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Th) cae We Cea ie Sieh ad ani the ae ae eee ae is hs pay eink ea Cay peas ii Anes roe tee Cire. set i Waser hb hal ihe aA myer yor de Waren ah a (elisa abdhaae ano 4 wet et God Pol a a Acqed Ade rae oe eee ade ad ae eng epider ge des oe POP Ue eh hl awd ree i Fw wen eae @tdad aed ied gq wedord did Gab did det Ate a aa oe wad deal sai cew sd Perron weir ok Pepe ne aa eisdids ko baee ; aby cet wo bose oh ele we eed ect abe ed esc eie ti cnenscen 54 Chart of the World on Mercator’s Projection, 25 x 45 inches........... pees ... Supplement Russia ; by Hon. CHaRLES EMORY SMITH, formerly Minister to Russia and ex-Postmaster eee ee eee ce Seta) 2 his Seeeee ete wate cere kicks ba we kal ede ae Gee 55 Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Coasts of the World, with maps ; by GEORGE W. WL RPP TE La TEE POA Lo oy AUR 30 i aie ar GR ence n tE 63 The Wonderful Canals of China; by U. S. Consul GEORGE E. ANDERSON, Hanectads INR, ss so cla.g’c 6 DRANG Sa cian mm oe ARR eM ane a tl ne eo EAPC A 68 Sear reco Ny MeAIUCIMMOALI TIT Clee ete ae NUNP VOM BSc cine wR MeL ei eiisiayac. = Veothele clean Gare eevee eaelor 70 ii Rimes cy On eenitiCy by WeWhn Dios 25. ution oh eka ccs sole vce Ss ie on bee mele ees 7 French Conquest of the Sahara; by CdHirRLES RABOT, Editorial Sécretary of ‘‘Za Geo- graphie,’’ Member of the Council of Societé de Geographie de Paris.... ............. 76 Observations on the Russo-Japanese War in Japan and Manchuria; by Dr. Louis L1IvINc- PTOI STN GINURUNT sauce Fe mete ESAT gh, le RRs MD ed ies crocs eh ae ona oP Rn Atel cheat RNa 80 ete al De imme EVA ITO SV 704%. 2 svete a's 'et/achele ) sac sve cla tieve cio thee wie Tk ce a ware eee les SEA 2 Ry tol s ge mOe EM eC eGo oer oOClehyn ko) Pees co's. 2's sit ate he «ied cas a vin eae ewe eee dee eke By COT, Gharhot cme World i.e) he. ek. sn, SUR Ager al ic EMS Dd Dei ipr ae in LW heaee fee 87 moreson: te Philippines. (0)... 005.606. BE Bae fal 5 rhs: con Ras OR Sg tnt ea CUM ERE SRR Sh Ny ae 87 Transportation in England..... A Meo CIA A ae Es” (S04, hot aA a di ead eo ts Reg HatASizots: To Observe Solar Eclipse Bana eet NS RRNA cn oles 2a ik eae a RR NEAGLE thd, SR Aen Ae 88 J SAE ES Ol BURUAOIE Gy lB) Oi ek ge a Memes rl Ire cab N eee2 a a R O OLPs LAA MEME Ai oto: Be meme em uC TiceUt ne eth SPUN M2 cis A Alien sees N ete seer aloe mw Oo ia oa v5 GM gteere ate B eelaiea dels BN 89 Searmemhometrom lelee.. 7 Anil Selomddellprimtr 22323800. .o0% tail Meee aes aa VL ee 89 Pe eNetucalistam the Gulatas / \(Hugéene Amdréy sie yee. UO Oa ae 89 Place binhppine Islands, 1893-1898’ (Blair and Robertson)... :.2.6.2......05..0 0085 gI pote tie Nile with General’Grant’”? (Elbert KE’ Farman) al) ie0s. 00. ee ee. gI MemuonuieryNorkiiand i riuiilie Kip Baker): (oe0¢cdlaf cecei cee Mice eca ad le. gI ‘* Select List of Books Relating to the Far East’’ (E:lited by Prentiss Ciark Griffin).. 91 ‘Excursions and Lessons in Home Geography ’’ (Charles A. McMurry)............. 92 IV THe NatTIionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE : Page ‘* Students’ Laboratory of Physical Geography’’ (Albert Perry Brigham)............ i ““The Land of Riddles—Russia of Today” (Hugo Ganz)... ......2.....s0eun ee 92 National Geographic Society. 2... 0.0000. e 0s dea) ees ce levee Danke ee 92 The Characteristics of the Japanese People ; by Baron KENTARO KANEKO, of the House of Péersof Japan. oso... cc. cel ow te 0 0b us 0 ocd ele ors ele pee leit tials cia esha 93 Geographic Names in the United States and the Stories they Tell ; a Rive WHITBECK, New Jersey State Normal School. 20.0. cc cea. sleet a gaeles | ee er 100 A Growing Camp in the Tanana Gold Fields, Alaska by SIDNEY PAIGE, of the U.. S: Geological Survey oof eco se i ee wie tees thas etete te Sea a «oh eect siete ae eee 104 The Industrial Training of the German People....//............,. 000 00 ee ee III Philip Nolan alid the ‘‘ Levant ;’’ by HDWARD E. HALE... ..).32..., 5p eeeee ee 114 Progress in'the Philippines. ....... 2.06.05 bie eis ee wale oes « «nut sae kee 116 the Gardens of the West... ..c:a¢ cles 0 ptteines Jaci: oJ 0 es ee ere ee 118 Thei@auseiof the Harth’s Heat, ..2./....oscceee cee. ee eee Re eer te 124 Maps recently issued by the Geological Survey...... 0 ... ccc cece cece ccececcccetevrees 125 Notes from our Consuls ......0. 220.0000 cec see te eee ss + eo sledmeiaes chops ean 126 Work of the Coast and Geodetic Srevey eT a MR ATI cin iehacctc ap sgiioaes 127 dhe Australian Wattle Tree. ..<) cave. - © ol be er ac ESO ‘‘The United States of America’’ (Edwin Earl eearica) vidas ore 0) ¢ ececeheieleee eee er 136 “A, A. Catalog of 8,000 Volumes for a Popular Library ’’ (cdnae Melvil Dewey). 136 ‘* Swedish Life in Town and Country”’ (O. G. Van Heidenstam). ... <5. 22255 oaepeee 136 ‘* Historic Highways of America’? (The Arthur H. Clark Co.) ........ ............ 136 ‘*Students’ Laboratory Manual of Physical Geography’’ (Albert Perry Brigham).... 136 ‘* Physiography’’ (T. H. Huxley and. R. A, Gregory)............. 3s) 0 eee 136 National Geographic Society..... (gaia eile Spiel Cloke, Glee eR ae ee oie 9:0) e 0k bes Se tos ¢ aici a A Revelation of the Filipinos; by GILBERT H. GROSVENOR.. .......00.-eeeeeees Pre ee Commander Peary’s New Vessel .o ows. .- 4.0 oicjous osm ee ew esata sete beila feist lca © o-= ge 192 Some Lessons in Geography; by EDWARD ATKINSON 2... 0 02005 <-> oo es) sje ee 193 The Ziegler Polar Expedition. 2.5.1.5 5. 2a) 0's» dpewuebaee ble aetemebeper a> oie sk ert Dosa ee 198 Eighth International Geographic Congress................ riba aibss enaltey aexsat an She + sie eee o heee 198 Geographic Literature. 2.30/00). Jjcispinsorene is nie Hininja/ ote! ancl ee Re Mellon stam pte eee at hee ietey ch ee 199 ‘‘ Through Town and Jungle”’ (William Hunter Workman and Fannie Bullock Work- IMAN) eich sb Sin on eo ere nie nie nue, 5 oye a B-Wiy of weal athe HERR Pe Riel ate rer 199 ‘‘ The Story of the Kongo Free State’’ (Henry Wellington Wack)...............+05 200 ‘Breaking the Wilderness?’ (F. S. Dellenbaugh)-:....)..56¢icnicpene 4 ee oe eee 200 CONTENTS V Page pe tereInINCO OTA DIUIC SOCICLY oe ok eee een cee ene ce eiite viet ds cele sbi es Beles ale 200 The Fisheries of Japan; by HuGH M. Smit, Deputy U. S. Fish oumerictione? ered tne les 201 A Chapter from Japanese History; by Ext Hiokt, First Secretary of the Japanese Lega- iat Ce PEE NF S20 acs oes cNolter aot vista cio) oiei cle Gis 6 20, Seliehe, a 6.e\e, Shei cl'e owe ei ale! sislblecd «ale ele wel we ea 220 Our Smallest E eeecsiog=—Cuam : by WILLIAM B. Soyer GAP Renae, Ais PIR eM Ee CT aren ge 229 The Milch Goat......... RP ee Ma ala Sele Wig Hate We Slt is 6 HE ha eka RETR Ape ety eae TACs 237 RereromalGseamrapnic SOCIELY.. «of... .eli ca ciee ss thos aie lewd cette oeeeces a cae ane SADE 241 erent ANTS Ge lees rie 28 os tic) score ate Tie ales < wie Wee bilities (ols elES WE Sie bleleleealt es 242 ee woeammeents oF tlie United: States...) 6..is.cjc eee elec cee es ee cede ee velnelneeiees Ape 2A Bee oM ea MEN CH FO SIELD SCM OOLS: So cicks cia: os cicpeve sv mymig hs 61 tiie, bn lo olle’e tle 'h a) 'felarw ale oialsteSiwie wre obreee tid ate 244 dime Activity-or-Shishaldin Volcano; by HOMER P. RITTER....0 20.06.02 eel te ete wees 249 Cotton Cultivation in the British Empire; by C. M............ heaie ahs oh ame OY Deygieaey a ten veka 249 Beier me iotomiCOny A MAL ACY |. sscclsies oc ele ei eceieis'c ciwe eb o cele’ ne cate piaigiel@ wie! ly eialg a Bib algiacs 249 The Economic Importance of the Plateaux in Tropic America; by J. Russert, SMITH, Sea a oe cL sic cicrier i's) evo fe Grave ot oie alle @ Ve oe ahaa wR BEB) diel e OD a'e ietele ella al ales lar kar h whale desea 250 The Exploration of Alaska; by ALFRED H. Brooks, Chief a Alaskan Division, Cesige: Leal SUEVEY x. 5 oe. Reena, erent ee nis hei wre: pcelge am ebe eck evelg lor fo sate TelieboMe ERM acs Ma da Ia ale oes 251 ere eM LY PEE A LUTE). 2 sew ich sl. lea e nie ve, dese ts sieve, o5s9'b; (lose # wt ole i 'efsbeefe, ot org aleve alplele ava Sheletalene Hee 252 ‘‘Anemia in Porto Roco’’ (Bailey K. Ashford)....... pipet ret gata et le She eee stl ap alte 252 ‘‘Sweden ; Its People and Its Industry” (edited by Gustav Sundbarg).............. 252 umeentootin vCiliianee MH. Pickering) (5 6.) 05 fi ccin ie tein vide ino alee wa ulate be oe si clepeleyes 253 “* Harly Western Travels, 1748-1845 ’’ (edited by Reuben G. RH eaireaye ae Te, 253 ‘*The Future of Road-making in America’’ (Archer Butler Hulbert)........... .... 253 Maher reat-American.Canals’’ (Archer B. Hulbert) ...0 20.00.00. 000 octet ecw eee’ 254 ‘‘ Historic Highways; Pioneer Roads’’ (Archer B. Hulbert)..... ... PA Pee SR Para dk Hap 254 Forecasting the Weather and Storms; by Prof. WiiLis L. Moore, LL.D. , Chief United States Weather Bureau and President National Sees as Society. With 20 full-page Spree Sem PEM NUS GT ARKO MG 10.5 .)c Sleneaie, Shave vad tae ses is
teres % 575 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Page Diagram showing wave of immigration into the United States from all countries during tHE) PASt (25 VEATS .). (aici locas. core esg-oneisre Soe 0.574466 dlacatherseeen eee eee Jee thes Eee 6 Diagram showing total immigration inte the United States. .....5.550).2. ee 17 Chart showing the ratio of criminality of immigrants...... ......... ce eee eee eee ace 19 United States Immigration Island, New York Harbor............... -eceeceece se eens 20 United States Immigrant Station, Ellis Island, looking north toward New York ei 1904. 21 Children’s roof garden, Ellis Island Station, New York........... cccececceccecccceees b Aliens entering Ellis Island Station... 2.0... . 2c neee ee wo pores lene oe eee te 23 Types of aliens awaiting admission at Ellis Island Station......... ..... cee ceecceeecees 24 Types. of aliens awaiting admission to Ellis Island Station...............cceseeeeeecees 25 The palace of the Dalai-Lama at Lhasa. ........0 6 e08 scented teeta cieiele wate ele einen ee 28 Another view of the palace of the Dalai-Lama....... wine ve cele oS CUM ALE tise eee 29 A view of the palace of the Dalai-Lama from the west............. 6-00-00 scnceccuces 30 Avstreet scene in Thasa....... 0b bole cle ods DOU VRS. 2 31 Palace of the old King of Tibet.at Lhasa... ........0.00.20 00. 20) PE Sa Se. 82 Buddhist temple in the center of Lhasa... eae oho sean els ell te eee i proktgg A view of Lhasa froma neighboring hill, ...0000....).0000/4.. 220), a ee ee 34 The outskirts Of Thasa.....:).csccossvstece esc ce e o's e'e/ess ele oneteie’ o/c) o%' /bilh\ ened SLT REDS tote een a an aT 35 On the road which’ circles Lhasa. .\.4.05 200. 60 oe eI. OSes Ge eee 36 Women from the country on the way to market in Lhasa..............2. 202+. eeeeee ees 37 A farming isceneain Tibet). go). Vtg) ace Ee ELTA, EE ee es Chart of the world on Mercator’s projection, 25x 45 inches.............-2seeees Supplement Map showing the conditions of the coast surveys of the world. ..............-.+0e-00-: 64-65 The Bore coming up the Petitcodiac River at Moncton, N. B...........-.-c0.0+++es000% iL: High tide on the Petitcodiac River at Moncton, N. B ........... cc cec cece cece cencnees G3 Low tide on the Gaspareaux River, Wolfville, N. S.....53..3 .j.ce: > - oe «ai «) ole pie eer 74 High tide on the Gaspareaux River, Wolfville, N. S...........0.0: ewes ses cic emey eee 75 Seenes on Lake: Tehad i iis) Ste aia abicrals <\ola lace ec ope Late beset aioe elenetetneee eeeteee 78 A flock of goats on the ranges of Arizona... .. ..i:sssis. Ad tale samplers «se cle ole): cre eee 85 Pelée, with its terminal tower or obelisk ........0..:c0cwed teeth ods o's oc betileed some eee 86 Qn the winter trail to the Tanana gold fields, Alaska... 022)7: <9. 93. ©. :cotitas' eee 105 One of the first to reach the Tanana gold fields . .).. 60. ys Sa ois oleic cytes 2 Be 106 The ‘first boat out’’ after the ice—“ White Horse ’* 5% Oars. fa Be ios cays pe cee 109 The Tanana gold fields... ).. 0.007 oa. 3 vw tye meee sienecg cde beh so SORES ee 121 Sage brush deserts (Minidoka Land) south of Snake River, Idaho..... a tio wa ols vies Sie 122 Shoshone Falls, Snake River, Idaho .. 4.2... 5.0 nes 0 c'ere.s een mistele alate telel sie 1 =) Selenetetele eae 122 Fifteen lignite beds in single section of Little Missouri River near Johnson’s Ranch, North TD ANC OLA Fs a uotlaie nveile nia: loco ie) afcge alctse ay 2. «jee ¥e: clade ateseseceiiells\ene penstenate etal cee Ue leiiel (ps weston 123 Four coal beds each 4 or 5 feet thick on Little Missouri River ..... .........ceceerecees 124 A rabbit drive in Southern California «o.oo. .2 6 eee oie snes wie'e » l peretteyps sini cit eiey >hehena oreneean 128 (v1II) List oF ILLUSTRATIONS IX Page i Worecwits of.a,rabbit drive in Southern California........ 0 secu eee cee seeewecens 129 Seema teanark from a 9-year Old wattle tree o 2. ice. eee cet e eter cesar cece 131 Pec Orson tie HilipitiO CENSUS 6) o), 6.6555 duced into the Philippines by the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila................. .... 179 I. Tunnels on gold quartz veins, Benguet Province, Luzén. 2. Blacksmith shop. 3. Saltmaking..... die ep nee eet ee bela een e coe eee Saale 5 Mere enh eee) eet et een ia res 180 I. Threshing rice by beating sheaves or stones. 2. Mill for winnowing rice by hand. 3. Hulling rice in wooden mortar with wooden pestles. 4. Planting rice. 5. Hulling TICO So ec ee bee ee o) lee ee cee eb cote cle are nehe eet er 181 I. Filipinos making rope. 2. Mocanos spinning cotton, Luzén. Primitive loom of the Ilocanos, Luzén..... I. Climbing the coconut palm for tuba. 2. Husking and splitting coconuts fo ence! 3. Coconut tree and fruits... ee ss 2 et eee ont eke Ge nn 183, 1. Coffee plant, showing the remarkable luxuriance of the growth. 2. Sirimpnie abac4 (hemp). 3. The abacda, or ‘‘Manila hemp’’ plant. 4. Cacao tree, showing fruit at maturity. 5. Fine samples of Manila hemp, Bureau of Agriculture, Manila. ........ 184 Silver pitcher, presented to David T. Day by the National Geographic ,excursionists to MEXICO, cei 28 oe a se ow lle 1a9 Hauling a yellow-tail net, Southern Shikoku <2... 700.00... eee hee ee Pee 202 A fishery experiment station in the Province of Tosa ................--- +200: re ee 204 A trained fishing cormorant, with its cage. 215.0. .002 cece see ee ee 205 A cormorant trainer and fisherman. ....0........ -.0. 1. ene sce ae) oe ee 206 Fishing with cormorants, Nagara River.............0e000: UN eid ous 56 8 0's 6 9 ae 207 Spreading the wet funori on mats to bleach and dry .....)..2.-.%82----- «2s ee 208 Sprinkling the sheets of funori to prevent curling. ....... 223.0229. o> ae ee 209 Gathering the dried sheets of funori for baling and shipment............ .....---.-206- 210 Gathering kelp with poles and drags 22. $2.0 200. cca co weln ale ole esta cine, tc ree tee 211 Drying kelp on the beach in Hokkaido’. . .2 7 ola Fe eet 212 Women engaged in sorting the crude kelp:. (.0/2.0.0.4. 02. s ete oe ee ee 214 View at an Osaka kombu factory... 2. 0 Se ee eee ree ES Wonlen divers, province of Shima, 0/0... ol ek sb oieiere 0 otete oie o cet ne ney 216 The forest, Island-of Guam... 2... 2606 Do pes De ee eet bo ReSA Rinses 230 On the main road across the Island of Gila wee calor e Shire wob.a bale Dieteee aalbitgs te Oe gee ee ae 235 A fish intoxicant; the fruit of the Barringtonia speciosa, natural size...............-.-- 232 A coffee tree in full bloom), Island of Guat... 05322) )0. 022. ee ee. ee Sie eect octane 234 Betel-nut palms... Re. Sn ne RE ie See eno a 235 Flame tree in the Plaza Caguas, Porto Rico...) 2.31). Pees acl sere ool alert eee 238 A splendid specimen of the Ceiba tree, or ‘‘ silk cotton,’’ near Ponce, Porto Rico........ 239 A group of Sequoia gigantea, Mariposa grove, California............-...ceeeeeceee PF OBRO A group of mileh goats. 302.0 eNOS Oe, AD OS IO, tonne 241 One of the common prickly pears of Texas in full fruit............. 0... eee ee cee eee 242 Singeing the prickly pear of Texas with a torch... 2... -oci.5-/ctarcrstesstoetel ete alte fel sr eee eee 243, A type of pear cutter, as set up and operated:. 2... 05 se eis pre iettete ne 243 List oF ILLUSTRATIONS XI Page ©_ Herm rich. mess at Scituate, Massachusetts... 0 2 eed be eee e et cee cece 244 Bleaching and curing Irish moss at Scituate, Massachusetts. .......... 0.2.00. e eee eee 245 Excellent examples of weathering near Logan Butte, Cook County, Oregon ............ 246 emi alia with a-derrick Oma WeStErn farm... 1. .eeeeke tee es eee ete tees 247 Se nme alae beak COVIOM pases be bets ete oc en eee ew cas lee eed et tetieecabe 248 mem iian mt OOOCOVETS. COyVlOM i seas eis le ee cec chases ee eo veas 248 fraren Northern (Manchuria (18 x44 inches)... 0... ee ce tee tc erence Supplement Srnec ee ber storis,, Decemiber'I5, 1893, 8a. mi... co eee ec cece eee aes 268 me Liem iater storin, December 15; 1893, 8 a. Me ooo) se ee el Dacca dees eens 269 Chart III. Winter storm, December 16, 1893, 8 a. m........... Wa sreet rade ee aes oe eae 270 Sunwear eveold wave.. \aluary. 7, 1886, 7 Alms oe ee ee eke bee te lee a beara beads 27% Serine emOOlGemave JaluMaty. O, 1900, 7 A. WM. oe cle iesls et code cltee sds cle sine esacen sees 272 Sia eeColdawave, jailary 9, 8867 a. M1... kk ck tees tec esas NRA Meh: 272, Senay ie Cold. wave, Jaitary 10,'1886; 7 a. MPs... nk eek ene tee cee eee scene 274 Crna. west Indian hurricane; August 27, 1893, 8 a. M..... 06. cece cee cae veer eee: 275 Ghante«, west Indian hurricane, August 28, 1893, 8 a: mM... 2.16. cee cece ee ene batt abet 276 Sunapee west Indian hurricane, August: 29, 1893, 8a, mM... eee ede eee 277, itn a eotiie Galveston HUTricane, 1900, i ek eee lec abet we beeet cs py ae 278 it eM omigietraCl. TO AU OUST is. Wisc2 cis Ginn owe eaiets ee Hels Welles owe ecdeweeedace sees 279 Guacemetelee storm tracks tor February. «00... 610.5 ore cee cle cece cece eel abate. 280 Gara ieNiorimal storm tracks for May... oe cc he ek occ seseceedececsees 281 Chart XVIII. Tornado at Louisville, Ky., March 27, 1890. Weather map 8 p. m. of this HESS wea ceo Cage BORE CS ee en ne Oa RL eM ea Ree. SS a er 282 Ghar < 1X Tornadoes of 1889—a year of small frequency...........00...c0ce seer e eee 283 Chart XX. Tornadoes of 1893—a year of small frequency............. 0... eee ee eee 284 Chart XIV. The average lines along which the centers of storms move in July in the ester TeSIGE MMM SETA TS NOLS, Pest tetyns <6 no sv5! su ewdto’s. nie oe! lobe(afabele'alleip te sici'slesrel aves de Me aale se settee 290 Chart XV. The average lines along which the centers of storms move in January in the PO tpl tt STMISPMCLC lois c) cos 5's ow oselesn- oc wie oo cele levefele e's CRS heer as Rn ee aE LR oa 291 peagoadtiscene at NMurion, Arkansas, 1903.......01. Wea bone ce ccc cee wu we lesces sebtsees 293, The rush of water through the Holly Bush crevasse, Arkansas, 1903 ...... .......- . sees 295 Strengthennig the levees in preparation for the coming of a flood, Lagrange, Mississippi, He Ii POMERAT Yeh cies Rober Ws voavs) ot afar sie sta) wicks ics’ “cuemleedahe, Gow SM Alc ers S gas WbbrSis dg ania Delgisé BEL Gees 296 Chart XVI. Showing method followed in developing normal storm tracks, etc.......... 297 Scene in the freight yards at Kansas City after the visitation of a flood, 1903............ 298 Hees GUE SE OMC RIMES y OUIS OOS '.2 5 oi bw oie. Sate visio) wr etcl eugene ha eee eine liv oo bla eee en ohh in 206, Craueishowin= the low central near New Orleans 2000. oni oe a vee c awe eects sees 300 Map showing seat.of warin Manchuria, 18x 44 inches.......6.05....0.0..cc0eeee ee. Supplement Seeman or lsat at: WOM /. cere:) <<) sw s'elStele heise alos cee eBlOdcs cletececece see Baeble ic Latest picture of the Tsar of all the Russias and his interesting family, including Baby “TST OOS le CURE he BR ON Be Se On en ena ec Poi ae eee aC ReneS eee 314 Sereno MIMO LTAA TIONS +p V\LOSCOW? 15 «5. c10te sero. -o ie orale inrsde aie eros a ales aloes vie viele sed cea eleges 416. omone ot meniterior canals Of Ching... 2 3.35.5 cc tie wbe eee e fee e tee eeecuceceuces GIF Pete Montene CMita..> A COUNTY CALbs 6.6.6 be cc i sie le cee eee ee ve cmos ecsekueds 4.8 eater eer te IMUM MUTA aie 5 occ ie ole Greteiehe! sae iche eels fiele tsa: al a efeit, ofoie 026 ¢ s''ele e/aidie uiave sieges AIQ iaeiaieemeowater currents of the Pacific. ........6...scbetie cece ste secedecwccusececa 420 fpanese peasants watching a wrestling contest... 0.0.0... 66. ccc ete cece eee cece cones 433 Map OrmtHe Lanaiia Canal (25x 33 1nches)..........6.+--5-..e+ee02-seess0---s. SUpplement imumca@cavcuts of the world’s greatest canal. ... 2.6.0... cece cece we cece cndeecans 451 Seneca MRAM YL BIO) SOO yet sf. abc sus se cPouel nts vie, «ve lelo eters a GPa als ale) aie lol's Se a gts wesele wleverd a © dls vee k's 452 Meme Flo ream Oot LOONIE O TOE CM 20s terse): < oie» a lslal a cje sie jece sywie'+/e sais’ pielevy)eie vidal c sine ous ele et ale 453. Ment nes mCEIMNE NENCOIIA cee nh, ohey foyer slo ok, Lan eiferece wk 6. ae a) Vis’ ef'oicim sie ¢ oieteve eee be le nuelhod orale aie penne 454 Pa amesioMelbatawork 1 the Culebra Cut. cis. ui seeelew ee ede seu cb cle sucess lecliee ya 458 Panama soldiers at a village on the Bayano River, guarding the pass on the route from TDL STERNUM. Sy sy 2k ae se A MRO A a Saale sys Anya 461 Landing pigs in ane eR OmOL Pana ilaeC lly ic fo) oe ie beyasetacadeetsieis tse as! cnet sieleraiciiol< Wilc se ks 465 Indian ‘‘ dug-outs ’’ on the Chagres River bringing bananas, the chief export 3 Panama, 2D GEE. 16 oo direte clea BANE en Re Soe nS en 466 Diagram showing yearly amount of rainfall in inches on the Panama PSUs is ce eee: 467 Map ot the region of the Panaria Canal (24 x 33 inches)........ 1........c0000, Supplement fi era IL (Ee OTL CL LY, sop ers) oh 4s .08) 0,6 o/oie oie 30 wiclens oicieielaetels id's cclewiecceiecte acess tuiens 499 Peace advaucina across the Gesert. 2.5 2. ce eee ke ce ale ede Se eeeu eee te 500 PMC eo MleCCie Vale SAMARK ANG. 5.0) ts 5 cists tiv oo clepees Selene feb teh decesecvielee “ace. 501 Folds in the limestone in the Sugun Valley west of Shor rane lookinge. west.73. 00)... 502 iimestone gorge of the western*Kichik Alat......2........000-e ees spac afout ae vels DAR Leah SOs em Siete sae role Oy ell @vee foe Macc. clo, euspels ich odtete! else 21a) susleserei'e ola aint a slleiel dae 6 ee Goo «aso. 504 Map showing number of children under 5 years of age to I,ooo females 15 to 49 years of age, 1890 MaDe ett ee eee see ouch cere cc cue os Fev (ora) siederliavohr ciSlehelobetivave Sic oyevsiie. #6 0/6! we » 506 XIV Tue NatTionaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE Page The town of Ketchikan, Alaska, in the spring of 1905.... ........... . a CS ee 509 Philippine method of threshing rice, government rice farm, Murcia .................... 510 Threshing rice with American machinery, government rice farm, Murcia. .. .... ...... 511 Map of Alaska, showing mineral deposits so far as known........ .....- cece cece eee 512 Map showing relative density of railroads in United States and Europe ................. 421 Map showing American. fisheries. +. 6.0.5. 0.6 ..,-cjeiete ¢.cb Biells ele ltel sie Ale Seen Sen 522 Diagram showing share of the United States in the world’s industries and products...... 532 Fire temple at Udvada ... 2.23 tiesto ESE te ee 535 Imterior of fire temple... 52 wo nie Geeucs steer beaacekeuie cna. Je ititg SE, Fy eae ae 536 A Parsee. lady in regulation dressis iis: os. a2)... lest etite ofa Pas: Bee eee ae ee ee ti 537 The business prince and philanthropist of Bombay.............s.calhase Hasse ene 538 A Parsee schoolmaster and his class of boys... .52.. 5... 3). shine ee i 54) SRS Navrozjee Maneckijee Wadian 2... e-em Site eyes _ sor ete aged eA ee 540 A Parsee bride and groom. 3. ij... 65 see's oe es sie oteys ave wo) oR ee Geass Selle 541 A Parsee school girl in regulation dress........ 2.0... 0.0... s.0s.+ ody io Bee: Rae: dees aes Se A Parsce school girl... .. vigjeceis ie. sehen We evele he wal lelove’e ol aPK iol | abe RN e eke ot re 543 The Framjee Dinshaw. Petit.Parsee sanitorium 0.) 4.24)... ¢/6..s 420) 1.2 544 Sir Jamsetjee Jijibhai, third baromet .....0 2.060.000) ons + Seep 2 ee 545 MPAs Parsee Wed@ing (2 ow. Sec eae pegeiore Risse oc ece ies) tre soe ecco iy « mieuele ae Caen ear 547 The tower of silence at Uran.. 2... 1.0.0 nitidin a a itdess 508 SOs ee SU 548 A-model of a tower of silence, 4. o..404 01) ue ae Lie. Pee ee eee ier, ane Lt So oe 549 The vultures encircling a tower of silence... 20. 0... 42 wy. <: ose ++ + eee er » 550 Ground plan, tower of silence, Malabar Hill... 2... 2. dhniei). alee tee eee ee ee 552 Map of new Erie Canal)... ....5 00. eens enc sree wn winidia). Sa oelalsoe: sls ra:aheee tht tee se 569 JANUARY, 1905 CONTENTS The Character of Our Immigration — Past and Present. By Z.F. McSweeny. WithChatt .......2.2. Out Immigration in 1904. With Maps and IIlustrations Views of Lhasa. Illustrated . . . . . 1... . The Farmers of the United States Educating the Filipinos . Geographic Notes ... . DS a mgt x Why N o Americans Have aa Nobel Prizes | | Progress i PAT sa) oy tie 4h ot Tek eg We Mbeooraphic Literature . 6 2 National Geographic Society . . . . . - . _ Published by the National Geographic Society, _ Hubbard Memorial Hall, ; Washington, Dic, 5 50 a Year ino ae | | 25 Cents 2 Number Entered at the tatady bh a in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter | GEOGRAPHIC | MAGAZINE. _ & WN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published: ‘by hee a | Ak NationaL. GEOGRAPHIC Society, at Washing- KX) .ton, D:.C. . All editorial ‘communications _ ; should be padre: to the Editor of the Nationa ~ _ Gerocrapuic Macazine, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C. Business communications — should be addressed to the National Geographic _ Society, Hie Memorial Hall, Washington, i _D. Oh gate 25 CENTS A NUMBER; $250 AYEAR sts” 1 ae | ‘Bditor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR = | | Associate Editors, ed Beis 1 : Deas. GENERAL A. W.GREELY © 0. H. TITTMANN Are ey oes Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Mee ik Superintendea! of tae S Coast : HN CO vit ‘i RRR alt Slivbseniiaiiiay's < | ; y “44 wIMcGEE Par Maia | Bee Ae ae Chief, Department of Anthropology fe 0.1 P. AUSTIN iy a at and Ethnology, Loutsiana Pur- AAR Chief of et Puen of: Statistics, chase pace gee aA lea Department of Commerce and ie te an i Ney . ae _ Labor A rake ON oad Chief of the Biological Sy U. ce by a a a Department of ri Agagnetid i! Bes Mit, - if "a a at Roe ‘WILLIS L. MOORE Sa De Chief of the Weather Bureau, ( uv, (a a " : Department of maaiticinel ue) ay ‘ aie har Oat DAVID G. FAIRCHILD neg a ee Agricultural Explorer of the Depart aia ll ne meene edie ae fae VoL. XVI, No. 1 L] WASHINGTON | | | WATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA ZIINIE JANUARY, 1905 THE CHARACTER OF OUR IMMIGRATION, Fes dn NID PRESENT * By Z. F. McSweeny FORMERLY ASSISTANT COMMISSIONER OF IMMIGRATION HE subject of our immigration is perhaps the most discussed and | least understood public question now before the people. Onone side we find a portion of our citizens claiming that all kinds of economic and social evils are to be attributed to immigra- tion. The supporters of the other side are equally positive that the nation’s growth and progress are due to these alien races. The arguments pro and con are generally made to prove a special case, and as such are not always to be reliedon. On one thing both will agree, that for the poor of Europe, America spells ‘‘opportunity.’’ Previous to the past five decades of emigration the world has never witnessed such prodigious achievements, such wonderful enter- prise and real progress in all the things that contribute to make a nation great. WORLD MIGRATIONS The causes of migration have been manifold. Now it was famine, again the taste for conquest, that caused a people _of modern life. to take up its household goods and push out into unknown lands. Ambition fired the soul of one; religious persecu- tion or political revolutions inflamed another; while the love of gold was always a potent factor. ‘‘FEmigration’’ and ‘‘immigration,’’ as we understand them, are phenomena In prehistoric and his- toric times, up to the discovery of America, men moved in tribes and on eareers that were chiefly of conquest. In vain do we seek, in these migrations, for any parallel to the influx that is now pouring upon us. A new kind of migration began with the discovery of America and the new route to India around the Cape of Good Hope, and may be called ‘‘coloniza- tion.’’ Those who took part in this movement utilized the newly discovered countries, first, merely for the purpose of booty ; afterward for the establish- ment of trading posts. The beginning of this century dis- closed a movement far different from *An address to the National Geographic Society. 2 Tue NatrionaL GeocraPrHic MAGAZINE either of these ; it is not a national, but a private one. The citizens of other states come here, not in conquering hosts, but as individuals—to a nation for the most part foreign to the one they left, in customs, in manners, and in government. Ina word, the migra- tions of the nineteenth century were not conquest or colonization, but ‘‘ emigra- tion.’’ ‘Long before history began to be re- corded, multitudes of people went out from Central Asia. ‘There the Aryan race—the most important of the human family—had its rise. But the popula- tion soon outgrew the means of sub- sistence. Migration became a necessity. The Celts first spread over Europe ; then came the Teutons. Of the Semitic branch of the Aryan race the Jews par- ticularly wandered farand wide. First, to Egypt they went ; then, through the wilderness to Canaan ; subsequently, in the various captivities to Babylon. Greek colonists formed fromthe begin- ning an organized political body. Their first care, upon settling in a strange land, was to found @ city, and) toverect mut those public buildings that were essen- tial to the social and the religious life of a Greek. The spot was usually seized ‘by force and the inhabitants enslaved. ‘This sort of migration aided the father- land and bettered the condition of the people taking part in it, for the migrants often made rapid progress in their new abodes, and added more arms to the strength of the mother country. No voluntary migrant ever left Rome; the colonies she sent forth were intended to bridle subjugated provinces, and, as a writer well said, ‘‘ should be regarded rather as the outposts of an immense army, the headquarters of which were at Rome, than as an establishment of individuals who had bidden ‘adieu’ to their mother-country and intended to maintain themselves in their new coun- try by their own industry.’’ Yet they were of advantage to the empire, for they strengthened her power abroad, and alleviated the distress at home by removing from the city a large number of the excessive population ; but that policy did not result in as per- manent improvement as was anticipated, for the city population increased in num- bers more rapidly than the surplus could be absorbed by the foundation of new colonies. A great wave in the migration of na- tions was that which swept over Europe and buried forever, under its onward rush, the old Roman Empire with its civilization. Out of this conquest grew chaos at first, then slowly new states began to rise upon its ruins, which were finally united in the Holy Roman Em- pire of the German nation. ‘There were attempts, first by the Turks and later by the Arabs, to better their conditions by an invasion of Europe; but they were driven back by the sturdy Cru- saders, and with their driving back was rung down the curtain on that gigantic drama known as ‘‘ Migration of Na- tions ’’—closed perhaps forever. Modern migration dates from the dis- covery of America, though it was not for centuries later that it assumed any great proportions. Europeans came in large numbers; they were merchants, workers, and planters. The natives furnished the labor. The value of the colonies to the mother country was no longer merely “‘ militahy =" =e owas ‘‘commercial.’’ The planters received their capital from the home country and disposed of their products and made their purchases there. ‘Their intention was to build up a country that would be self-supporting and enjoy the same civ- ilization as the mother country. Atthe same time they did not separate them- selves from the parent, but continued under her political control. The rela- tions between the two countries were for the most part friendly and loyal. They were still ‘‘ Frenchmen” or ‘f Bnglishmen’’ or “* Dutch,” as they THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION a had been at home. The title of ‘‘Ameri- can’’ was yet to come. It is not too much to say that the migrations of these centuries, from the fifteenth to the nine- teenth, changed the whole aspect of the world. We can scarcely picture to our- selves the limitations of medieval life confined within the bounds of western Europe. ‘This colonization established world commerce and brought the prod- ucts of the whole earth to the inhab- itants of Europe ; it magnified the scale of things ten-fold. It did more; it changed the relative position of nation- alities; it made the English race and speech dominant throughout the world. EARLY AMERICAN IMMIGRATION But with the Declaration of American Independence a new movement in the history of changes in peoples became evident. It has since then grown in intensity almost every year, until it has become an important phenomenon of social life. It is not to be judged by any of the previous migratory efforts ; it must rather be considered on its own basis and with respect to its influence on the civilization of modern Europe. The Pilgrim fathers, fleeing to New England because of religious and politi- cal persecution, were the first real colo- nial settlers of America. It was real loveof liberty and freedom that brought them, and not the visions of Indian wealth or mines of gold and fisheries of pearl, with which the Spanish adven- turers in Peru and Mexico had aston- ished Europe, but the desire to worship God in their own way and to open an asylum to all victims of oppression throughout the entire world. At the same time emigrants from Hol- land had commenced the settlement of Manhattan Island, and English settlers came to the western part of Long Island. Contemporaneously, Gustavus Adol- phus—at war with the Catholic powers— wished to found a new Sweden in Amer- ica, which would be devoted to the up- lifting of the Lutheran religion, and he sent acolony of Swedes to the Delaware. Peter Stuyvesant, when he was gov- ernor of New Netherlands, became in- volved in difficulties with the New England colonies, and also with those Swedish settlers on the Delaware; and while he failed in his attempt to get the New England colonies under the Dutch rule, he did succeed in defeating the Swedes, who accepted Dutch sover- elgnty. Religious toleration was the rule, and Bohemian, English, French, Germans, Italians, and Swiss were induced to come to the new colony. Another colony of great importance to the country was that founded by Lord Baltimore in Maryland. ‘This colony was Catholic, but the principle of religious freedom, which has since become a part of our national life, was first inaugurated in this territory. French Huguenots, coming here after the edict of Nantes, formed an impor- tant settlement in the south. The Quakers, who came to the United States in the latter part of the 17th cen- tury, by the straightforwardness of their dealings with the Indians, did much to supplement the civilizing influence that was being carried on by the Jesuits in French Canada, to whom no little credit is due. Without regard to their per- sonal comfort or safety, these priests in- stituted a missionary work among the Hurons, Iroquois, and Algonquins, which lasted until the annihilation of the Huron tribe. They entered into the daily life of the Indians, and it required years of good example to make the slightest impression. Their sufferings and martyrdom are incredible; but as fast as one was massacred another was sent to take his place, and the recog- nition of the Puritan governor of New England in inviting Jesuit missionaries to be his guests and the guests of the colony is the best proof that these Protestants were convinced of the ex- 4 Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE cellence and far-reaching influence of these Canadian priests. Their human- izing influence was felt forever after- ward. ‘The Indians came to know that they could depend upon the word of these missionaries and the Quakers, which made their subsequent dealings with all white men more peaceful. Not the least important of the alien forces that combined to make the colo- nial history of this country were the thousands of Irish, who were sent to ‘ England after the time of Cromwell, compelled to give up their Irish names, and given such names as ‘‘ Brown,’’ SwWihite,’” 9 ““Blacks 9h Carpenter a *‘Shoemaker,’’ etc., after they set- tled in Virginia and northward. It is stated—which fact seems to be borne out by the parliamentary discussions in England after the war of the Revolu- tion—that one-third of the American soldiers in the Revolution were of Irish birth or descent. This short history of the colonial set- tlement of the United States is necessary in order to emphasize the point that what we call ‘‘American character’’ is really a combination of the racial char- acteristics of the alien forces that came to the United States prior to the War of the Revolution. As President Roose- velt said in writing of New York city Or1775: ‘‘New York’s population was com- posed of various races, differing widely in blood, religion, and conditions of life. In fact, this diversity has always been the dominant note of New York. No sooner had one set of varying ele- ments been fused together than another stream has been poured into the cru- cible.’’ In New York particularly this diver- sity of race is most noticeable. Baron Steuben was a Prussian ; Hamilton was born among the West Indian Islands, of Scotch parents; Hoffman, the son of Swedish parents; Herkimer, a German; Jay, Dutch’:’ Clinton? Irish; Sehinvier Hollander; Morris,Welsh. This amal- gam of blood and diverse races has re- sulted in the acknowledged highest na- tional character known to the civilized world, and the fusion of their ideas has had immense effect on the permanency of the institutions we now enjoy. IMMIGRATION DURING NINETEENTH CENTURY It is not necessary to go deeply into the story of immigration during the early part of the past century. It is interesting, pathetic, and in some of its details horrible. In the suburbs of Montreal is a stone with the inscription that it is ‘‘sacred to the memory of six thousand emigrants who died of ship fever in one year—1847.’’ ‘The condi- tions of immigration were then vastly different. Immigrants were subjected to treatment that would seem incredible now. Most of them could not pay their passage, and were sold on arrival by the shipping companies into temporary servitude as ‘‘indented servants.’’ Dur- ing the whole of the eighteenth century the prepayment of passage was the ex- ception and subsequent slavery the rule. As a consequence old people would not sell well, and their children had to serve longer to make up for them. When- ever a ship arrived at New York or Philadelphia, the immigrants were put up at public sale. Families were sepa- rated forever. A master not wishing to keep his servant could transfer him to another. Parents sold their children for a period of years in order to become free themselves. The treatment of these poor creatures can be easily imagined. This state of affairs continued until 1819,when a law was passed compelling certain improvements and the manifest- ing of emigrants from 1820. Since this law went into effect the number of im- migrants arriving yearly has practically been an almost infallible industrial ba- rometer. — The variations in our immigration THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION 5 represent the ups and downs of business and commercial prosperity. The busi- ness panics of 1837, °57, °73, and ’93 are accurately recorded, taking about two years to make their influence felt. In short, although the chart on page 6 shows simply the number of immigrants who have come to the United States since we began to take immigration statistics, it is a most accurate financial history during that time. The year 1881-’82 marks the climax of the older immigration and the begin- ning of the new. That from Ireland, which received its impetus from the hor- rible condition of their native land thirty- five years before, was still continuing with undiminished force. That from Germany reached in 1882 its maximum @f 193,000: It, too, received its first impulse in 1847, in the depressed indus- trial conditions in which revolutions and political disturbances had left the coun- try, but there is no special reason for a maximum during that year, unless it be a knowledge of the peculiar opportu- nities then offered by this country and the infectious example of others who were starting in this direction. The Germans coming to the United States have been of differenttypes. First, in the early part of the century, Penn- sylvania Germans were hyper-orthodox Lutherans ; in 1848, Free-Thinkers, fol- lowed by Roman Catholics and Social Democrats. The Scandinavian, which completes the list of the distinctive elements of this older immigration, seems to have emi- grated, not because of any serious polit- ical or industrial conditions like the others just mentioned, but because of the special inducements which this country offered him to pursue here the same vo- cations to which he was accustomed at home with the hope of greater rewards. The horizon of the Germans, Irish, and Scandinavians was filled with the one radiant idea of making for them- selves a home in this country, and of becoming in the highest sense American citizens. Such an immigration as that of 1882 represents the natural increase of a pop- ulation of about 50,000,000 people. In other words, we had then a foreign population almost equal to our own, contributing to our growth by its natu- ral increase. To the ordinary person living outside the great cities, the designation ‘‘im- migrant’’ brings to mind the Irish, Germans, or Scandinavians—the people just mentioned—who, even up to 1885, constituted such an overwhelming ma- jority of the total arrivals at our ports. They may still be seen everywhere—in the manufacturing trades or as shop- keepers, household servants, merchants, and professional men. ‘They have bet- tered their condition in life and added to the general prosperity of the country as well. Seeing them on all sides, the unin- formed observer fails to realize that their compatriots are no longer coming, but in their stead are new forces—Med- iterranean, Oriental, and Slavic races— whose predominance in numbers at pres- ent is absolute. The Carpathian and Baltic Moun- tains are nearer the mining districts of Pennsylvania today than Boston was 50 years ago. IMMIGRANTS FROM ITALY, AUSTRIA- HUNGARY, AND RUSSIA In 1882 a circle drawn over the map of Europe, taking in all points from which we were receiving immigrants, would have its center in the city of Paris. In 1902 a circle of the same size, including the source of the present immigration to the United States, would have its center located in Constanti- nople. In classifying immigration, the Immi- gration Bureau relies in the main upon differences in language. Let us nowat- tempt to briefly note their more marked WOMEISIWIUIT JO [BIDUID IJVOISSIWIMIOD ‘jUIS1VS ‘dq YURI jo voor 10; J1oday ay} Wo1 °000':0SZ ‘OZ8] 01. 9ZZI SIVAINYV GSLVWILSS “vEe9°SO6iZ ‘vOGI OL 0281 SIVAIYNYV O06! } ZO6I | OOG! : BEGI : 9681 | VER! ; Z68! : 06! : Yp Oz8z18! 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NOILVYSINWI JO 3 RHBBBHHD DSB BSBSOS WW Ww NNNN NNN DN C@IHORONHS OONHNKRON THE CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION 7 racial characteristics and the motives which actuate their coming. From Italy, Austria, and Russia, in the order named, we are receiving the present immigration. Italy encourages emigration and de- rives much benefit therefrom. The economic conditions of Austro- Hungary are such that there is every inducement for the peasant class to seek the prosperity which this country offers. Attempts have been made to provide employment by large appropriations for state railroads and canals, but without appatent eifect. Seen from this side, there seems to be an unceasing war be- tween Bohemian and German, Croat, Pole,and Hungarian, whichpermanently -threatens the nation’s progress, while parliamentary efforts seem to be limited to the playful exchange of inkpots,rules, and cuspidors between opposing factions. The real Russian never comes to the United States, except an occasional stu- dent or business man. The govern- ment’s policy isto encourage those racial elements who do not accept the national religion and customs to leave, and keep the others at home. There are at least 50 well-defined races in Russia, each with a different language. It is not nec- essary to do more here than to call atten- tion to the mighty strides with which Russia is pushing to the front in com- merce and modern methods. Like Eng- land and Germany, this country will use every effort to keep those of its citizens who will fight within the jurisdiction of its flag. First of all racially, in numerical im- portance in the year just passed, stand the Italians, with 196,208 arrivals— 159,329 being southern Italians, accord- ing to our classification,and coming from Sicily and that portion of Italy south of Rome. This part of Italy was already repre- sented in the immigration twenty years ago, but was composed chiefly of arti- sans, barbers, restaurant keepers, fruit venders, etc. Now the majority of Ital- lan immigrants enter the field of un- skilled labor. A. people who have contributed a share at least toward bringing an undi- vided country out of the turmoil of 2,000 years of European wars and politics deserve the right to be regarded favor- ably in a consideration of their ultimate influence upon the national life of their adopted land. The Italians come here to work and they do work, and their potentiality for improvement and progress is remarka- ble, and while they are ‘‘ birds of pass- age,’’ this tendency is lessening year by year. The objection to this race is in its adherence to the idea that they are colonists of the mother land, and while here, subject to her authority. The ‘‘TLa Colona’’ idea makes the assimila- tion of the Italian much more difficult. Our history shows that while our early colonial settlers were dependent upon their government entirely for sup- port, they were a motley set of shiftless adventurers. Left to themselves, they became brave and daring pioneers. The northern Italian is a type which belongs to the older period of immigra- tion, and has little to differentiate him in economic possibilities from the Swiss, French, or Germans. It is interesting to note, however, that the Italian an- archist is the product of northern, rather than of southern, Italy. Next in numerical importance stand the Hebrews, with 106,236, who, with the exception of a few hundred, belong to that branch of the Hebrew race which for centuries has found its home in Rus- sia, Austria, and Roumania. A Hebrew element has existed in our population fromits earliest history. The immigra- tion of this particular branch, however, dates back scarcely twenty years, and is distinctive from the fact that it has been largely artificial and assisted from the start. They come to stay, to cast their lot with us for wealor woe. ‘They come 8 Tue NationaL GEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE in response to no demand for that which they can bring, and are unfitted by lack of physical development to enter the general industrial field. They bring with them, however, intellects which are the products of thousands of years of mental training and sharpened by exer- cise among hostile surroundings. A Jew has his face turned toward the future, and, by virtue of the tremendous power of his religion, has been able to impress himself as a living force in every coun- try in the world except China. Coming to England ten years before they came here, the same industrial problems of crowding in certain trades and working in sweat shops were manifested, but there, as here, they have by organiza- tion been able to practically free them- selves. In New York today in the sweating trades alone the Jew has been. pushed upward by the Italians, and they in turn are being uplifted by the Arme- nian and Syrian coming into this indus- trial field. The Polish immigration now amounts, in round numbers, to about 67,000 per year, equally divided between Russia and Galicia, with about one thousand from the Polish provinces of Germany. The woes of Poland have aroused world-wide sympathy for a hundred years. In the past its political dis- turbances have given rise to an immi- gration largely taking on the character of exile. For thirty years the objec- tions to Russia’s policy in its Polish provinces have been more sentimental than practical, and Polish immigration in its modern sense is due not to perse- cution at home, but rather to the dis- covery of a profitable field for employ- ment here for laborers of the peasant class. More, perhaps, than any other element in this later immigration, ex- cept the Hebrew, it comes here to stay. As we see them they are illiterate, strongly religious, and moderately am- bitious to become citizens. In Buffalo, for instance, where they have a large settlement, they are buying homes, and their mortgages are regarded as the most desirable sort of investment. Weare now receiving every year close upon 30,coo Slovaks, from the mount- ainous regions of northern Hungary— a Slavish people, speaking a tongue akin to the Bohemian, living in their own lands in mud huts without chim- neys. They, too, areextremely illiterate, and turbulent under leadership. ‘These peo- ple have, nevertheless, a strong instinct of sincerity and honesty and a higher degree of personal self-reliance than most branches of the Slavish race. They can call up no past record of prominence in the milder arts, but point with pride to a language and territorial boundary which has remained intact through cen- turies of attempted foreign aggression. Sturdy, robust, and inured to hardships, they have no difficulty in finding a place in ourindustrial system. ‘They exhibit a strong and apparently increasing ten- dency to return to their Hungarian mountain sides, and have as yet given little indication of the direction in which their future influence upon this nation will lie. The fertile country of central Hun- gary furnishes no emigrants, but further north, in the districts less favored by nature, thereis an emigration of Magyars amounting to about 23,0o00a year. They are evidently induced by the example of the Slovaks, whom they resemble in every way except language, the former being of Slavish and the latter of Tura- nian origin. The same similarity con- tinues here—both seek the same general localities and enter the same field of labor as the Poles and Lithuanians. The Croatians and Slovenians, from the south of Austria, have only com- menced to come to this country in the last 15 years, and have already colo- nies in southern California and Oregon, with large numbers in the Pennsylvania mines. ‘Tue CuHaracTer oF Our IMMIGRATION | 9 From Carnolia, Krainers have been coming here for 70 years, following some Krainer missionaries who came here and settled on the northwestern border. ‘These missionaries have been followed by their countrymen, who have formed settlements. They are in most respects a desirable people, and come here to remain, and are rapidly becom- ing citizens. Dalmatian settlements are rapidly forming in the United States, especially in the more growing sections of Cali- fornia. The whole Balkan territory is begin- ning to feel the fever of emigration, and only the prohibitive rates for passage keep the semi-civilized tribes of Bosnia, Servia, Herzgovinia, and Bulgaria from coming here. Inthe near future cheap river transportation will be provided on the Danube River to the Black Sea, whence they can come to the United States. Then we may expect them in large numbers. THE FINNS Up to 1899 the Finlanders had lived contentedly enough under Russian rule, and, on the whole, the Czars punctili- ously observed their oath to maintain inviolate the constitutional liberties of Finland. In that year, however, the present Czar wiped out the Finnish con- stitution and promulgated a rescript that all questions held by the Russian min- isters at St Petersburg to concern the Muscovite Empire of old should be treated by them and Finland put under the general conditions of other Russia. Prior to that time no enactment had the force of law unless it emanated from the Finnish Parliament. The protest on the part of Finland to this action was immediately responded to by almost every other civilized country in the world, but without avail. The press is muzzled, the right of public meetings prohibited, and private gatherings for- cibly dispersed. In July, 1901, by spe- cial ukase, the Finnish military act of 1878 was abrogated and the army broken up. Those Finnish officers who did not choose to serve in Russian regiments were sent into private life. When we consider that among the Finnish people it is stated that only one man in I,200 cannot read nor write, while in Russia the illiteracy ranges from 47 to 66 per cent, according to dis- tricts, and Finnish customs, language, manners, religion, and ideals are all different, it seems that this movement will practically destroy the Finnish peo- ple. In 1899 we commenced to get what promised to be a considerable immigra- tion from this territory, but the British government, alert to the advantage of securing such a desirable people, have, by reason of special inducements, di- verted the Finns to Australia and other British colonies. Greek immigration consists mainly of boys and young men, there being but one woman to thirty males. Some work in mills in Massachusetts, but the bulk are brought over to peddle fruit and peanuts, in which business they are displacing the Italians. It is generally understood that they are brought over by padrones and paid $100 per year for their services in peddling. The Syrian immigration now amounts to over 3,000 yearly. The movement seemed to receive an impetus by the World’s Fair of 1893. Like the Greek, they are mainly controlled by padrones. Though the movement is actually less than ten years old, Syrians are now trudging over the whole of the Western continents with their packs and baskets of gew-gaws. They are not only around the well-settled districts, but are actually among the remote fishing hamlets of Newfoundland and Gaspé, everywhere among the villages of Mexico, in Brazil, Argentina, and in Patagonia. In character they have changed little since they were described in the Old Testament. ‘They have all the vices of 10 the oriental races, but without many of the virtues. They are the toughest problem that official and private charity has to meet in the communities in which they live. CHINESE Ever since the beginning of time there has been a constant struggle for assimi- lation between races, in which the ab- sorbent quality of the United States has proven superior to that of every other nation in the world, with the single exception of the Chinese. On the other hand, assimilation of the Chinese is impossible. ‘Their fe- cundity and lack of interest in any other civilization but their own, their habits and customs and unwillingness to ac- cept new ideas, offers no material to work on. One of our best and clearest thinkers on this question claims that the danger from Chinese immigration is that, if allowed to come here unopposed, they will in time monopolize all industrial occupations, and the American people, both of native and alien descent, will shrink to a superior caste, who would temporarily hold their own in govern- ment, education, and culture, but would finally and hopelessly be displaced as a race, and American labor and American