Review for May contained an exhaustive article on the ‘‘ Climatology of the Isthmus of Panama,” by H. T. Abbot, Brigadier General, U. S. A. (retired), with a valuable appendix by Prof. A. J. Henry, containing data of the precipitation at different points on the isthmus. Mr A. P. Davis contributes a paper on ‘‘ Rainfall and Temper- ature in Nicaragua.” PRECISELY at 4 p. m. on the 10th day of every month in the year except December, the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Agriculture is directly connected by wire with every large stock and produce exchange in the country, and a summary of the monthly crop report is simultane- ously flashed to every commercial center. Iv is a pleasure to announce that the systematic effort begun in June by the National Geographic Society toward the enlargement of its work by increasing its membership throughout the country is proving most successful. Within the last 60 days considerably over 250 non-resident members have been enrolled, representing every state of the Union and different sections of Canada and North America. Petermann’s Mittheilungen states that in the autumn a party under the leadership of A. Paulsen, the Director of the Danish Meteorological In- stitute, will set out for Iceland, where, from a station to be established on the north coast, they intend to study the magnetic properties, height, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY O27 ete., of the northern lights. Similar researches will be conducted by the Swede-Russian expedition in Spitzbergen and northern Norway. THe Diana, under the command of Mr H. L. Bridgeman, of the Stand- ard Union and Secretary of the Peary Arctic Club, sailed from Sidney July 20 on the second of the series of annual reénforcements for Lieuten- ant Peary. As announced in the July number of Tur Nationat Gro- GrapHic MAGAzine, the vessel carries stores of provisions for her own party, for Peary’s, and for the Windwara’s, enough for 50 men for one year. In an article on the Erie and Welland Canals, Bradstreet’s of July 15 says that the phenomenal lowering of railway transportation rates in recent years has tended toward the crippling of all but the most favorably situated of the interior water routes, and adds that it is questionable whether the purely artificial waterways can be so improved as to get back a fair share of the immense traffic which formerly sought these channels on the way to market. Dr F. A. Cook, the surgeon and anthropologist of the Belgica, in a paper appearing in the New York Herald (July 2, 1899), gives the following summary of the results of the Belgian expedition: ‘‘ The discovery of a new Strait nearly as large as the Straits of Magellan ; the discovery of about five hundred miles of new coast; the discovery of a submarine plateau west of Graham Land; a complete series of meteorological and magnetic observations throughout one year.’’ Thestrait, to be called Belgica strait, is said to begin about five hundred miles southwest of Cape Horn, on the sixty-fourth degree of south latitude, and between the sixty-first and sixty-second degrees of west longitude. Its general direction is south- westerly, with an average width of twenty-five miles and a length of two hundred miles. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, SESSION 1808~’o9 Special Meeting, February 3, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Prof. Alfred P. Dennis gave an illustrated lecture on Life on a Yukon Trail. Regular Meeting, February 10, 1899.—President Bellin the chair. Major A. Falkner von Sonnenberg, of the German Imperial Army, gave an illustrated lecture on Manila and the Philippines. Special Meeting, February 17, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Prof. John L. Ewell, of Howard University, gave an illustrated lecture on Ger- many in the Reformation Period, with its Geographic Relations. Lenten Course, February 21, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Hon. David J. Hill, Assistant Secretary of State, gave an illustrated lecture on The Original Thirteen States. Regular Meeting, February 24, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Prof. H. S. Pritchett, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, gave an illustrated lecture on The Results of Recent Alaskan Surveys. 328 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Lenten Course, February 27, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Prof. Albert Bushnell]. Hart, of Harvard University, gave an illustrated lecture on The Louisiana Purchase. Special Meeting, March 3, 1899.—Pyresident Bell in the chair. Capt. Edwin F. Glenn, U.S. A., gave an illustrated lecture on his Experiences on a Military Exploring Expedition into Alaska. Lenten Course, March 8, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Prof. John Bach McMaster, of the University of. Pennsylvania, gave an illustrated lecture on Texas and the Mexican Accessions. Regular Meeting, March 10, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Messrs Robert T. Hill and H. M. Wilson gave an illustrated lecture on A Recent Trip to Puerto Rico. Lenten Course, March 14, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Mr J. Stanley-Brown gave an illustrated lecture on The Alaskan Purchase. Special Meeting, March 17, 1899.—President Bellin the chair. Mr Snow- den Ward, of England, gave an illustrated lecture on The Land of Dickens. Lenten Course, March 21, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Mr Edwin Morgan gave an illustrated lecture on The Annexation of Hawaii. Annual Reception, March 22, 1899.—The Annual Reception of the So- ciety was held at the Arlington Hotel, from 8 to 10 o’clock p.m. _ Prof. Willis L. Moore, Chief of the Weather Bureau, explained the workings of meteorological instruments, and Prof. Charles E. Tripler, of New York, gaye a demonstration of the properties of liquid air. Regular Meeting, March 24, 1899.—Vice-President W J McGee in the chair. Mr Henry Gannett, Geographer of the U. 8. Geological Survey, gave an illustrated lecture on Redwood. Lenten Course, March 28, 1899.—Mr F. H. Newell in the chair. Prof. W J McGee gave an illustrated lecture on The Effect of National Growth on National Character. Special Meeting, March 31, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Com- mander Harrie Webster, U.S. N., gave an illustrated lecture on China, the Flowery Kingdom; the Country and its People. Y Regular Meeting, April7, 1899.—Vice-President W J McGee in the chair. Mr F. H. Newell, Chief Hydrographer of the U. S. Geological Survey, gave an illustrated lecture on The Annexation of the West. Special Meeting, April 14, 1899.—President Bell in the chair. Hon. F. H. Wines gave an illustrated lecture on How the Census is Taken. Regular Meeting, April 21, 1899.—-President Bell in the chair. Dr Mitchel Carroll, of Johns Hopkins University, gave an illustrated lecture on The Acropolis of Athens. Special Meeting, April 28, 1899.—Vice-President W J McGee in the chair. Dr Alexander Graham Bell, President of the Society, gave an illustrated lecture on Japan, under the auspices of the affiliated scientific societies of Washington. NATIONAL GHOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY President ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELLI, Vice-President W J McGrEE Board of Managers 1897-1900 1895-1901 1899-1902 Marcus BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL CHARLES J. BELL HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT G. K. GILBERT EF. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY DAVID J. HILL S. H. KAUFFMANN JOHN HyDE C. HART MERRIAM WILLIS L. Moore W J McGEE H. S. PRITCHETT W. B. POWELL F. H. NEWELL, J. STANLEY—-BROWN Treasurer Corresponding Secretary HENRY GANNETT WILLIS L. Moore Recording Secretary Foreign Secretary FE. H. NEWELL ELizA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE SECRETARY’S OFFICE Rooms 117, 118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER’S OFFICE U. S. Geological Survey, 1330 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. The National Geographic Magazine is sent free of charge to all members of the National Geographic Society Recommendation for Membership in the National Geographic Society. The following form is enclosed for use in the nomination of persons for member- ship. Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary. Deurs: Resident, $5; Non-resident, $2; Life membership, $50. If check be en- closed, please make it payable to order of the National Geographic Society, and, if ata distance from Washington, remit by New York draft or P. O. money-order. To the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C.: Please propose occupation and address : NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND ST. PAUL RAILWAY - RONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in lowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. Warm Weather Kequisites ++ "20 We are showing hosts of things for personal and household uses, especially designed to offset the discomforts of hot weather—Thin Clothing, Mosquito Canopies, Porch Screens, Door and Window Screens, Hammocks, Re- frigerators, Water Coolers, and various other articles that assure a full measure of hot- weather comfort. | .ALSO CONVENIENCES FOR. Camp Life ane Ce Athletic and Soornns Goods, Fishermen’s Outfits and Bicyclers’ Wear. WOODWARD & LOTHROP, WASHINGTON, D. C. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST. The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology in all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in ‘its /we//th year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, HE/THNOL- OGY, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SocioLocGy, History, SOMATOLOGY, PSyCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PHrILOoLoGy. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Szdbscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Wlustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XII Begins with January, 1899. Appress: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. ‘TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 1899. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico............. ... $3.50 a year Peeve Suoscribers in the Postal Union..2..... 0.002... 6 cee bee ee ee coe 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two volumes are completed ; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. Jn addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., Minnearouis, MInn. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. . ar sz NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the range from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Kast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Genl. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. CALIFORNIA.. — | OF course you expect to go there this spring. Let : ( me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads viathe . . . Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in ; the United States, including lt. Hood and [1t. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, [1t. St. Helens, rt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. CHAS. S.bEE General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. LAs -~ Lig Ne Ne” be : > } Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ca STPAUL BEST LINE MINNEAPOLIS CHICAGO on ST. Louis The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . PACE The Overland Limited nr | FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING “THE OVERLAND ROUTWHLE.’’ Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars. Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’' E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Ly wy 7 Se tt Me, V1. C Ms x fe * bli EOPLE like to read about the great and wonderful country of the ee: Mer: ¢, . oho ?, Mei “y +: Uy Ves Yj/ Wi: GG ote ox bi Vi; , '° A charming book covering these facts is issued by the PASSENGER DEPARTMENT OF THE Southern Pacific Railway, +, Southwest; of its quaint and curious fj 0%! es KL Li Mi. atest Ly towns, its ancient civilizations, its Mitpy “1. Yy fo 0feote natural marvels. They like to get ac- lig UY lB MUM“ Vt, ¢, 0%, Wf $fe4 MW: Yy Lin % ?, re? curate information about California My WU, i: > ?, ° and will be sent to any one, postpaid, ou receipt of TEN CENTS. Vit: My, Co and the Pacific Coast. This is because foe) 0. YJ + 3? *, Wi most people want to some day see these 2 986 YM: ¢, ° MIAGES HON WHSMNSE\VESs 6 6 65 6 25 oc Me ete +, Wy "0 08 Uy Ute; My Li Sen, oO, oOo He Se Se Fe Fo Fe Fe Fn On ahs on ote ste ote cle ete ete ctectecteetcctectectocteetestecta Oe SPM POCO IE TOTO O LOL OTOP MOU OU OTOL OV PLOY OV OU OU OL OH OL OT OF OHO TA OG We My Wi; Wy i; Ubi: YY Ue, Wy tts % Mectectecteste teeter he Erie &rbrdcdvriEccrdvsontoivrctrvcTcrcEecéercétictir tet GP Mo Meo gt gh He MONG OU LOIN IU OL LY OU ONE OL IV DUOC LL OV GU OU OV OV IY IU OLY OV LULU LY OV GU OVI ON, oo Uj, Wp OG foage Y/4 WY Me % Ve, Yy Wi afeege fo ateake V1 *, 09 2 PO HP %, “MY te THE BOOK [S ENTITLED “Through Storyland to Sunset Seas,” Le “My +, rs? 7 030-080 ahe-0% eae ako: ViUW YY re %' ’e 0% Le Ke +, i? Me tong cy fo by ate Wy WY 7 2, #5 Z MA ox af af0 Ui Soefosge iy “te We, My Ze feoste ste fe fe bi - o-03eofe: Se V1 >, >, My feete yyy oS “My Vite Mile Vs b z, , 5% 9% 555 %o0% 0505850254250 255 85585 sone stag tea%e gente ete te e%ea%e ete eteetea tect nctestectectactac®, PHP HP OPO Pe Pe POO POPU POSH OU OU SUSU OU OH HO OU OF OF OU OOF OU OU OF TH OO OU OU OF $0 00: WE ¢, / Yyy Up Ys Lp oe Yl, LY 9% 5 oho o%e ote ete cte te ote 1% 00 0%e ate en e%e ote ate e%eahe etn ete e%es%s Me Peete cte teste fe tected: PLULU ETOP OO OU PO OO © ba Ca Ka , re? VPP OF OV OV 9% OOo a a) My > Z LL es Yy Os! ¢, o “iy LU te Mt $%, <7 ° AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- * SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, You can get a copy by writing to % S. F. B. MORSE, & WITH 160) ILEUSTRATIONS ieee oO General Passenger Agent, % The paper used) 1s) FINES EIAwiE Southern Pacific, oe « PAPER, and every typographical de- o¢ Mi bi: Mi \7 % My Co) O Z +4, oo, iy Vt. bi 7 4, Le 2, so, Y We, My c We > New Orleans, oe. O cox and sending 10 cts.todefray postage. % tail is artistic. It is a stery of what oo 2, WY Ue, C> *° four people saw on just such a trip as N N N MM 53 SN SS fee LL bin 2, re, Z Ut: you would like tonmalkeh\-psm lee estes Li 9 + Z Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. 42 ve TON: Grocrarmie sine Oh is a journal of geography, physical, commer- ae to is a medium of communication between geographers in America and Its. editorial staff includes officers and experts of the different scientific bureaus rmment, each representing a field teeming with facts of geographic interest. omps ¢ ‘of contributors comprises nearly every United States citizen whose name has me identified with Arctic exploration, the Bering Sea controversy, the Alaska and nela boundary disputes, or the new commercial and political questions arising from equisition of the Philippines. Through the cordial codperation of the different matic representatives of foreign nations at Washington, it is able to present the est and most authentic geogr. aphic intelligence from other countries. Tu NavionaL Grocrarnic MAGAzing numbers among its contributors the following aa writers on the different branches of geographic science : Prof, CLhevELAND ABBE Wi.iiram H. Houmas ~ Cyrus C. ADAMS Dr Emi. Honus, Vienna ‘Cyrus GC. Base CorneLIA Horsrorp Rent J. BR. Barrier, U.S. N. Dr SHELDON JACKSON Dr Georce F. Buckner M.S. W. Jerrerson ALEXANDER GRAHAM Bru, LL.D., ete. Wi.iArp D. JoHNSON Hon. Emory F. Busrr J. Scorr Keitin, LL.D., ete. meee rort. We.) T. BIGELOW . GrorGe Kennan James H. Bioparrr M. B. Kerr Hon. J. B. Browne Prof. S. P. LAnGiry Lieut. J. C. Canrwet, U. 8. A. J. B. Lerpere ~ Frank M. CHapman Prof. WILLIAM Lippry — Roserr H. Crapman G. W. LirrteH aes fe | Dr BH. Li. CortHe tn Prof. E. McCiure >) Dr Extiorr Cougs Prof. Joon Bach McMasrer » -BOV. CoviLtiEe Hon. Ernest A. Man ** Hon. Witiiam E. Curtis. Prof. O. T. Mason _ Frank H.- CusHine Dr T. C. MENDENHALL ~ Hon. Coaries W. Dapney E. W. NELSON Dr Wiitram H. Dau F. H. Newenn Prof. GrorGE Davipson Hersert G. OGpEn ; Artruur P. Davis Lieut. Roperr E. Peary ~ Winrram M. Davis GrorGe C. Perkins, U.S. S. ‘ Dr Davip. T.. Day Prof. W. H. PickErRiInG W. A. Dickry GIFFORD PINcHOT J.S. DiuiEr. Major J. W. PowELu Hieut. ©. P. Exriorr, U.S; A. Prof. W. B. PowEtu S. F. Emmons i. D. Preston Dr Watrer H. Evans Hon. J. R. Procter Davin G. Farreninp G. R. Putnam Prof. B. E. Fernow Prof. Israru C. Russecy C. H. Frrcn Dr N. S. SHALER Hon. Joun W. Foster Major W. A. Simpson, Us. A. Capt. D. D. Gatttarp, U.S. A. Capt. C. D. Staspre, Ws SUN: ~ Hamurn Garitanp Maj. A. FaLKNER VON SONNENBERG Prof. K. B. Garriorr J. StaNLEY-Brown Avpert S. Gatscurr Gen. G. M. Srernpura President D. C. GiumMan 2 Commander Z. L. TANNER Capt. L. C. Guenn, U.S. A. Prof. Rauen 8. Tarr Ricuarp U. Goopr Max L. Tornow vof. Epwin A. GrRosvENOR ‘ O. H. Tivrmann ~Craries Hatiock Hon. Caarues D. Warcorr a Dr Mark W. Harrincron | Mrs Fanniz B. Warp HarcHer President B. L. WHirman Dyno Hayes Wavrer D. WiLtcox Bartry Wiis Hon. Wiuttam L. Witson Dr F. H. Wines Prof. Dean C. Worcnstn Prof ALBERT BUSHNELL a ART Commander H. Wesster, U.S. N. ) It aims to convey new information and current opinion on geographic Bounn Votumes OF ‘ _ TELEGRAPH LINES, and my ING, ‘DOCKING, AND. REPAII STATIONS, with explanatory atte ay for number 2 101 vobauie ih Nationat C ( aes ry mail for 25 cents, i J { - JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, Dc . M agazine AN ILLU STRATE D MONTH iy \ ae \ Warneoes Ne Se el es Le Editor: JOHN HYDE, Statistician of the UO. S. Depar tment of A LEN Thre | Associate Bditors | GREELY, Chief Signal Officer, U.S. Army ; WJ-MCGRHE, Ethnologist i im Charge, Bureau ia a8 American Ethnology ; HBNRY .GANNET?, Chief Geographer, U.\S. Geological Survey ; . C. Har? MERRIAM, Brologist of theoU-S, Depaviment of- Adgricultuye ; Davip\J. Hin, Assistant Secretary of State ; CHARLES H>ALUEN, Assistant Secretary of the Navy ; WILLIs L. Moore, C voy of the U.S. Weather Buyeau,; A. SpPRITCHETT, \Su- perintendent of the U. S Coast and Geodetic Survey; MARCUS BAKER, U.S. |. Geological Survey; O,.P. AUSTIN,| Chief of the Bureau of. Statistics, | GOS. Treasury Department; EMIZA nee SCIDMORE, Author of ‘Java, the Garden of the Fast,” etc.; CARL Louise GaR- RISON, Principal of brain we Washington, PENG: Assistant Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, Washington, D. C. CONTENTS, e | PAGE IE (COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN. 0. P. AUSTIN, 329 D LANDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA. 4 'N. H. DARTON. 339 ‘With illustrations) ) B\ WEST INDIAN HURRICANE, BE. B. GARRIOTT, 343 With map: Ws \ RETURN OF WELLMAN. st J. HOWARD GORE..348 © With illustrations. 3 INTERNATIONAL CLOUD, WORK OF THE WEATHER BUREAU. Ri FRANK H. BIGELOW. 351 Pawar an ASSOCIATION FORTHE ADVANCEMENT OF CIENCE. 355 Ri ediscovery of Puerto Rico, p. $59; The Wellman. Polar Expedition, p. 361; Through Franz Josef Land, p.\ 362; The/ Isthmian, Canal Problem, p. 363 ; ographic Literature, p. 364 ; Gegeraphic Miscellanea, p. 371. =f W ASHING TON’ \ ae Saupe av Brenrano’s: s10N Phere: New York; 1016 Pennsytyanta Avenug, WASHINGTON; Wasast Avenur, Curcaco; 37 Avenue pe L’Oprra, Paris So eae x SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. TO ALL POINTS SOUTH, SOUTHEAST, AND SOUTHWEST. Through Pullman Drawing Room Sleeping Cars from New York and Washington to New Orleans, Memphis, Tampa, Jacksonville, Augusta, and intermediate points— First-class Day Coaches—Dining Car Service. Fast Trains for the SOUTH leave Washington Daily at 11.15 A. M., 9.20 P. M., and 10.45 P. M. Through Tourist car on the 11.15 A. M. Train every Tuesday and Friday for Texas, Arizona, and California points, without change. Direct line to the Summer Resorts in Wirginia and the Carolinas and the Winter Resorts of Florida, Gulf Coast, Texas, Mexico, and California. Direct Through Car Line to and from Asheville, Hot Springs, and other Western North Carolina points—‘‘' THE LAND OF THE SKY.” For Map Folders, Summer Homes Guide Book and Book on ‘ASHEVILLE AND THEREABOUTS” write to— A. S. THWEATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 E. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, D. C. W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOE, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. ‘ W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life : Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - = ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business” - - - - ($136,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - ~- ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since | its Peduigation. in 1843, f r - $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter VXASVYGAN ‘ALNMOO SNNSASHO ‘MOOY Tive— AYSN3OS GNV1 ava 6 “Id ‘6681 ‘X “1OA “DVW “DO3D “LVN fon VT lable National Geographic Magazine Vou. X SEPTEMBER, 1899 INOW THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN By. OS RaeAusmIin: Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department With new currency, a new tariff, new relations to her foreign population, and new treaty relations with the commercial world, Japan’s commercial future isa subject which naturally arrests attention and also arouses much conjecture; and when it is con- sidered that the trade relations of that country with the United States are growing more rapidly than those with any other nation, the subject becomes one of especial interest to the people of the United States. Our exports of merchandise to Japan, which 20 years ago were but a couple of millions of dollars an- nually, had reached five millions by 1890, nearly eight millions in 1896, over 13 millions in 1897, 20 millions in 1898, and between 17 and 18 millionsin 1899. Our purchases from Japan of articles which we must have, such as raw silk and fibers for our manu- facturers, tea, rice, and other articles which we cannot produce at home, have constantly grown, even while our purchases from other parts of the world were being reduced, and are now from 25 to 26 millions a year, against one-half that sum fifteen years ago. Over a thousand citizens of the United States are now re- siding in Japan, many of them actively participating in her foreign commerce, two-thirds of which is still conducted by for- eigners, while over seven thousand citizens of Japan are residing in the United States, many of them as students, and over twenty- seven thousand of her people are residents of the Hawaiian islands, which are now under the United States flag. No Euro- pean nation except Great Britain has so many citizens residing 23 330 THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN in Japan as has the United States. and no country has as many Japanese citizens under her flag as has our own, while no nation is so closely associated with the growth of her commerce or has greater reason to expect an active participation in it. Japan has during the past few years assumed an important rank in the list of commercial nations, and in doing so has vastly increased her commerce with the United States, the nation instrumental in first opening the doors of that country to com- merce with the world. Within the last two years new treaties have been made with the principal countries of the world, by which their citizens are given equal privileges with the citizens of Japan in all parts of the empire and made subject to its laws, which have been recently revised. Also new commercial codes have been established, new currency adopted, new tariffs cre- ated, and new ports opened for commercial intercourse with the world. Lastly, Japan and the United States have become near neighbors physically, Japan’s northern territory, the Kurile islands, lying within 500 miles of the Aleutian islands, while her southern extreme, Formosa, is within 200 miles of the Philip- pines, thus making a complete chain along the Pacific front of Asia. From Yokohama, her most important port of entry, the distance to Manila as a trade center is practically the same as that to Hongkong, which has proved so important a distribut- ing point for British trade. From Yokohama to Honolulu, a distance of 3,400 miles, Japanese steamships now regularly ply, and from Yokohama to the Pacific coast ports of the United States the distance is far less than to the ports of any other great commercial nation, while the opening of an isthmian canal would greatly lessen the water route between Japan and the Gulf and Atlantic ports of the United States, from which she draws so large and constantly increasing a proportion of her supplies. To the readers of THE NarionaAL GrocraPHic MaGazint the earlier commercial relations of Japan to the world and the part which the United States has had in developing them are so well known that they need not be recounted in detail. Portuguese adventurers, who were the first to establish commercial relations in China, soon extended their trade to Japan, where sailors landed in 1542, and within a few years established an active commerce. Hncouraged by that success, the Dutch Hast India Company in 1598 dispatched five merchant vessels to Japan. In 1609 other Dutch ships arrived and were well received by the Japanese, who conceded them a port on the island of Hirado X ay “ae. THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN dol and the privilege of establishing a “ factory ” or trading post and settlement. The hostilities between the Portuguese and Dutch, however, and the extreme demands of the Portuguese, who con- sidered themselves already established in the commerce of Japan, coupled with dissatisfaction with the attitude of foreign missionaries toward the popular religion of Japan, led to the exclusion of all traders except the Dutch, who were permitted to take up their residence on a small island, Deshima. Here they remained for more than two centuries in undisturbed mo- nopoly of the entire European trade of Japan. In 1852 serious complaints of mistreatment of American sailors wrecked on the coast of Japan having been made, Commodore M.C. Perry, with a fleet of American vessels, was sent by the United States gov- ernment to demand from Japan a treaty by which American vessels should be allowed to enter one or more of its ports to ob- tain supplies, and, if practicable, that Americans should also be given general trading privileges in these ports. This undertak- ing was peacefully carried to a successful termination, a treaty being signed March 31, 1854, by which the ports of Shimoda and Hakodate were opened as harbors of refuge, supply, trade, and consular residence to the United States. This action was quickly followed by a successful demand for similar privileges by the British, Russian, and Dutch governments, and by 1860 the ports of Hakodate, Kanagawa, Nagasaki, and Niigata were opened to the commerce of the leading nations of the world. From this time forward the commercial relations of Japan with the world made rapid progress. In 1860 and 1861 a Japanese embassy visited the United States and Europe. The decade 1860-’70, while largely occupied by dissensions, and in some cases hostilities, between the elements favoring commercial relations with the world and those preferring former methods, saw marked developments within Japan, the beginning of the adoption of the customs and methods of western nations, and laid the founda- tion of the progress which has since beenmade. In 1871 another embassy, consisting of the ambassador and junior prime minister, Iwakura, the vice-ambassador, Kido, Count Ito Hirobumi, the three ministers of the cabinet, and several officers, sailed from Japan to visit all the nations having treaties with that country. The development of Japan which followed these tours of ob- servation and intercourse with other nations of the world was very rapid. Schools were increased, students were sent abroad to obtain a higher education and study foreign methods, internal 332 THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN highways made, steamships built and communication with for- eign countries increased, manufacturing industries encouraged and multiphed, and business men from other countries welcomed to participate in the commercial and business development of the country. Asaconsequence, the foreign commerce of Japan, which in 1878 amounted to less than $30,000,000, in 1898 was over $218,000,000, while the development of railroads, manufact- ures, and internal industries had been equally great. The United States, which has been constantly and actively associated with the development of Japan, has participated largely in the growth of her commerce. Thousands of young men from Japan have visited the United States as students, and thousands of merchants and business men from the United States have gone to Japan as instructors both in educational and commercial lines. As teachers and professors in schools and colleges, as editors and publishers, as merchants who engage in both importing and exporting, as manufacturers, as constructors of railways and telegraphs and in establishing modern electrical aids to commerce, citizens of the United States have been active in Japan. Asa consequence, the trade relations between the two countries have grown with greater rapidity than between Japan and any other nation. In 1881 the imports from the United States formed less than 6 per cent of the total importa- tions into Japan, while in 1898 they formed 15 per cent of the total importations. Meantime Great Britain’s share in the im- ports of Japan fell from 52 per cent in 1881 to 23 per cent in 1898. The United States is also Japan’s largest customer hy reason of the fact that the chief export products of Japan are articles required by the manufacturers of the United States and cannot be produced in this country. Of the $23,560,000 total exportations to the United States i in 1898, the value oF $12,620,000 consisted of raw silk, $3,286,000 of tea, $1,847,000 of mats for floors, $347,000 of rice, $336,000 of chemicals, drugs, etc., and $38,109,000 of manufactures of silk, while Japanese foot-mats, manufactures of bamboo, lacquered ware, and other products peculiar to the Japanese are prominent in thelist. Exports from Japan to the United States have steadily grown, especially since the development of the silk manufactur- ing industry in this country. The United States is the largest purchaser of raw silk from Japan, whose total exportations of raw silk exceed $28,000,000. France is the next largest customer in this line, her purchases of raw silk from Japan in 1897 THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN 393 amounting to $10,000,000 in value against $16,000,000 by the United States. The exports from Japan to the United States in 1881 were $5,500,000 in value, being 86.5 per cent of the total ex- ports of that year, and in 1898 were $28,600,000, or 29.06 per cent of the total exports of that year. Japan's imports from the United States have grown with even ereater rapidity than her exports to the United States. In 1881 they amounted to but $890,000, and in 1898 had reached $20,000,000 in value. They have increased even more rapidly than the total ueeeralous of Japan, our share of wes import trade having risen from 5.72 per cent in 1881 to 14.57 per cent in 1898, while the United Kingdon, our principal competitor in that market, which furnished in 1881 52.51 per cent of the total imports of Japan, supplied in 1898 22.84 percent. In the fiscal year 1892 our total exports of domestic merchandise to Japan amounted to $3,288,282, and in 1899 to $17,158,970. Of this total of $17,158,970 exported to Japan in the fiscal year just ended, the largest item was raw cotton, which amounted to $5,775,784 in value; the next largest was tobacco and manufactures thereof, amounting to $2,927,700; then followed iron and steel and manu- factures thereof, $2,578,616 ; illuminating oil, $2,341,922; bread- stuffs, $744,562 ; wood and manufactures her eof, $580,695 ; dis- tilled spirits, $414,404 ; paper and manufactures of, $850,118 ; in- struments for scientific purposes, $252,000 ; provisions, $212,408 ; leather and manufactures of, $209,611; clocks and watches, $135,307; paraffine wax, $132,273; Inhhidentine oil, $119,553. chemicals, drugs, and ae, 880, 498 ; condensed alle $76, 704, and india-rubber manufactures, $57 TQ. Taking up the great class of iron and steel and examining it in detail, we find that the exports of locomotive engines in 1899 amounted to $529,514; builders’ hardware, $26,498 ; sewing ma- chines, $5,270; car wheels, $3,624 ; firearms, $38,306 ; machinery not Peery specified, $569,641, and iron and steel not sepa- rately specified, $1,405,715. A detailed study of the exports from the United States to Japan with the purpose of determining the articles mostly in demand in that country during the decade, and in which the export trade has most rapidly grown, shows that the largest item is raw cotton, the value of which exported in 1890 amounted to but $85,211, had grown to $7,435,526 by 1898, and was $5,775,784 in 1899, the imports of 1898 having been somewhat excessive. Leaf tobacco, 304 THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN which was exported in such small quantities prior to 1894 that it found no separate statement in the official accounts, amounted in 1894 to $820, in 1897 to $55,124, and in 1899 to $2,414,482. Cigarettes amounted in 1890 to $76,556, in 1894 to $137,895, and in 1899 to $445,263. Illuminating oil, which in 1890 amounted to $3,559,395 in value, was in 1899 $2,341,922. This reduction is due in part to the active competition by Russian and Sumatran petroleum and in a small degree to the fact that Japan is now producing some petroleum from her own wells, though a recently published statement indicates that the product is small and the cost of producing practically as great as importing from other countries. It is proper to add, howeyer, that the reduction in- dicated by the figures quoted is more apparent than real, and is partially due to a reduction in price per gallon, the total exports of illuminating oil to Japan in the fiscal year 1899 being 32,705,180 gallons, against 37,892,930 gallons in 1890. Flour has increased from $127,120 in 1890 to $722,710 in 1899. This increase is eyi- dently due to a growing disposition among the Japanese to con- sume more of this class of food rather than rely as largely upon rice as in former years, since the number of foreigners in Japan, other than Chinese and Coreans, amounts to but about 5,000, and has not materially increased during the period in which our exports of flour to that country have more than quadrupled. The growth of the importations of tobacco into Japan has been phenomenal. In 1892 the total importation of tobacco, leaf and cut, was valued at $40,000; in 1896 it was $74,000; in 1897, $212,000, and in 1898, $2,350,000, this extraordinary im- portation of 1898 being due in part to the increased rate of duty provided by the new tariff; but the fact that in 1897 it was three times as much as in the preceding year would indicate a rapid growth in the demand for tobacco. An examination of the table of exports of tobacco from the United States shows that the markets of this country benefit by practically all of this increase, the exportations of tobacco from the United States to Japan in the fiscal year 1899 being $2,927,700 in value, as against $671,272 in the preceding year, prior to which time there had been a steady growth in the exports of tobacco from the United States ‘to Japan. In paper and its manufactures the export trade to Japan has grown very rapidly, the total exports of this class being, in 1890, $1,606; in 1896, $10,126, and in 1899, $350,118. Instruments for scientific purposes increased from $9,441 in 1890 to $34,600 THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN 330 in 1894, $148,271 in 1897, and $282,892 in 1899. Paraffine wax, of which the exports only began to be separately stated in 1891, amounted in that year to $255, and in 1894 to $75,815, in 1896 to $127,001, and in 1899 to $132,273. Chemicals, drugs, and dyes increased from $23,030 in 1890 to $80,498 in 1899; man- ufactures of india-rubber increased from $22,871 in 1890 to $57,579 in 1899. In the same period canned beef increased from $11,212 in 1890 to $40,750 in 1899, and beef, salted or pickled, from $628 to $42,898. Leather and its manufactures find a steady demand in Japan, owing to the fact that the number of cattle and other animals whose skins are used for this purpose is comparatively few. The total number of cattle in Japan is given in the last census as 1,148,761, or 26.92 for each 1,000 inhabitants, while in the United States, according to the latest reports of the Department of Agriculture, the number of cattle is 44,000,000, or about 600 for each 1,000 inhabitants. Exportations of cotton cloths to Japan have fallen by reason of the rapid increase in the manufacture of cotton cloth in that country, the total for 1899 being but $55,828, against $141,264 in 1897. Meantime, however, exportations of raw cotton to Japan have rapidly increased, being, as already indicated, $5,775,784 in 1899, against $85,211 in 1890. This is largely due to the in- crease in the manufacture of cotton goods in Japan, though American cotton has grown in popularity with the manufact- urers there within the past few years. Experience has shown them that cotton from the United States is more satisfactory for use in manufacturing than that which they had been accus- tomed to obtain from India and China, the staple in American cotton being longer, thus giving better results. As a conse- quence, imports of American cotton now form a much larger percentage of the total importation into Japan than in earlier years, although the cottons of China and India have largely the advantage both in the matter of proximity and cheapness of labor utilized in their production. Japan also produces a con- siderable amount of cotton of her own, though it can scarcely be expected that the production will increase sufficiently to keep pace with the growth of her cotton manufacturing industry. The entire area of Japan is but 169,140 square miles, or less than the State of California, while but about 10 per cent of her land is under cultivation and but a comparatively small propor- tion cultivable, since mountain ranges and rocky islets and shores 306 THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN form a large proportion of her area. It must be remembered that-Japan, with a small cultivable area, has a population of about 45,000,000, and must therefore devote most of her arable land to the production of foodstuffs, while her natural products of silk and tea are so much in demand the world over that they are not likely to be displaced for cotton, which can be so readily brought from other and comparatively adjacent countries. Cotton manufacturing in Japan has, however, grown very rapidly, the total number of spindles in 1899 being 4,358,702, against 5,468 in 1865 and 43,700 in 1883. It is thus apparent that Japan will continue to purchase from other parts of the world a large pro- portion of the raw cotton which her rapidly growing cotton mills will consume, and as the cotton from the United States has already made rapid headway against that from the nearer coun- tries of China and India, it is reasonable to assume that the market for American cotton will continue to grow, especially if an isthmian canal gives opportunity for direct water shipments from the cotton-growing section of the United States. In iron and steel there seems no reason to doubt that the de- mand upon the United States will continue. The importations of manufactures of iron and steel into Japan have grown very rapidly. It is apparent that the demand for manufactures of this class will continue to increase with perhaps greater rapidity. The various manufacturing and mechanical industries are being encouraged by the government and by Japanese capitalists, as are also the construction of railroads, the building of ships, and other enterprises of this kind, which will require great quanti- ties of iron and steel and their manufactures. While consider- able quantities of iron ore are known to exist in various parts of Japan, it is not believed that they will prove sufficient to seri- ously interfere with or take the place of the supplies now being furnished from other countries, especially since there are few places where iron and coal are found in conjunction. In addi- tion to this, it may be said that while the coal supply is now such as to have become quite an article of export, rivaling that of Australia and other localities in that part of the world, I do not believe that it will be sufficient to meet the great demand upon it forall classes of manufactures for any considerable term. Besides, the large capital required for the construction of estab- lishments for the manufacture of iron and steel, coupled with the extreme cheapness of production in the United States through proximity of coal and iron mines, makes it improbable THE COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF JAPAN “I ao) oo that the market in Japan for manufactures of this class will be seriously impaired by local production and manufacture. One important factor entering into the question of local man- ufactures in Japan, making her a competitor with other coun- tries which have formerly held this market, is that of labor. All recent] writers agree that rates of wages in Japan have very much increased in the last few years and are hkely to con- tinue to increase, and that the fear formerly expressed that a combination of modern manufacturing developments with the cheap labor of the Orient would result in driving the manufact- urers of other parts of the world out of the markets thus far does not seem to have been justified by the experiment. An interesting illustration of this statement is seen in the importa- tions of clocks and watches. ‘The opinion was expressed a few years ago that the cleverness of Japanese workmen in repro- ducing articles of delicate workmanship brought to their atten- tion would soon reduce to a minimum the importation of clocks and watches and other articles of this character. Experi- ence, however, has not justified this belief. The importation of clocks and watches into Japan, according to the official figures of the Japanese government, has increased from $320,000 in 1892 to $1,400,000 in 1898. That the effect of the new treaties upon the business relations of foreigners in Japan will be extremely important, not alone to foreigners, but to Japanese commerce in general, is shown by the fact that in 1598 foreign merchants exported $53,650,000 in yalue of the total exports of $81,075,000, and imported 591,800,000 of the total imports, which amounted in that year to $156,720,000, or, in other words, of the total foreign commerce of Japan in 1898, which amounted to $217,800,000, $145,450,000, or about 67 per cent, was conducted by foreigners. While the foreign residents of Japan generally look with some anxiety upon the effect of the new relations, which will subject them to Japanese laws and customs, it is believed that their anxiety is more the dread of a change from a system to which they have always been accustomed than to any real hardships or disadvan- tages which the new order is likely to develop. VIONVA HLAOS 'XEINN0D NOLONIHSYM ‘myad NVIGNI GO GVAH MOtd TSTMALION ONIMOOT—SNWATOD XVTIO NO SdVO ANOLSGNVS —SANVT Gv¥a OId THE BAD LANDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA By N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey There are Bad Lands of greater or less area in various portions of the arid and semi-arid districts of the west. The most exten- sive tract is in the southwestern part of South Dakota, on White river, a short distance east of the Black hills. They begin near the 101st meridian and extend for about 120 miles up the White River valley, nearly to the Nebraska line. Their width varies from 30 to 50 miles and their total area is about 4000 square miles. They attain their finest development on the north side of the valley, along the divide between White river and the south fork of the Cheyenneriver. This divide is high and nar- row, and is composed of the light colored clays—of the White River formation—and is a region of slight rainfall. The principal factors in bad-land development here are mass- ive structure of the moderately hard clay and the steep decliy- ities which, together, afford exceedinely favorable conditions for rapid erosion. Somewhat similar conditions prevail on the south side of the White River valley. The region was originally a relatively smooth plain. It was uplifted in a recent geologic time, and as the White river and the south fork of the Cheyenne river deepened their valleys during the progress of this uplift, they and their branch streams cut deeply into the surface of the plains. As erosion progressed, portions of this surface have been sculptured into narrow ridges, steep-sided buttes, rounded domes, pinnacles, and castellated forms in endless variety. Por- tions of the plains remain as grass-covered table-lands, usually bounded by high, rugged cliffs of clay, and deeply channeled by intricate winding canons. As erosion is more rapid than soil formation, the slopes are bare and their prevailing tints are flesh, cream, ashy gray, pale green, and buff. The material is fairly homogeneous in its texture, but owing to slight differences in texture, it is carved and channeled into great variety of forms. Occasionally thin beds of sandstone and beds of slightly harder clays add to the complexity of erosion products. The lower beds of the formation are filled with thin vertical veins of chalcedony, 339 340 THE BAD LANDS OF SOUTH DAKOTA a very hard material, which stands out in innumerable minute ridges and accumulates on the surface in fragmentary condition as the clay is washed away. To one standing on a high point in the midst of the Bad Lands, a unique view is presented. The bare surfaces are dazzlingly bright in the sunlight. Mesas and buttes, pinnacles and spires of every variety of form rise to varying heights in intricate con- fusion. Small areas of original plains surface stand as mesas presenting steep walls, deeply notched by cafions and with pro- jecting ridges cut into spires and pinnacles, often of considerable altitude. Many of the pinnacles are capped by masses of sand- stone which have protected the underlying clay and left a column standing. A typical general view in the Bad Lands is given on page 338, which also shows some representative pinnacles. The highest features in the region rise from 150 to 300 feet above the valleys. These valleys penetrate far into the Bad Lands, and often contain sufficient soil to sustain a sparse growth of grass. They contain water holes at long intervals, in which limited supplies of water are occasionally preserved far into the autumn, often covered by a thin pellicle of mud which dimin- ishes evaporation. One of the most prominent features in the Bad Lands is the “ Great Wall,” which extends along the north side of the White River valley for many miles. It is a bare es- carpment descending from a ridge of grass-covered table-land, deeply invaded from the northwest by wide bad-land valleys extending toward the Cheyenne river. Near the center of the bad-land area rises a prominent rem- nant of the original plain, known as Sheep mountain, named from the mountain sheep, some of which still remain there. Its table-like surface is covered with grass, but its slopes are marked by a wide zone of bad lands, consisting of high, bare cliffs in- tricately cafioned and buttressed as shown on page 341. Very few roads cross the Bad Lands, but there are a few lines of travel through them, which have served for communication. The greater part of the area lies within the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The Bad Lands are famous for the large amount of fossil ani- mal remains which they contain. They have produced hundreds of tons of fossils of Tertiary animals, and every season the region receives visits from one or more parties of “ bone-hunters,” as they are called, from some of the colleges. A trip to the Big Bad Lands is an interesting experience. They may be easily reached v LOMVa HLAOS *XINN00 NOLDNTHSVM 'NTV INNOW daaHsS JO GNA NUAHLAOS UVAN nn VUSVUMIN ‘ALNAOD XAOS ‘VITEGY WVON ‘uve TOOLSAVOL THE WEST INDIAN HURRICANE 343 from several points along the line of the Chicago and North- Western railway, Black Hills division. HotSprings, on both the North-Western and the Burlington railway lines, is within two days’ drive from Sheep mountain, but Hermosa, on the North- Western railway, is somewhat nearer. At this station convey- ance may be had, and a fairly large area of the Bad Lands may - be seen in a three-days’ trip, including a climb to the top of Sheep mountain and the top of the divide between the head- waters of Indian creek and Cottonwood draw. The White River clay formation extends into Nebraska, and ata number of localities exhibits characteristic bad lands. Near Adelia, on the Burlington and Missouri River railroad, in the extreme northwestern corner of Nebraska, there is a small but exceedingly interesting area of these bad lands, presenting the usual characteristics. One particularly unique locality in this vicinity is shown on page 342. On the North Platte river the same formation presents many striking topographic features, no- tably Jail Rock, in Cheyenne county, an admirable illustration of which appears as the frontispiece. | : THE WEST INDIAN HURRICANE OF AUGUST 7-14, 1899 By E. B. Garriort, Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau The American public has manifested a peculiar interest in the West Indian hurricane of August 7-14,1899. This interest may be partially attributed to the fact that for the first time in her history the United States possessed territory in the tropics which was devastated and made temporarily dependent by a hurricane. And aside from this consideration the storm afforded an opportunity for demonstrating the utility of the newly or- ganized West Indian branch of the United States Weather Bu- reau. ‘The experience of Puerto Rico in this hurricane is of spe- cial interest and importance for the reason that she possessed the advantage of a full-reporting station of the Weather Bureau from which warnings of the approach of the hurricane were dis- seminated the day before its arrival and where accurate data near the path of the center of the disturbance were recorded. Extending nearly four hundred miles east and southeast from Puerto Rico are the Leeward islands of the Lesser Antilles. To 344 TE WEST INDIAN HURRICANE the west of Puerto Rico is the island of Santo Domingo. North and distant about one hundred miles from the Santo Domingo coast are the easternmost islands of the Bahama group, which ex- tend from the Turks islands on the east about six hundred and fifty miles in a northwesterly direction to the west end of Great Bahama island, which is seventy-five miles from the Florida coast. ‘These islands border a line drawn northwest by west from Guadeloupe, one of the southernmost islands of the Leeward group, over the Bahamas,a distance of 1,400 to 1,500 miles, .and this line represents the approximate path of the hurricane from August 7 to 12. Puerto Rico records show that the usual path of hurricanes is somewhat to the south of that island, and that during the last four hundred years the island has been visited by eight hurri- canes which were attended by a marked loss of life or property. The first of these occurred in July, 1515; the second in 1527, when the executive building in San Juan was destroyed, and the third on August 21, 1615, when the cathedral was demol- ished. The San Juan News of August 8, 1899, which contains this record, states that the most violent hurricane in the history of Puerto Rico occurred on the night of August 22,1772. It continued from eleven at night until three in the morning, in alternating violent gusts and squalls. Trees were torn up by the roots, fields were inundated, plantations disappeared, and a large number of people were killed and buried under the ruins of their houses. On September 4, 1806, a hurricane caused great damage at Ponce. On September 21, 1819, crops were damaged to such an extent that a famine followed. A violent hurricane, which is remembered by many present residents of the island, occurred October 29, 1867. On August 14, 1886, a hurricane passed to the south of Puerto Rico, doing considerable damage along the south coast and destroying crops in the interior. Incubated in the warm and exceedingly moist region of equa- torial rains, the hurricane of August 7-14, 1899, advanced toward the outlying islands of the Leeward group during the night of August 6, its approach being first indicated by the 8 a. m. re- ports of August 7 from the Weather Bureau stations at Roseau, Dominica, and Basse Terre, St Christopher. Moving northwest- ward during the afternoon and night of the 7th, the hurricane center apparently passed almost directly over Guadeloupe and Montserrat and to the south of the Virgin islands, which are the extreme western islands of the Leeward group. The island of 668T FI-L TSASAV AO ANVOINYOH NVIGNI ISOM JO MOVYL YNIMOHS WVUPVIC PL2L ASSET > SLLIY LO WOH ‘18 Prior. 