manhood would diminish and fade away before the influx of this inferior and rolific race from the Orient, as in clas- sic times the Latin husbandman van- ished before the endless number of slaves poured into Italy by triumphant generals. One of the most interesting questions in connection with the Chinese is their climatic adaptability. While it is be- yond question that the Northern races of Teutonic and Celtic descent are supe- rior economically and militarily over ali known races of the earth, in climates different from their own they are un- able to compete with inferior races. The Latin races—French, Spanish, Tue Nationa, GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE Italian, and Portuguese—are much more successful in tropical settlements than the English or German; but the most remarkable adaptability to climatic con- ditions is manifested by the Chinese. They succeed in the far South, where the white man cannot live, and are suc- cessfully working in the North, where the mean temperature is below freezing. The trouble with the Chinese is that they are 400 million strong. Itistothe interest of the Chinese government to allow them to migrate to foreign lands. The history of Europe shows that the Jews have clung to racial characteristics with the utmost tenacity since they were driven out of Alexandria by Cyril. They have gone from one country to another ; have been oppressed, and have absorbed the best traits of all with whom they came in contact. They have at- tained prominence in the business and financial marketsthe world over. Wher- ever they have gone they have always remained Jews—true to their religious and racialideas. While they have been able to maintain their racial individ- uality in every other country, whole tribes have gone into China, and in the course of a hundred years have been completely absorbed. No foreign influence has ever gone into China that has made the slightest impression on the Chinese race, and while they have been the migrant race of the world, they always remain Chinese. Their history in California, where 10 per cent are professional criminals, does not show any special reason for encour- aging more to come. OUR IGNORANCE OF THE PEOPLES BLENDING INTO THE “AMERI- CAN” RACE For fifty years we have been getting alien emigrants, and most of our people have become accustomed to the sight of foreigners, but as a matter of fact they know very little about them—whence they come, their racial traits or habits. THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION I have spoken to high-school gather- ings and teachers, and have been utterly amazed at the lack of knowledge of geog- raphy, and especially of racial geog- raphy, which is manifested throughout the United States. If it is true that each incoming racial element leaves its indelible imprint on the character of the people of the United States, and that our national character has been built up from the diverse races that have come here, it would seem to be unquestioned that our educational methods should include the study of racial geography to equip students who are being turned out of our colleges with a knowledge of the races that are an- nually coming into the American life, and especially with their economic, moral, and social effect on the commu- nity. The National Geographic Society can well initiate this work by agitating for a more comprehensive and scientific study of racial geography in our various institutions of learning in the United States. The Romans and the Greeks regarded all strangers as barbarians. Most sav- age tribes have no word to differentiate between these two terms. This feeling, inherited through the ages, is at the bottom responsible for unthinking opposition to immigration, and unfortunately comes often from those who were themselves aliens but a short time before. As the proselyte be- comes the most rabid opponent of his former religion, so the recently natural- zed foreigner is often the loudest in his demands to close the doors to others. Migration and the tendency of races to move from one place to another have been the strongest instincts in human nature. The counter-instinct, equally strong, of self-preservation has made the opposition of the resident races always to be considered. As the Greeks and Romans considered a stranger a bar- barian and an enemy, so did the first colonial settlers of the United States re- ie | gard later comers as a danger to them. As early as 1765, as told by Edward Eggleston, William Penn expressed him- self as being apprehensive of the coming of the Pennsylvania Dutch to his colony. In 1819 and 1820, although the migra- tion of that period was very small, the municipal authorities of New York ex- pressed apprehension as to the effect on the public institutions of the 10,000 or 12,000 immigrants, the total number of the arrivals at that period. In 1850 the Know-nothing movement was the direct result of the exodus of the Irish and Germans to the United States, which had begun in the 4o’s. The discussion of the Kansas and other border states land acts in the 4o’s and 50’s, concerning the question as to whether the aliens should have the privilege of occupying these lands on the same terms as the natives, brought forth expressions of opinion from Clay, Calhoun, and Seward, which were gen- erally expressions of fear as to the eco- nomic effect on the United States of the introduction of these aliens. Washington, Madison, and Jefferson, in the early life of the Republic, gave the question some attention, and were in turn either openly opposed to or doubtful as to the effect of the intro- duction of alien races. The Civil War and the immediate response of the alien residents of the United States in enlisting to enter the armies of the North stopped emigration discussion for twenty years. WHAT WILL BE THE EFFECT OF OUR UNCHECKED IMMIGRATION During all the years that immigra- tion inspection has been in progress no steps have been taken to scientifically ascertain the real danger or value to the United States of the immigrant forces coming to this country. The investi- gations of the Bureau of Labor have shown that the economic dangers that were feared in the early 50’s have not 12 been realized. Since 1870 wages have steadily risen, the conditions of employ- ment have been improved, and the hours of labor reduced. The purchasing power of every dollar earned has been increased by 60 per cent, and this during the pe- riod of heaviestimmigration. It would be unfair to claim that immigration had any influence in this eonnection; rather we should attribute it to the organiza- tion of labor; and, broadly speaking, labor organizations have been supported by and have found their best members among the immigrants. Whatever dan- ger there may be is in the undue pre- ponderance of criminals, insane, and those becoming public charges. There is no means of accurately determining how much damage has been done in this direction, or whether the undoubted beneficial effects, which have been dem- onstrated in a thousand directions, can be offset. Immigrants come here at the age when people are most liable to com- mitcrimes. ‘They are freed from moral restraint and all fear of loss of caste, which, even in the lowest order of so- ciety, is, next to religion, the strongest deterrent to crime. Some day we may hope to see both sides fairly weighed and an exact judgment rendered, which, with our defective sources of informa- tion, is not possible today. When we consider this question it compels us to pause in wonder as to what its effect will be on the future of the American people. If, in spite of our institutions and forms of govern- ment, the alien races that have already come and are still coming can succeed in undermining our religious, political, and economic foundations, it will be because we willingly succumb, through inertia, to their influences. Rome, Babylon, and all the nations of the world that have fallen have done so because they abandoned their moral, religious, and social ideals, their de- cline in most cases being contemporane- ous with the introduction of alien races. THe NatTionaL GeocraPrHic MAGAZINE If such is to be the result in this coun- try, it will simply be history repeating itself ; but I have confidence enough in the morals and character of the Ameri- can people to believe that the races in- troduced among us will take from us only that which is good, and through education we will give them stability and the power to become thoroughly assimilated. The privilege of intercourse with na- tive children and school instruction lifts up the immigrant in the second gener- ation to the level of his fellows. The children of the ignorant, illiter- ate, and once despised German and Irish have grown up to match the native American of several generations in brawn and brain, wit and culture, and are today working with them, side by side, in every line of social, scientific, intellectual, political, and mechanical endeavor. This is easily understood when we watch the avidity with which foreign children embrace the educational ad- vantages of our schools, and especially note their docility and amenability to discipline. They have a practical idea of the value of education and regard it as an asset to increase their earning ca- pacity. During the past few years in New York the end of each school term shows that the Jewish children have obtained more honors than all the others put together. CONTRACT-LABOR LAW I have not the time to take up in de- tail the question of the violation of the alien contract-labor law by aliens, but it is a most important matter and is de- serving of attention. For a number of years after its passage but little effort was made in the direction of its en- forcement. Subsequently, after the service passed under federal control, a vigorous attempt was made to show re- sults that afterward were found by the labor organizations to be worthless, THe CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION cruel, and unnecessarily severe to the immigrants. The alien contract-labor law, which was passed for the protection of the American workmen, to prevent the in- troduction of alien laborers to take the place of native labor on strike, is so well known in Europe that those de- siring can violate this law with impu- nity, inasmuch as the only means of detecting such violations is the immi- grant’s own confession. A system has grown up whereby aliens are brought to this country to work under contract, and the place of employment, the name of the employer, and all the essential facts which, if in the knowledge of the alien and ad- mitted by him to the inspecting officer, might convict him are withheld from him until after his arrival here. This system, which has been in active opera- tion for several years, is responsible for the open and flagrant violation of this law. The law needs to be strengthened; the real danger to the American work- man, however, does not come from the aliens coming under contract, but from the class so well described in the Presi- dent’s annual message as ‘‘ below a cer- tain standard of economic fitness to enter our industrial fields as competi- tors with American labor.’’ There is more danger from a dozen aliens who are thrown on the streets of New York penniless and friendless, and compelled to take any situations that they can get, without regard to wages or conditions, or starve, than from dou- ble or treble the number of contract laborers. The first means the lowering of all standards of living, and is beyond com- petition; the latter at its worst can be partially kept under control, even with our present defective laws and adverse court decisions. The intending traveler is schooled to pass every question long before sailing, and when a new scheme to evade the aS law is discovered and provided against, it only takes about a month for the immigrant arriving to know all about the new regulation. Anarchists and criminals are not boast- ing of their record before inspection, and while the proportion of immigrants who actually possess criminal records at home is comparatively small, those that have criminal proclivities constitute a larger proportion. Many of the former class, and most of the latter, will be able to evade any form of inspection that may be devised. Their undesira- bility can only be demonstrated by their careers after landing in this country. It is perfectly proper to adopt any meas- ures to prevent the coming of such peo- ple. But however well such an inspec- tion service be organized and conducted, it must, to accomplish to any extent the desired object, be supplemented by some provision for apprehending and deport- ing those who gain admission to the country from lack of evidence at the time of examination to show that they are not entitled to land. THE. EXAMINATION OF IMMIGRANTS Immigration inspection, in the sense of sifting the desirable from the undesira- ble and deporting those not coming up to a certain standard, has only been in operation since 1890. Prior to 1857 in- coming aliens landed at the docks. In that year, mostly for health reasons, Castle Garden was opened as an immi- grant landing station,continuing as such until 1890. Secretary Windom in that year took the service under federal control and moved the station tothe Barge Office in New York. The building of a new wooden station at Ellis Island caused the removal there in 1892; in 1897 this was burned down, necessitating again going to the Barge Office for over three years. The new immigrant buildings on Ellis Island are especially constructed forthe work of receiving,examining, detaining, 14 and giving medical attention to the in- coming hosts, as many as 7,000 having arrived in one day. We are fortunate in having associated with us a large number of earnest and hard-working missionaries, representing every race and religious denomination, whose constant presence not only brings comfort and help to the arriving alien, but also acts as a powerful protection against extortion or abuse of any char- acter. Every year since coming under federal control the conditions surround- ing the immigrant have improved, until today he is absolutely free from organ- ized plunder. In former days, as one of the state commissioners said in 1869, they were robbed:and plundered from the day of their departure to the moment of their arrival at their new homes, by almost every one with whom they came in con- tact. They were treated worse than beasts and less cared for than slaves, who, whatever their condition may be in other respects, represented a smaller or larger amount of capital, and as val- uable chattels received from the owners some help and protection. There seemed to be a secret league, a tacit conspiracy on the part of all parties dealing with immigrants, to fleece and pluck them without mercy, and hand them from hand to hand as long as any- thing could be made out of them. The thousands who died from ill treatment on the voyage were thrown into the ocean with as little ceremony as old sacks or broken tools. If crosses and tombstones could be erected on the water as on the western deserts, the routes of the immigrant vessels from Europe to America would long since have assumed the appearance of crowded cemeteries. While every means is employed by the federal government to provide precau- tionary measures, petty extortion from immigrants will exist as long as credu- lity and ignorance exist on one side and Tue NatrionaL GgEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE human depravity on the other; but I can confidently assert that every legitimate means, almost amounting to paternal- ism, is exercised by the immigration service to give the arriving immigrant that first impression of our laws and form of government that will place him on the road to good citizenship, while at the same time strictly carrying out the present defective laws. In every other kind of function which comes within the purview of govern- ment officials, the thing to be dealt with 1s merchandise or finances, while in the immigration service we have to deal with people. No two persons will look alike, nor can any rule be established that will make human beings equal ; therefore the result of inspection must depend, in a large measure, on the dis- cretion of the examining official. The best law in the world, with poor offi- cials, would be of little protection to the country, while the present law, in- sufficient as it is in many respects, has done wonders in keeping out undesira- bles. Immigration inspection should be considered just as much a patriotic duty as is fighting for the honor of the flag. By our present system of selection, the officers charged with this delicate, responsible, and most important duty are chosen for their positions under the same methods and with the same test as would be applied to men whose duty is to weigh coal, merchandise, or add up accounts. Under the present con- ditions, the authority to pass immi- grants is mainly in the control of the officers who were originally appointed, not because of their zeal or sympathy with the spirit which prompted immi- gration legislation, but because they had knowledge of foreign languages, which enabled them to converse with the incoming aliens. Special induce- ments should be given to natives of the United States who will fit themselves linguistically, in addition to the other THE CHARACTER OF Our IMMIGRATION qualifications, to enter the service. From top to bottom, it should be placed upon a scientific basis, entirely outside the con- trol of politics. The voluntary, unsought, and unso- licited emigration to the United States has been the means of building up an intellectual, energetic, and prosperous community. Our country has received, not the high born, but the strong and always the oppressed, whose past history made them all the more appreciate their condition here. The children of the colonial period were pushed upwards in the social scale by the immigrants, who in turn push each other upward as they come in. It is not true that the native of four or five decades ago stepped from one occupation to the other. The upward movement was gradual, and the pro- motion was rather that of generations than individuals. Science and invention are working together to abolish occupations at the lower end of the scale and creating new ones at the top. The laborer of Europe has his place in the economy of our age. His whole drift is upward, in spite of all the counteracting influences to the contrary. Since 1850 the immigrants have al- ways been found on the side of law, public decency, and public morals, as instanced in the response to the call for 2 troops in the Civil War, the agitations for change in money standards, etc. Ever since 1870 those states having the preponderance of aliens could be relied upon to vote on the right side in moral questions in the same proportion in which aliens existed in their commu- nity. In what I have said I have tried to be fair, but I cannot close without say- ing that our hospitality is abused, and by reason of our defective laws and the general knowledge of the means to evade them in Europe we are receiving an increasing number whose coming will do us no good, but harm. We have no right to oppose needful measures of legislative relief out of sympathy for the sufferings of the peo- ple thus seeking admission to our shores, or out of respect to the traditions which up to now have caused this country to be regarded as an asylum. There is only one Ellis Island in the world ; no other country has its mate, because none offers the inducements to the poor of the world that we do. Let us thank God that this is so and pray that we may be able to keep it so, and that the twentieth century may bring to America the fruition of all its hopes, and the standard of progress and free- dom which its history has inspired be the torch that will light the world in the same path. OUR IMMIGRATION DURING 1904 O one can read the report for N 1904 of the Commissioner Gen- eral of Immigration, Frank P. Sargent, without being seriously im- pressed with the laxity of our present immigration laws and the urgent need of more stringent regulation of our im- migration. The number of immigrants for 1905 bids fair to reach the one mil- lion mark. Only a few less than 10,000 landed at New York in two days in November, the least popular season of the year for newcomers. The follow- ing facts are taken from Mr. Sargent’s report : The striking and significant feature of the table of immigrants for 1904 is that the chief diminution is shown in the arrivals from Austria-Hungary, amounting to 28,855, and from Italy, 16 to 37,326, these two countries aggre- gating 66,181, or twenty-odd thousand more than the total net decrease for the fiscal year 1904. ‘The countries of northern and western Europe, with one notable exception, show increases, Great Britain’s increase being 18,643. The one exception to the foregoing state- ment is shown by the decrease of 18,265 in the arrivals from Sweden. The only other figures in this table to which attention need be directed are those showing an increase of nearly 100 per cent in the arrivals from China, and a decrease of 5,704 in those from Japan, the latter easily traceable to the pend- ing war in the East. Of the 812,870 aliens arriving in 1904, 549,100 were males and 263,770 were females—an increase in the females as compared with last year of 19,870 anda decrease in males of 64,046. As re- spects age, 109,150 were under 14 years, 657,155 were between 14 and 45, and 46,565 were 45 or over; 3,953 could read but not write, 168,903 could neither read nor write, and, it is presumed, the re- mainder, 640,014, could both read and write. It also appears that 103,750 of these aliens had already been to this country, and that 95,575 brought with them $50 or more each, while 501,530 brought each less than $50. The total amount of money shown to officers by these 812,870 aliens was $20,894,383, or $4,776,870 more than was brought by the 857,046 arrivals of the last year. This fact, taken in connection with the circumstances already referred to as to countries from which the increases of the year under consideration came, furnishes assurance of a marked improvement in the character and thrift of the more re- cent immigration. The 28,451 English immigrants brought with them in the fiscal year 1903 $1,405,365; this year the 41,479 of the same race brought $2,736,- 182; the 35,366 Irish last year had $796,082, while the 37,076 Irish this year showed $1,092,781; 71,782 German Tue NatTionaL GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE immigrants last year had $2,480,634, this year 74,790 possessed in hand $3,622,675. Comparative Statement Showing the Number of Aliens Arrived in the United States, by Countries, during the Fiscal Years ended June 30, 1903 and 1904, respectively, Showing Increase and Decrease for Each Country. | o o) Ww mM wo iso} Country. 1903. 1904. v 2 3) 1S) Vu Rs a Austria-Hungary............ 206;01T) | 177405 Olan cones sees 28,855 Beloit, sch Ano, ee cee ee 3,450 3,97 5204s vedas Denmark... tecocvestssceccsces 7,158 Se5 250) ale SO7a lee eee France, including Cor- sica........ eee Py rmame os i: 5,578 | 9,406] 3,828 |........... German Empire............ 40,086 | 46,380] 6,294 |.......... Greenies. ciscseseueses sueee 14,090 | 11,343 |.-.eeeeeeee 2,747 Italy, including Sicily and’Sacdittia ices nae 230,622 | 193,296 |.. ........| 37,326 Netherlands\.....20.c.ne: 3,998 | 4,916) 918 |........... NOE WAY datecectdceons atensseceeen 2A,AGI" | 23,808 lvcocasers= 653 Portugal, including Cape Verdeand Azore EslanGe b..c26 soncscacers. eee O3317 | = Gy FES esteem 2,602 VO UM ATA, waco see eoteneene eee FO;3 ON 7,087 ssemenrces 2,223 Russian Empire and Binaries. ciccaene: 136,093 | 145,141 | 9,048 |........... Servia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro............000+ 1,761 T5325 | teesieeeeees 436 Spain,including Canary and Balearic Islands..., 2,080] 3,996) 1,916 ]........... Swiedetiinvesc.cs-ssceessss0- 6-52: 46,02 2 OBG| scenes 18,265 Switzerland..........0..0c0.s0. 35983) || 5.026: al, CAON eee es Turkey in Europe......... T, 520 45 344n| ms Zora ieee United Kingdom : Eugland,..24..005 26,219"|' 38\020u) 124050 — ee Ireland..... sc) 35,310) || aos 8 Scotlandecccee--cse-eess 6,143 | 11,092] 4,949 |......cce Wal OS ecco ereensetes 1,275 1,730 AS 5a | tern sees Europe, not specified..... 5 143 138) eae eee MP OUALS, =2,cee-nencoesevrnereess 814,507 | 767,933 |-vswsaseces 46,574 Chinas. cotter ee 2,209 A5B OO} 2sCOON| Fee ee JEN OHI TG aopcmrsesoaaose soy sancnoon IGQOS'| 14,2644|.+-- sass 5,704 Di (ob bz Wanewen ee Sr men renee Hey 94 261 DOV newaoeee Grapkey inPASiayoncsecaccssK 7, TS) e5e2e oil aacenssenes 1,883 Other Asiaiy..c...-seneusssess 577 PR ea we Sy. IG) | Ree ye TotalcA Sia <.c224.:icecesess 29,966 |} 26,186 |........... 3,780 UM friars teu tooctesteckces econ 176 686 SLOn| stn ee Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand........ I,150 1,461 QUST) ee ae Philippine Islands......... 132 52) | cececseees 80 Pacific islands, not spec- MOG eaaectnesssshoneacarets 67 A2)\\.ssccseee 25 British North America...| 1,058 2.837.) al. 7710s eeee eee British Hondurag........... 81 109 8 Other Central America.. 597 GOS) He eon eesseeeens IML OX COvretcoscsesscsteosseoeceets 528 T,009 ASIIG| Sones South America............06 589 1,067) els O7Gu peers West Indies................06 8,170i|| 10,93) s 24O2a) nn eeeeeee All other countries........ 25 90 O5aloteeweees Ota Mse.seceeteersesseceene 857,046 | 812,870 |........0.. 44,176 Aliens in transit............ 64,269 | 27,844 |.....-000-- 36,425 Total alien passengers | 921,315 | 840,714 |.....-..0 80,601 Z i 1904 Our IMMIGRATION DuRING UONCASIMIM] JO [VIDUIL) IOUOISSTMIIMIOD “YWASIVS ‘gq “YF WOT «“WOTPVASIIUMT [L}O} BY} SMOYS BoE pedis oa, ne TE OE pRe'sos'lé : AIS otis ele BY O19" 191 9ZQty ¥IZ Ibi Sythe nee Ss BOB : Sue eae eee i sonsoonirnmnnn Soe oe ee Se, ORR 1 . — £6 OLE | Hy ie pea foe rere i ef ee i foo Pr YON WHY “S[VIAVNIGNDS) Nag ams o AVM Oe é “ ted Seoeremenrnneaite ‘SS soacnen $$ ee ed 32 Siri aiananecinmocennans Boy on memerh BOE | TS peswEn s of 8 fons : 3 Ra ae Ber reciente eer ie reese, MMB GEE’ — 382339 RES E> 35 E> AOI: 3 Se fo IRE GE He i ‘ hoy 4 Se ces en mete mane mr ERG Pp amen See Sur suanie une an 4 3 EIZ es ee : : ce f a, © ff oe So ~ oleh See OES basta ae OE : Ep pmnisee eR SF ay ninmnnronccmnne ERE SuvaA 96 1sVd SHL ONIUNO YLNNOD VIV WOHd WLOL ONV Ade ALLL WOU 18 OUR GOVERNMENT SHOULD ASSIST THE IMMIGRANTS TO DISTRIBUTE THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY ‘“The failure of the government to provide for the distribution of aliens through the United States, and the ex- ertions of foreign countries combine,says Mr Sargent, to maintain alien colonies in thiscountry. Such colonies are open to objection not merely on political grounds, but for social and sanitary rea- sons ina far greater degree. It cannot, in justice to the interests of our coun- try and to the preservation of its insti- tutions, be too urgently or too fre- quently repeated that in confining our treatment of the all-important immigra- tion problem to the exclusion of such of certain enuinerated classes as we can detect our policy is superficial. The practical and pressing question 1s, What shall be done with the annual arrivals of aliens, approximating now 1,000,000 ?”’ The present immigrants throng to the states which now need them least, to overcrowded cities, and entirely neglect the western states, where there is a scarcity of laborers. FOREIGN COLONIES IN THE UNITED STATES All the political and social, and occa- sionally religious, resources of some countries are being directed to one end, to maintain colonies of their own peo- ple in this country, instructing them through various channels to maintain their allegiance to the country of their birth, to transmit their earnings here to the fatherland for the purchase of ulti- mate homes there, and to avoid all in- tercourse with the people of this coun- try that would tend to the permanent adoption of American ideals. Thus emigration from certain foreign coun- tries has become, ina much larger sense than the public imagines, a revenue re- source to those countries, of immediate benefit to them to the extent of the aggregate remittances, of prospective Ture NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE benefit to them because it insures the return of theemigrant with his accumu- lated savings. ABILITY TO READ AND WRITE An examination of the ability of the immigrants to read and write shows sur- prising extremes, of which the following are specially noteworthy : Only 3 per cent of 10,077 Finns from Russia were illiterate ; 4 per cent of 40,526 Germans from the German Empire ; 4 per cent of 22,507 Germans from Austria-Hungary ; I per cent of 36,486 Buahisi: I per cent of 11,226 Scotem= 3 per cent of 36,747 Irish, and I per cent of 59,878 Scandinavians. On the other hand, as large a propor- tion as 36 per cent of 32,577 Poles from Russia could not read or write, and the same illiteracy is true for the Poles from Germany and Austria-Hungary; 23 per cent of 77,544 Hebrews from Russia could not read or write and 20,211 He- brews from Austria-Hungary showed the same degree of illiteracy. The percentage of illiteracy among the north Italians is only 13, yet it is as high as 48 among the south Italians. We are receiving nearly six times as many south Italians as we are north Italians, and yet the latter are far more desirable immigrants than the former. AMBITIONS OF CERTAIN IMMIGRANTS One member of a large family from eastern Europe, composed of a father, mother, and six children all under ten years of age, with hardly any money, and bound for the tenement district of New York city, was recently asked at Ellis Island how he intended to provide a competent subsistence for his family if | allowed toland. Heanswered: ‘‘ What do I care for a big houseif I can get one room to sleepin. ‘That is all we want ; that is the way we did in Russia.’’ This particular family was excluded. Our ImMmicraTION DuRING 1904 aay) ALIENS DETAINED IN PENAL, REFORMATORY, AND CHARITABLE INSt@ITUTIONS, SHOWING FOR EACH RAGE THE RATIO OF CRIMINALITY, AND ‘THAT SAID RATIO CORRESPONDS LARGELY ee PROPORTION OF RECENT ARRIVALS GRAND WHO ARE CRIMINALS OF RACE PROPORTION OF ALIEN INMATES ARRIVED WITHIN 5D YEARS Ss TT EVION CS SLAVIG IBERIC AVERAGE OF = ALL RACES From F. P. Sargent, Commissioner General of Immigration This chart shows the ratio of criminality of the four principal grand divisions, viz. : Keltic, Teutonic, Slavic, and Iberic. The Iberic division leads in criminality, with Slavic second, Teutonic third, and Keltic fourth. ‘The Iberic ratio of 39 per cent is thought not to show the true condition, as it was found impracticable in the compilation of these figures to exclude the Italian (north) who belong with the Keltic grand division from the Italian (south) who belong with the Iberic grand division. In this connection it is pointed out that there were 809 aliens confined in the institutions of the United States proper for murder, 253 of whom were Italians ; there were 373 confined for attempts to kill, 139 of whom were Italians. This is a ratio of one Italian to two aliens of all other races. From this diagram it will be seen that the racial divisions that have the largest percentages of recent arrivals detained are the ones that have the highest ratio of criminality. (See pages 26 and 27.) But we are receiving many other fam- ilies of a similar character bound for the tenement districts of our large cities, and with aspirations as narrow as those above described, whom it is not possible to exclude under existing law, for it does not necessarily follow that they are likely to become public charges from the fact that they will go to an overcrowded tenement district and occupy inadequate quarters. Of the so-called ‘‘Americans’’ who have obtained their citizenship by rush- ing to the United States, living here long enough to take out papers, and then hurrying back to their, native land, Inspector Marcus Brown gives the following illustration : ‘The conditions I found to exist there (Jerusalem) are even worse, if such be possible, than in Syria. Inthe city of Jerusalem alone I found over 1,000 ‘American citizens,’ the vast majority of whom, being Hebrews, live there ostensibly for religious reasons. A number of them are engaged in some business pursuits. These, however, are in the minority, the prevailing majority living on charity, mostly on the so-called ‘chaluka’ (the biblical one-tenth) , which HE NatIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE T 20 -Iyeg ye 0009S ‘u0}sog ze 000 ‘0g ‘Q190Y pepury 600‘909 ob! EEE ‘OoSsIOURIY US ye 0006 pue ‘erydjepeliqg ye oof ‘61 ‘s10ut SuULINq ‘PURIST SI[[M J PUL SJUVIDSIUIUIT Ino Jo SsqyANOJ-991q} NOGY LOGI YIOA MON ‘purls] SI[H ‘PUeIS] WOT}e1siUIM] soye}S pou UOIVISIMIUY JO [VAIUIT) IOUOISSIMIUOD ‘JUISIVS ‘qd “YW Woy ibis ee oa | Our ImmiGraTIon DurRiING 1904 ‘arqissod sv Ssuttdsur pue s[qeioAvy sev aq plnoys jueIS1UIMI ay} JO suOTssaidutt ys1y dt} FEY} DoULLLOdUI 94} SUIZI[Rat ‘DATIORI}JE UCTS PURIST SPA IY} JO SSuipunoszins oy} 9YvU 0} paloavapua sey wWassies “ITV Po! ‘AYID YIOK MON PleMOT, YON SULYOO’T ‘purysy si] ‘WoOreS JURISIMU] Saje1S pou UOTVABIUUUT JO [VBIDUIH JIWOISSTULMIOD ‘JUISIVS “q ‘T WIOIY | ‘sjuoulesnure jo Spuly soles pue ire ysosj Aofus Avi Ao} ors M ‘punoished & OUT UspseS Joos ay} Jo norzsod ev Bulj19AU00 Aq Usrp]Iyo peule}ep Jo jUoWsnme 94} JOJ PUTS] SI[[H 3% 9peMt Mosq sel MOISTAOId [eloeds “uesreG “IJ JO UOT}sessns oy} IV "AN ‘WONeIS PULTS]T SPH ‘Mapreg jooy s,UaspyiyD NOVASIVIM] JO [BJaUaH JIUOISSIMMMIOD ‘jUI51eS “q “7 wo1y Tue NatTionaL GeocrRaPHiIc MAGAZINE 2:2 23 IMMIGRATION DurING 1904 Our }OBIJMOS OOS*T pue ‘pasvasip stom 00g‘ ‘stodned a1aM oog‘h Jaquinu sty} JQ “Po61 Ur UoTssIMpe WO1}EIS PULIST SI[Y SULIoJUyY sudITy UOMCISIUMIY JO [V1IMI5) I9NOISSIWIMIOD ‘jUdS1VS “gq ‘yY WOIY pesnjet 919M SUdI[e 000 ‘ 8 "S1910qP THO GY NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE UL PezZIUSoOoe1 91e OYJe1} JULISIUIe IO} soyer dvayO Jo syooYo [IAS s[qIssod ey, “s}10d YSi[suq wos} 9}¥1 ND 9qy JO SSEJUBAPR 9H} O} puv[suy 0} 9008 savy plnoa Siosuassed uvulios)-sueI} JO JoqIuNnU o61R] B ‘UOT}ISIWMD JOsIIput prqiqoid smeT UVONeASIMI UBUIIED 3} yey} JOR} OY} I0F Jnq : Sorey pasvaroap Aq snnurys Aue UdALs ud0q JOU Sey e19T} Jo[JNO Ue syses YOIYM sodomy UsIaTION pu [eI]UI0 UlO1J JUIUIIAOTH YSBA 9} DUS + sz10d UBUIIEy sy} WIOIZ OUT} JUSoId oY} 0} dn poulezUTeUM Udaq DAVY Sd}eI VSvIOD}S [[NJ 9, “s9}e}S peiuy oY} 10} Surjsredap jassaa Ataao uO sj10d ued a} dAva] ‘ase Jo sivad Of puke gI UdaAjoq ‘vIssnYy WIOIZ UsUT SuNo< Jo sraquinu 981e/T “BOLIOUTY 0} SUI}VISIMA SUBISSHY 94} josouvivedde [voiskyd oy} UT JUaTMSAOId MU poyreUt v I0j ‘uedef pure eissny uadMyaq IeM 21} YM UoTeUNOD Ut ‘a[qisuodsa Ose SI TEM de af, “BOLIOUIY Ul papMo1ds9A0 jor ApUTe}I99 ore Yor ‘suorzednoo0 rene Tay} SUIMO[[OF JO UOTUI}UL PAMOAB JY} YIM 919 9M0D S}UBISIMIa JO Sasse[D aso, “AsjyuNOd yey} Jo a[doed oy} Aq wueTe WIM pamara ST YIM ‘WIeIG Jag WOIF JOQe] [BIN[NoAse puv oI]SaeMIOp jo SNpoxa Ue UL pa[Nser sey} ‘[eloyeteq wseq sjoodsax atmos UI sey ‘Q[QEIISOPUN ULB OY} UT YSNOT} ‘S9}"}G po} 94} Uodn yoaye sy] *A1} MOD 7eY} UT a]qeadI}0U som UVEq Sey oe sy} ‘sj10d ysipsuyq 0} peuyUos useq sey IBM od}eI 9Y}SYW ‘sour diystesjs sy} UsaMJod IM J}eI JT} SUS, s[QvIepIsuOd ye sassnosip JwasIeS IT UO1}VIS PURIST SIT Je UOISSIMIpY Suljlemy suslly jo sadAy tJ Our ImMmicratTion Durine 1904 5) (‘4 ased 90g) ‘suetrery ydaoxe ‘90R1 I9q}O Auv Jo ULY} SMaIqay 310M poarsoar am Poor Surmmnd¢ WOT}eIS PURIST SITY O} UOISSHUpY SulpeMmyY susipy jo sada yz, UOIJCISIMIMY JO [VIIUID IDUOISSIMIMMOD ‘WWdaS1eS ‘Gg “yy WO 26 they obtain from all over the world, either through organized charitable or- ganizations or from private individuals. These people send out thousands upon thousands of letters annually begging charitable contributions, and they cause Dr Merrill, the United States consul, and his dragoman no end of trouble. ‘These alleged ‘American citizens,’ although they enjoy and avail them- selves of the high privilege and protec- tion of American citizenship, are, in truth and in fact, not Americans at all, and quite a number of them have be- come naturalized by fraud.” PUBLIC CHARGES Although each year several hundred aliens have been returned to the coun- tries whence they came because they were public charges, and several thou- sand others were originally refused ad- mission to the United States because likely to become public charges, the recent investigation of the charitable institutions of the country conducted by the Bureau of Immigration actually found about 30,000 alien paupers, in- cluding insane, in the public institu- tions and another 5,o00 in the chari- table institutions under private control. About 10,000 alien criminals were found in the penal institutions, making alto- gether a grand total of 45,000, 40,000 of whom are supported exclusively at public expense. In addition thereto, there are probably 65,000 naturalized foreigners in these institutions. The states in which are located the large cities have the largest proportions of aliens detained in their institutions. For instance, out of 44,985 aliens in all the institutions of the United States, 12,440, or 28 per cent, are in the State of New York ; 5,601, or 12% per cent, in Pennsylvania; 5,490, or 12 per cent, in Massachusetts, and 3,359, or 714 per cent, in Illinois, making a total of 26,- 890 in the four states mentioned, which is 60 per cent of the entire number in the United States. Tue NationaL GEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE The enormous proportion of aliens taken care of in the insane and charitable insti- tutions of the United States 1s shown by the fact that the proportion of alien popu- lation to citizens in the whole United States 7s I to 75, while within the insane and charitable institutions the proportion ts I alien to 6 United States citizens. ‘The proportion in penal institutions has not yet been determined, but is undoubt- edly even greater than 1 to 6. RACIAL DISTRIBUTION Increasing proportions of immigrants are going to Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia, while the percentage for the neighboring State of New York has gradually decreased from 42 per cent in 1892 to 32 per cent im 1604. “Lhe far Western States are attracting increasing proportions and the Middle West and South decreasing percentages year by year. It is of interest to note in this connec- tion the uniformity of the fluctuation of immigration to the New England States, each of them having attracted increasing proportions from 1892 to 1895 or 1896, with decreased percentages since (leav- ing out of consideration the increase for Vermont during the past three or four years). Iberic and Slavic divisions :* About 70 per cent of the immigration going to the seven states, New York, Pennsyl- vania, New Jersey, Ohio, Delaware, Maryland, and West Virginia, which group receives 60 per cent of the entire immigration tothe United States, belong * The different races or peoples or eaore properly, subdivisions of race coming from Europe have been grouped by Mr Sargent into four grand divisions, as follows : Teutonic division, from northern Europe: German, Scandinavian, English, Dutch, Flem- ish, and Finnish. Iberic division, from southern Europe: South Italian, Greek, Portuguese, and Spanish ; also Syrian from Turkey in Asia. Celtic division, from western Europe: Irish, Welsh, Scotch, French, and north Italian. Slavic division, from eastern Europe: Bo- hemian, Moravian, Bulgarian, Servian, Monte- Our ImMmicraTion DurInNG 1904 to the Iberic races of southern Europe (principally south Italian) and Slavic races of eastern Europe, including Mag- yars from Hungary. Of the great bulk of immigration going to New York 34 per cent is south Italian and 23 percent Hebrew. Other Eastern and Southern States and Indiana, Illinois,and Missouri get large percentages of immigrants be- longing to the Iberic and Slavic divis- jons. Louisiana is conspicuous because of heavy percentage of south Italians. Teutonic division: The Northwestern States get heavy percentages of 1mmi- grants of Teutonic blood from northern Europe, the States of Michigan, Min- nesota, North and South Dakota, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, and Utah each re- ceiving from 65 to go per cent of immi- grants of this class. Celtic division: New England and some of the Southern States show mod- erate proportions of immigrants of the Celtic division. This class of immi- grants, however, is most conspicuously represented in the Southwest and Rocky Mountain regions. Mongolic division: Most of the immi- grants of the Mongolic division, prin- cipally Japanese, go to Hawaii and the acitic coast. Of all the immigrants going to Hawaii 82 percent are Japanese. negrin, Croatian, Slovenian, Dalmatian, Bos- nian, Herzegovinian, Hebrew, Lithuanian, Polish, Roumanian, Russian, Ruthenian, and Slovak. The Mongolic division has also been added, to Include Chinese, Japanese, Korean, East Indian, Pacific Islander, and Filipino. Under ‘‘all others’’ have been included Magyar, Turkish, Armenian, African (black), and subdivisions native to the Western Hemi- sphere By reason of blood mixture this classification is somewhat arbitrary, especially with regard to Finnish, Scotch, and southern Germans. Ay OCCUPATIONS Examination shows that immigration to the mining regions of the Alleghenies, Lake Superior, and Rocky Mountains is composed of comparatively few fam- ilies and a very large proportion of la- borers, while that to the agricultural dis- tricts of the Middle West and South is composed of comparatively few laborers and large proportions of families. The latter fact is conspicuously the case with regard to the tier of seven prairie states and territories from North Dakota to Texas, where nearly half the immigra- tion consists of women and children classed under the head ‘‘nooccupation,’’ with a corresponding decrease in the proportion of laborers. It is notable also that the Teutonic element in the immigration to this tier of states greatly predominates. VIEWS OF LHASA HE pictures of Lhasa published in this number of the NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE are selected from a seriesof 50 Tibetan photographs which were recently presented to the National Geographic Society by the Imperial Russian Geographical Society of St Petersburg, The pictures were taken by the Buriat Tsybikoff and the Kalmuck Norzunoff on their recent semi-official expedition to Tibet. The notes given under the pictures are from Tsybikoff’s narrative as published in the Annual Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for 1903. Those desiring further information on the subject are referred to the above narrative and also to this Magazine, July, page-202, and May, page 228, 1904, and September, page 353, 1903. OGRAPHIC MAGAZINE E IONAL G Tue Nat cr 28 EEE ee WUdfep JO SUBST B SB IAIVS O} peuueyd 319M SUOHIppe pue aovred sy J, ‘49}e uy autos pappe sear ,,‘a0eTed peat ,, 94} pares ‘uonsod [eryU90 Ue ayy, ‘AinjM99 YJUSAVS 9Y} SuLInp UPYy Suezsuoisg Aq prey sea ‘sXkes uolpesy ‘soevyed oy} Jo uoTyep -UnOj oY = ‘pWpSrey Ayoor ve uodn yInq pue ‘4719 9} JO JSAM JIIUT v JO SpATT}-OM} JNO? SI ‘e[e}JOg ‘eure’]-Te[eq 9y4} Jo sored ay] eSeY’] Je VUle’y-1e[eq 9} JO sovN[eg 9], ae LHASA VIEWS OF eUle’]-1eTeC] 9} JO Ifl] SUOT pue sivjfaM ay} 10J Avid 0} st yt Aynp asoyM ‘sxUOuT CoS Jo Apu -IINTHOS & SUIPNOUL ‘vMIe’[-1e[eC At} JO SIDMOT[OJ IO s}UepUa}e SNOTIBA OF S1oJIEND sev sadras SUIp[Ing ay} Jo Japuteulas oI, aida} ay} Jo uor}10d [v4}W9d 9} UT o1e BIeT-Te[eq aq} Jo sjuatujrede pue soinsvsi} oT, “YSly Joaf QZ Jnoqe St YOM ‘vure’[-1e[eq YWY oy} jo s1qojndas usaplos 34} SUIpN{oUl ‘joqly, Jo sainse poderdsip suejoqry oy} soevyed sity} Jo uooNAYsUOD 9T} UT vue] Teed, dq} JO sovR[ed 9} JO MaTA JoyJouy ‘sovped 34] Snopoid jsour oY} PUNO} o1B DIDFY [TYAS TeINJooYore ysoysiy 1134 ‘JUOIJ UL YSIY Joop oL Jnoqe pue SuoT joa} oov‘r ynoqe st soved oy RULLAALAA RERALLARAALS | PEARMAAALLL rire RREGRRAGEE Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 30 Sat]JO[9 JasesM puke poo} puokag Aed saatsod1 OAS jsOU[e JUBAIOS OsHOy W ‘“SUIpRdI JURSSaoUI oj Aep & s}UId OF SATI00I1 OYM ‘stapeei Johveid oy} ‘seme’] oy} 07 pred si Areres Jsousiy oy, ‘s}ueo € 10 c ATWO Sued JOIOGe] ULM IO UeMIOM poq[rysun ue apy ‘Aep iad preoq pue s}U90 g yNoGK SUIAIIIEI YOO 9ATJVU Jo JOAvAM J19dxO ysour 9} ‘deayo AVA SI IOGE] JeY} VdAVIWIMOd 9]}}1] YOns Sl atayT, “JeqL, oysno1yq} snonoidsuoo orev WIPE 0} AjJOAOd Jo JdMOTAIesqns oT} pue YIeeM jo UOTNIIXWsIp [enboun oxy, JSOM 3} WOT VUIL’]-Te[eq OY} JO soR[eg 9} Jo MIA V 31 Views oF: LHASA Aap st pony yedrourid ayy Syed pue 3[}7e3 pouioy fo dsinueut ‘sAautItfo ou sAvY sosnoy 94, ‘plod 9} uio1y HoTyo9}0I1d se saaros tsded DATIVE Pa2[lO I9}UIM UL Ysnoyy ‘SUTEJIND 10}}09 YIM Suny Jo ‘soued joy} sv SMOPUIM dT, “ABTS YIM pajueutad ‘YorIq yUINGUN Jo 10 aUO}S Jo a1v sasnoy I], 3 atthe Be poerserccrcntoreriionrne esey’T UL IJUIIG JIIIJS VV GRAPHIC MAGAZINE O 4 o + _J NATIONAL 1) Tu v 32 ‘souo0}s 1a1}0 pue ‘astonbinq ‘spread ‘serqni ‘spuowerp ‘spe10o “1aAqIS ‘pros jo st Arjomol ney, ‘A]JURSIIO JOY}CI SSaip sueJqI], ‘suUReaMT 119} 0} UOTWIOdO1d UT ‘YT Jo OS|B 9B SIOTOD JoyJO ‘asINOD JQ “YOO par Yrep 9yy soyoud TeMoOM ‘sooutid pue selieyasip raysiy Aq pasn st Mor[ad pue ‘on[q Aiep sistpfos sy} ‘per yep pue por ojdood s9yor1 ayy { 10,09 ysodvayo on} ‘d}1TM IvaM Sasse[d 100d ay, "SIO[OD SNOLIVA UL Y}O[D 9ATVEU WO] apemt ‘USISap [eIOeds Jo ST URJOqI, & JO SUIYIOTO OY, BSBL/T 1 “JOqLT, JO BULY PIO ay} Jo sore Views oF LHASA Buddhist Temple in the Center of Lhasa Tue Nationa, GrocrarHic MAGAZINE 34 wio1f stoddiqsioM jo ssulieyqj}es 9Y} puv ‘SIO}JISIA }USISUeI] AUB 917} ‘Salia}seuoUur aSiel omy jo Ayrwrx01d oq} jo und930 16 asyeo18 : mses ABU I9qUINU oy} YSnoyy[e ‘UsauIOM Ws} Jo spIIy}-oMy Jnoge ‘suosied ooo‘Or spss0xe ATa01edS eSeY’]T JO UOTe[ndod uelpIAlo oy J, "SOTJOOSE SI JOF JOCIT, UL SNOML] SE OIA “eI9g Jo AroJseMOIM 3} SI oINzoId oy} Jo 19}U99 oY} JnOgGe yeed oY} SurmMOID Zuripying sy, ITH SurtoqysiaN & Wo1} Bsey’y JO MaIA VW "sjooI}s AJIIP pue pIxOoId s}t YIM APIO 94} Sul19}U9 UOdN saYSTURA 9dUO je MOIA JULYSIP 94} JO JYSI[Ep 94} ynq {sa01} 94} Jo sdoy use18 9} SUOW oNIYS SSUIP[Ing pouo}s AULU 9} JO ST[VM JPYM 94} pue UNs 9q} UI UdysI[s sojdmi9} [edioutid OM} 9} Jo Sjoor BIS 9y} UOYM ‘Iamuns pue surids ur Ayperoedsa ‘aouviesdde [njiyneeq AOA & VdeTd 9Y} BAIS A}1D 94} JO $}ILYSJNO 9} Ul s9oI} PUL Sp1eyd10 OT, 5 esey’] JO SJITYSINO oy], 3 Views oF LHASA Tue NaTIonNaL GEeoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tee SUC] SOTIMI g yNoqe SI ‘ep eB smog Ooo'€ Jnoge Suryeu ‘skp oA} ut pozo[dmoo st apos1o ayy powisojsod A[[NyyWre}] oe sMoq 9saq} UOT MW sMOq 93e23S01d UT 10 JOO} UO BSBY’T PUNOIe SolpoivI Alsy} dyxVUL snord 9} YIM SuOl[e peOl Ie[NOIIO oY, SEY] SOTOIID YOIA\ pvoxY oy} UC LHASA VIEWS OE ‘peprenn SOsLidi9}U9 IAISU9}X9 SULSPULU UdzjO ‘sileye ssouisnq ur yied aatjow ue oyv}] pue soUIpuadepul pue WOpserj yojsod Aofusa uauIO AY ‘sKeprpoy orqnd yuenboaszj aay} Sulinp souep pue Buos UT jJJas} s}sayiuvUL YOM ‘Ap][erAOl 0} poul[OUT 9q 0} Waas sUe}qIy, aT, esey’] Ul Joye 07 AVM JY} UO ATJUNOD 9} WOI] UOMO MM THe Nationa, GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE BU , I _ ‘sasse pue ‘syed ‘(a]}}e0 Ateulpio pue AeA Jo paeiq ssolo ve) ,,ozp,, Aq A[[ediourid suop st 410M ploy oy, “sasse pue ‘sornm ‘sasioq 10] peysnio 10 ‘inoy jo u110F ur ssepo 1a100d ay} Aq pasn ‘svad pur ‘[I0 10}; suvaq ‘ ANOY }esYM Oj ‘yeaty{M sooo Uay} { epeut st ourm-AdTIEG ssoputiey pue rejndod ay3 yoryM wor; ‘dors prepuejys ay} st Aojieg -“uonetndod payijes ayi Jo uoednd90 jJoryo 94} SI aanj}NoUsy JOqLL, UI sUDDG Sulmiey VW THE FARMERS OF THE UNITED STATES ‘“ The activities of our age tn lines of research have reached the tillers of the soul and inspired them with ambition to know more of the principles that govern the forces of nature with which they have to deal.’’—President Roosevelt in his message to Congress, December 8, 1904. The report for rgog of Flon. James Wiaitson, [t ts a story of remarkable development and of wondrous We recommend it for perusal by every reader of this Magazine. small volume of 114 pages. wealth. jollowing ts an abstract of the report. AVORED with continued pros- kK perity in 1904, the farming ele- ment of the people has laid broader, deeper, and more substantial the foundations of a magnificent agri- culture. A period of some industrial depression during the last two years has been saved by the farmers from the severer conditions that must otherwise have befallen in consequence of the ab- sorption of a large portion of the readily convertible capital of the non-agricul- tural classes into great and prevalent speculations. WEALTH PRODUCED BY FARMERS As great as the financial successes of agriculture were in 1903, hitherto with- out equal, those of 1904 advanced some- what beyond them. While some pro- ducts have fallen behind in value, others have more than filled the deficit, and the general result is that the farmers have produced in value much more wealth than they ever did before in one year. One conspicuous item that has con- tributed to this is the corn crop. The farmers could from the proceeds of this single crop pay the national debt, the interest thereon for one year, and still have enough left to pay a considerable portion of the governments yearly ex- penses. The cotton crop, valued for lint and seed at 600 millions, comes second, while hay and wheat contend for the third place. Combined, these two crops will about equal in value the corn crop. Notwithstanding the wheat crop shows Secretary of Agriculture, makes a The a lower production than any year since 1900, the farm value is the highest since 1881. Potatoes and barley reached their highest production in 1904; savein 1902, the oat crop was never so large by 60 million bushels. The present crop of rice promises a yield of goo million pounds—30o0 million more than ever before. Horses and mules reach the highest point this year, with an aggregate value exceeding 1,354 million dollars. Onthe other hand, cattle, sheep, and hogs all show a slight decline. The steady advance in poultry leads to some astonishing figures. Zhe farmers’ hens now produee 173 billions of dozens of eggs, and at the high average price of the year the hens during their busy season lay enough eggs in a single month to pay the year’s interest on the national debt.* After a careful estimate of the value of the products of the farm during 1904, made within the census scope, it is safe to place the amount at 4,900 million dol- lars after excluding the value of farm crops fed to live stock in order to avoid duplication of values. This is 9.65 per cent above the product of 1903 and 31.28 per cent above that of the census year 1899. Some comparisons are necessary to the realization of such an unthinkable value, aggregating nearly five billions of dollars. Zhe farmers of this country have intwo years produced wealth exceeding the output of all the gold mines of the entire * Every American is thus eating about 245 eggs a year. 40 world since Columbus discovered America. This year’s product is over six times the amount of the capital stock of all na- tional banks; it lacks but three-fourths of a billion dollars of the value of the manufactures of 1goo, less the cost of materials used; it is three times the gross earnings from the operations of the railways and four times the value of all minerals produced in this country. The year 1904 keeps well up to the average of exports of farm products dur- ing the five years 1899-1903, amounting to over 859 millions, while the average for the five years was nearly 865 mill- ions. During the last 15 years the bal- ance of trade in favor of this country, all articles considered, exceeded 4,384 million dollars, but taking farm pro- ducts alone, these showed a balance in our favor of more than 5,300 millions. The increase in farm capital the Secre- tarv estimates conservatively at 2,000 mill- ion dollars within four years—this with- out recognizing the marked increase in the value of land during the past two years. The most startling figures shown as illustrating the farmers’ prosperity are those presented by deposits in banks in typical agriculturalstates. The Sec- retary selects for this illustration Iowa, Kansas, and Mississippi. ‘Taking all kinds of banks, national, state, private, and savings, the deposits increased from june 20;751896, to October 3, 1904) 10 Iowa, 164 per cent, in Kansas 219 per cent, and in Mississippi 301 per cent—in the United States 9i per cent. A simi- lar favorable comparison may be made as to the number of depositors. GENERAL PROSPERITY OF THE FARMER The diffusion of well-being among fariners throughout all parts of the coun- try is one of the most conspicuous feat- ures of the recent agricultural develop- ment. ‘This attracted attention a year ago and is now even more noticeable. The great South is more especially en- joying this growth of well-being, owing Ture Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE to the enhanced value of the cotton crop in addition to the general progress in agriculture. ‘The Eastern farmer, who was long on the verge of bankruptcy in competition with the virgin soil and rapid expansion of the northern half of the Mississippi River Valley, has sur- vived that competition and now enjoys more normal conditions, owing to the creation and maintenance of many large near-by markets by many varied indus- tries. The Pacific coast has long been prosperous, with its world-famous spe- cialties ; the mountain states are glad with the fruits and promises of irriga- tion; in the older prairie states the farmer has seen his land go from $1.25 an acre, or from a homestead gift, to groo and ¢150, and the ‘‘ Great Amer- ican Desert,’’ as it was called when it was nothing but a buffalo range, is now peopled by a progressive race of farmers, whose banks are filled to overflowing with the proceeds of their products. EDUCATIONAL WORK The elements of agricultural science are gradually finding their place in the primary and secondary schools through the instruction of teachers. We buy over $200,000,000 worth of products from tropical countries that cannot be grown in continental United States. Through scientists sent from the United States to the several island groups the department is instructing the people of our island possessions to grow these things, such as coffee, rub- ber, fibers, drug plants, nuts, fruits, spices, and the like. Our farmers buy $100,000,000 worth of machinery every year. A_ better knowledge of its use and care 1s neces- sary. Several agricultural colleges are taking up this inquiry and giving in- struction in regard to machinery and farm buildings. WEATHER BUREAU FORECASTS The regular forecasts of the Weather Bureau for 36 and 48 hours in advance 'Tur FarMERS OF THE UNITED STATES have been made daily throughout the year, besides special warnings of gales, cold waves, frosts, heavy snows, floods, etc., which have been issued for the benefit of commercial and agricultural interests. Forecasts are issued, more- over, for the first three days out of steamers bound for European ports. The river and flood service had several opportunities to demonstrate its useful- ness and growing efficiency, and owing to the advices and warnings of the Bu- reau the dangers of the great ice gorges in the Susquehanna, Allegheny, and Ohio rivers were much minimized. The national weather and crop bulle- tins were issued from 143 section cen- ters. Besides the extensive distribution of the forecast cards, over 5,000 railroad stations have been supplied with bulle- tins, and the Bureau has availed itself extensively of the rural free delivery and the rural telephone system, so that forecasts are quickly disseminated throughout a large territory at a mini- mum of expense. MOUNT WEATHER OBSERVATORY The main building of the Weather Bureau Observatory at Mount Weather, Va., has been completed, and the phys- ical laboratory to be erected in another year is being planned. When the equip- nient is ready apparatus will be utilized to explore the atmosphere to altitudes of from 3 to 10 miles. During the year arrangements were perfected for a generous increase in the number of daily telegraphic weather re- ports, and the Secretary reports several submarine cables laid. The Weather Bureau has now 158 stations completely equipped, while 130 steel towers with improved equipment for displaying storm warnings are now installed along the shores of the Great Lakes and the Atlantic and Pacific seacoasts. INSPECTION OF ANIMALS AND MEAT _ Besides safeguarding the live-stock industry at home, the department is Al fostering the foreign trade. ‘The total export of animal products in the past fiscal year exceeded $223,000,000. The total inspections for export were—for cattle, 790,496 ; forsheep, 534,850 ; and for horses, 3,293. There was a great increase in the number of cattle and sheep exported, but a considerable re- duction in the number of horses. The loss on cattle in transit to British ports was but 0.17 per cent, and on sheep 0.94 per cent. Clearances of vessels carrying live stock numbered 774. The inspection of import animals calls for the utmost vigilance in order to pre- vent the introduction of animal diseases. Importations of pure-bred animals were light, but a very large number were im- ported from Mexico for breeding pur- poses. Inspection of animals and their prod- ucts was maintained at 51 establishments in cities. Of ante-mortem inspections about 65,000,000 were made and of post- mortem 40,000,000, an increase in both cases over the previous year. The micro- scopic inspection of pork is restricted to that destined for countries requiring it, and the number of carcasses inspected in 1904 Was 313,445, of which 2,643 were found to be trichinous. PRODUCING NEW BREEDS OF ANIMALS Preliminary steps have been taken to conduct feeding and breeding experi- ments in several states looking to the development of breeds of animals suit- able to our conditions of climate and soils and capable of meeting the demands of commerce at home and abroad. The spread over several of the moun- tain states of a cattle mange required vigorous intervention by the depart- ment. It was necessary to detail a large force of experts to supervise the dipping of the herds in order to eradicate the parasite. Cooperation with most of the states has been arranged, and the rest promise to secure state legislation to compel all flock and herd masters to clean their stock. 42 STUDY OF PLANTS IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS Special efforts have been made to en- courage the study of plants in the pub- lic schools. The Secretary argues that our system of elementary education leaves no impression on the child’s mind of the importance, value, and use- fulness of farm life, whilein many ways he is brought early into contact with facts pointing to the value of commer- ciallife. Hecalls attention to the rapid advances made in agriculture along all lines, and notes the need for bright young men in this field, which he be- lieves offers opportunities as great as in any other. ‘The distribution of seed is being handled in such a way that en- couragement of plant growing will be a feature of it in connection with public school work. NEW PLANT INDUSTRIES Under the head of new industries de- veloped the Secretary enumerates, first, rice, of which, under the encourage- ment of the department, there has been enormouslyincreased production in Lou- isianaand Texas. Preliminary estimates give the area devoted to rice in 1904 in these two states at 600,000 acres, and the crop will approximate 650,000,000 pounds. In reference to durum or macaroni wheat the success attending its introduction continues unabated. Probably no less than 14,000,000 bush- els of such wheats will be grown this year. Thedurum wheats are now being handled without difficulty by many millers. These wheats have been found valuable for bread and can be grown successfully where many other crops fail. Efforts are also being made to in- troduce the raw material for the manu- facture of fine mattings. IMPROVEMENT IN SUGAR-BEET SEED In regard to the sugar beet the chief effort of the department has been to effect improvement in the seed and to study the diseases with a view to the Tue NaTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE discovery of remedies. Strains of pedi- greed seed are being established in New York, Michigan, Utah, and Washing- ton, having already assumed commer- cial importance in the last two states. It seems to be a question of but a few years when the entire 5,000,000 pounds used in the United States will be pro- duced at home. American-grown seed has produced beets testing as high as 24 per cent, and the average in all beets tested from American-grown seed in 1903 was 15.8. The average percent- age in all beets grown in the United States is but a little over 11 per cent. During the season of 1904, 14,000 pounds of American-grown seed were distributed by the department for test- ing in comparison with imported seed. The factories also bought 34,500 pounds of American-grown seed. Interesting experiments in fertilizing were con- ducted, one in particular showing the difference of over twenty dollars per acre as the result of fertilizing with nitrate of soda. In the matter of developing sugar- beet seeds with single germs, which would greatly diminish the labor of thinning, the Bureau work has been very satisfactory. NEW CITROUS FRUITS Harly oranges secured as a result of crossing the sweet orange with the hardy Japanese orange are now ready to dis- tribute, and this work will be inaugu- rated the coming winter. The oranges are valuable for marmelades and may be grown in nearly all the Southern States. Other citrous fruit developed from the investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry, such as the tangelo, across between the tangerine and the pomelo, promise to be exceedingly val- uable. AMERICAN TEA AND AFRICAN DATES As heretofore, investigation in Amer- ican tea production has been continued in cooperation with Dr C. L. Shepard, THe Farmers oF THE UNITED STATES whose gardens now yield from eight to ten thousand pounds of tea annually. The work of establishing a plantation in Texas has also been continued. En- couraging results have also been secured in the establishment of the African date in Arizona and California. ROPPY ALKALOIDS In Vermont previous success in grow- ing opium poppies has been repeated with even better results. The attempt to cultivate this plant has been made with a view to supplying our demand for poppy alkaloids for medicinal uses. As the result of the repeated experi- ments, success has at last attended the effort to obtain morphine directly from the juices of the plant. If this can be done commercially, the plants produced in American fields will replace oriental opium as a crude source for morphine. CULTURAL WORK ON COTTON Special work has been done on cotton with a view to bringing home to farmers of Texas and Louisiana, especially in the boll-weevil districts, the advantages of better methods of cultivation and the value of early maturing seed. The Bureau of Plant Industry has had the advantage of closest cooperation with the Texas Agricultural College, and also with the Louisiana authorities. As a feature of the work in the South, diversification farms were established at various places with a view to showing the value and importance of diversified agriculture. The business interests in the respective communities gladly co- operate in this matter with the Bureau, so that they involve but a trifling ex- pense to the government. ‘Thirty-two of these farms have been or are about to be established. Extensive work has been inaugurated in Texas with a view to breeding new types of cotton better adapted to meet the conditions brought about by the invasion of the cotton boll weevil. Reference is made to the dis- 3 covery of the Guatemalan ant by an officer of the Bureau, and to the trans- fer of the study and distribution of this ant tothe Bureau of Entomology. Men- tion is also made of an effort to combat the boll weevil by producing a variety of cotton not subject to injury by this pest. The Secretary believes it to be within the range of possibility that resistant varieties of cotton may be found in tropical America or developed by selec- tion. Asa feature of the work in Texas, a special effort has been made to obtain information as to the best methods of combating the cotton root rot, a disease which has been very serious the past season. FORAGE CROP INVESTIGATIONS More attention has been given to al- falfa in the eastern half of the United States in the past two years than to any other crop. The department has dem- onstrated that this valuable crop can be grown in almost every state in the Union. A large amount of information has been gathered the past year as tothe carrying capacity of the ranges in vari- ous parts of the West. Intelligent man- agement will bring the ranges back to their primitivs state of productiveness, but there is no chance of improving range conditions except where stockmen are able to control the ranges upon which their stock feed. It has also been demonstrated that many new plants may be introduced upon the range success- fully. Plants that may be grown upon alkali lands have been studied. INVESTIGATIONS OF STANDARD GRASSES Investigations of standard grasses have been carried on, and it is hoped that within a few years it will be possible to offer farmers small quantities of seed of improved forms of all the standard grasses. A considerable number of na- tive American grasses have shown them- 4.4 selves adapted to the regions where at present hay grasses are wanting. It is believed that hay grasses can be found on the Western plains where the aver- age annual rainfall does not exceed 15 inches. It has beenfound that a num- ber of plants can be made to furnish sat- isfactory pasture throughout the winter months in the South, and cooperation is planned with Southern experiment sta- tions and farmers to test a number of such plants for winter-pasture purposes. NBW FORAGE CROPS FOR THE GULF REGION AND THE PACIFIC COAST The agrostologists are studying the forage value of the velvet bean, beggar weed, Mexican clover, and cassava for for the region adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico. The Bureau of Plant Industry is seeking to provide suitable forage crops for southern Florida, and it is also searching for forage crops to grow alter- nately with wheat in the great wheat regions on the Pacific coast, so that the farmers may secure more than one crop every other year, MARKETING OF FRUITS Much attention has been given to the development of the trans-Atlantic ex- port trade. Large and profitable ship- ments of Bartlett pears were made from eastern orchards to British markets. It is known that more than 75,000 pack- ages of this variety were exported, while the total shipments of eastern-grown summer and fall pears amounted to at least 165 carloads. An encouraging beginning has been effected in commercial shipments of American apples to French markets. The most important experimental ex- port work has been done upon winter apples. ‘The proportion exported has risen from less than 1 per cent of the estimated total in 1899-1900 to nearly 43%4 per cent in 1903-1904, a total of Over 2,000,000 barrels, valued at nearly $5,500,000. Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MaGaZINE COLD STORAGE OF FRUIT The cold storage of fruit has grown to large proportions, nearly 3,000,000 barrels having been cold-stored in the United States during the last winter as a result of investigations during the past year. It is found that the condition in which the fruit is grown and the man- ner of handling it determine to a large extent its keeping quality and ultimate value. Fruit intended for storage must be handled with the utmost care in pick- ing, packing, and shipping, and stored quickly after picking, in well-ventilated rooms with a temperature from 31° F. LO 2a PLANT-BREEDING WORK Much important work has been done in plant breeding. Great advances have been made in securing new and desirable long-staple cottons. Important results have been obtained in the breeding and improvement of corn and of oats and potatoes. Some of the most important investigations in breeding and selection have been inaugurated in connection with the growing of tobacco. Extensive work has been carried on in Connecticut, and the work has shown unquestionably that the desirable characteristics in the leaf can be fixed in the first year’s se- lection. CROPS REQUIRING LITTLE WATER It is believed that a profitable system of agriculture can be developed for the semi-arid area of the United States by securing crops which will grow with a very small amountof water. Consider- able progress has been made in this di- rection. MEANS OF DESTROYING ALG IN WATER SUPPLIES The Secretary calls attention to the investigations carried on by the plant physiologist with a view to finding methods of destroying noxious algee in water supplies, the method consisting THe FARMERS OF THE UNITED STATES in using extremely dilute solutions of copper sulphate. Numerous tests have been made in cooperation with boards of health and water engineers, and the method has been proved remarkably efficient. The fact that one part of copper sulphate to 100,000 parts of water will at ordinary temperature com- pletely destroy the bacteria causing ty- phoid fever and Asiatic cholera suggests the great usefulness of copper in fight- ing these and other diseases. PRESENT FORESTRY SITUATION The present situation as regards for- estry in the United States the Secretary regards as exceedingly hopeful. The lumber industry seems to be awakening to the fact that lumbering with refer- ence to future as well as present profits may be good business. The general adoption of forestry as an established policy now depends primarily on busi- ness conditions. Extensive investiga- tions of forest conditions are still ur- gently needed. Studies which individ- uals cannot undertake, but which must be made if the wealth-producing power of the country asa whole is to be brought to the highest point, need to be prose- cuted in the public interest. The fur- therance of that part of this depart- ment’s work which is directed toward informing the small owner how he can to advantage practice forestry on his own account is of the first importance. IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF FOREST CONDITIONS There is now no considerable portion of the United States for which the Bu- reau of Forestry has not at hand special knowledge bearing directly on questions pertaining to the use of the forests. In the work of building up a sound perma- nent policy for the forests of the na- tional domain, this department contin- ues to render important service, and it is plain that the ultimate function of the Bureau of Forestry as a part of the 45 government administrative equipment is gradually defining itself. The work to which the bureau must hereafter chiefly devote itself includes scientific study of problems having a practical bearing on forest utilization ; coopera- tion with states seeking advice concern- ing forest legislation, administration, or the formulation of a state forest policy ; and, finally, the discharge of any duties assigned to it by the national govern- ment in connection with the administra- tion of publiclands. The forester is at present the official adviser in technical matters of those departments having in charge forested lands. The greatest need of the West, says the Secretary, is water, and in many states future set- tlement and prosperity depend abso- lutely upon its conservation, and this again largely, in many cases wholly, depends upon the preservation of the forests. The work of planting on forest re- serves has been begun in California, Colorado, and Nebraska. He expresses gratification atthe recog- nition by Congress of the work of the bureau which has enabled it to increase its force within six years 16-fold, and its expenditures 12-fold. That this lib- erality is true economy is demonstrated by the fact that a szngle discovery now commonly applied to the production of tur- pentine ts effecting a savingannually equal to the total RENEE of the Bureau for Six years, FOREIGN PLANTS IMPORTED No less than 1,429 selected kinds of seeds and plants were introduced from foreign countries and established in the United States. These included 350 date suckers representing 42 varieties, Ig va- rieties of grapes from Russian Caucasus, 33 varieties of mangoes of recognized superiority from central India, 157 bush- els of berseem from the valley of the Nile, 2,000 pounds of the famous new barley from Moravia, 200 trees of the 46 hardy Vladmir cherry from Russia (dis- tributed in the Northwest), and many others. NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA Extensive practical tests were made the past season with nitrogen bacteria for use in connection with the legumi- nous crops. Results have been even more successful than was anticipated. The several strains of bacteria sent out from the department have proved valu- able even on soils containing the uncul- tivated organisms in abundance. ‘The material for inoculating an acre of soil costs the department about one cent per acre and the farmers scarcely anything to apply it. The demand for the organ- isms is constantly increasing. THE SOIL SURVEY The study of soils and their manage- ment with regard to their values for pro- ducing crops has been continued. Soils vary greatly in the several states, and a general knowledge of their composition is of prime importance before the tiller can put them to their most profitable use. The Bureau of Soils is mapping Tue NaTIonNaL GgeocrAaPHIC MAGAZINE the various areas to the end that resi- dents on each may as soon as possible learn the peculiarities with which they have todeal. The department is seek- ing to introduce plants from foreign countries to diversify American agri- culture. A knowledge of the character of the soils from which they come and on which they have been developed is imperative, and suggests the wisdom of becoming familiar with the soils as well as the climate to which these new plants are introduced. The total area surveyed and mapped by the bureau during the fiscal year was Over 29,000 square miles, and the total area surveyed at the close of the fiscal year exceeded 74,000 square miles, or 47,868,800 acres. During the past year 68 areas in the different states were surveyed. A table presents the area surveyed in 1904, and previously re- ported in each state, and shows that the total cost of the year’s survey was $72,601.41, of which $2,377.57 was paid by state organizations. ‘The cost of work in the field per square mile was therefore $2.21, and the average total cost per square mile, $2.50. EDUCATING THE FILIPINOS HE last report of the Superin- tendent of Education of the Philippine Islands, David P. Barrows, describes very clearly the edu- cational policy that has been adopted for the Filipinos and the manner in which that policy is being carried out. The following paragraphs are from the report : THE FILIPINO DIALECTS CANNOT BE DEVELOPED INTO A NATIONAL LANGUAGE There are between 40 and 50 dialects inthe Philippine Islands. The question has been frequently raised whether these Filipino languages are sufficiently re- lated so as to fuse into one common tongue,and the Bureau of Education has received its most vigorous criticism in the United States because of its alleged attempt to supplant and destroy what might, in the opinion of absentee critics, become a national and characteristic speech. Such criticisms could only pro- ceed from a profound ignorance of the nature of these languages and the people who speak them. All of these dialects belong to one common Malayan stock. Their grammatical structure is the same. . The sentence in each one of them is built up in the same way. ‘The strik- le Saas EDUCATING THE FILIPINOS ing use of affixes and suffixes, which gives the speech its character, is com- montothemall. There are, moreover, words and expressions identical to them all. A hundred common words could readily be selected which would scarcely vary from one language to another ; but the fact still remains that, while simi- lar in grammatical structure, these lan- guages arevery different in vocabulary— so different that two members of any two different tribes brought together are unable to converse, or at first even to make themselves understood for the simplest steps of intercourse. The similarity in structure makes it very easy for a Filipino of one tribe to learn the language of another; but never- theless these languages have preserved their distinction for more than three hundred years of European rule and in the face of a common religion and in spite of considerable migration and mix- ture between the different tribes. This is as true where different populations border one another as elsewhere. In no case is there any indication that these languages are fusing. The Filipino ad- heres to his native dialect in its purity, and when he converses with a Filipino of another tribe ordinarily uses broken Spanish. TO THE FILIPINOS A NATIONAL LAN- GUAGE IS A NECESSITY—THEY PREFER ENGLISH For common intercourse, as well as for education, the Filipino demands a foreign speech. To confine him to his native dialect would be simply to per- petuate that isolation which he has so long suffered and against which his in- surrection was a protest. Opponents of English education find no sympathizer among the Filipino people. The ad- vantage which the possession of the English language will give him is read- ily understood by the Filipino, and it is fortunate that the acquisition of the Spanish tongue was largely denied him 47) and that it never won his affection. English is the “ngwa franca of the Far East. It is spoken in the ports from Hakodate to Australia. It is the com- mon language of business and social intercourse between the different na- tions from America westward to the Levant. To the Filipino the possession of English is the gateway into that busy and fervid life of commerce, of modern science, of diplomacy and politics, in which he aspires to shine. Knowledge of English is more than this—it is a possession as valuable to the humble peasant for his social pro- tection as it is tothe man of wealth for his social distinction. If we can give the Filipino husbandman a knowledge of the English language, and even the most elemental acquaintance with En- glish witings, we will free him from that degraded dependence upon the man of influence of his own race which made possible not merely insurrection, but that fairly unparalleled epidemic of crime which we have seen in these islands during the past few years. Another form which criticism fre- quently takes, not alone in the United States, but among Americans in these islands, is that in giving the Filipino this primary education we are impair- ing his usefulness as a productive la- borer, separating him from agriculture and the trades, making every school- boy ambitious to become an escribiente, and filling their minds generally with distaste for rural life. American in- vestors and promoters in the Philip- pines at the present moment are deeply disgusted with the Filipino asa laborer and are clamorous for the introduction of Chinese coolies. They claim that the Filipino hates and despises labor for itself, will not keep a laboring contract, and cannot be procured on any reason- able terms for various enterprises in which Americans desire to invest effort and money. When, however, we look a little more closely into the demands 48 of these men, it is apparent that what they really want here is a great body of unskilled labor, dependent for living upon its daily wage, willing to work in great gangs, submissive to the rough handling of a ‘‘boss,’’ and ready to leave home and family and go anywhere in the islands and to labor at day wages under conditions of hours and methods of labor set by their foreign employers. Now the Filipino detests labor under these conditions. It is probably true that he will not work in a gang under a ‘‘boss,’’ subjected to conditions of labor which appear to him unnecessarily harsh and onerous. And, looking at the matter in a broad sense, I am not sure but that those who have this peo- ple’s welfare most at heart may con- gratulate the Filipino on this state of mind. Give him a piece of land to cul- tivate, especially if he can be assured that it is his own; let him choose for his labor the cool dark hours of the early dawn and evening ; let him work in his own way, unharassed by an over- seer, and the Filipino will make a fairly creditable showing as a laborer. We must recognize these preferences of his. I believe we should accept them and should seek to develop here in the Phil- ippines, not a proletariat, but every- where the peasant proprietor. Where- ever we find the Filipino the possessor of his own small holding, there we find him industrious and contributing largely to the productive industry of the islands. I have in mind one beautiful little val- ley in the Ilokano country, famous for the quality of its tobacco, where the land-tax collections showed a year ago 2,200 smiall independent properties in a single municipality. Now it is with this peasant-proprietor class particularly in mind, and trusting in the outcome of our efforts to greatly increase this class, that we must lay out our course of primary instruction. If he has his small home and plot of ground, the possession of English, the ability to read, the understanding of Tue NatTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE figures and those matters of business which affect him, and even the knowl- edge of other lands and peoples will not draw him from his country life and labor. It will, I hope, increase his con- tentment as it increases his independ- ence, and as it raises his standard of life and comfort and increases his desires it will make him a better producer and a larger purchaser. Just now his mind is influenced by the evil example of his past instructors, who, while they taught him much that was good, taught him also that labor was vile. THE AMERICAN PURPOSE IS TO DIGNIFY LABOR But this attitude toward bodily labor which so disgusts Americans with the wealthy and more cultivated class ap- pears to be nota racial feeling, but a result of Spanish training. If we look at those Malayan tribes which escaped the Spanish civilization—the Igorrotes in the north and the Moros in the south—we find that the man skillful with his tool and cunning of hand en- joys additional reputation. Moham- medanism has never despised the artisan or the tradesman, and this may some- what account for it; but, anyway, in Mindanao and Sulu one constantly finds that even the datto, or petty king, may be a famous forger of weapons and spend many hours each day beside his anvil and bellows. I have in mind asalip, or religious leader, on the island of Basilan whose fame is widespread as a builder of boats. These facts should encourage us to hope for a change of attitude on the part of the people toward learning and practicing manual trades, even though at the present time such teaching has met little favor with the Filipinos, the young e/egante of Manila disdaining to soil his fingers with the grip of a tool. THE PRESENT WORK The latest reports obtainable from the province show that we have about 2,000 primary schools in operation. ‘These EDUCATING THE FILIPINOS employ the services of about 3,000 Fil- ipino teachers. Instruction is given wholly in English. The only books used are English text, and the teaching approximates American methods. The subjects taught are English language, primary arithmetic, and primary geog- raphy, with supplementary reading in Philippine and American history and in elementary human physiology. About 150,000 children are today receiving instruction in these schools. School- houses are crowded to the very limits of health and efficiency, and the Filipino teachers are teaching an average of 4o pupils. The probable school population is a million and a half in the christianized provinces. To properly cover the field we need a force of about 10,000 Filipino primary teachers and at least four times the amount of school-room space that we at present possess. This would make pos- sible the primary instruction of 600,000 Filipino children, and would give to every child in the Christian population of the islands the advantage of four years of primary instruction, to be se- cured between the ages of 6 and 14. High schools have been organized in every school division. The system of public instruction in- troduced into the islands is thus emi- nently practical. The purpose of those who are directing the course of studies is to exalt the dignity of labor. Effort is made to train the eye and the hand as well as the head. In the provincial secondary schools two years’ courses in mechanical drawing, wood working, and iron working are prescribed for students in arts and crafts, and give the stu- dents a fair knowledge of mechanical drawing, blacksmithing, and tool mak- ing. A more advanced course includes architecture, cabinet making, carriage building, wood turning, and pattern aS) making. There are also courses for machinists and steam engineering. Tools and equipment have been se- cured for eight different schools with wood-making machinery and for three schools in iron-working outfits. Par- ticular attention is given to the care of instruments and tools. Particular attention has been given to normal school work in order to train up a class of native teachers for the public schools of the islands, and this course has been pursued with eagerness by hundreds of natives, but at present there is no institution in the Philippines in which instruction is given in English of a sufficiently advanced character to fit students to enter American colleges. It is therefore proposed to offer in the normal school preparatory courses of an advanced nature adequate for the attainment of this purpose. Another school that will have a pro- found influence in the development of the islands is the Nautical school. The coast line of the islands is greater than that of the United States, and as there is at present almost a total lack of rail- ways, and the highways being in poor condition for the most part, the waters of the archipelago must continue to be used as a means of transportation. There are at present 103 students in the school, and every member of the last three graduating classes are employed (with one exception) at salaries rang- ing from $275 to $60 per month, one being a mate on a Japanese liner. The course of study pursued covers a period of four years and includes English, mathematics, navigation, sea- manship, geography, chemistry, and history. ‘The students are from 22 dif- ferent provinces, and, owing to their training, their Malay blood, and ac- quaintance with the water from child- hood, make excellent seamen and are proud of their profession. GEOGRAPHIC NOES CHART OF THE WORLD HE chatt of the world; 45 x 25 inches, which it was announced in the December number of this Maga- zine would be published as a supplement to this number has been delayed in pub- lication, and will be published as a sup- plement to the February number. ~ WHY NO AMERICANS HAVE RE- CEIVED NOBEL PRIZES ROBABLY the first thought of Americans on reading the an- nouncement of the award of the ‘‘ No- bel Prizes’’ of $40,000 each for 1904 was surprise that not a single American received a prize. Americans are doing noble work in the physical sciences, in literature, in medicine and surgery, in chemistry, and in the humanities. A prize of about $40,000 is awarded an- nually for achievements in each of these branches, and yet no American has re- ceived a prize. ‘The reason is not lack of appreciation abroad of what we are doing in this country, but the neglect of Americans to apply for the prizes, owing to misunderstanding of the man- ner in which the awards are made. In the awarding of prizes only those per- sons are considered who are formally nominated as candidates by some insti- tution, college, or scientific society of rank and character. Not a single American, we are informed, has yet been presented for consideration, and the impression abroad is that Americans are not interested in the prizes. ‘The awards are made in physical sciences and chemistry by the Academy of Sci- ence of Stockholm, in medicine by the medical faculty of the university, in literature by the Swedish Academy, _and in the humanities by the Norwe- gian Storthing. Mr W. E. Curtis in his public letter of December 26 calls attention to this mutual misunderstand- ing. It is to be hoped that hereafter for each prize the name of at least one American will be formally presented as a candidate. Any one can compete, but his or her name must be presented by a worthy institution. THE STORY OF THE FLAMINGO NE of the most fascinating descrip- tions of animal life published for many years appears in the Century Mag- azine for December. It is the story of the Flamingo, by the well-known natu- ralist, Frank M. Chapman. For centu- ries queer stories have been told about this splendid bird, that it straddled its nest and did other ridiculous things, but the flamingo is shy and scarce and has always eluded the hunter. The only flamingo colony now known in North America is in an out-of-the-way island of the Bahamas. This colony Mr Chap- man has been seeking for many years, but it was not till May, 1904, that he discovered its exact location. Behinda cleverly constructed blind he spent sev- eral weeks right in the midst of the col- ony. He secured many photographs, which the Century Magazine reproduces, several of them being in colors. The flamingo is the largest bird of brilliant plumage in existence. It is gregarious and exhibits a strange combination of grace and gawkiness. Since Mr Chap- man’s visit others have succeeded in vis- iting the flamingo colony with disas- trous results. ‘‘Fresh meat is rarer than pink pearls in the outer Bahama Islands. Young flamingoes are excel- lent eating, and are consequently much sought after. Asa result of this perse- cution on the nesting ground, they are steadily diminishing in numbers, and the passage of a law designed to protect them is greatly to be desired.”’ AMERICAN FOREST CONGRESS URING the first week of the new year a notable congress of per- sons and associations interested in the preservation and best use of our forests GeEoGRAPHIC Noress will assemble in Washington, D. C. The meeting is held under the auspices of the American Forestry Association, by whom it was called. The purpose of the Congress ‘‘is to establish a broader understanding of the forest in its relation to the great industries de- pending upon it; to advance the con- servative use of forest resources for both the present and the future need of these industries; to stimulate and unite all efforts to perpetuate the forest as a per- manent resource of the nation.’’ On Monday, at 12 o’clock noon, Jan- uuary 2, the delegates will be received in a body at the President’s New Year’s reception at the White House. Morning and afternoon sessions will be held on January 3, 4, 5,and 6in the National Rifles’ Armory. On the after- noon of January 5 a special meeting will be held in the Lafayette Theater, which will be addressed by the Presi- dent of the United States and other men prominent in our industrial and national life. IMMIGRATION AND NATURAL- IZATION RESIDENT ROOSEVELT in his last message to Congress states very clearly the principle which has guided us in the making of immigration laws of the past and which should also guide us in our revision of theselaws. ‘‘First and foremost, let us remember that the question of being a good American has nothing whatever to do with a man’s birthplace, any more than it has to do with his creed. In every generation, from the time this government was founded,men of foreign birth have stood in the very foremost rank of good citi- zenship, and that not merely in one, but in every field of American activity ; while to try to draw a distinction be- tween the man whose parents came to this country and the man whose ances- © tors came to it several generations back is a mere absurdity. Good American- ism is a matter of heart, of conscience, 51 of lofty aspiration, of sound common sense, but not of birthplace or of creed. The medal of honor, the highest prize to be won by those who serve in the Army and Navy of the United States, decorates men born here, and it also decorates men born in Great Britain and Ireland, in Germany, in Scandi- navia, in France, and doubtless in other countries also. In the field of states- manship, in the field of business, in the field of philanthropic endeavor, it is equally true that among the men of whom we are most proud as Americans no distinction whatever can be drawn between those who themselves or whose parents came over in sailing ship or steamer from across the water and those whose ancestors stepped ashore into the wooded wilderness at Plymouth or at the mouth of the Hudson, the Dela- ware, or the James, nearly three centu- ries ago. No fellow-citizen of ours is entitled to any peculiar regard because of the way in which he worships his Maker, or because of the birthplace of himself or his parents, nor should he be in any way discriminated against there- for. Hach must stand on his worth as a man and each is entitled to be judged solely thereby. ‘“There is nodangerof having toomany immigrants of theright kind. It makes no difference from what country they come. If they aresound in body and in mind and, above all, if they are of good character, so that we can rest assured that their children and grandchildren will be worthy fellow-citizens of our children and grandchildren, then we should welcome them with cordial hos- pitality. ‘* But the citizenship of this country should not be debased. It is vital that we should keep high the standard of well-being among our wage-workers, and therefore we should not admit. masses of men whose standards of living and whose personal customs and habits are such that they tend to lower the level of the American wage-worker, and 52 above all we should not admit any man of an unworthy type, any man concern- ing whom we can say that he will him- self be a bad citizen, or that his children and grandchildren will detract from, in- stead of adding to, the sum of the good citizenship of the country.”’ PROGRESS IN CHINA ROW TEAMS bh CURA TStinehis public letter of December 12 says that cable dispatches from China bring the news that the empress dow- ager has issued an edict requiring all of the soldiers in the army to wear Kuropean dress and cut off their queues. Her orders have already been obeyed in the province of Honan. The viceroy of Honan, who has been so prompt in carrying out these instructions, has a son being educated in the United States, and the youngster had not been six GEOGRAPHIC New Physical Geography. By Ralph S. Tarr. Illustrated. Pp. xiii +457. New York: The Macmillan Co. 1904. $1.00. Starting with the earth as a planet, Professor Tarr, in successive chapters, treats the physiographic features of our globe, finally winding up with man, whose advance he very rapidly sketches down tothe period of civilization. Being intended for secondary classes, the au- thor very properly confines his effort to stating in clear, simple language the main results that have been generally agreed upon by the majority of investi- gators. He avoids the great disputed questions or very briefly considers both sides. His general aim is descriptive rather than philosophical or theoretical; for instance, he does not attempt to ex- plain that distressingly difficult subject of high tides on opposite sides of the earth at the same time. In the main THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE weeks in this country before he cut off his own queue to escape the teasing of ‘his schoolmates. The viceroy was greatlv shocked when he heard the news, because a young man without a queue in China is quite as conspicuous as a young man with one would be in the United States. It was difficult to reconcile the old gentleman to the situa- tion, but he seems to have obeyed impe- rial orders in that respect very promptly. OBITUARY REDERICK MAY DETWEILER, of the firm of Judd & Detweiler, printers, who have printed the Na- TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for 15, years, died at his home in Washington, November 9, 1904, at the age of 74. Mr Detweiler was elected a member of the National Geographic Society in 1889. LITERATURE his statements are lucid and direct, and the whole book is most admirably suited for the grade of pupils that it appeals to. The ‘‘summaries,’’ of which there are several hundred, should every one be stricken out. Predigested food is disas- trous for developing powers of thought. There are several appendixes and a very useful index. C. Me The Non-Metallic Minerals. Their oc- currence and uses. By Geo. P. Mer- rill. Illustrated. Pp. xi+ 414. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1904. $4.00. Although our author necessarily uses scientific symbols, his language is so simple and clear in the descriptive por- tions, that he has furnished a very in- teresting and valuable book that appeals to both the educated general reader as well as to the specialist. Usually he gives the scientific formula and compo- GEOGRAPHIC sition of each mineral, its locality and its uses. In the case of the more im- portant ones, he adds the method of manipulating and fashioning them for commercial purposes: Often he quotes from well written, popular accounts of these processes. As he gives the tech- nical as well as common names, a per- son of average intelligence can readily appreciate what is said. His scheme of classification provides for 14 great groups, as carbonates, sulphates, nitrates, etc. Illustrations abound, specimens in the National Museum being freely called into service. Brief select bibliog- raphies are found where needed. A good index ends the volume. C. M. Dodge’s Elementary Geography. By Richard Elwood Dodge. Illustrated. Ep.23t. 8 by 40 inches. Chicago, New York, London: Rand, McNally & Co.-- 1904. . $0.75. A splendid conception is this volume based upon, that of starting with what the child knows the most about, and gradually proceeding to other and larger LITERATURE 53 notions, until the whole world is in- cluded. ‘The young learner here begins with his home, and passes from that to the village, the town, government, land surface, water, atmosphere, transporta- tion, and maps. Then he is led intoa general description of the different por- tions of the globe, It is all told ina simple language, and most abundantly and beautifully illustrated. But it isto be feared that, being a university pro- fessor who prepared it, he has shot over the youthful heads. Certainly some of the maps, such as those on pages 66, 67, 129, must be too detailed for this grade of pupils. There is also too much reliance in the text on mere memory, very little of connected idea being ap- parent in the way of cause and effect. There is much confusion of thought on pages 68 and 69 on ‘‘heat belts’’ and ‘athe hot belt.” Bipure 3667 1s japa- nese, not Chinese. Yokohoma is not a fine harbor as that phrase is understood. Of course the maps are well done, and the suggestions are first class in many instances. C. M. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ANNUAL MEETING HE annual meeting of the National Geographic Society will be held at Hubbard Memorial Hall, corner Six- teenth and M streets, Washington, D.C., Jantiary, 13, 1905, at 8 p. m. Hight members of the Board of Managers are to be elected to fill vacancies caused by the expiration of the term of office of the class of 1902—’4, as indicated in the list of Board of Managers published on another page of this Magazine. Nomi- nations for these positions will be pre- sented by a committee on nominations named by the Acting President, but ad- ditional nominations may be presented at the annual meeting by members of the Society. The annual report of the Secretary will be presented, summariz- ing the work of the Society during the year 1904. A lecture by Mrs W. H. Norton, wife of the United States Consul to Harput,on ‘‘ Travelsin Asia Minor,’’ will be given, taking the place of the usual annual address by the President. The Board of Managers expresses the hope that members of the Society will attend and participate in this annual meeting. The following amendment to the By-laws, which has been approved by the Board of Managers, will be pre- sented for action by the Society : Article IV (Officers), section 1. Omit the sentence ‘‘ Of the eight members elected at each annual meeting, not less than four nor more than six shall be residents of the District of Columbia.’’ The section will then read : SECTION 1. The administration of the So- ciety shall be entrusted to a Board of Managers composed of twenty-four members, eight of whom shall be elected by the Society at each annual meeting, to serve for three years, or until their successors are elected. A majority of the votes cast shall be necessary for elec- tion. OPE MUSTIN, Secrclary. a PROGRAM OF MEETINGS, 1905 THE POPULAR COURSE January 6, 1905.— “‘Japan.”’ By Baron Kentaro Kaneko, of the House of Peers of Japan, LL. D., Harvard Uni- versity, 1899. January 20.—‘‘ Russia.’’ By Hon. Charles Emory Smith, formerly Post- master General and Minister to Russia. February 3.--‘‘ The Philippines.’’ The Secretary of War, Hon. Wm. H. Taft, formerly Civil Governor of the Philippine Islands, has accepted the in- vitation of the Society to deliver the address on this subject, provided that the demands of public service do not interfere. February 17.— ‘‘ Manchuria and Korea.’’ By Mr Edwin V. Morgan, U. S. Consul to Dalny. Illustrated. March 10,—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. N., Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory. Illustrated. March 24.—‘‘ The Commercial Prize of the Orient and its Relation to the Commerce of the United States.’”’ By Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics. Illustrated. March 3{.—‘‘ From Lexington to Yorktown.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, of the Century Company. Illustrated. April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll Weevil.’’ By Dr L.O. Howard, Chief of the Bureauof Entomology. Illustrated. April 28.—‘‘ Niagara Falls.’’ By Dr G. K. Gilbert, Vice-President National Geographic Society. Illustrated. SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS Thursday, January 12, 1905,—Gen- eral subject, ‘‘ The Reclamation Ser- vice.’ MrF. H. Newell, Chief Engi- neer, and other engineers of the Recla-. mation Service, will describe the differ- ent irrigation works now being con- structed. Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE January {3.—Annual meeting. Re- ports of officers and elections. January 27.\General subject, ‘<’The American Deserts.’’ I. Vegetation. By MrF. V. Coville, Botanist of the Department of Agri- . culture. : 2. Physiography. By Dr G. K. Gil- bert. 3. Introducing the Date Palm. Mr W. T. Zwingle. February 10.—General subject, ‘‘ Pro- gress in Animal Husbandry.’’ There will be papers by Mr George M. Rom- mel, Mr G. Fayette Thompson, and others of the Department of Agricul- ture, on the work and plans of the Department for producing distinctive American breeds of Horses, on the An- gora Goat, the Fat Tailed Sheep, the Barbadoes Woolless Sheep, on the in- troduction of the Bos indicus, ete. * February 24.--General subject, ‘‘ The Botanical Investigations of the Depart- ment of Agriculture.’’ By Mr F. V. Coville, Botanist, and members of his staff. | March 3.— General subject, ‘‘ Pro- gress in Plant Physiology.’’ Papers by Dr George T. Moore and others on ‘‘ In- oculating the Ground,’’ ‘‘ Protecting: Municipal Water Supply Systems,’’ etc. March 17.—General subject, ‘“Japan.”’ The Geography of Japan. By Mr Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japa- nese Legation. The Fisheries of Japan. By Dr Hugh M. Smith. Agriculture in Japan. G. Fairchild. April 7,—General subject, ‘* Forestry.’’ Papers by Mr Gifford Pinchot, Mr Overton Price, and others, of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry, and a paper om Japanese Bamboos, by Mr David G. Fairchild. By By Mr David. FEBRUARY, 1905 CON TENTS "Chart of the World on Mercator’ s Projection, 25 by 45, inches. . _ Supplement Rosia By Hos. Charles Emory Smith, foetal Minister to Russia and Ex-Postmaster General . . . . . 55 | . ) Marine Hydrographic Surveys of the Chatte of the World. By PAGE he The Wonderful Canals of China. By U. S. Consul George EL Anderson, of Hangchau, China . . . «68 ye Geography and Culture . . . Ot ahi Vet) fal line fia Ghat BOAO - Tides in the Bay of Fundy. Hitsteated ia aah Ainge & The French Coaquest of the Sahara. By ae Rabot. Tikes: EE a Ne ale 78 Observations on the Russo-Japanese Wat in Thea and Man- churia. By Dr Louis Livingstone Seaman... af do OO National Geographic Society . . ROI Ss PRS: cauenteina ny gTE ih) Age nt ‘Published by the National Geographic Society, Eke | _ Hubbard Memorial Hall, Oe ey Nia a a i a _ Washington, D. c. George W. Littiehales. With Map. . . : 63 Hetcine fhe Parmer: / Tlastrated’: .1)..0 08) oe Gn oe) nD PO ari ates i ee ad Li ee aaa [Saperap hic Literature Be ae ees EE ag oe x 50 a Year | bo ees e a a8 25 Cents a Number “NATIONAL | | GEOGIRAPIBIIC [- MAGAZINE N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publisheds by 4 _ Nationa, GeroGRapPuic Society, at Washing- | ton, D. C. All editorial | communications should be addressed to the Editor of the NaTionaL Grocraruic Macazine, Hubbard Memorial Hall, _ Washington, D. C. Business communications — should be addressed to the National Geographic a Dc Hubbard Memonial Hall, Washington, = SS =, ae . a5 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR 7 ae Associate Editors | GENERAL A. W. GREELY O. H. TITTMANN | oe Signal Officer, U. S. Army Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey eee. w J McGEE | ne : it Chief, Pepin or Anthropology 0.P. AUSTIN — | | ‘ie and Ethnology, Louisiana re LN Chief of the doles of Statistics, Ht chase Exposition de Department f Conan and rie Ni i fhe os ¢. HART ios es | 3 oe ‘DAVID T. DAY | i" ief of the Biological Survey, rs Chief of the Division ineral Depariment of doen ( Me Rescues U. S. el ; WILLIS L. MOORE MEDAL we. TARBELL _ Chief of the Weather Bureau, Ue 5.. A Autor of “Life of Napol ‘ Department of Agriculture Ae “Lye of mahi ih "ele. a DAVID G. FAIRCHILD ~— CARL LOUISE GARRISON Agricultural Explorer of the Depart Pals py! eines of Morgan Schoo if ment of ETS. ‘ Ss aN ae EN RS es: Be Cc i 901 849 | 9 1904-1 iS J) 1077} 11 2/4 , | Chart of the World on Mereator’s Projection, showing Submarine Cables and Connections, and also Tracks for full-powered Steam Vessels. == | E. 1 i | | = — - : - 80 : = — eS ae eee ; oy pevat 3 ° vat ; ane 1 ° ° ; L ; ea * = r 7 : ea mae > Es post ¢ NGS |i Se ae |r = 120 180 140 150 160° 170 180 170 4 : Sop eee: sere te pis sae — ee eho “ee — et — fe pest et — pe — oe — be — el — a ic et SEALS YEWISED fp 25/0 | ¢ WRANGE LL Wp : __-s*sC”sS NORTHERN) SOUTHERN | Rees Se = isk ae aa | i DISTANCES | ROUTES | ROUTES | Speed per hour with dailw and weelkly distances in | If Mens 0 ee nes i See o ’ INE MIG AE MILES Z=\z>\25 1 ee aipeh ae Alenules . 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Vou. " y , . rT | a | | a y 3 eas President St. Lawrence sik ihonce: 4 4 VoL. XVI, No. 3 WASHINGTON Marcu, 1905 MAGA ZIUNIE, THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE“ By Baron KENTARO KANEKO, OF THE House oF PEERS OF JAPAN CONSIDER it the greatest honor | ever conferred upon me to speak before you here at the National Capital of the greatest Republic. As your President has announced, I have been out of practice in speaking the English language for nearly twenty-five years, and when I was asked by the Society to make an address I declined, because to speak in a foreign tongue after being out of practice so many years is a difficult task, and besides I can hardly convey my ideas and make you understand what I have in my mind. But the request was so sincere and so earnest that I felt that if I still declined I might offend the Society, so I accepted at last with hesitation, but with the greatest pleasure. The subject of Japan is being written and talked about a great deal at this moment; therefore the subject I have selected for tonight is rather a different one, and might be called ‘‘ The Charac- teristics of the Japanese People.”’ You have no doubt heard and read much about Japan, and my country is already familiar to you, but we have so far been misrepresented in many ways, even in the circle of scholars and learned communities. We have been often called a race of imitators or a race of copyists. To be sure, we have copied many things entirely foreign to our own institutions, but in so doing we follow always a cer- tain principle. This misrepresentation arises from the fact that a foreign ob- server fails to distinguish between the outward appearance of human activity and the inner workings of man’s mind. Many travelers come to our country; they pass through from one end of the Empire to another; they go through the streets and squares; they see the people and buildings, and when they come home they say ‘‘ the Japanese are copy- ists and they are a race of imitators,’’ because they only see the outward ap- pearance of our activity, but, unfortu- nately, never study the inner workings of our minds; therefore I have selected tonight this subject to present before you—the inner workings of the Japanese mind. The subject is rather gigantic— you might think too gigantic—but I will try to explain as clearly as I can. * An address to the National Geographic Society, January 6, 1905. 94 “ADOPT, ADAPT, ADEPT”? The Japanese have a ‘peculiar char- acter. When they come in contact with a foreign civilization they always go through three stages of evolution: First, they pass through the stage of imita- tion. At this period they imitate every- thing that comes from a foreign source, and I might say that they blindly copy. But after some years of imitation they arrive at the stage of adaptation; then at last they reach the stage of origina- tion. ‘These three stages are clearly shown by our history, if we only ex- amine into the inner workings of Japa- nese mind. THE INTRODUCTION OF THE CHINESE CIVILIZATION About 1,500 years ago, when we in- troduced the Chinese civilization into our country, we copied everything after Chinese fashion. At that time we had no national alphabet. There were some sorts of signs to express ideas in writ- ing, and even these signs differed in different parts of the country. The Chinese had a highly developed type of hieroglyphics to express their ideas; therefore at one time the Chinese hiero- glyphics took such a hold on the mind of the Japanese that we adopted them as our national language. The impe- rial edicts were written in Chinese hie- roglyphics and government records were kept in that language; even Chinese scholars were employed in the govern- ment service as clerks and secretaries, and the Japanese language was almost on the verge of destruction and ruin. This same phenomenon was found even in England when she introduced the Norman-French civilization. The Norman-French language was taught in schools and was spoken at the palace, as well as in.the upper circles. The legal briefs in the courts were prepared in the Norman-French, and the judg- ments of the court were given in that language. ‘Take, as an example, meat. Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE When an animal is found in the field it is called an-ox; but when it is prepared and served on a nobleman’s table it is called beef, which comes from ‘‘ beuf ’’ of the Norman-French. So, again, when prepared on the table it is called mutton—‘‘mouton,’’ from the Norman- French; but when found in the field it is called a sheep. In Japan we went on exactly in the same way as the En- glish people. Among the upper classes, as well as at the court, we used entirely the Chinese hieroglyphics. Every doc- ument of the government was kept in Chinese hieroglyphics, and the Japanese language was only spoken among peas- ants and in a remote part of the coun- try, where the Chinese civilization did not reach. Therefore this period might be called the era of imitation. Did our country remainlong at thatstage? Fortunately there came a scholar—the most famous scholar we ever had—by the name of Mabie, who returned from China in 735 A.D. Hewasin China many years for his education at Chinese schools. When he came back he saw what was most needed in his native country, and he invented out of the Chinese hieroglyphics the forty-seven characters of our alpha- bet, founded upon the principle of pho- netic language. As you know, the Japa- nese language is phonetic, whereas the Chinese is hieroglyphic. Thisalphabet is called Shin Kana, which means a gen- uine alphabet, in order to distinguish from another and later invention of al- phabet called Kata Kana. ‘This period might be considered as the dawn of our era of adaptation, for we did not remain long in the stage of imitation, but soon began to realize the future of our civil- ization, and became conscious of the necessity of our national linguistic in- dependence. ‘Therefore the invention of the alphabet of 47 letters is always considered to have given birth to the Japanese literature, and is reckoned as the beginning of Japanese civilization. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE After passing through the stage of adaptation, we soon entered into the _ stage of origination. In the year 757 A. D. acollection of old Japanese poems was compiled in the newly invented phoneticlanguage. Again, in 798 A.D. the history of Japan was for the first time written in the new language—not in Chinese hieroglyphics as formerly. THE PART PLAYED BY WOMEN IN JAPANESE LITERATURE In the early part of the eleventh cen- tury ‘‘ The Tale of Prince Gengie’’ was compiled by Murasaki Shikibu, a lady- in-waiting to the Empress, and about the same time another book, ‘‘ The Scrap book Under the Pillow,’’ was written by another lady-in-waiting by the name of Seisho Nagon. ‘This lady, while on duty, observed everything going on in the political as well as social circle of the imperial court, and at night when she retired she used to write what- ever she saw during the day in a scrap- book which she kept under her pillow. This custom she kept up during her life- time, and afterward the scrap-books were compiled and published in book form. These two books, ‘‘ The Tale of Prince Gengie’’ and ‘‘ The Scrap-book Under the Pillow,’’ are considered even now as our Japanese classics, and are studied in our colleges and universities as much as Chaucer’s ‘‘Canterbury Tales’’ and Spencer’s ‘‘ Fairy Queen’’ in your col- leges. So you see that our women took a first rank in Japanese literature, and men (unfortunately for them) must be contented to occupy a second position, for men did not prove themselves capa- ble of such a literary work, and those ladies fully mastered the new language and wrote in a most beautiful style, which had never yet been excelled by any man or woman. This period is called the era of origination in our liter- ature. Next we come to the subject of re- ligion. We have passed through three Us stages in our religion just as much as in our literature. Buddhism was first introduced into Japan through Korea in the year 552 A. D.—that is, 1,353 years ago. At first Buddhism was embraced by the higher classes, particulary among schol- arly circles, but the lower classes or common people still clung to their old faithof Shintoism. Those who believed in Buddhism went so far as to copy the ceremonies and ritualisms. The doc- trine of Buddhism was written in the Chinese language, and the believers offered their prayers in that tongue. At one time Buddhism made such a stride as to become almost a state re- ligion, but the common people still op- posed it, with a determination to uphold their own Shintoism. Consequently a most terrible struggle began between the two religions—Buddhism in the hands of the upper classes and Shintoism in the hearts of the common people. Such a contest as this blocked every step in Japan’s progress, but finally the states- men and priests began to understand that they no longer could force upon the people a blind imitation of Buddhism, and they changed their policy and tried to find out some means to meet the re- quirements of the time. Here again we reach the stage of adaptation. THE GREAT DAIBUTSU They invented an ingenious theory of explaining and interpreting the religious principle of Buddhism. ‘They adapted the theory of Monotheism as well as Polytheism by saying that there is only one Supreme Power, which is personified in the form of various gods and god- desses, according to the different coun- tries and different institutions. Thus they reconcile the principle of the one Supreme Power in Buddhism with the Polytheistic theory of Shintoism. In order to convince the popular mind with this theory, Emperor Shomu pa- tronized a movement to erect a large 96 bronze statue of Daibutsu or Buddha at Nara, and this statue was erected in 752 A. D., after fourteen years in casting and construction. No doubt some of you who have visited Japan have seen the statue, but no foreigner has so far ever examined into its history and in- vestigated why it was erected at the ancient capital of Nara. Thus Emperor Shomu succeeded in reconciling the two conflicting religions of Shintoism and Buddhism. ‘This period might be called the era of adaptation of the Indian re- ligion in Japan. Henceforth Buddhism swept from one end of the country to the other, converting a large number of people by thetheory that ‘‘ Shintoism is for the living and Buddhism for the dead,’’ or, in other words, that while we are living on this earth the Shinto gods protect us, but when we die our soul returns to the last repose, where Buddha reigns. THE MARTIN LUTHER OF JAPAN In the beginning of the thirteenth cen- tury there was one priest by the name of Shinran, who is considered in our re- ligious history as a Japanese Martin Luther. He revolutionized the funda- mental principle of Buddhism by a new doctrine, for up to that time Buddhism strenuously upheld a monastic life, and the priests were compelled to live in celi- bacy and abstain from eating any animal food. But this famous priest, seeing the popular mind already turned toward Buddhism, started anew doctrine that a priest, being human, is just as much susceptible as laymen, and abstinence from human wantsis against the laws of nature ; moreover, a priest must live among the people so as to understand the real nature and feeling of man and woman; therefore a monastic life should be given up and priests should eat ani- mal food and get married, if they de- sire so to do. From this period the progress of Buddhism with this new doctrine was wonderful and took com- Tue Nationa, GeocrarHic MAGAZINE ~ plete hold of the popular mind. Even at the present time this Shinran sect of Buddhism has the largest number of believers in Japan. ‘Thus the Japa- nese have gone through three stages—of inuitation, of adaptation, and of origina- tion—and in the last stage Shinran was the originator of the new form of Buddhism just as much as Martin Lu- ther was of the Protestantism of the Christian religion of the West. Next in the sphere of government and law we find the same three stages of evolution. After the introduction of Chinese civilization our governmental organization was moulded after the fash- ion of the governmental system of the To dynasty of China. In the year 701 A. D. we reorganized the departments of our government in accordance with the principles and forms of the Chinese system, and adopted the Chinese law in every branch of our national affairs. At the palace the Emperor as well as the petty officials wore the Chinese headgear and gown. We blindly imitated every- thing Chinese. This new regime for the organization of the Japanese Em- pire was embodied in the laws of the Taiho era (7o1 A. D); but this wholesale change in the political institution was too much for Japan to carry out at that time. Therefore those laws were only exe- cuted around the capitol of Kioto and were not carried out in the remote parts of the country. But the Hojo dynasty, the second military Shogunate of Japan’s feudal- ism, discovered the weakness and de- fects in the laws of Taiho, because the laws of a foreign country could never be executed in toto, for the simple rea- son that every nation has traditional laws of its own which every law-giver must not disregard. ‘Therefore Taka- toki Hojo, a great statesman, investi- gated the old customs and traditions of Japan and modified: the Chinese-imita- tion laws of the Taiho era so as to meet the requirements of the country. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE J APANESE PEOPLE This modification is found in a com- pilation of the customs and traditions of old Japan,iwhich was promulgated in the fifty articles of Teiyei era (1232 A.D.). This is something like the Justinian Roman laws compiled in the reign of Emperor Justinian. This period we call the era of adaptation in our legal evolution. THE JAPANESE JURY OF TWELVE JUDGES FOUNDED 670 YEARS AGO No doubt an American audience will be much interested to know that as long, ago.as the year 1232 A. D. a Japanese statesman made the laws in touch with the popular feeling, for by the laws of the Teiyei era he established a council of state with twelve judges, the same number as the English jury. These twelve judges sat in the council chamber, before whom all litigation was brought for investigation and decision. The plaintiff and defendant had their spokesmen, who argued and defended the case; and afterward the twelve judges retired into a closed chamber, where an oath was administered to them as follows : ‘““During the deliberation of a case, and the decision afterward between right and wrong, neither family con- nections, nor sympathy with or antipa- thy against, the party shall influence. Fear not a powerful family, or favor not a friend, but speak in aceordance with the dictates of truth. Should there be a case decided wrong and redress re- fused to a man, we shall be punished by all the gods and goddesses of the realm. Thus, we swear and affix our signa- tures.’’ This is the oath they take before they deliberate and examine the case. Here we have the law, whose spirit and prin- ciple are exactly the sameas the Anglo- Saxon common law. Again, in 1336 A. D. the laws of the Kenbu era were promulgated by the Asikaga dynasty. o7 This era, combined with that of the Hojo dynasty, might be called the stage of adaptation ; but the era of origination begins later on with the Tokugawa dy- nasty, because the Shogunate of that family made for the first time the distinc- tion of the laws between the sovereign de jure and sovereign de facto by pro- mulgating ‘‘ The Seventeen Articles for the Imperial Family ’’ and ‘‘ The Eigh- teen Articles for the Military Ruler,’’ and then again they made the laws for the people, which were denominated as ‘“The One Hundred Articles of the Tokugawa Regime.’’ ‘Thus the laws— imperial, military, and common—were executed throughout the whole country without an intermission until the impe- rial restoration in 1868. With this theory of the characteristics of the Jap- anese people in our minds, we will find the same three stages of evolution throughout the whole course of our national progress in arts, architecture, industry, commerce, ete. THUS OUR TRAINING FOR CENTURIES HAD EQUIPPED US TO ASSIMILATE ANOTHER CIVILIZATION Therefore, when we were confronted at the time of the imperial restoration, in 1868, with a new type of civilization, the western civilization, we were fully equipped by our individual strength and national power to assimilate the foreign civilization with our own, for we had gone through many hard and persever- ing struggles—religious, social, and po- litical—for many centuries, and without fear could welcome the modern culture and science. WE STRIVE. TO MARK OUT A ‘‘GRAND POLICY FOR A CENTURY TO COME’”’ Here I might refer to one fact, that the Japanese are a little different from the western people in regard to their re- spect for the past, for they adore the past and the history of their ancestors much more than occidental people do. 98 As keenly and as profoundly as we look toward our future and our prosperity— the future of our family and our na- tion—we cling still more keenly and more delicately to our past—the tradi- tion of our forefathers and our nation. We always look ahead in search for something higher than our present con- dition for our descendants. Our pres- ent welfare and happiness is nothing to us when compared with an illustrious past and a great future for our family and our nation. Thus looking forward to our future, we constantly strive to mark out ‘‘ the grand policy for a century to come.”’ This is a rather high-sounding word, but when we examine our history we always find it underlying in our national movements—social, religious, and polit- ical—because the Japanese from time immemorial have shown their peculiar characteristic to mark out what they will do for the future. In order to es- tablish this grand policy they always study the problem with a far-reaching foresight. This trend of mind is the characteristic of our race. When they contemplate a great problei for national affairs they never think of themselves, but always look forward through the labyrinths of the future to find out the surest way to attain their ultimate aim and goal. According to Japanese notion, compared to this grand policy for the future the present welfare and happiness of ourselves dwindles into nothingness. This policy was clearly and positively marked out by our Em- peror on his ascension to the throne, in 1868. Uponthat memorable day he swore before the nation in his ‘‘ Five Ar- ticles of the Imperial Oaths’’: ‘‘ Seek knowledge in the civilized world, and discriminate the good from the bad and adopt the best; and finally establish the national assembly where all the im- portant affairs of nation shall be decided by public voice.’’ This is the funda- mental principle of our national aspira- Tue Nationa, GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE tion, closely followed by the Emperor himself and down to the meanest peas- ant. In order to carry out this policy we must first bearin mind and maintain the past traditions of our country and then engraft upon them the western culture and science. WHAT WE HAVE TAKEN FROM EUROPE AND AMERICA With this view we began to reorgan- ize our country in 1868. Since the im- perial restoration we have studied the systeins of government of the United States and European countries. As you have divided your government into different departments, we divided our government into similar departments. We adopted a compulsory system of national education, exactly on the same plan as your common-school system, of eight years of compulsory education. A boy and girl must attend school as soon as they attain the age of six, and remain there until the age of fourteen. The first four years we teach them the Japanese and Chinese languages, and the latter four years we add English ; therefore when a boy and girl graduate from our common schools they can read and speak English. By teaching the Chinese and English languages besides our own we bring up a new generation prepared to seek knowledge in the outer world, as commanded by the Emperor. In the organization of our army we copied the German system, and in our navy the English and American. In our code of laws we imitated La Code Napoleon, and afterward the German principle and method. In finance we copied your system by adopting your gold, silver, nickel, and copper money, and we went so far as to copy the green- backsfrom you. Our first paper money was made and printed in New York in 1870, and if you will take up those old Japanese greenbacks you will find them exactly the same as yours, and no differ- ence except in the writing. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE JAPANESE PEOPLE When we come into contact with a foreign civilization we at first blindly imitate it, because that is, according to our idea, the shortest cut to our ultimate goal; but we are never satisfied to re- main forever in the stage of imitation. This is clearly shown by our progress during the last thirty-seven years since the introduction of the western culture and science. Our recent evolution dif- fers from the case of our forefathers in this respect, that our era of imitation after 1868 was very short, and the stage of adaptation began very soon after, and even the latter stage was simply a pass- ing phenomenon before we reached the stage of origination. The proof of this fact was fully shown by our constitu- tion. If you examine the constitution of Japan from the first article to the last you will find it quite different from those of American or European coun- tries, yet its frame and foundation are in accordance with the principles of the western constitutions. Therefore I might say that the constitution of Japan is a living monument of the origination of Japanese statesmanship. Again, in the realm of science, we have already reached the stage of origi- nation by Dr Kitasato’s discovery of a new bacteria. He discovered it in Ger- many and was decorated by the German government ; and Dr Takamine, who is now living in New York, discovered adrenalin, a medicine which is used to stop bleeding, particularly by oculists in operations on the eye. Next comes Baron Ito, whose untiring investigation in botany made his name recognized by both American and European scientists. Major Shimose’s smokeless powder is a Japanese invention, and is acknowl- edged far more powerful than the En- glish lyddite or the French melinite. This powder is by an actual test five times as strong as the European pow- ders. When a shell that is filled with lyddite or melinite is fired it will break into ten or fifteen pieces, whereas the oe same shell filled with Shimose’s smoke- less powder when exploded bursts into 2,000 to 2,300 pieces. It is now con- sidered the most powerful smokeless powder ever invented, and its inventor is a majorinthe Japanese army. Thus we have already entered into the era of origination. In closing I may here sum up in a few words that although we dearly cling to the memory of the past, yet we eagerly hope for a great future, and in order to realize this. hope we mark out the ‘‘grand policy of a century to come’’ with a far-reaching foresight. For means to carry out this policy we come to Europe and America. We goto Ger- many to study the German system of exactness, for they are noted for thor- oughness in everything, but their system was found by our experience to be too stiff and inflexible. Asexact and thor- ough as their system is, it is much more liable to leave us handicapped; therefore we come to America, for the Americans are the most practical people in the world. ‘They cannot mark out such an exact system as the Germans, but they always use their common sense and come out successfully whenever they encoun- ter a difficulty. They do not care so much for academic principles, but they have the tact tosolve any question from a practical point of view; thus in Anglo- Saxon practicability we found our in- dispensable rescue. OUR ASPIRATIONS This ‘‘ grand policy ’’ for our national affairs, marked out ‘‘for a century to come’’ by our far-reaching foresight, coupled with German exactness and American practicability, will be the fu- ture course of the Japanese people. Then you will ask, What are your aims and aspirations? ‘Tothis question I an- swer that our national ambition is by engrafting the western culture and science upon our own institutions to blend together and assimilate the two IrOO. types of civilization—oriental and oc- cidental—and by doing so to bring forth a new type of civilization, in which the culture and science of the two hemi- spheres will meet, not in conflict, but in harmony, so as to enable us toshare the inheritance of Christian religion, ori- / THE NATIONAL GrocRaPHic MAGAZINE ental philosophy, Greek art, Roman law, and modern science. Thus we hope in the course of the twentieth century to have at least one fruit out of our earnest and persevering efforts to contribute to the progress%of mankind. GEOGRAPHIC NAMES IN THE UNITED STATES AND THE STORIES THEY TELE By R. H. Wuirzseckx, New Jersey State NoRMAL SCHOOL HE geographical names of a country tell much of its history. Each race that inhabits a region gives its own names to mountains, rivers, and lakes, or adopts names previously given. Astronger people may, in later centuries, destroy or drive out every member of the earlier race. The latter may hand down no written sentence of its own history, yet some record of the race will be preserved in the geograph- icalnames which survive. The Romans were not able to vanquish the Britons. Comparatively little of Roman civiliza- tion penetrated the British Isles. The fact that the Roman ‘‘conquest’’ was little more than a mz/itary occupancy is attested by the geographic names which the Romans left, most of which termi- nate in -caster or -chester, from the Roman military word castra, a camp. Each wave of invasion—Roman, Angle, Danish, Saxon, or Norman—left its story in the names which it gave, and which remain like the stranded boulders of a glacier long since melted away. The varied history through which dif- ferent sections of the United States have passed is told in the varied nature of its geographic names. ‘The red man built no cities in whose ruins we may read the story of his past, for the Indian was not a builder. He has left no roads or for- tresses or castles; his methods of warfare called rather for a forest trail and an ambuscade, and these leave no ruins. Were a traveler to examine every valley and hill, every pass and ford and moun- tain from Maine to Florida, he would now find few traces of the red man in any material thing which survives him. But on every hand he would find the record of Indian occupancy in the names of rivers, creeks, and lakes in which the red man fished and on whose shores he camped and hunted and warred. The mountains seem to have had little at- traction for the Indian, and it is seldom that a mountain bears an Indian name. The red man cared little for the bays and inlets along the coast; he made little use of the offshore islands; hence it is that among the hundreds of local names given to islands and bays along the coast of America one seldom meets an Indian word. But the streams and lakes were the Indian’sdelight. Ontheir surfaces or along their banks most of his time was spent. Along their sides ran his trails and on their shores stood his vil- lages. Every considerable stream and every lake had its name. When the pale face came he found the lake and the stream already named. When he traded GEOGRAPHIC NAMES IN THE UNITED STATES with the dusky brothers for his furs or when he bargained for his land it was convenient to employ the geographical terms already in use by the Indian. Sometimes the white man gave the river or lake a new name, as did Hudson and De la Ware and Champlain, but oftener he accepted the original, and today the most frequent reminder that we have of the unfortunate race is the hundreds of Indian names, mostly of rivers or lakes, sometimes of cities, counties, and states, named after the tribes that dwelt in the vicinity. The extent to which the early settlers adopted Indian names differs widely in different partsofthecountry. Twenty- four rivers of Maine, 17 out of 28 rivers of Connecticut, 40 rivers in Georgia, 32 in Florida, and most of those of Penn- sylvania, New York, Ohio, and Indiana have Indian names. In Kentucky, Ten- nessee, and the large majority of trans- Mississippi States Indian words are much less common than they are east of the Appalachians. For example, only 7 of Tennessee’s 30 important streams carry Indian names, and not one large stream wholly in Kentucky and not one in the great State of Montana has an Indian name. Next after rivers lakes remind us most frequently by their names that the red man once dwelt by their waters. Hundreds of New England lakes, par- ticularly of Maine, most of the impor- tant lakes of New York, and 4 out of the 5 Great Lakes tell of the Indian. Even in those states where rivers and lakes most generally bear Indian names the political divisions, the mountains, and the shore features do not. Only 2 of the original 13 states, Massachusetts and Connecticut, and 3 of the mountain states, Arizona, Utah, and Wyoming, have Indian names, while 16 of the 18 Mississippi Valley states have such names. The two exceptions are Wis- consin and Louisiana, both of French origin. IO! Of the 150 cities in the United States with 25,000 or more people less than a dozen have names of Indian origin. In most cases where states, counties, or cities bear Indian names they have bor- rowed them from rivers or lakes which already bore them. New York has 20 counties with Indian names, and leads all of the states in this particular. Six out of the 16 counties of Maine have Indian names; but aside from Maine and New York Indian words form but a very small proportion of the county names in the United States. In the geographical names of Indian origin the differences in tribal dialects are every- where striking. The horrible words of the Russian language do not differ more widely from the soft, mellow language of Italy or France than do the Indian naimes in northern New England from those of New York. Indian words in Connecticut differ radically in sound from those of New Jersey, and those of South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida differ equally from all others. Contrast the unspeakable names of the lakes of Maine with the delightfully euphonious names of the lakes of New York : Maine New York Chesuncook Seneca Pamedecook Owasco Motesentock Otsego Molechunkemunk Onondaga Moostocmaguntic Cayuga Mallawamkiag Cayuta Cauquomogomoc Oneida Again note the difference in sound of the words from different parts of Con- necticut : Mashapaug Housatonic Pistepaug Mystic Wangumbaug Niantic Warematg Scantic Pomeraug Willimantic Quinebaug Yantic It is evident that the above words tell of very different dialects, and hence of different tribes. The characteristic [LO2 terms found in New Jersey and in Vir- ginia, for example, tell a similar bit of history : New Jersey Virginia Musconetcong Chickahominy Hopatcong Mallapony Pohatcong Potomac Watchung Rappahannock Minnisink Shenandoah Navesink Appomattox When we pass into South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida, we find an en- tirely different set of sounds predomi- nating in the geographical words: Allapoha Chattahoochie Altamaha Auchee Hachee Tallapoosa Caloosahatchee Oostanaula Chilloccohatchee Soquee Choctawhatchee Oconee Contoohatchee Ohoopee Fahkahnatchee Ochmulgee Ulcofauhachee Kissimmee Withlochoochee While 17 streams in Florida have names ending in ee, only 3 in the nearby State of Mississippi have such names, suggesting that tribal boundaries were, on the whole, rather definite, and that tribal dialects dominated over well-de- fined areas. These geographical words show how widely the Indian dialects dif- fered in their prevailing sounds. ‘The ear of the Iroquois evidently delighted in vowel sounds, and most of the Iroquois geographical names terminate in avowel, usuallyaoro. The tribes of New Eng- land show no such preference. In fact, their long words, loaded with conso- nants, seem like a train of half articu- late grunts. Thetribes of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia had more musical ears and dialects. Most of the words which they have bequeathed us are pleasant to the ear and flow smoothly from the tongue. But when one exam- ines the words by which the red men of the South Atlantic States called their lakes and rivers, he is led at once to sus- pect that a crew of shipwrecked Chinese must some time have been stranded on Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE these shores and have tacked to the orig- inal names a liberal sprinkling of char- acteristic Chinese ee’s. With the excep- tion of the Great Lakes region, the Atlantic coastal states are the only ones which are fully strewn with Indian names. Other regions have them, but not in abundance. There are other linguistic trails over our land besides those left by the red men. Upthe Hudson and Mohawk goes the trail of the Dutchman, his footsteps marked by Fishkill, Catskill, Peekskill, and Shawangunk Kill; by Rhinebeck and Rhinecliff; by Stuyvesant, Rens- selaer, and Amsterdam. In northern New York and Vermont is the trail of the Frenchman who dotted his path with Richelieu, Ausable, St Albans, Vergennes, and other terms of Gallic sound. The so-called Pennsyl- vania Dutchman has spread himself thoroughly over the land of Pennsyl- vania, and still reminds us: of his na- tionality by the several hundred burghs which he founded. The Swede has left a memorial of himself along the Dela- ware in Swedesburg,Swedeland,Swedes’ Ford, and Swede Furnace. The trail of the explorer-priest ex- tends from the mouth of the St Law- rence to the mouth of the Mississippi and along the larger branches of both rivers. His mind was bent upon mis- sionary enterprises and his calendar was filled with saints’ days. Those who came after him—to hunt, to trap, to trade, or to settle—were like him— Frenchmen and Catholics—-admirers of the saints, whose names they gave to the rivers which they discovered, the trading posts, and the forts which they established or the settlements which they made. Such are St Lawrence, St John, St Peter, St Hyacinthe, St Cath- erine, St Thomas, St Mary, St Paul, St Anthony, St Joseph, St Charles, St Louis, St Francis, and St Martin, all and many more scattered along the path of the French explorers from Newfound- GEoGRAPHIC NAMES IN THE UNITED STATES land to Louisiana. Hundreds of other French words mark the pathway of La Salle, Father Hennepin, and their fol- lowers; Wisconsin, Eau Claire, Fond du Lac, La Crosse, Des Moines, Des Plaines, Vincennes, Prairie du Chien, Pierre, Versailles, Louisiana, Baton Rouge, and New Orleans. The geographical names in the two neighboring States of Mississippi and Louisiana tell differences in the early history of the twostates. Notacounty, island, lake, river, or city in Mississippi has a ‘‘saint’’ in its name, while 9 counties (or parishes) in Louisiana and 40 towns, rivers, or lakes do homage to the saints in their names. The French occupation of Louisiana obliterated most of the Indian words. The most conspicuous reminder of the French settlers is seen in the ‘‘bayous.’’ This is the French word for small stream; one scarcely hears of a creek in Louisiana. They are all bayous. In Maryland they are ‘‘ runs.’’ In Kentucky and Tennessee the vocab- ulary of the priest is strikingly absent ; neither state has a county or stream named after a saint, but the vocabulary of the hunter and trapper is found everywhere ; for example, in Tennessee we find the streams telling of the hunter in such names as Buffalo, Duck, Elk, Forked Deer, and Little Pigeon. Montana and Idaho geography tells unmistakably of the invasion of the un- schooled miner. He sought the moun- tains with their treasuresof ore. Almost every peak and range of these states bears a name which reveals at once that it was given by men who thought or cared little for the names which history or literature might suggest. Such men would natu- rally select Bear’s Paw, Big Horn, Snake Head, Saw Tooth, Bitter Root, and Seven Devils. Indian names are seldom met with in these mountain states. In fact, if one scans a list of the geographical words in Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, and Colo- 103 rado he will scarcely suspect that Indian tribes ever lived within their borders. The early settlers of Nebraska, Kan- sas, Dakota, Wisconsin, and Iowa were of a very cosmopolitan character, of varied nationalities, creeds, and ideals. They came from the Eastern States and from foreign countries, and to their set- tlements gave names that tell of the places in the Hast, or across the sea, whence these pioneers came. Though Texas was formerly a part of Mexico and was subjected to Spanish influences, yet one fact at least reveals how slight was the real hold of Mexico upon Texas—the relative infrequency of names with the prefix san or santa. Like the French in the St Lawrence and Mississippi Valleys, the Spaniards in the regions which they explored were inclined to leave a spattering of saints’ names. Where Spanish influence really dominated there the san and santa is frequent, and there rivers are ‘‘rios’’ and mountains are ‘‘sierras.’’ While such words are often found in Texas— as, for example, San Antonia, San Diego, and Rio Grande—yet these names are relatively infrequent, but naturally increasing as you approach the Mexican border. The stronger hold of the Spanish upon California is seen in its 10 coun- ties and 15 important streams with names beginning with san or santa. Nearly all of the large cities and over 150 towns of California tell of the Span- ish settlement—San Francisco, Sacra- mento, Los Angeles, San Diego, Ala- meda, Santa Cruz, Santa Barbara, and many more. Indian names are seldom found. In the early fifties two important events were taking place on opposite sides of the earth—in Europe the Cri- mean war, in America the rush for the gold fields of California. In 1854-55 came the famous siege of Sebastopol in the Crimea. Half way around the world, in the land of new-found gold, 104 men were founding towns and adopting names for places, and among the names which the California miners selected are seven ‘‘ Sebastopols,’’ another illus- tration of how geographical names re- cord history. In Arizona and Colorado the trail of the Spaniard is everywhere visible. Twenty larger streams of the latter State are aios.’’ In thestormer tire Spanish mesa, butte, el, san, and santa are constantly met with, yet of the 14 importaut mountain passes in Arizona not one has a Spanish name. The desert lands of Nevada did not tempt the cavalier or the priest to build forts and missions. ‘There was little to attract them into its sandy wastes. Less than a half dozen of the 40 1mpor- tant mountains and peaks are named in Tue NatTionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE the Spanish tongue, and not a county in the state has a Spanish name. ‘The place names of Oregon and Washington tell the checkered history of those states. Capes Foulweather and Disappointment speak of unhappy voyages. Astoria recalls the fur trade that helped to found the Astor fortune. The neighboring towns of Harrisburg and Lebanon sug- gest colonies of people from southeast- ern Pennsylvania. Salem suggests Massachusetts, and Albany speaks of New York. In both Washington and Oregon Indian names are rare. In Ore- gon not a saint, san, or santa is attached to a county or important natural feature. Thus does history unwittingly record itself. Thus is a key which admits us to a glimpse of past events found in the place names of any region. A GROWING CAMP IN THE TANANA GOLD PIEUDS; ALASKA: By SIDNEY PAIGE, OF~THE many and how widely separated localities the question, ‘‘ Going to the Tanana?’’ wasasked and the reply, ‘“YVes,’’ given during the past two years in Alaska. From Skagway, in the south- east, to Cape Prince of Wales, in the ex- treme west, from Dawson, onthe Yukon, to St Michael, on the coast, the querv has been rife, and the ‘‘ayes have seemed to have it’’ everywhere. A glance at a map of Alaska will re- veal the nearly central position of the lower Tanana Valley, just now the focus of interest for so many hopeful souls. A new camp is always an alluring ‘‘proposition,’’ but one that stands the test of time becomes a veritable magnet to that great mass of shifting and rov- ing fortune-hunters, the Western placer- [ is impossible to know in how U.S. GEoLoOGIGAL SURVEY miners. The Tanana fields have stood the test, and Fairbanks town, with all the strength of its new life and impor- tant position, means to rival Dawson, across the line. Six miles to the south flowsthe Tanana River, second in size only to the Yukon, which it meets 150 miles to the west and with which it forms the great highway to and from the ‘‘ diggins.”’ During the summers of 1903 and 1904 great numbers used this easy but long trail to Fairbanks. The White Passand Yukon Railroad, leaving Skagway on tide water, climbs the mountains of the coastal range, and, following the beautiful shores of Lake Lindeman and Lake Bennett, brings the traveler to Whitehorse, famous for its rapids, which in the olden days brought * Published by permission of the Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. Syeda eal ANANA GoLp FIELDs, ALASKA LO Photo by Sidney Paige On the Winter Trail to the Gold Fields 1O THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MaGaZzINE Photo by Sidney Paige One of the First to Reach the Tanana Gold Fields Tue Tanana Gop FIELDs, ALASKA to grief so many a hopeful tenderfoot. Down the river, through Lake Lebarge and the ‘‘ Five Fingers,’’ one can jour- ney under many different class tickets. There is the first-class ticket on the first-class boat, which means that you may have a stateroom if you are lucky, or the floor under a table if you are not, and there is the second-class ticket on the first-class boat, which means you may sleep above the boiler if cold- blooded, or on the bow of the boat if warm ; then follow the first and second class tickets on the second-class boats, which cost as much as if they were first- class, but always inspire the sentiment, melt Id only stayed to: home with mother.’’ ‘The wise and independent traveler eschews both classes and masses and takes to the open boat, in many ways the most attractive mode of travel- ing. The river flows swiftly ; the days are endless and the scenery beautiful and varied; hills and valleys, cliffs and flats, fly by as one takes the midstream to escape ‘‘ them pretty little > the mosquitoes, and 50 miles in a day’s run before camp is pitched requires little effort. If in great haste to tread the streets of gold and collect the nug- gets waiting, ‘‘ watch and watch’’ will enable you to utilize the long Arctic days. At Gibbon you await the first steamer up the Tanana, for ascending by small boat means much hard poling and tracking on the bank, 15 miles being a big day’s work. The light- draught steamer is crowded, and you are in luck if you find space for your blanket on a secluded spot of the deck. But all are gay and hopeful, and dreams of a farm in southern California, with an orange grove about the house, ora brown-stone front on Fifth avenue in the East put energy into the weary. It is another matter to reach Fair- banks from the ‘‘outside’’ after the ‘‘freeze up.’’ The shortest route is over the mail trail, by dog sled from Valdez, on Prince William Sound, a 107 weary stretch of 4oo miles of mountain and lowland, not to be undertaken by a ‘“cheechaco’’ (Alaskan tenderfoot) un- less he possesses not only the right stuff, but also a reserve fund to call on in time of need. Strange as it may seem, the closing in of winter opens up the country to the ‘‘sourdough,’’ for dogs can pull where horses fail, and the pros- pector with his team and ‘‘ grubstake’”’ roams at will. Level spruce-covered ridges rising to bare rounded domes, with horizon lines as straight as a rule, characterize the Tanana gold fields. Gently sloping val- leys with hillsides at low angles are seen on every hand, and only a clear day re- veals far to the south across the wide valley of the Tanana the snow-capped Alaskan range towering to the clouds and culminating to the southwest in Mt McKinley. Fools, and many of them, rush into a new mining camp, but the presence of angels would be rather a disturbing element in the general scramble for good ‘‘pay.’’ Moreover, their wings would become torn in the brush and their robes muddied by the heavy trails. Fairbanks is a thriving town of some two thousand souls and growing. In fact, it grows as yon watch it, and it grows as you give up the watching and turn for a few moments of sleep. It has not yet, and it is to be hoped never will, bear the name of city, so often ill applied in the northern camps, where each collection of log cabins is dignified by that addition to the name of the first prospector who struck pay. ‘The main street fronting Chena Slough already puts to shame many a town of ten times its age on the ‘‘ outside.’’ On the main street alone there are as many as ten saloons, all in active busi- ness, to say nothing of the hospital, dwellings, sawmills, drug stores, and coinmercial companies’ posts, where can be bought anything from a paper of pins to a folding bed or from a roll of 108 wall paper to a polished: oak dining table. He that imagines that luxury does not exist in our far northern camps would need settle but one small bill for furnishing to become entirely convinced of the luxury of all things, even a sack of flour. Houses front the slough which would do credit to our eastern shores. Steam laundries vie with the force of muscle in producing the spotless white shirt bosom, and bootblacks at ‘‘two bits’’ a shine, ever ready, await you, that the mud of the trail may be cleaned from your boots before entering your carpeted cabin. Justice is rendered daily in the court- house (used on Sundays as the church), and if a man’s claim be ‘‘jumped’’ he needs but bring suit, and then go seek another claim—‘‘ broke.’’ If you would know the creeks, don’t go tothem. Enter a saloon, and in five minutes, mid the melodious tones of ‘‘Mamie, come kiss you honey boy,’’ screeched from the latest phonograph, and the jostling of the eager crowd about the gaming tables, endeavoring to lose in the shortest possible time their hard-won gold, you will hear more of the ‘‘ good pay’”’ and rich ‘‘ fractions’’ than you could learn in a month at the bottom of a wet drift. ‘‘Sellit?’’ ‘‘ No; not for $50,000 ;’’ and he wouldn’t, either, though before the winter is over he’ll probably work ‘‘ day shift’’ onthe end of a wooden windlass hoisting a ten-pan bucket 60 feet at 4o° below Zero. The continuous buzz of the sawmills, turning out 50,000 feet of spruce lum- ber a day, would suggest a western logging camp. Lumber is as essential in mining as is water, and with the prices up to $200 a thousand the owner of a mill needs no gold mine to make his fortune. Enter a restaurant, and anything from a cup of good coffee, well served, to a four-course dinner is yours. Broiled Tue NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE caribou steak and mushrooms are in- viting, served with lettuce and green peas; but don’t do it often, or you’ll probably work your way out in the fall as a deck hand on a flat-bottom stern- wheeled steamboat bound south. When you are able to drag yourself from the allurements of the metropolis and start for the creeks, take the ridge trail. Some one may tell you to follow the telephone line, as it is straight. It is straight enough—one of the few straight things in the country, in fact— and the walking is good when you get down to it, but it’s a long ways down and you must need make special efforts to extract each separate foot. The ridge road is high and dry, through a stretch of spruce and birch timber, and, if you have dragged yourself through the mud and water of acreek trail, seems a boule- vard. The freight of all the creeks passes this route, and the lead horse of a pack train steps aside to let pass the two-ton four-mule freighter as it toils along, jolting over the old roots and stumps of the former wood. ‘Ten miles beyond, in the bottom land at the junc- tion of Gilmore and Goldstream, this same freighter will sink axle deep in the mire, and probably leave half its load by the wayside for a second trip. L/t- tle wonder that freight rates are ‘‘two bits’’ a pound, or $500 a ton, a mere bagatelle when your claim carries fifty cents to the ‘‘ pan,’’ but ruinous when it averages only five. A newly opened gold placer in an Alaskan camp is far from an inviting sight. Heavy freighting, accompanied with frequent rains, produces in the freshly thawed ground of the creek bot- toms a result not conducive to good walking, to say the least, and in a short while the foot trail has spread itself far up on the hillsides in a vain endeavor to find a dry and firm piece of moss upon which to settle. But it is on the creeks that the work begins. The glamor and fascination of the infant Tue Tanana Gop FIELps, ALASKA The ‘‘ First Boat Out’’ after the Ice. city have disappeared, and men shovel and sweat for their daily bread and the other man gets the gold. Everywhere the sluice box and the piles of ‘‘ tailings ’’ catch your eye, and the incessant chug chug of pumps and dummy engines with the rhythmic dumping of the gravel greets your ears. Descending one of the many shafts sunk to bed rock through the frozen gravel, the shift boss will show you where the best pay lies, and while you stoop to examine the spot a chunk of the roof may catch you in the back of the neck. But it seldom sloughs off in more than 40-pound pieces, so there is no danger. The mass of miners are wage-earners, and they earn their wage. To work all day at the end of a No. 2 shovel is not all honey and treacle, nor does it lead to high ideals and gentle philoso- 109 Photo by Sidney Paige White Horse phy to sweat out your ten hours in a steam-filled drift of frozen gravel forty feet below the creek, and when the whistle blows issue to a hasty wash, a dinner, and a crowded bunk-house. But there is the ever-present possibility of a good strike ora profitable ‘“‘lay’”’ ona rich claim. The day is 24 hours long and the sun shines most of the time, and when the snow falls and the trail freezes over, the wage-earner is his own master again. With the hard- earned ‘‘grub stake’’ and his team of dogs he hits the trail for the new coun- try, and it is ‘‘mush’’ until the coming spring, when, if he hasn’t struck it dur- ing the short days of the Arctic winter, he returns to the end of a No. 2 to try it again next fall. Ask as many as you willif they are ‘‘ goin’ out this winter,’’ nine times out of ten the answer comes, ‘“Not till I go with a full poke.’’ And ) 110 Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by Sidney Paige The Tanana Gold Fields then Seattle and all that goes with it, and broke in a short six months. The hospitality of the old Alaskan pioneer is proverbial, and in the Fair- banks camp there is many a proof of it. When noontime and a stranger come about the same time the result is a stranger before a full table heaped with all that money and a generous hand can procure in that far-away land ; and even if the miner’s ground happens to fall where the bed rock was smooth and the pay had slipped to the claim below and his shelf showed but few fresh cans of ‘‘carnation cream,’’ the same hearty welcome would await the newcomer as if the poke were full and hopes high— a meal to share and a blanket in the cabin on the floor. Strong, healthy, cheerful, mostly hopeful,seldom rich, but always hospitable, defines the Alaskan miner. Cleary, Fairbanks, and Pedro Creek are yet the mainstay of the camp. One claim on Cleary yielded $1,000 a day from the solidly frozen gravel 20 feet below the surface. Confidence is ex- pressed by the fact that several claims during the past summer changed hands at as high a figure as $60,000. Underground mining, or drifting, as it is termed, is probably the most eco- nomic method of extraction on Cleary and Fairbanks Creeks, for the deep, barren overburden of muck and gravel places open-air work out of the question. The primitive hand windlass is dis- appearing, its place being taken by the INDUSTRIAL I RAINING OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE self-dumping carriers and steam hoists. Wood fires are no longer used for thaw- ing, the steam point being far more efficient. During the night shift the steam points are driven in the face of the drift, and after ten hours’ thawing the mate- rial is extracted the following day by steam hoist and self-dumping carrier. Already keen competition is lowering the wage and reducing the cost of sup- plies, and a reduction in cost of extrac- tion and consequent greater profit is the result. Machinery of the necessary class, boilers, pumps, steam winches, hoists, points, and miners’ supplies of IIl all kinds are entering the camp in large quantities. As the cost of mining is lowered, the area of workable ground is increased. The building of better roads would immensely aid the miner whose ground, though not marvelously rich, still affords good ‘‘ pay’’ under more economic con- ditions. Itis probable the gold-produc- ing field will grow, though the test of time is the only reliable one. Certain it is, however, that there exist hun- dreds of square miles in this region that have barely been scratched, and the hopes and spirits, at least, of the camp are high. THE INDUSTRIAL TRAINING OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE NE of the most important gov- () ernment publications in some time has been issued by the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Commerce and Labor. It is entitled ‘“Industrial Education and Industrial Conditions in Germany,’’ and contains a number of special reports by our con- suls in Germany, which give an ex- cellent and thoughtful appreciation of the rapid growth and prosperity of the German Empire. This progress is due mainly to the thorough training which the German workmen and working women, of high and low degree, have re- ceived in the German technical schools, which since the union of the German states, in 1870, have been fostered everywhere by principalities, cities, as- sociations, and private benefactors. These schools are open, not toa class or to a country, but to the world. In their halls rich and poor meet on equal terms as learners. They require com- paratively little money, but educate thousands of hands and heads. ‘They throb with the life about them, and grow with the world without. They are the most powerful weapons of German industry. They are the iron- clads of commerce. A very large majority of the students who attend the trade schools of Ger- many have had more or less preliminary training and practical experience in the trades in which they desire to perfect themselves. Almost all trade schools have special workshops or factories associated with the school building. In them are found the most modern machines, the latest inventions, and the most practical methods. Every move- ment of the student is guarded, every act is followed, every mistake is cor- rected as soon as it happens by teachers who have had good preparatory train- ing, who, in most cases, come directly from their trade and who are fresh and up to date in their practice. How different the situation of the young apprentice in his father’s factory. He may be alone at his machine for hours at a time. He may commit a a2 Tue NationaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE The Technical High School at Charlottenburg, Germany legion of errors without detection until the products of his experimentation are placed upon the market, as experience has frequently proved. Drawing is made a most important branch of study. It lies at the basis of a large majority of advanced studies and is the A B C in the curriculum of many a trade school. In day schools, evening schools, and Sunday schools it is the same thing—drawing! drawing! It is an aid, rather than an injury, to the memory. It trains the mind as well as the eye. It is as great an aid to the reasoning powers as is logic or mathe- matics. Experience in Germany apparently shows that, as a rule, those schools which are under private management exact the highest tuition fees and ara the most inefficient. Out of 519 students who attended the commercial high school of Leipzig in 1902-1903 213 were foreigners (110 of these Russians). Another striking illus- tration is found in the tanning school of Freiberg, Saxony, where 42 out of 76 students enrolled in 1902-1903 were for- eigners. In 1903 the ten technical high schools had an enrollment of 2,242 for- eigners out of a total attendance of 14,420. These hundreds of foreigners return to their various countries and there give no mean aid in the development of in- dustries which are in direct competition INDUSTRIAL TRAINING OF THE GERMAN PEOPLE [13 The Technical High School at Stuttgart, Germany with those of Germany. German steel thus meets German steel; Germanarmor, put on in Germany, turns to meet Ger- man armor. On the basis of self-pro- tection and national defense the Empire cannot be criticized for wishing to close its industrial institutions to the rest of the world. Russia probably profits most in this international educational game. Her students are found in institutions every- Where. Through personal contact with some of these the writer was surprised to note their broad intelligence, their mental keenness, and their linguistic accomplishments. Many of these men speak four or five languages with ease. The Emperor a few years ago issued the watchword, ‘‘ The future of the German Empire lies on the seas.’’ It had a force similar to Bismarck’s famous declaration that ‘‘ The nation that has the schools has the future.’’ Commerce and industry were the great hope then, and commerce and industry remain the ambitiontoday. Education was chosen as the powerful weapon with which to attain this future. Today this weapon is but just making itself felt. The in- dustrial schools are still young. Inthe future more will be heard from the young merchants and manufacturers who daily go out from these institutions. ‘The greatest danger of Germany to the world is probably not in war, but in peace. Her energy is turned to conquests in the industrial world. Her marvelous development is industrial, not political. Ti4 Such a development may well be re- spected and feared; and if we would better arm ourselves against industrial encroachments and equip ourselves for a continuance of our present encour- aging commercial expansion with the most effective weapons, we would do well to take the example and lesson of Germany to heart by looking seriously and long to our own industrial schools, good though they are, and improving and developing these in the light of American conditions and of foreign experience: In a comparatively short time Ger- many has become one of the great work- shops of the world, and has secured a place in the front rank of manufactur- ing nations with but little assistance from nature.and in the face. of many difieulties. It 1s not a. rich country’: its natural resources are moderate; its position is disadvantageous for trading ; it has enjoyed peace for but thirty years ; it has never enjoyed security, and tran- quillity has been purchased at the cost of an immense military burden. In all these matters it presents a striking con- trast to the United States, which has had every conceivable advantage. Then its people are not particularly inventive and have not fashioned for themselves superior weapons in the shape of new mechanical appliances and revolution- izing processes, like the earlier inven- tions of England and the later ones of America. Nor do they possess excep- tional skill in special directions like the Tue NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE French. Even in ‘science, wherein their intellectual strength is greatest, they have no general advantage over England and France, for all three coun- tries can show records of equal luster, whether in physical or biological science; and yet Germany has advanced from comparatively small beginnings so rap- idly that she now does what no other country, though possessing superior ad- vantages or fewer difficulties, can do; she successfully challenges England in nearly all the great branches of indus- try in which England is or was the strongest. Other countries challenge in this or that or they have special lines of their own ; Germany is an all-round competitor, and the most formidable we have; and not we only; she competes with other countries in the products in which they are strongest—with the United States in electrical machinery and small machine tools, with France in dress materials, as she does with Eng- land in shipbuilding and large ma- chinery. To complete the tale, I must add that while doing this and maintain- ing the most powerful military system in the world Germany has at the same time modernized, regulated, and im- proved the conditions of civil life more completely than any othercountry. She has done all those things in the way of sanitation, public health, street archi- tecture, and public order that other ris- ing industrial countries, and conspicu- ously the United States, have been too busy to do. PHILIP NOLAN AND-THE. «LEVANT. TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA- ZINE for December closes with a refer- ence to a story which I wrote in the year 1863 called ‘‘ The Man Without a Country.’’ That story begins with these words : | HE curious paper which Dr Hague has printed in the Na- ‘I suppose that very few casual readers of the New York Vfferald of August 13 observed, in an obscure corner ainong the ‘deaths,’ the an- nouncement, ‘Nolan. Died on board the United States corvette Levant, lati- tude 2° rr’ S}, longitude 131 7 Wee I had full right to say that very few Puitiep NoLaN AND THE “LEVANT” readers observed it, because nobody ob- served it. The story was a fiction, and with the right of an author of fiction I made this statement, which is unequiv- ocally true. I speak of this with a certain sensi- tiveness, because I have been accused of being a forger and counterfeiter for using such language. But it is one of the privileges of authors of fiction to make their narrative as plausible or probable as they can, if they give suff- cient clues to the reader, from which he may know that he is reading fiction. In this case I began by placing the sup- posed action of part of the book on board a ship which had disappeared more than two years before. I knew that she had disappeared, the Navy De- partment knew she had disappeared, all well-informed readers knew that she had disappeared. Even among four thousand newspapers in the country the editors of two knew that she had dis- appeared. With my eyes open I inten- tionally gave this ready clue toany care- ful reader, that from the beginning he might know that the story was a par- able; and if there are any of such croakers left, as I suppose there may be in the office of one newspaper known to me, I will say to them that from the time of the Pharaohs down parable has been a method of instruction employed by teachers, even of the highest dis- tinction. The Navy Department did not know where the Levant disappeared. All they knew was that Captain Hunt, of the Levant, was under orders to proceed as rapidly as possible from Hilo to the American coast, and that he started out to obey these orders, and the ship has never since been heard from by any trace whatever, unless it be in certain wreckage found on the south shore of Hawali in June, 1861. The Navy Department knew this, but I did not know it. I only knew that she had disappeared somewhere in the Pacific Ocean two years before. 115 To carry out the specific purpose to which I have alluded I meant to have these latitudes and longitudes indicate a spot high onthe Andes, It was more than twenty years afterward that I found that in some accuracy of some proof-reader, possibly by some blunder of mine, the spot indicated is in the Pacific Ocean, where I did know she had disappeared. But alas the manu- script copy is lost and I cannot find who made this change. This is in point of fact not far from the Marquesan Isl- ands, and, oddly enough, in the story Nolan is supposed to have been at those islands with Essex Porter. But I had nothing to do with this. I placed the ship on the Andes with the specific pur- pose which I have named. I should perhaps have never discov- ered my own error but that many years ago my friend, James D. Hague, who knows the bottom of the Pacific better than I do the surface of the United States, called my attention to the in- structions which Captain Hunt had on his last voyage in the Levant. I had never looked for those instructions, hav- ing no occasion to for my purpose. It seems that Mr Hague was in Honolulu at the time when the Levant? sailed ; that Hunt was his friend, and that they bade each other good bye on the day of her parting. As the reader knows, she was never again heard of but from the silent record of the spar which has been found on the island of Kaalualu. But Mr Hague has brought together in his interesting paper the evidence which shows that almost certainly Hunt in- tended to sail on a line nearly east from the Hawaiian Islands. In that region on any of the more recent atlases there is a spot of blue water. On Rand and McNally’s elegant atlas of the world I find not a speck for thirty degrees of north latitude from the equator, for twenty degrees of latitude south of the equator. On the old Spanish charts, however, and on charts copied from them Mr Hague and the officers of ma- 116 rine hydrography have found indica- tions of reefs and evenislands. One of the last of them is De Graves’s Island of 1859. Almost anywhere in this area, itself larger than some of the smaller planets of the solar system, the bones of the Levant may lie. In this region, as the map on page 479 of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE shows, five degrees of longitude and two of latitude have now been searched in vain. Mr Hague, however, is kind enough to assure me that if my fictitious char- acter, Philip Nolan, ever had some sub- liminal form he or his spirit, if they were on the Levant, may still haunt the reef or atoll under the shadow of cocoa- nuts or bananas or bread-fruit trees. Nolan would have been twenty-five years old in the year 1805. ‘Thus his one hundred and twenty-fifth birthday Tue Nationa Geocrapuic MAGAZINE would be found inthis year. If the cli- mate is healthy for subliminal people, Dr Hague assures me that if I will land with him on that reef I may meet for the first time in the flesh and blood the somewhat bended form of my old hero. He will forgive me that I placed him on the Andes, where men do not live so long. ERS, It may be well to repeat Mr Hague’s summary : ‘“’The cruise of the 7acoma has there- fore negatively and conclusively dis- posed of half a dozen or more reported islands ascharted in certain defined po- sitions, and it has definitely eliminated from further consideration of doubtful reports an area of about 10,000 square miles, leaving a still questionable region of twice or three times that area open to further search.”’ EDWARD EH. HALE. PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES Report of the Philippine Com- mission for 1904 which will most strongly appeal to usis the account given of what is being done to develop the re- sources and capability of the people. Scientific agriculture, which is doing so much for the United States, will soon, at small expense, increase many times the return of every farmer in the islands. The government experts are introduc- ing American machinery, improved va- rieties of plants, and new animals and new crops. ‘The natives seem to appre- ciate very quickly that greater intelli- gence in their work means not only greater returns in money, but also shorter hours of work. Filipino labor is abundant and satis- factory. Lhe’ chief of the Bureau ‘of Agriculture was at first ridiculed when he insisted that Filipinos must drive the teams and do the plowing on the gov- U NDOUBTEDLY that part of the ernment farms, but they are now doing it on every farm controlled by the bu- reau. Furthermore, they are doing it as well as Americans ever did and at prices amounting to but 6 to Io per cent of what it formerly cost to get Ameri- cans to perform the same work. A steam thresher, introduced by the bureau, got so much more rice from the stalks than the natives had been accus- tomed to obtain by tramping it out under foot after it had stood for weeks and been subject to the depredations of thieves and rats that they at first con- ceived the idea that rice hidden inside the separator was allowed to flow from the spout of the machine, thus aug- menting the real output. A period of three months is ordinarily consumed in threshing rice by native methods, and 25 per cent of the crop is often lost. Native methods of hulling and cleaning are very crude and the PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES valuable by-products are all lost, while rice threshed by steam power is ready to go to the cleaning iil] at once, and 20 per cent of the rough rice is saved in bran and polish, which make excellent cattle food. ‘The rice crop being thus quickly disposed of, the farmer and his laborers have time to put in other crops. Several steam threshers have been bought by Filipino farmers. Experiments in growing Indian corn have been successful. A crop may be matured in less than three months. The meal, pound for pound, is more nutritious than rice. The average rice crop, which requires six months to grow, does not yield more than 750 pounds of cleaned rice per acre, while the average corn crop is 15 bushels per acre, which is more than equivalent in food value to 750 pounds of cleaned mee, It is-apparent, therefore, that the successful stimulation of corn produc- tion will greatly increase the available food supply. Attempts are being made to use the castor bean, which grows all over the islands.. Little use heretofore has been made of its fruit, while much castor oil is imported at a high price. Press cake obtained from this bean is worth approximately $20 gold per ton for fer- tilizer. The stimulation of cocoanut produc- tion, at present a source of considerable wealth to the Philippines, has been begun. The trees thrive on ground which is worthless for other purposes. They requiré comparatively little care, and when grown in large numbers are not often seriously injured by the at- tacks of insects or by unfavorable cli- matic conditions other than long-contin- ued drouth. At present nuts are, asa rule, planted haphazard, without regard to the productivity of the trees from which they come. Plantations are cul- tivated little, if at all. Fruit is often harvested before maturity; no use what- ever is made of the husk except for fuel. any Copra is sun dried at considerable ex- pense and with constant risk of heavy loss from sudden showers, or, during the rainy season, is placed in bins and smoked over slow fires; naturally the product is of a very inferior quality. It seems that certain trees make ex- cellent growth and fruit heavily when planted in sea sand, which is almost without plant food, provided their roots are laved by the rising tide and the sea breeze fans their leaves. Should it prove that their ability to live and flour- ish is dependent upon the presence of a nitrogen-producing organism capable of eultivation and distribution, so that the barren wastes of sand along our long coast can be made to produce cocoanuts advantageously, it would obviously be more economical to plant them there than to give up rich soil to their culti- vation and incur the expense of pur- chasing and using artificial fertilizers. It is found that horses and mules stand the heavy work on the rice farm as well as in the Southern States of America. A native teamster with 4 mules plows 4 acres of land per day, while a native plowman with 4 Chinese oxen plows 2% acres per day. ‘The ordinary Filipino, using 2 carabaos, is able to plow about one-fifth of an acre per day; he must have twocarabaos how- ever, in order that they may be inter- changed every two or three hours and allowed to get their mud baths, with- out which they soon become incapaci- tated for work. The archipelago has a coast line more than double that of the United States, and not more than ro per cent of this has been adequately charted. ‘The ex- act geographical situation of a great portion of the east coast of the islands has never been determined, and there has been considerable uncertainty in regard to many other points. Much has already been accomplished by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, nearly 100 topographic sheets having been issued. 113 With the opening of the Pacific Cable the exact longitude of Manila has been determined from San Francisco dur- ing the year, and several other points hitherto in doubt have been cleared up. THE GARDENS HERE is now lying in the Treas- ury vaults the sum of nearly $30,000,000, which is reserved exclusively for the government irriga- tion projects of the West. This immense sum has been realized during the past three and one-half years from the sale of public lands, and the amount is in- Tue Nationa, GrocraPpuic MAGAZINE The bureau will compile data from which it will eventually plot an accu- rate coast line. In two cases the actual surveys show a discrepancy of nearly four miles over the previous reports. OF THE WEST creasing daily at a very rapid rate. Work has already been begun on eight great projects which will make gardens of nearly one million acres, an area equal to the State of Rhode Island and probably capable of generously support- ing a population of several million people. From F. H. Newell, U.S. Geological Survey Salt River Canyon, Arizona Looking down stream from point about half a mile above dam site. high and costing $3.000,000 is to be built across the canyon. A giant dam 240 feet The water is reserved for Phoenix, 60 miles down the river, where about 200,000 acres will be irrigated. The project also includes a series of power plants which will supply water to nearly 60,000 acres in Salt River Valley. 11g Tur GARDENS OF THE WEST [LY 0} [[P Wor Yo}a13s plnom wep pesodoid oy, opelojod ‘dex Apurpy ‘91S weg jeordAy, Vv AJAING [BOTBOTOIH “S$ “O ‘[]PMON °H “A WoIg 120 Tue NationaL GeoGraPHic MAGAZzInt From F, H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey Site of Proposed Dam in Gunnison Canyon, Colorado The precipitous canyon walls are 2,000 feet high. It has been decided to build a dam across the canyon and then to bore a tunnel through the canyon wall just behind the dam, which will carry water to Uncompahgre Valley. dreds of feet by ropes. The projects already commenced are : State. Project. Arizona . . Salt River. California Yama: Colorado Uncompahgre Valley. Idaho . Minidoka. Nebraska. North Platte Nevada . . Truckee-Carson. New Mexico. Hondo. South Dakota . Belle Fourche. The following projects, to irrigate another half million acres, have been approved and will be soon commenced: The men who took this photograph were lowered hun- See the NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, January, 1904, page 27. State. Project. Montana. . Milk River. North Dakota. Fort Buford. Dozia.. s) Biatord fs, Dow y .) 4. Bismarck Ing. Washington . Palouse. Wyoming . Shoshone. Oregon Malheur. The Third Report of the Reclama- tion Service; F. H. Newell, Chief-En-= gineer, now in press, contains an inter- esting comparison of the relative cost to the public of government and private THe GARDENS OF THE WEsT 121 1 Survey ica fox D5 From F. H. Newell, U. S. Geolo It is proposed to construct works to oUt ep {a0} fan) & bp Hw Som! fate =| Or te tm] = ) >A FU ) = = ne) aS - ES H i331) fas 4 8 ats eee! 3 58 as ER Ses ee as @ oo en EG = © & “bh SEE 1) — a) (| u é is one of the garden spots of the world. This valley Tue Nationa, Geocrapuic MAGAZINE ADAINS [BOISO[OIH *S ‘0 ‘[]2MIN *H ‘AW wold OYeP] “IIA syxVuS ‘s][ey suoysoys JOMMILVTIII 9q O} ST [IOS YOII SIY} JO saroe o00'Se ynoqy : Py! TESorTy 8 1V OUBP] ‘IIA aYeug Jo yNog (pue’y eyopruryy) szsasaq ysnig a8ec Z SLE Tai Tue GARDENS OF THE WEsT 123 From F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey Fifteen Lignite Beds in Single Section of Little Missouri River near Johnson’s Ranch, North Dakota There are about 250,000 acres along the Little Missouri River in North Dakota which if reclaimed would make ideal farms. This large area is, however, distributed in small terraces, none Over 15,000 acres in extent, from 50 to 1oo feet and more about the river bank, so that if it were not for the very lucky deposits of fairly good coal along the river it would not pay to reclaim any of them; but with this coal pumping plants can be very cheaply operated. The Reclamation Service has already approved projects to reclaim two terraces on the river. irrigation works. By the terms of the reclamation law the cost of every irri- gation enterprise constructed by the government must be paid back by the people benefited within ten years after completion of the work. ‘The repay- ment is made by installments. As the government charges no interest and seeks no profit, government irrigation works cost the people considerably less than works built by private corpora- tions. The illustrations on pages 118 to 124 have been chosen to show the stu- pendous magnitude of some of the proj- ects and the natural difficulties that have to be overcome. Irrigation on such an enormous scale has never been undertaken in the history of the world. The reclamation law is working ad- mirably. It is elastic and equally fair to all sections. ‘Too much confidence and praise cannot be given Mr Newell and his efficient corps of engineers for the ability and good judgment with which they are carrying out the provisions of thelaw. The picture on page t20 shows that not only engineering skill but cour- age and coolness are constantly needed to solve the many varied problems of the work. THE CAUSE OF THE EARTH’S HEAT ROF. ERNEST RUTHERFORD contributes to Harper's Magazine for February an intensely inter- esting article on the cause of the earth’s heat, which he is inclined to believe is radium. From his article we may draw much comfort, for whereas Lord Kelvin and later scientists have been arguing that all of our descendants must become extinct in about five million years, Prof. Rutherford gives the hope that our race may hold out for five hundred millions of years, which is quite a bit longer. All estimates, of course, are based on the duration of the heat from thesun. Our new knowledge of radium seems to show that the sun’s heat is diminishing much more slowly than has been generally supposed. After describing the heat inside the earth and the various present theories to account for this heat, Prof. Ruther- ford proceeds to tell some of the remark- able characteristics of radium. ““In the course of a. year one pound of radium would emit as much heat as that obtained from the combustion of 100 pounds of the best coal, but at the end of that time the radium would ap- parently be unchanged and would itself give out heat at the old rate, and it would emit heat at the above rate for about one thousand years.”’ The heat which radium gives off seems to be caused by the breaking up of the radium atom into tiny particles, which fly away with tremendous velocity; but notwithstanding their great speed, most North Dakota. From F. H. Newell, U. S. Geological Survey Four Coal Beds each 4 or 5 Feet Thick on Little Missouri River, near Mikkelson, See preceding page CAUSE OF THE Eartu’s Hzat of the particles are caught by the outer walls of the atom and their energy of motion converted into heat. ‘‘ The ra- dium, in consequence, is heated by its self-bombardment.’’ The emanations of radium and of other radioactive substances are present everywhere in the atmosphere. Every falling raindrop and snowflake carries some of this radioactive matter to the earth, while every leaf and blade of grass 1s covered with an invisible film of this radioactive material. These em- anations are not produced in the air itself, but are exhaled from the earth’s crust, which is impregnated with radio- active matter. The question, then, arises, Is the amount of radioactive matter present in the earth sufficient to heat it to an appreciable extent? Prof. Rutherford believes that it is. The present loss of heat from the earth is equivalent, he says, to that supplied by the presence of about 270,000 tons of radium, which, if distributed uniformly throughout the earth’s crust, corresponds to only five parts in one hundred million million per unit mass. The radioactivity observed in soils corresponds to the presence of about this proportion of radium. According to Prof. Rutherford’s view, the present internal heat of the earth £25 tends to be maintained by the constant evolution of heat by the radioactive matter contained in it. - The calcula- tions of the age of the earth made by Lord Kelvin, which were based on the theory that the earth was a simple cool- ing body, in which there was no further generation of heat, cannot, then, apply, for the present temperature gradient of the earth may have been nearly the same for a long interval of time. The new knowledge which the dis- covery of radium and of its properties has given inclines the author to the theory that there is available in the sun a vast store of atomic energy. ‘‘If or- dinary matter in breaking up emits as much heat as radium, then it can be deduced that the duration of the sun’s heat would be prolonged for about one hundred times the estimate founded on the condensation theory. . . . If this heat of atomic disintegration is available, it would suffice to keep up the present output of energy from the sun for about five thousand million years, a period of time which probably both geologists and biologists would consider sufficient for the processes of organic evolution, while the duration of the sun’s heat in the future may pos- sibly be extended for a hundred times the estimate made by Kelvin.”’ GEOGRAPHIC NOTES MAPS RECENTLY ISSUED BY THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY HE Batavia quadrangle, situated in western New York, in Genesee and Wyoming counties. It embraces an area of about 220 square miles. In addition to Batavia, a town of about 10,000 inhabitants, the smaller villages of Bethany, Pavilion, Wyoming, Dale, Linden, Lagrange, and Warsaw are shown on the map. The Greene quadrangle of New Vork, including a portionof Chenango, Broome, and Cortland Counties. The area rep- resented includes the thriving village of Greene, in Greenetown; portions of the towns of Smithville, German, and McDonough, in Chenango County; the village of Whitney Point, in the town of Triangle; portions of the towns of Barker, Nanticoke, and Lisle, in Broome County ; the town of Wil- let and portions of the towns of Cin- cinnatus, Freetown, and Marathon, in 126 Cortland County. This region is ac- counted one of the best dairy sections in the state. The Vina quadrangle of California. The area represented embraces about 150,000 acres in the most fertile part of the Sacramento Valley, including por- tions of Tehama, Butte, and Glenn Counties. The Kaweah quadrangle, in Califor- nia. It takesin the eastern slope of the Sierras and covers a country that ranges in elevation from 500 or 600 feet above sea-level in the valleys of the west to 12,400 feet, the height of the summits in the northeast part of the quadrangle. The Lake City quadrangle, in Colo- rado. The range of altitude in the quadrangle amounts to over 6,300 feet, extending from an elevation of about 8,000 feet above sea-level on the Gun- nison River, in the northeastern por- tion of the quadrangle, to the summit of Uncompahgre Peak, the loftiest point in southwestern Colorado, a massive mountain that rises to a height of 14,- 206 feet. The Niwot quadrangle of Colorado. Besides the oil wells in the southwestern part of the quadrangle, this area con- tains extensive coal mines. Longmont, the most important town of the quadrangle, is the center of ex- tensive sugar-beet and canning indus- tries. The whole quadrangle is covered with fine farms, on which large crops of hay, alfalfa, and fruit are raised. The high degree of cultivation seen here is due to an extensive system of irrigation. The water for this purpose is taken from Boulder, Lefthand, and St Vrain Creeks. The Osoyoos quadrangle,in Okanogan County, Washington. Thisquadrangle, which lies immediately south of the in- ternational boundary line and west of the Republic quadrangle, embraces an area of nearly 800 square miles. The Ovando quadrangle, in Montana, about two-thirds of which is in the Tue NatTiona, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Lewis and Clarke Forest Reserve, just west of the Continental Divide in north- ern Montana. Weston and Vadis quadrangles, in West Virginia, which include portions of Harrison, Upshur, Lewis, Doddridge, and Gilmer Counties, constituting a re- gion that is interesting for its undevel- oped coal fields. Salineville quadrangle, which is sit- uated in the east central part of Ohio. It embraces about 226 square miles and contains portions of Columbiana, Car- roll, and Jefferson Counties. The topographic maps of the United States Geological Survey have gained wide popularity in the last nine years. Whereas only 86,974 maps were dis- tributed in 1895, there were S5or,775 maps sent out in 1904. ‘These were distributed as follows: through retail sale, 47,906; through wholesale sale, 293,653; through members of Congress, 27,987; to libraries and institutions, 75,012: for. official tse,757, 107 though the retail price of each map is only five cents and the wholesale price but two cents, the considerable sum of $8,976.36 was received for maps. NOTES FROM OUR CONSULS HE following consular reports give facts of interest in different parts of the world. Persons may obtain from the Bureau of Statistics copies of these reports, as long as a limited edition will permit, by giving the number of the re- port desired : Damascus- Mecca Railroad, No.2191.— The road has been completed as far as Ma’an, 300 miles south of Damascus. Trade and Possibilities of Arabia, No. 2190.—Probably few people except the Germans realize the possibilities of Arabia. With irrigation and railways the country could be vastly developed. Trade of Japan During the War, No. 2190.—The exports increased $15,- 000,000 and the imports $25,000,ooodur- GEOGRAPHIC Norss ing 1904. ‘The total foreign commerce of Japan for 1904 reached $34,000,000. Reclamation of Mesopotamia, No. 2186.—Chaldzea, once the richest and most coveted part of the East, but long stagnant and desert, is on the eve of being made fertile again. Simplon Tunnel, No. 2181.—The longest tunnel in the world, 12% miles, is nearly completed. Yukon ‘Territory, No. 2179.—The territory produced $93,025,000 during 1898-1903, of which $65,046,178 went to the assay offices at Seattle and San Francisco. Of the 12,000 population, 7,200 are Americans. Cotton Culture in India, No. 2179.— Attempts to grow the long-staple Egyp- tian cotton have been unsuccessful. In- dia, the second cotton-growing country of the world, produces 2,000,000 bales a year as against an average of 10,000,000 bales in the United States. Railroads in China, No. 2179.—A number of concessions for new railways have been granted. Development of Korea’s Resources, No. 2178.—Next to the Japanese and Chinese, Americans far outnumber every other nationality in Korea. The Amer- ican electric railway and electric light and telephone systems at Seoul are very successful. Grand Trunk Pacific Railway, No. 2178.—The plans for this splendid new line are rapidly nearing completion. Commerce and Industries of Korea, No. 2176.—1904 was the most pros- perous year in Korea’s history. She has not been troubled by the war, but has received large sums for her laborers and supplies. Railroads in Korea, No. 2177.—The Seoul-Fusan line is completed, that from Seoul to the Yalu nearly completed, and the line from Seoul to Gensan pro- gressing., Future of Liberia, No. 2172.—-The climate is comparatively good, the re- sources awaiting development many, and the ultimate future reported bright. 127 Agricultural and Commercial Condi- tions in Southern Brazil, No. 2171.—A scarcity of labor is handicapping this sec- tion, which is oneof the most progressive and prosperous in South America. Russian Crops in 1904, No. 2154.— The Russian crops in 1904 are officially reported as having been considerably larger than the average in recent years. Commerce and Industries of Cuba in 1904, No. 2149.—Exports from the United States to Cuba in 1904, the first year under the new reciprocity treaty, amounted to$32,000,000,and were larger than in any earlier year in the history of our trade with that island, and were 38.9 per cent in excess of those of 1903. The World’s Silk Production, No. 2130. Panathna s-Commerce, No. 2130, WORK OF THE COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY R O. H. TITIMANN, in his re- port for 1904 as Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, announces the completion of the deter- mination of the difference of longitude between San Francisco, Cal.,and Manila, P. I., thus connecting the longitude cir- cuit around the earth. This work was made practicable by the generous cooper- ation of the officers of the Commercial Pacific Cable Company, who placed their cables and operators at the service of the Survey. Incidentally, during the prog- ress of this work, the longitude of Hono- lulu, Hawaii, of Midway Island, and Guam Island were determined. The triangulation along the ninety- eighth meridian was extended toward the north and toward the south from the portion already completed, the total extension amounting to 500 kilometers along the meridian, and the work was in progress at the close of the year. The location on the ground and mark- ing of the boundary between Alaska and the British possessions, as laid down by the Alaska Boundary Tribunal, was inaugurated under the direction of the THe NatTionaL GeoGRAPHic MAGAZINE 128 ‘Ayissaoeu AyIesA vB 19ST OM are SaATIp 989} JEY} OS ‘Jarlad S[QvIdpISUOD UdAls aAeYy oinjoId Sulpsdoons aq} pue Sy} UL UMOYS Soinsevam 919A98 dy} nq ‘onSe{d o[qeiIaA & aIaM s}iqqei ot} OS" sIBah [eIBADG ‘saATIpP asa} Aq payoaro AWveI3 u9eq SAT SOMOS 0} Ur syiqqes yorl aq} Jo suoljepeidep oy, BIUIOJ[VD UloyINOS UI sATIC Hqqey VW 21N}[N13Y JO JusMIIBdoq ‘IatIeg ‘SJ, WoO1y ADAING [eOISO[OIG 9} Aq OS 9M] aIMOS poystiqnd sem WOM ‘jsmyeg “SL iq Aq palqns oy} uo jodar s[qerlWIpe Ue 0} PdIIIJoI VIB SOATIP 9S9Y} Jo S[IeJOp 94} IAL] prnom oyM suosidg BIUIOJI[VD USYINOS UI sALIC, WqqeyY wv Jo s}Nsoy oy J, On dIN}NIASY JO JUsTUIedaq ‘Iawyed °S J, woOly 12 GEOGRAPHIC Noress 130 Department of State by the Superin- tendent as Commissioner of the United States in cooperation with the Com- missioner of Great Britain. The various operations of the mag- netic survey of the country show a gratifying progress during the year. The determination of the magnetic dec- lination, dip, and intensity was made in 327 localities, embracing 367 stations, distributed over 24 states and territories and 2 foreign countries. An extensive investigation was made of the marked local disturbances in the vicinity of Ju- neau, Alaska, 45 stations being occu- pied for this purpose. In codperation with the Louisiana Geological Survey, the magnetic survey of the state was completed. Effective cooperation was secured with an expedition sent to the Bahama Islands by the Baltimore Geo- graphical Society, and valuable results were thus obtained without expense to the: Survey. Excellent progress was made in se- curing magnetic observations at sea during the voyages of the ships of the Survey to and from their fields of work. In the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans 92 results of magnetic declination and 33 results of magnetic dip and intensity were thus obtained, nearly all of them derived from complete swings of the ships forward and back. Continuous records of the variations of the magnetic elements were secured throughout the year at five magnetic observations situated at Cheltenham, Md. ; Baldwin, Kans, -sitka, Alaska: near Honolulu, Hawaii, and Vieques, P.R. During the year a large number of magnetic storms were recorded, the most remarkable one occurring October 31-November 1. During the year a bureau of inter- national research in terrestrial magnet- ism was created by the Carnegie Insti- tution of Washington, with an officer of the Survey, the inspector of magnetic work, in charge as director. ‘Tue Nationa, GeocrRAPHIC MAGAZINE A continuous record of tide observa- tions with self-registering gauges was obtained during the year at 8 stations, including 1 station at Hawaii and 1 in the Philippine Islands, and for a por- tion of the year at an additional station which was established on the Gulf of Mexico, at Galveston. The electric tide indicator installed in the Maritime Exchange at Philadel- phia continued to give satisfaction. A similar apparatus was installed during the year in the Maritime Exchange at New York. The tide indicators established for the use of mariners in New York har- bor, in the Delaware River at Reedy Island, and in San Francisco Bay con- tinued in operation during the year. Compass deviation ranges were es- tablished by marks placed on the inner Delaware breakwater, which will prove of great value to shipping, as any ves- sel can now determine the corrections to her compass while swinging at an- chor in the national harbor of refuge. The field work necessary for the re- vision of two volumes of the United States Coast Pilot, covering the coast from Point Judith;-R.°1.,: to: Chesa- peake Bay entrance, Virginia, was com- pleted. Hydrographic surveys were made in 16 states and territories, topographic surveys in 9, triangulation in 14, and leveling in 6. The primary triangulation along the Pacific coast north of San Francisco was continued. In Alaska a survey was made of Da- vidson Inlet, work was continued in Prince William Sound, and two vessels were dispatched to make a survey of Kiska harbor, Aleutian Islands. In Porto Rico hydrographic work was continued in the harbors and bays and offshore. The experts of our Department of Ag- riculture are constantly on the hunt for GeEoGRAPHIC Norss From David G. Fairchild, Dept. Agriculture Stripping the Bark from a 9-year-old Wattle Tree new species of plants which can be grown profitably in the United States or in our island possessions. One of the latest suggestions is that the Aus- tralian wattle tree, which gives excel- lent bark for tanning purposes and which grows nearly as rapidly as the bamboo, requiring little care, be intro- duced into Hawaii. A bulletin on the subject by David G. Fairchild has been published by the department. The ac- companying illustration shows a laborer stripping the bark from a wattle tree. The U.S. Weather Bureau has estab- lished a section of its Climate and Crop Service in Hawaii. About 40 voluntary 131 meteorological stations have been estab- lished and equipped with instruments of standard pattern and the cooperation of a large number of Climate and Crop correspondents has been secured. ‘The regular issue of weekly Crop Bulletins was began January 9, 1905. DECISIONS OF U. S. BOARD ON GEO- GRAPHIC NAMES December 7, 1904 Ashnola; river, Okanogan County, Washing- ton (and British Columbia, Canada; crosses boundary at 120° 20’) (not Na-is-nu-loh, Ashtnulon, Naisnuloh, Nais-nu-loh, Nais- nutho, nor Ashanola). Bear Lodge; mountains, Crook County, Wyo- ming (not Bearlodge). Cakepoulin ; creek, Franklin township, Hun- terdon County, New Jersey (not Cake- paulins). Central City ; town, post-office, railroad sta- tion, and county seat, Gilpin County, Col- orado (not Central). Chewack ; creek, tributary of Methow River (from the north, mouth at Winthrop), Okanogan County, Washington (not Che- wuch Creek, Chewach Creek, Chewack Creek, Chiwak, Chewach, Chewuck, nor North Fork). Conconully ; lake, Okanogan County, Wash- ington (not Salmon). Egg; island near easternmost point of Una- laska, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Ugal- gan nor Ugalgal).* Ellemeham ; mountain, Okanogan County, Washington (not Ellemachun, Elloma- chan, nor Mt Ellemeham). English ; bay indenting the eastern shore of Unalaska Island, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Samganuda).* Fraser ; river, tributary from south to Grand River, post-office, and precinct, Grand County, Colorado(not Frazier nor Frazer). Indian ; creek, tributary from south to Bear Creek, Clear Creek County, Colorado (not South Fork Bear Creek, Rocder, nor Yan- kee). Lake Clear; lake or pond in Harrietstown, Franklin County, New York (not Big Clear Pond nor Clear Pond). Latah ; creek, Spokane and Whitman Coun- ties, Washington, and Kootenai County, Idaho,tributary from southeast to Spokane River at Spokane (not Hangman, Hang- mans, Latah and Hangman’s, Latah and Hangman, Lau-taw, nor Camas Prairie). * Revision of previous decision. £32 North Head ; cape, the northern point of Aku- tan Island, eastern Aleutians, Alaska (not Sigak) * Old Baldy ; peak in the Santa Rita Mountains, Santa Cruz County, Arizona (not Baldy, Mt Wrightson, nor Santa Rita). Queneska ; island in Shelburne town, off Shel- burne Point, in Lake Champlain, Vermont (not Hog, Whites, nor White’s). Reed ; post-office and railroad station, Hender- son County, Kentucky (not Reads). Rillito; creek, four miles north of Tucson, Pima County, Arizona (not Rita). Rollins ; pass, over Front Range (Continental Divide), latitude 39°56’, Boulderand Grand counties, Colorado (not Boulder nor Rog- ers): Rootok; island near west end of Aratanak Island, Krenitzin group, eastern Aleu- tians, Alaska (not Aektok nor Rootak).* Salmon; creek, tributary from the north to Okanogan River, Okanogan County, Wash- ington (not Conconully, Concunully, nor White Salmon). San Antonio; creek or river emptying into the Pacific Ocean three miles north of Purisima Point, Santa Barbara County, California (not Jesus Maria River, Guay- mas River, nor Los Alamos). Simon; pond, town of Altamont, Franklin County, New York (not Simons, Big Si- mon, Big Simons, Simonds, nor Big Si- monds). Sinlahekin ; creek, tributary from the south to Palmer Lake, Okanogan County, Wash- ington (not Sinlehekin, Sinlahekim, War- ing-Sinlehegan, Waring, Toudes Coulé, nor Sinlahegan). Sunset; island, Colchester town, in [Lake Champlain, Vermont (not Hog Back). Valdez; glacier, narrows, port, summit, and town, Prince William Sound, eee (not Valdes).* Vance; creek, tributary from ore to Bear Creek, Clear Creek County, Colorado (not Little Bear). Whalebone; cape between Usof and Three Island bays, on south coast of Unalaska, Alaska. January 4, 1905 Bergenfield ; borough, post-office, and railroad station, Bergen County, New Jersey (not Bergenfields nor Bergen Fields). Bruster ; town and post-office on the Columbia River,Okanogan County, Washington (not Brewster ). Chiliwist ; creek, tributary from the northwest to the Okanogan River, Okanogan County, Washington (not Chilliwist, Chiliwhist, Chilliwhist, nor Chilowist). *Revision of previous decision. THe NarionaL GroGRAPHIc MAGAZINE Ecorse ; river, township, post-office, and rail- road station , Wayne County, Michigan(not Ecorce, River aux; Ecorces, nor Ecorces). Esty ; aoe north of Ithaca, New York (not Estey Factory ; ee in Wayne and Lawrence Coun- ties, Tennessee (not Factory’s, Factor’s, nor Factors). False Bottom; creek in Tawrence and Butte Counties, South Dakota(not Falsebottom). Indian ; creek in Wayne and Hardin Counties, Tennessee (not Reinness, Reinse’s, nor Reinses). Kougarok; river tributary to the Kuzitrin River, mountain, mining district, and min- ing town, Seward Peninsula, Alaska (not Kugruk, Koogrock, Kougrok, Kugrock, nor Kugruk City). Kugruk ; river, flowing into Kotzebue Sound, just east of Cape Deceit, Alaska (not Swan). Kugrupaga ; river, Seward Peninsula, Alaska, flowing into the Arctic Ocean, at longi- tude 166° 45’ (not Kugruk nor Koogrook). Loup Loup; creek, tributary to the Okanogan River, near Malott, Okanogan County, Washington (not Loop Loop, Loop-Loop, nor Looploop). Palisades ; township, Bergen County, New Jersey (not Palisade). Rogers; island in Hudson River, Columbia County, New York (not Rodgers). Wannacut; lake, Okanogan County, Wash- ington, T. 39 N., R. 26 E. (not Wauna- kee, Wennacut, Wonacot, Warnacott, Wanicot, Wanacott, Wannicutt, nor Wan- nicut). Weatherford ; creek, Wayne County, Tennes- see (not Rutherford, Rutherford’s, Ss, nor Rutherfords). February 1, 1905 Belleview ; township, Washington County, Mis- souri (not Belview, Bellview, or Bellevue). Chilicotal; spring and mountain, Brewster County, Texas (not Chili Corte, Chili Cortal, nor Chili Cotel). East Branch Chenango River ; stream, branch of Chenango River, in Oneida, Madison, and Chenango Counties, New York (not East Chenango River nor Chenango Creek). Kennyetto ; creek, Fulton County, New York (not Kenneto). | Mount Vernon; post-office and town, Hills- boro County, New Hampshire (not Mt Vernon nor Mont Vernon). San Cristobal; lake, Hinsdale County, Colo- rado (not San Christobal, San Cristoval, nor San Cristopal). Staser ; post-office and railroad station, Van- derburg County, Indiana (not Stacer, Sta- cers, nor Stasers). GEOGRAPHIC . Arbitration in The Hague Court. By John W. Foster. Pp. 147. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1904. $1.00 xet. The efforts of President Roosevelt in advancing the interests of international arbitration make this little volume of special interest. As is expected from a man of Mr Foster’s experience and ability, the merits of international arbi- tration are concisely and forcefully, as well as clearly, set forth. The volume covers the inception, progress, and pres- ent condition of international arbitra- tion. It makes clear the methods and processes to be followed, concerning which there exist misunderstandings in the minds of many. The Hague Con- vention recognizes two classes of con- troversy, the first of a judicial char- acter, and the second questions regard- ing the interpretation or the application of international treaties. The Washington conference of 1890 recommended an arbitration treaty with the stipulation that the sole question which any nation is at libérty to decline to arbitrate is a question which might emperil its independence. Chile and Argentina have united in such a treaty, while the Netherlands and Denmark agreed to submit to The Hague Court all mutual differences and disputes that cannot be solved through diplomatic channels. The Hague Court does not sit as a collective body, but the nations submit- ting cases for arbitration select by mutual agreement one, three, or five members from the personnel constitut- ing the court, which in its membership is practically a permanent panel of in- ternational jurymen. With regard to rehearings, they are to be permitted only on the discovery of new facts, previously unknown to the tribunal and the parties, which must be of such a character as to exer- LITERATURE cise a decisive influence on the judg- ment. General Foster considers the much- criticised decision of the tribunal con- ceding preferential treatment to allied powers in the Venezuelan case, but believes with Mr MacVeagh that the presence of thirteen nations before the tribunal was such a valuable object les- son of the wisdom and efficacy of arbi- tration as to offset any other disadvan- tages. General Foster wisely suggests that The Hague Court should be made a truly international tribunal by adding to its personnel representatives from all the American republics. He favors a pro- hibitive rule regarding a member of the permanent panel appearing as counsel for the litigating party, and believes that the question of expense should be carefully considered, as it is now prac- tically prohibitive against smaller states of limited resources. There should also be suitable rules regarding the language to be used in arguments and the familiarity of the judges therewith. General Foster shows the necessity of fostering and stimulating an intelli- gent interestinarbitration. It is hoped that the final outcome in the United States will be to further the interests of peace, and justify his statement that ‘‘The Hague Court will long stand as a beacon light in the tempestuous sea of international politics, and its in- fluence and efficiency grow with ad- vancing years.’’ A.W.G Japan by the Japanese. Edited by Al- fred Stead. Pp. xxvii+697. New York: Dodd, Mead & Co. 1904. £5.00 2et. Mr Stead has rendered a service to all students of Japan by bringing to- gether what might be called ‘‘ the docu- ments in the case,’’ which are indis- pensable to any one desiring to obtain a 134 correct idea of the development of that country as regards constitutional gov- ernment, the growth of education, the creation of its finance system, the de- velopment of its industries, the forma- tion of an army and navy, and its de- velopment or means of creation and establishment of a system of justice— in short, the creation of a modern and western civilization. Art and litera- ture, the press, the merchant marine, and labor organizations all find a place in this storehouse of Japanese facts. All these articles are written by men who have taken part in this great work of transition and reconstruction, and among them are a number of interna- tionalrepute. Marquis Ito has written on the development of constitutional rights, the duties of political parties, and the growth of Japan; Field Mar- shal Yamagata on international policy and the growth of the army, the latter subject being supplemented by Field Marshal Oyama’s account of the army of today. Rear Admiral Saito tells of the creation of the navy, and the Count Okuma of the foreign policy and the growth of education. Professor Imazo Nitobe contributes a most interesting chapter on the religion and moral ideas of the Japanese. Count Inouye deals with the various phases of Japanese finance, while Baron Shibusawa gives a survey of the industrial situation. Baron Suyematsu treats of the problem of the Far East, and a chapter is given to Formosa. The very brief article by Professor Maruse on women is apolo- getic and inadequate. Mining, labor, railways, the press, art, and literature are treated as to their development and present condition by equally competent authorities. It must be understood that these arti- cles are from the Japanese standpoint, and of course, as far as opinions go, are subject to refutation in many respects. The authors occasionally admit the ne- cessity of moral improvement as well as of industrial development. THe NaTionaL GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE The great value of the book lies in the mass of statistical data, which are logically and sequentially arranged. The volume will long remain a work of reference, more or less standard. There might well be added to this book a compendium volume, ‘‘ Japan in the Beginning of the Twentieth Cen- tury,’’ published by the Imperial Japa- nese Commission to the Louisiana Pur- chase Exposition, by Secretary Yama- naki, of the department of agriculture, which was printed and distributed in limited numbers. A. W. G. Dai Nippon (Japan). By Henry Dyer. Pp. xvi + 450. Illustrated. New York: Charles Scribner’sSons. 1904. $3.50 net. This is a valuable study of the evolu- tion of modern Japan, tracing its con- version, in a single generation, from a feudality into a constitutional govern- ment, based on deliberate assemblies, national concord, findividual legal rights, institution of justice, and the fostering of world-wide knowledge. Mr Dyer’s long service in Japan, be- ginning as first principal of the Imperial College of Engineering at Tokyo, quali- fies him for this difficult study, which is commended to every investigator of Jap- anese affairs. The growth of educa- tional institutions, the organization of anefficient army and navy, the establish- ment of railways, telegraphs, and steam- ship lines, the advance of industries, the growth of commerce, and the creation of a national system of finance have been accomplished so successfully in the past thirty years as to excite the attention and merit the admiration of the world. How these wonders have been wrought, their influences on art, on social condi- tions, and on the individual and the na- tion are clearly set forth. The discussion of the oriental mind, with its preéxistent trend and its nature worship, is curious as explaining the dominant features of the Japanese—pa- triotism and loyalty. The chapters on _ GrocraPHIc LITERATURE international relations, foreign politics, and recent events are worthy of most careful perusal, giving as they do an insight into the causes of the present war. Ee NVEG. The Land of Riddles (Russia of Today). By Dr Hugo Ganz. ‘Translated from the German by Herman Rosenthal. Pp. vi + 331. New York: Harper and Brothers. 1904. $2.00 zet. This volume is not a study of Rus- sian institutions, but a compilation of journalistic articles based on interviews with various officials and business men. Dr Ganz doubtless made the most of his opportunities in Russia, but his guesses must be received as such and not as solutions of the current complex prob- lems—economic, military, and _polit- ical—which seriously threaten the sta- bility of Russian institutions. Labor, education, the press, military adminis- tration, methods of public business, are riddles which Dr Ganz does not con- sider. A. W. G. North America. By Israel Cook Rus- sell. Illustrated. Pp.x-+435. New York: D. Appleton and Co. 1904. This important volume in the World Series is highly commended as not only specially worthy of study by geograph- ical students, but also of interest to gen- eral readers. Topography and geol- ogy are admirably treated, under the head of five physiographic provinces, though with too great fullness. The chapter on climate, following text-book methods, fails to convey, to unscientific readers at least, an adequate idea of the dominant or varying weather conditions of North America, and the illustration of the ice palace, while attractive, is not in harmony with the rest of the volume. The omission from the volume of po- litical or economic geography is to be regretted, especially when it is consid- ered that from these standpoints the influence of this continent has very ma- terially modified the march of human HOS progress throughout the entire world. The aborigines are treated most graph- ically and the views advanced regarding them command respect, although not alwaysconvincing. ‘The most instruct- ive matter is the recognition and pres- entation of the admirable work of Dr C. Hart Merriam, who has solved the prob- lem of geographical life distribution, by the formulation of the life-zones and crop-zones of North America. Professor Russell writes in a clear style and log- ical manner, qualities not always com- bined, and this volume will add to his literary and scientific reputation. A. W. G. Fetichism in West Africa. By Robert Hamill Nassau. Pp. xvii+ 389. Il- lustrated. New York: Charles Scrib- ner’s Sons. 1904. $2.50 et. This is an important contribution to our knowledge of the religious beliefs and superstitions of the nativesof French Congo and adjacent regions. It is the outgrowth of forty years of missionary work by Dr Nassau, and justifies the action of the American Board of Foreign Missions in fostering its preparation. Preexistence, spirit power, nature ado- ration, and ancestor worship are the bases on which rest the universal prac- tices in Africa of witchcraft, charms, blood-sacrifices, and other forms of feti- chism. Its practical effects in depopu- lation, assassination by poison, and co- ercion are vividly described, as also the strange secret societies of various kinds which exist among the women. The folklore reveals the existence of tradi- tions also prevalent far remote from Africa. AL W. G. Japanese Life in Town and Country. By George William Knox. Pp. xii + 267. Illustrated. New York: G.R. Putnam’s Sons. 1904. This volume, partly a reprint of vari- ous articles, is an interesting, sketchy account of every-day life as seen during fifteen years’ residence in Japan. The 1376 impressions regarding servants, mer- chants, trade methods, and domestic life are unattractive from a western standpoint. Contrasts of theold samu- vat (nobility) and the new are more promising. Dr Knox gives credit to Japan for choosing freedom, self-gov- ernment, progress, and modern science, and forecasts its future world influence as important. eG (ee T he Proceedings of the American Forest Congress held at Washington, D. C., January 2 to 6, under the auspices of the American Forestry Association, will be issued in book form on March 15. The volume will contain about 400 pages and will be handsomely bound in cloth. It will contain the complete addresses by President Roosevelt, Secretary Wilson, and about fifty other prominent speakers who were on the program, including not only those most prominent in State and national forest work, but the leaders in the railroad, lumbering, mining, graz- ing, and irrigation industries. The price of the volume is $1.25, prepaid to any address. Published for the American Forestry Association by the H. M. Suter Publishing Company, Washington, D.C. “The Bahama Islands” will be issued as the first monograph of the Geographical Society of Baltimore early in March. The volume is illustrated with g2 plates, of which 25 are color-illustrations of vegetation, fishes, maps, charts, etc. In June, 1903, the Society equipped and sent out to the Bahama Islands a scien- tific expedition under the direction of Dr George B. Shattuck, of the Johns Hop- kins University. Investigations were carried on in geology, paleontology, tides, earth magnetism, climate, kite- flying in the tropics for atmospheric observations, agriculture, botany, mos- quitoes, fishes, reptiles, birds, mam- mals, medical conditions, social condi- tions, and the history of the islands, compiled from original records in pos- session of the government. The book Tue NatTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE will contain chapters on each of these subjects. The chapter on geology is written by Dr George B. Shattuck, of the Johns Hopkins University, and Dr Benjamin Le Roy Miller, of Bryn Mawr College; that on paleontology by Dr Wm. H. Dall, U. S. National Museum; that-.on tides by L. P2Shidy ess. Coast and Geodetic Survey, and so on. BOOKS RECEIVED Check List of Large Scale Maps Pub- lished by Foreign Governments, Com- piled under the direction of Philip Lee Phillips. Pp. 58. 10se7imelies: Washington: Government Printing Office. 1904. Earthquakes. By Clarence Edward Dutton, Major, U. S. Aa yeaa 814x534 inches. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1904. The United States of America. By Edwin ErleSparks. Twovols. Pp. 385 + 385. 8 x 5% inches. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1904. A. L. A. Catalog of 8,000 Volumes for a Popular Library. Editor, Melvil Dewey. Pp. 485. 934 x 7% inches. Washington: Government Printing Office. October, 1904. Swedish Life in Town and Country. By O. G. Von Heidenstam. Pp. 286. 744 X 5 inches. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1904. $1.20. Historic Highways of America. Vol. 14. The Great American Canals. The Erie Canal. Vol. ti. By Ar- eher Butler Hulbert. Pp. 224. 7% x 5 inches. Cleveland, Ohio: The Arthur H. Clark Co. 1904. Students’ Laboratory Manual of Physi- cal Geography. By Albert Perry Brigham. Pp. 153. 734 x 5% inches. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1904. Physiography. By T. H. Huxley and R. A. Gregory. Pp. 423. 7x 4% inches. New York: Macmillan & Co. 1904. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The annual reception of the Society will be held at the home of the Society, Hubbard Memorial Hall,Saturday even- ing, March 11. POPULAR MEETINGS National Rifles’ Armory, 920 G street, 8 p. m. March 8.—‘‘ Manchuria.’’ By Col. W.S. Schuyler, U. S. Army, who has recently returned after spending eight months with the Russian armies in Manchuria. Illustrated. Match J0.—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. N., Superintendent of the U. S. Naval Observatory. Illustrated. March 24.—‘‘ The Commercial Prize of the Orient and its Relation to the Commerce of the United States.’’ By Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of the Bureau ot Statistics. Illustrated. March 3!.—‘‘From Lexington to Yorktown.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, uf the Century Company. Illustrated. April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll Weevil.” By Dr L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology. Illustrated. April 28.—‘* Niagara Falls.’’ By Dr G. K. Gilbert, Vice-President National Geographic Society. Illustrated. SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS Hubbard Memorial Hall, 8 p. m. March 3.— General subject, ‘‘ Pro- gress in Plant Physiology.’’ Papers by Dr George T. Moore and others on ‘‘ In- oculating the Ground,’’ ‘‘ Protecting Municipal Water Supply Systems,”’ etc. March 17,—“‘ Japan.”’ The Geography of Japan. By Mr Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japa- nese Legation. The Fisheries of Japan. By Dr Hugh M. Smith. Agriculture in Japan. G. Fairchild. By Mr David April 7.—‘‘ Forestry.”’ Papers by Mr Gifford Pinchot, Mr Overton Price, and others, of the U. S. Bureau of Forestry, and a paper on Japanese Bamboos, by Mr David G. Fairchild. For the benefit of the many new mem- bers of the Society the by-laws are re- printed below. BY-LAWS OF THE NATIONAL GEO- GRAPHIC SOCIETY. ARTICLE I.—Name. The name of this Society is 7hke National Geographic Society. ARTICLE II.—Odzect. The object of the Society is the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge. ARTICLE III.—Membership. SECTION I. The Society shall consist of mem- bers, honorary members, fellows,* and patrons. SKC. 2. Members shall be persons interested in geographic science. SEC 3. Honorary members shall be persons who have attained eminence by the promotion of geographic science. They shall not be mem- bers of the corporation, nor shall they vote or hold office. Sec. 4. Fellows shall be persons engaged in scientific work pertaining to geography. They shali be members of the corporation. SEC. 5. Patrons shall be persons interested in geography who have contributed one thou- sand dollars or more to the objects of the So- ciety ; they shall be entitled to all the privi- leges of membership for life. SEC. 6. The election of members, honorary members, fellows, and patrons shall be en- trusted to the Board of Managers. ARTICLE IV.— Officers. SECTION I. The administration of the Soci- ety shall be entrusted to a Board of Managers composed of twenty-four members, eight of whom shall be elected by the Society at each annual meeting, to serve for three years, or until their successors are elected. A majority of the votes cast shall be necessary for election. SEC. 2. The Board of Managers shall elect annually from their own number a President * No fellows have as yet been elected. 138 and a Vice-President, and shall elect annually a Treasurer and a Secretary. SxEc. 3. The President shall preside at the meetings of the Society and of the Board of Managers, or may delegate this duty. The President and the Secretary shall sign all written contracts and obligations of the Society. SEc. 4. In the absence of the President his duties shall devolve on the Vice-President. SEC. 5. The Treasurer shall have charge of the funds of the Society, under the direction of the Board of Managers, and shall make col- lections and disbursements and render an an- nual report, and his accounts shall be audited by a committee of the Society, not members of the Board, annually and at such other times as the Board miay direct. SEC. 6. The Secretary shall record the pro- ceedings of the Society and of the Board of Managers, conduct correspondence, and make an annual report. Src. 7. The Board of Managers shall fill vacancies arising in the Board. SEc. 8. All officers shall serve until their successors are chosen. ARTICLE VI.—Commiuttees. SECTION 1. The Board of Managers shall select annually from its own number an Ex- ecutive Committee. SEC. 2. There shall be standing committees on Publications, Communications, Admissions, Research, and Finance, whose chairmen shall be members of the Board of Managers. These committees shall be appointed immediately after the annual election of the President, to serve until their successors are designated. SEC. 3. The committees of the Society and of the Board of Managers shall be appointed by the President except when otherwise provided. The President shall be a member ex officio of every committee. ARTICLE VI.— Finances. SECTION I. The fiscal year of the Society shall begin on the first day of January. SEC. 2. The annual dues of members shall be two dollars, payable in January. SEC. 3. Fellows shall pay an initiation fee of ten dollars on notice of election SEC. 4. Members or fellows may commute annual dues and acquire life membership by the payment at one time of fifty dollars. SEC. 5. Members or fellows whose dues re- main unpaid on March 1 shall be notified by the Treasurer that unless the dues are paid within one month they will be in arrears and not entitled to vote at the annual meeting, to receive the publications of the Society, or to THe NaTIoNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE purchase lecture tickets on members’ terms. Members or fellows one year in arrears shall, after formal notification, be regarded as hav- ing withdrawn from the Society. Skc. 6. The funds of the Society may be in- vested and loans may be negotiated in the in- terests of the Society, and any other financial business germane to the purposes of the So- ciety may be transacted, by the Board of Man- agers. ARTICLE VII.—WMeetings. SECTION I. Regular meetings of the So- ciety shall be held on alternate Fridays from November until May. SEC. 2. Special meetings may be ordered by the Board of Managers or called by the Presi- dent. SEc. 3. The annual meeting shall be held in the District of Columbia on the second Friday in January. SEC. 4. Twenty members or fellows shall constitute a quorum. SEc. 5. Regular meetings of the Board of Managers shall be held on the same days as the regular meetings of the Society ; special meet- ings may be held at the call of the President or on notice signed by five members of the Board: Provided, That for any of its own meetings the Board may substitute meetings of the Executive Committee. SEc. 6. Lectures and lecture courses may be provided by the Board of Managers. Free ad- mission to such lectures shall not be a preroga- tive of membership, but tickets shall be sold to members and fellows on more favorable terms than to non-members: Provided, That each life member who acquired life membership prior to the year Igor shall be entitled to two admissions to each lecture and course. ARTICLE VIII.—FPublications. ‘The Society shall publish a journal or peri- odical under the title, Zhe ational Geo- graphic Magazine, which shall be sent to all members and fellows of the Society not in arrears, and may be placed on sale. ARTICLE IX.—Amendments. These By-Laws may be amended by a two- third vote of the members present at any regu- lar meeting, provided the proposed amend- ments are reported by the Board of Managers, and provided that notice thereof has been sent to all members of the Society not less than ten nor more than sixty days before the meeting. The publication of proposed amendments in The National Geographic Magazine shall be deemed a notice within the meaning of this article. seR CONTENTS m REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS, ILLUSTRATED BY 130 PICTURES SHOWING THE TYPES OF PEOPLE, THEIR MANNER OF LIFE AND INDUSTRIES, THEIR COUNTRY AND RESOURCES 139 PAGB | Some Lessons in Geography. By Edward Atkinson . . °°. 193 The Ziegler Polae Expedition . . . . . 1. 1 wwe 598 The Eighth International Geographic Congress . . . . 198 Geographic Literature . . . . . 1. . HaWiate eure at aly Bee _ National Geographic Society . . . STE Mee hah . 200 Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. . au ha a Year ) —25:Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter | NATIONAL ~ i GEOGRAIPIEUIC MAGAZINE N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publish by the NatIonaL GEOGRAPHIC Geri All Be FR communications should be addressed to the — Editor of the Nationa GrocrarHic MaGazine. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army W J McGBE Chief, Department of Anthropology and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- chase Exposition C. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. Department of A. griculture O. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Contes BAreey, O. P. AUSTIN | Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ment of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY Chief of the Division of Mineral ~— Ke: C.S. Geological avira ALFRED H. BROOKS U.S. Geological Survey ANGELO HEILPRIN Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- ‘ delphia R. D. SALISBURY University of Chicago _ G. K. GILBERT U.S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, UL s. y Be | Weather Bureau, San Francisco he ALMON GUNNESON | iii President St. Lawrence University Dubbed Memorial Hall, Washington, D. G t You. XVI,‘Noi 3 WASHINGTON APRIL, 1905 een VELATION: OF THE FILIPINOS THE SURPRISING AND EXCEEDINGLY GRATIFYING CONDITION OF THEIR EDUCATION, INTELLIGENCE, AND ABILITY REVEALED BY THE First CENSUS OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, AND THE UNEXPECTED MAGNITUDE OF THEIR RESOURCES AND POSSIBILITY FOR DEVELOPMENT The following article ts a summary of the report of the Census of the Philippine Islands by General J], P Sanger, Director, and Messrs Henry Gannett and Victor A. Olmstead, Assistant Directors, Census April 8. which 1s published by the United States Bureau of the The report makes four large handsome volumes, conprising about 3,500 pages and containing 28o illustrations and go maps and colored diagrams. Tt gtues the most comprehensive and able description of the people and geography of the wslands that has yet appeared. Junds to 4,000 copies, which were exhausted even before publication. Unfortunately the edition was limited from lack of Through the courtesy of General J. P. Sanger, Director, the National Geographic Magazine republishes the principal results of the Census, and also a large number of the exceed- ingly beautiful pictures with which the report ts tllustrated. HE details of the census of the : Philippine Islands will undoukt- edly surprise us all, for the re- port shows that the condition of the Fil- ipinos is much superior from every point of view, in education, ambition, capac- _ ity, and possessions, than has been gen- erally supposed. The census was taken in March, 1903, and is the first system- atic collection of Filipino facts that has been made. As it was directed by con- servative men, therecan be no question that the statements reported are correct. ‘The work was under the general super- vision of General J. P. Sanger, Director, and Messrs Henry Gannett and Victor H. Olmstead, Assistant Directors, who had made such a success of the Amer- ican censuses of Cuba and Porto Rico. These three gentlemen, with the coop- eration of Governor Taft, have per- formed an achievement of which we may justly be proud. The word census in the Philippines was originally the synonym of everything repulsive, forall that it meant to the natives was a basis for more taxation. Through the tactful diplomacy of General Sanger, however, the feeling of the Filipinos was com- pletely changed, and all of them seem 140 to have joined in competition to see who could most help the work. But though eager to help, the Filipinos had to be trained for the work, and this required more tact and time. Then no accu- rate maps were to be had, so that, every- thing considered, the census was a most difficult undertaking, and its completion within the allotted two years reflects great credit on the Directors. The principal object of the census, as stated in the act of Congress, was to se- cure statistics of population and a gen- eral knowledge of social conditions as a basis for the establishment of a Philip- pine Legislature, which the law directs shall convene two years after the publi- cation of the reportsof the census. This Legislature is to consist of two houses— the Philippine Commission and the Phil- ippine Assembly. CENSUS WAS TAKEN BY FILIPINOS The provincial governors were ap- pointed supervisors of the census, and under their direction the enumeration was taken. They had assembled in Manila several months before the task was begun and were there instructed as to their duties. In the execution of the field work and the preliminary examination of the schedules 7,627 persons were engaged, and of this number 118 were Americans, I Japanese, 6 Chinese, and 7,502 Fili- pinos ; so that it may be said, in all sin- cerity, that it was a Filipino census of the Philippine Islands. Of the 7,502 natives employed 40 were women, who fully sustained the opinion of Arch- bishop Nozaleda that ‘“‘the Filipino women are better than the men in every way.’ This was the first attempt on the part of any tropical people in modern times to make an enumeration of themselves. The margin of error in the number of civilized Filipinos, Chinese, and other foreigners probably does not exceed a fraction of 1 per cent. It was feared Ture Nationa, GeoGraPHic MAGAZINE that quite a large number would try to avoid the enumeration ; but except in a few instances there is no evidence of such an intention. several remote and obscure barrios or sitios which were not found in the orig- inal lists prepared by the supervisors, and which had been overlooked, appar- ently, sent runners to notify the census officials that they had not been enumer- ated. On account of the absence of well- defined boundaries between municipal- ities and barrios, some apprehension was felt as to a duplicate enumeration, but this was obviated by posting a printed notice of the enumeration on every house, boat, or other place occupied as a dwelling, which was not removed until_ the census was at an end. Among the changes to be made will be, probably, the introduction of the American mule and the substitution of American cattle for the Indian humped cattle. That cattle-raising may become a profitable industry there is no ques- tion, as there are large areas of grazing land suitable for cattle ranches, and horses, mules, and cattle thrive in the climate of the Philippines. Statistics show that the great agricult- ural wealth of the country is in the cul- tivation of sugar, hemp, tobacco, and coffee. Tobacco of fine quality is raised in the provinces of Cagayan and Isabela, and when carefully handled and thor- oughly cured makes excellent cigars and cigarettes. The poverty of the average tobacco-grower, however, compels him to dispose of his crop before it is ready for use, and this, together with the crude methods observed in handling it, has given to Manila cigars a bad reputation among tobacco connoisseurs. When the tobacco-growers are able to hold their crops long enough and to resort to care- ful and scientific methods in its cultiva- tion and preparation, the best Manila On the contrary, SS ee ee ae eee a A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS cigars will compare favorably with the best Habana cigars. No estimate can be made at this time of the productive- ness of the islands in hemp, inasmuch as it grows wild as well as under cultiva- tion, and there are many acres of wild hemp which have never been touched; moreover, the methods employed in stripping hemp are of the crudest kind. This valuable crop and its full develop- ment merely await the influence of American invention and capital. As compared with the total area of the islands, the amount of land under culti- vation is small, but it should be remem- bered that the islands of Mindoro, Para- gua,and Mindanao, which are among the largest of the group, are very little cul- tivated. Again, the methods followed, including the implements in use, are most crude, and something better must be substituted before the yield will equal the production of intelligent American farmers. Rotation in the crops, irriga- tion, and the use of fertilizers are al- most unknown, nature receiving but little aid from artificial means.* THE HEALTHFULNESS OF THE ISLANDS No better illustration of the salubrity and healthfulness of the climate of the Philippine Islands could be given than that afforded by the health report of the army, both in war and peace. This shows conclusively that, under the in- telligent management of our medical staff and the care bestowed on the sol- diers by their regimental and company officers, men who are in good health when they arrive in the Philippines, and who observe the health rules laid down for their guidance, are, on the whole, as nearly immune from disease as within the territory of the United States. The statistics of the Surgeon General of the Army show that for the calendar year *See ‘‘Progress in the Philippines,’ pp. 116-118, NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, March, 1905. © 141 1902 the number of soldiers constantly sick in the United States was 5.33 per eent of the command, and in 1903, 4.85 per cent; in the Philippines, for the same period, the percentage of con- stantly sick was 6.88 and 6.62, respect- ively, an average difference of 1.66 per cent, That long exposure to the climate is enervating there can be no doubt, but the effect is easily avoided by periodical changes to acolder climate. This has been conclusively proven by the old Scotch, English, and other white resi- dents of the islands, who, after a resi- dence of over forty years, broken by such removals, enjoy excellent health. For- merly it was necessary to take a sea voy- age in order to find relief, but with the completion of the electric railroad at Baguio, in the province of Benguet, this will no longer be needful, as the climate at that altitude will afford the requisite change. TEACHING THE PEOPLE TO TAKE CARH OP THBWIR HH AIT EH Nothing that has been done by the In- sular government deserves more com- mendation or reflects more credit on the administration than the measures taken to arrest and stamp out cholera, bu- bonic plague, and smallpox, to prevent the spread of leprosy, and to teach the natives how to guard against the dread diseases, tuberculosis, dysentery, and malarial fever. Only those acquainted with the native character and the in- sanitary conditions formerly prevailing everywhere, and particularly in Manila, can fully appreciate what has been done or that many years must pass before a majority of the native population will recognize the benefit of medical treat- ment and adopt sanitary rules. On the other hand, a large part of the popula- tion has already been benefited, and the experience thus gained is sure to be in- fluential. A serious feature in the mortality 142 among the natives is the large death rate among young children, and this can hardly be charged to the climate. Asis well known, a large proportion of Fuili- pino women are unable to nurse their children. Asa result, the children be- gin to eat solid food long before they can digest it, and cholera infantum or con- vulsions end their lives. It is not dif- ficult to predict the result when babies three or four months of age are given rice, and even bananas and mangoes, as a regular diet. A propaganda among the women, having for its object their instruction in the care of infants, is nec- essary, and it is understood has been at- tempted, but as yet has not become gen- eral. As to the other data, the conspicuous facts are the entire absence of hospitals except in a few large cities, the exist- ence of but twelve public libraries with 4,019 volumes; the great preponderance of churches, the small number of news- papers, and the comparatively small number of paupers and criminals. THE LABOR PROBLEM Labor and wages are burning ques- tions, and a great deal has been said and written to demonstrate the lazy habits of the Filipinos and the worthless charac- ter of their manuallabor. These strict- ures usually begin and end with unfa- vorable comparisons between Filipinos and Chinese, Americans, or other foreign populations. There are two sides to this very interesting and important question, and through the efforts of Governor Taft, the Philippine Commission, and the army it has been made perfectly plain to unprejudiced persons that the Filipino has greater intelligence and ca- pacity than he has been given credit for. What the Filipinos need in order to demonstrate their capacity as laborers is a fair opportunity under reasonable con- ditions, not as rivals of the Chinese or other people, but of each other, as is the rule in the United States, where, if China- Tue Nationat GeocraPpHic Macazine men were permitted to enter unrestrict- edly into competition with American labor, the value of wages would soon re- duce the average American laborer to a state of poverty. If American labor can- not compete successfully with Chinese labor, it should not be expected of Fili- pino labor, and the Filipino should not be judged by suchastandard. The so- called aversion of the Filipino to labor is not believed to be so entirely natural and instinctive as it is the result of causes to which very little reference is usually made. The habits of centuries, al- though artificially acquired, may well be mistaken in any people for natural traits. Thus, the abuse of the Filipinos through- out the first two hundred years of their experience with the early colonists, the assiduous and ceaseless efforts of their teachers to humble their pride, stifle their ambition, and impress upon them the dominant race, and the utter hope- lessness of any kind of equality with them have no doubt had their effect in causing indifference, shiftlessness, and recklessness. It may be said that the Filipinos are generally subordinate to lawful author- ity ; that, under competent officers, they make excellent soldiers, and will in the course of time, it is believed, make good citizens. In fact, it 1s not too much to expect that, under the guidance of a free, just, and generous government, the es- tablishment of more rapid and frequent means of communication, whereby they can be brought into more frequent con- tact with each other and with the gen- eral spread of education, the tribal dis- tinctions which now exist will gradually disappear and the Filipinos will become a numerous and homogeneous English- speaking race, exceeding in intelligence and capacity all other people of the tropics. DOCKING IMPROVEMENTS AT MANILA The necessity for railroads connect- ing the rich agricultural regions with A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS the principal seaports is strongly em- phasized by the great lack of docks and wharves throughout the islands. But few ports have docks at which an inter- island steamer can unload, and conse- quently every pound of freight and all passengers must be landed in small boats. One of the great drawbacks to the commerce of the Philippines has been the lack of dock facilities in the harbor of Manila for ocean going ships. As a result, all vessels exceeding 15 feet draft must be lightered while lying at anchor some distance from the wharves and at considerable expense, more espe- cially during the prevalence of the rainy season, when frequent typhoons inter- rupt the work of loading and unload- ing. ‘This great obstacle to commerce will soon disappear, however, through the foresight of the Philippine Com- mission in making ample appropria- tions for the improvement of the Pasig River and the construction of an arti- ficial harbor south of and adjoining the entrance to the river, with wharves capable of receiving and discharging at all seasons the largest sea-going vessels. These improvements, which are to be completed by June 30, 1905, at a cost of about $4,000,000, will make Manila one of the great ports of the orient. Direct trade with the United States will then be the rule and not, as in the past, the exception. Manila will become a great mercantile depot and point of dis- tribution of American and foreign mer- chandise of all kinds, destined for either the Philippines, China, or other points. The development of the abundant coal deposits in the Philippines, with the harbor improvements above referred to, will make Manila the chief coaling port in the East, surpassing Nagasaki in this respect, for the coal is of a quality equal to that of Japan and the coaling facili- ties of Manila will be much superior to those of the Japanese city. The com- mercial importance of Manila will be- 143 come still more apparent when the Pan- ama Canal is completed. USE OF LIQUOR AND TOBACCO The value of manufactured tobacco far exceeds any other industrial pro- duct, liquors and other beverages come next, and the two combined make 38.5 per cent of the value of all manufact- ured products. It should not be in- ferred from this that the Filipinos use these articles in excess, or that intem- perance prevails, for, while nearly the entire population use liquor and tobacco in some form, they do so in great mod- eration. ‘That the state of manufact- ures in the Philippines is what it is should occasion no surprise when we review the colonial system of govern- ment which generally prevailed for so many centuries. Underthissystem the Filipinos received but little encourage- ment to engage in industrial pursuits, and manufactures were not developed. The capital invested in manufactures exceeds $20,000,000. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE LAW COURTS Many important and salutary changes have been made by the Insular govern- ment. Stenographers and typewriters have been substituted for longhand writers in the courts. The Spanish co- lonial judiciary as it existed in the Phil- ippines at the time of American occupa- tion has been transformed into a system under which, says Chief Justice C. S. Arellano in the chapter on ‘‘ The Judi- ciary,’’ ‘‘ we have a more simple code of civil and criminal procedure, follow- ing American methods, and an avoid- ance of the great delays which previ- ously existed in the disposal of cases and criminals. In fact, delay is now more a question of a sufficient number of judges than, as formerly, of volumi- nous and abstruse forms and of petty interlocutory appeals or other means of obstructing and arresting the course of justice.” 144 The successive steps taken in chang- ing the judicial system are of great in- terest, and illustrate in a conspicuous manner: the adaptability of American legal institutions to the greatest of our new possessions. Until January 1, 1906, Spanish will be the official language of all the courts, and after that English ; meanwhile the su- preme court and courts of first instance may in any case order a duplicate record of acase in the English language when- ever, in the opinion of the court, the pub- lic convenience and the interest of the litigant parties will be promoted thereby. This is a fortunate settlement of a diffi- cult question, and is equally fair to the English and Spanish speaking lawyers, besides preventing the resentment which would have followed had English been forcibly imposed on the people by opera- tion of law. EXPLORATION IS IN PROGRESS Although Spain had jurisdiction over these islands for more than three centu- ries, little topographic information had been acquired regarding them, except such as was of a very general character. The coasts were badly mapped and in many places are now known to have been miles out of position. The coast charts, made from Spanish surveys, are so inaccurate as to be, on the whole, worse than useless to mariners, while of the interior of the larger islands little was known except what could be seen from the sea. Many maps of the archi- pelago have been published embodying the knowledge which had been acquired both during the days of the Spanish jurisdiction and in more recent times, but they are all very much of the same char- acter. Since American occupation much ex- ploration and surveying have been done. Wherever military operations have ex- tended, surveys have been made and maps prepared. In this way there have been produced maps covering a large part of Luzon, including the entire cen- Tue NaTIoNAL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE tral portion of that island. Maps have been made of several of the Visayan Islands. The operations against the Ma- lanao Moros have resulted in a map of Lake Lanao and its surroundings in Mindanao. ‘The island of Jolo has been mapped. The great work of charting the coasts and harbors of the Philippines was com- menced three years ago by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, work- ing in cooperation with the Philippine government, and progress is being made . in the preparation of accurate and trust- worthy charts of these dangerous coasts. THE ISLANDS ARE OF VOLCANIC ORIGIN The entire archipelago is mountain- ous or hilly. In the islands of Luzon, Negros, and Mindanao are broad plains and level valleys, but in general there is comparatively little level land. Tropic vegetation extends high up on the slopes and covers the lesser mountains and hills. Thus the ruggedness of a moun- tain region is softened into rounded out- lines. The mountain scenery is every- where beautiful, but rarely appeals to the eye with the element of grandeur. The archipelago is, for the most part, of volcanic origin. It contains twelve volcanoes which have been in eruption within historic times, and scores which are extinct or quiescent. Most of the surface of the islands is floored with vol- canicrocksand ash. Innorthern Luzon there are, however, large areas under- lain by metamorphic rocks, granites, schists, and the like; and several isl- ands, notably Cebu and Bohol, are cov- ered with a veneer of coral limestone. The occurrence of these coral limestones of very recent disposition, at various places in the archipelago and at great altitudes, as in Benguet province at a height above sea of 5,000 feet, shows that great oscillations of level have oc- curred at times geologically very recent. Of these oscillations there are other abundant evidences in the existence of A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS lakes and marshes, waterfalls, and ele- vated beach lines, showing that the whole archipelago is in a condition of unrest. THE COASTLINE IS GREATER THAN THAT OF THE UNITED STATES The coasts of the archipelago are forthe most part intricate ; how intricate may be realized from the statement that these islands, with an area of about 115,000 square miles, have a coast line more than double the length of that of the main body of the United States. They are in part the result of volcanic action and in part the work of coral animals. Vulcanism has brought up the land from great depths in the form of thousands of large and small islands, fringed with coral reefs. some of which have been brought to the surface, while others lie immediately below it. With such a broken coast, harbors of one sort or another arenumerous. Most of them are of sufficient depth to admit large vessels, but are so difficult and dangerous of entrance, owing to the reefs which obstruct them and to the ab- sence of lights, channel buoys, range stakes, and accurate charts, as to be of little value except to those who know them well. Owing to the alternating character of the winds which prevail throughout most of the archipelago, the northeast trade wind from October to June and the southwest wind during the rest of the year, many, if not most, of the harbors furnish shelter during only a part of the year. All the principal islands and groups of islands have harbors for the largest ves- sels in all kinds of weather at all seasons, except the island of Bohol, which has no harbors, and there are many har- bors which are safe only according to the season of the year. THE EQUATORIAL CURRENT, TIDES, AND RIVERS The dominating feature of the cur- rents in the islands is the great equa- % 145 torial current, which, sweeping across the Pacific from east to west in a broad belt, divides east of these islands. The northern portion, which farther northis known as the Japan current, sends nu- merous streams through the passages among the islands, thus forming a com- plicated system of currents almost im- possible of description. The system is still further complicated by surface drifts, set in motion by the southwest wind in the summer and fall, making currents in various directions among the islands at different times of the year. Tides in the archipelago are exceed- ingly irregular, differing greatly in dif- ferent places, owing to the directions in which tidal waves move, and differing also greatly at different times of the month. For details regarding them ref- erence should be made to the sailing di- rections prepared by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. There are few rivers in the Philippine Islands, the Cagayan of northern Luzon, the Rio Grande de Mindanao, and the Augusan of Mindanao being the only three which can be classed as large streams. These, which are in approx- imately the same class, havea length ex- ceeding 200 miles, and owing to the abundance of precipitation carry large volumes of water even during the low stage. The Pampanga River of central Luzon is nearly as large, and this is fol- lowed in magnitude by the Ango of cen- tral Luzon and the Arbra in the northern partofthesameisland. Probably there are no other streams in the islands which exceed 109 miles in length. 3,141 ISLANDS Mr G. R. Putnam, in charge of the United States Coast and Geodetic Sur- vey in the Philippine Islands, at the in- stance of the Director of the Census, made acount and measurement of all the islands and islets comprised in this archipelago, including everything, how- ever small, which at high tide appeared as aseparate island. The total number 146 thus enumerated by him was 3,141, and are listed in tables ; of these 1,668 were listed by name, while 1,473 are, so far as known, without names. The num- ber found is nearly twice as great as heretofore known; as more accurate charts of the archipelago are made, it is believed the number will be increased. AREA OF THE ISLANDS The total area of the islands is 115,026 square miles. There are two islands with areas exceeding 10,000 square miles each, namely, Luzon with 40,969 and Mindanao with 36,292. ‘Thereare g islands each of which has an area of more than 1,000 square miles and less than 10,000. ‘There are 20 between 100 and 1,000 square miles, 73 between Io and 100 square miles, and 262 between I and 10 square miles. ‘The remaining number, 2,775, or seven-eighths of all, have areas less than a square mile each. VERY FEW MAMMALIA The fauna most closely resembles that of the neighboring Malayan Islands, but at the same time shows certain remark- able differences from them. ‘Thus there are very few mammalia in comparison with the number in Borneo and Java. There are but two species of monkeys, but three representatives of the car- nivora, and of the deer tribe but six spe- cies. Small rodents are very scarce except in the large seaports, while, on the other hand, there are at least 30 spe- cies of bats. There are no large mam- malia except the carabao, a few of which are still found wild, and the timarau or antelope buffalo of Mindoro. Altogether there are but 23 species of terrestrial mammals known on the islands. Not only does the fauna of the Phil- ippine Islands differ in certain marked respects from that of the adjacent islands of the East India archipelago, but the different islands of the Philippines differ among themselves in their fauna. The timarau is found only in Mindoro, por- Tue NationaL GeocraPpHic MaGazine cupines are found only in Paragua and in the Calamianes Islands, and there are numerous species of animals which have been found only in certain parts of the archipelago. GREAT VARIETY OF BIRDS Such peculiarities of distribution of land animals may be explained easily, but it is not so easy to explain similar facts concerning the distribution of birds. Paragua and the Calamianes Isl- ands possess several species which are not found elsewhere in the archipelago, but which are similar to species found in Borneo. Of the 286 species of birds foundin Luzon 51 atleast are not known to occur outside of that island. The avi- fauna of Samar and Leyte contains 22 species not found elsewhere, and simi- larly in Mindanao and Basilan are found 17 species peculiar tothoseislands. One of the most striking cases, however, is that of Cebu, which, although a near neighbor to Negros on one side and Bo- hol on the other, contains 9 species of birds not found elsewhere. ‘The total number of species of land birds known is a little over 300, a larger number than in Java; of these many are game birds, such as snipe, plover, quail, duck, and geese. Inspite of this richness of spe- cies there are many important genera found in the other Malay Islands which are not represented here, while on the other hand more than two-thirds of the Philippine species are peculiar to that group of islands. These facts strongly emphasize the isolation of the archipel- ago. THE FORESTS The forests of the archipelago are of wide extent and embrace a great variety of woods, many of them highly valuable. Woods suitable for the finest cabinet- work, for veneering, and for artistic pur- poses, and also woods adapted to ship or house building and other-economic uses, are found in great abundance. There A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS are also many gutta-percha, India-rub- ber, and other gum-producing trees, dye and medicinal woods and plants, and other forest growths, most of which are mentioned in connection with the sub- ject of agriculture. The enormous ex- tent and wide range of usefulness of Philippine forest products will render them, under the careful management and conservation provided for by law, second only to agricultural products as a source of insular wealth and prosperity. The number of different kinds of trees is not known, but the report of the chief of the Philippine Forestry Bureau for 1902 shows that 747 species of wood were brought to the market during the year ending June 30, i902. The num- ber of useful woods is undoubtedly larger than the number marketed, and in addition the forests contain many trees the woods of which are not used for do- mestic or economic purposes. Summarizing the information at hand, it appears that approximately 70 per cent of the area of the archipelago, or 80,000 square miles, is forested. The forested area was estimated by Fernando Castro in 1890 at about 48, 112,920 acres, or 75,150 square miles. ‘This estimate includes all the woodland, public and private, and amounts to 66 per cent of the totalarea. An official estimate made in 1876 gave an area of about 80,000 square miles. WEALTH OF TIMBER Little is known concerning the stand of timber peracre. The Forestry Bureau has made careful examinations at sev- eral places in the islands and has meas- ured sample acres containing more than 10,000 cubic feet, or 100,000 board feet, per acre, and it reports large areas of virgin forest, of which the average stand is 7,000 cubic feet peracre. It is prob- able, however, that this is much above the average of the wooded area of the islands ; still enough is known to hazard the conjecture that the average stand of 147 timber in the islands may exceed 2,0co Chibie Teck per acte. If this estimate of average stand is not excessive, the amount of timber in the archipelago is in the neighborhood of 1,000,000 million feet B. M., or more than double the amount in the States of Oregon and Washington together. The stumpage value of the above tinber to the government, at an aver- age of three cents gold per cubic foot, is not far from three billion dollars, and it is easy to foresee that when the lumber industry reaches any considerable mag- nitude the receipts from it will form no inconsiderable part of the income of the government. The islands are well supplied with streams having sufficient volume of water for floating logs. Most of these can be made good driving streams by a little work inthe way of removing snags and sandbars. It must be remembered, however, that most of the timber in the Philippines is too heavy to float, and that the logs must be buoyed by bamboo poles. It may be discovered, when log- ging operations on a large scale are in- stituted, that logging railways will be more economical than driving the logs in the streams. Logging is carried on at present on a small scale and with very primitive ap- pliances. The logs are dragged out of the woods by carabaos to the railroad or to the streams, down which they are floated by the aid of the bamboo. EXCELLENT COAL IN, ABUNDANCE Unless all indications are deceptive, the mineral wealth of the Philippine Islands is very great. Coal, of Tertiary age, of widely differing qualities, from lignite so soft and impure as to be prac- tically worthless up to that equal in steam capacity to the best Japanese coal, is found scattered widely over the archi- pelago. Indeed, there are few prov-. inces in which it has not been found. Many of the prospects which on the sur- 148 face appear almost worthless, owing to weathering, may, with depth, develop into a better quality. Gold also is very widely distributed, but thus far the veins and placers are poor and cannot be worked at a profit under present con- ditions of transportation and labor. Valuable deposits of copper and iron have been discovered, and in years past have been worked to a limited extent. Indications of asphaltum and petroleum have also been discovered, yet the min- eral production of the islands was in 1903 practically nothing. Coal is now being mined on Batan Island by the United States, which has leased a tract of coal land, for the sup- ply of the army transports. Analyses show that it equals the best Japanese coal. Some is also mined by private parties. It is altogether probable that in the near future the Philippine Islands will produce not only enough coal for their own supply, but may furnish coal for a large part of the commerce of the Pa- cific—a fact of prime importance in de- termining the course of that commerce. Gold has been mined for centuries by the Igorots in Lepanto-Bontoc and Ben- guet, both from veinsand placers. ‘The total output has been small, as both classes of deposit are of low grade, but the Igorot is contented with low wages, especially if he is working for himself. Since American occupation this moun- tain range has been prospected by Amer- icans and several hundred claims have been located. Little work has been done on them, and it is not believed that any deposits likely to prove profitable under present conditions of labor and transportation have been discovered. APPARENTLY THE ISLANDS HAVE ENOUGH GOOD IRON ORES TO BUILD UP EXTENSIVE MANUFACTORIES The deposit of iron ore in Angat and neighboring parts of Bulacan province THe NaTionaL GrocraPHIc MAGAZINE appears to be extensive and rich. The ore is hematite and magnetite, princi- pally the latter, and runs from 50 per cent to 63. per cent of metallic iron. The deposits extend over a belt 4o miles in length, varying greatly in breadth, lying on the west slope of the range which forms the eastern portion of the province. The ore was mined to a small extent during the Spanish dom- ination, but without financial success. Little prospecting of the deposits in place has been made, the ore having been taken mainly from boulders on the surface. It was smelted with charcoal in small, crude blast furnaces. This property has been examined and reported on by the mining bureau of the Insular government, and it appears prob- able that it may be made of great value to the archipelago, not only rendering it independent of the rest of the world in matter of pig iron, but it may build up extensive manufactories of iron and steel in these islands. AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS The most important commercial prod- uct of the islands is abaca, or Manila hemp. This is indigenous to all prov- inces, but the fiber is unlike the hemp of other tropical countries, and is found only in the Philippine Islands. The value of the exportations of this prod- ~ uct exceeded nineteen millions of dol- lars in I902, or was two-thirds of the value of all exports. Nearly all of this material is shipped in the raw state to Europe and America for manufacture into cordage. Although a large area was devoted to the cultivation of hemp, much of the product that was exported was gathered wild. The exportation of the dried kernel of the cocoanut, known as copra, is steadily increasing, and promises to be- come of great commercial importance. The value of the exports of copra and cocoanuts for 1902 was $2,701,783. The cocoanut palm flourishes luxuriously in A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS the Philippines, and when its products are systematically harvested it is a source of unfailing revenue and profit, supplying several by-products of com- mercial value. The demand for rice throughout the archipelago far exceeds the domestic supply, and it will probably be neces- sary to continue to import it indefinitely, as the cultivation of hemp and other products is much more profitable. Itis probable that the cultivation of cacao, from which the chocolate is derived, is likely to greatly increase and become one of the principal producing products of the islands, as the cacao of the Phil- ippine Islands is superior to that grown anywhere else in the world. THE POPULATION The total population of the Philippine archipelago on March 2, 1903, was 7,635,426. Of this number 6,987,686 enjoyed a considerable degree of civil- ization, while the remainder, 647,740, consisted of wild people. There were 14,271 white, 8,135 being Americans and 42,097 yellow, of whom g2I were Japanese and 41,035 Chinese. Of the eight civilized tribes the largest is that of the Visayans, who occupy most of the Islands lying between Luzon and Mindanao, and form nearly one-half of the entire civilized population. Taga- logs occupy the provinces in the vicinity of Manila. They rank second, with a little more than one-fifth of the civilized people, and the Ilocanos rank third, with approximately one-eighth. The civilized people, with the excep tion of those of foreign birth, were prac- tically all adherents of the Catholic church, while of the peoples here classi- fied as wild a large proportion, probably inore than two-fifths, were Mohamme- dans in religion and were well known in the islands as Moros. The remaining three-fifths belonged to various tribes, differing from one another in degrees of barbarism. With the exception of - 149 the Negritos and the people of foreign birth, all the inhabitants of these islands are believed to be Malays. The people of the Malay race consti- tute most of the inhabitants of the Malay peninsula, Java, Sumatra, Borneo, Cel- ebes, and other associated islands, to- gether with the Philippines. The total number of Malays is somewhere in the neighborhood of 40,000,000, of which Over 28,000,000, or three-fourths, are found in Java, most of the remainder being in the Philippine Islands. INCREASE IN POPULATION RAPID At the beginning of the century Java had a little more than double the popula- tion of the Philippine archipelago. At the end of the century it had four times as many people. The cause of this is not easy to deter- mine So far as known, the people of Java have been quite as subject to epi- demics and diseases as the people of the Philippines, and there is no apparent reason for the more rapid growth. The average annual rate of increase of the Philippines in the last half cen- tury has exceeded that of all the coun- tries of the world, with the exception of the United States, Russia, and Japan, and has equaled that of Denmark. It was nearly three times as large as that of British India and Spain, nearly six times as large as that of France, and yet it was less than half as great as that of the United States. SURPRISING ABILITY TO READ AND WRITE Literacy among the people of the Phil- ippines means the ability to read and write in any language—English, Span- ish, or a Malay tongue. Since, in all probability, less than ro per cent of the people of the islands can speak Spanish or English, the fact is unquestionable that the majority of the people reported as literate can read and write only the native tongues. This is a result of the 150 policy of the friars, who, from motives of their own, discouraged the learning of Spanish by the natives in order that they might act as intermediaries between the people and the civil authorities, and thus retain their influence over their charges. A little less than one-third of the Filipino males of voting age are able to read and write. There were 1,161,925 males who were able to read, constituting 47 per cent of all males 10 years of age and over. In other words, nearly one-half of the males could read. The number of females able to read was 1,049,509, Or 42 per cent of all the females 10 years of age and over, a proportion considerably less than of males. Of all those who could read, males constituted 52.5 percent and females 47.5 per cent. The number of males who could both read and write was 735,564, or 29.8 per cent of the male population 10 years of age and over. The number of females who could both read and write was only a little more than one third as great, being 267,024, or only 10:7 per cent of the females 1o years of age and over. From the above it appears that, while nearly two-thirds of the males who were taught to read were taught to write, only about one-fourth of the females received an equal degree of education. Far less attention evidently has been paid to the education of women in the Philippines thantothat of men. Inthe United States, Cuba, and Porto Rico literacy, by whichis meant the ability to both read and write, was somewhat lower among females than among males— that is, a slightly larger proportion of those who were taught to read were also taught to write among males than among females—but the proportion there was only a fraction of that which prevailed in the Philippines. The number of males reported as having received superior education was 59,020, or 2.4 percent of those 10 years of age and over, and of the females ~ Tue Nationa, Geocrapuic MaGAZINE 17,607, or seven-tenths of 1 per cent. Education among males was thus nearly three and a half times as great as among females. oo ne a The most literate tribe of the prov- inces is the Pampangan, 48.4 per cent of whose males of voting age were able to read and write. Next to the Pam- pangans are the Tagalogs, with 43.1 per cent, while the lowest are the Visayans, with only 32.2 per cent. Measured by the proportion having superior educa- tion, the Tagalogs are easily first, fol- lowed by the Pangasinanes and Zamba- lans, while the Visayans are still at the foot of the column. THE FILIPINO IS AMBITIOUS TO LEARN According to Hon. W. H. Taft, Sec- retary of War and formerly Governor of the Philippine Islands, the ‘‘ go per cent of the Christian Filipinos who do not speak Spanish are really Christians. They are capable of education, and they have no caste orarbitrary customs which prevent their development along the lines of Christian civilization. They are merely ina state of Christian pupil- age; they are imitative; they are/elad to be educated, glad to study some lan- guage other than their own, and glad to follow European and American ideals. They differ utterly in these respects from the East Indians, from the Malays of Java, and the Malays of the Straits Set- tlements, and thus make our problem different from and vastly easier than that of England and Holland.’’ EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES At the date of the census there were 2,962 schools in the archipelago, an aver- age of three for each municipality. Of these, 55 per cent were pubiic, about 33 per cent were private, and the remainder were under the control of the Roman Catholic Church. Of the total enroll- ment 6 per cent were reported for the primary schools. ‘There are but two institutions devoted to higher education. ‘( ACR'REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS Five per cent of the civilized population of the Philippine Islands are enrolled in the schools. ‘This‘proportion is only a little over one-fourth of that for the United States, but it represents practi- cally a two years’ growth,'as the school system may be said to have commenced with American occupation. One-sixth of all children of school age are enrolled, and three-fourths of that number are in the public schools. ‘The attendance is 62.5 per cent of the enrollment as com- pared with 70 per cent in the United States. Boys constitute three-fifths of the pupils in the Philippines, while in the United States the schools are almost equally divided as tosex. Six thousand teachers are employed, four-fifths of whom are Filipinos receiving an aver- age annual salary of $125.02. The average public-school teacher has charge of 73 pupils, while in the United States the number is 36. Of the 3,461 school buildings, the majority of which are public, approximately one-third are built of durable materials. There is great need of additional school facilities and better buildings and equipment, and there is a general demand for an increase ‘in the number of American teachers. THE USE OF ENGLISH IN THE SCHOOLS Although the study of English has met with some opposition, this opposi- tion isdiminishing. Eleven per cent of the pupils throughout the archipelago are reported as understanding the lan- guage, and this may be regarded as very satisfactory progress for the short space of two years. In Manila there are 21 night schools, with an enrollment of more than 4,000 adults, who are en- gaged in acquiring the English lan- guage. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1903, about $1,500,000 were expended for educational purposes.* * See “ Educating the Filipinos.” NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, January, 1905, pp. 46-49. 7 I51 DENSITY OF POPULATION The density of population of the isl- ands, as a whole, was 67 per square mile; that of Java'was not less than 553, or more than eight times as great ; that of the main body of the United States was 26,,and that of, the State of. Indiana, which most nearly approached that of the Philippines, was 70 per square mile. The most densely populated of the provinces, Ilocos Sur (on the west cen- tral coast of Luzon), had 398 inhabitants to asquare mile. This was slightly ex- ceeded by Rhode Island among the States, with 407, but in turn it exceeded Massachusetts, the second most densely populated, which had 349. Near this state in density were Cebu, with 337, and Pangasinan, with 334, to a square mile. These three were the only prov- inces with more than 300 inhabitants to a square mile. Luzon is the largest island, with an area of more than 35 per cent of the whole archipelago and a population almost exactly one-half that of all. Min- danao, the second in rank, has an area of 31 percent of that of the archipelago, while its population was only 7 per cent. These two islands together contain two- thirds of the area and 56 per cent of all the people. Asa rule, the density increases as the size of the island diminishes. This is due to the fact that the population in large part is a seaboard population, no less than 65 per cent of it living in mu- nicipalities bordering on the coast. Per- haps a fairer measure of the density of the population throughout a large part of the archipelago at least would be to divide the population by the length of thecoast line. Nearly two-thirds of the Christian population, 65 per cent, live on or near the seacoast, and 35 percent live inland. THE PEOPLE LIVE IN VILLAGES There are in the Philippine Islands about 13,400 barrios, which may be re- 162 garded as the equivalent of villages. The average size of a barrio or village in the Philippine Islands is 500 people. CHARACTER OF THE HOUSES The streets, as a rule, are not paved, and the roads generally are in poor con- dition, especially in the rainy season. For potable water, except in Manila, reliance is placed on wells and cisterns, and very little attention has ever been paidtosanitation. The houses of people of means are built of stone, brick, or wood, and their homes are provided with all available comforts. But it is safe to say that nine-tenths of the houses in the Philippines are built of bamboo, thatched with nipa, cogon, or other grasses, and are admirably adapted to the climate and to the condition of the occupants. Owing to their long subjugation to friar and civil power, all parts of the islands have received a similar grade of culture. A town in the Cagayan Val- ley presents the same style of architect- ure, the same surrounding barrios, has the same kind of stores and similarly dressed people as a Christian munici- pality on the Island of Mindanao. In spite, however, of these facts the popu- lation has remained separated into prac- tically the original tribes or groups, each speaking a different idiom and feel- ing strongly its separateness from the other. THE TRIBES DO NOT MIX WITH EACH OTHER An examination of the map showing the distribution of the tribes or peoples of the Philippine Islands shows that, generally speaking, the various tribes have kept very closely to themselves. To show how elosely, it may be said that, after eliminating from considera- tion the municipalities in the provinces of Benguet and Lepanto-Bontoc and those of the comandancias, in 179 mu- nicipalities every male 21 years and over was of one Christian tribe, while 94 Tue NaTIoNnAL GeocrAPHic MAGAZINE towns contained only one person differ- ent from the prevailing tribe. In 620 municipalities, or nearly two-thirds of all, at least 99 per cent of the men were of one tribe, and in 820 at least 90 per cent were of one tribe. There is one tribe, and one only, which seems to possess a migratory, col- onizing disposition ; that is the Ilocano, and even they, whenever they have in- vaded the territory of other tribes, have mixed with them very little, forming villages by themselves. THE AVERAGE AGE OF THE FILIPINO Of the total native population of 6,931,548, 3,443,816 were males and 3,487,732 were females, the proportions between the sexes being 49.7 per cent males and 50.3 per cent females. The average age of the people of the Philippine Islands is 23.9 years. This is 2.4 years less than the average age of the people of the United States, which is 26.3 years, and is greater than that of the negroes in the United States, 23.2 years. The average age of the brown people in the Philippines was 23.8 years, a trifle less than that of the total population. The average age of the Chinese was 33.4 years, much less than that of the same people in the United States, which was 40 years. The average age of the white people in the Philippines was 30.3 years. THE FILIPINO FAMILY Although the Filipino families have been diminished in size by insurrections and cholera, the average family consists of 4.7 persons, and this is still about equal to that of the United States. The largest families are found among the Cagayan and Visayan tribes, and the smallest among the Ilocanos. About one-sixth of the population is comprised in families of 5 members. Families of 8, 9, and 10 persons form in each case a smaller proportion of the population than do families of similar size in the United States, Porto Rico, and Cuba ; ie 2 = PRSEiorwansmcencens SOME SUPERVI Gov. Porr balan), C OR 1ANO Lesaca, Province of Zambales (Zam- Gov. Francisco Dicuoso, Province of Isabela (Caga- yan). Gov. GRaAz10 Gonzaca, Province of Cagayan (Cagayan). Gov. Junio Agcaoti, Province of Ilocos Norte (Llo- eano). x : r Gov. Juan Vinuamor, Province of Abra (Ilocano). (15 oa LILY TOLLE ADOT © OF THE CENSUS. 