28 OM/elLUpy BYfO/IEYD 346 THE WEST INDIAN HURRICANE Guadeloupe suffered severely, and on the island of Montserrat nearly 100 persons were reported killed and villages and estates were destroyed. On the islands of Nevis, St Christopher, and Antigua the storm was less severe, while the Danish island of St Croix was the only one of the Virgin islands which suffered to any great extent. ; Between 8 and 9 a. m. of August 8 the hurricane center passed over or very near the south coast of Puerto Rico, attended by an appalling loss of life and property, and by the morning of the 9th had reached a position near the north coast of Santo Domingo. Following a west-northwest track, the hurricane center arrived at the eastern Bahamas and evidently passed near Grand Turk island during the night of the 9th. The position and course of the storm during the succeeding twenty-four hours were approximately determined by the distant Weather Bureau stations of observation at Santiago and Puerto Principe, Cuba, and by regular and special reports received through the codpera- tion of the colonial government at Nassau, Bahamas. By the morning of the 11th there was evidence at Nassau of the approach of the storm-center. During the day the barometer fell rapidly, with increasing northeast winds and heavy rain, and during the evening cable communication between Nassau and Jupiter, Fla., was lost. On the following day, August 12, the barometer fell rapidly at Jupiter, with wind increasing to a gale from the northeast, and by the morning of the 15th the barometer at that station had fallen to 29.22 inches and the wind had reached a velocity of 52 miles an hour. From the 14th to the 19th the storm-center drifted slowly northward and north- eastward along the Atlantic coast, attended by severe gales and high seas from Florida to Virginia, after which it apparently passed eastward over the ocean beyond the region of land observation. With data now available it is,not possible to determine the intensity of this hurricane at various points along its course. During August 7 and 8 the character and extent of the destruc- tion it caused will give it rank among the historical hurricanes of the Leeward islands, Puerto Rico, and Santo Domingo. During the period it occupied in advancing from Santo Domingo over the Bahama islands and thence northward off the Atlantic coast of the United States, no observations have been received which show the exact strength of the storm as measured by in- strumental observations. Observations of this character, made THE WEST INDIAN HURRICANE O47 by shipmasters who encountered the hurricane, will furnish data for a later and more exhaustive report. Inthe meantime reports of disasters at sea are being multiplied, and when the history of this hurricane is completed the casualties it caused on land and sea will aggregate hundreds of human lives and millions of dol- lars’ worth of property. Owing to the special interest taken in Puerto Rico by the people of the United States, and to the fact that this island possessed the only fully equipped and regular reporting station of the Weather Bureau which occupied a position in the path of the hurricane, and near its center, an account in detail of the storm’s character- istics will at this time be confined to data contained in instru- mental records and reports rendered by the official in charge of the Weather Bureau office at San Juan. At San Juan the barometer began to fall at 10 p.m. of the 7th, and the lowest recorded reading, 29.23 inches, was reached at 8.30 a. m. of the 8th. The wind was variable, with occasional gusts during the night of the 7th—-8th, and gradually settled into a gale from the northeast toward the morning of the 8th. The hurricane was at its height at San Juan between 7 and 9 a. m. of the 8th, when the wind velocity was calculated by the Weather Bureau observer at 85 to 90 miles an hour. ‘The observer reports that practically no thunder and lightning attended the storm, only two flashes of lightning, and they were not severe, being observed by him. The rainfall was very heavy, a total of 6.37 inches falling, of which 4.18 inches fell from noon to 8 p. m. of the 8th. Ponce and the port of Ponce on the south coast were wrecked, with a loss of about two hundred lives and an aggregate property loss of at least $500,000. ‘The estimated damage to property through- out the island is in the millions of dollars. Dwellings were destroyed and crops were ruined and the main body of the working population will be for a time dependent on the United States, their home government, for the necessities of life. In conclusion, it seems proper to refer to the action taken by the United States Weather Bureau in giving warning along the line of its advance of the approach of the hurricane center. Im- mediately upon the receipt of the morning reports of August 7, when the storm was central east of Dominica, the central office of the Weather Bureau at Washington ordered, through Habana, Cuba, hurricane signals from Dominica to Puerto Rico, and the signals were carried to Santo Domingo the afternoon of the 7th. Messages containing information regarding the position and prob- 348 THE RETURN OF WELLMAN able course of the hurricane were sent to all Weather Bureau stations in the West Indies from Barbados to Cuba; and as the hurricane moved westward signals were ordered and advices were telegraphed to all Weather Bureau stations in the threatened districts and to Atlantic coast and Gulf ports and there given the widest possible dissemination. In fact, the warnings foreran the storm by a period which varied from a few hours at the east- ernmost Leeward islands to 36 and 48 hours at points along the South Atlantic coast and Gulf ports of the United States. That the warnings were prompt, accurate, and of almost incalculable value is universally acknowledged by owners and masters of: ves- sels who by holding their vessels in port avoided a hurricane which, by the evidence of disasters and reports of disasters, was one of exceptional violence. THE RETURN OF WELLMAN By J. Howarp Gore, Professor of Mathematics and Geodesy in the Columbian University In the short article that appeared in THE NarrionaL Gro- GRAPHIC MaGazineE for July, I mentioned three obstacles that might stand in the way of Mr Wellman’s success in his attempt to reach the ultimate north. From the meager accounts that have reached us it appears that all three of these hindrances were encountered: a high latitude was not reached last year, the greater part of the expedition spending the winter at or near the point of debarkation and only two members of the party advancing northward ; death carried away one of the best and strongest men and the leader himself was incapacitated by a serious accident; and, finally, a breaking up of the ice on which they were encamped caused a loss of a considerable part of the equipment. Fortunately we are assured that some important discoveries were made in the neighborhood of Freedom island; possibly this means that the four or five islands already known were more accurately located and perhaps better delineated. It is to be hoped that magnetic observations were made during their winter sojourn, and that aurora displays were carefully noted. Such a series of observations might yield an adequate return for the outlay of capital, labor, and suffering. LLMAN R WE WALTE NOMIGIAXT NVATIOM AHL JO SUTLTNVADaVaH WH — (HON LISat advo CLOUD WORK OF THE WEATHER BUREAU 351 The most pathetic incident that has reached us is the account of the lonely vigil of Bjoervig. Weare told that he and Bentzen were spending the winter night alone in the outpost camp, nearly a hundred miles north of the main camp.’ Here Bentzen died— surely not from the scurvy, as anti-scorbutic food in abundance had been taken from Norway—and, with the inherent dread the Norwegians have of having bears feed upon their bodies, he evi- dently exacted from his companion a promise to preserve his corpse until the summer sun could loosen enough stones to form at least the semblance of a grave. Such a promise was made to be kept, and for two months the little tent-like hut sheltered the living and the dead. These two men during the days of preparation were always together. Both knew much of the dan- gers and labor that would soon confront them, and they worked with the common purpose to prepare to meet them. In the discussions and conjectures as to who would form the advance euard, all wished to be included, but all knew that these two would surely go; their fitness picked them out. And now Bent- zen, the jolly, robust, energetic, noble-hearted man, has taken another and still longer step into the unknown, and Bjoervig has returned with the last messages of his companion and the memories of that long night of waiting. Such an example of fidelity almost merits the hardships of the Arctic for its procuring. Now that Me Wellman will soon be with us, it is better to await his story of what was accomplished, and content ourselves at this point with saying that if it speaks of failure in any form it will give positive proof that, under. the circumstances, hercu- lean efforts could not have yielded better results. hae INTERNATIONAL CLOUD WORK OF THE WEATHER BUREAU By Frank H. BicEtow, Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau In the month of May, 1896, several national meteorological services began in codperation to take a series of simultaneous observations on the height and the motion of the ten standard types of clouds which have been defined by the International Committee. The object of this survey of the movements of the atmosphere, continued for at least one year, was to gather ma- 302 CLOUD WORK OF THE WEATHER BUREAU terial that could be used to determine the action of the higher strata with reference to the formation and the progressive motion of storms. Our observations are generally so exclusively made in the lowest level of the ocean of air that comparatively imper- fect information exists regarding the higher currents upon which to found intelligent theories, and it is with the purpose of sup- plying this deficiency that the series of international observa- tions was undertaken. By the liberal policy of the United States government the Weather Bureau was able to do its part of this work. The discussion of the data is now nearly finished for the report which it is expected to issue before the end of the present year. While it is not practicable to give any detailed account of the results, it may be interesting to have presented in THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a brief synopsis of the scope of the report now being prepared by the writer. The observations are divided into.two classes: (1) The primary, which are made by means of two theodolites placed at the end of a long base line adapted to triangulations in the vertical direc- tion. These give the absolute heights, velocities, and direction of motion of individual clouds; between 6,000 and 7,000 of such observations were made at Washington, D.C. (2) The secondary, executed with nephoscopes at fourteen stations distributed at nearly equal distances from each other over the districts east of the Rocky mountains, give the relative velocities and direction of motion, and with the help of the results obtained by the pri- mary system can be translated into absolute values; there were 25,000 to 30,000 of these observations made in the United States. The discussion of these data has been divided into a number of parts, of which the following may be mentioned in this con- nection: (1) The distribution of the cirrus, cirro-stratus, cirro- cumulus, alto-cumulus, alto-stratus, strato-cumulus, cumulo- nimbus, nimbus, cumulus, stratus, was so determined that we now know the average height of each type for every month in the year and the depth of the zone or horizontal belt in which they may severally occur. Thus the upper types are found in layers as much as six miles thick, though they form most fre- quently near the middle of their respective belts; the lower are thinner, and have some peculiar characteristics besides. When we consider that the height and shape of these belts, changing from month to month, indicates some very delicate physical process going on in the aqueous vapor of the atmosphere, it is easy to see that they become the best means for studying the CLOUD WORK OF THE WEATHER BUREAU 300 state of the pressure, temperature, and vapor tension—that is, the physics of the air itself. (2) A very important subject has been the determination of the direction and velocities of the horizontal motions of the air in each of the eight principal levels, on all sides of the anti-cyclones and cyclones, high and low areas of pressure, as they move over this country. These move- ments have been separated into two components, the first be- longing to the general or undisturbed motion of the atmosphere, which is about eastward in this latitude, and the second to the local motions, which are gyratory and especially concerned with descending and ascending vortices or storms. These data give us for the first time definite information regarding storm com- ponents, and these enable us to look into the theories much more closely than heretofore. (8) This analysis has been sup- plemented by a compilation of cloud motions taking place in the cumulus or the cirrus levels, as derived from the Weather Bureau cloud charts collected during the past twenty years, the object of which is to show how the average anti-cyclone and cyclone are affected by the circulation of the air over different parts of the United States—that is, by the Rocky mountains, the Lake region, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic States—the results being exhibited on a series of colored charts. These practical facts lead to the necessity of definite theoret- ical studies in order to account for them, and this again to sev- eral other lines of research: (1) The first thing was to prepare a system of standard constants and formule by a comparative study of the papers of several authors, and by the addition of such new demonstrations as seemed desirable, so that the work of many men in their several branches may be read as one con- sistent meteorological scheme. ‘This standard system represents the outcome of several years’ study of the subject. These formulze include most of the thermodynamic or hydrodynamic conditions likely to arise on a rotating body surrounded by an atmosphere, like the earth. (2) Next, a completely new set of working tables, based upon these formule, has been prepared for the barometric reductions from one level to another; for studying with the greatest accuracy the exact conditions of pressure, tem- perature, and vapor tension at the level where a cumulus cloud base forms by the vertical convection, at the place where the hail forms, and at the level where the snow is produced, and finally for computing the dynamic forces and the gradients of motion according to the observed velocities. These tables are perma- 304 CLOUD WORK OF THE WEATHER BUREAU nently useful to meteorology, and that they are needed is seen from the following considerations: The Smithsonian tables and the International tables are adapted for the reduction from ele- rations 2,000 meters or less to the sea-level ; but in cloud-work it is necessary to reduce at will throughout a region up to 15,000 meters in height and with ranges of temperature from + 30° to — 60° centigrade, which is far beyond the limits of any existing tables. The Hertz diagram for adiabatic expansion leaves out the vapor contents of the air in parts of the formule, introduc- ing errors as much as 0.30 inch in pressure. Besides, it is de- sirable to be able to start with surface conditions and compute upward in exact figures all the elements existing in the cloud, and also the gradients connecting one level with another. Since the atmosphere differs very widely from the adiabatic laws, one of our problems is to discuss how much this departure is for all seasons of the year, and from these data we expect to study carefully the laws of solar insolation and terrestrial radt- ation—that is, the actinometry of the atmosphere—by means of this new and improved material. Finally, there are no tables published which are available for computing the dynamic forces indicated by the equations, and this is necessary if meteorology is to be made an exact science. (8) The possession of all this new matter enables us to analyze closely the Ferrel theory of the local eyclone and the German theory of the same, which differ from each other, and to show that they are both only ideal solu- tions of vortices and do not conform to the stream lines given by the observations. An attempt has been made to interpret the analytical equations of motion, so that they shall match the observed facts, and this leads to a different idea of the circula- tion in storms from that commonly taught by meteorologists. The application of the theory to tornadoes is certainly satisfac- tory, and in the case of hurricanes and cyclones it is on the whole very promising. THE new treaty between the United States and Japan went into effect on July 17. The main feature of the treaty is the abolition of the jurisdiction of the United States consular courts in Japan. Henceforth all the exceptional privileges, exemp- tions, and immunities formerly enjoyed by citizens of the United States, as a part of or appurtenant to such jurisdiction, will absolutely cease and all such jurisdiction will be assumed and exercised by Japanese courts. ee THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCE- MENT OF SCIENCE The forty-eighth annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Columbus, August 19-26. While naturally not attended by as large numbers as was the jubilee meeting in Boston the preceding year, the work accomplished yielded even better results, as the more effectual organization and the limited number of papers read permitted the free discussion of nearly every subject presented. The purpose and work of the Association, and at the same time the achievements of modern science, are admirably reviewed in the following paragraphs from the opening address of the dis- tincuished President, Dr Edward Orton: “Alfred R. Wallace has recently made a careful inventory of the discoveries and inventions to which the progress of the race is mainly due, and he divides them into two groups, the first em- bracing all the epoch-making advances achieved by man previous to the present century, and the second taking in the discoveries and advances of equal value that have had their origin in the nineteenth century. In the first list he finds but fifteen items of the highest rank, and the claims of some even of this number to a separate place are not beyond question. ‘They may not really be of epoch-making character. But he puts into the list the fol- lowing, viz.: Alphabetical writing and Arabic notation, which have always been the two great engines of knowledge and dis- covery. Their inventors are unknown, lost in the dim twilight of prehistoric times. * Coming, after a vast interval, to the fourteenth century, A. D., we find the mariners’ compass, and in the fifteenth century the printing-press, both of which, beyond question, are of the same character and rank as alphabetic writing. From the sixteenth century we get no physical invention or discovery, but it wit- nessed an amazing movement of the human mind, which in good time gave rise to the great catalogue of advances of the seven- teenth century, the most prolific of all the centuries antecedent to our own. ‘To it we credit the invention of the telescope and, though not of equal rank, the barometer and thermometer, and in still another field the invention of differential calculus, the 355 356 THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR all-important discovery of the attraction of gravitation, of the laws of planetary motion, of the circulation of the blood, of the measurement of the velocity of light. To the eighteenth century we refer the more important of the early steps in the evolution of the steam-engine and the foundation of both modern chemistry and electrical science. This completes the list. Count- ing all these inventions and discoveries as separate, we get sixteen. Wallace places the barometer and thermometer under one num- ber, and makes a total of fifteen. “In making such a list it is evident that the personal equation of the author undoubtedly needs to be recognized, and different orders of arrangement, even if the elements were the same, would be assigned by different students. At any rate, something like this is the list of what the race has gained in science since it first came to itself up to the year 1800. The greatest steps have cer- tainly all been counted. ‘And now what has the record been since 1800? How does the nineteenth century compare with its predecessors? A brief examination will show us that in scientific discovery and pro- gress it is not to be compared with any single century, but rather with all past time. In fact, it far outweighs the entire pro- eress of the race from the beginning up to 1800, Counting on the same basis as that which he had previously adopted, Wal- lace finds twenty-four discoveries and inventions of the first class that have had their origin in the nineteenth century against the fifteen or sixteen already enumerated of all the past. This is not the proper occasion to review, compare, and set in order the several elements of this glorious list, but let me simply recall to your minds a few of them. “Of the same rank with Newton’s theory of gravitation, which comes from the seventeenth century, stands out the doctrine of the correlation and conservation of forces of our own century, certainly one of the widest and most far-reaching generalizations that the mind of man has yet reached. Against Kepler’s laws from the seventeenth century we can set the nebular theory of the nineteenth. The telescope of the seventeenth is overbalanced by the spectroscope of the nineteenth. If the first reveals to us myriads of suns,scattered through the illimitable fields of space, the second tells what substances compose these suns and main- tain their distant fires, and, most wonderful of all, the direction and the rate in which each is moving. Harvey’s immortal dis- covery of the seventeenth century finds a full equivalent in the THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE 357 germ theory of diseases of the nineteenth. The mariners’ com- pass of the fourteenth century easily yields first place to the electric telegraph of the nineteenth, while the barometer and thermometer of the seventeenth century are certainly less wonderful, though perhaps not less serviceable, than the tele- phone and phonograph of our own day. “T need not pursue the comparison exhaustively, but in addi- tion to the advances now enumerated the great doctrine of organic evolution, supported especially by the recapitulation theory in embryology, finds nothing to match with it in broad- ening and inspiring power in all the past history of the race. The same can be said of the periodic law of Mendeléeff in chemistry, of the molecular theory of gases, of Lord Kelvin’s vortex theory of matter, of the glacial period in geology, and of the establishment of the origin and antiquity of man—all of our own century. Nothing can be brought from all the past to com- pare for one moment in direct application to ‘the relief of man’s estate’ with the discovery of aneesthetics, while by his discovery of antiseptic surgery the name and fame of Sir Joseph Lister will grow to the last syllable of recorded time. In the mobili- zation of man and the giving to him of the freedom of the globe, the railways and steamships of our century are absolutely with- out any element for comparison in all that the past has left us. “ There are, however, three inventions and discoveries that we have inherited from the past, and that have been already named, two of them from some distant but unrecorded century and one from the darkness of the middle ages, which have proved so indispensable to all subsequent advances that it is impossible for even the nineteenth century to present anything that can be properly compared with them. I refer to the alphabet, Arabic numerals, and the printing-press. To this list might be added, perhaps, language and the use of fire. The factors I have named are presupposed in all modern progress. By the very necessities of the case they must have preceded the progress at which we have glanced. “As I have before said, the nineteenth century is the century of science, and it is science, mainly physical science, that con- stitutes the proper object of this association. Our geographical name is wide, but the scope of our association is wider still. It deals with and is devoted to science, which is the best product of the best powers of the human mind—the human mind, cre- ated in the image of God and divinely inspired to interpret this 308 THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION wonderful universe. This association marks the stage already reached in this interpretation, but in its very title it indicates that the work is incomplete; that it is still in progress. * Its founders, fifty years avo, clearly saw that they were in the early morning of a growing day. The most unexpected and marvelous progress has been made since that date, but as yet there is no occasion and no prospect of an occasion to modify the title. We are still laboring for the advancement of science, for the discovery of new truth. The field, which is the universe, was never so white to the harvest as now, but it is still early morning on the dial of science. It is possible that we could make ourselves more interesting to the general public if we oc- casionally foreswore our loyalty to our name and spent a por- tion of our time in restating established truths. Our contribu- tions to the advancement of science are often fragmentary and devoid of special interest to the outside world; but every one of them has a place in the temple of knowledge, and the wise master builders, some of whom appear in every generation, will find them all and use them all at last, and then only will their true value come to light.” The papers of geographic interest were principally read before the sections of Geology and Geography, Social and Economic Science, and Anthropolozy. Among such a large number of important and orizinal contributions it is impossible to more than indicate the titles of the following: Before the section of Geolozy and Geography: “The Pre- Lafayette (Tennesseean) Baselevel,” by W J McGee; “The Geology of Columbus and Vicinity,” by Edward Orton; “ The Cape Fear Section in the Coastal Plain” and “Some Geological Conditions Favoring Water-power Developments in the South Atlantic Region,” by J. A. Holmes; “A Consideration of the Interpretation of Unusual Events in Geological Records,” by Frederick W. Simonds. Before the section of Social and Kco- nomic Science: “ Corn as a Factor in the Wheat Problem,” by John Hyde; “ The Increase in the Median Age of the Popula- tion of the United States since 1850,” by Mansfield Merriman ; “Trusts: A Study in Industrial Evolution,” by H. T. New- comb; “ Moral Tendencies of Existing Social Conditions,” by Dr Washington Gladden. Before the section of Anthropology: “A Jomparative Study of the Physical Structure of the Labrador Eskimos and the New England Indians,” by Frank Russell; THE REDISCOVERY OF PUERTO RICO 309 “ Regarding the Evidences of Ancient Prehistoric Man in the Maumee [iver Basin,” by Charles H. Slocum ; “The Latest Dis- coveries of Traces of Glacial Man at Trenton, N. J., and the Light Thrown upon Them by a Comparative Study of the Gravels of the Delaware and Susquehanna Valleys,” by G. Fred- erick Wright; ‘ Report of Committee on White Race in Amer- ica,” by J. McKeen Cattell; “The Beginnings of Mathematics,” by W J McGee. Among other papers of especial note may be mentioned: “Some Experimental Illustrations of the Electrolytic Dissociation Theory,” by A. A. Noyes; “Some New Products of Maize Stalks,” by H. W. Wiley and W. H. Krug; “On Some Piratine Bugs, which may be Responsible for So-called ‘Spider- bite’ Cases,” by L. O. Howard. A gratifying feature of the meeting was the generous gift of $1,000 by Mr Emerson McMillin, of New York City, who thus becomes a patron of the Association. The Association was ex- tremely fortunate in its entertainment, for the local committee that had the arrangements in charge did everything in their power to contribute to the success and pleasure of the delegates. GEG: THE REDISCOVERY OF PUERTO RICO The acquisition of the island of Puerto Rico as one of the consequences of the recent war with Spain threw at once upon the government the duty of providing for the safe navigation of the waters which wash its shores by supplying to the seafaring community reliable charts of its almost un- known coast. It was a reproach to the Spanish administration that this plain duty was so long neglected, although it is only fair to say that a re- survey of the islands was in progress at the outbreak of hostilities, which of course put an end to the work. Whether the new survey would have been entirely satisfactory may be doubted, but it would probably have been an improvement on the previously available information. The war, however, made the results of this work unavailable, as the records were carried to Spain. Since the task of furnishing at an early date trustworthy information in regard to the approaches to this one of our possessions devolved upon the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the superintendent of that service, Dr Henry S. Pritchett, took immediate steps to meet these new demands upon the resources of the organization. The south coast of Puerto Rico, being the least known and having a larger number of ports than any other part of the island, was selected for tie beginning of the work. The steamer George S. blake, so well known to the scientific world from association with the researches of Professor Agassiz and from results achieved by Captain Sigsbee and others, was 360 THE REDISCOVERY OF PUERTO RICO fitted out for this duty and sailed from Baltimore December 27, Mr Hodge- kins commanding. She arrived off Ponce early in January, and began work in that vicinity by the measurement of a base line and the develop- ment of ascheme of triangulation along the south coast, to serveas a basis for the topographic and hydrographic surveys which were simultaneously in progress. An astronomical azimuth was also measured near Ponce, to insure the correct orientation of the work. In the beginning of the sur- vey, the western point of the bay, which forms the port of Ponce, was taken as the western limit of the detailed work, which was thence carried to the eastward toward Jobos and Arroyo. At the end of March the work on the south coast was temporarily suspended in order to comply with a request from the Navy Department for a detailed survey of the important harbor of San Juan. The survey of the entrance and the principal part of the harbor was completed before the end of April, and the results are shown on a large-scale chart which is about to be issued to the public, blue-print copies having been furnished to the naval authorities at San Juan. This survey verified the important fact that the depth of water on San Juan bar is thirty-five feet, instead of twenty-four, as previously reported. Returning to the south coast, the Blake’s company spent the month of May in completing the survey of Port Jobos and approaches of Arroyo bay. Point Viento was the most eastern point reached by the triangulation and topography, and here the season’s work was closed. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the information obtained dur- ing the season is the careful development of the haven known variously as Port Aguirre, Port Jobos, or Boca del Infierno, previously described by Mr O. H. Tittmann in Toe NarronaL GEoGrapHic MAGAZINE (vol. X, p. 206). The Blake found here a good harbor of refuge with a wide and deep entrance and anchorage of sufficient depth for any vessel. The upper portion is somewhat difficult of access and not so deep as the lower anchorage, but is still of considerable value and may in time, under the stimulus of American energy and capital, develop into an important port. Of’the south coast of Puerto Rico in general it may be said that though there are real dangers to be avoided, they are less to be dreaded than the uncertainty engendered by the old and inaccurate maps. Knowing the true location of the shore line and of the few outlying reefs, navigation along this coast becomes very easy and perfectly safe. A curious circumstance developed by this survey is the fact that the island seems to be considerably smaller than has been supposed, at least if one can safely generalize from the experience of one season. Accord- ing to previous information, Point Viento is about fifty miles east of Ponce, but the actual distance was found to be about seven miles less. If this ‘‘shrinkage” should be found to extend to other portions of the island, it would make a considerable decrease in the area of the island from the figures usually stated. Tue Harriman Alaska expedition returned to Seattle July 31, after haying traveled 1,600 miles in 78 days. The expedition proved most successful, discovering a new bay, several new glaciers, and bringing back an immense treasure Of specimens of birds, plants, animals, ete. ae THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION Mr Walter Wellman on his arrival in England has issued a brief state- ment of the experiences of his party in Franz Josef Land during the past twelve months. The expedition, it will be remembered, left Troms6 June 26, 1898, but, owing to the large amount of ice barring the way, was unable to gain Cape Tegetthoff, its headquarters, before July 30. Mr Wellman is reported to have said : ‘Desiring to push further north with the greatest speed, I dispatched Mr Baldwin August 5 with the Norwegians, sledges, dogs and boats, my- self and others intending to follow in a few days. Shortly after Bald- win’s departure I discovered that, owing to a sudden break-up of the ice, I was unable to proceed, but I sent two Norwegians to inform Baldwin to build his outpost, leave two men in charge of it, and return to my headquarters.” Meanwhile Mr Baldwin had pushed on to latitude 81, where he built the outpost, and, leaving the two Norwegians, Bentzen and Bjoervig, in charge, rejoined Mr Wellman at Cape Tegetthoff late in October. Here they all passed the winter in the Harmsworth House, which was completely buried with snow. On February 18, 1899, Well- man, with the Norwegians, started north, but on reaching the outpost found Bentzen dead. Mr Wellman continues : “After a delay of ten days the party, including Bjoervig, pressed north in sledges, and by March 20 reached 82 degrees, east of Rudolf island. The prospects were most reassuring. We had three months of the best season before us and we were confident of reaching 87 degrees. Though, of course, we had suffered from cold, we were all in fine form. “Then a seemingly trivial accident turned the satisfactory advance into a precipitate retreat. While struggling with the sledges in rough ice, my right leg was bruised and sprained by my falling into a snow-hidden crey- ice. For twodays I went on and, had other circumstances not occurred, I should have pressed onward so far that I should never have been able to return alive. At midnight on March 22 we were awakened by the crashing of the ice under our feet. It swayed and deep crevices yawned about us. Several dogs and sledges were crushed. In the darkness and storm it was impossible to see a path of safety. Expecting to be over- whelmed at any moment by the ice, we scrambled over the field of ice and saved most of our equipment except the dog food, reaching a place of safety in half an hour. Our brave Norwegian comrades did not ex- press the slightest fear. While it was possible to go on for a time, my leg now demanded a retreat. For two or three days I stumbled along until I fell. There was nothing to do then but get on a sledge and be dragged back to headquarters by the men and dogs. Forced marches by my devoted comrades saved my life. “The point at which we turned back was twenty-five miles northwest of the Freedom islands, where Dr Nansen landed in 1895. North of these 25 36L 362 THROUGH FRANZ JOSEF LAND islands we photographed three islands and some large land, unseen either by Payer or Nansen. We also found that Payer’s so-called Dove Glacier does not exist. I still believe it is possible to reach the Pole by Franz Josef Land, but I cannot say if I shall make another effort.” After Mr Wellman’s return to the Ilarmsworth House, on April 9, Lieu- tenant Baldwin and four Norwegians went out to Wilezek Land, chart- ing the unexplored east coast and discovering a new ice-covered island, extending to 64 degrees east, almost as large as Wilczek Land. They named it Graham-Bell Land in honor of the President of the National Geographic Society. THROUGH FRANZ JOSEF LAND The Duke of the Abruzzi, whose departure from Christiania on the Stella Polare has been announced, reached Archangel in July, where he was ac- corded a magnificent reception by the Russian garrison. Unlike Nansen, who sought to approach the Pole as near as possible upon his ship, either by sailing through an open sea or by drifting when bound in the ice, the Duke of the Abruzzi will watch for a favorable moment to gain a creek or port suitable for wintering and for serving asa base. The intention of the prince is to advance across Franz Josef Land and from his base, at intervals of two or three days’ march, to establish a series of depots or caches of provisions extending toward the Pole. Le Your du Monde con- tains the following interesting account of his plans and equipment: ‘‘ The baggage of the expedition has been distributed among 1,500 boxes, each weighing about 55 pounds, and thus in case of need easily portable upon a man’s back. The boxes are divided into four classes: provisions; clothing and equipment; tools and scientific instruments; and, lastly, articles that are useful but not indispensable. Each class has its own special color and each box is numbered according to the class and the nature of its contents. The provisions—rice, sea biscuit, preserved or salted beef, ete.—have been so divided that each box contains five differ- ent kinds of food, in order that the fare may in no extremity be re duced to one article of food. Each chest is lined on the inside with tin and soldered to keep out water and dampness. The boxes con- taining the clothes are of a bright green, those containing the scientific apparatus red, while the boxes containing the useful but not indispen- sable articles are yellow. Among the latter are playing-cards, dominoes, a guitar, a graphophone, a phonograph, and an zeolian with a generous and varied repertory, including Cavalleria Rusticana, Lohengrin, Tannhau- ser, Don Juan, and dance music. The party expect to return in eighteen months. Of the total expenses, estimated at about $575,000, the King of Italy has contributed one-fourth.’”’ The main purpose of the Duke of the Abruzzi is the thorough exploration of Franz Josef Land. If the conditions are favorable, however, he hopes to reach a point further north than any previous explorer, and perhaps gain the Pole itself. The Capella reports meeting the Stella Polare August 9, headed for northwestern Franz Josef Land. THE ISTHMIAN CANAL. PROBLEM A careful reading of Mr Nimmo’s article on ‘‘ The Proposed Interoceanic Canal in its Commercial Aspects,’’ in the August number of Tur Natronan GroGgrapHic MaGaztne, brings to light various errorsin statement which seem to require early attention. Two of these seemed to me of such im- portance as to warrant careful inquiry with a view to early correction : 1. On page 299 the distances from Manila to New York and London are tabulated as follows: From Manila to New York: Nautical miles. Via Suez\Canal... 2... Mad space ala ape deelaate eaten are 11,565 ViomNicaracua © amelie aera e eae nee anette 11,746 From Manila to London: WiarSweziCamalcs amie ractoicetiiaisccetanieu sa aa 9,600 Via Nicaragua Canal.............. Sa NS ee 14,680 In reply to specific inquiry, the Acting Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey writes, under date of August 15, 1899, that these figures were given Mr Nimmo on June 10, 1898, but adds: ‘‘The distances then furnished . . . are in error, the meas- urements having simply been taken from charts. The true distances are: Manila to New York: Nautical miles. Via Suez Canal............ BER RDNA EMORY Ie 11,596 VWaomNicanaeuas Canales ice ene eiai boos JULORe Manila to London: Via Suez Canal....... Pee SPO ceNI tench setaceatrcuns Nava ei 9,583 Via Nicaragua Canal.......... Pekar eee eiaa erate 13,798 I regret that the error was not discovered before the publication of the article by Mr Nimmo.”’ 2. Still more seriously misleading is the tabulation on page 303 designed to prove that ‘Sailing tonnage is fairly holding its own in the ports of the globe,’’ despite the fact that the figures are ostensibly correct. This is indicated by the paragraph in the ‘‘ Report of the Commissioner of Navigation’’ for 1898, page 11, in which the figures quoted by Mr Nimmo are published; this paragraph is as follows: ‘“The increase in steam tonnage is both real and apparent. In the last annual report of the Bureau the statement was ventured that on June 30, 1898, ‘‘steam tonnage, for the first time in our history, will exceed the combined tonnage of sailing vessels, barges, and canal-boats.” The actual figures are: Steam vessels, 2,371,923 tons; all others, 2,377,815 tons. The removal of 62,000 tons of steam vessels from the merchant list by purchase for the government could not have been foreseen.’’ Moreover, although the figures are ostensibly correct, they are really incorrect, in that Mr Nimmo’s ‘‘ tonnage of sailing vessels” corresponds 364 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE to Commissioner Chamberlain's ‘‘all others,’ which includes a tonnage of 541,988 in canal-boats and barges; so that the figures should read, steam tonnage 2,371,923, sailing tonnage 1,835,827. It is especially deplorable that the several errors should lie in a single direction—a direction supporting argument against the Nicaragua Canal. W J McGee. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE The Tides and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System. By George How- ard Darwin. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1898. Pp. xvii + 3878. Professor Darwin is the son of the great naturalist and himself a dis- tinguished mathematician. In the present volume he appears as the mathematician explaining in every-day speech a subject that has else- where no such treatment in our language. In this réle he is as success- ful as he seems to be diffident. Despite the disadvantage of the lecture form, the book is extremely readable and interesting. Any one who has looked through the non-mathematical literature of tides is familiar. with the crude explanations found in encyclopedias and hand-books of astron- omy and geography, where the moon is made to lift the ocean on the side of the earth next her away from the earth, while also lifting the earth away from the ocean on the further side—a statement true in a way, but quite unintelligible until amplified. To such the present vol- ume will prove most welcome. Professor Darwin gives admirably lucid accounts of the equilibrium and dynamic theories, besides pointing out cleaily the failure of mathe- matics to grasp the whole problem of the actual tides. The book con- tains certain general tidal information, an exposition of the mathematical theory, analysis and prediction of oceanic tides, and an excellent account of tidal friction asan element in cosmogony. Forel’s unique unmathemat- ical work on the seiches of Lake Geneva receives a merited tribute and its first presentation in Knglish. Tides in rivers is the somewhat broad title to the account of bores. A gem of simple comprehensive statement is one of the several views of tide-raising forces: ‘‘ If every particle of the earth and of the ocean were acted on by equal and parallel forces, the whole systemn would move to- gether and the ocean would not be displaced relatively to the earth ; we should say that the ocean was at rest. If the forces were not quite equal and not quite parallel, there would be a slight residual effect tend- ing to make the ocean move relatively to the solid earth. In other words, any defect from equality and parallelism in the forces would cause the ocean to move on the earth’s surface” (p. 104). The whole treatment of the tide-raising forces in both theories is very successful. Use is made of W. M. Davis’ suggestion of absolute equality of centrifu- gal forces in every part of the earth. As gravitation varies. with the square of the distance, residuals of excess and defect appear which are the tide-raising forces. This presentation Professor Darwin illustrates GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 365 with an arrow diagram, which is surely the simplest possible method of showing the equality of the centrifugal forces. The diagram and ex- planation of horizontal components of the tide-raising forces is equally simple and lucid. For the dynamic theory motion in the masses sub- jected to periodic impulses is the feature of actuality not contemplated in the equilibrium theory. In a continuous equatorial canal of some 13 miles’ depth we should have free oscillations that would pass around the earth with the moon. In less depths, and our oceans are much shallower, the wave would go slower. Thus the moon’s periodic impulse is quicker than the free oscil- lation, and the resultant oscillation is inverted with low water always under the moon. About such a state of affairs occurs in the Pacific, and it is completely opposed to the equilibrium view. The fact that the Pacific is not an equatorial canal, however, forbids us to account this theorem as more than a suggestion. For regions where the tide follows the moon by irregular intervals Professor Darwin seems to fall back on W hewell’s abandoned cotidals. Here we are beyond the grasp of mathe- matical treatment. Tides in canals or on a uniform ocean-covered globe admit of analysis, but the actual geographic problem has not been solved ; even a large lake is of doubtful solution (p. 185). Ferrel declares his conviction that an equatorial dike across the Atlantic, though barring out all waves from the southern ocean, would not alter the actual tides of the North Atlantic. Darwin seems to consider the wave from the south as more significant than the local tide. ‘‘It may be conjectured that on the coast of Europe the latter is of less importance than the former” (p. 188). The whole subject is full of conjectures at this point. “The problem is one of insuperable complexity ’”’ (p. 188). Dr Whewell was obliged to abandon his famous chart of cotidals in 1836 on two grounds: (1) the excessive contouring of well-determined cotidals, and (2) the great difference of epoch of the diurnal wave in Europe and Amer- ica, together with the identical epoch in Spain and at the Cape of Good Hope, supposed to be separated by a long journey up the Atlantic. No answer has ever been made to this objection, yet Professor Darwin again appeals to this cotidal chart abandoned by its author in the second year of its age, since copied in innumerable hand-books, and made responsible for the niythic birth of the tide in the Pacific. One fancies that the author found the closing chapters, dealing with the role of tidal friction in the universe, most pleasant to write. Here Professor Darwin is peculiarly in his own domain, and his exposition is of the happiest. Looking back to days when the earth was still a glow- ing, fluid mass, we are made to see its molten tides rising toward the moon and struggling against the friction of particle on particle. In this way somewhat delayed, flood height is only reached when the earth’s rotation has carried it somewhat forward past the moon. This high-tide protuberance pulls the moon forward in its orbit, which is thus enlarged and the month lengthened. At the same time the moon, striving to keep the tide crest under her, resists the earth’s rotation and prolongs our day. Longer and longer grow both day and month, though at un- equal rates, and must do so, even under the slighter impulse of the present 366 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE purely oceanic tides, until in the distant future both shall come to an equality, with a length of 55 of our present days. An important point in the proof that oceanic tides would affect the day and month in the same sense as the tide in the plastic mass is given us as a “fact” (p. 269). The author’s success in putting mathematical argument into plain English compels one to regret that he did not attempt this point also. To look back is to see that day and month must once have been shorter than now. Indeed, an early date sees them again equal and but four or five of our hours long. The moon then swung in so small an orbit as almost to graze the earth, suggesting its origin by rupture of a parent body under the indefinitely growing amplitude imposed on the solar tide wave by that rotation period. Confirmation is found in the present ele- ments of the lunar orbit. If such a history is not inferred for the satellites of other planets, we at least see the influence of solar tides in checking or delaying birth of satellites for the nearer planets and in their coincidence of month and day. Saturn’s stony meteor rings lie just within the distance where the planet’s tide-raising force would shatter a small satellite to fragments. Nebule and binary stars are scanned and illuminated with the light of this tide-raising force, which is seen to produce far-reaching results throughout the universe. M.S. W. J. From Sea to Sea. Letters of Travel. By Rudyard Kipling. Two vol- umes. New York: Doubleday & McClure Company. 1899. Pp. 880. $2.00. These two volumes, containing the letters of travel in India, Burma, Japan, and the United States, together with sketches of Calcutta and Lahore life, are published under the author’s private seal of the sacred Swastika as a defense and protest against unauthorized editions which had appeared in this country. Mr Kipling has edited and revised the matter, and, as he has revisited Japanand resided for several years in the United States since the letters of travel from those countries were written, it may be presumed that there have been modifications. Although written from the Anglo-Indian standpoint for Anglo-Indian readers, nothing could be more enjoyed by the globe-trotter, whom he so openly despises and ridicules, than Mr Kipling’s accounts of his visits to out of-the-way places in the native states of India. These letters are plainly the note and sketch book from which came many scenes of ‘‘ the Naulahka.” The dak bungla at Joohpur, with its trusting commercial travelers, is easily recognized ; also the deserted ruins of Chitor and the dreadful ‘‘ dull, blue tank sunk between walls of timeless masonry,’’ and yet Boondi’s intricate, rock-wrought palace, with the hanging gardens, its courts and gates, and everywhere the unseen eye of the zenana women. ‘The howling globe-trotters,” who infest India in the cold weather to Mr Kipling’s discomfort, will not be inclined to follow him to these places of strong local color and acute discomfort; surely not that globe-trotter who pronounced ‘‘Jeypore’’ with an ‘‘accent on the first syllable, if you please,” to the derision of Mr Kipling. Yet, when turned an “ insolent globe-trotter himself,” Mr Kipling glibly GHOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 367 drops whole syllables from Japanese geographic names, and refers to Kobé—accent on the last syllable, if you please—which puts him worse than level with the poor couple, who may have since revisited Jeypore, and put the accent where it does not offend the Anglo-Indian ear. But this, and even the moving of Stampede tunnel a few hundred miles across country, from the Cascade range to the Rocky mountains, we could for- give him ten times over if he would not employ the low and offensive sailors’-boarding-house term ‘‘Jap” for Japanese. There are people, ‘‘masses,’’ in fact, who habitually use the abbreviations Brit and Yank and Jap, gent and pants and bike, but surely Mr Kipling, certainly in his serious, his editing and revising moods, is not of these. That pigeon- English abomination of ‘‘ Chinaman”’ for Chinese is lapse enough. His guardian, Ganesh, whom he freely invokes, should prevent him from ever writing ‘‘Jap’’ again. All trifles aside, nothing could be more brilliant, more clearly. cleverly photographic than these letters of travel, and no one has ever in such brief chapters gone to the spirit and the genius of the new countries and new people he found in his travels. His description of dank, chilly, fog- pressed Hongkong in April is the perfect thing, and also that inevitable amazement, that hesitating confession of chagrin of the Anglo Indian when he discovers and admits the superiority of the Chinese to the Hindu, when the Anglo-Indian has always considered that India, mere middle Asia, was all Asia, the real East, the Far East an unconsidered incident. “They will overwhelm the world. . . . Neither at Penang, Singa- pur, nor this place have I seen a single Chinaman asleep while daylight lasted; nor have I seen twenty men who were obviously loafing. All were going to some definite end—if it were only like the Coolie on the wharf, to steal wood from the scaffolding of a half-built house. . . . Where he hides his love of art the heaven that made him out of the yellow earth that holds so much iron only knows. . . . It grieves me that I can- not account for the ideas of a few hundred million men ina few hours. This much, however, seems certain: If we had control over as many Chinamen as we have natives of India, and had given them one tithe of the cosseting, the painful pushing forward, and studious, even nervous regard of their interests and aspirations that we have given to India, we should long ago have been expelled from or have reaped the reward of the richest land on the face of the earth. . . . The great big lazy land that we nurse and wrap in cotton-wool and ask every morning whether it is strong enough to get out of bed seems like a heavy, soft cloud on the far-away horizon, and the babble that we were wont to raise about its precious future and its possibilities no more than the talk of children in the streets, who have made a horse out of a pea pod and match-sticks and wonder if it will ever walk. “And you think, as you go to office and orderly room, that you are helping forward England’s mission in the East. ’Tis a pretty delusion, and I am sorry to destroy it, but you have conquered the wrong country. Let us annex China.” Never was there truer description of Canton than this: ‘tf Do you know those horrible sponges, full of worms, that grow in warm seas? You 368 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE break off a piece of it, and the worms break too. Canton was that sponge. . . . Hongkong showed me how the Chinaman could work. ‘Canton explained why he set no value on life. The article was cheaper than in India. I hated the Chinaman before; I hated him doubly as I choked for breath in his seething streets, where nothing short of the pesti- lence could cleara way. . . . The Hindu is a sanitating saint com- pared to the Chinaman. ““The march of the Mongol isa pretty thing to write about in maga- zines. Hear it once in the gloom of an ancient curio shop; hear the tramp of the feet on the granite blocks of the road, and the breaking wave of speech that is not human! Watch the yellow faces that glare at you between the bars, and you will be afraid, as I was afraid.”’ After five days’ study Mr Kipling gave up that “oilskin mystery, the Chinaman,” and sought the secrets of Hongkong’s wealth and splendor, that magnificent city of truly palaces by the sea, to which ‘‘ Calcutta is but a hamlet;” and then he took ship to Japan, where all of his finer and poetic susceptibilities were aroused, and everything—the landscapes, houses, men, women, little children, and works of art—is exquisitely transmuted into phrases by the magic of his mind. ‘‘I was satisfied. Fujiyama was exactly as I had seen it. . . . I would not have sold my sight of it for the crest of Kinchunjunga, flushed with the morning. Fujiyamais the keynote of Japan. When you understand the one you are in a position to learn something about the other.” His praises fall justly and discriminatingly, and his description of old Hari Shin’s remarkable conglomeration of a curio shop in Kobe and of that ‘‘ blackwood cabinet” in Kioto, where Nammikawa creates his won- derful cloisonné enamels, are not better in their way than his summing up of Osaka castle: ‘‘ Castles in India I know, and the forts of great emperors I had seen, but neither Akbar in the north nor Scindia in the south had built after this fashion—without ornament, without color, but with a single eye to savage strength and the utmost Danity of line.”’ ‘*The Chinaman’s a native; that’s the look on a native’s face; but the Jap isn’t a native, and he isn’t a sahib, either.’’ There Mr ene met the greatest puzzle of the Far East, and, like scores of the globe-trotting and all other kind, left before he had solved the racialenigma. ‘‘ Japan is a great people,” he finally says. ‘‘ Her masons play with stone, her carpenters with wood, her smiths with iron, and her artists with life, death, and all the eye can take in. Mercifully, she has been denied the last touch of firmness in her character which would enable her to play with the whole round world. We possess that—we, the nation of the glass flower shade, the pink worsted mat, the red and green china puppy dog, and the poisonous Brussels carpet. It is our compensation.”’ 3efore he reaches California Mr Kipling found that ‘the American is objectionable; and yet how pleasant in every way is a nice American whose tongue is cleansed of ‘right there,’ ‘all the time,’ ‘ noos,’ ‘ revoo,’ ‘raound,’ and the Falling Cadence.” In slight, unconscious reprisal Hon. T. B. Reed, interviewed but this same month in London, avers that England would be a nice place if all Englishmen did not all the time use the Rising Inflection. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 369 Of all letters of American travel Mr Kipling’s are distinctly the most entertaining, and with the same ‘‘cocksureness’’ of which he accuses ‘the hideously versatile American ’’ he settles conclusions as to our police and politics, commercial morality, social customs, railroads, and army. Regarding the latter, some of the visitor’s comments are most truthful and the more cutting and hurtful to American vanity. The citizen’s scorn and contempt for the soldier he had instance of daily in Yellowstone Park, where he saw good examples of ‘‘that Regular Army, which is a dear littlearmy. . . . It’s too tiny to be a political power,” etc., ete. His sketches of the headquarters settlement of the East India railway, of its coal fields and shops, of the Ghazipur opium factory, and of the sample sitting of the Calcutta municipal council are such perfect bits of his own best vein that one only complains that the volumes are so small. One must wish that he would write more letters of travel, more letters from Burma, from China, from Japan, from America, since these few are but foretaste and aggravation to the admirers of the greatest genius ever cradled by the Allahabad Pioneer, that nursery of talent in whose col- umns Swinett and Marion Crawford and others in an earlier day first tried their wings. 1D, Ro $k Porto Rico and the West Indies. By Margherita A. Hamm. New York: F. Tennyson Neely. Pp. 230, with half-tone illustrations. $1.25. Among the many hastily published books on Porto Rico this excels all others in its descriptions of the social and domestic life of the people of the island. If one will overlook the cheap press-work and inferior illus- trations and close his eyes to a few glaring misstatements, he will find this to bea charming and readable work. Miss Hamm possesses strong literary and descriptive ability and the feminine art of seeing those little traits of domestic lifeand human nature which have escaped the observation of the scientist, soldier, and newspaper correspondent in Porto Rico. Further- more, her tone is sympathetic and appreciative. She has made an ex- cellent compilation of the natural features of the island, but this is un- fortunately marred by many mistakes which careful editing would have avoided. Sheadds some 2,000 feet to the height of the mountain summits, tells us that the island has been uplifted 25 feet in 25 years, talks about “mineral guano of the Tertiary period”’ and ‘the granite rocks of the island,’”’ which do not exist; described the aborigines as Caribs, and rein- troduces us to our quondam friend, ‘‘the coral insect.” These defects are fully compensated for, however, by her most entertaining and charm- ing descriptions of the habits and customs of the Borinquenians. Ropert T. H1u1.. Hawaii: Our New Possessions. By John R. Musick. With Fifty-six Full- page Plates. New York and London: Funk and Wagnalls Company. Pp. v + 534. $2.75. ; This addition to the growing literature on Hawaii is a sumptuous spec- imen of the bookmakers’ art, being well printed, fully illustrated, and tastefully bound. The volume is largely a record of personal experiences on the part of the author, and is written in an agreeable vein by one pos- 370 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE sessed of a ready appreciation of the picturesque. The descriptions of scenery are accurate in most particulars, so that a good idea of this “‘ Para- dise of the Pacific” can be gleaned from the pages of Mr Musick’s book. The much mooted ‘‘ missionary ” question receives considerate treatment by the author, and, as intimately connected with the same subject, the lepers of Molokai are described and illustrated more fully, perhaps, than has been done by any other recent writer on the subject. The customs, habits, and manners of the native Hawaiian are portrayed with a delicate pen, the opinion being expressed that “though the Hawaiian is a failure at the head of business, lacking the power to direct and control, he makes a trusty and faithful clerk.” Of course the famous volcano of Kilauea re- ceives a due share of attention, and the description of a visit to the cele- brated extinct crater of Haleakala, ‘‘ House of the Sun,” is well written. Much space is taken up with a full and fairly unbiased account of the political events which precipitated and accompanied the overthrow of the monarchy, and aclear idea of those incidents is here given for the first time to the American reader. The illustrations are well chosen and artistically executed, and a careful index adds to the intrinsic value of an interesting book. The reading world is to be congratulated on the appearance of a voiume pleasantly written and devoid of many of the blemishes to which the subject seems especially liable. While the actual and valuable geo- graphic and scientific knowledge of Hawaii is not materially increased by the author, a fairly accurate description of the islands is presented. Harrie Wessrer, U.S. N. Ruins of the Saga Time: Being an Account of Travels and Explorations in Ice- land in the Summer of 1895. By Thorsteinn Erlingsson, on behalf of Miss Cornelia Horsford, Cambridge, U. S. A. With an Introduction by F. T. Norris and J6én Stefansson, Ph. D., and a Résumé in French by E. D. Grand. London, 1899. 8vo, pp. 1-112 and map. As known through various publications, Miss Cornelia Horsford has undertaken researches relating to the early Norse discoveries in America. The inquiries have been taken up and pursued with great vigor and in a notably comprehensive manner, and the work has differentiated into sev- eral lines. Among these are (1) studies of the Sagas, (2) investigation of pre-Columbian and early post-Columbian cartography, (3) critical exam- ination of artificial structures and other relics in eastern Massachusetts, and (4) comparison of these relics with the known products of the Norse- men in Iceland, Scandinavia, and elsewhere. Considerable portions of the work are conducted by Miss Horsford in person, frequently with the aid of expert archeologists; other portions are performed by experts under her directions and auspices. Certain summary results appeared in her article in Tae Nationan GrograpPHic MaGazine for March, 1898, while some of the details were derived from the work in Iceland, which is described at length in the recently issued memoir. The publication bears the stamp of the Viking Club of London. W J M. Tue Instituto Geologico de Mexico in its eleventh bulletin publishes a detailed list of the minerals and mines in the Republic. GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA AN institution for the study of tropical diseases will shortly be erected in Hamburg by the German government. Tre Japanese government has decided that all children must be vacci- nated before the age of ten months; the first revaccination is to take place at six and the second at twelve years of age. Tite Scientific American announces that the ground on the shore of Bot- any bay, New South Wales, where Captain Cook landed 129 years ago, was recently formally opened as the ‘‘ Captain Cook Reserve.” Pror. J. B. Harcuer, of Princeton University, has returned from a successful expedition to Patagonia, where he has been making extensive researches in geology and paleontology during the past eight months. “A Fossil Ege from South Dakota,” by Dr O. C. Farrington, vol. I, No. 5, Geological Series, Field Columbian Museum, describes what is be- lieved to be the petrified ege of an Anatine bird of the early Miocene age. Tue Independent states that Lieut. Hjalmar Johansen, Nansen’s only companion on his sledge journey, has written a narrative of the fifteen- month trip after leaving the ram, entitled ‘‘ With Nansen in the North.” The American Geologist for August contains two articles of special note : “Glacial History of the New England Islands, Cape Cod, and Long Island,” by Warren Upham, and ‘‘ The Evolution of Climates,” by Mars- den Manson. THE expedition equipped by the Liverpool School of Tropical Diseases for the study of malaria in Sierra Leone sailed recently from the Mersey. Freetown will be the center of experiments with special regard to Major Ross’s theory that malaria is propagated by mosquitoes. A CABLEGRAM from Valparaiso, Chile, early in August described a tidal wave of unusual violence at that place. It is quite possible that the wave arrived at Valparaiso from Mauna Loa, in which case it would also be felt at some other points on the Pacific coast, as far north as Alaska. Mount Dawson, a peak of the Selkirks hitherto unclimbed, has been ascended by Professor Charles E. Fay, of Tufts College, and H. C. Parker, of Columbia University, members of the Appalachian Club. Mt Dawson is the highest of the Selkirks thus far ascended, being about 10,000 feet above sea-level. Nature states that the magnetic observatory at Vienna has had to be discontinued in consequence of the electric tramways and electric light wires. The Austrian government is now considering plans for a new ob- servatory, to be situated at some distance from Vienna and to be provided with instruments of the latest construction. Iv is stated on the authority of a Finnish official that the Czar’s desire to connect the Finnish and Russian railways and at the same time effect economy necessitates the abandonment of the project for a railway con- necting with Sweden and Norway, which was approved hy the Finnish 371 372 GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA senate. The Finnish railway will be connected with the Russian system by bridging the Neva. THE projected ship canal from Georgian bay to Montreal would mean a saving of 725 miles in the transportation of grain from Chicago to Liver- pool. The canal would run from Georgian bay eastward through the French river to Lake Nipissing, thence through a small tributary to the Ottawa river, and on to Ottawa and the St Lawrence. All but 29 miles is open river and lake waters. THE schooner Julia LH. Whalen has returned to San Francisco from a cruise to the Galapagos islands, west of Ecuador. The vessel carried the scientific expedition sent out last autumn by Leland Stanford University, under the patronage of Timothy Hopkins, of San Francisco. It is re- ported that a splendid collection of specimens of live land tortoises, birds, fish, etc., has been brought back. Twenty six-wheel connected side-tank locomotives were built recently at the Richmond Locomotive and Machine Works for the Swedish state railways for use north of the Arctic circle. While they have a foreign appearance, they are built strictly in accordance with American practice, with a few exceptions, the most notable of which are the copper fire-box and copper hollow water-space stays. A party from the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey is now engaged in gathering information on Long Island sound for a new supplement that is soon to be issued of the Coast Pilot Chart. Four topographic and three hydrographic parties are also at work near the head of the Chesapeake bay, and, at the request of the Navy Department, special examinations are being made near Governors Island, New York harbor, and at Pollock Rip, off Cape Cod. Andrée and His Balloon, by H. Lachambre and A. Machuron, who ac- companied the expedition to Spitzbergen, recently published by Archi- bald Constable, Westminster, England (crown octavo, $1.50), describes the inception and preparation of Andrée’s hazardous enterprise. The book also contains a brief biography of Andrée, about whom compara- tively little is known in this country, and is beautifully illustrated by 40 full-page cuts from photographs taken by the authors. TEN maps recently issued for gratuitous distribution by the U. ) Coe logical Survey embody the results of the explorations and surveys made by the parties sent to Alaska in 1898 by the War Department and by the Survey. The maps are a convenient compilation of recent Alaskan sur- veys, and also a summary of our present geographic knowledge of the country: Application for them can be made either to Senators or Rep- resentatives or to the Director of the U. 8. Geological Survey. Durine the past ten years a fuller recognition of the place of the great circle route in the problem of accelerating ocean transit has stimulated an advance to methods by which great circle courses can be taken from the Solar Azimuth Tables or measured from the chart compass with very great facility. These new developments have been recently incorporated in a second edition of The Development of Great Circle Sailing by G. W. Littlehales, issued from the U.S. Hydrographic Office as Bulletin No. 90. pi. ©) GHOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA BY is CG “THe Geographic Board of Canada,’”’ which was created December, | 1897, to bring about uniform usage and spelling of geographic names in Canada along the lines followed by the ‘‘U. S. Board on Geographic Names,” has recently published its first annual report, covering the cal- endar year of 1898. The report, which is mainly a history of the organ- ization of the Board and a statement of the rules of nomenclature that will be followed, contains a list of some 600 names approved by the Board. WHILE recognizing that forecasts based upon legitimate data cannot be regularly made for a period greater than forty-eight hours in advance, the Chief of the Weather Bureau is encouraging the forecast officials to give to the public all information regarding unusual and severe types of weather permitted by their reports and experience. During periods of intense heat or cold or in the presence of drought or continued rains, information bearing upon the indicated duration of existing conditions is at times of incalculable value to the agricultural and commercial interests and also to the public at large. Tue Alaskan parties that have been in active operation since July 1 have made material progress on the hydrography of the Yukon River bar and on the topography of the Copper River country. Detachments are also operating in the vicinity of Stuart island and Scammon bay, the former developing the 5-fathom curve around the island and through the passage between it and the mainland, and the latter making an examina- tion with special reference to a harbor in the vicinity of Cape Dyer. Some of the Alaskan work is reconnaissance and of a preliminary nature. Most of it bears on the important question of shortening the sea route to the Klondike. Tur War Department has in contemplation a general improvement of the roads and highways in Cuba, and orders will be issued shortly to General Brooke at Habana, directing him to secure reports from the dif- ferent department commanders on the condition of the roads in their de- partments and the probable cost of improving the same. In several of the departments roads are already in existence, but they have become almost impassable because of neglect and lack of use. Within the past six months several improvement companies have started the cultivation of farms in Cuba, but as they have been handicapped by the condition of the roads, the werk has been carried on at a great disadvantage. Tue Grand Duke Vladimir of Russia recently opened on the Lapland coast a new port, Catherine harbor, which will probably prove of great commercial importance as a depot for the hide trade with Siberia. It is situated at the extreme north of the Russian possessions, where by a strange freak of nature the Gulf stream keeps the water open during the winter, while the more southern ports remain closed by ice. The plan contemplates the development of the immense timber area adjacent to this region. The famous ice-breaker Yermak and other vessels of the same type are expected to ply between Catherine harbor and the mouths of the Obi and Yenisei rivers, 1,500 miles to the east, and keep the sea route open.during the summer. 374 GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA Tur Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department has published, under the direction of Capt. J. E. Craig, a new chart of the world showing the ocean tracks for full-powered steam vessels, with distances given in nau- tical miles. The most valuable as well as interesting feature of the chart is the statement of the distances of the new American possessions from the different cities of the Pacific and Atlantic coasts. The chart shows in the Atlantic ocean the tracks used by steamers connecting New York, Boston, and Philadelphia with Liverpool, Southampton, and Gibraltar, showing the northern routes used between August and January and the southern routes, followed between January and August. The longest steamer route given on the map is that connecting New York and Esqui- mault by way of Cape Horn, 16,290 miles. This is exceeded by the track used by sailing vessels connecting New York and Yokohama via the Cape of Good Hope, which is 16,900 miles in length. INTERNATIONAL measurement of the variation of latitude will soon be under way. As related in Science (vol. 8, p. 841), the International Geo- detic Association decided last year to establish six permanent stations for this purpose at convenient intervals along the 39th parallel. The U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, representing the Association in this matter, has made an examination of the localities for the two stations falling within the boundaries of the United States. For the east Amer- ican station it has secured a tract of land at Gaithersburg, Md., 21 miles north of Washington, and for the west American station one at Ukiah, Cal., about 75 miles north of San Francisco. At these two points neat observatories are soon to be erected from plans provided by the Associa- tion. Each observatory will be completely equipped with instruments needed in work of this precision. The other localities at which observa- tions will be made are Midsusawa, Japan; Tscharjui, Turkestan; Cala- bria, Italy, and Cincinnati, Ohio. Tue Statistician of the Department of Agriculture has issued a spe- cial report, prepared by E. 8. Holmes, Jr., on the agricultural situation in the recently submerged district in Texas. There were in the flooded district 339,000 acres in cotton, of which it is estimated that 86.2 per cent was entirely destroyed, and that there has been a decrease of 16 per cent in the condition of the cotton remaining. There were 124,400 acres in corn and 39,400 acres in other crops. It is estimated that 87.7 per cent of the corn and 86.1 per cent of the other crops were entirely destroyed. A conservative estimate of the actual destruction includes about 227,000 bales of cotton, representing, at an average price of four and a half cents per pound, about $5,100,000; 4,400,000 bushels of corn, worth, at 20 cents per bushel, $880,000; sugar cane to the value of $335,000, and the other crops $235,000, a total loss to the standing crops of $6,570,000. The addition of the loss to farm property raises the total to $7,414,000, or about $74 per capita of the population of the district, which is estimated at 100,000, negroes largely predominating. In an address before the Washington Academy of Sciences and A ffili- ated Societies last winter, W J McGee, President of the Anthropological Society of Washington and Vice-President of the National Geographic GHOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA 379 Society, asserted that the human cranium has shown a marked increase in capacity and change of form during the past century. The address, which has aroused much interested discussion among scientific men, is printed in full in the July number of the American Anthropologist, under the title of ‘‘ The Trend of Human Progress.”” Prof. McGee states: “‘ The average capacity of recent European crania is much above the average among the cave men of Europe; the skulls of modern dissecting-rooms are decidedly better developed than those of ancient ossuaries; even in the history of America, to judge from the best portraits extant, the cra- nial conformation has changed from the retreating type of Washington and his contemporaries to the full-forehead type of the living statesman. The data are less complete than might be desired, but wheresoever there are measurements for comparison their testimony is consistent; they tell of progressive increase in cranial capacity among all peoples, with de- crease among none. The process of cephalization is manifested hardly less strikingly in the reduction of prognathism, in the shortening of the forelimbs, in the tendency toward diminution in number of teeth which dentists note, and in other characters of both skeleton and soft tissues.’’ Tire new steamer of the U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Path- Jinder, after receiving her scientific outfit at Washington, recently started ou a voyage to San Francisco via Cape Horn, her destination being Alaska and subsequently the Hawaiian islands. An examination made by Superintendent Pritchett in Hawaii last year developed the necessity of continuing the geodetic and hydrographic surveys of those islands by the U.S. government. The land operations, however, have been suc- cessfully organized and carried on for the last 25 years by the Hawaiian Government Survey. The steamer carries the necessary instruments for observations of terrestrial magnetism, densities of sea water, current velocities, and sea bottoms, as well as for the regular hydrographic and topographic survey of the coasts. A record will also be kept of the phe- nomena observed while en route along the coasts of South America. During the summer seasons the Pathfinder will reénforce the ships and parties of the Survey operating in Alaskan waters, retreating during the winter months to the milder Hawaiian shores. The Pathfinder is under the command of Frank Walley Perkins, of the Survey staff, with J. C. Dow, a well-known Transatlantic master, as executive officer. She is the largest of the Survey’s vessels, and is peculiarly well fitted for the long-distance work of the character she undertakes, her coal endurance being about 6,000 miles. She carries a complement of about 75 officers and men. Including the Puthfinder, the Survey will now have four steam vessels on the Pacific station and three along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, besides a number of schooners and smaller craft at various points. The Geographical Journal for July publishes in full the address of the president of the Royal Geographical Society, Sir Clements Markham, read at the anniversary meeting, June 5, 1899. The address isa clear and con- cise summary of the geographic work of the past year, particularly of what has been accomplished and planned in the exploration of the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Sir Clements Markham announced that an ar- 376 GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA rangement had been arrived at between the University of Oxford and the Royal Geographical Society for tbe creation of a School of Geography at Oxford. The Society agrees to pay $2,000 a year and the University promises a like sum. The school will be under the superintendence of Mr Mackinder, subject to the supervision of a joint committee consisting, in addition to the Vice-Chancellor, of four members of the University and three members of the Council of the Society. Mr Mackinder, as University Reader, will lecture twice a week during the three terms, and will also have special classes for advanced students. There will be an assistant who will lecture on physical geography, will hold classes five times a week, and will teach surveying and cartography ; and there will be two lecturers, one on certain branches of physical geography and one on ancient geography. It is intended that a diploma shall be granted to students who complete the course, and there will be one or two scholar- ships of $300. These will be inducements to graduates to spend a year in mastering the principles of geography and the knowledge required for teaching the science and for making it practically useful. The upper floor of the old Ashmolean building at Oxford has been set apart for the purposes of the school, and an annual sum will be devoted to the supply of books and appliances. Miss E. R. Scidmore, the Foreign Secretary of the National Geographic Society, who has recently returned to America from extended travels in China, Japan, and the Philippine islands, in an article in the August Century, entitled ‘‘ The River of Tea,’’ presents some forcible facts regard- ing the rapid @evelopment of Russian power in China: ‘“‘At Hankow, the great tea market of the world and until within a few years the chief source of supply of British tea-drinkers, the Russian has come, and to stay, and the shadow of the Muscovite is over it all. The Russian is not only established at the gates of China, but also at its very heart, the in- vasion and absorption being as remarkable in this British settlement at Hankow as anywhere in Korea or Manchuria. Hankow is fast becom- ing a Russian city or outpost, a foothold soon to be a stronghold in the valley of the Yangtsze, which China has given her word shall never be alienated to any power but England. Although the Russians have their own concession at Hankow, they do not care to build upon it and live there, amenable then to Russian laws and consular jurisdiction, to Rus- sian restrictions and espionage. The Russians prefer the laws and the order of the British concession, crowding in upon itat every opportunity, competing for any house that comes into the market, and building closely over former lawns and garden spaces. They compete with and outbid the few British tea merchants who remain in these days of active Rus- sian trade aggression. Only one tea steamer took a cargo to London in 1896, two more British firms closed out and left Hankow that year, and, still more significant, only one pony showed the colors of the one British racing stable at the autumn races. In the retail shops prices are quoted and bills made out as often in rubles as in taels or dollars, and the Rus- sians have gradually assumed an air of ownership, of seignorial rights, as complete as if they held the lease or diplomatic deeds to the place for ninety-nine years.” NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY President ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL, Vice-President W J McGEE Board of Managers 1897-1900 1898-1901 1899-1902 Marcus BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL CHARLES J. BELL HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETT G. K. GILBERT BE. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY DAVID J. HILL S. H. KAUFFMANN JOHN HYDE C. HART MERRIAM WILLIS L. Moore W J McGEE H. S. PRITCHETT W. B. POWELL F. H. NEWELL J. STANLEY-BROWN Treasurer Corresponding Secretary HENRY GANNETY® WILLIS L. MoorE Recording Secretary foreign Secretary F. H. NEWELL ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE SECRETARY’S OFFICE Rooms 117, 118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N. W., Washington, D. C. TREASURER’S OFFICE U. S. Geological Survey, 1330 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. The National Geographic Magazine is sent free of charge to all members of the National Geographic Society ene em e sms) owes ce jae) al om Urs) (ow ma) a) eee om es) oe om en ome) pm em wom (oe oto es ca wm Gel ene im, we on up weer ce on a cap esl en) csl. wey wwe enter wal on elon Recommendation for Membership in the National Geographic Society. _ The following form is enclosed for use in the nomination of persons for member- ship. Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary. Durs: Resident, $5; Non-resident, $2; Life membership, $50. If check be en- closed, please make it payable to order of the National Geographic Society, and, if at a distance from Washington, remit by New York draft or P. O. money-order. To the Secretary, National ¢ reographie Society, Washington, D. C.: Please PROSE ee occupation and address : NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST. The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology in all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in its ¢welfth year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, ETHNOL- OGY, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SocioLoGy, HIsToRY, SOMATOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PHILOLOGY. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Swbdscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Wlustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XII Begins with January, 1899. ApprEss: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICITY An International Quarterly Journal Conducted by L. A. BAUER, With the Co-operation of Eminent Magneticians and Electricians. ITH the March, 1899, issue, this Journal, devoted exclusively to Terrestrial Magnetism, Atmos- pheric Electricity, and allied subjects, such as Karth Currents, Auroras, etc., entered on its fourth volume. The hearty co-operation extended by the workers in this promising field of investigation, as abundantly shown by the numbers thus far issued, has made this Journal the international organ for making known the latest achievements. The magnetic needle has become such a promising instrument of research, not only in terrestrial, but in cosmical physics, that this Journal appeals to a large class of investigators. ‘he geographer, the geologist, the astronomer, the meteorologist—all are interested in the development of the subject of terrestrial magnetism It should therefore receive their support. Among the contributors of the main articles in the past have been Messrs. Barus, Borgen, Chree, Com- mander Davis, Eschenhagen, Hellmann, Littlehales, McAdie, Riicker. Schmidt, Schuster, de Tillo, von Bezold, Mascart, and Abbe. Future numbers will contain contributions by Mascart, Rticker, Elster and Geitel, Eschenhagen, Hellinann, Hayford, Littlehales, Schmidt, and others. Special features in future numbers will be full abstracts and reviews of recent publications prepared by competent reviewers and the series of fine half tone portraits of eminent magneticians. The size of the Journal is royal octavo, a volume embracing about 256 pages. Domestic subscription price: Two dollars and fifty cents. Foreign subscription price: Two dollars and seventy-five cents. Address: TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM, Coast and Geodetic Survey, Washington, D, C. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE — a an a va * a nN a= « a.— a> z= OSS SSS Seo ewes Shortest Line St. Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest | GHICAGO GREAT | “tw. WESTERN 1 ry x RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to F. H. LORD, { Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. ¢ a = = sus SA — Ng NIN =. EER A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith.. Premier Cypewriters Superior on This Point as Well as on All Others. dh ane The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., 3 PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. & DREREREREREREREDREREADDAAAAA ARR RARAAS Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 619 Eleventh Street. NN AN AN AV AVAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAUVAVA VAAL Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHICAGO, MILWAUKEE AND SY. PAUL RAILWAY -ROoONS.. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in Iowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. see For go-aways and equisites « - stay-at-homes. We are showing hosts of things for personal and household uses, especially designed to offset the discomforts of hot weather—Thin Clothing, Mosquito Canopies, Porch Screens, Door and Window Screens, Hammocks, Re- frigerators, Water Coolers, and various other articles that assure a full measure of hot- weather comfort. .. ALSO CONVENIENCES FOR.... Camp Life and Cottage, Athletic and Sporting Goods, Fishermen’s Outfits and Bicyclers’ Wear. WOODWARD & LOTHROP, WASHINGTON, D. C. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. ig NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. ORGANIZED APRIL, 1882. INCORPORATED JANUARY, 1897. OFFICERS FOR 1899. President: Bon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. First Vice-Pres.: Dr B. E. FERNOW. Vice-Pres. for District of Columbia; GEORGE W. MCLANAHAN. Corresponding Secy: F. H. NEWELL. Recording Secretaryand Treasurer; GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY. The object of this Association is to promote: 1. A more rational and conservative treatment of the forest resources of this continent. 2. The advancement of educational, legislative, and other measures tending to promote this object. 3. The diffusion of knowledge regarding the conservation, management, and renewal of forests, the methods of reforestation of waste lands, the proper utilization of forest products, the plant- ing of trees for ornament, and cognate subjects of arboriculture. Owners of timber and woodlands are particularly invited to join the Association, as well as are all persons who are in sympathy with the objects herein set forth. Life Membership, $50. Annual Membership, $2 00. i H E FO R EST E R . THE AMERICAN “FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. A monthly magazine devoted to ARBORICULTURE and FORESTRY, the care and use of forests and forest trees, and related subjects. Subscriptions, $1.00 a Year. (Furnished gratis to members of the Association.) Address all communications to Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. HENRY ROMEIKE’S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS, 110 Fifth Avenue, New York, Reads every paper of importance published in the United States, and through its European agencies in London, Paris, Berlin, and Vienna every paper of importance published in Europe and the British Colonies. One subscription on any given sub- ject will bring notices from the United States, and if desired also from the European papers. Write for terms. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GEOLOGIST, 1899. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico............. ... $3.50 a year Sotber subscribers in the Postal Union... 0.2... 62. je ee cee es 4.00 « year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two volumes are completed ; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. In addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., Minnerarouis, Minn. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Penusylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the tange from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Kast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. CALIFORNIA.. OF course you expect to go there this spring. Let me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads viathe . . . Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including [1t. Hood and It. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, [It. St. Helens, rt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. y CHAS. S. FEE, » General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. Sy, | f Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a STPAUL teases: ts MINNEAPOLIS The Fastest and Finest Train in the West.... | ieee The he Overlan¢ Limited am BE in L %, “O's mone FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING Double Drawing-Room Pullman Sleepers. © Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars, Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,"' E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB, Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE LL °. ro? ot ut 27 My Wp Ly oe “Wy V2, oe Yy 0 Ve. YY 1, ?, “y Vi “ EOPLE like to read about the great and wonderful country’ of the YY) yy YM sfestesteotoste Y Tt: MW Southwest ; of its quaint and curious A charming book covering these facts is issued by the PASSENGER DEPARTMENT OF THE Southern Pacific Railway, and will be sent to any one, postpaid, on receipt of TEN CENTS. YY fe My ?, ? Ly +2, towns, its ancient civilizations, its 7 YY $f00) Ubi + Ui yy My Vs ?, +, natural marvels. They like to get ac- sfoste Wb curate information about California , soete bis ea My and the Pacific Coast. This is because fo sto’ Ubi bi most people want to some day see these U4 +, 4% re? %e' My Le YU WINES WO WIEMISSIYESS 26 8 ol b 6 ao Be Uli fotos! Me 2 ° o. %e o%o%eo%e ot ot eres ro "ee MaMa MaKe aera Me aKa) c Li & ©. o%e Po ctectoctectoctestestestocte fectectectectoe 0 c%sctectecteete POPP PESO OO OU SO OU PU OU OOD “% OF OF OF OF, bs bi Me Sosrectoctectectostecteteteloteteo Meteo Meee edo toto er deiotetededelrtetieodelelcoc 9PM toe HO MO OHO MOOV OU OU OL ON OU OU OULU OU OU ETON OU OULU OU OUT ONIN OV LYON OU OV IV OU OY GOO aSo0foege reste sfoate ao ox Vy, MY o, OO 2, ds Wy, aSo age > Y \7 oo, 2 ro soto THE BOOK IS ENTITLED “Through Storyland to Sunset Seas,” Wy mK Y- ae eo efeateeteege eee. CLE XEN LXER TNE bh os ox bi: We. ° % 7 ie Soke LU, Ox LY 2. , YW, cos Yy 2 e, %! a> LY We. > My Reese BS a , 4 ., ‘, 3, ‘, ., 2, . ., 4 2, , . ., :, ., 3, ., 3, . . 4 4 ., o% 2, 3, {, ., % 3, 3, 54 ., z, Sorte ofosfoo% Ly YL LY Wp Li Me %00%e te s% >, >, .%, .%, .%, .%, @, Co cteetectectectect ee": 95% % oo, % .%, %, %e.% testes: POM PU POPU OU OO OV 9Oe Ca ad SF S% SF OF OF OF OF OF OF 0% 0% $9 6% OF OF Saag ara} lie Ut Oe ee eee ee ee ee Ue Ue bli 0-00 Vii; Se Js Z ‘7 CO .) ee AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... The paper used is FINE PLATE PAPER, and every typographical de- MM cae Ue Coe Yy Mw Vis My \7 Yj wy You can get a copy by writing to S. F. B. MORSE, General Passenger Agent, Vib) >, .%, Ma Xa Xar ee YM: Up Sa? ty Z i: >, .%, My sae? Southern Pacific, \7 xox ’e' Wes New Orleans, a> \7 O ee) and sending 10 cts. to defray postage, tail is artistic. It is a story of what ° Oe, \7 e Sa four people saw on just such a trip as ¢, S MY We te Me “WY eae! Vi Xs Uf oO you would) like: to=male.) 0 soe \7 - UU Mb MM L YY Z yy, “i Vii \ “so Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers, pr ite Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE Cyrus C. Apams Cyrus C. Bases : B@apt. J. R: Bartiert, U.S. N. ~~ Dr GrorGce F. Brecker Hon, Emory F. Busr Prof. F. H. BigrEtow JamMES H. BLopGETrT Hon. J. B. Browne Frank M. CHarpman Ropert H. CHapmMan Dr E. L. CorrHe.u Dr Exxuiorr Cougs F. V. CovitLe Hon. Wi.uuiam E. Curtis FRANK H. CusHING Hon. CHarutres W. DABNEY Dr Wiuuiam H. Datu Prof. GrEorGE Davipson ArtHuR P. Davis | Winrram M. Davis - Dr Davin T. Day me. W. A. Dickey Mp J.S. DILLER Lieut. C. P. Exziorr, U.S. A. S. F. Emmons Dr Watter H. Evans Davin G. FarrRcHILD Prof. B. E. Frernow C. H. Fircr Hon. Joun W. Foster Hamuin GARLAND Prof. bk. B. Garriorr Apert 8S. GATSCHET President D. C. Gitman ~ Capt. L. C. Gurnn, U.S. A. —_ Ricwarp U. Goong Prof. Epwm A. Grosvenor — Cartes HaLttock Dr Mark W. Harrrneron Prof. ALBERT BUSHNELL Harr J. B. Harcuer — Dr C. Witiarp Hayes Prof. A. J. Henry Rogert T. Hitt sii F. W. Hopen ALEXANDER GraHAmM Bry, LL.D., etc. i. i Lieut, J. C. CanTwE.i, U.S. A. " Capt. D. D. Gartuarp, U.S. A. in Prof. Dran C. Worcester f TIONAL GroGRAPHIC MaGazine is a journal of geography, physical, commer- political. It aims to convey new information and current opinion on geographic ind to be a medium of communication between geographers in America and Its editorial staff includes officers and experts of the different scientific bureaus yvernment, each representing a field teeming with facts of geographic interest. ps of contributors comprises nearly every United States citizen whose name has C e identified with Arctic exploration, the Bering Sea controversy, the Alaska and ics boundary disputes, or the new commercial and political questions arising from : equisition of the Philippines. Through the cordial codperation of the different iplomatic representatives of foreign nations at Washington, it is able to present the test and most authentic geographic intelligence from other countries. Tue Natrona GrocraPHic MaGazinze numbers among its contributors the following -known writers on the different branches of geographic science : Witiiam H. Hoimes Dr Emit Houvus, Vienna CorNELIA Horsrorp Dr SHELDON JACKSON M.S. W. Jerrerson : WiLuarp D, Jonnson irk, J. Scorr Keitiz, LL.D., ete. GroRGE KEnnAN M. B. Kerr Prof. S. P. LAn@iry J. B. Lerpere © Prof. WiLLiamM LisBry G. W. LirtLeHALes Prof. EK. McCiure Prof. Jonn Bach McMaster Hon. Ernest A. Man Prof. O. T. Mason Dr T. C. MENDENHALL E. W. NELSon F. H. Newern HeErBert G. OGDEN Lieut. Ropert E. PEARY GrorGE C. Perxtins, U.S. 8S. Prof. W. H. PickERING GiIrFoRD PINCHOT Major J. W. PowELu Prof. W. B. PowELu E. D. Preston Hon. J. R. Procrer G. R. Putnam Prof. Israny C. Russety f Dr N. 8S. SHALER Major W. A. Simpson, U.S. A. Capt. C. D. Staessen, U.S. N. Maj. A. FALKNER VON SONNENBERG J. STANLEY-Brown Gen. G. M. SternBERG Commander Z. L. TANNER Prof. RateH 8. Tarr Max L. Tornow O. H. Titrmann Hon. CHarues D. Watcorr Mrs Fanniz B. Warp he Commander H. Wesster, U. S. N. ? President B. L. Wuirman Wa trter D. WiLcox a Battery WILrs Hon. Wiii1am L. WILSON Dr F. H. WinzEs Bounp Votumes OF a 1896, 1897, 1898 may be — for $3. 50 each. Age = es 4 _ Macazine. By mail se a AN ILLUSTRATED. MOn NTH IN 0 ke tis i \ oe \ - ~ hy Ae JOHN HYDE, \ $ mie \ / Statiptct. of. the U. 8. Departipens Of 2 Agricilture \ \ HN | ihend Ass6ciate Baitois| sh \ 1. GREE ey Setnal Officer, U.S Army; WI McGrr, Evans in Ceres Burewu scan Ethnology ; FENRY, Gannert, Chief Geographer, OAS. Geological-Survey ,\ Sean. HAR MERRIAM; Biologist of Th an AS Department of Agriculture ; Davin. 1h OPS ? e Assistant Secretary of State ; CoarLEs H. ALYEN, Assistant Secretary of the Wavy ; D Witt1s L. Moore, Chief af the U.S. Weather: Bugedu ; HW. S. PRITCHETT) Su- : erintendent of the U.S Coastand Geodeti Survey; MARCUS BAKER, U. S: Geological Survey ; On, P. AUSTIN, Chief of! the Bureau of Statistics, | . US Teasury Dep ‘nent; BEAZA RuHAMAY SermMoRE, Author ‘ of ‘Java, the pons of the ast,” elt. ; Cart LOUISE GaR- { Bank RISON, Principal of Phelps Schooks. Washington, D. C. | ane a aS , As sistant Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, Washington, D, CN it Lote \ 135 PEE NA EY ak } | | / i ae ‘CONTENTS » era eh ae j + \ | | ON £4 YUKON TRAIL, | JarrHUR P. DENNIS. 377 IDES OF CHESAPEAKE ‘BAY. | j i 7B Di PRESTON.’ / 391- REL N OF FORESTS AND FOREST; PIRES. aie With illu trations. \ My | GIFFORD PINCH, 393 / ATIONS IN ae ag LEVELS AND ATMOSPHERIC ne it PRECIPITATION. \— KA. ALT. HENRY. 203//5 JLATIONS ‘OF POPULATION IN JUNE/1900. ~~ A Aes ) i. PHENRY FARQUHAR. 406 — 5 WORK A AND PROSPECTS, AR H. L. BRIDGMAN,’ 414 | EXPLORATIONS IN 1898-1899, 7 | Pais ie oA y hacation of Bouvet Tsland, Pp. 413: The California and Nevada ~ andary, p. 416 ; Geographic, Literature ; Beresford's, “The Break-up oOfbe a,” ett, p. 418; a eee a Miscellanea, p. #21. affectation of wrath. One would expect from their crude ideas of marriage to find a condition of club law or of lawlessness among the Tahltans. This is not true. They have scrupulous respect for rights of person and property. Of the many tons of food supply left unguarded along the trail we did not hear of a single case of theft by hungry 386 LIFE ON A YUKON TRAIL Indians. Prices, too, were high in the region of Telegraph creek before the break-up of the ice and arrival of river steamboats. Flour and bacon sold for 50 cents per pound, and one ton of hay could have been sold for $500. There is some novelty in the method by which the Tahltans pee INDIAN CABINS FOR THE DEAD — TELEGRAPH CREEK dispose of theirdead. After the flesh has been burned from the bones on a funeral pyre, with the favorite weapons and orna- ments of the deceased, they are packed in small tin-covered trunks furnished by American traders. The trunks are then placed in neatly constructed cabins with glass windows. The aS LIFE ON A YUKON TRAIL 387 - cabins of the dead perched upon Mameloose hill, 200 feet above the river, can be seen for three miles down the stream. One little trunk, scarcely larger than a physician’s medicine chest, was housed under a diminutive canvas tent. Few of the living Tahl- tans possess glass windows in their cabins, but these luxurious accessories are furnished the dead, whose spirits, with proverb- ial Indian curiosity, are supposed to be on the lookout for in- teresting phenomena in the village below. And since the world began was there ever so much to thrill the imagination of those simple folk of the forest as the phenomena provided by the gold- seekers last spring! Gold hunting has no fascination for the natives of these regions, and they have never worked the old placer grounds in the vicin- ity in search of it. It must have seemed to them that all white men had suddenly gone mad. The sudden irruption into the solitudes of a far country of hundreds of swarthy men with horses, bullocks, goats, dogs, and impedimenta by the ton, amused the simple natives in much the same way as children are pleased at the antics of a menagerie of performing animals. All day long the bucks, wrapped in Hudson’s Bay Company blankets, sat stolidly upon piles of lodge-poles on the bank, absorbed in the contemplation of the busy scenes on the river. They were amazed at the prodigious quantity of supplies; they marveled at the energy which had braved the snows of the river, but all shook their heads discouraginely at the project of taking the heavy outfits over the mountain trail into the interior. From being objects for the satisfaction of curiosity merely, the strangers became objects for the gratification of avarice. These untutored savages are shrewd and Shylockish in their keenness after a bar- gain. The prices the noble red men put upon their wares or their services were perfectly ridiculous. ‘Ten dollars for a pair of moceasins and $20 for a day’s labor at packing were gravely demanded of the strangers. Prices were finally scaled down to a basis of $150 per ton for packing to the first summit of nine miles. At this rate an Indian with his pony could earn from $15 to $18 per day. The Indians suffered economically as well as morally through their fondness for strong drink. Much bad whisky was quietly exchanged for their services. Our cook fixed up a decoction of lemon extract and dark water in which tea leaves had been steeped. Brown sugar and a dash of pepper were added to the mixture. The stuff was put up in old bottles PACK TRAIN ASCENDING TO FIRST SUMMIT — TESLIN TRAIL and slyly traded to the Klooches in exchange for moccasins and leggins as a highly prized brand of American wine. As we broke camp to begin the nine-mile climb to the first summit, three of our men rolled their blankets and bade us fare- well. Their secession was due to unpleasantness over the duties of flunky to the cook, for which seven of us had been detailed. ‘We did not come into this country to act the part of scullion to a sheep-herder,” said they. So they left the party to become professional packers, which is harder on one’s back, but not so trying to one’s pride. Soon after this John, our ingenious cook, left the party as a result of a little unpleasantness with Dan, the LIFE ON A YUKON TRAIL 389 axman. John had made soup of some moose bones purchased from the Indiang, in an old lard can that “ Calgary,” the teamster, had used the day before as a wash-boiler for his month’s laun- dry. Dan would eat no soup, remarking that ‘““when a man became too dirty to drive sheep he still had a chance of going in to cook on a survey corps.” This sinister reference to John’s former occupation broke the entente cordiale. John secretly dis- posed of about $200 worth of our provisions to some gold-seekers and departed for Glenora to start in business as a professional poker player. His place was taken by a stranded gold-seeker CAMPING ON THE FIRST SUMMIT — ABOVE TELEGRAPH CREEK called Ben, who approached the subject of cooking without any preconceived opinions or errors in experience. On quitting the rivers we followed the roaring mountain tor- rent that threads its way from the first summit nine miles to the northward: By noon of the second day we stood upon the first divide, at an elevation of about 2,700 feet above Telegraph Creek village. 4m this distance we had lifted and tugged the sledges over a succession of benches that rose échelle-wise in for- midable declivities from the river. OIL'E Ny d iL OF FL (61°22). (s0°e1) PLYG CEG 62°8Z ards quod Iad 9 z29°79 OIGL = LES 99F ZL 9S1L°0S “|osus) | zis" (g6¢°11) (sce"ge) (1p) | PLES (c1T'L) eEF'IE 660°¢ Go9'G 1648 ZOLES 91G'F LO9°T S2L9 690°LT arog ‘| 0g" 08°F ‘| 998°21 G60°S OFL GEG'E FENG asvoloul “u0ly ‘savod OL 100 jenjen | -wiSruruiy | 9xXeu esvadsouy | -eyndog ¢ ve nynusog fig pun snsuay fq uoynndoy ONG T “O68 sree Qogy OP eT see NOT vee QogT sees OST “O8ST seen Oz eT “WOK Ss -% 412 CALCULATIONS OF POPULATION IN JUNE, 1900 four. Perhaps this may be taken as an indication that the 1830 census gave a somewhat excessive total, while the others were fairly close to the truth. Calculation C gives a near agreement with all these ante-bellum results, while B and D show system- atic divergences. To those since the war, on the contrary, B and D are both nearer than C. The agreement of A for every census but 1870 is strikingly close. No attempt has been made to compare these results by aggre- eating the residual corrections and so computing a probable error of quantities found, because this work could only be misleading. It is plain that the results of calculation A would come out best and C worst by such test, residuals in parentheses being omitted ; and yet it is the belief of the writer that the result under C for 1900 is nearer the truth than that under A. He does not believe that the rate of natural increase has really reached a maximum and is now diminishing, as both A and D require (for ale = 5¢ by A and 53 by D). He does not believe that the discordance of the 1870 census is altogether due to omissions in taking it, or that it can really be a million and three-quarters short. A cal- culation in the preface to the population volumes for 1890 made the deficiency a little over a million and a quarter, and even that figure is probably too high, because it depends upon a supposi- tion that the southern section of the country, which had suffered most in the war, yet increased during that decade correspond- ingly with other sections. The writer believes that three-quar- ters of a million is a fair estimate for war losses in the 1870 census, and that the official figures were little, if any, over a million too small—about as calculation C makes them. It is more probable that the eleventh census, or both the tenth and eleventh, were largely in error, than that such a theory of the ninth census as is shown under calculation A is true. Final Result for 1900.—TVhe final figures under the four calcu- lations have a range of two million and indicate a correspond- ing uncertainty in the prediction. The highest of them is two million less than the Treasury Department’s calculation would give: the estimates of population which accompany the monthly financial reports point to a value of 77,676,000 for June, 1900. Those estimates show substantially uniform third differences, and therefore appear to connect population with time by an algebraic equation of the third degree. There is no evidence of an attempt to take separate account of immigration in the THE DEFINITE LOCATION OF BOUVET ISLAND 415 Treasury estimates. A conclusion inconsistent with them re- quires therefore little apology. Reasons have been given for preferring calculation C, which gives the largest result of the four, to the others. The writer can only present his own views for what they are worth. According to them the population to be shown by the twelfth census will be more probably above than below 75,000,000, but is altogether unlikely to reach 76,000,000. Ifit should be anything like so high, it will indicate a deficiency in the last census total suffi- ciently marked to invalidate any computation for the future in which the figures of that census are adopted, without correction or criticism. In fact, while it is necessary to take the whole series of results, so far as that can be done, as a foundation for any law which is apphed to further calculations, it is necessary also to correct one set of figures by others, that the result may be as little as possible tainted by errors belonging to one ora few previous results. If it be supposed, on the other hand, that all discrepancies between census figures and calculation are in- dications of real irregularities of which the calculation takes no account, it need hardly be added that such a supposition nega- tives the validity of any possible prediction from the data at command. THE DEFINITE LOCATION OF BOUVET ISLAND The last number of the Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Mrdkunde zu Berlin is entirely devoted to the recent German deep-sea expedition of the Valdivia. The navigating officer of the ship gives an interesting ac- count of the rediscovery of Bouvet island. It appears that in the year 1738 a French company in search of the -Terra-Australis, supposed to be a fruitful and populous country, sent out two ships, one of them, L’ Aigle, being commanded by Captain Lozier Bouvet. On January 1, 1739, Bouvet discovered land which he supposed to bea mere promontory, and which he called Cape Circumcision. During nine days, however, Bouvet found it impossible to effect a landing and was forced to continue his journey. In 1775 Cook searched for Bouvet’s discovery, but, finding nothing, con- cluded that Bouvet had been deceived by large masses of ice. In Octo- ber, 1808, Captain Lindsay, commanding the whaler Swan, belonging to Messrs Enderby, and who had been commissioned by them to search for Bouvet land, sighted an island, which he called Lindsay island, in the locality in which he was directing his search for Bouvet land. Lindsay found it impossible to land, and gave a brief description of the estimated dimensions and general contour of the island. In 1825 Captain Norris, of the whaler Sprightly, sighted an island and assigned a certain position 414 PHARYS WORK AND PROSPECTS to it, calling it Liverpool island. In 1843 Sir John Ross, commanding the Hrebus, searched for Bouvet land and came to the same conclusion that Cook did because he failed to find it. Thus our knowledge of the facts remained until the Valdivia, after a careful search, sighted the island on November 25, 1898. The position of the island, which is given as latitude S. 54° 26.4’, longitude E. 3° 24.27, does not correspond with that assigned by Bouvet to his discovery, or to the positions given by Lindsay or Norris, but a thorough and careful discussion of the subject warrants the belief that Liverpool, Lindsay, and Bouvet islands are identical, and therefore the discoverers adhered to the latter name. The island is about four nautical miles in diameter and rises to a height of 935 meters. The shores are abrupt and inaccessible and glaciers come down to the water’s edge, while the summits of the mountains are covered with ice and snow. A few birds, notably Daption capensis and Pagadroma nivea, were seen on the island, but otherwise there were no signs of life. O. H. Tirrmann. U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. PEARY’S WORK AND PROSPECTS Peary’s latest year in the Arctic, after all allowance has been made, stands as a record of magnificent achievement, and a foundation upon which still greater results are to be attained. The entire country north and west of Cape Sabine, reaching beyond Greely fiord and the eightieth parallel, has been definitely outlined and the confused and utterly inac- curate coastline, sinuous and perplexing to the last degree, of the western side of Smith sound, between Capes Sabine and D’ Urville, has been defi- nitely measured and charted. The striking change inthe character of the western slope of Grinnell Land is in itself enough to justify and re- ward the expedition, and will stimulate workers in that most inviting and heretofore neglected field. The hand-to-hand battle against the oppos- ing forces of darkness, frost, and distance which Peary waged during the entire winter makes a chapter daring and effective as any recorded in Arctic history. Where other explorers have waited in more or less im- patience, sometimes in comfort and many times in suffering, Peary has been continuously in the field, daunted by no obstacle, and breaking the route along an almost impassable ice-foot for 250 miles. This, too, was not asa mere exploit, but as a practical step in the greater work to be determined next spring. Peary rounded up his year’s work with a fur- ther personal reconnaissance to the westward, and practically completes twelve months of active work in the open field. The American people, learning as they will shortly from Peary’s own pen the story of the year, cannot fail to feel a sense of pride in their countryman and an excitement of hope that ultimate success may crown his effort to attain the goal of the ages and place his country’s flag at the very farthest north. Those who read between the lines and who follow PEARY’S EXPLORATIONS IN 1898-1899 415 matters practically, find in Peary the mental as well as physical traits, mak- ing a combination as rare as the work he has undertaken, coupled with a clear head, and a practical, definite correlation of means to ends, which go far to secure the results desired. Peary will take the field next year, barring unforeseen accidents, a thoroughly sound, rested, and well man, in the very prime of condition, and can be counted on to make a record, eyen if he does not fully attain his desire. If beaten in 1900, he will try it again in 1901, and maybe again a year later. The very latest word is the very gratifying one that the old Windward, battered and scarred from her winter in the ice and stormy passage home, is still sound and sea- worthy ; that the ship will be repaired, rebuilt, and refitted, and, under an American flagand American master, will return to her contest with the forces of the north, from which she will not come back unless victorious. H. L. Brirpemay. Brooklyn, N. Y. PEARY’S EXPLORATIONS IN 1898-1899 ‘*The Mission of the Diana,” outlined in Toe NationaL GEOGRAPHIC MaaGazrne for July (see p. 273), has been successfully carried out in every detail under the able management of Mr H. L. Bridgman, Secretary of the Peary Arctic Club. .More than a year’s supplies have been added to the reserve stores of Peary and full accounts obtained of his important explorations during the past twelve months. Thus far merely an out- line of his discoveries has been published, but, as M1 Bridgman has stated in the preceding article, a more detailed account will soon follow. Instead of reaching Sherard Osborn fiord, on the north coast of Green- land, beyond the narrow channel which all sailing craft must take to reach that part of the globe, Peary was obliged to winter in Kane basin, about 50 miles north of Cape Sabine. His ship stayed in latitude 79°, and not 82°, as he had hoped might be possible. Not having been able to establish his base of sledging operations near Sherard Osborn fiord, he nevertheless ventured northward during the winter four times to Fort’ Conger, the headquarters of the Greely expedition, a point equally near the Pole, but on the west side of the channel. These long trips were made both for exploration and also to establish caches of supplies along the west side of the channel leading to the north, so that they may be available next spring and during the time the party is engaged in its explorations next summer. These supplies and others that will be added to them will enable Peary to begin his researches on the north coast of Greenland whether or not the Windward is able to land her stores at the proposed base in Sherard Osborn fiord. ° In the south Peary discovered that the so-called Hayes sound, north- west of Cape Sabine, is only an inlet or bay. It was supposed by many that it extended through to the Arctic ocean west of Ellesmere Land and separated that country from Grinnell Land on the north. Peary’s discov- ery proves that these regions are one and the same land, and he has 416 THE CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA BOUNDARY thus been able to settle one of the most important geographical problems that awaited solution in that region. Healso traveled west across the northern part of Ellesmere Land, which has never before been penetrated for any distance, and visited its west coast, joining his survey of the shore- line with the short bit of the coast further north, which Lockwood, of the Greely expedition, discovered in May, 1888. This is the first time that any part of this coast has been seen south of the inlet visited by Lock- wood. In his various sledge journeys up the channel from the Wind- ward’s position, Peary skirted the east coasts of Grinnell Land and Grant Land for a distance of about 250 miles, rectifying the mapping of this shoreline in some respects, and particularly the surveys of a number of indentations. Fort Conger was the headquarters of the Greely expedi- tion, and Peary was the first to visit the place since Greely left it, in 1883. The most northern point reached by Peary was Cape Beechey, about 82° north latitude. No effort to push northward has been made this sum- mer, and Peary’s winter camp has been established on the Greenland side of Smith sound, several miles further south than his quarters of a year ago. Here he has landed all the remaining provisions of the Windward and all that the Diana brought him. The Diana reports landing the Stein party at Cape Sabine and leaving them in good spirits for a winter in Ellesmere Land. The hunting party led by Russell W. Porter, of Boston, left the ship at various points on the Greenland coast and secured a number of walrus, reindeer, and other game, most of which was added to Peary’s stores. Sverdrup in the Fram was frozen in near Cocked Hat island, ten miles west of Cape Sabine, where he wintered about 50 miles south of the point reached by Peary. Sverdrup planned this summer to work his ship up Kennedy channel, leaving the Fram at some point along the coast for a sledge trip across or around the northern end of Greenland. THE CALIFORNIA AND NEVADA BOUNDARY The oblique ‘boundary between California and Nevada, which lies between the intersections of the 39th parallel of latitude with the 120th meridian and the 35th parallel of latitude with the Colorado river, a dis- tance of about 400 miles, was retraced and temporarily marked by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey between the years 1893 and 1899, the work being advanced from time to time as money was available for that purpose. The line passes over very rough country, varying in altitude from 750 feet at the Colorado river to 13,000 feet at the White mountains. The lofty elevations made it possible to obtain some very long sights, the max- imum being 68.8 miles, between the Sweetwater mountains (10,500 feet) and the White mountains. There were two other sights over 60 miles in length. The line wasranged out with a theodolite, beginning at Lake Tahoe and running to the southeast. In order to put points in the line at long distances, heliotropes, with a suitable code of signals, were used. The termini, both at Lake Tahoe and on the Colorado river, were estab- GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 417 lished by telegraphic longitude, and latitude determined by observations with the zenith telescope. A scheme of triangulation was carried along the entire line, so that each distance was checked. Four base lines were in the scheme, three of them measured with steel tape and the other de- rived from the Yolo, a primary base nearly 11 miles in length. An azimuth was measured at Lake Tahoe to get the direction of the line, and no change was made in the entire distance. After ranging out the random line, it was corrected back to the starting point. The random line passed southwest of the Colorado terminal post, 400 miles from the beginning........ ............ 150.5 meters. A line 3,180.8 meters long on the Colorado river, depending on the Needles base (steel tape), was found to differ when determined by triangulation brought through from Lake © SPANO Chr retest ct Remeron cies syne is + slecasues tells ttusra cuomeralisiaiel de aL Re 0.2 meters. Difference of azimuth of the same line, brought through from Lake Tahoe......... BR ENA cic pier MRT ELD SNH LOF247 It may be stated that the uncertainty in azimuth, or direction of the line, amounted to one minute of are. The local deflection in latitude at the Lake Tahoe end is nearly 300 meters, and almost as much at the Colorado terminus. C. H. Sincuarre. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE A Primer of Forestry. Part I.—The Forest. Bulletin No. 24, Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. By Gifford Pinchot. Pp. 88, pls. 47, with 83 cuts in text. This beautiful booklet, tasteful in typography, artistic in illustration, neat in binding, and attractive in ensemble, marks an innovation both in the Department of Agriculture and in the Government Printing Office ; and it is far removed from the conventional government publication in content as in dress. The four chapters summarize the science and epit- omize “‘the art and mystery” of modern forestry in simple, comprehen- sive, yet withal vivid language, adapted alike to busy layman and anxious learner; the style is that of the highest magazine order—i. e., that of the vanguard of literary progress. So the book affords attractive, not to say alluring, reading. A sub-title, ‘‘ Part I—The Forest,” gives gratify- ing promise that the innovation will be pursued and the style main- tained. In the first chapter ‘The Life of the Tree” is outlined and illustrated by sun pictures in effective fashion, and in such terms as to picture clearly the structure and functions, or the anatomy and physi- ology, of the arborean organism; the second chapter treats of trees in their collective aspect, both as forests and as successive generations of arborean species; the third chapter deals with ‘*’The Life of the Forest ”’ in such manner as to bring out the relations between the arborean col- lectives and their environment, both physical and vital; while the final chapter is devoted to the ‘‘ Enemies of the Forest” (which are chiefly 418 GHOGRAPHIC LITERATURE traceable to the human factor in the arborean environment), and to the means of counteracting these enemies. So the treatment is notably broad and comprehensive; yet the grasp displayed in eavh chapter, and indeed each paragraph, is strong and close. The book may be commended, no less to teachers and pupils than to general readers, as an example of scientific method applied to an important practical subject ; it may be commended to makers of scientific books as a model, and to laymen as a worthy bit of literature of the objective sort. The author and the Agricultural Department are alike to be congratulated on its appearance. W J Mz. The Break-up of China. By Lord Charles Beresford. 8vo, pp xxii + 491, with portraits and maps. New York and London: Harper and Brothers. 1899. $3.00. Sir Stafford Northcote was sagacious when, in behalf of the Associated Chambers of Commerce of Great Britain, he selected Lord Charles Beres- ford as the man to visit China and report upon British interests in that empire. Rarely, if ever, has one uniting so high rank, recognized ability, and wide experience been sent as an envoy of commerce on a tour of inspection. All doors would open before him. He would observe carefully, make no blunders, and afterward narrate just what he had seen. Reaching Hongkong September 30, 1898, he did not leave China until January 9, 1899. During that time the Chinese government did all inits power to further his mission. Though invested with no diplomatic func- tions, he found everywhere the highest authorities—Tsung-li Yamen, viceroys, mandarins, governors, admirals—accessible and sympathetic. He ‘‘inspected the whole military force of China, and by permission of the generals put the troops through the various movements, in order to test their efficiency.’’? He ‘‘ visited every fort, every arsenal, with one exception, and all. the naval and military schools; also the ships of both the Chinese fleets, viz., the Peyang and Nanyang squadrons, and one dockyard.”’ He ‘‘visited those places where British communities reside and wherever there was a chamber of commerce convened meetings” and ‘‘obtained the opinions of the members;” nor did he lose an op- portunity ‘‘of seeking interviews with representatives of all foreign nations holding trading interests in China.” On leaving that country he returned home through Japan and the United States, ‘‘ hoping to be able to obtain from the chambers of commerce some definite opinions for the Associated Chambers of Great Britain.” The results of his faithful observation and investigation are set forth in this somewhat ponderous book. Lord Beresford termis it “a plain state- ment of valuable facts for immediate use.’’ A large part of this informa- tion is accessible nowhere else. Because of the known reputation of the author, its statements, as far as they are statements of facts and not per- sonal inferences and opinions, ave entitled to full credit. The title, ‘‘The Break-up of China,” expresses what the author realizes is becoming a fact. This catastrophe he deplores, believing it injurious to Great Britain. A patriotic British subject, his outspoken and only concern is the advancement of British interests. There is no hypocrisy or GHOGRAPHIC LITERATURE 419 cantabouthim. Knowing that his country retai ns the commercial scepter of the world with a failing hand, he would keep China alive so as not to lose a purchaser. His position does not differ from that of any other commercial traveler, except that the commercial house he represents is the British empire, and that the wares which he would press into the market are whatever that empire produces. For the fall of China, now perhaps inevitable, but which once might have been avoided, he holds the inefficient foreign policy of the British government responsible. Meanwhile he forgets or ignores the fact that to China’s territorial integ- rity, to the physical welfare of its people, and to the authority of its gov- ernment more staggering blows have been dealt by Great Britain than by any other country. An ardent advocate of an Anglo-American alliance, he insists that ‘‘the interests of the United States and Great Britain are absolutely identical.’ He does not fear Russia, but he reveals an awesome consciousness of Russia’s existence. He suggests in his first interview with Chinese authorities ‘‘that the British government would allow an officer to help the Chinese to put their army in order.” When shortly afterward asked “‘ whether, if China put the whole of her armies under British officers, Great Britain would assist China in any quarrel that might arise between her and any other power,” he remarked that he “would not enter into any political questions, but that the last thing Great Britain wanted to do was to mix herself up in quarrels which might arise between other countries.” It is not strange that ‘‘the idea is gain- ing ground all over China that Great Britain is afraid of Russia.’’ The disintegration of an empire containing 400,000,000 people, and yet powerless to protect itself, is an astounding spectacle, unparalleled in history. Yet such impotence is an argument against its political contin- nance. It is difficult to doubt that the break-up of China will advance civilization and even benefit the fragments into which the empire breaks. Epwin A. GROSVENOR. Amherst College. Les Lacs Francais. By André Delebecque, etc. With portfolio atlas containing plates i-xi. 4°, pp. xii + 436, pls. xxii. Paris: Typo- graphie Chamerot et Renouard. 1898. This is an imposing and exceedingly rich repository of information concerning the lakes of France in their principal aspects. Beginning with alively preface, in which he emphasizes the declaration that there are lakes in France, the author proceeds in the first chapter to classify the water bodies by the natural provinces in which they occur, including the Alps, the Jura, the Vosges, the Central plateau, the Pyrenees, and the Atlantic and Mediterranean littorals. The second chapter recounts the processes of sounding with the apparatus employed, and sets forth the results which are shown in greater detail in the accompanying atlas, while the third chapter is a detailed description of the more noteworthy lakes. Then follows a chapter on the lacustrine topography, including shores, bottoms, islands, taluses, fans and deltas, submerged ravines, ete., and another on the lacustral sediments and other constituents of the lake basins. The next chapter is devoted to supply, discharge, evapora- tion, and changes in level of the lakes, and still another to temperature, 420 GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE which is discussed in some detail with relation to climate, depth, tem- perature of affluents, etc. In chapter VIII the colors are described and the principal causes of coloration analyzed, while the mirage receives attention; and the succeeding chapter is devoted to extended considera- tion of the solid and gaseous materials held in solution in the lacustral waters. The portion of the work of widest interest is the tenth chapter (pages 242-343), in which the geologic relations of the region and the lakes are discussed at length, and which ends with a classification of the water bodies by known or supposed origin. The historical and social aspects of the lakes are indicated in the eleventh chapter, which is fol- lowed by an extended descriptive table of the principal lakes of France, with reference to the provinces in which they occur, and to the sheets of the official maps on which they are represented. The work is fully in- dexed and well supplied with lists of contents and illustrations. There is little reference to the accompanying portfolio, which is really a distinct publication; its sheets are variable in size and form and show little more than the shores and subaqueous contours of the principal lakes; and their convenience is somewhat diminished by inconstancy 1n contour- intervals and bathymetric tints. The monograph forms a highly useful compendium of facts arranged in accordance with well-established scien- tific principles. Ae Wide Me RAILROADS AND CANALS The important bearing which the great reduction in rates for railway transportation has on the question of canal construction and maintenance is attracting widespread attention. Ina recent letter to the committee on canals of the state of New York, the Hon. Abram S. Hewitt, until now one of the staunchest friends and advocates of the state canals, and one who has done more to promote the cause of the New York state waterways than any other living man, writes as follows: I was brought up in aschool of politics which taught that the pros- perity of the state of New York was created by the canals and could not be maintained unless they were kept in a state of perfect efficiency. But a new condition has appeared in the great reduction of the cost of transportation by the railways which compete with the canals for busi- ness. This reduction is due to several causes: notably, the greater dura- bility and the lower cost of steel rails, the increase in the train-load, and the economy of fuel in hauling a train. . . . My knowledge of the subject inclines me to believe that we have reached a permanent era of low cost of transportation by vail. . . . Hence the question is pre- sented in altogether a new light, and although I am reluctant to come to the conclusion that the canals have lost their usefulness, I confess freely that the argument for their continued maintenance is greatly weakened if not altogether destroyed. GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA Tue British Association for the Advancement of Science has granted $5,000 toward the expenses of the English Antarctic expedition of 1901. THERE passed through the American and Canadian ship canals at Sault Ste Marie during July 4,024,789 tons of freight, or 778,000 tons more than in the corresponding month last year. THe medical expedition sent to the Philippines in early spring by the Johns Hopkins University for the purpose of studying the characteristics of tropical diseases in those islands left Manila some weeks since and will probably reach Baltimore early in October. *“Guarpine the Highways of the Sea,” contributed by Theodore Waters to McClure’s Magazine for September, is very readable and from a popular point of view isan excellent description of the work and records of the Hydrographic Office of the Navy Department. Tue Railroad Gazette estimates the railroad building in the United States during the six months ending June 30 as aggregating 1,181 miles. The longest line completed by any one company was 64 miles, and the five leading lines aggregated only 244 miles, or an average of less than 50 miles each. THE magnetic survey of Maryland has now been practically completed, the distribution of the stations being such that on the average there is one station for every 100 square miles. The expenses of the work, with the exception of this year, have been entirely borne by the Maryland Geological Survey. Tue excursion of geologists last summer to the fossil fields of Wyom- ing, under the patronage of the Union Pacific Company, will add some rare specimens to the collections of different universities throughout the country. It is believed that several fossils of a new species have been ob- tained. Though the excursion was originally planned for 30 days, many of the geologists are still at work in the field. A reLeGramM from Tacoma, Washington, announces the return of A. J. Stone, corresponding member of the Zodlogical and Ethnological Museum of Natural History and New York Zodlogical Society, who for the past two years has been traveling about the Arctic circle studying the geograph- ical distribution of animalsin that section. It is reported that during five months of travel last winter he covered 3,000 miles of Arctic coast and mountain entirely above the Arctic circle. Reporrs from Alaska via Seattle, Washington, describe two distinct earthquakes felt from Lynn canal to the Aleutian archipelago. The first, on Sunday, September 3, did but little damage, but it was followed by a very severe shock on September 10. Several islands are said to have settled from 20 to 25 feet. A report received by the U.S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey shows that an earthquake was also felt in Prince William sound on September 3, but that no damage was done at this point. 421 422 GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA Cuarurs Parrick Dany, LL. D., for 35 years president of the American Geographical Society of New York City and former chief justice of the court of common pleas of New York, died at his home, in Sag Harbor, Long Island, September 19, 1899. While preéminently a lawyer and a jurist, his long connection with the society of which he was the president and his honorary membership in the National Geographic Society, the Royal Geographical Society of London, the Berlin Geographical Society, and the Imperial Geographical Society of Russia will make his death especially felt in geographic circles. — The Geographical Journal for September opens with the first of a series of articles by Dr Francisco P. Moreno on his “‘ Explorations in Patagonia’ at different times between 1873 and 1897. Capt. G. E. Smith, R. E., con- tributes a description of “‘Road-making and Surveying in British East Africa.’”’ Robert T. Turley describes a ‘‘ Tour in ‘ No Man’s Land,’ Man- churia.” Otherarticles of interest are ‘‘The Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits and Sarawak,” ‘‘From Njemps to Marich, Save, and Mumia’s (British East Africa),” by Major H. H. Austin, R. E., and ‘‘ Dr Passarge’s Journeys in South Africa.” AN interesting feature of the ‘‘ Pilot Chart of the North Atlantic Ocean” for September is a diagram prepared. from investigations made by Prof. George Davidson, of the University of California, showing the line separating the lands of the Pacific where American date is kept from those where Asiatic date is kept. The line passes through Bering straits, skirts the Aleutian islands on the west extremity, and then follows the 180th meridian southward as far as the Fiji islands, where it diverges slightly to the east. Thus the Aleutian, Hawatian, and Samoan islands keep American time, while the Marshall and Fiji islands and New Zealand follow Asiatic time, or are one day ahead. A RECENT number of Science states that the American Museum of Nat- ural History at New York City has now 23 representatives in the field, engaged as follows: ‘‘ The Jesup expedition to the North Pacific, making archzeological and ethnological researches in British Columbia and north- eastern Siberia; the Jesup zoological expedition to the United States of Colombia; the Constable expedition to the Northwest for large mammals ; an expedition to New Mexico to study the cliff dwellings and the Pueblos ; an expedition for the study of North American Indians in California and Arizona; a paleontological expedition to Wyoming; an expedition to Peru and Bolivia under Dr Bandelier, and local archeological work.”’ Aw anchoranda buoy marked ‘Andrée Polar Expedition ”’ are reported to have been found by a Norwegian cutter on the north coast of King Charles islands, east of Spitzbergen. Neither the Wellman nor the Peary parties in their explorations of the past year discovered any trace of the missing aeronaut; also the steamer Antarctic, which left Helsingborg, Sweden, May 25, with an expedition under Prof. A, G. Northorst to look for Andrée along the northeast coast of Greenland, on her return in Sep- tember reported a fruitless search. The report. received at the beginning of this year that the bodies of Andrée and his two companions had been found on the coast of Siberia has not been confirmed by later advices. oe oa GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA 423 Ox August 26 General Lord Kitchener formally opened for traffic the bridge, built by American engineers, across the Atbara near its conflu-— ence with the Nile. Trains can now be run to within 75 miles of Khar- tum, and before the end of the present year the whistle of the locomo- tive will be heard at the capital of the Sudan itself. Mr Cecil J. Rhodes has the utmost confidence in the completion of the proposed railway from the Cape to Cairo within ten years, and, in view of the energy displayed in the construction of the 700 miles that have been built since the project began to be seriously considered, there is little doubt that the completion of a line of railway across the Dark Continent will be one of the early achievements of the coming century. Various sites within a radius of 25 miles of Washington are being ex- amined by parties under Dr Bauer’s direction for the determination of the best location for the Coast and Geodetic Survey Observatory. The examinations thus far made have disclosed some interesting regional dis- turbances, especially in the vicinity of Gaithersburg. In order to deter- mine what influence such regional disturbances have upon the yariations of the earth’s magnetism, such as, for example, the diurnal variation or the secular variation, it is proposed to mount a sénsitive Eschenhagen dedinetograph at Gaithersburg, with the aid of which the variations of the most sensitive of the magnetic elements—the declination—will be continuously and automatically recorded. Tne election of Hon. John Gifford, of Princeton, N. J., to a Chair of Forestry in Cornell University, a department recently established at that institution, is in line with the growing realization throughout the United States of the necessity of the study and solution of the forest problems of the country. Mr Gifford was the founder and the first editor of The Forester (then the New Jersey Forester), the official organ of the American Forestry Association, which is doing so much to promote the protection and care of the American forests. Last year Cornell University acquired 30,000 acres of woodland in the Adirondacks for the exclusive use of her forestry department. Over a million small trees, it is stated, have been planted in different sections of this tract, and several seed beds have also been laid out. Tne Division of Forestry of the U. 8S. Department of Agriculture has recently issued a handsome little bulletin (No. 26), entitled ‘*‘ Notes on the Forest Conditions of Porto Rico,” by Robert T. Hill, of the U. 8. Geo- logical Survey. The bulletin embraces the results of observations made during a rapid reconnaissance through the military department of Puerto Rico by Mr Hillin January, 1899, and contains not only a clear statement of the forest resources of Puerto Rico, but also such succinct descriptions of the physical features of the island as are necessary to an understand- ing of its forest problems. In the study and description of the native woods Mr Hill was assisted by G. B. Sudworth, Dendrologist of the Divis- ion of Forestry. Fifteen of the. woods are reproduced by a process by which the impressions are made directly from the woods themselves, a process designed by 8. J. Kiibel and here used, it is believed, for the firsttime. An excellent feature of the bulletin is an admirable relief map of the island compiled by Mr Hill. 424 GEOGRAPHIC MISCELLANEA In The Scottish Geographical Magazine for September Francis H. Skrine presents a strongarticle, ‘‘ From London to Karachi (India) in a Week,” urging the construction of a branch connecting the English railway sys- tem in India with the Russian system in Turkestan. At present the British line ends at. Chaman, on the southern border of Afghanistan, only 430 miles distant from the terminus of an offshoot from the main Russian line through Afghanistan. Mr Skrine asserts that the connect- ing link, including the necessary rolling stock, can be constructed for $15,000,000, as the route presents no great engineering difficulties. In the same issue of the magazine Alexander Begg describes ‘‘ Vancouver Island, B.C.;”’? R. Blake White publishes some ‘‘ Brief Notes on the Glacial Phenomena of Columbia (S. A.),’’ and A. D. Milne contributes a few ‘‘ Notes from the Equatorial Province.” Mayor Ronald Ross, the leader of the expedition sent to Sierra Leone by the Liverpool School of Tropical Diseases to investigate the possibility of exterminating the malaria-bearing mosquito, has sent to Liverpool the following cablegram: ‘‘ Malarial mosquito found. Ask government to send at once men.” Nature states: ‘‘ Major Ross’ observations in India indicated that the malaria parasite is borne by the spotted-winged mos- quitoes, and not by the common brindled or gray mosquitoes; and his message announces that he has found that malaria on the west coast of Africa is produced under the same conditions as in India. There is evi- dence that the malaria-bearing species only breeds in small isolated col- lections of water which can be easily dissipated, but the expedition has not yet had time to verify this point.’? In response to the request of Major Ross asking that workers should be sent out to join him at Sierra Leone, the school has dispatched, as an assistant to him, Dr R. Fielding Ould, of the Liverpool School of Pathology, who has had special experi- ence in private bacteriological research. A PRELIMINARY prospectus has been issued of the ‘‘ Physical Atlas,” in course of preparation by J. G. Bartholomew, F.R.S. E., F. R.G.S., under the patronage of the Royal Geographical Society. The Atlas, com- prising seven volumes, consists of a series of maps illustrating the natural phenomena of the earth, being based to some extent upon the Berghaus Atlas, but comprehending much new and original material. Explana- tory text accompanies the maps, and for each section of the work there is also a general introductory article, a critical bibliozraphy, and an index. The work, which has been in progress for over ten years and is now ap- proaching completion, is revised and edited by: Sir Archibald Geikie, geology; Sir John Murray, oceanography; James Geikie, orography ; Alexander Buchan, meteorology, and a number of other distinguished scientists. The publishers, Messrs Archibald Constable & Co., of Lon- don, claim apparently with justice that the atlas is the most comprehen- sive publication of its kind ever attempted. The cost of production alone will, it is estimated, exceed $100,000. The meteorology section, with over 400 maps, will be issued during the autumn of 1899, the zodlogy, ethnog- raphy and demography, geology, botany, and other sections following in rapid succession. The price of each volume or section is $13. ; NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY President ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Vice-President W J McGEE Board of Managers 1897-1900 1898-1901 1899-1902 Marcus BAKER A. GRAHAM BELL, CHARLES J. BELL HENRY F. BLOUNT HENRY GANNETY G. K. GILBERT F. V. COVILLE A. W. GREELY DAvID J. HILL S. H. KAUFFMANN JOHN HYDE C. HarRT MERRIAM WILLIS L. MOORE W J McGEE H. S. PRITCHETT W. B. POWELL F, H. NEWELL J. STANLEY-BROWN Treasurer Corresponding Secretary HENRY GANNETY WILLIS L. MOORE Recording Secretary Foreign Secretary F. H. NEWELL ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE SECRETARY’S OFFICE Rooms 117, 118, Corcoran Building, Fifteenth and F Streets N. W., Washington, D. C. Office Hours: 8.30 A. M. to 5.00 P. M. Telephone No. 471. TREASURER’S OFFICE U. S. Geological Survey, 1330 F Street N. W., Washington, D. C. The National Geographic Magazine is sent free of charge to all members of the National Geographic Society Recommendation for Membership in the National Geographic Society. _ The following form is enclosed for use in the nomination of persons for member- ship. Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary. Durs: Resident, $5; Non-resident, $2; Life membership, $50. If check be en- closed, please make it payable to order of the National Geographic Society, and, if at a distance from Washington, remit by New York draft or P. O. money-order. To the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C.: Please propose.---...------ occupation and address : aa ae membership in the Society. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PreK UO CHESAPEAKE & OHIO RY. HE F. F. V. LIMITED is one of the finest trains hauled over any railway track in America. It runs solid between Cincinnati and New York, the route from Washington being over the Pennsylvania system. It has every modern convenience and appliance, and the dining-car service has no superior if it has an equal. The road-bed is literally hewed out of the eternal rocks; it is ballasted with stone from one end to the other; the greater portion is laid with one-hundred-pound steel rails, and although curves are numerous in the mountain section, the ride is as smooth as over a Western prairie. One of the most delightful rides in all the route is that through the New River valley. The mountains are just low enough to be clad with verdure to the very top, and in the early spring every variety of green known to the mixer of colors can be seen, while the tones in autumn take on all the tange from brown to scarlet. These facts should be borne in mind by the traveler between the Kast and the West. H. W. FULLER, Gen/. Pass. Agent, Washington, D. C. The Fastest and Finest Train in the West... . FROM 16 TO 20 HOURS SAVED BY USING “THE OVERLAND ROUTE.” Double Drawing=Room Pullman Sleepers. Free Reclining Chair Cars. Pullman Dining Cars. Buffet Smoking and Library Cars, Send for Descriptive Pamphlet “ 49-96,’’ E. L. LOMAX, Folders and other Advertising Matter. General Passenger and Ticket Agent, (Mention this publication.) OMAHA, NEB. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE CHIGAGO, MILWAUKEE AND SY. PAUL RAILWAY »-- RUNS... Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago, Mil- waukee, St. Paul and Minneapolis daily. Through Parlor Cars on day trains between Chicago, St. Paul and Minneapolis. Electric Lighted and Steam Heated Vestibuled Trains between Chicago and Omaha and Sioux City daily. Through Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and Kansas City, Mo. Only two hours from Chicago to Milwaukee. Seven fast trains each way, daily, with Parlor Car Service. Solid trains between Chicago and principal points in Northern Wisconsin and the Peninsula of Michigan. Through Trains with Palace Sleeping Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars and Coaches between Chicago and points in lowa, Minnesota, Southern and Central Dakota. The finest Dining Cars in the World. The best Sleeping Cars. Electric Reading Lamps in Berths. The best and latest type of private Compartment Cars, Free Reclining Chair Cars, and buffet Library Smoking Cars. Everything First-class. First-class People patronize First-class Lines. Ticket Agents everywhere sell tickets over the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Ry. GEO. H. HEAFFORD, General Passenger Agent, Chicago, III. CALIFORNIA... OF course you expect to go there this spring. Let me whisper something in your ear. Be sure that the return portion of your ticket reads via the Northern Pacific-Shasta Route. Then you will see the grandest mountain scenery in the United States, including [1t. Hood and [1t. Rainier, each more than 14,000 feet high, It. St. Helens, Mt. Adams, and others. You will also be privileged y to make side trips into the Kootenai Country, where such wonderful new gold discoveries have been made, and to Yellowstone Park, the wonderland not only of the United States, but of the World. Park season begins June Ist each year. Close railroad connections made in Union Station, Portland, for Puget Sound cities and the east, via Northern Pacific. GHAS. 5. FEE, General Passenger Agent, St. Paul, Minn. a ITP TP TP TAI ip inal Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Fe Pd UU +, .¢, 40 EOPLE like to read about the great \ and wonderful country of the \ Southwest; of its quaint and curious +, .%, .@ 00,0 0,0 +o % 6%, £5425 A charming book covering these facts is issued by the PASSENGER DEPARTMENT OF THE Southern Pacific Railway, and will be sent to any one, postpaid, on receipt of TEN CENTS. U7, ¢, Cana? of pity N towns, its ancient civilizations, its +, +o. ro? Ny MW; +, - Wii “ natural marvels. They like to get ac- MG Zp , $9,000 4, , . ¢, - curate information about California My iy +>, + 940%, ip U1) Wf J and the Pacific Coast. This is because WY MA 0 ofoete My, Yj most people want to some day see these W/W ro ofoe8 7 O Yj Me thingssforstnemSelviess «amie een “WY, We, Uy festestes My ©, .%, 0, © ©, © ©, ©... ©. @, ©, ©, 4%. 00% Fe 4% a %e %e a o%e 5% 5%e ne c!e cect ectectee’ Cae Xa Xa aXe aXe aaa har a MaMa Kaa aKa Kaa Ka aaa Keane] + ote Y Uli Wp Vi YY Tt: Z Oi Yy MiMi “ts My Wt0: LY WH Wy oe LU %&e MMe Meoteotete te Meso eo Se Seo So Soc Ho HTrPrHocoteooseoHrocrnLisriccocanktoincLrcotsocotoecoteocess SOMONE MOO OU OU OU OU OU OU OU OY OU SU OU SUN ONIN OV LY DY OU OU LN OU OU LY IY LY OY DV OV OV OV IV OU OF, wy 7 ~~ “My 1, 2 2 acs Wy MU se +: ro ato ke YMA 45048 Wt Wi; ae cx WD My te ae V1: ?, “is \7 re? 03% foe YY > Vi THE BOOK IS ENTITLED “Through Storyland to Sunset Seas,” LL, +: Y Z 2, Oo Me aM Oe “My yy 1, ao We 6. % Me My 5 4% 04,00 ,9 Zi S&F, %, SAKAI EOS ‘My Wy 2, Mf 50 a0 48 EEX EX LOX Wi Wi oe We \2 O + “te fe oe yy WW. So egoete fo fo eo Mi Ms Uy My 2 * re ate! Vie U1: +4 ZL ets fo of Wp ®, ZY 2. Vb ts ME: Is . ¢ te Vi. PRADO OOD OP OPO PO Pert Ct OP CFO P OPO POR PO FOI FOP PORFOFRFC FOR FRIORFR SR IR IR ORIO I Sa a aaa Na Ka Naa Naa a Naa Ma aaa a aKa Kaa Kaa aa aaa a aaa Ka oO Ue ¢ ¢ ¢ Z MiMi. to iY Lip Wt. Yy Ma Wy “4 Y hi bi: YA Wy 6% ooo 0% o%e Mn ote ate ote sect ote sPn ste ste ste ste steste tes tecte ste teeta fete fete MeMos .> Sea Xa Xa Xa Ke Ka aX) La aa aX aX aX a aK a a aX aX a aX aX a aX aX aX aX aX aX od 2 s+ 4f ‘7 Wi Sa Wi YY ° “t. AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... The paper used is FINE PLATE PAPER, and every typographical de- ote Me Ny My Us Yj WI: oxaXS) \ x S Li; yy You can get a copy by writing to S. F. B. MORSE, General Passenger Agent, Mii Z Mo 4% 0% Saree roars > \2 Uti: \7 $+, \2 Secs My Wt, fe) Ui Southern Pacific, \7 rae, Ly U1. New Orleans, eoce> o¢, Uta and sending 10 cts. to defray postage, tail is artistic. It is a story of what oases Mii \7 : oo four people saw on just such a trip as Wy fo VY, Z <7 ¢ U1 te Me oe. o My +, Ur. you would like to make. ....... eo oe A he te — A i ee ea Shortest Line : St, Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest GHICAGO ~ » | a | : : | | | a aT; wy S — > a ca a a ae SRS EES SSS SSNs _ GREAT “. WESTERN NaN SN a2 aa Ss SO SO AA eS ( ‘ RAILWAY > For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply y to your home agent or write to ( | F. H. LORD, : Gen’l Pass’r and Ticket Agent, } CHICAGO. ? FLD SESS RSS Fa F Ne PAA AVAVAVA AVA AVA AVA AVA A VITAL POINT —==a A TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM VU WWW WW WU UA UUW OW ae IMPROVEMENT THE ORDER OF THE AG ’."’ MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Smith.. Presiier Cyupewriters Superior on This Pcint as Well as on All Others. SF Seg The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. g DARERAREDRDRRDDRREARREDRARARARREREAIS Catalognes and Information at Washington Office, No. 519 Eleventh Street. RDDDRRRDRARRRRRARANRANAAAAM Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. TO ALL POINTS SOUTH, SOUTHEAST, AND SOUTHWEST. Through Pullman Drawing Room Sleeping Cars from New York and Washington to New Orleans, Memphis, Tampa, Jacksonville, Augusta, and intermediate puvints— First-class Day Coaches—Dining Car Service. Fast Trains for the SOUTH leave Washington Daily at 11.15 A, M., 9.20 P. M., and 10.45 P. M. Through Tourist car on the 11.15 A. M. Train every Tuesday and Friday for Texas, Arizona, and California points, without change. Direct line to the Summer Resorts in Virginia and the Carolinas and the Winter Resorts of Florida, Gulf Coast, Texas, Mexico, and California. Direct Through Car Line to and from Asheville, Hot Springs, and other Western North Carolina points—''THH LAND OF THE SKY.” For Map Folders, Summer Homes Guide Book and Book on ‘ASHEVILLE AND THEREABOUTS” write to— A. S. THWEKATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 E. Baltimore Street, Baltimore, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W. , Washington, vb.C. W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. eA BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOE, Assistant General Passenger. Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - - - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business - - - - .($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since its organization, in 1843, t a - $437,009,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President, EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary, WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. ORGANIZED APRIL, 1882. INCORPORATED JANUARY, 1897. OFFICERS FOR 1899. President: Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. First Vice-Pres.: Dr B. EK. FERNOW. Vice-Pres. for District of Columbia: GEORGE W. MCIANAHAN. Corresponding Secy: F. H: NEWELL. Recording Secretaryand Treasurer: GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY. The object of this Association is to promote: A more rational and conservative treatment of the forest resources of this continent. The advancement of educational, legislative, and other measures tending to promote this object. . The diffusion of knowledge regarding the conservation, management, and renewal of forests, the methods of reforestation of waste lands, the proper utilization of forest products, the plant- ing of trees for ornament, and cognate subjects of arboriculture. Owners of timber and woodlands are particularly invited to join the Association, as well as are all persons who are in sympathy with the objects herein set forth. Life Membership, $50. Annual Membership, $2.00. THE FORESTER: wie american roRESTRY ASSOCIATION. A monthly magazine devoted to ARBORICULTURE and FORESTRY, the care and use of forests and forest trees, and related subjects. io>) NOH Subscriptions, $1.00 a Year. (Furnished gratis to members of the Association.) Address all communications to Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. HENRY ROMEIKE’S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS, 110 Fifth Avenue, New York, Reads every paper of importance published in the United States, and through its European agencies in London, Paris, Berlin, and Vienna every paper of importance published in Europe and the British Colonies. One subscription on any given sub- ject will bring notices from the United States, and if desired also from the European papers. Write for terms. WOODWARD & LOTHROP invite attention to their selections and importations in desirable merchandise for the present season, comprising in part Paris and London Millinery, Silks, Velvets, High-class Dress Goods, Ready-to-Wear Outer Garments for Women, Girls and Boys, Hand-made Paris Lingerie, Corsets, Infants’ Outfittings, Hosiery, Laces, Ribbons, Em- broideries, Linens, Upholstery Goods, Books, Stationery, Card Engraving; also Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Novelties in Leather and Fancy Goods, Sterling Silver Articles, Lamps, Clocks, Bronzes, etc, for Wedding Gifts.... {0th, 14th and F Streets, Washington, D. 6. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Appleton s Geographical Series. ; Edited by H. /. MA CKINDER, M. aN Ce Christ Church, Reader in Geography in the University of Oxford, Principal of Reading College. The series will consist of twelve volumes, each being an essay descriptive of a great natural region, its marked physical features, and the life of its people. Together the volumes will give,a complete account of the world, more especially as the field of human activity. The series is intended for reading rather than for reference, and will stand removed on the one hand from the monumental work of Reclus, and on the other from the ordinary text-book, gazetteer, and compendium. Each volume is to be illustrated by many maps printed in colors and by diagrams in the text, and it will be a distinguishing characteristic of the series that both maps ‘and diagrams will be draw n so that each of them shall convey some salient idea, and that together they shall constitute a clear epitome of the writer’s argument. With a like object, the pictures also will be chosen so as to illustrate the text and not merely to decorate it. A de- tailed announcement of this important series will be presented later. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, NEW YORK. SEND TO THE — MACMILLAN COMPANY For the LATEST TEXT-BOOKS and WORKS OF REFERENCE ON EVERY BRANCH OF SCIENCE BY LEADING AUTHORS. PROF. L. H. BAILEY (Cornell University), PROF. NICHOLS AND HIS COLLEAGUES (De- works on Agricuiture and Botany | partment of Physics,Cornell Univ.), in Physics, PROF. THORP (Mass. Inst. Tech.), on Jndus- | Electricity, etc. trial Chemistry. $3.50 net. PROF.PACKARD (Brown Univ.), on Enfomology. PROF. LAMBERT (Lehigh University), on Dif Jerential and Integral Calculus. $1.50 net. $4.50 nel. BROFS. HARKNESS AND MERLEY (Bryn | proF. LACHMAN (Univ. of Oregon), The Mawr and Haverford), Theory of Analytic | Spirit of Organic Chemistry. $1.50 net. Functions. $3.00 net. ; PROF. DAVENPORT (Harvard University ). PROF. TARR (Cornell Univ.), Phystcal Geogra- Experimental Morphology, Vol, 1, $260; Vol phy, Geology, etc. II, $2.00. i PROF. HENRY F. OSBORN (Columbia Univ.), | PROF. COUREY (Tufts College), Dictionary of Editor of the Columbia Biological Series. Chemical Solubiiities. These are a few only of the names represented in the Catalogue or the New Announcement List (sent free). THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Publishers, NEW YORK. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertiseis. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The Leading Scientific Journal of America AV JOURNAL DEVOTED TO) THE ADVANCEMENT, OF SGlIENGES PUBLISHED EVERY FRIDAY. Annual Subscription, $5.00. Single Copies, 15 Cents. From its first appearance, in 1883, SCIENCE has maintained a repre- sentative position, and is regarded, both here and abroad, as the leading scientific journal of America. Its Editors and Contributors come from every institution in this country in which scientific work of importance is accomplished, including Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and California Universities, among others. EDITORIAL COMMITTEE. S. NEwcome, Mathematics; R. S. WOODWARD, Mechanics; E.C. PICKERING, Astronomy, T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics ; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemis- try ; J. LE Conte, Geology ; W. M. Davis, Physiography ; HENRY F. OSBORN, Paleontology; W. K. Brooxs, C. HART MERRIAM, Zoology; S. H. SCUDDER, Entomology; C. E. BEssEy, N. L. BRITTON, Botany; C.5. MrIno?, Embryology, Histology; H. P. BowprireH, Physiology ; J. S. BILLINGS, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ; J. W. PowELL, Anthropology. NEW AND POPULAR SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. HARDIN The Liquefaction of Gases. Its Rise and Development. By WILLET L. HARDIN, Ph.D., University of Penn- sylvania. Cloth, 12mo, $1.50. A popular yet complete account of the methods used in the liquefaction of air, among other gases. GANONG The Teaching Botanist. A Manual of information upon Botanical In- struction, together with Outlines and Directions for a Coniprehensive Ele- meutary Course. By WILLIAM F. GANONG, Ph.D., Smith College. Cloth, 12mo, $1.10 vet. A manual of information upon botanical in- struction, with outlines and directions for an elementary course. MACBRIDE The Slime Moulds. A Handbook of North American Myxoniycetes. By THOMAS H. MacBRIDE, Professor of Botany, University of Iowa. Cloth, 12mo. A list of all species described in North America, including Central America, with an- notations. SUTER : Handbook of Optics. For Students of Ophthalmology. By W1L1iAMN. SutTER, M. D., National University, Washington, D. C. Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 met. Aims to give a clearer insight into the phenom ena of refraction as applied to ophthalmology than can be obtained from the usual text-books on Refraction of the eye. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Publishers, NEW YORK. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Published by the Century Co. New Edition, prepared after a recent visit to the Islands since the American occupation. Meo AND PORTO RICO, With the Other Islands of the West Indies. By ROBERT T. HILL, of the U.S. Geological Survey. Universally considered the best work on the subject that has appeared—‘‘ everything relating to the islands which would interest the reader ’’—Boston Transcript. It covers a// the islands, and the chapter on Porto Rico in the second large edition, now ready, has been revised and brought up to date after a visit to that island since the American occupation. The Atheneum (London) says: ‘‘It is seldom that such a thoroughly good book has come before us.’’ It covers the subjects of climate, soil, topography, geology, flora, products, industries, political conditions, etc., and it isa handbook which is invaluable to the tourist. 500 pages, Beautifully Illustrated, Very Attractive Binding, $3.00. Oo CaVEAIGNING IN CUBA. By GEORGE KENNAN. A Study of the Campaign at Santiago by the Author of ‘“Stberta and the Exile System,’’ ete. “In ‘Campaigning in Cuba’ Mr. Kennan writes of a subject with which he is per- fectly familiar, for he was present at the bloody battles he describes, and made careful observations of the conduct of the war. Mr. Kennan enjoys the benefits of extensive travel, splendid judgment, and an analytical mind. He does not hesitate to express his own Opinion or to criticise high officials when he thinks they deserve censure, though the reader can readily see that he is frank and fair-minded. The author, who is vice- president of the Red Cross Association, went to the front as correspondent of the Owdook, and the basis of this book is the material he contributed to that paper. Richmond Dispatch. “The most satisfying, the fairest, the most judicial account and criticism of the Santiago campaign.’’— 7imes, Los Angeles, Cal. ‘Mr Kennan has done a public service by this book.’’—Congregationalist. ' z2mo, 269 pages, Cloth, $1.50. fe CENTURY CO. UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK. Please mention this eave when AER to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DOUBLEDAY & McCLURE CO., ! 141-155 East 25th Street, New York. | The United States of Europe. W. T. Stead. ON THE EVE OF THE PARLIAMENT OF PEACE. Mr. Stead’s recent talks with the Czar and with all the great: European statesmen lend much value to this timely review of current politics, written with special reference to the Russian Peace Rescript and American “‘ Expansion.’’ It covers such pertinent matters as America’s task in Cuba and the Philippines, the ‘‘Chinese Puzzle,’’? South African Problems, the Fashoda Muddle, the Concert of Europe and its work in Crete and Candia, and so on, with many suggestive forecasts. _ Size, 532 x 814; pages, 468; over oo portraits, maps, and illustrations; binding, cloth. Price, $2.00. Sketches im Moypt. Charles Dana Cisco ‘““Fgypt,’’ says Mr. Gibson, ‘‘has sat for her likeness longer than any other coun- try.” The recent important events that have turned all eyes toward the Upper Nile have not disturbed in the least the ancient composure and serenity of the Land of the Pharoahs, aud few countries offer such a tempting field to the artistic pen. Mr. Gibson’s forceful and suggestive drawings are well reinforced by his written impressions—more complete than he has ever before published—and the whole makes up a uniquely in- teresting record, from an artist who occupies a peculiar position among us. It is the real Egypt from a new standpoint. No pains have been spared to produce a true art work, giving really adequate presentations of Mr. Gibson’s drawings. Size, 73¢ x 10%; cloth decorated; pages, 150; type, 12 point. Regular edition, $3.00 net. Edition de Luxe, 250 signed and numbered copies, each accompanied by a portfolio containing art proofs of ten of the most important pictures, on Japan silk tissue and mounted on plate paper suitable for framing. Price per copy, $10.00 net. AS SOON AS ACTUALLY PUBLISHED THE PRICE ON ALL, DE LUXE COPIES NOT SUBSCRIBED FOR WILL BE RAISED. From Sea to Sea. Rudyard Kiplin 35th THOUSAND. This is an authorized edition of the collected letters of travel which Mr. Rudyard Kipling has written at various times between 1889 and 1898, and has just edited and revised. It includes hitherto unpublished matter, as well as an accurate text of the “American Notes,’’ with ‘‘ Letters of Marque,’ ‘‘ The City of Dreadful Night,’’ ‘‘ The Smith Administration,’’ etc., etc. Even Mr. Kipling never wrote anything more entirely irresistible than are, for in- stance, his letters on Japan. ‘The ludicrousness of the Japanese ‘‘ heavy cavalry,’’ the fascinating O-Toyo, the cherry blossoms, and the wonderful art which permeates the daily life of natural Japan—all these things become permanent in the reader’s mind and can never be forgotten; and they show a side of the author which is not at all prominent in most of his other work. Size, 5x 7%; two volumes in box; pages, 860; type, 10 point; binding, cloth. Price, $2.00. (he Weal Hawai. Lucien Young, Ul sak I1S HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION, INCLUDING THE ‘TRUE STORY OF THE REVOLUTION. This is an authoritative work upon our newly acquired possessions by an American Naval officer, who kuows his subject thoroughly. It not only gives the inside history of the revolution which ended the Monarchy-—Lieutenant Young was on the Boston at that time, and took an active part in the proceedings —but furnishes a reliable handbook to the condition and resources of the island: An appendix contains an elaborate array of statistical information. Size, 5x 7%; pages, about 371; 18 illustrations and maps. Price, $1.50. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. ie Eee Oe Oeeen, 9OG99999S9 95899999999 99009 9099999999990 0890000 =u Bem oy NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT ! The International Geography. The last few years have proved so rich in geograph- ical discoveries that there has been a pressing need for a résumé of recent explorations and changes which should present in convenient and accurate form the latest results of geographical work. ‘The additions to our knowledge have not been limited to Africa, Asia, and the Arctic regions, but even on our own continent the gold of the Klondike has led toa better knowledge of the region, while within a short time we shall have much more exact geographical information concerning the numerous islands which make up the Philippines. The want which is indicated will be met by 7he Jiter- national Geography, a convenient volume for the intel- ligent general reader, and the library which presents expert summaries of the results of geographical science throughout the world at the present time. Seventy authors, all experts, have collaborated in the production of Zhe /nternational Geography. ‘The con- tributors include the leading geographers and travelers of Europe and America. ‘The work has been planned and edited by Dr. H.R. M111,whoalso wrote the chapter on The United Kingdom. Among the authors are: Professor W. M. Davis (The United States), Dr. FRIDTJOF NANSEN (Arctic Regions), Professor A. KIRCHHOFF (German Empire), Mr F. C. SELouS (Rhodesia), Professors DE TAPPARENT and RAVENEAU (France), Sir CLEMENT R. MARKHAM, F. R. S. (Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru), Sir JoHN Murray, F. R. S. (Antarctic Regions), Count PFEIL (German Colonies), Mr. JAMES BRYCE, M. P. (The Boer Republics), Sir H. H. JOHNSTON, the late Sir LAMBERT PLAYFAIR, Sir F. J. GoLpSMID, Sir MARTIN CONWAY, Sir GEORGE S. ROBERTSON, Sir WILLIAM MACGREGOR, Sir CHARLES WILSON, F.R.S.; the Hon. D.W. CARNEGIE, Mrs. BisHop, Dr. A. M. W. DOWNING, F. R. S.; Dr. J. ScorTt KELTIE, and Mr. G. G. CHISHOLM, the editor of the 7z7mes Gazetteer. The book is illustrated by nearly five hundred maps and dia- grams, which have been specially prepared. It is designed to present in the compact limits of a single volume an authorita- tive conspectus of the science of geography and the conditions of the countries at the end of the nineteenth century. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, NEW YORK. GOS 909995500 OS SSS 9096808 Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. o@ 2 & aLESSS oS O@ OOCOO SE oe) OOOO OS SE OO8S 0000S SS OG0SO00S Be) @ NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PRIZES OFFERED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY FOR Essays on Norse Qiscoveries in America. 1. A first prize of $150 and a second prize of $75 are offered for the best and second best essays, respectively, relating to pre-Columbian discoveries and settlements of the Norsemen on the mainland of North America and the location of the lands mentioned in the Icelandic Sagas. 2. Essays submitted in competition for these prizes should be typewritten in the English language, and should not exceed 6,000 words in length ; they may be accompanied by maps and other illustrations used for the explanation of the text, but not for embellishment. 3. Essays submitted in competition for the prizes should be signed by a pseudonym or number, and should bear no other indication of authorship, but each should be accompanied by a sealed envelope, marked with the same pseudonym or number, containing the name and address of the author. 4. The competition will close at 6 p. m., December 31, 1899. 5. The National Geographic Society and the judges on behalf thereof re- serve the right to withhold either prize, or both, in case the essays submitted are not sufficiently meritorious to warrant publication with the approval of the Society ; but in case of withholding one or both of the prizes on this ground, a new competition will be opened. 6. Immediately after the close of the competition the essays submitted in accordance with the foregoing conditions will be laid before the following board of judges, whose adjudication shall be final: W. B. POWELL, Superintendent of Public Schools of Washington, D. C. HENRY GANNETT, Chief Geographer of the U. S. Geological Survey, ete. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Professor of History in Harvard University. ANITA NEWCOMB MCGEE, M. D. Acting Assistant Surgeon, U.S. A. JOHN BACH MCMASTER, LL. D., : Professor of History in the University of Pennsylvania. HENRY S. PRITCHETT, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE Is a Journal of Geography--Physical, Commercial, and Political. Its editorial staff includes officers and experts of the different scientific bureaus of the Government, each representing a field teeming with facts of geographic interest. Its corps of contributors comprises nearly every United States citizen whose name has become identified with Arctic exploration, the Bering Sea controversy, the Alaska and Venezuela boundary disputes, or the new commercial and political questions arising from the acquisition of the Philippines. Through the cordia! codperation of the different diplomatic representatives of foreign nations at Washington, it is able to present the latest and most authentic geographic intelligence from other countries. Tur Natrona, Grocrapnic MAGAZINE numbers among its contributors the following well-known writers on the different branches of geographic science : Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE Dr Exit Horus, Vienna Cyrus C. ADAMS CorNELIA HorRSFORD Cyrus C. Bags Dr SHEeLpON JACKSON Capt. J. R. Barrierr, U.S. N. M.S. W. Jerrerson Dr GeorGe F. BECKER WiLLArD D. JOHNSON ALEXANDER GraHAM Bei, LL.D., ete. | J. Scorr Keurig, LL.D., ete. Prof. F. H. Brantow GEORGE KENNAN Lieut. J. C. Cantwe nt, U.S. A. Prof. S. P. LAnGury Frank M. CHAPMAN Prof. WiiL1AM Lippry Ropertr H. CoapMan G. W. LirrLEHALES Dr E. L. CorTHetu Prof. Joun Bach McMasvrer Dr Exvtiorr Cours Dr T. C. MENDENHALL F. V. CoviLuE F. H. Newer. FranNK H. CusHInG Lieut. Roperr EK. Peary Hon. CHarues W. DABNEY GrorGe C. Perkins, U.S. S. Dr Wiiutam H. Datu Prof. W. H. PickErRInG N. H. Darron ' GIFFORD PINCHOT Prof. GrorGE Davipson Major J. W. PowELu Wititam M. Davis Prof. W. B. PowELL Dr Davin T. Day E. D. Preston J.S. DiLuer Prof. Isragn C. Russeuu Lieut. C. P. Extiortr, U.S. A. Dr N.S. SHALER Prof. B. E. Fernow Major W. A. Smrpson, U.S. A. Hon. Joun W. Fosrer Capt. C. D. Siaspur, U.S. N. Col. D..D. Gariuarp, U.S. A. Maj. A. FALKNER VON SONNENBERG HAMLIN GARLAND J. STANLEY-Brown Prof. EK. B. Garriorr Gen. G. M. SrerRNBERG President D. C. GItMan CCommander Z. L. TANNER Capt. L. C. Gienn, U.S. A. Prof. RautpH S. Tarr Ricuarp U. GoopE Max L. Tornow Prof. J. Howarp Gore O. H. Tirrmann Prof. Epwin A. GROSVENOR Hon. CHaruss D. Watcorr Prof. ALBpert BusHNELL Hart Mrs Fannie B. Warp Dr C. Witiarp Hayes Commander H. Wesster, U.S. N. Prof. H. A. Hazen Watraer WELLMAN Prof. A. J. Henry Watrer D. WiLtcox Ropert T. Hii Battery WILLIS F. W. Hopce Hon. Witutam L. WILSON WicurAm H. Houmes Dr F. H. Wines Prof. DkEan C. WoRCESTER $2.50 a Year. 25 Cents a Copy. Three Months’ Trial Subscription, 50 Cents. Requests for Sample Copies should invariably be accompanied by 25 Cents. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology in all its branches is THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, published at the National Capital. This journal is now in its twelfth year of increasing usefulness. No magazine ever published on the Western continent is such a storehouse of authentic information concerning ARCHEOLOGY, ETHNOL- OGY, FOLK-LORE, TECHNOLOGY, SocroLoGy, History, SOMATOLOGY, PsYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, and PHILOLOGY. Its contributions to our knowledge of these subjects, especially in so far as they relate to the American Indians, past and present, are of world-wide authority. Its contributors are America’s foremost scholars. Is your name on the subscription list of the ANTHROPOLOGIST? If not, it should be. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Subscribe today. A new volume begins with the January number. Handsomely Printed—Abundantly Illustrated. Published Quarterly—Four Dollars a Year. Volume XIi Begins with January, 1899. ApprEss: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. COMMENCED JANUARY, 1888. TWO VOLUMES PER YEAR. THE AMERICAN GKOLOGIST, 1899. The Oldest Exclusively Geological Magazine Published in America TERMS. To Subscribers in the United States, Canada and Mexico................. $3.50 a year Porother Subscribers.in the Postal Union.) ..< eis see ee rile OO st 4.00 a year The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST is issued monthly from the office of publication at Minne- apolis, Minnesota, United States of America. Twenty-two volumes are completed; the twenty-third began with the number for January, 1899. The magazine has received a cordial welcome and a generous support from leading geologists everywhere and it is now recognized as the exponent of the rapid geological progress that is taking place on the continent of North America, including Canada, the United States and Mexico. No- where else in the world are geologic phenomena exhibited on a more extensive scale and nowhere else are results attained of greater economic and scientific importance. The AMERICAN GEOLOGIST lays before its readers from month to month the latest results of geological work. In addition to the longer papers it gives synopses of recent geological publications and brief notes on current geological events. THE GEOLOGICAL PUBLISHING CO., MINNEAPOLIS, MINN. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. | a a a a STPAUL (PEST LINE MINNEAPOLIS . Segene ae the’ bi UITLANDERS, send for number _yolume i NATIONAL Grocrarnic : oN few only of ihe. number. remain a ‘By mail for 25 cents Lae For a chart of the world, 48 by 3 30 showing Nie CABLE AND OVERI | Macazane: Be a oe oe cone ae: ~ _qopp & DETWEILER, Seen go WASHINGTON, Di iG, ‘Magazine y AN iets MONTHLY Editor. JOHN HYDE, | Sai : \i Statist of the U. Department of Agriciliure nN \ , \y / Asaociate Editars| \ | 3 ie V ee Chief Signal Officer, US. Arms WET MCGEE, Ethnologist in ae Bureiu American Ethnology ; HENRY GANNED1, Chief Geo rapher; U) S. Geological Survey ; C. Hart MERRIAM| Biologist af theW, Soy Department of Agriculture ; DaviD,J. HILL, . Besistant Secretary of State ; (CHARLES H ALLEN, Assistant Secretary of the Wavy ; WILLIs L. Moore, Chief af the U.S. Weather’ ‘Burean ; H. SPPRITCHET?,| Sz- “sient the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Marcus) BAEER, U. S: 1, Geological, Survey ; heP. AUSTIN,| Chief ofthe Bureau of, Statistics, - TES “Treasury Department; Gag aia SCIDMORE, Author~ 1 pe of ‘Java, the Garden of the Bast,” ~ GARE LOUISE GAR- “igo Rison, Principal of Phelps) oe \ Wushaneron. De + Agsistant Editor: singh ae H. Meanie cians Nnitalesphiae teas D; Cc. / t seethe a PRESS | “ j | | | ; | ! “CONTENTS | Pe ve | haa PAGE ~~~ ALASKAN BOUNDARY, OIA OAD AR _HON, JOHN W. FOSTER, 425 YA ‘With twelve maps. RGA mean Ex- Secretary of State. | 3 ita AD YUKON TRAIL. ALFRED PIERCE’ DENNIS, 457 jj With illustrations. \ | Progessor. of History in Smith Gallegr: y) RATIONAL ELEMENT IN GEOGRAPHY. WM. M, DAVIS, ~466 7) "With diagrams. i Professor of Physical Geography in Harvard University. ~~ / DWARD ORTON, Zt, D: 474. ONAL | GHOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, at 474 R aPHIC LITERATURE, ae 415 4 APHIC MISCELLANEA. — \ ane ae, | “se WASHINGTON | ds f aaa BY THE NATIONAL GEQGRAPHIO Socusey aA ek For. Sane SA) Baenrano’s: E. Square, New York; 1015 PeNnsytvaNea Avenve, WASHINGTON; nt ay 218 WapasH Avenur, Cuicago; 37 AVENUE DE L’OpmErRA, Paris _ $2.50 a Year — SGGGG Vib 44 SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. Le TO ALL POINTS SOUTH, SOUTHEAST, AND SOUTHWEST. — Through Pullman Drawing Room Sleeping Cars from New York and Washington to New Orleans, Memphis, Tampa, Jacksonville, Augusta, and intermediate points— First-class Day Coaches—Dining Car Service. Fast Trains for the SOUTH leave Washington Daily at 11.15 A, M., 9. 20 P. M., and 10.45 P. M. Through Tourist car on the 11.15 A. M. Train every Tuesday and Faaage for Texas, Arizona, and California points, without change. ag. Direct line to the Summer Resorts in Virginia and the Carolinas and the at Winter Resorts of Florida, Gulf Coast, Texas, Mexico, and California. Direct Through Car Line to and from Asheville, Hot Springs, and other ip Western North Carolina points—'‘ THE LAND OF THE SKY.” “iG , ft t For Map Folders, Summer Homes Guide Book and Book on “ASHEVILLE ~ Bn AND THEREABOUTS” write to— A. S. THWEHATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. he J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 ig Baltimore Street, Baltimcre, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, D.C. W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. tai W. H. TAYLOH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. Rey u J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent, WASHINGTON, D. C. fy, The Mutual Life Insurance Co, OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. = The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life . t Has a Larger Premium Income - - - © (ea9, canal é More Insurance in Force - ° - - - ($918,000,000) 3 A Greater Amount of Assets - - - ($235,000,000) 4 A Larger Annual Interest Income -_~ - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business’~ - - - ($136,000,000) — a And Pays More to Policy-holders - ~- ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since ; 3 ; its organization, in 1848, Rest $437,000 an 4: ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. — ISAAC F. LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Secoud-class Mail Matter. ee —_- apne rapa Bot oy og saber AW yee wey MM Wagernsll / even NAT. GEOG. MAG. VOL. X, 1899, PL. XI Wy, é Mya Ne 2", = < “Yi > O17 Mt, > ; Z 4 0 “WW as Admiralty 9° seginelly & win S A & oy, ) a Mitre ies 3 Si W My 3S \, iB \ “i Sha a) Nu) MAP No. 11 HUDSON’S BAY COMPANY MAP “Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed, 31st July and 11th August, 1857” Nore—The Russian territory, colored yellow on original map, is indicated by dotted portion inte National Geographic Magazine Vou. X NOVEMBER, 1899 INO} sil THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY By Hon. Joun W. Foster, Ex-Secretary of State In the letter of the President of the Geographic Society inviting me to prepare a paper for THe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, he expressed a desire that I should discuss the Alaskan bound- ary, because it was a subject that most deeply concerns our people and the paper would be a timely contribution toward its proper consideration. In accepting the invitation, I feel that I must confine my presentation of the topic to the facts accessible to any student of the events of the period and avoid all reference to pending negotiations. Happily, however, the material at hand for an accurate un- derstanding of the subject is abundant and within reach of the inquirer. Its history had its inception three-quarters of a cen- tury ago; yet few negotiations among nations of such a date are accompanied by so great a mass of concurrent documents and facts to explain the motives and objects had in view by the interested parties, and to make apparent the understanding of these parties as to the effect of the negotiations after their con- clusion. The Alaskan boundary is fixed by the treaty of 1825 between Russia and Great Britain, and every step of the anterior negotiations was carefully recorded at the time, and the seventy or more years following the celebration of the treaty are marked by repeated acts of the contracting parties and those claiming under them, explaining their interpretation of that instrument. The treaty of 1825 grew out of the issuance by the Emperor of Russia of an imperial ukase in 1821, the purport of which, 99g 426 THE ALASKAN. BOUNDARY briefly stated, was (1) a claim by Russia to exclusive jurisdic- tion on the high sea extending 100 miles from the coast of Asia above latitude 45° 50’ north and from the northwest coast of America above latitude 51° north ; and (2) a prohibition to all foreign vessels to land upon or trade with the natives on any part of the coasts indicated.* This ukase brought forth a prompt and vigorous protest from both the United States and Great Britain, which was soon followed by negotiations between Rus- sia and the two latter governments. It was early made known that Russia was prepared to withdraw its claim to exclusive jurisdiction in the Pacific ocean and would not insist upon its territorial claim to the coast of America below latitude 55°. Ags the United States was advancing no serious claim to the terri- tory north of that line, it found little difficulty in reaching an accord, and a treaty between Russia and the United States was signed April 17, 1824, nearly a year before an agreement was reached with Great Britain. The chief object had in view by Great Britain in its protest and subsequent negotiations was to secure the withdrawal by Russia of her claim to exclusive jurisdiction in the Pacific ocean. At that period Great Britain was the rising power of the world in maritime commerce, the United States being its next competitor, and it made good use of the latter to aid in bring- ing about this withdrawal. At that day the vast territory of North America lying between the Rocky mountains and the Pacific ocean above latitude 55° was almost a terra incognita, and, with the immense areas to the east of the mountains still unoccupied except by a few trading posts, the country was held in little estimation by Great Britain. A few navigators had skirted the coast and enterprising American traders had held some intercourse with the Indians living immediately on tide- water, but none but the Russians had penetrated any distance inland. Only one British trading post was established in this region west of the Rocky mountains, on the line of 55°, and that 120 miles from the ocean, and there was not one above that - line.t But we are not left to infer from these historical facts what was the ruling motive and object of Great Britain in opening and prosecuting negotiations with Russia, for these are explicitly stated in the instructions given by the Secretary for Foreign *Fur Seal Arbitration Papers, 1893, vol. iv, p. 370, for full text of Russian ukase. 7 Ib., p. 390. ft Ib., p. 383. b Ny THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY eae. Affairs, George Canning, to the British negotiators. At the very inception of the negotiations he directed the attention of the first negotiator, Sir Charles Bagot, to “‘ the extravagant assumption of maritime jurisdiction ” as the essential point to be adjusted, and as Russia was prepared to waive her pretensions, the mode and degree of disavowal was to be so made as to least offend the national dignity of Russia.* It was therefore determined that it would be made more easy for Russia to retire from its maritime claim under cover of a treaty of limits. This is made clear in the instruction given by the British Secretary for Foreign A ffairs, December 8, 1824, to Sir Stratford Canning, who had succeeded Mr Bagot in the negotiations. He says:t “The whole negotiation grows out of the ukase of 1821. So entirely and absolutely true is this proposition that the settlement of the limits of the respective possessions of Great Britain and Russia on the northwest coast of America was proposed by us as a mode of facilitating the adjust- ment of the differences arising from the ukase by enabling the court of Russia, under cover of the more comprehensive arrangement, to with- draw, with less appearance of concession, the offensive pretensions of that edict. : ‘It is comparatively indifferent to us whether we hasten or postpone all questions respecting the limits of territorial possession on the continent of America, but the pretensions of the Russian ukase of 1821 to exclusive dominion over the Pacific could not continue longer unrepealed without compelling us to take some measure of public and effectual remonstrance against it. “You will . . . declare without reserve that*the point to which alone the solicitude of the British government and the jealousy of the British nation attach any importance is tlhe doing away (in a manner as little disagreeable to Russia as possible) of the effect of the ukase of 1821.’ Near the close of this instruction, which was quite lengthy, Secretary Canning, impressed with the importance of the main object, repeats himself in these words: ““Tt remains only in recapitulation to remind you of the origin and principles of this whole negotiation. “It is not { on our part essentially a negotiation about limits. *“Tt is a demand of the repeal of an offensive and unjustifiable arroga- tion of exclusive jurisdiction over an ocean of unmeasured extent. ““We negotiate about territory to cover the remonstrance upon prin- ciple.” 4 With this object in view and under these instructions, the negotiations were initiated at St Petersburg. It will not be possible to follow them in all their details, which are set forth in *Ib., 405. + Ib., 446. { The italics appear in the original. ~ @ Ib., 448. Mc Meat C.Ommaney MAP OF SOUTH EASTERN ALASKA © Statute Miles rep) WN. eA a 5 FS “White me Pass Sir C Bragots tir st pr9, Sir €. eyes secona pret — Puts we pose WW 080 iC Muzon-— Ss Bie Gagots third propose Le tron Enirelt Prepared wt the Office of the 0.8 Coast aru Geodetic Survey. Treasury Department. MAP No. 1 SIR C, BAGOD’S PROPOSALS, 1824 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY ., 429 the published correspondence of the British negotiators with the foreign office and of the Russian negotiators with their ambassador in London. I can only give the leading features. It havine been determined that the treaty of limits should be agreed upon as a cover to the more essential stipulation to be contained in it, to wit, the disavowal of the maritime jurisdic- tion, the negotiators, in the first instance, addressed themselves to a fixation of the east-and-west line, or, more particularly, to the point on the northwest coast of America which should limit the possessions of the two governments. From the first mo- ment the boundary was broached Russia had indicated that it would rest its claim to territory on the line of latitude 55°, being the limit fixed by the Emperor Paul in the charter of 1799 to the Russian American Company, and which had never been objected to by Great Britain.* Sir Charles Bagot, however, in the first instance, proposed ‘a line drawn through Chatham strait to the head of Lynn canal, thence northwest to the 140° of longitude” f (see map No. 1). This line was rejected by the Russian negotiators, and, at the re- quest of Mr Bagot, they submitted a counter-proposal, which was in effect the same as that suggested in the first instance above mentioned, the line of latitude 55°; but “as the parallel of 55° would divide Prince of Wales island,” they proposed to start the boundary line at the southern extremity of that island, and thence “follow Portland channel up to the mountains which border the coast.” | The Russian proposal was met by a second proposition from Sir Charles Bagot, to wit, “a line traced from the west toward the east along the middle of the channel which separates !Prince of Wales and Duke of York islands from all the islands situated to the north of the said islands until it touches the mainland.” ?% This was likewise rejected, and he then made a third and final proposal of ‘fa line drawn from the southern extremity of the strait called ‘ Duke of Clarence sound’ through the middle of this strait to the middle of the strait which separates Prince of Wales and Duke of York islands from all the islands lying north of those islands, thence toward the east through the middle of the same strait to the mainland.” || This last British proposition was rejected by the Russian ne- gotiators in a paper of some length, in which they set forth the situation of the parties in interest, and why it was impossible for Russia to modify its proposal. They show that the parties whose *Ib., 390,412. +Ib., 424. tIb.,427. 3Ib., 428. || Ib., 430. 430 THE ALASKAN BOUNDAKY interests were involved were, on the British side, the Hudson’s Bay Company, which was pushing its posts across the Rocky mountains towards the coast, and the Russian American Com- pany, which was in possession of the islands and maintaining a profitable trade with the natives on the mainland, and that un- less the latter was protected by a strip of the coast on the main- land, that company would be without .a support [ point dappur], and would be exposed to the competition of establishments on the mainland which it was their purpose to exclude.* The motive of the Russian negotiators in insisting upon a strip of the coast is also shown in the report of M. Poletica, one of the Russian plenipotentiaries, to the ministry for foreign affairs of the earliest conferences with Mr Bagot, in which he said the Rus- sian American Company “ had mainly in view the establish- ment of a barrier at which would be stopped, once for all, to the north and to the west of the coast allotted to our Amer- ican company, the encroachments of the Hnglish agents of the . . . Hudson’s Bay Company ” (M. Poletica to Count Nesselrode, November 3, 1825). On the other hand, the main purpose of the British plenipo- tentiary in the particular negotiation above referred to was to secure for British traders a foothold on the Pacific ocean as far above the latitude of 54° 40’ as possible. In reporting the re- sult of his conferences to the British foreign office, he says: “Our chief objects were to secure . . . the embouchures of such rivers as might afford an outlet for our fur trade into the Pacific.’t He further states that his object in presenting the line of Clarence strait was to “ preserve uninterrupted our access to the Pacific ocean,” and he adds that the line of the Portland channel “ would deprive His Britannic Majesty of sovereignty over all the inlets and small bays lying between latitude 56° and 54° 45’, . . . of essential importance to its [Hudson Bay’s| commerce.” ¢ The negotiators were brought face to face with their conflicting claims, the one side insisting that it must havea strip of territory on the mainland in order to keep the Hudson’s Bay Company from the ocean opposite their islands, and the other insisting that the Hudson’s Bay Company must have possession of such part of that territory and the inlets as would afford it access to the ocean. Mr Bagot informed the Russian negotiators that he had made his “ultimate proposition,” and, being told by them * Th., 428, 430. } Ib., 424. { Ib., 425, 429. THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY | 431 that the Emperovr’s final decision was “ that they must continue, to insist upon the demarcation as described by them,” he an- nounced that he should “ consider the negotiations as necessa- rily suspended,” and they were accordingly broken off.* Count Nesselrode sent to the Russian ambassador in London an account of the negotiations and their abrupt termination, a copy of which was handed to Secretary Canning. In this re- port he insists that Russia had gone to the extreme of liberality in its concessions to Great Britain. These were, first, an agree- ment to disavow the maritime jurisdiction ; second, to yield its claim to territory from latitude 51° to 54° 40’; third, to grant free access to the British posts in the interior by the rivers which may cross the Russian strip on the mainland; and, fourth, to open Sitka to British trade. The count, after showing that his country was only seeking to hold what its enterprise had gained, and, contrasting the spirit of the two nations, “ we wish to keep and the English company wish to obtain,” referred to the point upon which the negotiations were broken off—the strip of terri- tory on the mainland—and impressed upon the ambassador the necessity which impelled the Emperor to insist upon it, and then made the following emphatic declaration: ‘‘ Russia cannot stretch her concessions further. She will make no others, and she is authorized to expect some concessions on the part of England.” ft The expectations of Russia were not to be disappointed, for in the month following Secretary Canning informed the Rus- sian ambassador in London that Sir Charles Bagot would be instructed “to admit, with certain qualifications, the terms last proposed by the Russian government.” The qualifications re- lated to the width “ of the strip of land required by Russia on the continent,” to the boundary in the vicinity of Mt St Elias, and the free use of the rivers, seas, straits, and waters which the limits assigned to Russia would comprehend.f In his instruc- tions to Sir Charles Bagot, Secretary Canning said: ‘“ There are two points which are left to be settled by Your Excellency :” the first, “ the eastern boundary of the strip of land to be oc- cupied by Russia on the coast,” and, second, the right of resort- ing to the territory and waters conceded to Russia.@ The second negotiations were mainly confined to the second point. In the interval a treaty had been signed between Russia and the United States, whereby the latter had secured the right *1b.,425. t1b., 401. tIb., 432 2Ib., 433. 432 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY for ten years to frequent “the interior seas, gulphs, hirbours, and creeks upon the coast [north of 54° 40’] for the purpose of trad- ing with the natives of the country.” Bagot ‘was instructed to obtain a like privilege for Great Britain, but to secure a longer term than ten years if possible. * He thereupon made a demand for the privilege, not for a term of ten years, but forever as to the coast along the strip of land (lisiére) up to latitude 60° and as to Sitka, and for ten years as to all the other Russian territory to the north. Russia refused the demand on the eround that such a perpetual concession was repugnant to all national feel- ing and was inconsistent with the very idea of sovereignty, and the negotiations were again broken off.t Thereupon Sir Charles Bagot was recalled and Sir Stratford Canning, one of the ablest British diplomatists of the present century, was transferred from Washington to St Petersburg, and the negotiations were again renewed. » Sir Stratford Canning was instructed to recede from the demand made by his prede- cessor, and to accept the language of the Russo- American treaty as to the use of the territorial waters of the strip of land (lisiére). This left only the eastern boundary of this strip to be definitely fixed. It was from these instructions to Canning that I have quoted the liberal language in which occur the expressions: “It is not on our part essentially a negotiation about limits,” and ‘“‘ We negotiate about territory to cover the remonstrance upon principle.” In this connection it is proper to note that in the early stage of the negotiations, when Sir Charles Bagot re- ported that Russia had indicated latitude 55° as the line of di- vision, Secretary Canning replied: “It doesnot appear . . . how far the line proposed . . . was intended to run to the eastward. If to the Rocky mountains, it obviously would be wholly inadmissible by us;” and later in the instruction he says: “Tt would . . . be expedient to assign, with respect to the main- land southward of that point [the head of Lynn harbor], a limit, say, of 50 or 100 miles from the coast, beyond which the Russian posts should not be extended to the eastward. We must not on any account admit the Russian territory to extend at any point to the Rocky mountains.” t * Tb., 434. + Ib., 439. é tIb., 419, 420. Attached to Secretary Canning’s instruction, from which the above quotation is taken, is a letter to him from the deputy governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company (Ib., 421), showing that the suggestion of a strip 50 to 100 miles in width originated with that company. He says: ‘‘ From a want of accurate knowledge of the courses of the rivers or ranges of mountains, it is difficult to suggest any satisfactory boundary in the interior of the country in question, and (if consistent with your THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY py 433 With this instruction in his possession Sir Charles Bagot, at the outset of the negotiations, in response to the Russian demand “for a strip of territory (lisiére) upon the mainland ” which would be “parallel to the sinuosities of the coast,” * proposed that the eastern line of this strip should run “ always at a distance of 10 marine leagues from the shore as far as the 140° of longitude.” t Russia suggested that the line should “ run along the mountains which follow the sinuosities of the coast.”+ When the second hegotiations were resumed Secretary Canning sent Mr Bagot a draft of a treaty in which it was provided that this line should “be carried alone the coast in a direction parallel to the sinuosi- ties and at and within the seaward base of the mountains by which it is bounded.” 2 In explanation the Secretary said, if pressed by Russia Mr Bagot might substitute the summit of the moun- tains if a limit to the east was fixed beyond which the line should not go. The British draft proposal of ‘“‘ the seaward base of the mountains ” was rejected by Russia, and its counter-draft was that the line “shall not be wider on the continent than 10 ma- rine leagues.” || But Sir Charles Bagot’s attention was so occupied with the other points of the treaty that the matter of the width of the strip did: not receive serious consideration until the final stage of the negotiations was undertaken by Sir Stratford Canning, and as Great Britain had by that time receded from all the other contentions, it only remained for him to adjust the eastern line of the strip of the mainland which was to be held by Russia. In his draft of treaty it was proposed that the line should follow the crest of the mountains, provided that if the crest of the mountains should be more than ten marine leagues from the ocean the line should follow the sinuosities of the coast, so that it should at no point be more than ten leagues from the coast. This was in accordance with his instructions. The Russian negotiators objected to the proviso and insisted that the crest of the mountains should be the invariable line, arguing that the natural frontier was the mountains following the coast. Much of the difficulty in reaching an agreement on this point grew out of the imperfect geographic knowledge of the period. views) it might, perhaps, be sufficient at present to settle a boundary on the coast only and the country 50 or 100 miles inland, leaving the rest of the country to the north of that point and to the west of the range of the mountains, which separate the waters which flow into the Pacific from those which flow to the east and north, open to the traders of both nations.” *Tb., 427. 7 Ib., 428. ft Ib:, 399. 2 Ib., 435. || Ib., 441. 4 Ib., 447. 454 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY In 1792-95 George Vancouver, under the direction of the British admiralty, made the first accurate and scientific survey of the northwest coast of North America, and his charts were pub- lished in 1798. These charts were for more than a generation the basis and source of information of all maps of that region. His survey was confined to the coast, as he made no exploration of the interior of the mainland beyond what was visible from his vessels. From these he saw at all points in the region under consideration a continuous array of mountains, and upon his charts there appears delineated a regular mountain chain fol- lowing the sinuosities of the coast line around all the inlets (see maps Nos. 2 and 3). We know that the negotiators of the treaty of 1825 had before them Vancouver’s charts and two other maps, one issued by the quartermaster-general’s department, St Petersburg, 1802,* which reproduces the mountains as laid down by Vancouver, the other Arrowsmith’s latest map, being the one published in London in 1822, with additions of 1823,and this map omits all mountain features in the region, being entirely blank. The published correspondence frequently shows that as to the in- terior of the mainland the negotiators were in great ignorance of its topography, and we have seen that even the deputy-governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company was no better informed (supra, p. 481). Secretary Canning referred to “the mountains which run parallel to the coast and which appear, according to the map, to follow all its sinuosities,”’ but he asks the British plenipotentiary to explain to his Russian colleagues the difficulty had with the United States arising out of the maps of the eastern side of the continent, on which mountains were laid down and which were found afterwards to be quite differently situated, and he adds: ‘Should the maps be no more accurate as to the western than as to the eastern mountains, we might be assigning to Russia immense tracts of inland territory where we only intended to give, and they only intended to ask, a strip of seacoast.” f The British minister’s fear was, as we have seen, lest an invariable line of “the summit of the mountains” might carry the Rus- sian line even to the Rocky mountains, and it was to avoid such a contingency that he insisted on a specific limit to the Russian strip of the mainland. The Russian negotiators reluctantly yielded to the British view and the treaty was concluded. The correspondence and documents thus reviewed by me * Found in Fur Seal Papers, 1893, vol. V, appendix to British case. { Ib., vol. IV, 447. | | | THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY » 435 clearly establish three facts as the result of the negotiations ° first, that Russia was to have a continuous strip of territory on the mainland around all the inlets orarms of the sea. Sir Charles Bagot fully understood this, and hence his repeated efforts to push the southern boundary of Russia as far north as possible, so that the Hudson’s Bay Company might come down to tidewater with its trading posts, recognizing that this could not be done in front of the Russian line. The purpose for which the strip was estab- lished would be defeated if it was to be broken in any part of its course by inlets or arms of the sea extending into British terri- tory. Second, with the strip of territory so established, all the interior waters of the ocean above its southern limit became Russian, and would be inaccessible to British ships and traders except by express license. It was because the Russian negotia- tors refused to make this license perpetual that the negotiations were a second time broken off, and only renewed when Great Britain yielded on this point. Third, the strip of territory was to be 10 marine leagues wide in all its extent, unless inside of that limit a chain of mountains existed which constituted a nat- ural boundary or watershed between the two countries. The “seaward base ” proposed by Great Britain was rejected, and there is no indication that isolated peaks were to constitute the line. A fourth fact, not material to explain the treaty, is apparent from the record of the negotiations, and especially Secretary Can- ning’s instructions of January 15, 1824, already cited,* to wit, that while the British government sought to restrict the limits of Rus- sian territory as much as possible, it was prepared in return for the revocation of the ukase of 1821, if Russia was persistent, to accept an east line of the strip distant from the ocean 100 miles, and to have the line to the Arctic ocean drawn along the 135° of longitude, thus giving to Russia a strip more than three times as wide as she obtained and the whole of the Yukon gold dis- tricts. We come now to the provisions of the treaty, and I confine my examination to those respecting which there are existing differences. Article III, in delineating the first section of the boundary, provides that “commencing from the southernmost point of the island called Prince of Wales Island, which lies in the parallel of 54° 40’ north latitude, . . . thesaid [bound- ary] line shall ascend to the north along the channel called *Tb., 415-420, 36 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY He Qo Portland Channel as far as the point of the continent where it strikes the 56° of north latitude:” The United States holds that under this provision the line starting from the extremity of Prince of Wales island shall enter the broad, deep, and usually navigated opening of Portland canal or channel and pass up to its head, and thence on the continent to the 56° of latitude. The present contention of Great Britain is understood to be that the line from the extremity of Prince of Wales island should enter the tortuous and narrow channel now known on the British admiralty and American charts as Pearse canal, and thence up Portland canal to the 56° of latitude, thus placing Wales, Pearse, and a few small islands in British territory. The second portion of the line in dispute is described in the treaty as follows: ‘From this last-mentioned point [the 56° above the head of Portland canal] the line of demarcation shall follow the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast as far as the point of intersection of the 141° of west longitude. . . . Whenever the summit of the mountains which extend in a direction parallel tothe coast . . . shall prove to be at the distance of more than 10 marine leagues from the ocean, the limit between the British possessions and the strip of coast which is to belong to Russia, as above mentioned, shall be formed by a line parallel to the sinuosities of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of 10 marine leagues therefrom.” This language of the treaty presupposes that there existed a defined mountain chain, to repeat its terms, “situated parallel to the coast” or “which extend in a direction parallel to the coast;”” but the surveys of the region made since the territory of Alaska was ceded to the United States have established the fact that there is no such defined chain or watershed within 10 marine leagues of the sinuosities of the coast except at two points, namely, White and Chilkoot passes; hence the United States claims that the boundary of the strip is placed 10 marine leagues from the coast at all points except at White and Chil- koot passes, and that the strip is an unbroken belt of territory on the mainland, following the sinuosities of the coast around the inlets of the sea. On the other hand, the British claim is that the line from the 56° runs directly to the coast and follows the mountains nearest to the outer shore line and crosses not less than ten or twelve arms of the sea or inlets, thus breaking the strip of mainland into as many different sections, and trans- ferring all the water of the bays and inlets to the British pos- sessions (see map No. 12.) Cea ae Lars GR TE ee a a ‘ y s RUSSE r we te ~b, 2 Ay . ye weg + 2 fe RI Limites des Lossessions Russes et Inglawes, d apres ta Res: de Pamplona Traits de 1828. M I. de la Reine Charlotte for. & fdgccumbe . Sitka > CT: LPN Seve M, Pecare gy) Si 3 eas a 6 oa 9 a ws oe pe Aaa de ais “i> : c ‘ lanyary, As | Mipp, Rade de Renneli. © ae Pits € Onrdova Nod, Mam Pes AP No. 4 RUSSIAN IMPERIAL MAP _ “Dressé par M. de Krusenstern, Coutre-Amiral publié par ordre de Sa Majesté Imperial. Petersbourg, 1827” % St MAP No. 5 BRITISH MAP, 1832 “By permission dedicated to the Hon’ble Hudson’s Bay Company. Containing the latest information which their documents furnish, by their obedient servant, J. Arrowsmith.’ London, 1832 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY » 439 The remaining article to be noted is the seventh, which pro-- vides “that for the space of ten years . . . the vessels of the two powers, or those belonging to their respective subjects, shall mutually be at liberty to frequent, without any hindrance whatever, all the inland seas, the gulfs, havens, and creeks on the coast mentioned in article 3 for the purposes of fishing and of trading with the natives.” I have already referred to the fact that the negotiations were broken off because the British plenipotentiary insisted that the lberty to frequent those “ in- land seas, gulfs, havens, and creeks” should be made perpetual, and that the negotiations were renewed upon the basis of the privilege granted in the Russo-American treaty of 1824, the lan- guage of article IV of which, as Secretary Canning informed Sir Charles Bagot,* was copied into the British treaty. This ten years’ privilege is inconsistent with any other interpretation of the treaty than the complete sovereignty of Russia over, not only a strip of territory on the mainland which follows around the sinuosities of the sea, but also of the waters of all bays or inlets extending from the ocean into the mainland. This is the more manifest when the subsequent history respecting the provision of article IV of the American and article VII of the British treaty is recalled. At the expiration of the term of ten years the Russian minister in Washington gave notice to the Government of the United States that the privilege had expired, and a notification to that effect was made in the public press of the United States.t Persistent efforts were made by the United States to have the privilege extended for another period of ten years, but it was firmly refused by Russia.f The British privi- lege was likewise terminated upon the expiration of the ten years mentioned, and this article of the treaty was never again revived. Having reviewed the negotiations preceding the treaty of 1825 and examined the provisions of that instrument now in dispute, I pass to a statement of facts since the celebration of the treaty, showing the views of the high contracting parties and those claiming under them as to the stipulations of that conven- tion. As soon after the treaty as the data could be compiled, to wit, in 1827, a map was published in St Petersburg, ‘‘ by order *1b., 434. Secretary Canning, in his instruction to Sir Stratford Canning, used this language: ‘*‘ Russia cannot mean to give to the United States of America what she withholds from us, nor to withhold from us anything that she has consented to give to the United States.” +Senate Ex. Doc. No. 1, Twenty-fifth Congress, third session, p. 24. t Ib., 69. 440 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY of His Imperial Majesty,” on which the boundary line of the Russian possessions on the continent of North America was drawn from the head of Portland channel, at a distance of ten marine leagues from tidewater, around the head of all the inlets to the 141° of longitude, and thence following that longitude to the Arctic ocean. Along this line on the map is inscribed the legend : “Timites des Possessions Russes et Anglaises, @apres la Traité de 1825” (see map No. 4). So far from this map exciting any protest or criticism its delineation was adopted and followed by the cartographers of His Britannic Majesty, of the government of Canada, and by all the map-makers of the world. John Arrowsmith, the most authoritative cartographer of London, whose map was used by the British negotiators of the treaty of 1825, published a map of the northwest coast in 1832, which states that it contains the latest information which the docu- ments of the Hudson’s Bay Company furnish. It will be seen that it exactly follows the line laid down by the Russian imperial map of 1827 (see map No. 5). Arrowsmith’s map was preceded, in 1831, by a map of the northern part of North America, prepared by Joseph Bouchette, deputy surveyor-general of the province of Lower Canada, and ‘published, as the act directs, by James Wyld, geographer to the King, London, May 2d, 1831.” It is ‘‘ with His Majesty’s most graciousand special permission most humbly and gratefully dedicated . : . to His Most Excellent Majesty King William IVth, . . . compiled from the latest and most approved astro- nomical observations, authorities, and recent surveys.” This map traces the: Russian boundary on the continent in con- formity to the Russian imperial map of 1827 (see map No. 6). And all later publications, either official or unofficial, of Canada followed the same course, as illustrative of which I repro- duce the map which bears the following title: *‘ Map of the northwest part of Canada, Indian territories, and Hudson’s Bay. Compiled and drawn by Thomas Devine, provincial land sur- veyor and draftsman. By order of the Hon. Joseph Cauchon, commissioner of Crown lands, Crown department, Toronto, March, 1857” (see map No. 7). So far as I have been able to examine, the map-makers of all foreign countries followed the boundary line drawn by Russia in 1827. This was notably the case with the French cartographers, who have held a high place in the profession for accuracy and authenticity. From the great number of publications, I have —- MAP No. 6 CANADIAN MAP OF 1831 “Compiled from the latest and most approved astronomical observations, authorities, and recent _ surveys . . . by Joseph Bouchette. Junr., Deputy Surveyor General of the Province of Lower Canada.” May 2, 1831. $37) BY MAP No. 7 CANADIAN MAP OF 1857 “Compiled and drawn by Thos. Devine, Provincial Land Surveyor and Draftsman. By order of Hon. Joseph Cauchon, Commissioner of Crown Lands, Crown Department, Toronto, March, 1857” THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 445 selected one which appeared in 1844, first, because it was based upon the actual observations of a voyage of exploration made by a French official, and, second, because it was “‘ published by order of the King, under the auspicesof . . . the president of the council of ministers and of the minister of foreign affairs.” It will be seen that on this map is inscribed the line of the “ Traité entre la Russie et V Angleterre du 28 Fevrier, 1825,” as in- dicated on the Russian imperial map (see map No. 8). No map accompanied the treaty of 1867 between Russia and the United States for the cession of Alaska, but immediately after it was signed the Secretary of State caused a map to be eompiled and published to indicate the territory acquired by that convention, and it delineates the strip of territory on the mainland just asit had been claimed by Russia forty years before (see map No. 9). A multitude of maps might be reproduced to show that, with the exception of certain maps published in British Columbia in and after 1884, all such publications, whether emanating from British and Canadian or from disinterested foreign sources, from the time the treaty of 1825 became known up to the meet- ing of the Joint High Commission in 1898, were of the same char- acter as those already described and reproduced; but I will limit myself to one of the most recent. This was published in the Scottish Geographical Magazine,, Kdinburgh, the July number, 1898, to accompany an article entitled “ The Yukon District, by Wm. Ogilvie, astronomer and.land surveyor.” This map, it will be seen, lays down the line according to the Amer- ican claim (see map No. 10). It is not cited to establish any authoritative fact, but simply to show that even after the Joint High Commission had been agreed upon the best informed British cartographers had not become aware of any conflicting claim. Soon after the expiration of the ten years’ privilege enjoyed by British vessels and traders to visit ‘the inland seas, the gulfs, havens, and creeks” enclosed by the Russian strip on the mainland, an important event occurred which is decisive of the interpretation of the treaty given to it by the two nations who were the contracting parties. I have referred to the two competing trading companies in whose interest the negotiations were carried on and for whose benefit, mainly, the treaty was made. The Russian American Company, which was the virtual government of the territory of Russian America, is described 444 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY by Bancroft in his * History of Alaska ” as a “ powerful monop- oly, firmly established in the favor of the imperial government, many nobles of high rank and several members of the royal family being among its shareholders.” The correspondence shows that the Russian negotiators were chiefly concerned to so frame the treaty as to meet the wishes of the representatives of this company, which was in intimate conference with them at St Petersburg. The Hudson’s Bay Company is so conspicuous a part of the history of British North America that I need hardly refer to its part in the government and development of that vast region of our continent. At the date of the negotiations it had recently absorbed its rival, the Northwest Company, and it was at the height of its power and influence. It was the only representative of British authority in all the region west and north of the proy- ince of Ontario at that date and for several years after the middle of the present century. The British negotiators of the treaty of 1825 were influenced almost entirely in their negotiations by the views and interests of this company. Its representatives were in constant communication with Secretary Canning by personal interviews and by letters; the boundary line which they recommended was accepted and urged by the British gov- ernment; and when negotiations were broken off they were not resumed till this company was heard from, and its views were again adopted and pressed.* It is safe to assert that no one understood so well as the officials of these two companies the territorial rights of their respective governments and subjects secured by the treaty. A British vessel in the service of the Hudson’s Bay Company, the Dryad, reached the Russian post of Fort Wrangell, destined, as it was alleged, for the British territory in the interior, at the headwaters of the Stikine river. The vessel was detained and not allowed to proceed on its voyage. The British government protested to the Russian government and presented to it a large claim for damages. The Russian government, being hard pressed by the British minister, urged the Russian American Company to come to some settlement with the Hudson’s Bay Company, and thereupon the governor of the latter, and one of the direct- ors of the former company, with the express authorization of the two governments, met at Hamburg in 1839. Asa result of their conferences the Russian American Company agreed to lease * Fur Seal Arbitration Papers, vol. iv, pp. 380, 383, 387, 417, 419, 421, 431. 199 | | ADS) 435 136° Bailie nau Mile Ulf - _Ougalalamioe'® # aes fee im af bees ‘ Lapeyrou POLOOO? Vee MN Bk eS iy " fea Soa Ser ee Be de fale S / x P< NOT on Pe + fe F Walicensa 3 R ‘ ee hie fe ‘ag my, ne j “ | re ee ate gh at bh pe oO ag ee 4 yak : ee ” a > te re ae - He ber ; > ok = : : flav. Por S aie of oe : hore 4 a - er eee i V7, Re, A : £ e , ye = Mt” Cay He Low Flew ie meet ee wt Alte, yf 10 ey fe ? 3 es * TOU ‘6 pt eae pa ———_—_ MAP No. 8 FRENCH MAP, 1844 . Publié par ordre du Roi, sous les Auspices de M. le President de Conseil des Ministres et de M. le ’ Ministre des Affaires Etrangéres, Paris, 1844” puo 9) a gf oOo x +3) A mg 48 BOD “SQ Oya 9% 94 eq JO yueuNy Iv «LOST ‘Ay ‘moWTpe doq oy} 10} pattduroy INGWLYLY LOST SAVIN 6 ON dVYW ’ Z Yeon a! "s909e4 did ALVLs $s DENNOU oa ISSUYY Aq po poo & “il IO \y my a Ta} 8} Sur TTS MOY b> bh) Up 0, THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 447 to the Hudson’s Bay Company the strip of territory on the main- land and “all the bays, inlets, estuaries, rivers, or lakes in that line of coast” secured to Russia under the treaty, in considera- tion of the abandonment or satisfaction of the claim for damages on account of the Dryad, and also of an annual payment by the Hudson’s Bay Company.* This lease was approved by both the Russian and British governments, and in accordance with its terms the Hudson’s Bay Company entered upon and occupied the strip of territory, and at the expiration of the term of years stated the lease was, with the approval of the two governments, extended for another like term, and afterwards prolonged to about 1865. The plenipotentiary on behalf of Great Britain and the Hud- son’s Bay Company who negotiated and signed this lease was Sir George Simpson, governor of the Hudson’s Bay Company, who had assumed that office five years before the treaty of 1825. He was fully conversant with the negotiations, and, as he testified before the Parliamentary committee, was familiar with the leased strip of territory, having traveled over it in the course of his duties as governor. The language of the lease is sufficiently ex- plicit as to the particular territory and waters to which it applied, but we have in addition an authoritative ocular proof of what land and water this lease embraced. In 1857 a select committee of the House of Commons of the British Parliament was appointed ‘ to consider the state of those British possessions in North America which are under the admin- istration of the Hudson’s Bay Company, or over which they possess a license to trade.” t+ Among the members of this com- * The following is a copy of article I of the lease: “Articte I. It is agreed that the Russian American Company, having the sanction of the Russian government to that effect, shall cede or lease to the Hudson’s Bay Com- pany fora term of ten years, commencing from the Ist of June, 1840, for commercial purposes, thé coast (exclusive of the islands) and the interior country belonging to His Majesty the Emperor of Russia, situated between Cape Spencer, forming the northwest headland of the entrance of Cross sound and latitude 54° 40’ or thereabouts, say the whole mainland coast and interior country belonging to Russia, together with the free navigation and trade of the waters of that coast and interior country situated to the southward and eastward of a supposed line to be drawn from the said Cape Spencer to Mount Fairweather, with the sole and entire trade or commerce thereof, and that the Russian American Company shall abandon all and every station and trad- ing establishment they now occupy on that coast, and in the interior country already deseribed, and shall not form any station or trading establishment during the said term of ten years, nor send their officers, servants, vessels, or craft ofany description for the purposes of trade into any of the bays, inlets, estuaries, rivers, or lakes in that line of coast and in that interior country.’ (Russian archives, Department of State.) + Report from the Select Committee on the Hudson’s Bay Company, ete. Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed 31 July and 11 August, 1857, p. 2. 132 tine C we ZAHN : & Re ea lly aber N OT ad WM Wig J Si E 2 nchan Village z% KZ 4. Ze 8 Trice ¥” Cty ird StFonk, Th : Deg Sai . i Reise ? " AS 4 Se 2 Dixon Entrance bE Nee ae a j i| a \cethand le 7 cou WSS PMS” aap bere Meat 4 MAP No. 10 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE MAP, 1898 “Map of western part of the Dominion of Canada, to accompany a paper by Wm. Ogilvie. Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1898” Pet THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 449 mittee are found the names of Lord John Russell, Lord Stanley, Mr Roebuck, and Mr Gladstone. Another member was Mr Ellice, a native of Canada and a director of the Hudson’s Bay Company. There was also in attendance on the sessions of the committee, as a representative of the government of Canada, Chief Justice Draper, of Canada. Sir George Simpson was examined before this committee and was questioned in detail respecting the lease, and his testimony confirms the foregoing statement. To explain and accompany his testimony, he exhibited to the committee a map of the territory in question, and said: ‘‘ There is a margin of coast, marked yellow on the map, from 54° 40’ up to Cross sound which we have rented from the Russian American Com- pany for a term of years”;* and he proceeded at some length to explain the territory and the reasons for the lease. No question was raised by any member of the committee, or by the representative of Canada, as to the validity of the lease or to the correctness of the map, which was printed as a part of the report submitted to Parliament. An examination of this map will show that the leased strip of territory is continuous, and is carried around all the inlets and interior waters, in con- formity with the present claim of the United States (see map No. 11). This lease was followed by another act on the part of the two governments confirming their approval of the transac- tion. During the Crimean war, at the request of the two com- panies, the territory embraced in the lease was, by order of both the British and Russian governments, exempt from the opera- * Report, ete., p. 1391. Extract from Simpson’s testimony : ** 1026. Besides your own territory, I think you administer a portion of the territory which belongs to Russia, under some arrangement with the Russian Company? There is a margin of coast, marked yellow on the map, from 54° 40’ up to Cross sound which we have rented from the Russian American Company for a term of years. “1027. Is that the whole of that strip? The strip goes to Mount St. Elias. 1028. Where does it begin? Near Fort Simpson, in latitude 54; it runs up to Mount St. Elias, which is farther north. “1029. Is it the whole of that strip which is included between the British territory and the sea? We have only rented the part between Fort Simpson and Cross sound. 1030. What is the date of that arrangement? That arrangement, I think, was en- tered into about 1839. “1031. What are the terms upon which it was made? Do you pay arent for that land? The British territory runs along inland from the coast about 30 miles ; the Rus- sian territory runs along the coast; we have the rightof navigation through the rivers to hunt the interior country. A misunderstanding existed upon that point in the first instance; we were about to establish a post upon one of the rivers, which led to very serious difficulties between the Russian American Company and ourselves. We hada long correspondence, and to guard against the recurrence of these difficulties it was agreed that we should lease this margin of coast and pay them arent. The rent was, in the first instance, in otters. I think we gave 2,000 otters a year; itis now converted into money. We give, I think, 1,500 a year.” 450 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY tions of the war. This fact is shown by the Alaska archives and by the testimony of Sir George Simpson before the Parliament- ary committee.* About the time of the cession of Alaska to the United States gold was discovered in the Cassiar region of British Columbia, reached through the Stikine river, and the passage of miners made it desirable to have the eastern boundary of the strip where it crosses that river more accurately marked, and this led to a movement, in 1873-’4, on the part of the British and United States governments, for a joint survey of the boundary. Ina conference at Washington, February 15, 1878, between Secretary Fish and the British minister, Sir Edward Thornton, it was stated by Mr Fish that a survey of the entire boundary, as esti- mated by the engineers, would cost, for the United States alone about $1,500,000, and it was suggested that it would be found sufficient to fix the boundary at certain determined points, and there were named the head of Portland canal, “the point where the boundary line crosses the Rivers Skoot, Stakine, Taku, Isel- cat, and Chilkaht, Mount St. Elias,” ete. Thelegislative assembly of British Columbia, in petitioning the Canadian government for a survey, refers to it as “‘ the boundary of the 30-mile belt of American territory.” Sir Edward Thornton communicated. to the Foreign Office the result of his conference with Secretary Fish, and it was then submitted through the Colonial Office to the Canadian government, by whom it was referred to the surveyor general, Dennis, who reported favorably upon the plan. He restated the points to be determined and enumerates the rivers “Skoot, Stakine, Taku, Iselcat, and Chilkaht,’’ and says that in his opinion “it is unnecessary at present (and it may be for all time) to incur the expense” of any other survey than that named. It was thereupon determined that such a joint survey should be made, the total cost of which the British boundary commissioner, Major Cameron, estimated might reach $2,230.000. The plan was not at that time carried into execution because of * Report, etc,, p. 140: “1738. During the late war which existed between Russia and England, I believe that some arrangement was made between you and the Russians by which you agreed not to molest one another? Yes; such an arrangement was made. “1739. By the two companies? Yes; and government confirmed the arrangement. “1740, You agreed that on neither side should there be any molestation or interfer- ence with the trade of the different parties? Yes. “1741. And I believe that that was strictly observed during the whole war? Yes. “1742. Mr. Bell, which government confirmed the arrangement, the, Russian or the English, or both? Both governments.” THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 451 the failure of the United States Congress to vote the appropria- tion.* This fact is cited to show that in 1872-’8 the British and Canadian officials understood that the eastern boundary of the strip crossed the rivers named at some point above their mouths, which are at the head of inlets, including Lynn canal, and that the boundary could not, therefore, cross any of these inlets. In 1876 a Canadian official was conducting one Peter Martin, charged with some offense, from Canadian territory across the strip of American territory traversed by the Stikine river. Hay- ing camped for the night at a point 13 miles above the mouth of the river, Martin, in an attempt to escape, committed an assault on the officer, for which, on his arrival at Victoria, B. C., he was tried and condemned to imprisonment. Martin complained to the consul that he was an American citizen, and the Secretary of State presented the case to the British government. A sur- veyor was dispatched by the Canadian government to the Stikine river to locate the exact spot of the assault, which he reported to be in United States territory under the treaty of 1825. There- upon the Canadian Privy Council, following the indication of the British Foreign Office, decided that as the offense for which Martin was convicted was committed in American territory, he must be released, and he was accordingly set at liberty. A further indication of the views of the British government respecting the boundary line of the strip is found in the action of the two governments in agreeing upon a provisional line on the Stikine riverin 1878. The Canadian and American customs outposts on that river came in conflict in the vicinity of a point approximately 30 miles in a straight line from its mouth, and caused considerable friction. The Canadian government dis- patched a surveyor on its own account to survey the river and fix a boundary line, he having been supplied with the text of articles 5 and 4 of the treaty of 1825. He made his report, and claimed to have found a range of mountains filling the require- ments of the treaty at a point which crossed the river about 25 miles above its mouth, or about 20 miles ina straight line from the coast. A copy of this report and accompanying map were sent through the British Foreign Office to the minister at Wash- ington, by whom it was submitted to the Secretary of State, with a view to securing his acceptance of this boundary, and Secretary * Canadian Sessional Papers No. 125, vol. xi, pp. 11, 21, 28, 36. + Canadian Sessional Papers cited, pp. 57, 59, 143, 152, 155. U. S. Diplomatie Corre- spondence, 1877, pp. 268, 271. 452 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY EKvarts consented to accept it as a provisional line, without preju- dice to the rights of the parties when the permanent boundary came to be fixed.* The foregoing citations show that whenever the British govern- ment or those holding interests under it have had occasion to express their views as to the strip of territory secured to Russia under the treaty of 1825 they have made it plain that they re- garded it as an unbroken strip on the mainland following around the inlets of the sea, and that the interior waters enclosed in such strip were Russian or American territorial waters. When, in 1822, the Duke of Wellington was about to depart as the British plenipotentiary to the International Congress of Verona, he carried with him an instruction from Secretary Can- ning to bring the protest of his government against the ukase of 1821 to the attention of the Russian plenipotentiaries at that congress. After obtaining the opinion of the great KEnglish lawyer, Lord Stowell, he wrote : ‘““ Enlightened statesmen and jurists have long held as insignificant all titles of territory that are not founded on actual occupation, and that title is, in the opinion of the most esteemed writers on public law, to be established by practical use.” There is no claim or pretense that the British authorities or subjects ever occupied any of the territory now in dispute ex- cept under the lease cited, or ever exercised or attempted to exercise any acts of sovereignty over the strip or waters enclosed by it. On the other hand, let us examine the acts of occupation and sovereignty exercised by Russia and the United States. First, we have seen that. very soon after the treaty of 1825 the Russian government published a map claiming the strip of ter- ritory and all the interior waters of the sea enclosed by it. Second, the Russian American Company established forts and trading posts within the strip. Third, by virtue of the lease cited, which was a recognized assertion of its sovereignty, it temporarily transferred these forts and posts to the British com- pany. Fourth, at the termination of the extended lease it re- entered and took possession and remained in possession till the cession of Alaska to the United States. Fifth, it received the allegiance of the native Indians inhabiting the strip, and exer- cised control and supervision over them. Sixth, immediately after the cession in 1867 the Department of State of the United *U.S. Foreign Relations, 1878, pp. 339, 346. + Fur Seal Papers, ete., vol. 4, p. 388. THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 455 States likewise caused a map to be published, setting forth the bounds of Alaska in accordance with the treaty of 1825, and the same claim as to the strip was thereon made as by Russia in its map of 1827. Seventh, upon the transfer of Alaska a portion of the United States army was dispatched to occupy the terri- tory and a detachment was stationed for some time on this strip of the mainland. Highth, since the cession post-offices and post-routes have been established and maintained at various points on the strip. Ninth, custom-houses have likewise been established and duties collected therein. Tenth, government and mission schools have been maintained, and notably so, for near twenty years, at the head of Lynn canal. Eleventh, the revenue vessels of the United States have continuously since the date of the cession patrolled the interior waters surrounded by the strip to enforce the revenue and other laws of the United States. Twelfth, the naval and revenue vessels of the United States have for the same period exercised acts of sovereignty over the Indian tribes inhabiting the strip, especially about the head of Lynn canal, and the latter have yielded unquestioned allegiance to the United States. Thirteenth, in the Census of 1880 and 1890 all the Indian tribes inhabiting the strip were included in the population of the United States and so pub- lished in the official reports. Fourteenth, the territorial gov- ernment of Alaska has exercised various and repeated acts of sovereignty over the strip and interior waters enclosed by it, and the writs of the United States courts have run throughout its whole extent. Fifteenth, under the territorial claim of the United States and the protection of the government, citizens of the United States have entered and occupied the strip, built cities and towns, and established industrial enterprises thereon. All the foregoing acts have taken place without a single protest or complaint on the part of the British or Canadian governments, except that some friction has occurred between the customs out- posts as to the exact demarcation of the eastern line of the strip. For the first time a statement was presented by the British gov- ernment to the Government of the United States on the Ist of August, 1898, developing the fact that a difference of views ex- isted respecting the provisions of the treaty of 1825 relating to the strip of territory and the waters embraced by it. Two months previous an agreement had been reached between the two gov- ernments for the appointment of a joint commission for the ad- justment of pending questions of difference between the United MAP OF SOU TWAS Ae RIN GAME Acer J 15292 ae : : Well C. Fairweather Mtfairweathere N \ .. Cape Spencer 4 oe | Bourndauy-y elatrned by Tinityd States , Canada Statute Miles. C Mitzinr— C hac Dixon Entra" ce | i M Y / fy TE Gm Prepared in the Office oF the US. Coast au Geodetic Survey, Treasury Departrrert MAP No. 12 BOUNDARY LINES OF AMERICAN AND BRITISH CLAIMS 4 wae n a® a THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY 45 Or States and Canada. Soon after the commission met at Quebec on August 23, 1898,1t was made known for the first time that the British government would claim that the boundary line should run from the extremity of Prince of Wales island, along the passage known on modern maps as Pearse canal, to the head of Portland canal, thence directly to the coast, and follow the nearest mountains to the coast, crossing all the inlets of the sea, up to Mount St Elias. Such a line would give the United States astrip of an average width of less than five miles, broken at short intervals by the arms of the sea, and would transfer the greater portion of all the inlets to British territory (seemap No.12). As the Canadian government, with the consent of the British Foreign Office, has made public the protocol or official journal of the Joint High Commission, showing the result of its deliberations on the boundary,* I violate no diplomatic propriety in referring to these facts. The protocol shows that, after sessions of several months, the commissioners were unable to agree. In a failure of concur- rence as to the language of the treaty of 1825, one of the two meth- ods of adjustment was proposed by the British commissioners. The first was a conventional boundary, by which Canada should receive, by cession or perpetual grant, Pyramid harbor, on Lynn eanal, and a strip of land connecting it with Canadian territory to the northwest, and the remaining boundary line to be drawn in the main conformable to the contention of the United States. The American commissioners, not being prepared to accept this proposition, the alternative was submitted by the British com- missioners of an arbitration of the whole territory in dispute, in conformity with the terms of the Venezuelan arbitration, and in response to an inquiry from their American colleagues whether the selection of an umpire from the American continent would be considered, the British commissioners replied that they would regard such a selection as most objectionable. The American commissioners declined the British plan of arbitration, and stated that there was no analogy between the present controversy and the Venezuelan dispute; that in the latter case the occupation of the territory in question had from the beginning been followed by the constant and repeated pro- tests and objections of Venezuela, and the controversy was one of long standing; but that in the case of the Alaskan territory * Pourth session, &8th Parliament, 62 Victoria, 1899. Protocol No. LXIII of the Joint High Commission, Washington, respecting the boundary between Alaska and Canada. Printed by order of Parliament, Ottawa, 1899. 456 THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY there had been a peaceful and undisputed occupation and exer- cise of sovereignty for more than seventy years, and that no question respecting this occupation and sovereignty had been raised by the British government until the present commission had been created. They challenged their British colleagues to cite a single instance in history where a subject attended with such circumstances had been submitted to arbitration, and in declining the British proposition they proposed the plan of set- tlement which had been framed by Secretary Olney and Sir Julian Pauncefote in 1897. The treaty which these two distin- euished statesmen framed so carefully marked the most ad- vanced stage yet attained for the peaceful settlement of inter- national questions not susceptible of adjustment by diplomatic negotiation. In that convention, drafted with a view to “ con- secrating by treaty the principle of international arbitration,” they provided that all such questions should be submitted to arbitrators and an umpire, except territorial claims. They recognized that territorial questions affected so vitally the soy- ereignty and honor of nations that as to them a different method was necessary, and they provided that these should be sub- mitted to a tribunal of three judges of the highest standing in each country, and that a binding decision could only be ren- dered by a vote of five of the six judges.* The American commissioners embodied this plan in their proposition for the settlement of the Alaskan boundary dispute, with the modifica- tion that a binding decision might be rendered by four of the Six judges. This proposition was rejected by the British commissioners, and, no other plan being brought forward, the Joint High Com- mission adjourned with the understanding that the boundary question should be referred back to the two governments for further diplomatic negotiations. * U.S. Diplomatie Correspondence, 1896, art. vi of treaty, p. 239. FIFEMON A YUKON GwAle By ALFRED PEARCE Dennis, Ph. D. (Continued from the October number) On Saturday, April 9, 42 days after our departure from south- ern British Columbia, actual work was begun on the railway survey. The experience of snow-shoeing 10 or 12 miles, with a day’s work thrown in between, was trying at first. Any one who has worked on snow-shoes can estimate the labor of moving that distance over “rotten” snow. The crust yields at every plunge, and many pounds of snow pour in upon the shoes like loose gravel. The dead weight must be lifted when the shoe is withdrawn above the crust for the next step. The strain tells severely upon the back and the adductor muscles of the lower limbs. About 5 p.m. actual work on the line ordinarily ceased, but the return to camp would not infrequently require as much 66 31 HALT FOR FORAGE 457 458 LIFE ON A YUKON TRAIL as three hours. On one of these outings it happened that the line lay along a sunny slope of the mountain. Every one’s moc- easined feet got thoroughly soaked. After leaving this genial spot the wet moccasins became frozen. The back-chainman and the rodman were the first to exhibit signs of human weakness. They halted, sat down on a log, and wept with pain and vex- ation. A fire was kindled and the tearful rodman and weeping back-chainman were thawed out. This circumstance was re- garded as a singularly felicitous one during the remainder of our stay in the wilderness from the standpoint of such men as Dan the axman, whose sense of humor, it seems, had been exquisitely developed. There was always a period of reviving spirits after the mid- day lunches of bacon and beans which “ Calgary ” carried on the line in his old lard can; but after four or five hours more of work the men would drag into camp about dark, one at a time, tired and bedraggled. So the days went by, one much like another. Toward the first of May it was possible to leave the cumbersome snow-shoes in camp. Plunging through the rapidly sinking snow with low rubber shoes and “ Dutch socks” was much less fatiguing, although it involved wet garments to the knees. Our survey line was completed to the Big Tahltan. We ascended this valley to the source of the stream in the second divide. Here, at an altitude of about 2,600 feet, we crossed the frozen sur- face of two beautiful lakes—Upper and Lower Coketsie. Cross- ing the summit, the general direction of the watercourses lay to the northwest. Launching on the Doo-de-don-Tooya one might float to the Inklin, and thence down the Taku to its mouth near Juneau, Alaska. Indians who professed to be familiar with the voyage down the Taku to the coast lived in forlorn hovels near the Shesley river. They were not of the Tahltan tribe and had no dealings with them. All the young bucks of the settlement were off on a caribou chase. A withered old man, who was crouching over some dying embers in his wickiup with some erimy Klooches, gave us to understand that the winter had been a hard one, and that salmon were expected soon in the Shesley. These Shesley Indians are anthropologically of a Mongolian type, with low foreheads, flat noses, and brachycephalic skulls. The principal occupation of the born-to-drudgery women is to col- lect fuel for the fires which smoulder in the wretchedly damp and chilly wickiups. No one could complain that laundry work was a burden in such a settlement. Like the inhabitants of a Thlingit LIFE ON A YUKON TRAIL 459 rancheria, these people seem to have turned the old Greek and Roman religion of external cleanliness into asin. But if the outward and visible signs of sanctity can ever take the form of uncleanness, certainly the “ odor of sanctity ” can never again be considered a mere figure of speech. Three out of five of these miserable creatures seemed to suffer from lung or throat diseases. The Stikine opened on May 7, two weeks earlier than usual, and a week later our mail, which had arrived in Glenora by steam- boat, was sent in to us by a special messenger of the company. CAMP ON TESLIN TRAIL Most of the letters and papers were two months old. It was noticeable that few of the men received any letters or evinced any interest in the arrival of the mail. One man in the party admitted that he had not written to any of his home people in the East for nine years, and others had allowed several years to pass without writing. By May 20, small, light-laden parties were slowly pushing along the trail toward Teslin lake, with their entire outfits stowed upon their dogs’ backs and upon their own. ‘They reported the daily 460 LIFE ON A YUKON TRAIL arrival of steamers at Glenora, and told of the vast accumulation of freight,and of the congestion of Klondikers at that point. Many of these men, it seemed, had failed in their attempt to reach Glenora over theice. They had been forced to camp on the river bank until the ice broke up. In this situation, their horses, on which they had relied on packing their outfits to Teslin, had per- ished. On arrival in Glenora by steamer the men had either sacrificed their provisions and were pushing into the Yukon with WHEELBARROW WITH LOAD OF 300 POUNDS only a few months’ stores, or else were sitting idly by their out- fits on the banks of the Stikine. One swarthy frontiersman was taking in 3850 pounds, distrib- uted on the backs of himself, his partner, his dog, and his squaw. | Others, with rude wheelbarrows, were making five or six miles per day with a load of 250 pounds. Usually a well-trained dog tugged indefatigably in the traces ahead. The narrowness of the pathway absolutely excluded any ordinary two-wheeled ve- hicle from the trail. The exigencies of the situation brought out some remarkable one-wheeled concerns. The ‘“‘ go-devils,” LIFE ON A YUKON TRAIL 461 ONLY TWO-WHEELED VEHICLE SEEN ON TESLIN TRAIL to use the technical name of these vehicles, were fashioned in the wilderness, with only an ax and whipsaw as instruments of construction. Thongs of buckskin bound the parts together, nails being reserved for future use in boat-building. Where the center of gravity of these “ go-devils” was low, two men could balance a load of 500 or 600 pounds in the roughest places. Men now appeared whose faces were familiar. They were men whom we had passed on the river more than three months before. These belated wayfarers had an exceedingly rough ap- pearance. The venture seemed to have particularly attracted the “ bronze beards” and “ barbarossas.” ¢, ° ) ¢, °, ° > ty tre Wi MMU Zo Liz Zs “Yy 1 iy Yy bi bi CA Fo Ho %o Me Mesto cMectectcete ecto ete ste ste ste c%e ste ste ste Gecte ste stot fe Moe® A LSM PO POV OU OOO CO > VPPOU PV GOP OF OF OF OF OF OF OF OF O% OF, gO MPH PU OVOP OVO OTe “Uf iif) py = Uj; Zz AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... The paper used is FINE PLATE PAPER, and every typographical de- Wy Se Me Le iy bi Soesoeg Vib YY, Ze fe MM You can get a copy by.writing to S. F. B. MORSE, General Passenger Agent, 44%, oa8eete4: \7 O roe Vi *, .% Cae 2, 48, Santa ds Wiis O ZA Southern Pacific, Vj) New Orleans, soto +, Yi and sending 10 cts. to defray postage, tail is artistic. It is a story of what Po s% 0%, oXaKaX VM, four people saw on just such a trip as \7 ° > Li te tt \? e My Cs (a> Uj; 2, San you would like to make. .......- \7 > Wy, N %% % p Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PERSONALLY CONDUCTED Burlington TOURIST PARTIES TO m™| California Leave cHIcAGO every Weanestey COQMPOrtable and Inexpensive Leave ST. LOUIS every Wednesday SELECT PARTIES leave Boston every Tuesday via Niagara Falls and Chicago, joining at Denver a similar party, which leaves St. Louis every Wednesday. From Denver the route is over the Scenic Denver and Rio Grande Railway, and through Salt Lake City. Pullman Tourist Sleeping Cars of a new pattern are used. They are thoroughly com- fortable and exquisitely clean, fitted with double windows, high-back seats, carpets, spacious toilet-rooms, and the same character of bedding found in Palace Cars. They are well heated and brilliantly lighted with Pintsch gas. Outside they are of the regu- lation Pullman color, with wide vestibules of steel and beveled plate glass. Beautifully illustrated books on California and Colorado, with maps, train schedules and com- plete information can be had from any of the following Burlington Route agents: E. J. SWORDS W. J. O’MEARA H. E. HELLER 379 Broadway 306 Washington Street 632 Chestnut Street NEW YORK CITY BOSTON, MASS. PHILADELPHIA, PA. F, E. BELL Cc. D. HAGERMAN J. G. DELAPLAINE 211 Clark Street 703 Park Building Broadway and Olive Streets CHICAGO, ILL. PITTSBURG, PA. ST. LOUIS, MO. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE RSS Ct tt SS Shortest Line. | St. Paul and Minneapolis : and the N onthiwest | CHICAGO NN IN NN A mm N r= RN EN Ee a ae a eee | i “I ‘¢ Maple Leaf Route ’’ For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to F. H. LORD, Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, CHICAGO. a gy gen, aS" SEEN EEE OEE ENE i n,m, I as - A - EE EB DO SAS ¢ » RAILWAY = | Sn se rl Y ~~~ =a Os SSN KARE BA AAAAVAUAVAVAVAVAVAVAVAV AV AVA AVA VA A VITAL POINT —==™mE—E A ‘TYPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM RRARDE ae IMPROVEMENT THE O2DER OF THE AG °-.°’ MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON= STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. ‘cH Che Simith.. Premier. Cypewriters Superior on This Pcint as Well as on All Others. tn ae ras aE Se The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. DDADDDEDEDARARDARRRRDR DARE RRRRDE Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 619 Eleventh Street. DLW Ww wLwwUwbwbbwbwwwiwuw Or DERRARDDDRADRRRRDRDDRAAAA Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOUTHERN RAILWAY GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM, TO ALL POINTS SOUTH, SOUTHEAST, AND SOUTHWEST. Through Pullman Drawing Room Sleeping Cars from New York and Washington to aN ew Orleans, Memphis, Tampa, Jacksonville, Augusta, and intermediate points—First-class Day Coaches—Dining Car Service. Fast Trains for the SOUTH leave Washington Daily at 11.15 A. M., 9.20 P. M.,and 10.45 P. M. Through Tourist car on the 11.15 A. M. Train every Tuesday and Friday for Texas, Arizona, and California points, without change. Direct line to the Summer Resorts in Virginia and the Carolinas and the Winter Resorts of Florida, Gulf Coast, Texas, Mexico, and California. Direct Through Car Line to and from Asheville, Hot Springs, and other Western North Carolina points—'' THE LAND OF THE SKY.” For Map Folders, Summer Homes Guide Book and Book on ‘ASHEVILLE AND THEREABOUTS ” write to— A. S. THWEHATT, Hastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. Y. J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 E. Baltimore Street, Baltimcre, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, Duce W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. CoA. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent, WASHINGTON, D.C. The Mutual Life Insurance Co. OF NEW YORK, RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Is the Largest Insurance Company in the World. The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life Has a Larger Premium Income - - - ($39,000,000) More Insurance in Force - - - - - ($918,000,000) A Greater Amount of Assets - - . - ($235,000,000) A Larger Annual Interest Income - - - ($9,000,000) Writes More New Business’~ - - - - ($186,000,000) And Pays More to Policy-holders - - ($25,000,000 in 1896) THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. It has paid to Policy-holders since | its organization, in 1843, { zi - $437,005,195.29 ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer, ISAAC F, LLOYD, Second Vice-President, EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. WILLIAM J. EASTON. Secretary. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. ORGANIZED APRIL, 1882. INCORPORATED JANUARY, 1897. OFFICERS FOR 1899. President: Hon. JAMES WILSON, Secretary of Agriculture. First Vice-Pres.: Dr B. E. FERNOW. Vice-Pres. for Distract of Columbia: GEORGE W. MCLANAHAN. Corresponding Sec’y: F. H. NEWELL. Recording Secretaryand Treasurer: GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY. The object of this Association is to promote: 1. A more rational and conservative treatment of the forest resources of this continent. 2. The advancement of educational, legislative, and other measures tending to promote this object. 3. The diffusion of knowledge regarding the conservation, management, and renewal of forests, the methods of reforestation of waste lands, the proper utilization of forest products, the plant- ing of trees for ornament, and cognate subjects of arboriculture. Owners of timber and woodlands are particularly invited to join the Association, as well as are all persons who are in sympathy with the objects herein set forth. Life Membership, $50. Annual Membership, $2.00. i H E FO R EST E R: : THE AMERICAN "FORESTRY. ASSOCIATION. A monthly, magazine devoted to ARBORICULTURE and FORESTRY, the care and use of forests and forest trees, and related subjects. Subscriptions, $1.00 a Year. (Furnished gratis to members of the Association.) Address all communications to Corcoran de eee ne D. C. HENRY ROMEIKE’S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS, 110 Fifth Avenue, New York, Reads every paper of importance published in the United States, and through its European agencies in London, Paris, Berlin, and Vienna every paper of importance published in Europe and the British Colonies. One subscription on any given sub- ject will bring notices from the United States, and if desired also from the Eyropean papers. Write for terms. WOODWARD & LOTHROP invite attention to their selections and importations in desirable merchandise for the present season, comprising in part Paris and London Millinery, Silks, Velvets, High-class Dress Goods, Ready-to-Wear Outer Garments for Women, Girls and Boys, Hand-made Paris Lingerie, Corsets, Infants’ Outfittings, Hosiery, Laces, Ribbons, Em- broideries, Linens, Upholstery Goods, Books, Stationery, Card Engraving; also Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Novelties in Leather and Fancy Goods, Sterling Silver Articles, Lamps, Clocks, Bronzes, etc., for Wedding Gifts.... {0th, 11th and F Streets, Washington, D. C. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Appleton’s Geographical Series. Edited by H. J]. MACKINDER, M. A., Student of Christ Church, Reader in Geography in the University of Oxford, Principal of Reading College, The series will consist of twelve volumes, each being an essay descriptive of a great natural region, its marked physical features, and the life of its people. Together the volumes will give a complete account of the world, more especially as the field of human activity. The series is intended for reading rather than for reference, and will stand removed on the one hand from the monumental work of Reclus, and on the other from the ordinary text-book, gazetteer, and compendium. Each volume is to be illustrated by many maps printed in colors and by diagrams in the text, and it will be a distinguishing characteristic of the Series that both maps and diagrams will be drawn so that each of them shall convey some salient idea, and that together they shall constitute a clear epitome of the writer’s argument. With a like object, the pictures also will be chosen so as to illustrate the text and not merely to decorate it. A de- tailed announcement of this important series will be presented later. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, NEW YORK. SSS) ae aa = MACMILLAN COMPANY For the LATEST TEXT-BOOKS and WORKS OF REFERENCE ON EVERY BRANCH OF SCIENCE BY LEADING AUTHORS. PROF. LL. H. BAILEY (Cornell University), PROF. NICHOLS anp HIS COLLEAGUES (De- works on Agriculture and Botany PROF. THORP (Mass. Inst. ‘Tech.), on /nzdus- trial Chemistry. $3.50 net. PROF.PACKARD (Brown Univy.), on Extomology. $4.50 net. PROFS. HARKNESS AND MERLEY (Bryn Mawr and Haverford), Functions. PROF. DAVENPORT (Harvard Experimental Morphology. II, $2.00. PROF. HENRY F. OSBORN (Columbia Univ.), Editor of the Columbia Brological Sertes. Theory of Analytic $3.00 nel. University ). Vol. I, $2.60; Vol partment of Physics,Cornell Univ.), in Physics, Electricity, etc. PROF. LAMBERT ‘(Lehigh University), on Dzf Jerential and Integral Calculus. $1.50 net. PROF. LACHMAN (Univ. of Oregon), The Spirit of Organic Chemistry. $1.50 net. PROF. TARR (Cornell Univ.), Physical Geogra- phy, Geology, etc. ‘PROF. COUREY (Tufts College), Dictionary of Chemical Solubilittes. These are a few only of the names represented in the Catalogue or the New Announcement List (sent free). THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Publishers, NEW YORK. F Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The Leading Scientific Journal of America A JOURNAL DEVOTED: TO THE ADVANCEMENT “OF SGIENGE PUBLISHED EVERY FRIDAY. | Annual Subscription, $5.00. Single Copies, 15 Cents. From its first appearance, in 1883, SCIENCE has maintained a repre-~ sentative position, and is regarded, both here and abroad, as the leading scientific journal of America. Its Editors and Contributors come from every institution in this country in which scientific work of importance is accomplished, including Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and California Universities, among others. EDITORIAL COMMITTEE. S. NEwcomp, Mathematics; R. S. WOODWARD, Mechanics; E.C. PICKERING, Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemis- try ; J. LE ConTE, Geology; W. M. Davis, Physiography ; HENRY F. OSBORN, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks, C. Hart MERRIAM, Zoology; S. H. SCUDDER, Entomology; C. E. BEsSEy, N. L. BRITTON, Botany; C. 5S. MINOT, Embryology, Histology; H. P. BowpitcuH, Physiology ; J. S. BILLINGS, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ; J. W. PowELL, Anthropology. NEW AND POPULAR SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. HARDIN The Liquefaction of Gases. Its Rise and Development. By WILLET L. HARDIN, Ph.D., University of Penn- sylvania. Cloth, 12mo, $1.50. A popular yet complete account of the methods used in the liquefaction of air, among other gases. GANONG The Teaching Botanist. A Manual of information upon Botanical In- struction, together with Outlines and Directious for a Coniprehensive Ele- mentary Course. By WILLIAM F. GANONG, Ph.D., Smith College. Cloth, 12mo, $1.10 vez. A manual of information upon botanical in- struction, with outlines and directions for an elementary course. ; MACBRIDE The Slime Moulds. A Handbook of North American Myxomycetes. By THOMAS H. MACBRIDE, Professor of Botany, University of Iowa. Cloth, 12mo. A list of all species described in North America, including Central America, with an- notations. ' SUTER Handbook of Optics. For Students of Ophthalmology. By WILLIAM N. SUTER, M. D., National University, Washington, D. C. Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 met. Aims to give a clearer insight into the phenom” ena of refraction as applied to ophthalmology than can be obtained from the usual text-books on Refraction of the eye. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Publishers, NEW YORK. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. Published by the Century Co. New Edition, prepared after a recent visit to the Islands since the American occupation. fee, AND PORTO RICO With the Other Islands of the West Indies. By ROBERT T. HILL, of the U.S. Geological Survey. Universally considered the best work on the subject that has appeared—‘‘ everything relating to the islands which would interest the reader.’’—Aoston Transcript. It covers all the islands, and the chapter on Porto Rico in the second large edition, now ready, has been revised and brought up to date after a visit to that island since the American occupation. The Atheneum (London) says: “It is seldom that such a thoroughly good book has come before us.’’ It covers the subjects of climate, soil, topography, geology, flora, products, industries, political conditions, etc., and it is a handbook which is invaluable ~ to the tourist. 500 pages, Beautifully Illustrated, Very Attractive Binding, $3.00. oO wa vMirPATG NING IN CUBE: By GEORGE KENNAN. A Study of the Campaign at Santiago by the Author of ‘Siberia and the Exile System,’’ etc. “Tn ‘Campaigning in Cuba’ Mr. Kennan writes of a subject with which he is per- fectly familiar, for he was present at the bloody battles he describes, and made careful observations of the conduct of the war. Mr. Kennan enjoys the benefits of extensive travel, splendid judgment, and an analytical mind. He does not hesitate to express his Own Opinion or to criticise high officials when he thinks they deserve censure, though the reader can readily see that he is frank and fair-minded. The author, who is vice- president of the Red Cross Association, went to the front as correspondent of the Ow¢/ook, and the basis of this book is the material he contributed to that paper.’’— Richmond Dispatch. “The most satisfying, the fairest, the most judicial account and criticism of the Santiago campaign.’’— 7zmes, Los Angeles, Cal. “Mr Kennan has done a public service by this book.’’—Congregationalist. 12mo, 269 pages, Cloth, $1.50. fee CENTURY CoO., UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK. a Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DOUBLEDAY & McCEURi Ger 141-155 East 25th Street, New York. Whe United States of Europe: 7) WW. Py Srcace ON THE EVE OF THE PARLIAMENT OF PEACE. Mr. Stead’s recent talks with the Czar and with all the great European statesmen lend much value to this timely review of current politics, written with special reference to the Russian Peace Rescript and American ‘‘ Expansion.’’ It covers such pertinent matters as America’s task in Cuba and the Philippines, the ‘‘ Chinese Puzzle,’’ South African Problems, the Fashoda Muddle, the Concert of Europe and its work in Crete and Candia, and so on, with many suggestive forecasts. Size, 514 x 8%; pages, 468; over 100 portraits, maps, and illustrations; binding, cloth. Price, $2.00. Sketches in Heyot. Charles Dana Gilscom ‘‘Eeypt,’’ says Mr. Gibson, ‘‘ has sat for her likeness longer than any other coun- try.” The recent important events that have turned all eyes toward the Upper Nile have not disturbed in the least the ancient composure and serenity of the Land of the Pharoahs, and few countries offer such a tempting field to the artistic pen. Mr. Gibson’s forceful and suggestive drawings are well reinforced by his written 1mpressions—more complete than he has ever before published—and the whole makes up a uniquely in- teresting record, from an artist who occupies a peculiar position among us. It is the real Egypt from a new standpoint. No pains have been spared to produce a true art work, giving really adequate presentations of Mr. Gibson’s drawings. Size, 734 x 10%; cloth decorated; pages, 150; type, 12 point. Regular edition, $3.00 net. Edition de Luxe, 250 signed and numbered copies, each accompanied by a portfolio containing art proofs of ten of the most important pictures, on Japan silk tissue and mounted on plate paper suitable for framing. Price per copy, $10.00 net. AS SOON AS ACTUALLY PUBLISHED THE PRICE ON ALL DE LUXE COPIES NOT SUBSCRIBED FOR WILL BE RAISED. From) Sea to Sea Rudyard Kipline 35th THOUSAND. This is an authorized edition of the collected letters of travel which Mr. Rudyard Kipling has written at various times between 1889 and 1898, and has just edited and revised. It includes hitherto unpublished matter, as well as an accurate text of the “American Notes,’’ with ‘‘ Letters of Marque,’’ ‘‘ The City of Dreadful Night,” “The Smith Administration,’’ etc., etc. Even Mr. Kipling never wrote anything more entirely irresistible than are, for in- stance, his letters on Japan. The ludicrousness of the Japanese ‘‘ heavy cavalry,’’ the fascinating O-Toyo, the cherry blossoms, and the wonderful art which permeates the daily life of natural Japan—all these things become permanent in the reader’s mind and can never be forgotten; and they show a side of the author which is not at all prominent in most of his other work. Size, 5x 7%; two volumes in box; pages, 860; type, 10 point; binding, cloth. Price, $2.00, The Real Hawai. Lucien Young, U.S, N; ITS HISTORY AND PRESENT CONDITION, INCLUDING THE 'TRUE STORY OF THE REVOLUTION. This is an authoritative work upon our newly acquired possessions by an American Naval officer, who knows his subject thoroughly. It not only gives the inside history of the revolution which ended the Monarchy—Lieutenant Young was on the Boston at that time, and took an active part in the proceeiings—but furnishes a reliable handbook to the condition and resources of the island. An appendix contains an elaborate array of statistical information. Size, 5x 7%; pages, about 371; 18 illustrations and maps. Price, $1.50. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. 25 j NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE BOO OOO OOOO OO OHS989S000 O©@ 3 SOOO COOOSe IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT ! The [International Geography. The last few years have proved so rich in geograph- ical discoveries that there has been a pressing need for a résumé of recent explorations and changes which should present in convenient and accurate form the latest results of geographical work. ‘The additions to our knowledge have not been limited to Africa, Asia, and the Arctic regions, but even on our own continent the gold of the Klondike has led toa better knowledge of the region, while within a short time we shall have much more exact geographical information concerning the numerous islands which make up the Philippines. The want which is indicated will be met by Zhe /nter- national Geography, a convenient volume for the intel- ligent general reader, and the library which presents expert summaries of the results of geographical science throughout the world at the present time. Seventy authors, all experts, have collaborated in the production of Zhe ‘International Geography. ‘The con- tributors include the leading geographers and travelers of Europe and America. The work has been planned and edited by Dr. H.R. Mii, who also wrote the chapter on The United Kingdom. Among the authors are: Professor W. M. Davis (The United States), Dr. FRIDTJOF NANSEN (Arctic Regions), Professor A. KIRCHHOFF (German Empire), Mr. F. C. SELouS (Rhodesia), Professors DE LAPPARENT and RAVENEAU (France), Sir CLEMENT R. MARKHAM, F. R. S. (Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru), Sir JOHN Murray, F. R. S. (Antarctic Regions), Count PFEIL (German Colonies), Mr. JAMES BRYCE, M. P. (The Boer Republics), Sir H. H. Jounstron, the late Sir LAMBERT PLAYFAIR, Sir F. J. GoLpsMID, Sir MARTIN CONWAY, Sir GEORGE S. ROBERTSON, Sir WILLIAM MACGREGOR, Sir CHARLES WILSON, F.R.S.; the Hon. D.W. CARNEGIE, Mrs. BIsHop, Dr. A. M. W. DOWNING, F. R. S.; Dr. J. Scorr KELTIE, and Mr. G. G. CHISHOLM, the editor of the 7zmcs Gazetteer. £ OOO® oe) ©9960999009000900009090009900000000000 The book is illustrated by nearly five hundred maps and dia- grams, which have been specially prepared. It is designed to present in the compact limits of a single volume an authorita- tive conspectus of the science of geography and the conditions of the countries at the end of the nineteenth century. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, NEW YORK. oooocecooecocecoeeseeesecuseouc @600000080 OOOO OSSSS9 0 OSS SS8S9 000088006 Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PRIZES OFFERED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY FOR Essays on Norse Wiscoveries in America. 1. A first prize of $150 and a second prize of $75 are offered for the best and second best essays, respectively, relating to pre-Columbian discoveries and settlements of the Norsemen on the mainland of North America and the location of the lands mentioned in the Icelandic Sagas. 2. Essays submitted in competition for these prizes should be typewritten in the English language, and should not exceed 6,000 words in length ; they may be accompanied by maps and other illustrations used for the explanation of the text, but not for embellishment. 3. Essays submitted in competition for the prizes should be signed by a pseudonym or number, and should bear no other indication of authorship, but each should be accompanied by a sealed envelope, marked with the same pseudonym or number, containing the name and address of the author. 4. The competition will close at 6 p. m., December 31, 1899. 5. The National Geographic Society arid the judges on behalf thereof re- serve the right to withhold either prize, or both, in case the essays submitted are not sufficiently meritorious to warrant publication with the approval of the Society; but in case of withholding one or both of the prizes on this ground, a new competition will be opened. 6. Immediately after the close of the competition the essays submitted in accordance with the foregoing conditions will be laid before the following board of judges, whose adjudication shall be final: W. B. POWELL, Superintendent of Public Schools of Washington, D. C. HENRY GANNETT, Chief Geographer of the U. 5. Geological Survey, ete. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Professor of History in Harvard University. ANITA NEWCOMB MCGEE, M. D., Acting Assistant Surgeon, U.S. A. JOHN BAcH MCMASTER, LL. D., Professor of History in the University of Pennsylvania. HENRY S. PRITCHETT, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 107-108 Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ~The American Anthropologist. The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology published at the National Capital. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Szbscribe today. Handsomely Printed and Illustrated. Published Quarterly. Four Dollars a Year. Appress: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. = '4 bee TOTTI one A practical journalist, long a member of the staff of the Washington Evening Star, resigned his position to go to Guatemala. Before he left Washington he had been a firm believer in the medicinal qualities of Ripans Tabules, and took a lot of them with him to Guatemala, where he earned the friendship of the captain of the steamer, which sails from San Francisco and stops at ports in Central America, by making known to him the marvelous virtues of R-I-P-A-N-3,Zthe medical wonder of the century. He often dilates upon the captain’s enthusiasm about the Tabules and asserts that the people of the tropics suffer terribly from indigestion, and that the Tabules are now known most favorably throughout Central America. Ripans Tabules quiet the nerves, compose the mind, allay irritation, and invite repose. One gives relief. WANTED :—A ease of bad health that R-I-P-A-N-S will not benefit. They banish pain and cng life. One gives relief. Note the word R-I-P-A-N-S on the package and accept no substitute. I-P-A-N-S, 10 for 5 cents, or twelve packets for 48 cents, may be had at any drug store. Ten samples and one thousand testimonials will be mailed to any address for 5 cents, forwarded to the Ripans Chemical Co., No. 10 Spruce St., New York. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Is a Journal of Geography--Physical, Commercial, and Political. Its editorial staff includes officers and experts of the different scientific bureaus of the Government, each representing a field teeming with facts of geographic interest. Its corps of contributors comprises nearly every United States citizen whose name has become identified with Arctic exploration, the Bering Sea controversy, the Alaska and Venezuela boundary disputes, or the new commercial and political questions arising from the acquisition of the Philippines. Through the cordial codperation of the different diplomatic representatives of foreign nations at Washington, it 1s able to present the latest and most authentic geographic intelligence from other countries. Tue NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MaGAziNE numbers among its contributors the following well-known writers on the different branches of geographic science: Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE Cyrus C. ADAMS Cyrus C. Bass Capt. J. R. Barrierr, U.S. N. Dr Grorce F. BECKER ALEXANDER GRAHAM Bett, LL. D.,-etce. Prof. F. H. BigELow Lieut. J. C. Canrwett, U.S. A. Frank M. CHAPMAN Ropert H. CHAPMAN Dr E. L. CorrHEeru F. V. CoviLur Frank H. CusHine Hon. CHarues W. DABNEY Dr Wriuutam H. Dau N. H. Darron Prof. GzorGE Davipson WictiuramM M. Davis Dr Davin T. Day. J. S. Druier lieu, Ch 12, Wiciwomrm 1), Sb AN. Prof. B. EK. Fernow Hon. Joun W. Foster Col. D. D. Gaittarp, U. S.A. HaMLIN GARLAND Prof. E. B. Garriorr President D. C. GILMAN Capt. L. C. Guenn, U.S. A. Ricnarp U. GoopDE Prof J. HowarpD GoRE Prof. Epwin A. GROSVENOR Prof. ALBErt BusHNELL Harr Dr C. Wituarp Hayes Prof. A. J. Henry Roserer T. HiItp F. W. HopGe Wiriiram H. Hoitmes Dr Emit Honus, Vienna CorNELIA HorsrorD Dr SHELDON JACKSON WILLARD D. JOHNSON J. Scorr Keuriz, LL. D., ete. GEORGE KENNAN Prof. S. P. UaneLtey Prof. Wituiam Lipsey Prof. Joon Bach McMaster Dr T. C. MenpENHALL F. H. Newer Lieut. Roperr E. Peary Grorae C. Perkins, U.S. S. Prof. W. H. PickrRIneG GirrorpD PINcHOoT Major J. W. Powriu Prof. W. B. Powe EK. D. Preston Prof. Isrnart C. RusseLty Dr N. S. SHALER Major W. A. Stmpson, U.S. A. Capt. C. D. Stasper, U.S. N. Maj. A. FaALKNER VON SONNENBERG J. STANLEY-BRowNn Gen. G. M. SrernBerG Commander Z. L. TANNER Prof. Raupu S. Tarr Max L. Tornow O. H. Tirrmann Hon. CHarurs D. Watcorr Mrs Fannie B. Warp Commander H. Wesster, U S. N. Water WELLMAN Watter D. WiLcox Battery WILLIS Hon. Wiutam L. WILson Dr F. H. Wines Prof. Dean OC. Worcester $2.50 a Year. 25 Cents a Copy. Three Months’ Trial Subscription, 50 Cents. Requests for Sample Copies should invariably be accompanied by 25 Cents. 107-108 Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. ‘Vol. VII, 1896: Russia in Europe, by the late Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard ; i The Scope and Value of Arctic Exploration, by Gen. A. W. Greely, U.S.A. ; - Venezuela, rE er Government, People, and Boundary, by William E. Curtis; The So-called Jeanette Relics, by Wm. H. Dall; Nansen’s Polar Expedition, by Gaal A. W. Greely, ag The Submarine Cables of the World (with chart 49x30 inches); Seriland, by W J McGee and Willard D, Johnson; The Discovery of Glacier Bay, Alaska, by . E R. Scidmore; Hydrography in the United States, by F. H. Newell; Africa since 888, by the late Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard; The Seine, The Meuse, and The Moselle, rof. Wm. M. Davis; The Work of the U.S. Board on Geographic Names, by Henry Gannett ; A Journey in Ecuador, by W. B. Kerr; Geographic History of the Piedmont Plateau, by W J McGee; The Recent Ear NOES Wave on the Coast of Japan, by E. R. Biiakiore.: California, by Senator Geo. C. Perkins; The Witwatersrand and the Revolt of the Uitlanders, by George F. Becker; The Sage Plains of Oregon, by F. V. Coville. Vol. VIII, 1897: The Gold Coast, Ashanti and Kumassi, by Geo. K. French ; Crater Lake, Oregon, by J.S. Diller; Storms and Weather Forecasts, by Willis L. Moore ; Rubber Forests of Nicaragua and Bien Leone, by Gen. A. W. Greely, U.S.A.; A Sum- eer Voyage to the Arctic, by G. R. Putnam; A Winter Voyage through the Straits of Magellan, by the late Admiral R. W. Meade, U.S.N.; Costa Rica, by Sefior Ricardo Villafranca ; The National Forest Reserve, by F. H. ie well The Forests and Deserts of rizona, by B. E. Fernow; Modification of the Great Lakes by Earth Movement, by G. K. Gilbert; The Enchanted Mesa, by F. W. Hodge; Patagonia, by J. B. Hatcher; The Washington Aqueduct and Cabin John Bridge, by Capt. D. D. Gaillard, U.S.A. Vol. IX, 1898: Three Weeks in Hubbard Bay, West Greenland, by Robert n; The Modern Mississippi Problem, by W J McGee; Dwellings of the Saga-Time celand, Greenland, and Vineland, by Cornelia Horsford ; Articles on Alaska, by Gen. A. Ww. Greely, U.S.A., Hamlin Garland, E. R. Scidmore, Prof. Wm. H. Dall, and others ; on Cuba, bv Robert T. Hill, Frank M. Chapman, John Hyde, and Henry Gannett; on he Philippines, by Dean C. Worcester, Col. F. F. Hilder, John Hyde, and Charles E. Howe; A.nerican Geographic Education, by W J McGee; Origin of the Physical tures of the United States, by G. K. Gilbert; Geographic Work of the General ernment, by Henry Gannett; Papagueria, by W J McGee; The Bitter Root Forest erye, by R. U. Goode; Lake Chelan, by Henry Gannett; The Geospheres, by W J e; Sumatra’s West Coast, by D. G. Fairchild; The Five Civilized Tribes in the y of Indian Territory, by C. H. Fitch; Cloud Scenery of the High Plains, by d D. Johnson; Atlantic Coast Tides, by M. 8. W. Jefferson. “ee i: Until January 1, 1900, each volume may be had for $1.50. ) obtain any of the above mentioned articles, send 25 cents aps, indicating merely the title of the article desired. 7-108 Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. | cork an “excellent description TRANSVAAL, of the BOERS a1 UITLANDERS, send for number volume 7, Nationat GEoGRAPHIC Ma A few only of the number remain ul By mail for 2 5 cents each. , For the most complete, authoritative, and 1 publications on the PHILIPPINES, send for. the 1898 and February, 1899, numbers of Tue Nan Grocrapnic MaGazine, containing numer and illustrations. By mail for 25 cents each. _ For a chart of the world, 48 by 30 showing all CABLE AND OVERL TELEGRAPH VINES andl ING, DOCKING, AND REPA STATIONS, with explanatory article. for number 3 of volume 7, Nationa Gros Macazine. Py mail for 25 cents. JUDD & DETWEILER, PRINTERS, WASHINGTON, D. C, reenter! OREN wy PY lag Sto eographic Magazine AN ILLUSTRATED \MONTHLY Editor: JOHN H¥DE, Statistician of the U. S. Department of Agriculture Associate Editors BW: GREELY, Chief Signal Officer, U.S, Army ; WJ McGEE#, Eihnologist in Charge, Bureau American Ethnology ; HHNRY GANNETY?, Chief Geographer, U.S. Geological Survey ; Assistant Secretary of State ; CHARLES H» ALLEN, Assistant Secretary of the Navy ,; ) Wits L. Moorr, Chief of the U.S. Weather Bureau ; AW. S,PRITCHETT, | .Su- perintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey; MARCUS BAKER, U.S. _Geological Survey ; O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, -- U.S-Treasury Department; EXAZA RUHAMAH ScrpMorE, Author of ‘Java, the Garden of the East,” etc.; CARL Louise GAR- RISON, Principal of Phelps School, WAsieion: V9 pay Oy Assistant Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, Washington, D,) C. CONTENTS eon * PAGE AP OF THE SEAT OF WAR IN AFRICA: SUPPLEMENT. B WELLMAN POLAR BXPEDITION. WALTER WELLMAN, 481 \ With maps and illustrations. Ops a ARRIMAN ALASKA EXPEDITION. HENRY GANNETT. 507 Vith maps. B METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS OF |) THE SECOND WELLMAN EXPEDITION. EVELYN B. BALDWIN. 512 4, ; D RICO OR PUERTO RICO? ROBERT T, HILL. 516 [ATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AND EU. S. BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES, 517 Wames in Canada, p. 519; The Antarctic Climate, p. 520; Geographic ature, p. 522; Geographic Miscellanea, p. 524. WASHINGTON ED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY For SALe.A? Brentano's: 1015 Pennsyivanra Avrenvn, WasHrneton; egy ys eR | ale ON AY Ty j hee a | GREATEST SOUTHERN SYSTEM. TO ALL POINTS SOUTH, SOUTHEAST, AND SOUTHWEST, Through Pullman Drawing Room Sleeping Cars from New York and Washington to New Orleans, Memphis, Tampa, Jacksonville, Augusta, and intermediate points—First-class Day Coaches—Dining Car Service. Fast Trains for the SOUTH leave Washington Daily at 11.15 A. M., 9.51 P. M., and 10.45 P. M. : Through Tourist car on the 11.45 P. M. Train every Monday, Wednesday and Friday for Texas, Arizona, and California points, without change. Direct line to the Summer Resorts in Virginia and the Carolinas and th Winter Resorts of Florida, Gulf Coast, Texas, Mexico, and California. : Direct Through Car Line to and from Asheville, Hot Springs, and othe Western North Carolina points—' THE LAND OF THE SKY.” For Map Folders, Winter Homes Guide Book and Book on “ASHEVIL AND THEREABOUTS” write to— A. S. THWEATT, Eastern Passenger Agent, 271 Broadway, New York, N. J. C. HORTON, Passenger Agent, 201 E. Baltimore Street, Baltimcre, Md. L. S. BROWN, General Agent, 705 Fifteenth St. N. W., Washington, D.C, W. H. DOLL, Passenger Agent, Norfolk, Va. e WWW S. H. HARDWICK, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Atlanta, Ga. Cc. A. BENSCOTER, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Chattanooga, Tenn. W. H. TAYLOH, Assistant General Passenger Agent, Louisville, Ky. J. M. CULP, Traffic Manager. W. A. TURK, General Passenger Agent, — WASHINGTON, D. The Mutual Life Insurance Co OF NEW YORK, . RICHARD A. McCURDY, President, Me The Records of the Insurance Department of the State of New York SHOW THAT The Mutual Life — Has a Larger Premium Income - - More Insurance in Force - -~ - - ($918,000,000 A Greater Amount of Assets - ee A Larger Annual Interest Income -_ - ($9,000,000 Writes More New Business - - - ($136,000,000 And Pays More to Policy-holders. - ($25,000,000 in 1896, THAN ANY OTHER COMPANY. | It has paid to Policy-holders since 1959 its organization, in 1848, ' I ie i $437,005,195.2 a lan bcd iv) & i) i) i=) i=) > =) | a 1 | a “™ B= ca () ivy) a Se. © S So a=) — od ROBERT A. GRANNISS, Vice-President. WALTER R. GILLETTE, General Manager. FREDERIC CROMWELL, Treasurer. — ISAAC F, LLOYD, Second Vice-President. EMORY McCLINTOCK, Actuary. — WILLIAM J. EASTON, Secretary. f Entered at the Post-office in Washington, D. C., as Second-class Mail Matter. — National Geographic Magazine Vor. xX DECEMBER, 1899 No. 12 THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION By WALTER WELLMAN The Wellman Polar Expedition of 1898-’99 had two purposes in view. One of these was to finish the exploration of Franz Josef Land, and the other was to make an approach, by means of what is known as “a dash,” near or to the North Pole. In- cidentally to both these efforts scientific work of the usual char- acter was to be carried on by a competent corps of observers. The expedition was aided in a financial way by the National Geographic Society, by President Jesup of the American Mu- seum of Natural History, by President McKinley, Secretary of State Hay, J. Pierpont Morgan, W. K. Vanderbilt, William C. Whitney, Richard Olney, and other well-known public men. The cost of the expedition was about $27,000, of which sum $12,000 was subscribed by the various contributors. June 26, 1898, the expedition sailed from Tromsd, Norway, in the ice-steamer Frithjof. Aboard were nine members of the ex- peditionary party—four Americans and five Norwegians. Prof. James H. Gore, of Washington, who had planned to accompany the expedition to Franz Josef Land for a summer’s work in geodesy, was unable to go beyond Tromsé on account of the danger that the ship might not get back in time to enable him to meet imperative engagements. Calling at Archangel, Russia, the Frithjof took aboard a pack of 83 Siberian dogs which had ; been brought from the Ob river by Alexander Trontheim, a trust- ' worthy Russian, who has now supplied three Arctic expeditions with draught dogs purchased from the Ostiak tribes. In order to deliver his pack according to contract, Trontheim had to make 33 482 THE WELIMAN POLAR EXPEDITION a 2,000-mile journey over the Ural mountains, across the plains and tundra, fording swollen rivers and wading deep swamps. Material for house-building was also taken on at Archangel, and the Frithjof then steamed northward. The pack-ice was met at about the 77th parallel of latitude July 9, and three days later, the supply of coal running short, it was deemed prudent to run back to Norway for more fuel. July 20 the ship was again at the ice edge, and after a week of ramming through loose floes and searching for open leads found a clear waterway, in which such rapid progress was made that the ice-capped mountains of Franz Josef Land were visible from the crow’s-nest July. 27. Next day the Frithjof was at Cape Flora, which for three years had been the headquarters of the Jackson-Harmsworth (English) expedition, and where Nansen and Jackson had had their mem- orable meeting in June, 1896, a chance encounter which doubt- less saved the lives of the Norwegian explorer and his comrade. It had been the first plan of our expedition to make Cape Flora our winter quarters, and we had secured from Mr Harmsworth the privilege of making such use as we wished of the house and stores there. It appearing that there was a possibility of push- ing our winter quarters farther north and east, we took aboard one of the collapsible houses, which had been used at Cape Flora for storage purposes, and steamed away to the eastward. At Cape Flora we had hoped to find Andrée and the members of his balloon expedition, which had left Danes island, Spitz- bergen, a year before; but finding neither Andrée nor any tid- ings of him, we were forced to the sad conclusion, which time has since confirmed, that the brave Swede and his comrades lost their lives by a descent of their air-ship into the waters of the Barents sea, east of Spitzbergen and south of Franz Josef Land, probably within 10 or 15 days after their ascension. After making an unsuccessful effort to push our ship north through the ice-clad British channel, which had been explored by Jackson and down which Nansen had come in his retreat from his winter hut, we moved eastward along the south coast as far as Cape Tegetthoff and Salm island. Off the south shore of this island we steamed in open water over the very spot where the Austro-Hungarian ship Tegetthoff had been abandoned, fast in the ice, a quarter of a century before. It may be remembered that for more than a year the Tegetthoff had been held in the ice, having become beset off the western shores of Nova Zembla, and that she had drifted helplessly to this spot, where her crew, completed, and the ship 500 miles to the south. occupied by any other men THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION — 483 through this fortunate accident, were able to discover a hitherto unknown Arctic land. Vainly endeavoring to find water through which to force the Frithjof still farther north along the east coast (then unexplored), and finding nothing but ice in every direc- tion, we were compelled to return to Cape Tegetthoff, NORTH POLE and there send our stores ashore for the purpose of es- tablishing winter quarters. By August 38 this work was sailed away for home, leav- ing us the only human in- habitants of Franz Josef Land, our nearest neighbors being Samoyedes and a few Russians in Noya Zembla, Neither Franz Josef Land nor Spitzbergen is now in- habited by Kskimo or other northern tribes, and, so far as can be learned, never was than Europeans there for the purposes of exploring and hunting or fishing. Spitz- bergen has been known for 250 years. and is visited every summer by a consid- erable number of craft, but Franz Josef Land has until recently remained almost a terra incognita. The cosmopolitanism of modern scientific exploration is no- where better illustrated than in this region. Discovered by chance by Austro-Hungarians, it was next visited by English- men under the leadership of B. Leigh Smith. It was in 1882 that Mr Smith, on his second voyage to these coasts, lost his ship, the Hira, near Cape Flora, and was compelled to pass the long winter in an improvised hut built but a few rods from Mr Jackson’s subsequent headquarters. The ruins of that hut, in which 25 men passed the winter in good health, living chiefly = a i DIAGRAM SHOWING THE ROUTE OF THE FRITHJOF, 1898 Copyright, 1899, by Walter Wellman 484 THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION upon bear and walrus meat, still remain, mute witnesses to the fact that Dr Nansen and Lieutenant Johansen were not the first explorers to show that if worst comes to worst the adventurous man, caught out for the long night, may make himself reason- ably comfortable with such materials as the country affords, while his rifle keeps him from starvation. Next came the carefully prepared Jackson-Harmsworth expe- dition, which explored the western and central parts of the archipelago, but did not succeed in getting farther north than a little beyond the 81st parallel. Mr Jackson, whom I esteem as a painstaking and conscientious explorer, pronounced his judg- ment that Franz Josef Land was not a good gateway to the Pole, being a mass of small, detached islands, instead of a continental land mass. My own opinion is quite the contrary. It is true the region is one of comparatively small lands and many islands, and in summer the straits and fiords are broken up and filled with drift-ice, which precludes, more or less, active expeditionary work; but at this season of the year not much can be done any- where in the Arctics, and in the favorable season, to wit, the spring of the year, these fiords and straits afford the best of roadways toward the far north. The next visitor to these lands was Dr Nansen, and he came down from the north on his return from his memorable sledge journey from the Fram, reaching the northeast islands at the end of the summer, and finding it necessary to winter in an impro- vised hut. Next spring, without knowing where he was, and imagining himself to be nearer Spitzbergen than Franz Josef Land, he renewed his journey, only to meet, by a most rare and happy chance, with the Englishmen at Cape Flora. After the Norwegians came the Americans, ourselves, with our Norwegian comrades, and as we were coming out this summer we met going in the young Duke of Abruzzi, the Italian prince. This young scion of royalty (he is a son of a former King of Spain, Amadeus) has at great expense outfitted his expedition, and is determined, as he says, to reach the Pole or lose his life in the effort. When we met the Duke his ship, the Stella Polare, was in the British channel, in latitude 80° 20’, and with good pros- pects of pushing 20 or 30 miles farther north before stopping for the winter. Subsequently a pigeon message is reported arriving in Russia with word from the Italian explorer that he is winter- ing about the 81st parallel of latitude, near the site of the Nansen hut. He has, therefore, an excellent chance for doing good work upwas 277MM Nq ‘66ST ‘ybiuhdog aNviI dasor’ ZNVUdI = NOILVNUOL LIVSVad 486 THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION in the way of a northerly advance next spring. He has 120 dogs, procured for him by Trontheim, and every device that ingenuity could suggest or money buy. The real test for him will come, as it comes to all who attempt the arduous road to the Pole, when he leaves his comfortable winter quarters or his ship and takes to the open field in a sledging trip during the extreme cold. Up to this time it is all comparatively easy, but sledging in Feb- ruary, March, and April tries men’s endurance and courage to the utmost. It is not too much to say that of all the men now in the Arctic regions the young Italian prince has the best chance to reach the Pole or to eclipse Dr Nansen’s record. In my Opinion, neither Peary nor Sverdrup, both of whom are wintering on the west coast of Greenland, about latitude 79°, has much chance. Their base is too far south. True, Lieutenant Peary has supplies at General Greely’s house at Fort Conger upon which he may draw during his sledge journey next spring, but he must travel 150 miles to reach that outpost, and then will be but a little nearer his goal than the Italian is at his base. Besides, Mr Peary was unfortunate enough last winter to suffer the loss of seven toes, and though he is known to bea resolute man, it 1s ques- tioned by all men of Arctic experience if it be possible for him, thus handicapped, to endure the tortures of a severe sledging campaign. As for Captain Sverdrup, who has so far failed in his scheme to circumnavigate Greenland in the Fram, it is not known precisely what he is to attempt to do. With Peary, Sverdrup, and Abruzzi the conditions are the same in one important respect as they were with us. The effort to make the North Pole must be by a dash, and nothing but a dash. The writer admits that he was the author of the phrase, “a dash for the Pole,” but he cannot claim credit as the originator of the idea. As far back as 1827, Parry, the Englishman, attempted a dash for the Pole from the shores of northern Spitzbergen, and established one of the northerly records in that constant advance toward the Pole which restless man has persisted in making. Many other dashes have been made since that time. Why must it be a dash? Why cannot one take his time to the task, making a gradual approach, year after year? These are questions often asked. Theanswer is very simple. If we had land extending to or near the Pole the old theory of a gradual advance from depot to depot would hold good. Reaching the Pole would in that case be simply a question of persistent effort, THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION ° 487 of stretching out a base of supphes, of a long campaign, or of one organized on a sufficiently large scale to enable the flying column at the front to be well supported from the rear. But” the polar explorer, like the mining engineer, the railway con- structor, and the colonist, must take conditions as he finds them and adapt his methods to them. There are two main avenues of approach to the Pole—one by North Greenland and the other by Franz Josef Land. These are the two lands reaching nearest to the Pole from lower latitudes, but neither extends, so far as we now know, nearer than within 450 miles of that mathematical point upon which it is the ambition of man to plant his feet. The aim of every pole-seeker is to get his base or his outpost established as far north as possible upon the land, and to make a dash beyond that point. Thus Mr Peary planned a depot of supphes at the extreme northerly limits of Greenland, but has not as yet been able to establish it. Abruzzi is wintering at 81°, and we made our headquarters a little north of 80°, and estab- lished an outpost about 81°. The explorer may use two or three years in establishing his outposts upon the most northerly land he can employ for this purpose, but when he once leaves the land and takes to the frozen surface of the polar sea his journey must be one of short duration—a dash—for these reasons : 1. It is only in the spring of the year that he can travel ad- vantageously over the ice-sheet, and this is so because the winter is too dark, while in the summer the warmth of the sun makes the snow soft and “sticky,” fills the pockets with sludge and water, and aids the winds and currents in breaking up the ice. The favorable, practically the only, season for travel over this drifting, shifting field of ice, is confined to March, April, and May, with what little of February one is resolute enough to use amid the darkness, and a part of June in which he may still do something before the snow becomes too soft. Thus the pole- seeker has at his command from 110 to 125 days, according to the earliness of his start, in which to make his northerly jour- ney and his return to the land. 2. Everything he and his dogs eat, as well as the fuel for melt- ing ice into drinking and cooking water, must be carried from the land or the outmost depot, not only for the advance journey, but for the return. Nothing can be had on the way. There is a limit, of course, to the weight of load that may be carried, and if the sledge party started with supplies for a six months’ cam- paign they would be so heayily burdened they could make no 488 THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION A PAIR OF WALRUS KILLED FOR DOG FOOD Copyright, 1899, by Walter Wellman progress at all. At the minimum each man must have two pounds of food and each dog one pound per day, and the haul- ing power of a dog is limited to about 60 pounds and of a man to about 200 pounds. Besides, there is weight of sledges, in- struments, bedding, weapons, etc., to be reckoned. 5. It is useless to establish depots upon the sea ice beyond the land, for the sufficient reason that they could never be found again, except by rare good luck. Even in winter the ice-sheet is never at rest. Itis constantly drifting to and fro, with a gen- eral movement, as was shown by the voyage of the Fram, toward the west. If one left a depot upon the ice he could never be sure the ice had not opened there during his absence and de- stroyed it. On returning from their sledge journey, Nansen and Johansen made no effort to find the Fram again, though they were at no time more than 115 miles from the ship, and on their southward march, with a dreadful and doubtful prospect before them, they must have passed within 30 or 85 miles of her at farthest. Limited in time and limited in weight, the explorer perceives THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION 489 that the best and practically the only thing for him to do is to take advantage of the favorable season of from 100 to 125 days and make all his plans accordingly. The lighter his loads the shorter time he can remain out; the heavier his loads the slower must be his rate of travel. Between the two extremes he en- deavors to find the happy mean and to apply to it the utmost of skill and ingenuity in keeping down weights and in utilizing motive power. Thus we see why it is only by the dash method that any one now seriously proposes to reach the Pole. Dr Nansen made his dash from the Fram after she had drifted far within the ocean, giving him the best start and the best chance to reach the Pole any one has had or is likely to have for some time to come. Peary proposes a dash from north Greenland. Andrée made his dash, bravely but recklessly, by balloon. Abruzzi essays a dash from near Nansen’s winter hut and our own outpost. We tried the dash, too, and might have done very much but for an accident which overtook us. In preparation for this effort MOUNTAIN AND GLACIERS AT CAPE TEGETTHOFF Copyright, 1899, by Walter Wellman 490 THE WELIMAN POLAR EXPEDITION to reach or approach the Pole, and also to aid the work of ex- ploration, which also formed a part of our plans, we established at Cape Heller, near the 81st parallel, an outpost or depot of sup- plies. This was done immediately after our arrival in Franz Josef Land. Within two days after the Frithjof sailed back to Norway a party set out with small boats and sledges for the north. Their instructions were to establish a depot as far north as possible. When they started the ice-sheet upon the bay and the straits was solid and apparently unbroken. But conditions PREPARING THE HEADQUARTERS HUT FOR WINTER Copyright, 1899, by Walter Wellman often change with amazing rapidity in the Arctics, and so it was in this case. Within less than 48 hours the party found them- selves involved in the greatest difficulty on account of the sudden breaking up of the ice and its rapid drifting out to sea under the influence of strong offshore winds. Nothing but desperate, even heroic, work enabled them to save their lives and the valuable equipment. Finally managing to reach the land, they struggled northward for a month, sometimes upon the ice-sheet, more often upon the rough shore, occasionally crossing glaciers and now and then advancing some of their heavier weights by boats in com- THE WELIMAN POLAR EXPEDITION 491 paratively ice-free water, and were at length compelled to stop for good on account of drift-ice in the channel and the rapid approach of winter. At Cape Heller they built a hut of rocks. A few pieces of driftwood served for the ridge-pole. The hides of walrus, killed in the water pools of Austria sound, near by, formed the roof. In this hut were accumulated about a ton of stores for use the follotving spring—sledges, boats, and other articles needed on sledge journeys. Forty dogs were there also, and for their sus- tenance during the winter the flesh of fifteen walruses was cut up in small squares and stored ina bin built of snow-blocks. To protect the hut from the winter's storms high walls of snow were built, and these made the premises look so much lke an old-fashioned fortification that Mr Baldwin, leader of this party, named the place Fort McKinley. As soon as everything was made snug for the winter Mr Baldwin, pursuant to his instruc- tions, asked for volunteers to remain at the hut through the winter to guard the supplies and care for the dogs. All five of the Norwegian members of the party offered their services, and creat was the disappointment of the three who were not chosen. The two men assigned to the task were Paul Bjoervig and Bernt Bentzen, of Troms6, both sailors, neighbors, and warm friends. Together they had often talked of the pleasure it would be to pass a winter in the Arctics in a little hut well stocked with food and tobacco, and this was to be the realization of their dream. Their enthusiasm was not due to inexperience. Paul Bjoervig was a veteran Arctic sailor and traveler, and had been with the Wellman Expedition of 1894 to the north of Spitzbergen. Bernt Bentzen was a member of Dr Nansen’s crew aboard the Fram on that famous drift-voyage through the polar seas. Both men were happy and well when their comrades left them and started for our headquarters at Cape Tegetthoff, just at the beginning of winter. It is a coincidence that but a few miles to the west- ward of this hut is the spot where Nansen and Johansen passed the winter of 1895-’96 in a similar structure, built out of such materials as could be found upon the ground. Meanwhile those of us who had remained at Cape Tegetthoff were busy preparing our own house for the long winter. As first erected, the hut was a mere shell, two thicknesses of thin boards with an air-space between, and a roof of two layers of ecanyas. ‘The house was ten-sided, one of the sections contain- ing a door and two others little windows. With planks converg- 492 THE WELIMAN POLAR EXPEDITION ing at the apex of the roof we built another shell around the whole, walled it up with blocks of snow and stretched a third roof over it in the shape of an old discarded mainsail from the Wind- ward which we had picked up at Cape Flora. When the winter came on in earnest the snow drifted over the house, fairly bury- ing it, as well as the store-shed which we had built at one side of Russian timber. The little windows were buried under walls of show six or eight feet in thickness, and about this house there were in the Arctic darkness just two signs that it was actually used as a human habitation—the little stovepipe at the apex of the roof, pouring forth its cherry sparks, and a small, black hole at the entrance to the shed, through which we crawled in making ingress or egress. We built an observatory of snow-blocks, too, for protecting the meteorological and magnetic instruments from the fury of storms, and within this enclosure (it had no roof) Mr Baldwin, the meteorologist from the U.S. Weather Bureau, and Mr Harlan, the physicist, carried on a series of observations throughout the dark season. Mr Baldwin secured continuous thermograph, barograph, and anemometer records during our entire sojourn in the Arctics, and also made a most painstaking study of the aurora borealis, comparing the manifestations here with a similar study which he had madein Greenland some years before. His observations and conclusions in this important field of scientific inquiry, when elaborated and published, as I understand they are to be by the government, will, in my opinion, form a valu- able contribution to the literature of that topic. Mr Harlan also studied the aurora, particularly from the point of view of its effect upon the magnetic needle, and his report thereon, as well as his general study of the physical conditions of Franz Josef Land, I intend to publish in proper form and place as soon as possible. Dr Edward Hofma, medical officer and naturalist of the expedition, has a most interesting report concerning the fauna and flora of that region. Within our hut we passed a very comfortable winter. It is true that at times the thermometer, hanging upon the wall 10 feet from the diminutive stove, had hard work keeping its head above the zero mark, and where we sat upon our packing boxes, each in his own *‘ corner,” hoar-frost was constantly hanging upon the wall; but all this was reckoned as nothing ; nor did we suffer from the effects of the long night. If there was any melancholia its victim managed to keep his sufferings pretty well concealed. upwUjja Mm 277MM fq ‘66st “Vybiiidop SUILUVADAVAH NOMLIGAdXA NVWITAM AHL ‘ASMOH HLIMOMSHUVH YNIMOHS ATOM\ aL advo LV OVALV Td unuypemM 270M fq ‘66st “7ybrulidog pes = LHYIN UXOINIM GHG ONIUNAG LHOITNOOW AT NAMVG HAVUNOLOHA VY WOU —ASNOH SUALUVAVGVAH AHL THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION 495 All three of my American comrades, unfortunately, were ill for short periods during the winter, and this made it impossible for any of them to accompany me upon the sledge journey to the north, for which we were all winter busily preparing. But these ills might have shown themselves at home, and were in no way due to the climate or the surroundings. We had good beds, ood food, including plenty of fresh bear meat, and American oatmeal, bacon, and flapjacks were not forgotten. Yo the most of us the winter seemed short and not much of a test of patience. True, the absence of the sun for 127 days and nights was somewhat of a deprivation, leading us to the con- clusion that if we were going to pass the remainder of our days in those regions sun-worship is the religion which would most strongly appeal to us; but we had work to do, bears to kill, scien- tific observations to carry on, books to read, exercise in the open air to take when the winds did not blow too severely, and the night was none too long. Almost every day we were out for a walk or a run upon snowshoes, and glorious it was to get about in the crisp air and the bright moonlight. But for the moon this far-northern world would be the very depth of gloom during the winter; but when the skies were clear and the moon was full the Arctic night was almost as bright as a winter day in temperate zones, and some of our best photographs were taken under these conditions. Bathing was not neglected by any member of our party, even in the coldest weather. id z THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION 499 to the history of Arctic exploration—had occurred during the winter. Bentzen had been taken ill in November, shortly after our men had left the two there together, and had never recov- ered. Lingering till January 2, carefully nursed by Bjoervig, death had then come to Bentzen’s relief. All this Bjoervig told me, when, at the head of our little procession, I met him stand- ing in front of the tunnel which led down into the now snow- buried hut. Then we crawled in, and Bjoervig poked up the blubber fire and started to make me some coffee, as I sat look-. ing about at the strange little cave, its walls coated with hoar- frost even within two feet of the brilliant flames. “ Where did you bury Bentzen, Paul?” I asked. ‘““T have not buried him, sir,’ was the reply. “He lies in there.” I lit alittle lamp—a bicycle lamp; it had been here in Wash- ington—and walked into the darkened portion of the hut, partly partitioned from the remainder of the apartment, to which Paul had pointed. As soon as my eyes had become accustomed to the peculiar light which the frosted walls and roof reflected from the dim lamp, I saw at my feet a one-man sleeping bag, bearing evidences that it had been occupied by a living man the night before. By its side, within arm’s reach, lay another bag. This one was occupied, and had been for several months. Bag and contents were now frozen as solid asa rock. For two months Bjoervig had slept by the body of his dead comrade—two months of solitude amid the Arctic darkness when night was not to be distinguished from day—two months alone with the dead in this Arctic tomb. Bjoervig had not buried Bentzen because he had promised him he would not, and he had promised because of the sick man’s fear that if buried in the cold and darkness it would be in such manner that the bears and foxes: might get at his remains. ~ Notwithstanding this dreadful ordeal through which he had passed, Bjoervig was sane, cheerful, almost normal. He was a little nervous, and had difficulty in getting sleep; but next day he helped us drag out the body and carefully bury it in a hole which the wind had hollowed out. It was a bitter day, 45 below zero, and a fierce blast blowing down from the glaciers. But the most industrious man of us all, after the little funeral cere- mony was over, was Paul. For hours he was busy chinking up all the openings in the walls around the rude tomb. “I prom- ised him the bears and foxes shouldn’t get him,” he explained. 500 THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION ‘We took Bjoervig with us, contrary to our original plan, and continued our journey to the north. Though the weather was still gloomy, the snow deep in places, storms too frequent, the ice rough, and the loads heavy, we made satisfactory progress. By March 20 we were off the east coast of Rudolf Land, near the 82d parallel of latitude. Our prospects were bright. We had traveled one-fifth of the way to the Pole, and had yet at our command for northerly advance six or seven weeks of the most favorable season. We had passed through the worst of the darkness and cold, and had just reached that period when, in those latitudes, we were to have the sun all the time in the heavens. All our men and equipment were in good condition, and we were scenting the victory that lay before us when a seemingly trivial accident occurred to one of our number. All pride goeth before a fall, and this man, glorying in his strength and endurance, slipped while working his sledge through heavy ice with his team of dogs and fell in a little crevice in the path. The hurt which he received would not have been serious had he stopped for ten days or a fortnight for rest ; but in that work, with the farthest north, and perhaps even the Pole itself, beckon- ing him on, one does not stop. He always thinks he will be better the next day and quite well the day after. So he keeps going, dragging himself along, till he drops in the snow and can go no farther. Then came the bitter retreat. The injured man had to ride upon a sledge and be dragged by his faithful-companions and his dogs. He suffered, of course, but quite as much in his pride as in his body, for it is inglorious to be hauled off the field of battle. His Norwegian comrades were as brave as lions and as tender as women. They nursed him and cared for him, un- mindful of themselves. They made the ambulance, bounding along over the rough ice, as comfortable as they could ; the tent they converted into a hospital, and bandaged the injured limb with hot water in temperatures of 40° below zero. Fearing their broken leader might die upon their hands, they made a gallant race for a man’s life back to headquarters at Cape Tegetthoff, arriving there April 9. If the man riding southward upon the sledge in those first days of April looked longingly to the eastward, where the glint of ice-capped and wholly unexplored lands was seen under the rays of the sun, and planned that in a couple of weeks he would take his sturdy Norwegians out there to explore and upmjad 27vA Nq ‘66st *2yhrihidog aNVT agsor ZNVUdI — ATAAUND Advo QUEEN \VVCT\IORIA S L\A ae) FRITHJOF > EN KARL ALEXANDER S rage... |S of CAPETLA é\RUDOLF LAND 4 &J Hoenlohe I.=> A Nea 2 Tes lpn (Wy sb. WS : . Bz Rainer Di °°. Hochstetter Ids. he ny Koldewey I. OH..." BS \ “Wilczek I. cTomJohnson 1. Ben Cable I. “Orel L. ~S-e-+* Track of Steamer “Capella,"1899, which brought back the Expedition. <«----- Track of Sledge Journeys of the Wellman Expedition, 1898-'99. % The Northernmost Point Reached by the Expedition. (565 Miles from the Pole.) MAP OF FRANZ JOSEF LAND ARCHIPELAGO, SHOWING THE NEW LANDS DISCOVERED AND EXPLORED BY THE WELLMAN EXPEDITION Copyright, 1899, by Walter Wellman Royal Society island Pritchett island C. Brice island D. Bliss island E. Alger island F. Jackson island G. Brady island H. Aagaard island I. Simon Newcomb islands K. Willis Moore islands L. McGee island M. Payer island N. Lyman Gage island d. e. f. Cape Elkins Cape Vilas Cape Hanna Cape Foraker Cape Fairbanks Cape Gorman Cape Tyrol Cape Copeland Cape Robert Hitt . Cape Frick THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION Fe 508 map, that was but another evidence that in Arctic exploration . itis a good thine to have plenty of optimism, served in daily rations and carried in imperishable packages. This journey was subsequently made, however, by a party led by Meteorologist Baldwin, and the result of it was that, whereas when the Wellman expedition arrived in Franz Josef Land the eastern limits of that land were unknown and formed a topic of discussion among geographers, they are now carefully marked out upon the map. By means of these two sledge journeys and a voyage in the unexplored parts of Markham sound subsequently made in the steamer Capella, which was sent after the expedition at the expense of my brother, Arthur Wellman, some 20 new lands or islands were added to the map of that archipelago. Upon these new lands, their capes and straits, we had the pleasure of placing the names of well-known American scientific and public men who had befriended the expedition, including that of the President of the National Geographic Society. We bear testimony to the surprising accuracy of the survey of a part of Franz Josef Land which had been made by Payer, the discoverer of that region, 25 years before. His one great error, the location of an enormous glacier, capping a land of continental dimensions, extending northward from Wilczek Land, had been in part demolished by Dr Nansen, who had landed at the Freeden islands and crossed in his journey over the sea ice the spot where Payer had placed his Dove glacier. We completely finished the destruction of that geographic error. The Dove glacier does not exist, nor has Wilezek Land the form or dimensions ascribed to it by the Austro-Hungarian explorer. Four times did we cross the path of Dr Nansen—twice on our sledge journey to the far north, where we saw, but did not reach, three islands which he had passed without seeing, as they lay a considerable distance to the westward of his course, and twice in our steamers in the British channel and along the coast of Northbrook island at Cape Flora. We regret, of course, the ac- cident which deprived us of our chance to wrest from the gal- lant Norwegian the honor of the farthest north; but if we have in a modest way been able to contribute something to the world’s knowledge of the world, we feel amply repaid for all the hard- ships and all the sacrifices. Above all, weare glad to subscribe to that cosmopolitan spirit which knows no frontier lines in the pursuit of knowledge. We 504 THE WELLMAN POLAR EXPEDITION honor the Norwegian for what he did, and we expect great things of the young Italian prince, the Duke of Abruzzi. Upon meet- ing him in Franz Josef Land we went aboard his ship and wel- comed him to the region of ice and snow and wished him good luck in a fashion which I feel sure was hearty and sincerely American. We may have differences of opinion as to the value of reaching the Pole. If we apply the utilitarian test, it is of small moment; but so is a poem. And what is polar exploration but an epic of endeavor, in which all sordidness is left behind, and in which a man, knowing the risks and the chances of failure, ventures his life and his all in a combat against the forces of ignorance? For I deem it beneath the dignity of man, having once set out to reach that mathematical point which marks the northern termination of the axis of our earth, which stands as a sign of his failure to dominate those millions of square miles of un- known country, to give it up because the night is dark and the road islong. Hewill not giveitup. The polar explorer typifies that outdoor spirit of the race which has led conquering man across all seas and through all lands, of that thirst for knowing all that is to be known which has led him to the depths of the ocean, to the tops of mountains, to dig in musty caves, to analyze the rays of hght from distant worlds, to delve in the geologic records of past times. It will carry him to the North Pole, too, and that before many years shall have passed. Any one who supposes anything else of man doesn’t know man. His acquaint- ance with human nature—with the nature of the adventurous races of our zone and times—is limited. The eyes of the scientific world are turning with more and more eagerness to the Antarctic regions. Little now remains— beyond the Pole itself—in the Arctics; but in the far south there is great work to be done in every field of scientific explo- ration and investigation. I have here the suggestion to make to the National Geographic Society, and I make it after a care- ful study of the situation in all its bearings. It is that this Society institute a movement whose object shall be to gain from Congress an appropriation for an American Antarctic Expedi- tion, to work in harmony with the expeditions which are to go into that field from England and Germany. ‘The modest sum of $150,000 would equip a creditable expedition bearing our flag, and it is my belief that even in this utilitarian age the American Congress can be induced to devote such a small sum to such a great purpose. ¢ ¢ upupaAl 277M A1 A “66ST ‘“Wyhruhidop unui 0704 Ne Gest Qubistidop 6681 ‘ISAYAV NI NVYWTIOM WH 6681 “AUVOAUIIT — AINUNOL APAAIS AUG NO LUVIS Of AGYAN NVYWIIGM UI NOLMMGAdXA VUSV'IV NVWINUVH JO TLNAOW ONIMOHS dyW THE HARRIMAN ALASKA EXPEDITION By Henry GANNETT, Chief Geographer, U. S. Geological Survey This expedition, notices of whose movements have appeared in earlier numbers of TH NarionaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, . reached Seattle on its return July 51. It left the same port for the north June 1, and in the intervening 60 days the George W. Elder, bearing the expedition, steamed 9,000 miles and visited points along the entire northwest coast from Seattle to Bering strait. Not less than 50 different landings were made. The Elder’s route is represented in a general way on the accompany- ing sketch map of Alaska. The party was composed of Mr Harriman’s family and a few of his personal friends, with some 30 scientific men, making a total party of 50. This comprised zodlogists, botanists, geologists, and geographers. Hvery possible facility for the prosecution of scientific work was made, including outfits for inland travel and accommodations for the preparation of specimens, etc. In- deed, the whole expedition, although projected primarily as a pleasure trip for Mr Harriman’s family, was subordinated in all ways to the needs of the scientific party. Hven the move- ments of the ship were arranged day by day by a committee on board in the interest of the scientific work. The general plan pursued was to follow the coast, making brief stops at numerous points for the purpose of making observations and collections. ‘The steamer followed the inside passages as far as Glacier bay, making numerous stops on the way, but none of much duration until Glacier bay was reached. At this point, which is notable for the immense glaciers which reach the sea- level and discharge icebergs, the ship remained for several days, which were improved by the geologists in mapping the glaciers, paying special attention to the positions of their discharging fronts, for purposes of comparison with earlier measurements and for comparison by future students. A similar stop was made in Yakutat bay, where the steamer was taken not only to the head of Yakutat bay proper, but traversed its extension to its head. From Yakutat bay the expedition went to Prince William sound and spent a week in this interesting and almost unknown region. 507 508 THE HARRIMAN ALASKA EXPEDITION Upon its shores are many glaciers, few of which are of record, which extend down to tide and drop bergs into the sea. In this region Mr Gilbert explored and mapped one of the finest glaciers of Alaska, situated upon the north shore, just west of Port Valdez, to which the name of Columbia glacier was given, the fiord into which it enters being called Columbia fiord. Port Wells, an ex- tensive fiord on the northwest coast of Prince William sound, was also explored, and a sketch map of the upper part of this inlet is presented on page 511. From Prince William sound the boat visited Homer, in Kache- mak bay, and thence proceeded to Kadiak island, where parties were landed for hunting and for scientific work. Thence the boat coasted the Alaska peninsula, passing among the Shumagin isl- ands, and thence on to Unalaska, stopping at numerous points — on the route. Leaving Unalaska, a short pause was made at Bogoslof, a group of two volcanic islets, one of them a century old and the other but fourteen years of age; thence the course was north to St Paul island, where a short stop was made to visit the fur-seals, and thence to Plover bay, in northeastern Siberia, where the Innuit people were first encountered. The ship then crossed to Port Clarence, passing just south of Bering strait, within sight of the Diomede islands. At Port Clarence was found a fleet of arctic steam whalers which were waiting there for the ice to retreat from the vicinity of the straits. From Port Clarence the boat visited various islands in Bering sea—St Lawrence, St Matthew, and Hall islands—and thence steered a straight course for Unalaska. From that point she returned to Seattle, following much the same course as on the way up and stopping at comparatively few points. Throughout, the expedition was greatly favored by the we eather. It is a common saying that nothing can be certain about Alaskan weather except that it will be unfavorable. Still, during the two months that the expedition was in Alaskan waters there was but one rainstorm, and there were many clear, bright, sunny days. Although fogs and cloudy weather were frequent, they commonly occurred when there was little to see or do, and the work of the expedition was but slightly delayed or hampered by it. The entire south coast of Alaska, from Portland canal to the Aleutian islands, is composed of a succession of glacial fiords, which continue inland as branching glacial gorges, reaching far up into the coast mountains. Many, if not most, of the gorges are still filled with glaciers near their heads, and in scores of = THE HARRIMAN ALASKA EXPEDITION : 509 cases these glaciers still extend so far downward as to protrude their fronts into the deep water of the fiords. A few thousand years ago, perhaps at the time the Egyptian pyramids were rising, the fiords which form the inland passages now traversed by the tourist were filled with great rivers of ice from the sea bottom nearly to the mountain summits. Indeed, the ice was spread in great sheets, covering all but the highest mountains. The retreat of the ice, though apparently slow, has yet been at so rapid a rate that the oldest land, which first. emerged, has suffered little from subsequent aqueous erosion. The glacial carving is still strongly in evidence, and this ina region of excessive rainfall and steep slopes, where aqueous ero- sionisatamaximum. From these oldest regions, densely forest- clad, with the remains of older forests under foot, we may pass, going up the fiords to land continuously younger. As we ap- proach the glacier the older, dead forests disappear. ‘There is now but a single generation of trees, and these become younger and smaller. Soon they are succeeded by alder and willow bushes ; then by grasses and annual plants, by mosses, and other low forms of vegetation, and, finally, by bare rock ridges, polished and scoured by ice and by bare glacial gravel a few miles only from the ice-front. The glaciers are still retreating. The next generation will find few of them with their fronts still in the sea, discharging bergs. The thunder of the glacier, as it breaks off into the sea, will soon be no more heard in the land. A century ago, when Malaspina explored these shores, the ice extended much farther down the fiords than now. They found fiords closed which now are open, and their charts show that the inlets then extended far less deeply into theland. Malaspina sailed up Yakutat bay, passed Haencke island, and for the moment believed that to him it had been given to discover the long-sought northwest passage, but he was soon confronted by a blank wall of ice, which, extending from side to side, barred further passage. Sadly he named this upper portion of Yakutat bay Disenchantment bay, for his dream was over. Now the ice barrier, the front of Hubbard glacier, has re- treated, and ships may pass 25 miles farther, away to the head of Russell fiord,as the southward extension of Yakutat bay has been named, in honor of Prof. I. C. Russell, who first explored it. When this fiord was dammed by the ice-front of Hubbard elacier it became a lake, with its level some 200 feet above sea, as shown by lake benches along its walls. Then it overflowed 510 THE HARRIMAN ALASKA EXPEDITION to the south, directly to the Pacific, or westward to the lower part of Yakutat bay. Here, therefore, is a fiord 25 miles in length, opened up within a century. Port Wells, in Prince William sound (see map, page 511), isa fine example of the retreat of the ice and the opening of navigable waters. The old charts show this fiord to be only some 30 miles in length, whereas the explorations of the Harriman expedition in 1899 show that it now runs northward into the land not less than 40 miles. It terminates at the upper end in two branches, each occupied by a great glacier, Yale and Harvard, whose fronts are in the water, while along the west side of the fiord are four smaller glaciers, tumbling down in ice cascades from “‘ hanging valleys ” into the water. ‘These terminal glaciers have retreated 9 miles in a century. But the finest of the recent accessions to the navigable fiords of Alaska is the Harriman fiord, discovered and mapped by the expedition. This is a western branch of Port Wells and is not indicated on any chart. Five miles above its mouth it turns abruptly from a northwesterly to a southerly direction and runs in this course some 15 miles. At the bend it is nearly closed by the ice-front of Washington glacier. Indeed, although this gla- cier has been known for some time to the people who navigate these waters, it was supposed that it extended entirely across the fiord, closing it. It was therefore a great surprise, even to the local pilot of the Elder, when a close approach to the front of Washington glacier disclosed a passage through and an open fiord, lined with magnificent glaciers and mountains, beyond. Under the circumstances it required great nerve to take a 1,700-ton steamer through waters so utterly unknown as these. There was no danger from shoals in the open fiord, but a pro- jecting rock which might in earlier days have been a nunatak might have been encountered at any moment; but the ship was run safely to the head of the fiord, unfolding at every bend a wonderful scene of rock and ice. From all indications, it is certain that within the century the four great glaciers which now drop bergs into the waters of Har- riman fiord were united in one, which occupied the fiord from its: present head toits mouth. Moreover, but few years have elapsed since Washington glacier bridged or dammed the fiord at its bend, closing it to all access except by land journey. From these, amid thousands of similar instances which might be cited, it is clear that Alaska is “‘Our Youngest Possession.” The coast, at Ee I MAGNETIC NORTH <> d P Ses . Ss Mbr5 Y ES aos AN VASSAR GL. [PIX ‘4 9S) Peston. SMITH 6L. G25 oe BRYN MAWR GL I HETD WELLESLEY GL 7) iW) z = 2. Ya: < BRR DIRE ~~ Sac [J < X< % < — ‘ : rough Storylan : : SS ¢ ; % NX N Bs Se \ . 5 99 % N 8 to Sunset Seas,” i § : : oO Sunset Seas, : . X x : re N ‘ S | ; | . . \ ae 4 ~ \\ * eo ‘ . oeleskoateetesfoateeteatoateetoatoateeteatoatoctoateetoctoateetectoateeteetoatecteatoatesteaten® Sotteateofosteateots N N N ~\ SX \ \ WX SX WN Rogeaosheslosfostecseate ortectortorlectortortertortortertostestostostostostestestesteetestes, X N + oo '¢ + oe & @ @ @ “O “@ ¢ “¢ “ee eo ee * N NS *° X \ 3 \ N \ x St *% AND IS A WONDERFULLY HAND- © N & N \ ¢ SOME VOLUME OF 205 PAGES, N ~ You can get a copy by writing to NS NS re < S. F. B. MORSE, : WITH 160 ILLUSTRATIONS. ... . SY - 5 ~ General Passenger Agent, ¢ The paper used is FINE PLATE \ N Southern Pacific, + re flee \ \ NEw Onleenet s PAPER, and every typographical de- \ EN . liv ee : NX . andsending 10 cts. to defray postage, Bs tail is artistic. It is a story of what \ oo S 3 P 2 Na *’ four people saw on just such a trip as N % . ei ~ you would like to make........ \ £3 N NS 4 SS Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PERSONALLY CONDUCTED TOURIST PARTIES TO Leave BOSTON every Tuesday Leave CHICAGO every Wednesday Comfortable and Inexpensive Leave ST. LOUIS every Wednesday SELECT PARTIES leave Boston every Tuesday via Niagara Falls : and Chicago, joining at Denver a similar party, which leaves St. Louis every Wednesday. From Denver the route is over the Scenic Denver and Rio Grande Railway, and through Salt Lake City. Pullman Tourist Sleeping Cars of a new pattern are used. They are thoroughly com- fortable and exquisitely clean, fitted with double windows, high-back seats, carpets, spacious toilet-rooms, and the same character of bedding found in Palace Cars. They are well heated and brilliantly lighted with Pintsch gas. Outside they are of the regu- lation Pullman color, with wide vestibules of steel and beveled plate glass. Beautifully illustrated books on California and Colorado, with maps, train schedules and com- plete information can be had from any of the following Burlington Route agents: E. J. SWORDS W. J. OYMEARA H. E. HELLER 379 Broadway 306 Washington Street 632 Chestnut Street NEW YORK CITY BOSTON, MASS. PHILADELPHIA, PA. F. E. BELL Cc. D. HAGERMAN J. G. DELAPLAINE 211 Clark Street 703 Park Building Broadway and Olive Streets CHICAGO, ILL. PITTSBURG, PA. ST. LOUIS, MO. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. a ME NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOLE LDL LL LLNS Tile aaaNCNO CNY NaN Nae NaN iN NNN aN NN aN cma a a Nogere — 4 4. 4 4 ye 4 4 4 4 4. 4 4 4 4 4B 4~ 4 3 4 yy | ( Shortest Line St, Paul and Minneapolis and the Northwest GHICAGO GREAT = = TL oOo TOONS TOOT eS A NGA Na 7S NE Nf EN IN REE NYO NI NT SS ee NV cat NY NUT a = CR Ree re SSE SEEN ES aN ol v » alias alias es a SSS SSS SSNS EEE ETE EOE_EEESEESEAS ‘s Maple ‘ a ESTERN {. Route ’”’ x RAILWAY For tickets, rates or any detailed information apply to your home agent or write to \ F. H. LORD, , d Gen’! Pass’r and Ticket Agent, } CHICAGO. i —, Pah —A~~—%-- Za a - ie | | : | NAAT ATA AAA AAA A ALAA ALAA A VITAL POINT RAIDER OF THE AG ’.*’ A ‘T YPEWRITER’S PRINTING MECHANISM ee IMPROVEMENT 2 ae KAREN? Aa NIRAER SS Se) MUST BE SCIENTIFICALLY CON- STRUCTED. THIS POINT IS OF UTMOST IMPORT FOR EASY OPERATION AND PERFECT EXECUTION. Che Sitith.. Premier’ Cypewriters Superior on This Pcint as Well as on All Others. Te a i ! ce ee REERRDDARADRARDRRADRRADR DN The Smith Premier Typewriter Co., ONLY CORRECT PRINCIPLES EMPLOYED. SYRACUSE, N. Y., U.S. A. Ar NAA AWA AVA VAAL VA WA AWA AWA AWW VARA DRDREDREREDRDADRRDRERREDARAADARRRARBAS Catalogues and Information at Washington Office, No. 619 Eleventh Street. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. aie NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. THE AMERICAN FORESTRY ASSOCIATION. ORGANIZED APRIL, 1882. INCORPORATED JANUARY, 1897. OFFICERS FOR 1899. President; Hon. JAMES WiLSON, Secretary of Agriculture. First Vice-Pres.: Dr B. E. FERNOW. Vice-Pres. for District of Columbia: GEORGE W. MCLANAHAN, Corresponding Sec’y: ¥. H. NEWELL. Recording Secretaryand Treasurer: GEORGE P. WHITTLESEY, The object of this Association is to promote: 1. A more rational and conservative treatment of the forest resources of this continent. The advancement of educational, legislative, and other measures tending to promote this object. 3. ‘The diffusion of knowledge regarding the conservation, management, and renewal of forests, the methods of reforestation of waste lands, the proper utilization of forest products, the plant- ing of trees for ornament, and cognate subjects of arboriculture. Owners of timber and woodlands are particularly invited to join the Association, as well as are all persons who are in sympathy with the objects herein set forth. Life Membership, $50. Annual Membership, $2.00. if H E FO R EST E R ao) ETE AMERICAN FORESTRY. ASSOCIATION. A monthly magazine devoted to ARBORICULTURE and FORESTRY, the care and use of forests and forest trees, and related subjects. Subscriptions, $1.00 a Year. (Furnished gratis to members of the Association.) Address all communications to Corcoran Pune panne ten: D.C, HENRY ROMEIKE’S BUREAU OF PRESS CUTTINGS, 110 Fifth Avenue, New York, Reads every paper of importance published in the United States, and through its European agencies in London, Paris, Berlin, and Vienna every paper of im portance published in Europe and the British Colonies. One subscription on any given sub- ject will bring notices from the United States, and if desired also from the European papers. Write for terms. WOODWARD & LOTHROP invite attention to their selections and importations in desirable merchandise for the present season, comprising in part Paris and London Millinery, Silks, Velvets, High-class Dress Goods, Ready-to-Wear Outer Garments for Women, Girls and Boys, Hand-made Paris Lingerie, Corsets, Infants’ Outfittings, Hosiery, Laces, Ribbons, Em- broideries, Linens, Upholstery Goods, Books, Stationery, Card Engraving; also Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Novelties in Leather and Fancy Goods, Sterling Silver Articles, Lamps, Clocks, Bronzes, etc., for Wedding Gifts. {0th, 11th and F Streets, Washington, D. C. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE WORLD AS IT IS. Carpenter’s Geographical Reader--North America - 60 Cts. Carpenter’s Geographical Reader--Asia - - 60 Cts. The results of the author’s recent extended journeys over the different continents, with personal observations of their peoples, just as they are found today in their homes and at their work. The illustrations forthe most part are reproductions of photographs taken on the spot. Payne’s Geographical Nature Studies - - 25 (Cts, Within the comprehension of the youngest pupils, they culti- vate habits of close observation and lead directly to the point where the more formal study of geography begins. Hinman’s Eclectic Physical Geography - - $1.00 A brief statement of the proximate causes of the more common and familiar phenomena observed at the earth’s surface. ‘he planets, atmosphere, sea, land, climate, and life are each discussed in turn. Send price in stamps and receive, postpaid, copies of these valuable books. AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY, New York, Cincinnati, Chicago, Boston, Atlanta, Portland, Ore. SSN] aS) he SS MACMILLAN COMPANY For the LATEST TEXT-BOOKS and WORKS OF REFERENCE ON EVERY BRANCH OF SCIENCE BY LEADING AUTHORS. PROF. L. H. BAILEY (Cornell University), PROF. NICHOLS anp HIS COLLEAGUES (De- works on Agriculture and Botany partment of Physics,Cornell Univ.), in Physics, PROF. THORP (Mass. Inst. ‘ech.), on Jndus- Electricity, etc. trial Chemistry. $3.50 net. PROF.PACKARD (Brown Univ.), on Entomology. $4.50 net. PROFS. HARKNESS anp MERLEY (Bryn Mawr and Haverford), Theory of Analytic Functions. $3.00 net. PROF. LAMBERT ‘(Lehigh University), on Dif Jevential and Integral Calculus. $1.50 net. PROF. LACHMAN (Univ. of Oregon), The Spirit of Organic Chemistry. $1.50 met. PROF. DAVENPORYT (Harvard University ). PROF. TARR (Cornell Univ.), Physical Geogra- Experimental Morphology. Vol. 1, $2.60; Vol phy, Geology, etc. II, $2.00. : PROF. HENRY F. OSBORN (Columbia Univ.), PROF. COUREY (Tufts College), Dictionary of Editor of the Columbia Biological Series. Chemical Solubtiities. These are a few only of the names represented in the Catalogue or the New Announcement List (sent free). THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Publishers, NEW YORK. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The Leading: Scientific: Journal of America SCIENCE A JOURNAL DEVOTED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. PUBLISHED EVERY FRIDAY. Annual Subscription, $5.00. Single Copies, 15 Cents. From its first appearance, in 1883, SCIENCE has maintained a repre- sentative position, and is regarded, both here and abroad, as the leading scientific journal of America. Its Editors and Contributors come from every institution in this country in which scientific work of importance is accomplished, including Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Pennsylvania, Johns Hopkins, Cornell, and California Universities, among others. EDITORIAL COMMITTEE. S. NEwcomp, Mathematics; R.S. WOODWARD, Mechanics; E.C. PICKERING, Astronomy; T. C. MENDENHALL, Physics ; R. H. THURSTON, Engineering ; IRA REMSEN, Chemiis- try ; J. LE Conte, Geology; W.M. Davis, Physiography ; HENRY F. OSBORN, Paleontology; W. K. Brooks, C. HarRT MERRIAM, Zoology; S. H. SCUDDER, Entomology; C. EH. BESSEY, N. L. BRITTON, Botany; C. 5. MINOT, Embryology, Histology; H. P. Bowpitcu, Physiology ; J. S. BILLINGS, Hygiene; J. MCKEEN CATTELL, Psychology ; J. W. PowELL, Anthropology. NEW AND POPULAR SCIENTIFIC BOOKS. HARDIN The Liquefaction of Gases. Its Rise and Development. By WILLET L. HARDIN, Ph.D., University of Penn- sylvania. Cloth, 12mo, $1.50. A popular yet complete account of the methods used in the liquefaction of air, among other gases. GANONG The Teaching Botanist. A Manual of information upon Botanical In- struction, together with Outlines and Directions fur a Comprehensive Ele- meutary Course. By WILLIAM F. GANONG, Ph.D., Smith College. Cloth, 12mo, $1.10 et?. A manual of information upon botanical in- Struction, with outlines and directions for an elementary course. MACBRIDE The Slime Moulds. A Handbook of North American Myxomycetes. By Tuomas H. MACBRIDE, Professor of Botany, University of Iowa. Cloth, 12mo. A list of all species described in North America, including Central America, with an- notations. SUTER Handbook of Optics. For Students of Ophthalmology. By WILLIAM N. SUTER, M. D., National University, Washington, D. C. Cloth, 12mo, $1.00 ze. Aims to give a clearer insight into the phenom” ena of refraction as applied to ophthalmology than can be obtained from the usual text-books on Refraction of the eye. THE MACMILLAN COMPANY, Publishers, NEW YORK. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Published by the Century Co. New Edition, prepared after a recent visit to the Islands since the American occupation. CUBA AND PORTO Wee) With the Other Islands of the West Indies. By ROBERT T. HILL, of the U.S. Geological Survey. Universally considered the best work on the subject that has appeared—‘“‘ everything relating to the islands which would interest the reader ’’—Boston Transcript. It covers all the 1slands, and the chapter on Porto Rico in the second large edition, now ready, has beeu revised and brought up to date after a visit to that island since the American occupation. The Atheneum (Iondon) says: “It is seldom that such a thoroughly good book has come before us.’’ It covers the subjects of climate, soil, topography, geology, flora, products, industries, political conditions, etc., and it is a handbook which is invaluable to the tourist. 500 pages, Beautifully Mllustrated, Very Attractive Binding, $}.00. ie) CAMPAIGNING IN CUBA: By GEORGE KENNAN. A Study of the Campaign at Santiago by the Author of ‘(Siberia and the Exile System,’ etc. “Tu ‘Campaigning in Cuba’ Mr. Kennan writes of a subject with which he is per- fectly familiar, for he was present at the bloody battles he describes, and made careful observations of the conduct of the war. Mr. Kennan enjoys the benefits of extensive travel, splendid judgment, and an analytical mind. He does not hesitate to express his own opinion or to criticise high officials when he thinks they deserve censure, though the reader can readily see that he is frank and fair-minded. The author, who is vice- president of the Red Cross Association, went to the front as correspondent of the Outlook, and the basis of this book is the material he contributed to that paper. Richmond Dispatch. ‘“The most satisfying, the fairest, the most judicial account and criticism of the Santiago campaign.’’— 7imes, Los Angeles, Cal. “Mr Kennan has done a ‘public service by this book. » _Congregationalist. r2mo, 269 pages, Cloth, $1.50. THE CENTURY Coe UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK. Please mention this Meee when Bete. to advertisers. , NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DOUBLEDAY & McCLURE. CO, 141-155 East 25th Street, New York. Sere United States of Europe. W. TL. Stead. ON THE EVE OF THE PARLIAMENT OF PEACE. Mr. Stead’s recent talks with the Czar and with all the great European statesmen lend much value to this timely review of current politics, written with special reference to the Russian Peace Rescript and American ‘‘ Expansion.’’ It covers such pertinent matters as America’s task in Cuba and the Philippines, the ‘‘ Chinese Puzzle,’’ South African Problems, the Fashoda Muddle, the Concert of Europe and its work in Crete and Candia, and so on, with many suggestive forecasts. Size, 54% x 8%; pages, 468; over 100 portraits, maps, and illustrations; binding, cloth. Price, $2. 00. eiketches in Keypt. Charles Dana Gibson. ““EKeypt,’’? says Mr. Gibson, ‘‘has sat for her likeness longer than any other coun- try.” The recent important events that have turned all eyes toward the Upper Nile have not disturbed in the least the ancient composure and serenity of the Land of the Pharoahs, and few countries offer such a tempting field to the artistic pen. Mr. Gibson’s forceful aud suggestive drawings are well reinforced by his written impressions—more complete than hhe has ever before published—and the whole makes up a uniquely in- teresting record, from an artist who occupies a peculiar position among us. It is the real Egypt from a-new standpoint. No pains have been spared to produce a true art work, giving really adequate presentations of Mr. Gibson’s drawings. Size, 734 x 1014; cloth decorated; pages, 150; type, 12 point. Regular edition, $3.00 net. Edition de Luxe, 250 signed and numbered co pies, each accompanied bya portfolio containing art proofs of ten of the most inporcari pictures, on Japan si] lk tissue and mounted on plate paper suitable for framing. Price per copy, $10.00 net. AS SOON AS ACTUALLY PUBLISHED THE PRICE ON ALL DE LUXE COPIES NOL SUBSCRIBED FOR WILL BE RAISED. Paomeseate Sea hWucdyard Mipline 35th THOUSAND. This is an authorized edition of the collected letters of travel which Mr. Rudyard Kipling has written at various times between 1889 and 1898, and has just edited and revised. It includes hitherto unpublished matter, as well as an accurate text of the “Amierican Notes,’’ with ‘‘ Letters of Marque,’’ ‘ lhe City of Dreadful Night,” ‘‘ The Smith Administration,’’ etc., etc. Even Mr. Kipling never wrote anything more entirely irresistible than are, for in- stance, his letters on Japan. ‘The ludicrousness of the Japanese ‘‘ heavy cavalry, tale fascinating O-Toyo, the cherry blossoms, and the wonderful art which permeates the daily life of natural Japau—all these things become permanent in the reader’s mind and can never be forgotten; and they showa side of the author which is not at all prominent in most of his other work. _ Size, 5x7%; two volumes in box; pages, 860; type, 10 point; binding, cloth. Price, $2.00, itiewiedl Tiawai, Lucien Young, U.S. N: ITS HISTORY AND PRSSENT CONDITION, INCLUDING THE ‘TRUE STORY OF THE REVOLUTION. This is an authoritative work upon our newly acquired possessions by an American Naval officer, who kuows his subject thoroughly. It not only gives the inside history of the revolution which ended the Monarchy—Lieutenant Young was on the Goston at that time, and took an active part in the proceedings —but furnishes a reliable handbook to the condition and resources of the island. An SEMEN contains an elaborate array of statistical information. Size, 5x71; pages, about 371; 18 illustrations and maps. Price, $1.50. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE | APPLETON’S GEOGRAPHICAL SERIES. | Edited by H. J. MACKINDER, M. A., Student of Christ Church, Reader in Geography in the University of Oxford, Principal of Reading College. | | | | The series will consist of twelve volumes, each being an essay descriptive of a great natural region, its marked physical features, and the life of its people. | Together the volumes will give a complete account of the world, more especially | as the field of human activity. The series is intended for reading rather than for reference, and will stand removed on the one hand from the monumental work of Reclus, and on the other from the ordinary text-book, gazetteer, and compendiuni. | Each volume is to be illustrated by many maps printed in colors and by diagramis in the text, and it will be a distinguishing characteristic of the series that both maps and diagrams will be drawn so that each of them shall convey some salient idea, and that together they shall constitute a clear epitome of the | writer's argument. With a like object, the pictures also will be chosen so as to illustrate the text and not merely to decorate it. A detailed announcement of this important series will be presented later. | List of the Subjects and Authors. Britain and the North Atlantic. By the Eprror. 2. Scandinavia and the Arctic Ocean. By Sir CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, K. C. B., F. R. S., President of the Royal Geographical Society. 3. The Romance Lands and Barbary. By ELISEE RECLUS, author of the “‘Nouvelle Géographie Universelle.”’ 4. Central Europe. By Dr. JosEPH VARTSCH, Professor of Geography in the University of Breslau. 5. Africa. By Dr. J. Scorr KELTIE, Secretary of the Royal Geographical Society ; Editor of ‘‘ The Statesman’s Year-Book.” | 6. The Near East. By D. G. HocarTH, M. A., Fellow of Magdalen Col- lege, Oxford ; Director of the British School at Athens; Author of “A Wandering Scholar in the Levant.”’ 7. The Russian Empire. By Prince KRAPOTKIN, author of the articles ‘‘Russia’’? and ‘‘Siberia”’ in the Excyclopedia Britannica. 8. The Far East. By ARCHIBALD LITTLE. 9. India. By Sir T. HUNGERFORD HoxpicH, K.C. I. E., C. B., R. E., Su- perintendent of Indian Frontier Surveys. 10. Australasia and Antarctica. By Dr. H. O. ForRBES, Curator of the Liverpool Museum ; late Curator of the Christ Church Museum, N. Z. ; Author of ‘‘A Naturalist’s Wanderings in the Eastern Archipelago.”’ 11. North America. By Prof. I. C. RUSSELL, University of Michigan. 12. South America. By Prof. JoHN C. BROUNER, Vice-President Leland Stanford Junior University. Maps by J. G. BARTHOLOMEW. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, NEW YORK. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. ra NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEISIENT! THE INTERNATIONAL GEOGRAPHY. The last few years have proved so rich in geographical discov- eries that there has been a pressing need for a 7ésumé of recent ex- plorations and changes which should present in convenient and accurate form the latest results of geographical work. ‘The addi- tions to our knowledge have not been limited to Africa, Asia, and the Arctic regions, but even on our own continent the gold of the Klondike has led to a better knowledge of the region, while within a short time we shall have much more exact geographical informa- tion concerning the numerous islands which make up the Philippines. The want which is indicated will be met by 7 he /nternational Geog- raphy, a convenient volume for the intelligent general reader, and the library which presents expert summaries of the results of geo- graphical science throughout the world at the present time. Seventy authors, all experts, have collaborated in the production of The International Geography. ‘The contributors include the lead- ing geographers and travelers of Kurope and America. The work has been planned and edited by Dr. H. R. MIL, who also wrote the chapter on The United Kingdom. Among the authors are: Professor W. M. Davis (The United States), Dr. FRIDTJOF NANSEN (Arctic Regions), Professor A. KIRCHHOFF (German Empire), Mr. F. C. SELouS (Rhodesia), Professors DE LAPPARENT and RAVENEAU (France), Sir CLEMENTS R. MARKHAM, F. R. S. (Ecuador, Bolivia, and Peru), Sir JOHN MurRAY, F. R. S. (Antarctic Regions), Count PFEIL (German Colonies), Mr. JAMES Bryce, M. P. (The Boer Republics), Sir H. H. JOHNSTON, the late Sir LAMBERT PLAYFAIR, Sir F. J. Gorpsmip, Sir MARTIN CoNWAY, Sir GEORGE S. ROBERTSON, Sir WILLIAM MACGREGOR, Sir CHARLES WILSON, F. R. S. ; the Hon. D. W. CARNEGIE, Mrs. BISHOP, Dr. A. M. W. DOWNING, F. R. S. ; Dr. J. Scorr KELTrE, and Mr. G. G. CHISHOLM, the editor of the Z7zmes Gazetteer. The book is illustrated by nearly five hundred maps and diagrams, which have been specially prepared. It is designed to present in the compact limits of asingle volume an authoritative conspectus of the science of geography and the conditions of the countries at the end of the nineteenth century. D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 72 Fifth Avenue, New York. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PRIZES OFFERED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY FOR Essays on Norse Wiscoveries in America. x. A first prize of $150 and a second prize of $75 are offered for the best and second best essays, respectively, relating to pre-Columbian. discoveries. and settlements of the Norsemen on the mainland of North America and the location of the lands mentioned in the Icelandic Sagas. 2. Essays submitted in competition for these prizes should be typewritten in the English language, and should not exceed 6,000 words in length ; they may be accompanied by maps and other illustrations used for the explanation of the text, but not for embellishment. | 3. Essays submitted in competition for the prizes should be signed bye pseudonym or number, and should bear no other indication of authorship, but each should be accompanied by a sealed envelope, marked with the same pseudonym or number, containing the name and address of the author. 4. The competition will close at 6 p. m., December 31, 1899. 5. The National Geographic Society and the judges on behalf thereof re- serve the right to withhold either prize, or both, in case the essays submitted are not sufficiently meritorious to warrant publication with the approval of the Society; but in case of withholding one or both of the prizes on this ground, a new competition will be opened. 6. Immediately after the close of the competition the essays submitted in accordance with the foregoing conditions will be laid before the following board of judges, whose adjudication shall be final: HENRY GANNETT, Chief Geographer of the U. S. Geological Survey, ete. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Professor of History in Harvard University. ANITA NEWCOMB MCGEE, M. D., Acting Assistant Surgeon, U.S. A. JOHN BACH McMasrTrEr, LL. D., Professor of History in the University of Pennsylvania. HENRY S. PRITCHETT, Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 107-108 Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. 2 * ¥ NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The American Anthropologist. The only American magazine devoted to the science of Anthropology ; ublished at the National Capital. No one interested in anthropology in any of its branches can afford to be without it. Szbdscribe today. Handsomely Printed and Illustrated. Published Quarterly. Four Dollars a Year. Appress: THE AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGIST, G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 27 and 29 West 23d Street, New York City. We CUS A practical journalist, long a member of the staff of the Washington Evening Star, resigned his position to go to Guatemala. Before he left Washington he had been a firm believer in the medicinal qualities of Ripans Tabules, and took a lot of them with him to Guatemala, where he earned the friendship of the captain of the steamer, which sails from San Francisco and stops at ports in Central America, by making known to him the marvelous virtues of R-I-P-A-N-S the medical wonder of the century. He often dilates upon the captain’s enthusiasm about the Tabules and asserts that the people of the tropics suffer terribly from indigestion, and that the Tabules are now known most favorably throughout Central America. Ripans Tabules quiet the nerves, compose the mind, allay irritation, and invite repose. One gives relief. 5 WANTED :—A ease of bad health that R-I-P-A-N-S will not benefit. They banish pain and rolong life. One gives relief. Note the word R-I-P-A-N-S on the package and accept no substitute. I-P-A-N-S, 10 for 5 cents, or twelve packets for 48 cents, may be had at any drug store. Ten samples and one thousand testimonials will be mailed to any address for 5 cents, forwarded to the Ripans Chemical Co., No. 10 Spruce St., New York. Please mention this Magazine when writing to advertisers. NATIONAL GHOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Is a Journal of Geography--Physical, Commercial, and Political. Its editorial staff includes officers and experts of the different scientific bureaus of the’ Government, each representing a field teeming with facts of geographic interest. Its corps of contributors comprises nearly every United States citizen whose name has become identified with Arctic exploration, the Bering Sea controversy, the Alaska and Venezuela boundary disputes, or the new commercial and political questions arising from the acquisition of the Philippines. Through the cordial codperation of the different diplomatic representatives of foreign nations at Washington, it 1s able to present the latest and most authentic geographic intelligence from other countries. ~ ; Tue NarionaL GrocrapHic MaGazinE numbers among its contributors the following well-known writers on the different branches of geographic science: Prof. CLEVELAND ABBE Cyrus C. ADAMS Cyrus C. Bass Capt. J. R. Barrier, U.S. N. Dr GrorGE F. BECKER ALEXANDER GRAHAM Bett, LL. D., ete. Prof. F. H. BigELow Lieut. J. C. CANTWELL, U.S. A. Frank M. CHAPMAN Rosert H. CHAPMAN Dr E. L. CorrHEeiu EF. V. CoviiLe Frank H. CusHine Hon. CHarues W. DaBNey Dr Witutam H. Datu N. H. Darron Prof. GzorGE Davipson WiittamM M. Davis Dr Davin T. Day. J. S. Dinter Lieut. C. P. Exutorr, U.S. A. Prof. B. EK. FeErnow ‘Hon. Joun W. Foster Col. D. D. Garnuarp, U.S. A. HaMLIN GARLAND ‘Prof. E. B. Garriorr President D. C. GILMAN ‘Capt. L. C. Gurnn, U.S. A. Ricnarpd U. GoopE Prof J. Howarp GoRE Prof. Epwin A. GROSVENOR Prof. AtBErtT BusHNELL Harr Dr C. WitLARD Hayes Prof. A. J. Henry Col. F. F. HitpEr Roperr T. Hivw F. W. HopGe: WiuiiamM H. Houmes $2.50 a Year. Dr Emit Howvus, Vienna CornELIA Horsrorp Dr SHELDON JACKSON WILLARD D. JoHNSON J. Scorr Ketrttz, LL. D., ete. GEORGE KENNAN Prof. S. P. Laneitey Prof. WiiuiaAM LIBBEY Prof. Joon Bach McMaster Dr T. C. MenpDENHALL EF. H. Newewuu Lieut. Roperr E. Peary GrorGE C. Prerxins, U.S. S. Prof. W. H. PickERING GIFFORD PINCHOT Major J. W. Powrn Prof. W. B. Powe. EK. D. Preston Prof. IsrarL C. RusseLtu Dr N. S. SHALER Major W. A. Simpson, U.S. A. Capt. C. D. Stasper, U.S. N. Maj. A. FALKNER VON SONNENBERG J. STANLEY-BRowNn Gen. G. M. SrerNBERG Commander Z. L. TANNER Prof. Raupu S. Tarr Max L. Tornow O. H. Tirrmann Hon. CuHarites D. Watcorr Mrs Fannie B. Warp Commander H. Wesster, U. S. N. WaLtTeR WELLMAN Watter D. WiLcox Battey WILLIS Hon. Wititam L. Witson Dr F. H. Wines Prof. DEAN C., WORCESTER 25 Cents a Copy. Three Months’ Trial Subscription, 50 Cents. Requests for Sample Copies should invariably be accompanied by 25 Cents. 107-108 Corcoran Building, Washington, D. C. rt ‘HE a Niatrroweas GrograpHtc MaGazInE has a as unbound alae i ears 1896, 1897, and 1898. Each volume contains numerous maps and eae and much valuable geographic matter. It is impossible to give e contents of each volume, but the following subjects show their wide ge and scope: ol. VII, 1896: Russia in Europe, by the late Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard ;. Scope and Value of Arctic Exploration, by Gen. A, W. Greely, U.S.A.; Venezuela, Government, People, and Boundary, by William E. Curtis; The So-called | anette Relics, by Wm. H. Dall; Nansen’s Polar Expedition, by Gen. A. W. Greely, ByAy,'. The Submarine Cables of the World (with chart 49x30 inches); Seriland, W J McGee and Willard D. Johnson; The Discovery of Glacier Bay, Alaska, by -R. Scidmore; Hydrography in the United States, by F. H. Newell; Africa since 1888, by the ae Hon. Gardiner G. Hubbard; The Seine, The Meuse, anal The Moselle, y Prof. Wm. M. Davis; The Work of the U. S. Board on Geographic Names, by Henry unnett ; A Journey in Ecuador, by W. B. Kerr; Geographic History of the Piedmont ts teau, by W J McGee; The Recent Earthquake Wave on the Coast of Japan, by H. R. ‘ idmore; California, by Senator Geo. C. Perkins; The Witwatersrand and the Revolt the Vitlanders, by George F. Becker; The Sage Plains of Oregon, by F. V. Coville. ‘Vol. VIII, 1897: The Gold Coast, Ashanti and Kumassi, by Geo. K, French ;. ater Lake, Oregon, by J.S. Diller; Storms and Weather Forecasts, by Willis L. Moore tubber Forests of Nicaragua and sient Leone, by Gen. A. W. Greely, U.S.A.; A Sum- mer Voyage to the Arctic, by G. R. Putnam; A Winter Voyage through the Straits of Belen, by the late Admiral R. W. Meade, U.S.N.; Costa Rica, by Sefor Ricardo © Vv fillafranca; The National Forest Reserve, by F. H. Megels The Forests and Deserts of A rizona, by B. E. Fernow; Modification of the Great Lakes by Earth Movement, by G. K. — Gilbert ; The Buchanted Mesa, by F. W. Hodge; Patagonia, by J. B. Hatcher; The Washington Aqueduct and Cabin John Bridge, by GAA D. D. Gaillard, U.S.A. Vol. IX, 1898: Three Weeks in Hubbard Bay, West Greenland, by Robert ‘in; The Modern Mississippi Problem, by W J McGee; Dwellings of the Saga-Time in Iceland, Greenland, and Vineland, by Cornelia Horsford ; Articles on Alaska, byGen. A A. W. Greely, U.S.A., Hamlin Garland, E, R. Scidmore, Brot Wm. H. Dall, and others;~ n Cuba, by Robert T. Hill, Frank M. Chapman, John Hyde, and Henry Gaunt Oni Arne b e Philippines, by Dean C. Worcester, Col. F. F. Hilder, John Hyde, and CharlesE. e; American Geographic Education, by W J McGee; Origin of the Physical ures of the United States, by G. K. Gilbert; Geographic Work of the General — ernment, by Henry Gannett; Papagueria, by W J McGee; The Bitter Root Forest reserve, by R. U. Goode; Lake Chelan, by Henry Gannett; The Geospheres, by WJ _ McGee; Sumatra’s West Coast, by D. G. Fairchild; The Five Civilized Tribes in the 1) ey of Indian Territory, by C. H. Fitch; tang Scenery of the High Plains, by ) a D. Johnson ; Atlantic Coast Tides, by M. S. W. Jefferson. jai aa dD bak . ¢ po As 108 Goreoran ee Washington, D 0. $" For a chart Cm ie world, 48 ba 30 1 ‘ y x “ Ae es ‘ be A Rb ; me . gunn ¢ & petwerLen, a ;. INDEX Page Apsruzzi, Duke of the,Comparative chances for reaching the North Pole of.... 486 —, Meeting of Wellman expedition with.. 484 —, Notes on polar expedition of. 232, 362 ARRIGA, Map Of -‘SOUtH i. .:..s.cccssececcsecnsteecens 481 —, Note on railroads in southern.............. 423 —, — — report of physical and ethnical POMEL OSOINistccecsemcceseeceeesecse aces —, — — exports of gold from South.. Axaska boundary, ‘Beginning of dispute between Great Britain and the United PIVMUOS MOP ALIN On cyt sccccaceesscevecsnersve ese « 455 ——, Canadian survey of. vs 451 — —; Hon. John W. Foster...................065 425 —, Historie sketch of Russian operations in, —,--— - United St: ul —, Description of expedition for explor- ing and surveying in — expedition, Harriman; Henry Gannet ———; Gilbert H. Grosvenor... BY MP IOLADIOMS lllececescesceciecccceess —, Failure of scheme for railroad in.. : ——) Maraships of travel 1n.......:.-s.cse..0edseeece —, Influence on United States of purchase Obectacs ereccasser eons sdmesaeeetstenctemddicasvee! atect 201 —, Joint American and British survey in.. 445 —, Map of southeastern...2........cieccerececseene 377 —, Methods of transportation in........ 379, 460 —, Note on hydrographie and topographie WOMAN eetieves vecSi Seem ctsuis vaca stooscc oss ccuueceustes 373 “ALBATROSS,” Deep-sea exploring expedi- tion of steamer; Hugh M. Smith........ 291 ALEUTIAN archipelago, Suggested methods DIMES MIONAMOM TMs sce ccemepe ace cecioace sc 286 ALLEN, E. L., cited on yield of redwood., .. 152 Anentc a, Chart of northwest coast of.. 432 — Early predictions regarding........... 86 _, Grotndless pessimism regarding........ 203 American Association for the Advance- Grosve- ment of Science; Gilbert H. Internal obst Americans, Advantages of Anorfe, Note on book on balloon expedi- tion of.. —, Rumors 1 Anrarcric climate... — expedition, Belgian ——, English ——, German. ——,} Suggestion ‘to National Geogr: iphie Society for obt: aining Government aid — progress, LOT eacenccesses OOS ECA CECBaCE Che Gr OBA oR EES cee ECE 504. — navigation, Dangers Of..........cccceseeceeete nes 318 Antipo.o, Description of. Arctic explorations ...... — trade ends Dhcbed Rawtancess ARCTOWSKI, , Work of, s meteorologis of Baltian Antaretie expedition......... 520 Aripiry, Classification and dese ription of degrees of... .... POCOPEELAG TL ECE TT OME EET a 162 —, Effects on forests of encroachment of.. 162 —, — on plant life of... — impending on the 1 MGUY Oy evecarctevisssceendpuaan, ATHABASCA pass, Speeulation veg: uding..... 135 Austin, O. P.; Colonis il systems of the world... RPC CE LOCC PCLRE ODE CEEPE EEE 21 ; Commercial deve ‘lopment of Japan..... 329 aE — importance of Samon.......... Rand —, Work of, referred to...........ccccc06 0 Bap lands of South Dakota (The); N. H. IOLA TRo) ake sbaarbegsssononacapocioaanbadsandece Barpeker, Kari, Review of book by......... Batpwiy, Everyn B.; The meteorological observations of the Second Wellman QRMPSAUGVOMP eacee sacle oueeteecinede tia seseensens 5 tile Batrour, Arruur J., promises government aid to an E nglish Antarctic expedition 273 Bauer, L. A.; Magnetic work of the Coast and Geodetic Survey.. —, Work of, referred te os Beteran Antarctic expedition (The)......... 229 — — —, Meteorological work by ——-, * Summar y of results acc omplished BR oadeosdcuoocaocase Hac EEE HOA CEEERO aicecnebaces Hooda 327 Acknow ledg- Brn, AL EXANDER GRAHAM, ment to... —, Record of address by Brresrorp, Lord Cuaries, Review of book Brrine strait, Note on discovery o Biartow, Frank H.; The international cloud work of the Weather Burean..... 251 Bionogican Survey, U. S., Expedition to Alaska by... 4 Birver Root range, Exploration of.. Biareerry valley, Excursion through the. 13 Brake, W. P., Work in Stikine ¢ ountr yor. | 7 Boarp on Geographic Names, U. imal personnel Of........-.ccsecceeess Bounpary lines, Unsettled condition of AMIGET MAUL OMA) wereaaesaswsee ase sae scree eiccuseeeeatat 413 Bouver island, Definite location of; O. H. MINIMA AEN GIN pGHbedaose). Gaedaod asckodddacy staccdedadans 413 Bow lake, Depot, DeSeriptiOn) Of. c.-..ease 113 Brackrrr, W.S8., Work of, referred to...... 278 BRANNER, J. 6, ; The recent ascent of IiEN OGY 8Y=) Aico odscarcosGecee sarcoeseancecguas Adasobcccads 183 Bripeman, H. L.; Peary’s work and pros- JOEXCUS GaScacedongdaacescconaddicecadanacesoces , Work of, TELELTER tOcccsccecncceveeseeeeene 4 Byrnsen Success as colonizers of. il Brown (Mt), Search of Norman Collie for. 135 Bruce, Miner, Review of book by.............. 475 CatcuLarrons of population in June, 1900 ; Henry Farquhar ........ 406 CatrrorntaA and Nevada boundar DUMCUA seers see AAEE docer ees , Influence on United States of ¢ tion of. Canava, Geographie Board of. CANADIAN mounted police, Work of. — Rockies, Explorations in Cana, American Interoceanic; Hmory R. Johnson...... Heecodgaaacnonces srtteetecnnesseeenesanee 311 —— —, Comments on military value of.... 308 ———, Commercial aspects of; Joseph INDI PONT AKO) ace sop eR BO Done Cees Scone aHorocunC AAD FOCtO" 297 —, Commissions appointed to investigate TOULSS MOMs |CUCr ene sesescecdsecers 261, 297, 311 , Dismal Sw: ump, Note on.. 5 —- from Georgian bay to Montreal ............ 372 — under Hooghly (India) river....... S —, Russian, Note on....... cbkeeenecsccs —, Suez, Benefits aceruing from Canaus, Note on inereased commerce of American and Canadian.. 5 CANNING, GeorGe, quoted on Russian claim of maritime jurisdic tion in the Pacifie OGGaD.......- sol contends BCC CORRE ELSCOCO euneakecavm eal 530 Page GAROMUENE PLS ANS eeecescwensceasceor eect necacee ree 227 Carrouiy, Mircuen, Record of lecture by... 328 CHESAPEAKE bay, Vides of; E. D. Preston... 391 Cuiips, O. W. , Plans for isthmian eanal of.. 257 CHINA, Review of book on dissolution of.. 418 CLEVEL AND, Captain, Discovery of Stikine river by MAES Mic nuvee cease oe oadanag0 CLEVELAND, President, Commission to. in- v estigate American interoceanic canal problem, appointed by...............:..00--+ 26 Cioup work of the Weather Burean.. Coast and Geodetic Survey; Its Present Works bneD WP restoneeiececcsiese cose: 268 — — — —, Magnetic work of the; L. A. TEPEND Nee tn Oy LOT ORME eNO EE 288 — — — —, Mapping and charting of Jobos harbor ND Yiesebsaaeisadeccseecedeveecsseanuseshaveeseste 206 -—--—-—— , Notes on work of the.. 359, ons 374, 526, 527 —— — —, Note on proposed magnetic ob- servatory of — — ——, Work in Puerto Rico of... — — — on California and Nevac [CXOUUACNTA Oil paccaaacaqcoscoscqsHecnadsd80000 dedooso Cocoanut palm, Production and use of. Coutiizr, Norman, cited on Sees in the Canadian rock ieS...cscses0e- sesseeee Boag. , Lava ConontaL systems of the w orld ‘O. 1, AVIS TUM sasteten cos eeetine ote ssseree etn aerediomems enue 21 Conontsts, American, Antecedents of........ 188 Commerce, Growth of maritime; John TER CIE) eer serocaascecaddadson cecnodSeo todd “aa cncnanssaaea 30 — of Manila, Comparative condition of, in T9709 tale SOGH OTe ee eee 52 == Sen n@ a osccooascaboesen 219 = We Jail bi ojowtavesoonccscosooe5e060 46 —— United States with new possessions.. 24 —, Effect of mountains on, of west coast of South Ameriea........ As andceonnpoonandboNdaCes ORG 303 CommMERcIAL development of Japan; O. P. Austin........ Se uamawesdiesianastetiececciensccolase ners 329 — importance of Samoa; O. P. Austin...... 218 CommitrgEe’s punch bowl, Discovery of...... 135 ConsrirutTion of the United States, Com- TANEIOIT OM) socqsoocqsocnapssebcososcedos asanma sedac ocean 91 ConTINENTAL Congress, Events leading up WO bos608 sossonbed Sooconcnde56060 80 — divide, Nicaragua, Geologie history of.. 243 Cook, F. Ne quoted on results of Belgian Antaretic expedition =, INGENTA REG! 1@scobecccoodaoccdeGnc5O Cortuety, FE. L., cited on sea-borne com- TWOEIHOS sronggonnedooboacsondesboseada sag sno nabsesH0G0OdeS 30 —, Work of, on plans for isthmian canal... 25: Crown lands, Location and history of...... 82 Cusa, Note on proposed improvement of roads and highways Of................. eee OO Dart, W. H., cited on volcanoes in Alaska.. 288 —:; How long a whale may carry a har- [DOOM sccorcaesed600000 SodcascnnarcDAbboandoRDOse! anoHCoU 137 Daty, CHartes Parrick, Obituary notices OL ee Ee ROSE a 422, 527 Darton, N. H.; The Bad lands of South Dakota 3 Darwin, Ee Review of book 264 Des GrorGE, quoted on area of the Iau b) ay eNbAKSS\o+ copcHeandadosoce-q0 wdonoceaouedeubucdedc 182 Davis, A. P.; Nicaragua and the Isthmian routes. —, Record of lecture by............ —, Work of, referred to.............. Davis, W. M.; geography... —, Referred toe e DAwson (Mt), Note on ascent Clitescooes copcces Gil DEANE, Sinas, quoted on resources of Northwest Territory The rational element in INDEX Page Decrararton of Independence, Character Ot SMENNSTES) Oi eosqogcanccnos onan sacnaaqacasososocNSOK 190 — — —, New problems created by............ 82 Derep-sea exploring expedition of the steamer “‘Albatross’’?; Hugh M. Smith. 291 DrrorEstarion by aridity, Evidences of,... 170 DE GrrRLAcHE, Captain, quoted on Belgian Antaretie expedition paoacceqsno soon070S 0070009 230 Detesecque, ANDR&, Review of book by... 419 Dr Leon, Consul General, Report of, on South American railway ppcad aaascnos200ca00 92 De Lesseps, Ferpinanp, Scheme for Pan- EYONE) OBOE ©) esoasbocone 00 eH ooosndacaooocnMeeAACEOO 256 Dennis, A. P.; Life on a Yukon trail.. 377, 457 Sp ISO OIE! re HEC WBDS 1\/ecooscceoncconasanssen oo2 . 327 Drwey, Grorcre, Reference to victory at Cavite Of tee oe 65 “ Drana,’’? Mission of the ASE EGCECOCS 273, 415 Drepricus, ADMIRAL von, Reasons of, for concentrating German fleet in Manila IBEWYop006000 sEceanwoasontace 66 Diter, Stmas, Review ‘of book by. Pe Doe ae pied on stand of redwood. 152 Dryeatski, Ertcu yon, Plan of, for Antarc- tic expedition.. Eans, James B., Plans of, for canal through American isthmus ........ seteers Season 25% Eacue crag, Description Of...........2...0e ee 9 EARTHQUAKES in Alaska, Note on recent... 421 —on Unalaska island . 285 Enattsy colonies in America, The first. 74 — language, Supremacy of.. -. 188 ERLINGSSON, "THORSTEIN, Review of book by. 370 EXPANSION, territorial, of foreign coun- tries, influences inciting................. .. 191 Ewer, Joun L., Record of lecture by.. 327 Farquuar, Henry; Calculations of popula- tion in June, 1900............- pmRodoBDOGSONAO GATED 406 Froop glaciers, Reference to.............. Reet) Forses (Mt), Ascent of............ 126 , Exploration in vicinity of..... 130 ima fire in Little Fork valley.. 114 — fires, Estimated loss in the United SHWE) TORO MoscodosnoagacobsscaccasDnaqcqssoeedsodDoD0 394 — —, Evidences in juniper forests of the _Eegine slope of....... caueas tage pune saeh oo pemueeets 167 ——, Propagators of certain species......... 401 -, ” Means of resistance against.............. 398 rr orEsts and forest fires, The relation of; Gifford Pinchot......... pocano0 POEABOD Fotsateerene 393 Forests of the Pacific slope.. . 171 Foresrry conditions of Puerto Rico . 423 —, Note on growth of study of 423 , Review of primer CO) aniabocnsdonpeccsedce . 417 Ke OSTER, Joun W.; The Alaska boundary... 425 FRANZ JOSEF Land, Explorations of Jack- son-Harmsworth expedition in...... paO0oe 484 — — — route to North Pole.......... 267, 280, 362, 483, 516 GanopaGos islands, Expedition to.............. 512 Gannew, Henry, Book reviews by. —; Harriman Alaska expedition... ; Place names of Canada. . Record of lecture by - Redwood forest of the Pacific coast... 145 ; U.S. Board on Geographic Names and LUSROM el MKC MCS See tea nessa aceesenene=e oS Garriorr, E. B. ; The West Indian hurri- cane of August T=14, 1899). ........c.2cecenree 348 —;--—— September 10, 11, 1898..... 17 Entman, C. L.; Book review by.... co BPA —; Geography for teachers.....s.sss0se 223 INDEX sees tans: Genoa, Notes on commerce Of.......... susienees . 184 Gerocrarnic Board of Canada, Report of.373, 519 — — — United States... eeeeee 16, 517 — literature..139, 231, 274 320, 364, 417, 475, 522 — Magazine, Narionar, History of. — MisCellanea...........ececcenceeerees 371, — Socirry, Narronat, History of........ ....... — ——, Delegates to Geographical Con- PLESSIS Aig OUMM Olescverccsvearcsessieas sGoenGto0 296 GEOGRAPHICAL Congress at Berlin........ 296, 480 Grograprny for teachers; C. L. Garrison... 223 $., Expedition to GEOLOGICAL, sunyey U. Alaska by .... -_---, Maps of. wo GroLoaisrs, Excursion to Wyoming of...... GERMAN squadron in Philippine waters, HUOUNOMS LO leenceaccceccccesoset ar cvucerucccrecocsse 66 Germany, Notes on trade and population Oar ececese svecra oecsen Sac ncsvecssticcsssunesaaisetvvsnsas 184 Gracters, Gradual disappearance Ofsscsessss 509 — of the Stikine River country............ Babio |) fa) GLENN, Epwin F., Record of lecture by..... 328 GLENORA, Deseription of Sash US UOL Vl Oleeccecrancsaesclees a Gop mining in the Philippines..... 43 Gore, J. How. Arp; The return of W ellman.. 348 —;— Wellman polar expedition Great pygmy forest, Lloyd’s journey PASTHORIS) oe, quideconactossoRssneuctonbosacedcouesaona ZO GREELY, A. W., cited on polar expeditions.. 280 Grosvenor, Epwin A., Book reviews by..... 320 } i 418, 477 GROSVENOR, GinpertT H.; American Associa- tion for the Advancement of Science... 355 ; Harriman Alaska expedition........ ...... 225 ; National Geographie Society............... 474 ; Plans for reaching the South Pole 316 Guapature Hidalgo, Result of treaty of..... 200 Hamm, Marcuerira, Review of book by... 369 Harvoon heads found in whales 137 HARRIMAN Alaska expedition ; Henry Gan- LG UUmaeeeete en cen a nescesscrcscsuaes svar secreecucs severe OOT — ——; Gilbert H. Grosvenor................. 3220) eto IN OUC (OM. csiecerecveccesececcesswescnaskesesess 360 Harriman, Epwarp H., Acknowledgment UG) aes oLCRRHO BCC OREO EEE EORD as-aooneoodod — fiord, Deseription of....... pscco0 Harrincron, Mark W., Studies ‘of Puerto UIC AMG CIMA TEND Yeeros scevcectssenecerss secs estes 111 Harrison, President, Appointment of U.S. Board on Geographie Names by.. Paro) Uf Hart, A. B., Record of lecture by. 328 Harcuer, J. B., Note on explorations in Patagonia by......... HI SOSSOINCCCURCROCETODSUDDOOHOND 371 Hay, Joun, Acknowledgment to....... eccesese 481 Hayes, C. Wittarp; Physiography of the Niecragua canal route.............cccccsseeees 234. Hersertson, A. J. and F. D., Review of DOOKI DW cccccexeuacs . 476 Hepin, Sven, Note on explorations of.. 5 326 —, Review of book by.........:...... . 322 Heir nin, ANGELO, Review of book by. 523 Hemp. Manila, Production in the Philip- [20h CO) rte Br cone eECeOEL PEACED ae ECEREREE ERE 36 Henry, A. J., ¢ ited on deaths from light- DUDE, «..--ecsensececccssseessesecoreessreres -- 279 —; Variations in lake levels.................... 403 Herenveren, EB. P., cited on harpoons found TFL VL Ot Leber ch ao OO 137 Hewitt, Abram 8., quoted | on railroads PUPIARGOTIALG, venture ctckedocisccdstensacessieness sis 420 Hitprer, F. F., Record of lecture by......... 143 Hitt, Davin J.; The original territory of the United States..... 74 —, Record of lecture by.......... 328 Hitt, Ronerr T., Book review by.. 522 —; Puerto Rico........... Seeders Pe Neiean eentetsactix 93 4 Page Hitz, Roserr 'v.; Porto Rico or Puerto IENIKEKG)-aganosce boa UeOBuIEACBnqeDUUOBUAGEOU HeuRiEG eenonedoD 516 , Reeord of lecture by ” Review of book by... Hirencoc K, Mary E., Review of book by.. Hooker (M t), Sear ch of Norman Collie for. 135 Hopkins Universiry, Jouns, Medical expe- dition sent OUt DY.............cereeeeereees 280, 421 Howse pass, Description Of ............:e eee 131 Husparp, Garpiner G., Acknowledgment Hupson Bay C ompany, Connection of, with development of British Americ Human race, Progress of... dogbacog Hump regions of the Pacific slope Hurricane of August 7-14, 1899, West In- CME Seooncdo0 Winicfre scones isle soar aun ueuuaie sees sauaer lames 343 —— September 10, 11, 1898, West Indies... 17 Hynpr, Jonn, Book reviews by.............5 139, 320 —; Growth of maritime commerce............ 30 —; The National Geographic Society..... .. 220 —; The U.S. Board on Geographic Names.. 517 Hyprocrapnic Office of Navy Department. 374 Hyprocrapny of Nicaraguan depression, Change in. - 238 . 262 Immigration to the United Stat Inpr Ne Shelsey, Description of.... 458 —, Stony, Legend of, coneerning North OMT OTs sdseecconeees se arecnccdseueceteeccee ee 119 INrEROCEANIC canal ; Emory Re Johnson... 311 INTERSTATE Commerce Commission, Twelfth annual report of the . 140 Iskoor river, Reference to.. 6 IstHMIAN canal problem ; Ww a) McGee. Istumus, American, Projects for ship rail- way through. asaco0a900 Tramp, Recent ascent Of... JAPAN, Commercial development of........... 329 JAPANESE colony in Manila......... Sraetercen tds 69 JrRuSALEM, Notes on......... edosoaccadascedocae. 15) JEsurrs in the Philippines seas Jesunporsky, L. N., cited on North Caro- lina floOdS ........seeeeeee: Ag abe cenat ne ae ceee 232 Jesup, Morton K., Acknowledgment te. Jopos harbor; O. HH. Tittmann JOHNSON, Emory R.; The Interoce eanic @EN OE bcopcceaos Poppebocobuccco anno Haabeaasbecnesdaocueseo 311 Jounson, WILLARD D., Record of lecture by. 143 Karr’s Needle glacier, Description Oirdcocos 9 Kay re native drink of Samoans.............-.55 211 KipiinG, Rupyarp, Review of book by...... 366 Krnonpyker, Routes to the . KnoocHMAn’s s canon, Description of........... 1L ., quoted on harpoons found KNow.es, J. N in whales.. Lake levels, Variations in...... Laura (Mt), Reference to Lersera, J. B.; Is climatic aridity impend- ing on the Pacific slope? Testimony Off The HOPES Ei resssccscesveserceeshe este sne eres 160 Luoyp, Aubert B., Journey across the Great Pygmy forest of. Locusts, Note on extermination of.. LovurmstaNa Requisition by the Ste ates” of.. Lutt, E. P., Plans for canal across Ameri- ean isthmus Of........ we ogents ceutnns oacneta ates 258 Luzon, Map showing theater of military operations in........ ...... mec entessiacteeca apatite 185 United 532 INDEX Page Page Macomp, A. C., quoted on Puerto Rico....... 102 Oaprn, H. G., Survey of Stikine River ter- Macrar, Davin, Record of lecture by........ 144 IBIIKOIEAY/1 9S 7s scqncoodeanson ateuouponosessocsson0-ontsedas 5 Macneric work of the Coast and Geodetic BENE, RTCHARD, Ack nowledgment Uo bacsans 481 Survey; L. A. Bauer MALARIA-BEARING mosquito, Note on. Manina and the Philippines Major A. Pallkner von Sonnenburg...........4.....0--- 65 Marsu, O. C.; W J McGee..... : Markuam, Str Crements, Note on address Manrytanp, Magnetic survey of. be McGrr, W J; Biographice sketch of Prof. OMGMIAr ale 1 cee RRR AM eRe 181 —, Book reviews by...:.... 140, 231, 274, 276, 322, 370, 417, 419 —:; National growth and national char- ENCUW EP rcoocagacoacé boosuocbcoASecobO DSRaeED = 185 —, Note on address by .. . 374 —, Record of lecture by... 328 —; The isthmian canal problem. 363 McKinury, President, Acknowledgment to. 481 McMasrer, Joun Bacu, Record of lecture McMturin, Emerson, Acknowledgment to.. 359 Menocan, A. G., Plans for canal across American isthmus of Merroronogican Committee, International, INURE OM WASEIVNAER Ot roceasosoocsndoccasecaeean006 277 — observations of the second Wellman ex- pedition ; Evelyn B. Baldwin. bao (BI — station in Iceland.. HE Mexican accessions, Influence of, on Winhte Ges tatestcrmccsrre te aeecesee ee eeese 201 — weather service, Note on. Mississippi river, Early legislation regard- ing navigation (Oi SAG SECO BDO RSEDEL LE SoOLe opaeene 88 Moors, Tuomas E., Notes on trade and population of Germany by.............0000 184 Moore, Wiiiis L., Record of address by... 328 Moraan, Enwin, Record of lecture by ...... 328 Morean, J. Prerpont, Acknowledgment to.. 481 Morrison (Mt), Note on.. Murr, Jonn, Reference to wor k of. i Murcuison (Mt), Loeation and height of... 118 Mustck, Joun R., Review of book by......... 369 Nansen, Fripsor, Explorations in Franz Josef Land by Basabereaeracy Gace ieeseednaaees Bocuee 484 Naos, Spanish merchantmen, Decenhniton OLGA aesacucmeotaessbiiesssesten Sun coumeoncanaseveaetuees 49 NavrionaL GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and the U. S. Board on Geographic N John Hyde ; — — Socrery; John Hyde.. —; Gilbert H. Grosvenor. A —, Prizes for essavs on Norse discoy- Vames ; oll 327, Narton ‘An, erow th ana national character ; AWTIVIC GCC osae sohc cc nine Soca erscae ec eaeies seas 185 Nerwcoms, H. T., Book review by............... 143 Newent, F. H., Biographice sketch of.. ..... 474 —, Note of address by........ . . Record of lecture by.......:. Nicaracua and the Isthmian routes UD) aval Seca tah See ere leone een Spek Syn — canal Tones, Estimated cost of.. — (Lake), ene a Olasrcee en seotes POO 237 . Notes on customs of people of. New, JR, Joseru; The proposed Amer- ican interoceanic canal in its commer- cial aspect: Norse discoveries in Americ petition... Norv Pole. JS(OTBINEYS! 110) 1H 2s geaceensceuooccoxcseen46 280, OrtEBAR Glacier, Description of.. Orton, Enwarp, Notes from address of. —, Obituary notice of —, quoted on scientific progress........ Paciric coast, Redwood forest of the; IEI@INPYY (ErewaNEh thacdooccdoccooscassosnoqoasanG9500000 145 — slope, Threatened aridity on the Panama Canal Company, he new a = Toute.) DeseripulOMkOlece-eeceesce sees eeeeee —, Isthmus of, Project of through . TAMUORVOloSacaoe anos 5 és ‘¢PapHrinpDER,’’ Note on voyage of the..... 526 Prary’s explorations in 1898-1899. poco AEG) — work and prospects; H. L. Bri igman.. 414 Peary, Wonk of, referred to... .... 280, 327, 486 PERKINS, GrorGe C., quoted on harpoons found IMTw hale sn deacnksels sce camesso nat etents 136 Putrerines (The), Location of, from a commercial standpoint —, Area of 7 203) —, The economic condition of; Max By MOLINO Wise. cecscaeaucun sesee scat ces seeesmecseaeeaeeees 33 —, Commerce of the....... . 46 —, Difficulties of warfare in...................... 71 =), JD R|OXONAS its cancsosoganecosoaoboon6e6006 . 48, 55, 56 Pincnor, Grrrorp, Record of lecture by... 144 —, Review of bools by..........2........2-.- 231, 417 —; The relation of forests and forest fires. 393 PLACE names in Canada; Henry Gannett.. 519 “Praya’? plains of Puerto Rico, Desecrip- HIDIAL Ori ax-cooqsocacSosHeeDG998 co% oDassddnDCAEoN B30 103 Pororr glacier, Descripton of....... ........... 5 Por Rothsay, Description of............... 4 Powett, H., quoted on West Indian hurri- CANES sea asasees eticcseeceussesesenesereees Presprey, Frank, Review of book by Presron, E. D.; Coast and Geodetic Sur- Wie Wes saconcen odo secoonosHooasedosbeobobcoaOdasmOCECSODE 268 —,; Tides of Chesapeake bay..............2.00+- Prince Williams sound, Map of. Prirrenerr, H.8., Record of lecture by..... 327 —, Work of; referred tO... <2. ....0.0scccceseseeeee . 288 Puerto Rico, Geology Of..............:5- ue aaree . 108 amie Hydrography of..... . 98 — —, Mountains of... 97 — —, Notes on climate Oli-goos0 111 —— or Porto Rico Red Hill. 516 ——, Rediscovery of... 359 —,; Robert T. Hill.. oo | ER Pyamirs of Central AftiGans.:..s.tc.-:-coc0-+eces 38 AUT ROAM Shaan carc sna Seeeeeeeeeeececeeeeeccteceeeee 420 , Number of miles of, constructed dur- ing January-June, 1899.. . 421 — through Africa, Note on 423 Rartrway in South America, } 92 RAINFALL in Cherapunzee, India, Note on.. 326 — in Nicaragua, Reeords of. 247 RANSOME, SvaFForD, Review of hook by..... 522 Rarronan element in geography ; W. M. TAWA ae ia ai cedaice osasdnn st sereatmes eaatereae aes 466 Repwoop forest of the Pacific coast ; Henry Gamninle biti eecssacttceeadseeceencsmecese rc ocaseanes 145 Reep, THomas ae quoted on possible ecom- merece of N Jicar AGUA CANAL... -.--.-c..0cees +. 298 Reip, WittrAm Jameson, Review of book by. 523 RIPLEY, Wirttam Z., Review of book by..... 320 Romero, SrNor pon Marrras, Obituar no- tiee of. —, Review of book 7 ton . 475 INDEX . Aten Page Ross, Ronaup, Investigations of malaria of.. 424 Rockies, Canadi: vn, xploration in the...... 30 Russev., FRANK, Review of bool by.......... 231 Russent, Israet C., Review of book by...... 476, Russta, Increased transportation facilities (Oi di On nRe TREO Cee Hane RCL BCE OC EEC EEO ER ERE ESCeeEr Eee 279 EE NONOSEGINAULWEAY Ol. ..--cocceecccssevcresceecense 37 Russ1an Polar expedition.. — winter grain, Note on.... Samoa, Commercial importance of; O. P. BIS OU emtred Nene encncncese ce secrctediacsecCurcat «sens 218 =e) Navigators islands; H. Webster........... 207 San Juan river , Description Ollteneestose seen sens 250 —, Shifting of channel of LOK cancer anenoctea 244. Saskarcnewan, The sourees of the; Wal- ter D. Wilcox Pera rictcaek sons cicesecaisceedess 113 — yalley, Surveying ex xpedition in, 113 Savait mount: tin, Flora of. 208 Scrpmore, E.R. , cited on the development of Russian power in China... ; The Stikine river in 1898... Surer mountain, Deseription ot Suip-purLpine in the United Kingdom in 1898 SHISHALDIN as a field for exploration ; Jo- Seph/Stanley-Browmn....-..:.2.sescccsccesesesee 281 Siseria, Note on increased population in. 527 Simpron tunnel, Notes on............000e000 184, 524 Simpson, W. A., Acknowledgment to... 228, 526 Srnctarr, C. H.; California and Neyada ROU Sievers se cuse eeewcesooten caches cvespenccans 416 Siva, native dance of the Samoans...... p Smiru, HucH M.; Deep-sea exploring ex- pedition of the steamer RUE OSS A dopsee 291 SonnenBure, A. FALKNE the Philippines... —, Record of lecture Soura Daxkora, Bad lands of; Nis dal, Dar- WC Wree terete ceca csadanscridedccleseusaicsas tte asive'ss ss 339 Sovurn Pole, Plans for reaching the ; DON ten GUOSVED OL sscvedscsceccosaececetsesocees 316 Spanisu rule in the Philippine islands...... 72 SPRUCE, the Adirondack, Review of book NN, JosEPH, Election of, as Secret: iry of National Geogr: phic’ So- (1 ciety. —; Shishaldin as a field for exploration... 2 Srem, Roserr, Arctic expedition of... 278, Sv1KINE river in 1898; E. R. Scidmore...... ——, Description of Great cafion of the... — —, Scenery along the.. Srone, A. J., Note on return from regions of.. Stone, Roy, Sketch of Johbos Suez canal, Advantages of. TAHLTAN Indians, Customs and character- ISEIGS OL: cccescscusce 385 Te.ecrapn creek, Alaska, Description of.. 384 Texas, Influence on nation of......... Bore ee 199 —, Damage caused by floods in................ 37 Text books, Modern writers of...........00.... 223 Tuorpr, Francis Newron, Review of book Ln po CE LEREL ORL COLEOCE BREE CEP ERE CEE POR ER EE TET EEE 477 Tineerrs, A. C., cited on stand of redwood. 152 Tivemann, O. H., Acknowledgment to —:; Definite location of Bouvet island Page MIAN, ©. Hi) JOOS) WaArWOL. «2... sees 206 —, Survey of Stikine river territory by.... 5 MOBACCOM MUNN en DOM Sepeearesaemcccee erties Tornapors, Note on proposed method of breaking Wl Sroicagsouscasddeceae Hotenccoobndaddocoas 525 Tornow, Max L.; The economic condition of the Philippines Scoceeeconanadeacocn Pea cGOCHOeH 3: TRANSPORTATION, Railroad rates for............ 301 TRrpier, C. E., Record of address lo) Woncoooes 328 Turner, H. W., Record of lecture by......... 143 Twomsiy, A. 8., Review of book by..... eee ss 524 Uppren, Aucusr, Review of book by........... 139 Unimak Isl: and, Description of.. Unirep Svrares Board on Geographic Names (The) and its foreign critics ; Jalieyavipate (Cie ay AV Sit ya SoecooosenscadeodedcHbcoceesreaccd 16 — —, Calculations of population in 1900 of (BUX: Hoasocdes Da Ge HDICG SSR Rear Hemae pornooaceasoososasnc 406 ——, Original territory of the; David J. Leb coccicce SEC SES ebeneGbeee Hn Joc bao DO AneEDOOpaBoCCEL 74. — —, Territorial growth of the; W J VEC GG Oke ei ccennestciissinestanteccess soeeaousetenonsces omit: Vauauan, T. Way.anp, Geologic deter- PO NAE AKON) 1O\/cccecongacabancaqa dozens AaegosoSdoouIA0 109 Vines, 8. J., Benito, cited on hurricanes... 20 Viscuer, Huser, cited on stand of red- wood. Waxtacr, ALFRED R.,quoted on discoveries EWONO TA VEXMENOME aces coonsaesendans oqg0es7090050 355 Warp, H. Snowpen, Record of lecture by.. 328 Wasuineton Academy of Sciences and the Harriman Alaska expedition ; Gil- Dente GOs Memo ere esac teeecescssckcsetecss ~ 225 WASHINGTON, GEORGE ; GIN GOWIOWEN eects sococonssccodoourdecaAses agasoncn Weather Bureau, Forecasts dian hurricane by......... , Note on forecasts of Wesster, H., Book review by Baneneeeeee —; Samoa, Navigators Islands................. 2 —, Record of lecture by West Inpran hurricane of August 7-14, TEBE) TBE IBS (EHRSENO NE eocaceccoacecoerance anqceucce 344 — — — of September 10-11, 1898; E. B. (CTH RITA) en sae code boorond pace StEacaDoccEtiscHannanctes WetrmMan Polar Expedition.. ———; J. Howard Gore 2 Walter Wellman) -..:i.cicc.-. M. Baing ila ae Pta Caibaba Pta de Caras Pta Luzon WAR DEPARTMENT,ADJUTANT GENERAL’S OFFICE MILITARY INFORMATION DIVISION j | THEATRE OF MILITARY OPERATIONS IN LUAON 1899 Scale Sitio Cayocos Sitio Vztaceo Sitio Tayas, ies F 6 Pakali- es Nursawaray gees M.Malasimbo aa a : [: See é le “fo fe M.Sare orfapasi H i i 1 P**Hosoan - Pat Taltecin: LPequeiiag inalupihan lm ge" P“Mangalimgusi S / * y, a Ro M.Radondo a 2 ee eR a) eee eee A On —— or I Mayanga se i i Malapata, ~ ‘ wisaeh nme S ite § j ys ¥ : ~ i t i > po B@uiman ‘i ee fone . : Bag bug wi: M. Batacbac PeAgeeen Pde Olongapo M.S" Rita or : ee ae . > ae } A, Sezede “ti MTayabasan PS Guay Quidptan ft ! , \ M.Limutan Pe g \ } I M. Bata BINANGONAN ; a de Lampon Sitio bu ) di Her tra M.Binictigan ‘6 we Jum f Soxhal j ¢ 7} - 0 M Finuenan vm ia . €: / - FgSitio oh spine | 8 g M/M li : ‘ah § 3 3 Rael > f SF oven agpali Lege 7] Mabaten & s & Ny P“ Inaguican y ; ae 3 ‘ ee : Ens.de Binaga Ge 1 8 BS 38 ~ M.Sooc y eR S P“Alanin ae te s AY =N Nrawa M, Butil i : 5 Pp’ de Sitie Mabago Nl Butilae or Natib eo a8 M.Tauaua ven A Hacienda de S. Isidre Sitio Panso ;, 13347 M.Malicaban MjDuyo 3 ‘, af Sitio Manet ae We f ; Sitio Ocon pleas " —" i Se | = 2% 25 Jose ; Pico a DRAWN BY C.H.QURAND AND 0.H.BLAKELOCK. 20 Miles Ap tae Santol \ 4 . Pleridablanca : i : i be - Layrésae cs } Pinagsoliatate 7 a ‘ é wre Bae ' 4 NAT. GEOG, MAG. VOL. X, 1899, PL. 5. r alat Pi. Bt. eos be” aa §. Nicolas lo a Stink Si yetuctey i pale al | > Bem : falinta pee be { Uinajeros r = de Navotas (JS M.Maculis a a Se5¥ re del ASF Fancisco te A) Upea ndeigas = a dF M " & INN g p A SX OB Tond “8 ae M. Mapalug P Herrdtenio P Binon. Resprveir — { 8.Juan del Monte Lag. de Lampopn ay M. Palis Felipe Neri (Manda logy da\lde Dilao (Paco! : DSeredhtli J df [Seg Marivele 3e& H *;Bagumbayan an *¥ [see Ee sant? Ne See x M. Matualigui P. Bintana - daw Coa! Ray P. Caycaytano 14877, = B A y Hagoneyp : : y Sitio Macayo P* Lamao ; ie i ; P.Nagouliat ~ Dioula p S‘*Maria de Caboan OS a S Vas Sitio Sucuban ~ tie Cartadiua ‘ : : ‘ Fin A Caridad // : M, Quisalacét Sitio Nanca ee an oY Dakatican Masamban i / < aS M. Balugan P®Cab Se " re? M.Manl fi \ P* Real ty Zambrank piace: Mabitag l Pde HA. Buri = loan Mariveles \ © “de S. Jose Pape cw. x, P* Lasis: WA, Pag Pta Hornos i) fee Og OPute Mon: se CORRE GIDon fo) : Los Cochinos » Ae AE ate P* Buri Alto de Jalajala Mapahong tudig M. Flacio bd . © 98.José Paquil Batondalit M. a Monja ea ea A ren 7] pi a ry FO Pile Cabalio A a Baste S,Antonio) _ pen Me Hut a Ka | Talim 9 Kecregpmeras—— ~ Longos M.Calvario |.Calbalete El Fraile v f pcalite™ Pulo Malagt Lumbang OR Ss Pde la Restinga MS. siti or Sdiased ee Tibativ RL Le a ae . Sitio Agorapol Cerro a 4 de Limba S P®Saley io Pulo M.Layasin M Balitart Pisle Calambe 3 Bey a y Calidatan alitarté ; xe = M. Soledad ee iw 2 do, x scot 2 P“Matazas M, Jaab P Mayondo: B yd a P“Matilimbes pee ‘M.Matagion : M.Habang Luisiana ~ F ? M.Caipagan Cascad , Af i M. Dumungao 4 | Se or 4 porn 5 alee PY Jamilo ie 3 Cascades ; 4 Ae : L M4 os i «Looe ae q M. Caycasinto Pico Congalez ‘es a a i See { Seapalou 7) ; 764m : AV NGadaton 4 i ! rae M.Panaguan Wee at (| ae iadt | Von ghanot \ 43 P'te Fuego. M.Caltayn Mt tary 4 ) a i x - — ey } \P“ Pitisan - us foe, 6 6Cllc(