6. Gov. Mena Crisotoao, Province of Ilocos Sur(Ilocano). 7. Gov. CEFERINO JOVEN, Province of Pampanga (Pam- pangan). 8. Gov. Macario FAvina, Province of Pangasinan (Pan- gasinan). 9. Gov. BERNARDINO Monreat, Province of Sorsogoén (Bicol). ) ’ *(SONVOOTIL) NOINO WI JO AONIAOUd “‘SALNACISHUd CNV VOULAO AOSIANYAdAS-AOD csi Ss Se eiaid iotascisstee cs ges atm ma SOD eS dD ibaa ; : Rete ere ors ACRE IG gence : ; : é ‘ a ae PRLS RAT Se eS TREEE SCORE PERSO y i i ; \ i i : | ( 154 ) iii PLESSIS . ( SDO r ly OWL ) OV TayL AO ch ) NI AOU d ‘ iG ILNAGISdud GNV SOWVHY WOSIAYUdNS-AOD ‘(SLOWODI) DOLNOG-OL VdadT AO FWONIAOUd ‘SUOLVYAWOAN,. ( 156 ) ‘GH1IS HLIIM OVAVUYVO ‘GC “LaVO TTOd da THHHM -N AGOOM TVOIUAL ‘F “AVYNVd dO TINA DNILLOUL “¢ cis “LAMY VW OL TLHYNOU SV Hadld dWaH = G “SSLUVO OVEVUVD ‘T (a5 7) < hae Ne Ss ALOG RATORS, PROVINCE OF LA LAGUNA (TAG (158 ) A ob ENUMI CENSUS % LRQA SS SSS 1, 5. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. ‘1. MAGUINDANAO MORO—WIFE OF CHIEF ALI. 2. MORO WOMEN OF UPPER CLASS, ZAMBOANGA. 3. DATO AND BRIDE. 4. MOROS OF LAKE LANAO, MINDANAO, 5. JOLO MORO, ADULT MALE. (159) OILSIUALOVUVHO ‘SOUOW TVNYS ‘§ ‘OUOW NVYMNVA 9 ‘OUOW OVNVIVA ‘G “VONVORNVZ AO OUOW IVWYS “F ‘ssaud ‘SSVUIOO GNY LAWIATH SSVUA NI YOIMUVM OUONW TINONVS *G “ODNOUVS AHL ONIYVAM AO AVM ANO SNIMOHS OMOW “T ( 160 ) ‘OVNVGNIMW JO ANVISI ‘SOdODVA ( 161 ) 1. IGOROT GIRL, SHOWING METHOD OF STRETCHID HAIR BOUND UP WITH GRASS dD. IGOROT WARRIOR IN HIS PRIME. 1, 3, 4, 5. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. G HOLE IN LOBE OF EAR. 2. IGOROT WOMAN. CHAPLET. 3. IGOROT BOY. 4. IGOROT FATHER AND DAUGHTER. ( 162 ) peette ee ee ETE NETE COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER, TINGUIANES.—1. GIRL SPINNING. 2. YOUNG WOMAN IN TYPICAL DRESS. 4. GIRL OPERATING COTTON GIN. ( 163 ) 3. WOMAN AND CHILD. WRASSE OR OES SERRE ss — BENS LES EES SAR ee ROW SASS BAW —t——=—=—=—=———ae COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. fe & Z, e Oy 3 4 é Ss e Z. 5 ce A = Ss q S 2 S S _— an) Z < = o = S Z i=) o g se o ido} i ° < 4 fe) “al <4 _ I iS IGOROT. 2. OSTUME. ( 164 ) MAYOYAO IGOROT, ‘‘HEADMAN’”’ OF BANAUFE 1 1 FERN-LEAF C IGOROT GIRL IN 4. BONTOC. swkemsersstase Drassiispibsas eiipitiie® eee ee £ | _ . COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. 1. NATIVE WOMAN WITH NEGRITO BLOOD (REMONTADO). 2. (REMONTADO). 4. NATIVE MAN WITH 6. WOMAN (GADDAN),. YOUNG MAN (REMONTADO). NEGRITO BLOOD (REMONTADO). 3. GIRL 5. GIRL (GADDAN). ( 165 ) ‘VIAAVSI AO AONIAONd ‘LSHYO AHL NI SOLIMDAN “G “HLATL GATTI DNIMOHS OLIVDAN ‘P ‘SHTIVANVZ JO AONIAOU ‘SOLIMDAN AO dNOUD ‘G “ATHLANOL OOMNVA AO SHOAIA OML DNIAGTOAU Ad Gud ONIMVW SOLIMDAN °% “NYWOM OLIYDAN "daLSSOHOM *O NWAd SO NOILOS1INIOO ‘pb ‘a ‘Lb DNNOA ( 166 ) ‘SINVSIW AO AONIAOUd ‘SASALNOMW ‘G “YdLSAOYOM *O NV3G 4O NOILOSINIOO ‘2 ‘1 Orcs SN ia ‘OHUOGNIW AO AONTAOUd ‘NVADNVIN 'F BERENS Rs 6 Pes eese Bo “OUOUGCNIW AO SNVAONVIW SU ORAIINS HO d Now 9 °§ ‘OVAYd dO ViL¥ Y & . ae e : s — Go ‘OLVAVELLOO LY YAO qd AVUYOYIL ( 167 ) GQaHYaDSINLNO *G “VINIA OUOW ‘fF ‘NOZQOT ‘AVE AG VNOOVT ‘aLAGT GNV AVNVd AO LAVHO DNITIVS ‘AHOOIULNO MOLLS-ATIONIS ‘'€ “ARUL AIONIS V AO DOT AHL Woddt aadVW SHONVO °% “OOSVO V ONITOd ‘T —- ice) \O 1! ~~" OUON °C ‘OtTor LY VINIA OYOW ‘fF ‘DNINMV GAHOLVHL HII ‘SVAVSIA ‘LUVHO ONI'TIVS '§ ‘NOZOT ‘AVA AGC YN M Wo NOWT NI I ‘ad a DOLHL 10 GHLSVW-d THO od G "dQOUD TOdVL UAAIC OHOKW ‘fT ( 169 ) 7 OE ea “‘dNONOWUOMOVE AHL NI SLVOU ONIHSIA AO LADIA HLIM ‘ONIHSIA ANIGS ‘§ ‘HOVAM AHL LY HOLVO AHL ONITTAS ‘*%Z “LAN dOOOS V HLIM JAYAS AHL NI ONIHSIM ‘T GOR sae “oR RRR SSS N ILSVO WoO NOILISOd NI LAN “LAVU La a7 “dH AIY DIS¥d AO HLOOW ‘SHIAM HsId ‘“¢ LAVY La AHL N O ddl i I = G “HOLVOD YOu N PORCH Bs EEE OS, OILISOd I SLON H 8 I A (ei “AHDOIALAO MOILS-ATONIS “fF “VAVOZIA VAHON AO HONIAOUd ‘UHAIN LVOVA AHL NO LAVY WAONASSVd ‘¢ ANIddITIHd AHL AO YALHOIT NOWWOOD HHL UO ‘SHOOSVO G ‘LYVOd ALVUld OHOKM ATO ‘T (172) “TTIW ONIMYVS ONIdITIH “§ “WII VA DNIMVNGdOU *G ‘OVEAVUVO HLIA SYOT DONITOAVH ‘T PAR Sty “VAVOZIA VAGTON—LAVY NO HAAIY LYOVW ONIGNGOSAC °G "NOTHHOU JO AOVITIA “F ‘NyOVTNd ‘(SOOTYDVL) DVAIIVG NI IUAULS “g ‘HAS SOOOTI ‘NVOIA dO dV) THL ‘*Z ‘TADAGCNIUVN ‘OVOE ‘AOVTTIA ONIGITIA TVOIUAL ‘T “WYNLAd *Y “DS 4O NOILO3Z1100 (174) GaZITIAIO dO TUALOALIHOUV “HAN LONULS VdIN ANIA AO WIAWV Xe GHAILVN C4XIW '§ ‘“SHAVIS ANV ATdOUd NONWO b “MYUOMANVY A NGAadO0OM @ 9 40 ASQOH OOPWVA-LITdS OUON °Z TV AUALONULSANS v 7LYOW GNV ANOLS ‘SaaIUL @ ‘OVNVGNIW ‘OLVAYLLOO ‘AGNVUD OH NO SUSNOH OUON ‘T C175.) 1. GADDAN TREE HOUSE. » PADANGITA pee COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. A DWELLING OF THE MAMANUAS. 3. TINGUIAN HOUSE AT A FEAST IN PROGRESS. ( 176 ) 5. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER. MAYON VOLCANO, 2. MAGELLAN MONUMENT, ISLAND OF MACTAN, ERECTED ( THE SPOT WHERE HE WAS KILLED. 38. GIANT FOREST TREE OF MINDANAO, SHOWING NAT- URAL BUTTRESSES OF TRUNK. 4. BURI PALM. 5, TREE FERN, PROVINCE OF BENGUET. 6. MORO WATCHTOWER, DUMAGUETE, NEGROS ORIENTAL. 7, NATIVE BOAT (x77) ‘AV@1IV LY HOUNHO “F ‘VIINVH ‘HOUNHO VWOT Ad ‘9 “ANOAGNIYVNW ‘OVOd LV HOUNHO GAMILYOd ‘¢ ‘AVATV ‘WIINVA ‘ALIO GCUTIVM ‘SOLATOOUN AHL AO HOUNHO @ ‘WIINVAW ‘ALIO GHTIVM ‘HOUNHO NVINILSADNY pe SSSR ON ENERO RTE SAAR PORTANT G “VIINVA ‘ALVIVW LV HOUNHO ‘Tt AOSTA SA (178 ) CHONGOULINI ATINGAOWY “LNVW’ @HL DNIMOHS ‘ANVO UVD aS ‘fF Id HOVAOK YO ‘ALNISOAL “ONIWONO YON ,,SANVH,, “WIINVW ‘GYOLTOOISY AO AVANYAd AHL AW SANIddITIHd WHL OLNI ‘9 “UNVO UVOOS AHL dO DOIN’! AHL ONILOVYLXY HO GOHLAW AGAYO “GC “HIMOUY SNOTYNAXAT NI GHONVUUV SHAVET OOOVAEOL “"§ “VWIHAVSI GNV NVAVOVO AO SHONIAOUd ‘SATHIA OOOVAOL * fd 6 ‘ I (179 ) ‘ONIMVALIVS “§ ‘dOHS HLINSMOVIE *% “NQZOT ‘FONIAOUd LANDON ‘SNIWA ZLUVOS GIOD NO STUNNOL "T “— e) (ee) = wn” “SHTLSHd NHGOOM HLIM YUVLYOW NAGOOM NI @ JId ONITIOH ‘@ “HOTU ONITTOH “"G “GOIN DNIINVW1d ‘fF ‘ANVH Ad GOIN ONIMONNIM HOA TIN “> G “SHNOLS NO SHUAVGUHS ONILVAE Ad aOld ONIHSHYHL ‘1 q ( 181 ) or Vii sal ra 8 yi ‘ : ai ee ¢ 1. FILIPINOS MAKING ROPE. 2. ILOCANOS SPINNING COTTON, LUZON. 3. PRIMITIVE LOOM OF THE ILOCANOS, LUZON. ( 182 ) a 1. CLIMBING THE COCONUT PALM FOR TUBA. 2. HUSKING AND SPLITTING COCONUTS FOR COPRA. s 3. COCONUT TREE AND FRUIT. ( 183 ) ee | SASS seer cerns iuatmrormsrseeie SR LS AEROS BER 1. COLLECTION OF DEAN C. WORCESTER, 1. COFFEE PLANT, SHOWING THE REMARKABLE LUXURIANCE OF THE GROWTH. 2. STRIPPING ABACA (HEMP). 38. THE ABACA, OR ‘‘MANILA HEMP,’’ PLANT. 4. CACAO TREE, SHOWING FRUIT AT MATURITY. 5, FINE SAMPLES OF MANILA HEMP, BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE, MANILA. ( 184 ) A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS this indicates that, although the propor- tion of population under 201s unusually large in the Philippines, large families are hot as numerous there as in other . countries. PROPORTION OF BABIES The population under 1 year of age numbered 167,905. This was 2.4 per cent of the total population. For com- parison we have a similar proportion in Porto Rico of 2.7 percent ; inthe United States, 2.5 per cent, and in Cuba, 1.5 per cent. ‘The low proportion in Cuba was supposed to be due to the disturbed con- ditions in the island prior to the taking of the census. Similar causes doubtless accounted for the small proportion of this class in the Philippines. The children under 5 years numbered 1,054,096, which was 15.1 per cent of the total population. The same class in the United States formed 12.1 per cent ; ia Perto Rico, 15,8 per cent, and in Cuba, 8.3 per cent. The number under 1o years of age was 2,014,160, or 28.8 per cent of the total population. The same class in the United States formed 23.8 per cent; in Porto Rico, 30.9 per cent, and in Cuba, @2.7 per cent. The number of children between 5 and 17—that is, of school age—was Be0e7 5307, Of 30. 6 per cent of the popu- lation. The proportion of school chil- dren in Porto Rico was 32.8 per cent, a little greater, while, on the other hand, that in the United States was 28.3 per cent, or slightly less. PROPORTION OF ADULTS Persons between 20 and 29 were in smaller proportions in the Philippines than in either the United States, Cuba, or Porto Rico. Between 30 and 39 years, 40 and 4g, and 50 and 59 there were larger proportions in the Philip- pine Islands than in Porto Rico, but smaller proportions than in either the United Statesor Cuba. Between 60 and 185 69 the proportion was greater than in Cuba or in Porto Rico, but less than in the United States. Between 80 and 89 and at more advanced ages the propor- tions in the Philippine Islands exceeded those of either of the three countries used in comparison. In the Philippine Islands no fewer than 3,553 persons were reported as being more than too years of age. Itis not probable that a Filipino ever reached that age, orthat many have exceeded the age of 80 years. To test the question, several hundred of these cases of reported great age were returned to the supervis- ors of the census with instructions to have the cases investigated thoroughly, and, if possible, the ages verified by ref- erence to the baptismal certificates. Owing to the destruction of records dur- ing the recent insurrection, it was possi- ble to obtain this evidence in only a very few cases, but in every such case the re- ported age was reduced greatly. The average reduction in all such cases was from 106 years to 83 years—that is to say, the true age was about four-fifths the reported age. ‘THE MARRIED STATE Of the total male population of the Philippines 58.6 per cent were reported as single, and of the female 54.1 per cent. These proportions also were slightly less than in the United States, which were for males 60.6 per cent and for females 55.1 per cent. As in Cuba and Porto Rico, the mar- ried may be divided into two classes, those legally married and those living together by mutual consent, or, as they will be spoken of hereafter, consensually married. The legally married num- bered 2,314,583, constituting 33.1 per cent of the entire population, a propor- tion somewhat less than the United States, where it was 36.5 per cent. It formed a strong contrast with the pro- portion in Cuba, which was only 15.7 per cent, or less than half as great a 186 proportion. The number consensually married was 233,670, forming only 3.3 per cent of the population. This class was in the Philippines much smaller proportionally than in Cuba, where it formed no less than 8.4 per cent of the population. Adding together the le- gally and consensually married, the pro- portion of all married persons in the Philippines became 36.4 per cent of the population, or about the same as in the United States, while in Cuba the le- gally and consensually married together formed only 24.1 per cent of the popula- tion. The proportion of married in the Phil- ippines, including those legally and consensually united, is greater than in Japan, Germany, Austria, Canada, Mex- ico, Switzerland, United Kingdom, Ar- gentina, Cuba, and Porto Rico, but less than in British India, where infant mar- riages are so prevalent, and in the United States. It is rather extraordinary that seven-tenths of all the prostitutes re- ported in the islands were from foreign lands, which speaks volumes for the chastity of the Filipinos. THE WORKERS The occupations of the Filipinos are few in number and present little variety. There is little cooperative work, very little use of machines, and little special- ization of function. A majority of the male Filipinos farm on a small scale, those living near the coast alternating that occupation with fishing. Most of the women who were returned as having occupations were spinners and weavers, weaving in their homes on hand looms the beautiful, delicate 7usz, prima, and sinamay. They weave also hats and mats of the finest quality, all this work being done in a small way as a household occupation, alternating with the duties of housekeeping. With this introduction the reader will be prepared for the statement that a large proportion of the people, much larger Tue NationaL GgeocrapHic MaGAZINE than in the United States or in almost any other country, were reported as en- gaged in gainful occupations. Indeed, out of a civilized population of 6,987,686 in the Philippine Islands no less than 3,037,880, or 43.5 per cent, were in this class, as compared with 36.3 per cent in the United States, 33.1 per cent in Porto Rico, and 39.6 per cent in Cuba. THE SURPRISING NUMBER OF WOMEN WORKERS This excessive proportion was, how- ever, due to the large number of women workers, namely 1,025,287, as is shown by the following table, in which the pro- portions of wage-earners among the males and the females are given for the above four countries : Country. Male. | Female. Philippine Islands 32.3 57.6 29.4 United States’... tie aan ee 58.7 12.8 Porto: Rito: zie ct eee 56.9 9.9 CulbacocG fone eee 68.2 8.8 From the above table it appears that the proportion of women engaged in gainful occupations in the Philippines was more than double that of the United States, three times that of Porto Rico, and more than three times that of Cuba, while the proportion of working males was about equal to that in the United States and Porto Rico and less than in Cuba. This remarkable showing is in part explained by the fact that a large pro- portion of the women assist in supply- ing the family exchequer by spinning and weaving and to a less extent by working in the fields. Persons not engaged in gainful occu- pations include women engaged in housework, children at school, and other dependents. Farmers and farm laborers constitute more than two-fifths of all who are en- pines, A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS gaged in gainful occupations. A much smaller proportion are engaged in manu- facturing and mechanical pursuits, while the number in professional service is exceedingly small, forming less than one per cent of the entire number gain- fully employed. Among the Filipinos themselves there ace. 1 326 physicians, 676 priests, and G27 lawyers. Nearly one-half of the Chinese wage-earners are merchants or salesmen. Of the foreign or white pop- ulation a small proportion is engaged in agriculture, but most of them are found in the trades and professions. The following table shows the pro- portion of the wage-earners in each age group to the total population, and with it, for comparison, corresponding fig- ures fram the census of 1899 for Cuba and Porto Rico. oe Porto Age period. lepine "Cuba. Race Islands. ; MeOMe@ FA years......... 16.8 24.6 | 22.4 MskO) 24 Years -....... 66.9 ie tee (acy ete) By ro 34 years...... | Mod 58.5 | 54.3 me tO.44 years......... 74.3 60.4 | 56.9 Wako 54 yeats..... ... ead za5 60.3. 55.4 mye O4 years... ....| 65.8 59.57) 53.2 G5.yeats and over......|- 427 Beton addins EXCESS OF BIRTHS OVER DEATHS a LARGE The average excess of births over deaths in the Philippine Islands for the last 25 years is 8.8 per thousand, but excluding the cholera years (1879, 1889, and 1890), when the death rate exceeded the birth rate, it was 17 per thousand per year. This is higher than that of the United Kingdom, Sweden, Nor- way, Japan, Italy, and Germany, but slightly less than that of the United States. Itis many timesthat of France and Ireland and double that of Switzer- land. Yet with this great excess of births over deaths, the population has 187 not increased rapidly. It has taken nearly sixty years to double in number, and is now only four times as great as at the beginning of the century, while in that time the population of the United States has multiplied fifteen times. The cause for this is the epidemics, such as cholera, plague, and smallpox, especially the first, which periodically sweep over the islands and ina single year wipe out the gains of the preceding two or three years. Sothe population has grown by a series of regular and rather rapid ac- cretions, succeeded by sudden and great losses. Thus the cholera epidemic of 1879 must have destroyed 400,000 lives, equivalent, approximately, to the nor- mal increase in three years. ‘The chol- era epidemic of 188 9 and 1890 was not so severe, its victims numbering in the two years about 260,000, while that of the year 1902 must have destroyed over 200,000 people. The death rate for the year 1902, 63.3 per thousand, was just about double the normal, and was in large part due to the prevalence of cholera. Other things, such as the loss of crops through locusts, the loss of carabao, and the after effects of the insurrection, by which the consti- tutions of those affected by it were un- dermined, through hardship, exposure, and want of food, probably contributed. TERE; CAUSH OF DEATH The smallest proportion of deaths oc- curred in the cool season (November to February). Inthe warm season (March fo June) there occurred 28.4 per'cent, and in the wet season (July to October) not less than 47.1 per cent. Of all the deaths that occurred in the Philippine Islands in the year rgo02, 311 out of every thousand, or nearly one- third, were caused by Asiatic cholera. The large death rate from this source may be regarded as extraordinary. It was not so, however, with the fatality from malarial fevers, which are always prevalent in the islands, and probably 188 little more so during this year than in preceding years. ‘The deaths from this cause constituted 26.8 percent of all the deaths, or somewhat more than one- . fourth. ‘These two causes, cholera and malarial fevers, caused nearly three- fifths of all deaths. Dysentery and diarrhea together caused 69 out of each thousand deaths, and was third in rank of fatality. ‘The fourth disease in fa- tality was tuberculosis, whose victims numbered 66 out of every thousand, and the victims of smallpox, which raged in many parts of the islands during the year, were nearly as numerous, num- bering 34 out of each thousand. victims of beri-beri, a disease which is peculiar to the brown and yellow people, due probably to insufficient nutrition, numbered 13 out of every thousand, and diseases of the stomach caused 12 deaths > per thousand. No other disease caused as much as 1 per cent of all the deaths. Puerperal septicemia, bronchitis, ty- phoid fever, diphtheria, croup, and meningitis each had a few victims, but in each case less than 1 per cent. CONTRAST WITH THE UNITED STATES These figures are in strong contrast with those which prevail in the United States. In that country the most fatal of all diseases is commonly tuberculosis, which is usually credited with a little over one-tenth of the deaths. Nextto that is pneumonia, in a nearly equal pro- portion. This latter is well-nigh un- known in the Philippines, its victims numbering in 1902 only one in a thou- sand of the deaths. é , In the United States dysentery and diarrhea together carried off about 4.4 per cent, only two-thirds the proportion in the Philippines, which was 6.9 per cent, while heart disease, which is al- most unknown in the Philippines, caused 6.7 per cent of all deaths in the United States. Typhoid fever is vastly more prevalent and deadly in the United States than in the Philippines, its vic- The . THe NaTionaL GrocraPHic MacGaZzINE tims numbering 3.4 per cent of all deaths in the United States, while in the archi- pelago the number was trifling. It is much the same with meningitis, which in the United States carried off 2.5 per cent. Malarial fevers, prevalent as they are in some parts of the United States, are seldom fatal there, only 1.4 per cent of all the deaths being due to this cause. Kidney diseases, old age, apoplexy, and many other diseases which claim numer- ous victims in the United States were either unknown in the Philippines or claimed very few victims. THE AVERAGE FILIPINO FARM IS VERY SMALL Nearly half the parcels of occupied lands are less than one hectar (2.471 acres) in size, while thousands of tracts, one-fifth of the total number, contain less than 1,075 square feet. Thesesmall parcels of land, many of them no larger than ordinary kitchen gardens in the United States, are resided upon by, cul- tivated by, and contribute materially to the subsistence of their owners or oc- cupants, and the presentation of agri- cultural statistics for the Philippines would be extremely faulty and incom- plete were they not included. The people of the Philippines are ex- tremely gregarious ; the isolated farm- house, so familiar in rural sections throughout the United States, is practi- cally unknown in these islands, whose inhabitants almost universally live in communities and largely subsist on such products of the soil as can be cultivated or gathered from wild growths in the immediate vicinity of their dwelling places. This custom of herding together is not due alone to the social, company-lc ving disposition of the people. It has been rendered necessary by the ladronism and the raids of Moros that prevailed throughout the islands for centuries. This has been one of the greatest ob- stacles in the way of agricultural de- A. REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS velopment and is in a large degree the cause of the numerous small land hold- ings. Another reason is the great pro- ductiveness of the soil and the variety of crops that can be raised ona small piece of land. The average size of all farms in the Philippines is only 346.8 ares—equiva- lent to 8.57 acres. Inthe United States the average size of all farms is shown by the census of 1900 to have been 146.6 acres, making a ratio as to size of about =7 £01. VAST EXTENT OF UNUSED LAND The spaces of land between their vil- lages are as a rule unpopulated, and these intervening tracts, frequently of great extent, are almost wholly uncultt- vated and practically unused, except in a limited way for grazing purposes or in the utilization of such wild growths of fruits, vegetables, or fiber plants as they produce. MOST OF THE FARMERS OWN THE LAND In the archipelago, as a whole, by far the largest proportion of the 815,453 Christian farmers own the land they cultivate, while tenants who pay a share of products as rental come next in order numerically ; tenants who pay their rent in cash, while not comparatively numer- ous, exceed the combined numbers of those who are designated as ‘‘labor ten- ants’’ and the occupants of land who pay no rent. A comparison of the Philippine statis- tics relating to tenure with those given in the United States census reports for 1900 shows that the percentage of own- ers is much larger in the islands than in the United States. More than four-fifths (80.8 per cent) of Philippine farms are cultivated by their owners. The great majority of individual holdings, regardless of ten- ure, are of small areas—88.9 per cent containing less than 5 hectares, 70.4 189 per cent less than 2, 49.8 per cent less than 1, and 21.7 per cent less than 0.35 of a hectare. PAUPERISM UNKNOWN Pauperism is almost unknown among the people of the islands, their wants being few and easily supplied. Little clothing is required, and the simple food upon which the masses of the people subsist, consisting mainly of rice, fruit, and fish, can, asa rule, be had with little exertion. The few who, from old age or accident, are unable to provide these necessaries for themselves are usually taken care of by relatives or friends. The total number of paupers in the archipelago, exclusive of Manila, on De- cember 31, 1902, was but 478, or less than I in each 10,000 of the inhabitants. This may be contrasted with the corre- sponding proportion in the United States, 112, L2-Ner 1O),O00, PROPORTION OF CRIMINALS SMALL The number of criminals in confine- ment December 31, 1902, in the Philip- pines was less than 8 in each 10,000 of population. In the United States in 1890 there were about 13 in each 10,000 of the inhabitants. Considering the un- settled condition of affairs in the island during the six years prior to the census, the showing is not only favorable, but remarkable, and indicates that the Fili- pinos as a race are not especially dis- posed toward crime. The most common crimes are ladron- ism, theft, assault, and murder. ‘The causes are traceable to the ravages of the war, to the poverty and unrest which followed, accentuated by the subsequent failure of crops and loss of farm ani- mals. Inthe majority of the provinces crime is said to be decreasing. In most of the provinces reporting, the convicts are employed on public work, such as the building and repair- ing of roads and bridges. Ina few of the provinces it has not been found ex- 190 pedient todo this, and they are employed in the prison in petty manufactures, such as making chairs, baskets, hats, rope, etc. THEY ARE PROVING THEMSELVES GOOD WORKMEN A report made to Governor Taft No- vember 4, 1902, by J. B. Aleshire, major and quartermaster, United States Army, in charge of army transport service at Manila, clearly demonstrates the avail- ability of native labor and strongly re- futes the frequently expressed idea that such labor cannot be profitably em- ployed. His report shows that upward of 1,800 Filipino laborers, skilled and unskilled, were on the pay-rolls of the Quartermaster’s Department, a large proportion of whom were given regular and almost continuous employment. About 450 of the employees were en- gaged as launch and lighter officers and crews and were rated as unskilled, hav- ing been principally engaged in the handling of coal, freight, baggage, forage, etc. Major Aleshire says: ““Chinese labor was formerly employed for the handling of coal, but has been abandoned and replaced by Filipino labor, which by practical tests during several months averaged more tons per day per man and at a much lower rate per ton. ‘“The attendance of the Filipino la- borer has been and is excellent. They do not absent themselves after Sundays, holidays, or fiestas, nor during such days should they be notified in advance they will be required to work. Their physical strength is much improved, and they are capable of doing as much and as hard work as any laborer we have in the orient.’’ Governor Taft, in referring to the labor question in an address at Manila, said : ‘‘T know the disposition of most Americans here is to open the doors and let in the Chinese, sothat we may have THe NaTIonaL GEeoGrRaPHic MAGAZINE Chinese cheap labor in the islands, but I am emphatically opposed to the gen- eral policy of admitting the Chinese, first, because the Filipinos have the strongest opinion that it will be for their detriment, and, second, because I believe the history of the Straits Settlements shows that it will not be for their pros- perity as distinguished from the material prosperity of the islands. I am opposed to admitting any Chinese labor until it shall be made to appear that the great works of construction which are essen- tial in the islands cannot be carried on satisfactorily with Filipino labor.”’ The rates of wages which have pre- vailed since American occupation, while low as compared with wages in the United States, have been substantially double those paid under Spanish do- minion. THE FILIPINO IS A NATURAL-BORN FISHERMAN Fish forms one of the principal items of food of the Filipino people, and a large proportion of the people are fisher- men. Fish are caught by various devices. In favorable situations the shores are lined in the shallow waters with traps, weirs, or corrals butlt of bamboo, and in them a large part of the catch is made. Nets and seines of various pat- terns are also extensively used, as well as the ordinary hook and line, and in some localities the spear. The markets of Manila are always bountifully supplied with fresh fish of many varieties and of fine flavor, and the fisheries in the vicinity which supply the city are said to be highly remunerative. The same is true at other centers of pop- ulation throughout the Philippines. _ It appears from the statements of the supervisors that about nine-tenths of the people of the islands use fish as their. principal flesh diet. The average family consumes in the neighborhood of 800 pounds of fish per annum. A REVELATION OF THE FILIPINOS The total annual consumption of fish in the islands approximates half a mill- ion long tons. In this industry there are employed, during a part or all of their time, the estimated number of II19,000 persons and 28,000 boats. PEARL. FISHERIES Fishing for mother - of - pearl shells, and incidentally for pearls, is carried on to some extent in the waters of the Sulu archipelago. The instruments used in this industry are, for the most part, crude and of small effectiveness, though there are a few shell-fishing out- fits equipped with modern diving appa- ratus—helmet, waterproof suit, pump, etc. ‘The shells are plentiful and valu- able, and pearls are frequently found, sometimes very fine ones of high value. The industry is said to be extremely profitable, and is believed to be capable of great enlargement. The investment of comparatively small capital will, it is said, yield large returns under intelli- gent and businesslike management. Captain H. R. Hickock, United States Army, the supervisor of census for the district of Siassi, gives the following in- teresting account of Moro fishing for sharks, sea worms, shells, and pearls in the southern seas : ‘‘All of the Moros are fishermen toa greater or lessextent. Shark fishing is done by trolling in deep water with about 40 or 50 feet of line. Aftera shark is hooked he is first tired out and then drawn up to the boat and killed with a spear. The tails and fins are then cut off and traded to the Chinos, by whom they are then shipped to China. ‘The tail and fins of a shark will aver- age about Io pounds in weight. The Chino traders recognize two grades of this article, for which they pay 45 and 125 pesos respectively per picul of 137 pounds. ““Sea worms, which are muscular, gelatinous animals, living attached to ro. rocks at a depth of water of 6, 8, or 10 feet, are also secured by the Moros and sold to the Chinos, who recognize ten classes, for which they pay from 8 to 80 pesos per picul.”’ PHILIPPINE TRADE Philippine trade was opened to the world in 1834. ‘The value of imports for 1902 was $33,342.166, of exports $28,671,904. Commerce with foreign countries is carried on mostly in vessels bearing the British and German flags. The number of ports and subports open to commerce has trebled since American occupation began. OTHER NOTABLE FEATURES OF THE CENSUS REPORT The preceding pages give a summary of the more important geographic in- formation contained in the Census Re- port, being drawn principally from the introduction by General Sanger, and from the chapters on Geography, Pop- ulation, and Mortality by Mr Henry Gannett. The report contains two important chapters describing the characteristics of the civilized and non-civilized tribes. Every supervisor was instructed to make special note and record of the customs, character, and life of the people with whom he was brought in contact. The principal parts of these reports are pub- lished, supplemented by extracts from the speeches of Governor Taft and trav- elers in the islands, so that for the first time we have a very complete and com- prehensive description of every tribe. The following chapters also are spe- cially important: The History of the Islands, by a member of the Philippine Commission, IT. H. Pardo de Tavera, which is the first good history of the Filipinos that has been written and published in the English language by a Filipino ; The Judiciary, by Chief Jus- tice C.S. Arrelano and Assistant Justice Torres ; Population, by David P. Bar- 192 rows; Mr Barrows, as a result of his special study of the people, has greatly reduced the number of tribes into which the Filipinos are usually divided; the admirable discussion of the Climate of the Philippines, by José Algué, Director of the Philippine Weather Bureau, and of the Volcanoes and Seismic Centers, by M. Saderro Maso, Assistant Director of the Philippine Weather Bureau; and a series of articles on the agricultural products and possibilities of the Philip- pines. Another valuable feature of the re- port is the large numbcr of colored maps and diagrams which picture in graphic form the facts obtained by the census. Among these may be mentioned a col- ored map of the Philippines, 21 by 32 inches ; a contour map; maps showing the distribution of forests; the mean annual temperature ; the mean annual rainfall, which shows that the rainfall on the eastern coast is more than double what it is on the western coast; the density of population ; the distribution of civilized and wild tribes. This map is particularly valuable, as it is the first attempt to show the geographic distri- bution of the eight civilized tribes and COMMANDER PEARY’S NEW VESSEL HE steamship which has been especially built for Commander Peary’s Arctic expedition was launched on March 23. Mr Peary appropriately named her Roosevelf, in acknowledgment of the great interest taken by the Presi- dent in polar work. The vessel is described as a ‘‘ three- masted fore-and-aft schooner - rigged steamship, with auxiliary sail power.’’ Her principal dimensions are: Length over all, 182 feet; beam; 35.5 feet ; depth, 16.3 feet; mean draft with stores, 17 feet; gross tonnage, 614 tons, and estimated displacement about 1,500. Her model is similar to modern-built steam whalers, but rather more sharp, sea will be $100,000. Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MaGAazIne the sixteen wild tribes; the areas in- vaded by cholera in 1902 and 1903; the distribution of tobacco, cotton, copra, etc. Mr W. S. Rossiter, who designed the typography and arranged the illustra- tions, merits public congratulations for the exceeding good taste and artistic appearance of the volumes. He has in- troduced an innovation into government publications. The Philippine reports are bound in brown buckram, stamped in silver, and bear the seal of the Insu- lar government. ‘They are printed in handsome type, on laid antique paper, and the illustrations are well grouped and beautifully printed. Consequently the volumes do not wear that ugly, forbidding aspect which makes the usual government publication, however worthy, sink into speedy oblivion. It does not cost any more to publish re- ports in an attractive and presentable form, and it is far more satisfactory to the public and but justice to the author. It is unfortunate the edition of the work is so small, for every public and school library in the United States ought to have at least one set. GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. the particular features being her long, high, raking bow, overhanging stern, and general wedge shape at the sides, in order that she may be lifted free if nipped in the ice. The steamship was built of white oak, the frames being treble and close to- gether, with double planking, making the walls from 24 to 30 inches thick. The keel is 16 inches thick, but false keels and keelsons form a backbone pro- jecting 6 feet under the entire length of the vessel. The bow is backed by 12 feet of solid dead wood. Her engine and boilers will develop 1,000 to 1,500 horse-power. Her cost when ready for The funds for the vessel’s construction were supplied by the Peary Arctic Club of New York. _ SOME LESSONS IN GEOGRAPHY By Epwarp ATKINSON T the request of the Secretary I will venture to give the rea- sons why I have made an ex- ception to my recent rule of avoiding any new responsibility on account of advancing age, and have joined the Na- tional Geographic Society. In giving my reasons for this exception and my sense of the importance of this organi- zation I must of necessity give my per- sonal experience, or a part of what the artist, Chester Harding, called his rem- iniscences—a chapter from my ‘‘ ego- tistigraphy.’’ When I left school, in 1842, to begin work in a commission house for the sale of textile fabrics I had received the or- dinary instruction in geography by learning lessons out of Worcester’s school book. After serving the custom- ary apprenticeship of those days, be- fore porters and janitors were employed to do the heavy work, I happened to enter the counting-room of the treas- urer of a cotton factory, where I began a course of business life, which has kept me in more or less intimate relations with the cotton manufacture from 1848 to the present time. It had been my practice as a youth to get at the underlying facts in regard to any pursuit to which my attention had been called. Therefore when I found that my business life might be occupied - in the cotton manufacture, perhaps per- manently, I put to myself the question, ‘“What is cotton? Why and how does it spin? Where is the center of pro- duction ?’’ and so on. : On putting these questions to my elder associates I could get but little in- formation. The common impression among the cotton manufacturers of New England was that cotton was a tropical plant that could only be cultivated by negroes ; that the cotton states were substantially tropical states, where white men could not work in the field, and that when the crop was being gathered the whole area of the cotton states would resemble the North under a snow storm—white with the maturing cotton. This impression had been vigorously promoted by the slave-holding interests and led later to the opposition of what were known at the timeas the ‘‘ Cotton Whigs’’ to any efforts to remove the curse of slavery. I then supposed, as all my associates appeared to, that the reason why cotton could be spun was that it was barbed or bearded like rye, and that these barbs interlocked in making the thread—a to- tally erroneous conception. Not being satisfied with these condi- tions, I began my own researches. I procured books from the libraries and strained a point to buy some books of importance from my rather meager earnings. I found it necessary to com- prehend the physical geography, the geology, the climatology, and the chem- istry of the soils of all the cotton-pro- ducing countries; the chemistry of the plant, and the social conditions of each cotton-producing section. Of course, this was a matter of long, tedious, and often misdirected study; but in the end I had attained aconsiderable amount of -geographical knowledge. In fact, it may be said that when one picks out a lock of cotton from the boll in the cotton field, twists it with his fingers, and, doubling With theiptecth) makes a) \strong cord without the aid of any mechanism, he may find in his imagination his counter- part in the Aryan woman of prehistoric time, who, taking a lock of cotton from the boll in India and going through with the same process, made the first piece of cotton cord; and then as he untwists that strand or follows its convolutions WG. from one end of the cord to the other, by which the ages are united, he will find twisted into it the whole of human his- tory, all the physical sciences, and the record of the progress in illfare and in welfare which has accompanied the cot- ton manufacture to the present time. I may not enter into any minute state- ment of this long period of investigation. Suffice it that I learned how futile must be the effort of every tropical country and of almost all the semi-tropical coun- tries to compete in the production of the useful cottons of commerce with the cot- ton states of America, there being only oneexception developed by my geograph- ical studies. From Commodore Paige’s explorations on the Paraguay and Pa- rana rivers, subsequently sustained by Charles Darwin’s explorations, I became convincedthat the only considerable area of the earth’s surface where a well- trained, well-bred, and well-governed population could compete with us was on the great pampas of the Argentine and of Bolivia, which, rising in alti- tude as they approach the equator, repre- sent a huge area of the most fertile land which can compete in wheat and in cot- ton with the United States, but now form- ing a part of what I call ‘‘ the lost conti- nentof South America,’’ still waiting for good government and the immigration of Germans, Italians, Hebrews, and other industrious and energetic races, by whom that great continent may hereafter be developed. Having thus come to a clear compre- hension of the absolute necessity of a complete mastery of what may be called commercial geography, geology, and climatology, I made an effort, being one of the directors of the Massachusetts In- stitute of Technology, to induce the cor- poration to establish a department of instruction on these lines. I had made an investigation of the department which existed in the University of Edinburgh. I investigated as well as I could the courses of instruction given in Germany Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE and in Austria, and I found that we were then, as we are now, years behind these states, and to them we may now add Japan, where complete departments of instruction. on these lines are well established. The other day a professor of the De- partment of Commercial Geography in © one of the great schools in Japan called upon me to make certain inquiries in regard to specific industries, that he might investigate them and find out why they had centered at particular points in this country. I then learned that he had been sent here by the gov- ernment of Japan two years since, study- ing the geography, geology, and the climatology of every part of this coun- CLY. But I failed in my effort to get such a course established twenty-five or thirty years ago. ‘Today there is general in- terest in the subject, and it will not be long before every principal university and technical school will have such an established course. | I have made similar investigations in regard to wool, flax, hemp, silk, and other fibers, and the amazing thing to myself has been the ignorance of the great mass of the dealers and handlers of these fibers in respect to the very A BC of their production and the con- ditions which have centered them at different points of the globe. Were I not an old man, still burdened with many duties, I should feel inclined to take up a line of work which some bright investigator may well assume, namely, to write a treatise or book on the ‘‘ Natural History of Industries.’’ Why have the various branches of man- ufacture of this country centered them- selves around special points, not al- ways single points, but here and there throughout the country? Such investi- gations would of necessity. compel the study of commercial geography, as my own effort to comprehend the cotton plant has not yet ended, and every day SomME LEssons some new fact is developed on this line. Education never ends and never will. What have been the lessons yet to be applied in the cotton states of America? They are these: The invention of the cotton gin brought the curse of cotton upon the old cotton states, perpetuating slavery for nearly a century, when other- wise its burden might have been peace- fully removed by economic forces. It has led to the devastation of the cotton lands, maintained ignorance and illit- eracy, retarded intellectual and indus- trial progress down to even the last few years. AsTI once said in a great meet- ing in Georgia, ‘‘If the North, having discovered that it was building up a dangerous competition in the arts of which it holds the control, should come down with all its force upon the South to put back the burden of slavery upon you, you would fight longer and more strenuously to keep it off than you ever fought to maintain it, and you would secure your own liberty and the emanci- pation of every person, white or colored, by force of arms, if that were necessary.’’ Now, what have been the sequelee of slavery? As yet the masses of the cot- ton-growers have little comprehension of the conditions of climate and soil on mich they raise their crops. The greatest progress has been made in the Agricultural Department in making the production of cotton an applied science, but as yet it is not widely practiced. When common sense and a small meas- ure of intelligence shall be applied to the existing cotton fields of the South, the crop may be doubled without the addition of a single acre to the area put under the plow, and when the right types of sheep are bred to meet the con- ditions of the soil and the climates of the upland cotton district on the Pied- mont plateau and of the valleys among the hills, each section may be supplied with its own specific breed, as every county in England and Scotland now is. The sheep folded and fed upon the par- IN GEOGRAPHY oS tially exhausted cotton lands, the crop will be doubled. Add the wool clip and make that great Piedmont plateau the center of the fine-wool production of the world, as the cotton states have become the center of the cotton pro- duction of the world. Such is the picture which is brought before my mind by your undertaking to establish a national geographical so- ciety, and it is under this influence that I have joined one more society, while withdrawing from many others in which I have heretofore been interested. One lesson I learned from this inves- tigation, leading me to conclusions which may not be so acceptable to read- ers at the present time as they would be if each master of any branch of in- dustry would study for himself the geography, geology, and climatology on which his own branch of industry TEStS. I learned certain principles of eco- nomic science—a principle being ‘‘a rule of action, a maxim, an admitted truth requiring no further demonstration,”’ in that respect differing from a policy. I learned to discriminate between the principle of free trade and the policy of protection in which I had been bred and to which the very large majority of my business associates then adhered, that majority having been gradually changed until the balance is nearly the other way, even in the restricted lines of my asso- ciates. I learned what I venture to state as another principle of economic science, namely, high wages in money or what money will buy are the complement or correlative of low cost of labor in the unit of product in every branch of in- dustry that has passed beyond that of being a mere handicraft. In the handi- crafts the rate of wages goveriis or cor- responds to the cost of labor in the unit of product, but in the arts to which science, invention, and mechanism have been applied the cost of labor in the 196 unit of product is diminished in just proportion to the advance in the rate of wages that are secured by those who be- come skilled in the conduct of the work. It therefore became manifest to me, as it is now becoming manifest to the great mass of the people of this country, that the fear of foreign so-called pauper labor, ‘by which destructive duties on imports have been chiefly maintained, is foolish. We are surely learning that we have relatively the cheapest labor in the world, for which the highest relative wages are paid. _ Llearned. that, with the exception of a very few of the crude products of the tropics and with the exception of a very few arts, like the manufacture of Brus- sels lace and other similar luxuries which are produced by hand labor at the level of pauper wages, we might hold para- mountcontrol. I became convinced that just so fast and so far as our system of collecting revenue from duties on im- ports could be limited to the least num- ber of articles and collected only for revenue purposes would the manufact- ures, mechanics, arts, and agriculture of this country be most fully protected, the development of domestic industry most fully assured, and the imperial control of commerce, which of right rests with us on account of our control of the 1m- perial metal,iron, would be fully assured. I now recognize with much satisfac- ' tion that I have lived long enough to witness this true theory of wages and the source of profits generally accepted by men of affairs of this country, ‘and I may live long enough to see this coun- try take its true place as the paramount power among the nations by becoming the greatest’ example of the: free ex- ‘change of product for product and serv- ice for service with all the states and nations of the world. The same study of geography and other factors in the production of fibers might lead others to a different conclusion. I am only giving my own egotistigraphy. Tue NatTIoNnaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE And now, having read the foregoing, I must yet add a few more thoughts, even at the risk of going beyond the limit of the space that you can assign to me. One great benefit from the organization of this Society may be that we may no longer be compelled to go to Germany for the best maps and commercial at- | lases of the world ; that we may not be compelled to goto England for the only commercial geography of any merit in the English language, but may secure such improvements in our own school atlases that the instruction in geogra- phy will be something more than memo- izing, as it used to be in my day, and something more in the line of a true education than I believe it now is. Yet again, in witness of the 1mpor- tance of true knowledge of commercial geology and geography, let it be re- membered that the great developments of science in the manufacture of iron, in the application of steam power, pre- ceded only by a few years the great Napoleonic wars, giving to England the power to develop mechanism and manu- factures to carry on that great war, developing her commerce and increas- ing her wealth even during that long struggle. And, again, let it be borne in mind that the whole basis of the modern in- dustrial development of Germany rests upon the invention of two Englishmen, Gilchrist and Thomas, by whom the manufacture of basic steel was made possible from the phosphoric ores in Germany, thus enabling Germany to rival England in the development of mechanism and manufacturing arts and to take a position equal to Great Britain in the production of iron and steel. These two remained dominant forces until through the development of the yet greater deposits of iron and coal of the United States we were enabled to take the dominant position in the pro- duction of the imperial metal, which lies at the foundation of all the indus- —_ SomME LEssons trial arts and of the great commerce of the world, placing us where we are now in the production of iron and steel, more than equal to Great Britain and Ger- many combined, nearly half the product of the whole world. Had it not been for the excess in the price of iron and steel, which the duties on imports en- abled the iron masters of this country to charge by a far heavier price to our consumers than the prices charged in Great Britain and Germany, we might long since have assumed the paramount position which we are now rapidly at- taining in the export of the higher products of iron and steel, the ma- chinery, the tools, and the fabrics that give employment to ten skilled mechan- ics where the mere production of the crude metal gives occupation to one or two, being a small relative force in point of numnber, mostly common laborers. Again, the time has come when the forces of commerce are being summoned to the suppression of the brute element in man, from which war and warfare are generated. Commerce demands peace, order, and industry. ‘The man- ufacturers, the merchants, bankers hold paramount power when they choose to use it, and when they refuse the supplies that are wasted ‘upon war and warfare, the end—peace on earth—may be within their power. Now they are coming upto demand that the ferry-ways of commerce upon the high seas shall be neutralized, and that the ‘‘ships that pass from this land to that, weaving the web of con- cord among the nations,’’ shall no longer be subject to destruction at the will of a belligerent whose only duty is to destroy commercial vessels. The men of affairs are now combining to establish the rights of neutrals and to stop the nefarious work of commerce destroyers. The mental energy which is developed in the conduct of commerce, requiring powers far higher than those required in the conduct of war, may soon assert and the. IN GEOGRAPHY Lo its power and bring into living light the vision of peace and good will among men. In this treatise I have given an ac- count of how I happened to gain a very considerable amount of education in geography through the study of cotton. Were I a teacher in a school, espe- cially in an evening school where young men and women occupied in the various. trades make an effort to continue their education, I would call upon each one to bring to the school an example of one of the leading subjects of trade in which their employersdeal. They would bring cotton, wool, flax, hemp, silk, and other fibers, gums, examples of paint and var- nish, food products of different kinds, wood, metals, leather, and many other common articles of trade. I would then take up at a venture one subject—-for example, a bit of leather. I would put my questions, ‘‘ What is. this?’’ The answer would be, ‘‘Leather.’’ ‘“What is leather and how is it pre- pared?’’ ‘The answer would be, ‘‘ By tanning.’’ ‘‘ What is tanning; what is used ?’’ Answers would be few, if any. ‘* Hoow many kinds of leather are there ? Where does each kind come from? From what animals? Why do we de- pend on this or that section for different ~ kinds of leather? Why are these ani- mals fed here and not there? What is. the soil? What is the climate? What is the fur or hair? What becomes of it?’’?’ and soon. And before the end of the winter’s course the simple subject of leather would have extended the thoughts and knowledge of the pupils throughout the world. Again, another method: Please bring to the next session a statement of what was on your breakfast, dinner, and sup- per table yesterday, including the cloth, the crockery, the table ware, and every article of food or beverage. ‘These being . listed, put the questions, ‘‘ Where did that table cloth come from? What was it made of ? Whence came the spices, 193 the salt, the sugar, the grain, the tea, the coffee, the meats, and everything else upon the tables? How did all these things get upon your table? Who brought them from every corner of the globe? What was the power by which your family set in motion the whole ma- chinery of commerce, of banking, of transportation, to bring to you your breakfast, dinner, and supper?’’ An- swer,‘‘ The almighty dollar,’’ provided it is agood dollar, which meets Cernus- chi’s definition—‘‘ That only is good money which is worth as much after the coin is melted.or hammered smooth as it purported to be worthin thecoin.’’ To that measure of the dollar or dollarseach head of a family can command, each family controls the services of all the THE ZIEGLER POLAR EXPEDITION R WILLIAM ZIEGLER is send- ing north this summer a large party to carry supplies to the Ziegler Polar Expedition. The party will sail from Norway about July 1 on board the Terra Nova, a powerful whaling vessel which Mr Ziegler recently purchased for this purpose. Mr W. S. Champ, the general manager of Mr Ziegler’s Arctic expeditions, will be in charge. They will try to reach Franz Josef Land, where the Ziegler expedition is expected to meet them. dn case-the ice aseas heavy as it was in 1904, Mr Champ will force the Z7errva Nova as far north as possible, and then allow the vessel to be frozen in. The party will then push across the ice to Franz Josef Land. The Ziegler North Polar Expedition, which, it will be remembered, set out in 1903, is being made under the au- spices of the National Geographic So- ciety, whose personal representative, Mr W.:J: Peters; is in charce of sthe scientific work and second in command. It was expected that the expedition would return in 1904, but the ice was so thick that they could neither get THe NatrionaL GroGRAPHIc MAGAZINE merchants, tradesmen, bankers, steam- ship lines, railways, farmers, and man- ufacturers of the world. The only rea- son and motive for the existence of all these forces is to supply food, clothing, and shelter to the multitude. All that we get in or outof life in a material sense are our shelter, clothing, and food. I think that text would develop some lessons in geography. Is not the right end to begin the one which is right at the hand of every youth in the land? Work backward from a single fact relat- ing to any substance, and one may de- velop, as I did in untwisting the strand of cotton, the geography, geology, cli- matology, and the chemistry of the soils and conditions of the globe. out nor could an auxiliary party reach them. They are abundantly supplied with provisions, and no anxiety is felt on that score. Mr Ziegler will also send a repre- sentative on board the Belgica, which is to proceed about July 1 to Shannon Island, on the east coast of Greenland, -to make sure that none of the party who made the polar dash have been carried there by the polar drift. Sev- eral years ago a large stock of provis- lions was established at this point in’ case the men making the polar dash were prevented by the drift from re- turning to Franz Josef Land and were landed on the Greenland coast. EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL GEO- GRAPHIC CONGRESS HE proceedings of the Eighth In- ternational Geographic Congress will appear in book form about Septem- ber 1, forming a volume of about 800 pages. The work is to be published by the United States Government pursuant to the following resolution, which passed the Senate February 21 and the House of Representatives March 3: | GroGRAPHIC Nores Joint resolution (\S. R. 10g) to print the report of the Eighth International Geo- graphic Congress. 7 Resolved, etc., That the Public Printer be authorized and directed to print the report of the Eighth International Geo- graphic Congress, held in the United States in September, 1904, the edition to consist of the usual number for the use of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, and 1,500 copies to be bound for the use of the Eighth International Geographic Congress. © The work is being edited by the Pub- lication Committee, consisting of Henry Gannett, chairman; James Page, and Gilbert H. Grosvenor. All the papers which were presented to the Congress, some 220 in all, will be included, so that the work will be one of the most notable contributions to geographic science that has appeared for sometime. A copy of the volume will be sent to every mem- ber of the Congress. ee) On the conclusion of the Eighth Inter- national Geographic Congress excur- sion to Mexico the members of the ex- cursion, wishing to show their appreci- ation of the many courtesies, time, and trouble freely given by Dr David T. Day, chairman of the Excursion Com- mittee, subscribed to a handsome silver pitcher as a testimonial of their grati- tude. Lhe pitcher, designed by ‘Tif- fany & Co., has just been completed and was recently presented to Dr Day. A picture of the pitcher is given here in order that the many friends who joined in the presentation and who are now scattered over the five continents may see how their wish has been real- ized. ‘The seal of the Congress and an appropriate inscription have been en- graved on the pitcher. GEOGRAPHIC LITERATURE Through Town and Jungle. Fourteen thousand miles awheel among the temples and people of the Indian Plain. By William Hunter Work- man and Fanny Bullock Workman. 8vo. Pp. 24-+ 380. Mapand 202 1l- lustrations. New York: Chas. Scrib- Men Si S50ns. 1004. This is a narrative, in journal form, of extended travels in India, mainly by bicycle, the chief purpose being a study of the architecturalremains. ‘The greater part of five years was occupied in these wanderings, during which time the authors covered India from the Vale of Kashmir to Cape Cormorin, besides visiting Burma and Ceylon. The nar- rative is well told and is of great inter- est, as much concerning the peoples, their home life and industries, is scat- tered about with the story of bad roads, bad food, and bad beds in Dak bunga- lows. Butthe chief interest of the book is in the illustrations. There are fine reproductions of most excellent photo- graphs of the wonderful architecture of the past, created by peoples now gone or degenerate. eG: 200 The Story of the Kongo Free State. By Henry Wellington Wack. 8vo. Pp. 15 + 634. Illustrated. New York and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1905. This is a history of the Kongo State, drawn largely from documents in the possession of the Belgian government, and is intended as a defense of the ad- ministration of the state against the attacks of the English press. What- ever be the merits of the controversy, the book is of great interest and value as a summary of the history of this most remarkable experiment in empire- building. Certain it is that with the restriction of liquor dealing and the abolition of the slave trade, both of which are due to the government of the Kongo Free State, the condition of the native races is immeasurably improved. Add to these the start which has been made in educating them and in training them to habits of industry, and the ex- istence of.the state is amply justified. Breaking the Wilderness. By F. S. Déellenbaugh. 8vo. Pp. 23 + 360. Illustrated. New York and London: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1905. The purpose of this book is stated by the author in the preface to be “‘ to pre- sent a review in chronological order of the important events which contributed to breaking the wilderness that so long lay untamed west of the Mississippi.’’ Some fifty pages are devoted to the beaver and the buffalo on the plea that they induced exploration and settle- ment. There is nothing said, however, of mines of the precious metals, which of all attractions were far the most po- tent. Fifty more pages are devoted to the Indians, though why they should appear in this connection, except inci- dentally, is not apparent. The remainder of the book is occu- pied with accounts of certain exploring expeditions, beginning with the lies of . Cabeza de Vaca and including Coro- nado’s expedition and other early Span- ish explorations. Of those of more re- Tue Nationa, GeocrapHic MAGAZINE cent time accounts are given of the Lewis and Clarke, Pike, the Astor ex- peditions, Bonneville, Long, Fremont, and numerous hunters and trappers, finally closing with the well-known nar- rative of Powell’s exploration of the Colorado. ‘There isin the book scarcely an allusion to the numerous exploring expeditions carried on by the army since © 1850. Hven that magnificent series of explorations known as the Pacific Rail- road surveys, from which our first map of the West was built up, is conspicuous by its absence. In later years the Sur- vey of the Fortieth Parallel, the Hay- den Survey, and the Wheeler Survey, which were contemporaneous with the Powell exploration of the Colorado, and certainly as fruitful in results, are not mentioned. The history of exploration of the West is yet to be written. This book is printed on heavy paper, and is finely illustrated with half-tones, but the pictures should, if the book reaches a second edition, be redistrib- uted. At present they bear no relation to the adjacent text, but have. appar- ently been thrown in haphazard. H. G NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY POPULAR MEETINGS National Rifles’ Armory, 920 G street, 8 p. m. April 14. — ‘‘ Fighting the Boll Weevil.’?’ Dr L. O. Howard, Chief of the Bureau of Entomology. Illustrated. April 28.—‘* Niagara Falls.’? Dr G. K. Gilbert, of the U. S. Geological Sur- vey. Illustrated. May 5.—‘‘ The Philippines.’? The Secretary of War, Hon. Wm. H. Taft. May 13.—The Annual Long Distance Excursion of the Washington members . of the National Geographic Society, probably to Indian Head. SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS Hubbard Memorial Hall, 8 p. m. April 7.—‘‘ Forestry.’’ Messrs Gif- ford Pinchot, Overton W. Price, and members of the Bureau of Forestry... April 2{.—‘‘ Along the Labrador Coast.’’ Wilfred T. Grenfell. fe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CONTENTS PAGE The Fisheries of Japan. By Dr Hugh ML Smith, of the Bureau Me Preneres.” Llusteated 6) le eae x als iol el oe. re CDOS A Chapter from Japanese History. By Hon. Eki Hioki, First Wectetaty of the Japanese Lecation, . 06). 060 8)'4). <3). 220 Our Smallest Possession—Guam. By William E, Safford. Illustrated 229 245 242 ‘National Geographic Society . . . Utilizing the Desert. IIlustrated . Geologic Folios in Schools. Illustrated . . 244 250 The Exploration of Alaska . . . | 252 Geographic Literature . . . . . Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter | NATIONAL | | GEOGRAPHIC “MAGAZINE _| A N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by he Nationa. GEOGRAPHIC yee All editorial communications should be addressed to the — Fditor of the NationaL Grocrapuic MaGazine. | Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. | 25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army Washington, D. C. W J McGEE DAVID T. DAY _ Chief, Department of Anthropology Chief of the Division? of Mineral and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- R chase Exposition | esources, U.S. Geological Survey ALFRED H. BROOKS C. HART MERRIAM U.S. Geological, Survey. Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture ANGELO HEILPRIN WILLIS L. MOORE Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. sisi ta _ Department of Agriculture Hs R. D. SALISBURY O. H, TITTMANN University of Chicago Superintendent of the U. S. Coast i and Senay Survey G. K. GILBERT an ie U.S. Geological Survey Oo. P. AUSTIN | Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and ALEXANDER McADIE Labor | Professor of Meteorology, U. Sui ee | lies ad Bureau, San meas eet rey DAVID G. FAIRCHILD a ALMON GUNNISON © Bee Li Agricultural Explorer of the bebe ihe ment of Agriculture ae President St. Lawrence University ae Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. cn Vou. XVI, No. 5 WASHINGTON May, 1905 2HE FISHERIES OF JAPAN~ By Hucu M. Smiru, Deputy U. S. Fish CoMMISSIONER HE Japanese farmer has been called the root of the Empire. The Japanese fisherman is a hardly less important member of the body politic, and, as it is quite likely that fishing antedated agriculture as an industry in Japan, it is not inappropriate that the fisherman’s story be heard be- fore the farmer’s this evening. Recent developments on land and water in the Far Hast have led to in- creased study of things Japanese, and we have learned of so many matters in which the Japanese people are eminent and preeminent that we are perhaps prepared for the statement that Japan in various important respects is today the leading fishing nation and has many branches of the fishing industry which are unique. Probably in no other country of equal rank has fishing occupied a more promi- nent place in the material and esthetic development of a people. A mere glance at the mapof Japan suggests the ro6le which would be played by the sea. A numerous population, combined with a very limited area of arable land, at a very early period led to the development of important maritime interests. Centu- ries ago the Japanese had become the Phcenicians of the Far East. Their fish- eries grew side by side with their navi- gation and shipping and became rela- tively more and more important with the more complete occupation of the agricultural land, so that at the dawn of the twentieth century we have seen the nation blossom out not only as a leader in the coastwise and foreign ship- ping trades and in fishing, but as one of the great naval powers of the world. To quote an American student long resident in Japan, ‘‘Japanese art, poetry, romance, and folklore are full of the sea, its wonders and its possibilities for man. Even the ancient Shinto liturgies cele- brate the blue plain of the sea, the ship and her equipment, the fishers and their spoils. Of the two gods of daily food seen in nearly every Japanese house one sits on two bags of rice, the native staff of life, and the other holds a Zaz or bream fish under his left arm, while his right hand grasps a fishing pole. These gods are not Buddhist or continental, but are of pure Japanese origin.’’ The fisheries of Japan are less valu- able than those of several other coun- tries, but they take first rank over Abstract of an illustrated address to the National Geographic Society, March 17, 1905. Tue NationaL GeocGrapHic MAGAZINE Z@2 WMS ‘pw ysny Aq ojoNg c I c a3ed 33S NYOAIYS w1ayjnosg ¢ JON [1e} MO][IA B Sul[Ne Py THe FISHERIES OF Japan those of all other nations (1) in the actual number of people making a live- lihood thereby ; (2) inthe relative num- ber of persons engaged in and depend- ent onthe industry ; (3) in the quantity of products taken annually from the water; (4) in the relative importance of fishery products in the domestic economy; (5) in the ingenuity and skill shown by the people in devising and using fishing appliances and prepar- ing the catch for use ;- (6)4n.the extent to which all kinds of water products are utilized ; (7) in the extent to which the fisheries of foreign countries have been studied and the best methods adapted to home conditions; (8) in the extent to which aquiculture has been carried ; (9) in the zeal and _ intelligence dis- played by the government in promoting the development of the fisheries and the welfare of the fishing population. From the earliest times down to the present day, fishing has supplied the staple animal foods and a large portion of the vegetable and mineral foods con- sumed in Japan, and none of the other great powers is now so dependent on the water for subsistence. So important are water products and so numerous are their kinds and the methods of prepa- ration, that I venture the assertion, from what I have seen of domestic life in Japan, that every day in every Japanese family some form of fishery food is served—I am almost ready to say at every meal. The Japanese fishermen as a class are hardy, skillful, energetic, sober, self- reliant, to which qualities is superadded a spirit of intense bravery and patriot- ism, which makes them invaluable, in- deed indispensable, in the crisis through which Japan is now passing. With in- genuity and deftness which, it seems to me, are unsurpassed by any other peo- ple, the Japanese have devised apparatus and developed methods which centuries ago brought their fisheries to a very high degree of effectiveness ; but not content 203 with this, they have within our own time superimposed upon and adapted to their own already well-nigh perfect fisheries all that is best and most useful in those of other countries, so that today fishing with the Japanese is more than a mere industry—it is almost a fine art. EVERY KIND OF WATER PRODUCT IS UTILIZED A striking feature of the Japanese fisheries, and one which might reason- ably be expected in a people so frugal and ingenious, is the utilization of all kinds of water products which in the United States and in many European countries are wholly or largely neglected. In the matter of eating aquatic animals and plants the Japanese have few preju- dices, and what they do not eat they utilize in other. ways. As examples I may mention marine vegetables, to which further reference will be made, and sharks, which are among the com- monest and most wholesome of the Jap- anese food-fishes. They are sent to the markets in immense numbers, reach there in excellent condition, and are butchered as beeves are in our country. I believe the time will come when we shall have attained that degree of civil- ization which will make fashionable the eating of sharks, skates, and similar fishes now generally discarded. Mean- while many of us will be content to eat the so-called’ “fresh fish’ of our markets, albeit days and weeks old, reeking with putrefactive bacteria, and kept ‘‘fresh’’ by contact with melting ice when not exposed to the air of a dirty stall. Some of the factors which underlie Japan’s prominence as a fishing nation have already been indicated. The geo- graphical position and the physical char- acter of the country have, of course, been potent in developing the fisheries. The extension of the Empire diagonally through 35 degrees of latitude and 38 degrees of longitude, the shape of the 204 ine NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by Hugh M. Smith A Fishery Experiment Station in the Province of Tosa archipelago, the thousands of islands, and the great length of the coast line (es- timated at 20,000 miles) have brought a large part of the population within easy reach of the sea. To these is to be added a wonderful variety of water life, upwards of 1,000 species of fishes being already known and other classes being correspondingly well represented. Furthermore, there is a remarkable abundance of the most useful animals— some fresh water or anadromous species, some peculiar to the inshore waters, others high-sea forms which come close to the coast in immense numbers and are perpetually renewed, water several thou- sand fathoms deep being within a very few miles of the main islands. THE GOVERNMENT FOSTERS THE FISHERIES The attitude of the Imperial govern- ment has had a powerful influence in the growth of the fisheries. Since the Restoration the control of the industry has been vested largely in the central government, by which everything has been done that the most enlightened civilization could require to promote the interests of the fishermen and insure the prosperity of the fisheries. Long ago the Imperial Fisheries Bureau was organized, asa branch of the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Commerce, and is splendidly equipped and ably administered by specialists in fish cult- ure, biology, economic fisheries, and fishery law. Its work is conducted on broad modern lines, with great stress. laid on scientific investigation as the basis for legislation and promotion. With characteristic progressiveness, the government has sent representatives to America and Europe to study fisheries and fish culture, and the best practices. of foreign lands have been adapted by the Japanese to their own special re- quirements. In each of the numerous prefectures there is a department of fisheries, and the local governments, not less than the central government, ap- preciate the value of experimental and biological work in connection with the fisheries, and have established many THe FIsHERIES stations and laboratories, which are ren- dering excellent service. THE IMPERIAL FISHERIES SCHOOL The Imperial fisheries school, located in the outskirts of Tokyo, is an institu- tion which the Japanese may be par- doned for regarding with great pride, for in no other country does there exist a similar establishment which can com- pare with this in comprehensiveness of curriculum, completeness of equipment, and thoroughness of instruction. The last week of my sojourn in Japan I was invited to speak before the faculty and students of this school on the fishery work of the United States government. After I had been shown about the place and seen something of the methods and equipment I felt exceedingly doubtful of my ability to impart any informa- tion. The institution aims to equip young men for careers of usefulness in connection with the fisheries. The graduates obtain good positions in the government service and in fishing, fish- curing, and fish-cultural establishments. There are three departments of study, each with a three years’ course, with provision for post-graduate work. There is a full corps of able professors, instructors, and assistants, some of whom have taken degrees abroad. English is a required study in each course. ‘The department of fishing in- cludes in its regular curriculum such subjects as methods of fishing, naviga- tion, seamanship, shipbuilding, meteor- ology, oceanography, applied mechan- ics, applied zoology, applied botany, mathematics, law, economics, book- keeping, and elementary fisheries tech- nology. The department of fisheries technology has special instruction in marine food products, marine industrial products, bacteriology, applied mechan- ics, chemistry, industrial chemistry, chemical analysis, applied zoology, ap- plied botany, law, economics, and book- keeping. Inthe department of pisci- OF JAPAN 205 Photo by Hugh M. Smith A Trained Fishing Cormorant, with Its Cage culture the subjects are fresh-water culture, salt-water culture, protection of fish, embryology, bacteriology, ocean- ography, chemistry, applied zoology, applied botany, law, economics, and book-keeping. The institute has an annual income from the government amounting to $70,000, and several minor funds. THE RELATIVELY LARGE NUMBER OF FISHERMEN Complete statistics of the Japanese fisheries have not been collated, and many details that one would like to know are not available, but enough is pub- lished officially to show the vast extent of the industry. The number of people who are engaged in the different branches iS 3,000,000, aS against about 215,000 in the United States. Nearly one-six- 206 Photo by Hugh M. Smith A Cormorant Trainer and Fisherman teenth of the entire population is em- ployed in the fisheries, as against one five-hundredth in the United States. The annual tribute which the seas, the rivers, and the lakes now pay to the Japanese fishermen is worth about $30,000,000. ‘The value of the United States and British fisheries is about half as much more; but while our fisheries produce less than 1,000,000 tons of products and the British only half as much, the Japanese yield the prodigious quantity of 3,000,000 tons. A preponderating proportion of the fishery products is consumed at home, but certain articles are, nevertheless, exported in large quantities, and some products of the Japanese fisheries may THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE be found in almost every civilized coun- try. Over 80 per cent of the exports go to China, these consisting chiefly of prepared seaweeds, dried trepang, dried cuttle-fish, shark fins, and abalone. Strange to say, the country which ranks next to China is Italy, to which the ex- ports comprise only coral. This is like ‘‘carrying coals to Newcastle,’’ for Italy has been preéminently the coun- try for corals. Hereafter when an American lady purchases a coral brooch or necklace in Naples or Rome or Venice, she may be reasonably certain that it was some hardy Japanese fisherman off the southern coast of Kiushiu or Shi- koku who drew the rough coral from the sea. To Germany the Japanese ex- port agar-agar and fish oils; to Korea, salt and kelp; to Asiatic Russia (for- merly), marine salt; to Belgium, fish oil ; to France, abalone shells ; to Ling- land, fish oil, agar-agar, and sealskins ; to Hawaii, dried fish and cuttle-fish. The exports to the United States are at present insignificant, and consist mostly of agar-agar, abalone, and dried fish, for the use of Chinese and Japanese. The Japanese high-sea fisheries for whales, fur-seals, cod, halibut, ete., are important, and the lake, river, and pond fisheries yield large quantities of prod- ucts; but the coastwise fisheries alone are sufficiently extensive to give Japan its prominent position asa fishing nation. _ THE PRINCIPAL FISHERIES Some of the most valuable objects of the fisheries are similar to or identical with ours. The sea herring is king of fishes in Japan, just as it is in some European countries and in the world at large. Itis worth $4,000,000 yearly to the Japanese, and is particularly abun- dantin Hokkaido. Nextinimportance is the sardine, valued at $3,700,000. It is extensively canned and also eaten fresh and sun-dried. The bonito ranks third in value, the annual sales being $2,000,000. It is preserved ina peculiar THe FISHERIES OF JAPAN yyUs “IW yYsnH Aq oyoyd C1z ased 3aG ROOTES Cc ‘IDATY BIVBEN ‘SIUCIOWIOD YM SUIYsy 208 Tue Nationa GeEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by Hugh M. Smith Spreading the Wet Funori on Mats to Bleach and Dry From certain kinds of seaweed which they call ‘‘funori’’ the Japanese make excellent glue. sheets on mats. The seaweed after being cleaned is soaked in fresh water and then spread out in thin When sufficiently bleached the sheets are gathered and rolled up in bun- dles. They are then converted into a glue ora paste, when needed, by being put into boiling fresh water. The glue, which also is called funori, is employed principally for the glazing and stiffening of fabrics and as a starch for clothing. way, and is always kept on hand as an emergency ration in Japanese houses. A fish similar to our scup, known as the tai, is worth about $2,000,000 yearly. It is the favorite fish for fresh consump- tion, and when served raw, with soy- bean sauce, is a delicious food. Other prominent products with which Amer- icans are well acquainted are mackerel ($1,000,000), tunny or horse mackerel ($900,000), amber-fish or yellow-tail ($1,000,000), squid and cuttle-fish ($1,- 500,000), anchovies ($800,000), prawns ($700,000), and salmon ($600,000). The Japanese have no fisheries com- parable with our shad, river herring, menhaden, striped bass, whitefish, pike perch, lake trout, soft crab, lobster, and sponge fisheries, and their oyster, clam, salmon, mullet, cod, halibut, and whale fisheries are insignificant in comparison with ours. On the other hand, our sea herring, sardine, anchovy, yellow-tail, tunny, bonito, shark, prawn, octopus, abalone, and seaweed fisheries are of minor value compared with theirs, and we have no cuttle-fish, sea-cucumber, and coral fisheries. A characteristic scene in the larger coast towns is a crowd of men, women, and children on the shores at low tide searching and scraping and digging with | Tue FIsHERIES OF Japan 209 Photo by Hugh M. Smith Sprinkling the Sheets of Funori to Prevent Curling hand or stick or rake for any little fish or shell or crab or bit of seaweed that muy serve as food. In Yokohama, where I first saw this practice, swarms of poor people appear on the beach at each pe- riod of low water, and seldom fail to carry home with them enough of the bounty of the sea to serve for several meals. Similarly, at low tide boats re- sort to the marshes and bars for the pur- pose of gathering any kinds of products that may have been stranded or that may be accessible by wading. The Japanese have many holidays and festivals. One of the national holidays is devoted to girls, and another, in May, is the special property of boys. Besides games and festivities in which boys are particularly interested, a feature of this holiday is the throwing to the breeze from nearly every house hollow paper and cloth fishes, some of them 20 feet long, representing carp and having a special significance. The Japanese make many presents, and it is the invariable practice to insert under the special cords with which a present is tied a peculiarly folded piece of decorated paper, within which is placed a small, thin strip of dried aba- lone. One of the most approved pres- ents for New Year’s day is a whole dried salmon. Ingenious and important uses are made of many products which with us are mere curiosities. In a town near TokyoI saw a shop devoted to the man- ufacture and sale of lanterns made from the dried skins of swell-fish. In the Loo-choo Islands water snakes are acom- mon article of food. They are prepared for market by drying in an extended or slightly wavy position, those I saw being about a yard long. Nothing would seem to us to be of less value than the dried strings of egg cases of whelks, which are so common on our sandy shores, and yet in Japan I saw street vendors with push-carts loaded with these objects dyed a bright- red color and tastefully arranged on masses of wet seaweed, and many half- grown girls were buying them and mak- ing a blowing noise by putting them between the tongue and palate. The demand for these articles is so great that the supply obtained naturally is inadequate, and a kind of culture has sprung up. FISHING JUNKS Fishing vessels and boats are of vari- ous patterns, according to the region, Photo by Hugh M. Smith Gathering the Dried Sheets of Funori for Baling and Shipment the fishery, etc., but all those used in marine fishing are alike in being very strongly and heavily built, many being almost clumsy from our standpoint. They are usually constructed without the use of nails, and are not painted. The boats are for the most part arranged for sculling instead of rowing, and their crews are large. It is no uncommon thing to find 8 to 12 men constituting a boat’s crew, whereas with us a simi- lar boat and fishery would require only 2to4men. The sails are frequently of the junk rig and sometimes consist of five or six upright widths of straw mat- ting loosely laced together. The fisher- men venture far offshore in small open boats, sometimes as much as 75 miles, in quest of certain pelagic fishes. The first intimation I had of the proximity of the Japanese coast on the voyage Tue FISHERIES OF JAPAN 211 ph 0 SS D wy —=— < WG wt Sty: Nght, We \ Dr 7 Noch From Hugh M. Smith Gathering Kelp with Poles and Drags A large business is done in Hokkaido, the most northern of the main islands of Japan, in gathering coarse broad-fronded seaweeds (Laminariacez) termed ‘‘kombu,’’ which are used as pickles, seasoners, and relishes, and also as vegetables. Some varieties are served as sweet- meats and others made into powders and used as tea. The fishermen go to the kelp grounds. in open boats, each boat with one to three men and a complement of hooks, with which the kelp is torn or twisted from its strong attachment on the rocky bottom. The hooks are of various patterns; some are attached to long wooden handles, and some are weighted and dragged on the bottom by means of ropes while the boats are under way. from San Francisco was the sighting of terested it was necessary to seek the small fishing junks; and in ordertoin- fishermen out of sight of land. While spect some of the fisheries in southern the offshore fishing boats are sturdy, Japan in which I was particularly in- the government is not altogether satis- 252 fied with their suitability for the rough water and strong winds which prevail, and is endeavoring to introduce and popularize more seaworthy boats mod- eled after the American types. CATCHING THE YELLOW-TAIL Reference has been made to the impor- tance of the amber-fish or yellow-tail. Along the southern shores of Shikoku the taking of this species is the chief fishery, requiring a large outlay of cap- ital and employing many men. The apparatus used is a huge bag net, with long straight wings. When a school of fish has entered the net, the boats close in, the fish are driven into the bag, and are finally pocketed. I be- lieve I am safe in saying that the yel- low-tail nets are larger than any other set nets in the world and require the services of more men. Each net is at- tended by 25 to 30 boats, including a _ Sa —/ff = ee _—— THe NaTIoNaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE look-out boat with an elevated perch, and 150 to 200 men are in constant at- tendance. A net which I visited and saw drawn had two wings each 3,000 feet long, one of them extending to the shore; the bag was goo feet long, 250 feet wide at its mouth, and 125 feet deep. During aseason of two and a half months this net had stocked $50,000, which was an ordinary catch. On one occasion 10,000 yellow-tails, averaging 20 pounds each, were taken at one haul. A very useful method of preserving the yellow-tail, which insures cleanliness and easy transportation, is to soak the fish in brine, cut it into four lengthwise sections several feet long, remove the bones, wrap each piece in rice straw, and wind it with a straw rope. This preparation is called maki-buri and is an excellent food product. The most remarkable of the fresh- water fishes of Japan is the ayu or sweet- SAK : INS as Oe te ee, Len. Pres as Sat SPs rs e PO Cat aay iD ET brews SRS oe TO te aah ater Hage | OES oo Fa SY); SAGE a 4 Zp N WS ft a acetal ALLA LISLE Lomas MCLE OOO Z WE Vs ay = ys I re UMA NG S—— aunt 4 Hy : beN tL?! es = ais = <== From Hugh M. Smith Drying Kelp on the Beach in Hokkaido THe FISHERIES OF JAPAN fish,and perhaps the most curious method of fishing is addressed to it. There is no time to refer in detail to this fish, and I can only say that it is a diminutive member of the salmon family, inhabits all the rivers of Japan and Formosa, being at its best in the mountain streams, is probably the most delicious of the fresh-water fishes, and has habits which are not possessed by any other known fish. It is an annual fish—the entire period of its life, from the egg to its death, covering rather less than a year. The Japanese have devised many appli- ances and methods for taking it, and, not content with pitting their own in- genuity against it, have impressed into their service one of the most skillful of fish-catching birds, the cormorant. FISHING WITH CORMORANTS The origin of cormorant fishing in Japan is lost in a very remote antiquity. At least a thousand years ago it is known to have flourished, and there is a tradition of its existence upward of two thousand yearsago. Much romance and history are connected with the fish- ery in the early days, and the names of some of Japan’s greatest warriors and statesmen are associated with it. While a commercial enterprise, it does not, however, give employment to many people and is not conducted in many places. It is confined to rivers, and the most extensive, interesting, and famous fishery is that in the Nagara River and the most noted of the cor- morant fishing villages is in the out- skirts of the large city of Gifu. At the time of my visit, the chief cormorant fisherman, whose ancestors for many generations had engaged in this fishery in the same locality, attired himself in the peculiar dress of the pro- fession for the purpose of exhibiting his birds and the methods of handling them. Later he and all the other fish- ermen on theriver went to a rendezvous and gave a practical demonstration of cormorant fishing. 213 The cormorants are controlled by means of a slender cord, which passes around the bird’s breast and is tied in the middle of the back. The cord is made of woody fibers of the cryptomeria tree, with the exception of ashort section next to the bird, which consists of whalebone. There is a supplemental cord tied around the neck at the lower end of the gullet for the purpose of preventing the fish from passing so far that they cannot be recovered. The tying of this cord is a delicate opera- tion, for if too tight it may injure the bird and if too loose it will allow the fish to be swallowed. The fishery is conducted from boats, which are of a special type, being long, narrow dug-outs, propelled primarily by paddles, but when en route to the fishing grounds often provided with a sail. Each boat hasacrew of 4 men and a complement of 16 cormorants. Late in the afternoon the boats start for a place in the river where fishing will be- gin, the cormorants being stowed away in pairsin bamboo baskets. The fishing grounds cover many miles, and opera- tions are confined to successive sections of the river nightly, in accordance with law. Stretches several thousand yards in length are set aside as Imperial pre- serves, on which no fishing is permitted. As soon as darkness prevails, a blaz- ing fire of pine wood is kindled in the iron basket overhanging the bow of the boat, and the boats drift downstream together, sometimes in a mixed group, sometimes in a line extending across the river, each guided and propelled by 2 men. ‘The captain, standing near the bow, manages 12 cormorants and his assistant 4, the cords being held be- tween the fingers and frequently shifted as the birds move about. With the cormorants diving and darting in all directions, those of different boats often mingling, it is a wonder that they do not soon become inextricably tangled, but so skillfully are they managed that the lines rarely become fouled. In a 214. THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Women Engaged in Sorting the Crude Kelp short time the cormorants’ gullets begin to bulge with ayu ; when they are well filled the birds are pulled up to the gun- wales one by one and their catch is gently squeezed into baskets. This continues for several hours, and each cormorant may fill its gullet fifteen to twenty times. Spectators usually go to the fishing grounds in a kind of barge, illuminated by lanterns, and eat their dinner on board while waiting at a convenient point for the fishing boats to arrive. During the evening when I witnessed the fishery the seven boats in whose operations I was particularly interested averaged 700 to 800 fish apiece, and the aggregate catch was worth $150—a very respectable sum to Japanese fisher- men. The fishery is prosecuted with enthu- siasm by both men and cormorants, and the shouts of the fishermen, the hoarse croaking of the birds, the rush of the mountain stream, the splashing and creaking of the paddles, the hissing of the embers as they fall into the water, the weird lights and shadows combine to make a performance which a westerner is not likely soon to forget. TERRAPIN FARMS The cultivation of water products has gone hand in hand with the fisheries, and in certain lines has attained greater perfection and extent than in any other country. The raising of terrapin, which with us is an unsolved problem and has only recently been seriously considered, has for years been very successfully car- ried on by the Japanese. I visited a terrapin farm near Tokyo, where 50,000 THe FIsHerigs OF |APAN 7 View at an Osaka Kombu Factory Dyed kelp drying on poles; shredded kombu drying on mats and ready for baling to 60,000 artificially grown terrapin are placed on the market annually. With- out any outside aid or suggestions, the Japanese have evolved special methods for the cultivation of many kinds of mollusks, including the pearl oyster, the ark-shell, several clams, and various other lamellibranchs, and, in addition, the commonoyster. That the Japanese should realize the importance of oyster culture is not strange; but that they should have taken it upacentury before our nation was born and have recognized the most essential factor in successful cultivation, namely, individual owner- ship or control of the oyster bottoms, comes as something of a shock to our na- tional pride when we remember that in the most important oyster region in the world, within a short distance of the Capital of the United States, the vital principles of oyster culture are ignored and efforts to apply them are resisted sometimes by force of arms. The culti- vation of oysters has reached greatest perfection in the Inland Sea near Hiro- shima, and some very ingenious meth- ods have there been evolved, which are described in a paper by Dr. Bashford Dean recently published by the U. S: Bureau of Fisheries. JAPAN IS THE ONLY COMPETITOR OF THE UNITED SLATES IN THE CUL- TIVATION OF THE SALMON Among the fishes regularly cultivated are: tie cel, the mullete the carpeithe goldfish, and several salmon and trout. The important salmon fishery in north- ern Japan having suffered from deple- Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 6 I 2 yirmg ‘WwW YSnyH Aq OJ0Nd eurys \ jo soulAoIg -~ SIOAIG: USTO Tue FISHERIES OF JAPAN tion of the streams, the government sent a representative to this country twenty years ago to study our hatching methods. It goes without saying that he took home with him a well-filled note book, and, in addition, the plans of one of our salmon hatcheries, and shortly afterwards from those plans built in Hokkaido the first salmon hatchery in Asia. With this as a model and center, salmon culture in Japan has steadily grown, until there are now eighteen salmon hatcheries in Honshu and Hok- kaido, and Japan has become the only competitor of the United States in the artificial propagation of salmon. The carp has been cultivated from very ancient times and now receives much attention. In the Tokyo district alone 225 acres of ponds are devoted to carp culture, and the annual crop is up- ward of 400,000 pounds, valued at $15,000. In one village in the Gifu pre- fecture 250 acres of paddy fields, in which there is growing rice, have re- cently been devoted to carp culture by the local agricultural society, and 25,000,000 young fish are now procured there annually and sold for stocking purposes. It isa significant fact that the carp not only does not injure the rice plants, but benefits them by devour- ing destructive insects, whereas in this country one of the very loudest and longest wails against the carp is that it uproots aquatic vegetation. GOLDFISH FARMS The goldfish receives more attention than any other species, and the place it holds in the affections of the masses illustrates one of the racial character- istics of the Japanese—namely, the love for the beautiful and ornamental, and the time and money all classes bestow on things that appeal to the esthetic rather than to the mercenary and prac- tical. Although the goldfish occurs in a wild state in Japan, it is probable that China some 400 years ago furnished the Dey, stock from which the wondervful varie- ties of Japanese goldfish have been bred. It is reported that in feudal days, even when famine was abroad in the land and many people were starving, the trade in goldfish was flourishing. The demand at present appears to be without limit, and the output shows a substantial in- crease each year. Many thousands of people make a living by growing gold- fish for market, and hundreds of ped- dlers carry the fish through the streets and along the country roads in wooden tubs suspended from a shoulder bar. The leading goldfish center is Kori- yama, near the ancient capital city of Nara. Here are 350 independent breed- ing establishments, whose yearly product runs far into the millions. One farm which I visited was started 140 years ago; at first 1t was conducted merely for the pleasure of the owner, but it eventually became a commercial enter- prise and is now very profitable. The history and methods of goldfish culture in Japan constitute a very engaging theme, not less interesting to the biol- ogist than to the fish culturist. Some of the current American ideas of the manner in which the remarkable varie- ties have been produced are preposter- ous, and evoked much merriment among the Japanese when I mentioned them. FAMOUS WOMEN DIVERS OF SHIMA Shima, the smallest of the Japanese provinces, has been celebrated from the earliest times for its women divers, and more recently has acquired other dis- tinctions connected with the fisheries. The divers have inherited, through many generations, an aptitude for water life which makes them veritable human ducks. ‘The principal objects of their attention are pearl oysters, which exist in bays in all parts of Japan, but are particularly abundant in the cold clear waters of this province. The valuable pearl- oyster grounds have gradually passed under control of a 218 single proprietor, who employs most of thedivers. The supply of pearl oysters having been greatly reduced through overfishing during the years following the restoration, the cultivation of the species was taken up experimentally at the suggestion of Professor Mitsukuri, and has been carried to a very success- ful issue, the method being essentially that followed by the oyster-growers of New York and Connecticut. ARTIFICIAL CULTIVATION OF PEARLS Another interesting cultural enter- prise has been started—also at Professor Mitsukuri’s suggestion—consisting of the production of pearls by stimulat- ing the mollusks artificially. This is brought about by inserting between the animal and its shell a small spherical nucleus of mother of pearl. This pearl- oyster farm in the Bay of Ago, not far from the famous shrines of Ise, now yields millions of pearl oysters and hun- dreds of thousands of natural and cult- ural pearls annually. Each year 250,000 to 300,000 pearl oysters are treated and then returned to the beds, where they are left for four years, so that at all times there are on hand upwards of one and a quarter millions of pearl-bearing oysters. ‘The pearls thus produced are of fine form and beautiful luster, and are marketed in all parts of the world ; their only defect is that they are broadly attached to one of the valves, and are thus only half pearls. LARGE RETURNS FROM SEAWEEDS A branch of the fisheries in which Japan far surpasses all other countries as regards both extent and ingenuity of method is the seaweed industry. In the United States, notwithstanding our long coast line and seaweed resources, not inferior to Japan’s, the annual crop of marine vegetables is worth only $40,000, whereas in Japan these prod- ucts are worth not less than $2,000,000, and are exceeded in value by only four Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE animal products of the fisheries. Many kinds of alge are gathered and many uses are madeof them. The local con- sumption is enormous, and large quan- tities of prepared seaweeds are exported to China, Europe, and elsewhere. Among the most valuable kinds of seaweeds are the kelps (Laminaria), which are taken in immense quantities on the more northern coasts, particu- larly in Hokkaido. ‘The fishermen go out in small boats and gather the weeds from the rocks by means of long-han- dled wooden hooks or heavily weighted drags. The plants are spread flat on the beach to dry, and when thoroughly cured are packed in bundles and sent to manufacturers in various parts of the Empire, by whom they are prepared for market ina great variety of ways, under the general name of kombu. Kombu is one of the staple foods of the country, entering into the dietary of almost every family and being eaten alone as a veg- etable or as a seasoning for meats, fish, stews, etc. This business has been car- ried on since about 1730, employs thou- sands of men, women, and children, and is worth from $500,000 to $1,000,000 a year. 7 Various algze with soft pulpy fronds are dried by the fishermen and sold to dealers for manufacture into a kind of glue. ‘The weeds are soaked in fresh water, made into thin, loose-meshed sheets, and rolled like Japanese matting. When ready for use such sheets are boiled in fresh water, and the pasty mess resulting is employed as a starch for clothing, in stiffening fabrics, in cement- ing walls and tiles, and in other ways. This business dates from about 1670, and is now conducted in over Too estab- lishments. | A very valuable seaweed product, and the one with which Americans and Eu- ropeans are most interested, is vegeta- ble isinglass or agar-agar. It is made from weeds rich in gelatin by boiling them in fresh water and straining the Tue FIsHERIES OF JAPAN pulp through coarse cloths. The busi- ness began about 1760. In the early years the product was sold in bulk, but at present the entire output, for conven- ience in handling and using, is in two forms—slender sticks about a foot long, used locally in preparing food-jellies or exported to America and Europe for making culture media in bacteriological work, and square bars 12 to 15 inches long, which are sold largely in Holland for use inclarifying gin. The Japanese name for this product is kanfen, mean- ing ‘‘ cold weather,’’ in allusion to the fact that it can be prepared only during winter, as a low temperature is neces- sary for the solidification of the jelly. Five hundred establishments are de- voted to the manufacture of kanten, and the output in 1902 was 3,000,000 pounds, valued at $750,000. The identical alga from which the Japanese make their kanten abounds on our own coasts, but not a piece of it is now utilized. EDIBLE SEAWEEDS One other seaweed must be referred to, because the supply comes almost entirely from planted grounds, and in the culti- vation of marine vegetables the Japanese stand alone. In all parts of the world there occurs a red alga known to British and Americans as laver, which was for- merly a popular food in the British Isles and sparingly eaten in the United States. From a very remote period the Japanese have utilized this plant, and for centu- ries—just how long is not known—have carried on an ingenious form of cultiva- tion. In the fall arrangements for the seaweed crop are made by sinking into the muddy bottoms of bays numerous bundles of brush or bamboo. ‘These bundles, which are prepared on shore and taken to the grounds at low tide, are planted in regular lines, deep holes being made for them by means of an elongated conical wooden frame, with handles, whichis forced into the mud by theweight of the operator. Thebrush intercepts 219 and affords attachment for the seaweed spores, which grow so rapidly that by January the plants have attained their full size and the cutting of the crop be- gins. The plants die about the time of the vernal equinox, and the active busi- ness is at a standstill until the ensuing autumn. The best grounds for the cul- tivation of laver are in Tokyo Bay and are leased by the government. In Igor the area planted with brush was 951 acres, and the value of the crop was over $148,000, or $156 anacre. In 1903 the same area yielded $300,000, or over $310 an acre. ‘The total area of cultivated grounds in the whole of Japan is about 2,300 acres, and the value of the seaweed grown thereon is $400,000 to $500,000. About 3,500 families are engaged in this form of aquiculture. Small quantities of the laver are eaten fresh, but most of it is sun-dried before it reaches the con- sumer. ‘The weeds are washed, picked, sorted, and then chopped fine by hand, and the wet, chopped pieces are spread on small bamboo mats and pressed by hand into thin sheets, the mats being placed on inclined frames in the open air. When drying is complete the sheets are stripped from the mats, piled and pressed, and tied in small bundles for market. This product has numerous culinary uses and is found in every Japanese kitchen. GETTING SALT FROM THE SEA An important industryin some parts of Japan, more particularly in the southern districts, is the extraction of salt from sea water, which I. may be allowed to mention in connection with the fisheries. The output of mineral salt in Japan is insignificant, and the people depend al- most entirely on the sea for their supply of this indispensable article. There are many thousand salt fields under cultiva- tion, and over 100,000 people are en- gaged in this occupation. On the shores of the beautiful Inland Sea and on the much indented, picturesque coast of Sat- 220 suma I saw hundreds of these fields, which are large, perfectly flat areas, near the sea-level, with a firm, clean, sandy surface and intersected by nar- row drains or ditches, in which the tide flows. Water from these ditches is freely sprinkled by hand over the floor, and, in order to promote evaporation, the wet sand is stirred and raked with a kind of harrow. The sprinkling, stirring, and drying of the sand con- tinue until it can take up no more salt ; it is then scraped into piles with a long piece of plank drawn by a workman by means of a rope brought over his shoul- der,and placed in peculiar bins,of which each field has many, arranged in regu- larrows. ‘The sand is then thoroughly washed with sea water, and the highly concentrated brine resulting drains into vats beneath the bins. From the vats the brine is poured into a sluice or flume and conveyed to large reservoirs under cover. As required, it is poured on huge flat iron trays, under which is a Tur NaTionaL GeoGrRaPpHic MAGAZINE hot fire, and the water is driven off by boiling. The fisheries of Japan are already of vast extent and are exceeded in money value by those of only two countries. There is no other country from which western nations may learn more of prac- tical utility about many branches of the fishing industry, and there is none the study of whose cultural enterprises, gov- ernmental relations, and organization and fishery legislation and history will prove more profitable. We cannot fore- tell what developments the present gen- eration or the next may see, but events are moving so swiftly in the Sunrise Kingdom, the entire business life is re- sponding so quickly to the pace set by the twentieth century, that, whatever the outcome of the present war, the general commercial and industrial prog- ress will undoubtedly be imparted to the fisheries and will be likely to place the money value of the industry above that of all other nations. A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE HISTORY. By Ex1 Hiox1 FIRST SECRETARY OF THE JAPANESE LEGATION this opportunity of addressing a gathering of such distinguished gentlemen. It gives me special pleas- ure to do so tonight, because this very day, the 21st of February, 1905, is the fiftieth anniversary of the exchange of the ratifications of the first treaty be- tween Japan and the United States— the first treaty that Japan had ever con- cluded with any nation of the West. 1 affords me great pleasure to have THE DIPLOMACY OF COMMODORE PERRY You should be proud of the wonderful skill in diplomacy displayed by your first envoy to Japan, our honored Com- modore Perry, and the brilliant success which was achieved by him in inducing a nation, which had so long cherished the policy of seclusion and exclusion, to enter into treaty relations with the powers of the world, the accomplish- ment of which was brought about with- out the shedding of a drop of blood or even the happening of a single incident which could now revive any unpleasant memories. I am often led to reason, rightly or wrongly, that when an act of a man is founded on truth and kind- ness there is no need of the help of lan- guage to communicate it to others. * An address delivered at Washington February 13, 1905 A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE HisTory The conduct of the first American en- voy to Japan, as well as those who fol- lowed him, was singularly marked with truth and kindness, and it is gratifying, indeed, to know that the annals of the five decades of international relations between Japan and the United States are clean records of friendliness and cordiality. In this counection it is per- tinent to quote from the writer of a little volume called ‘‘ Agitated Japan,’’ who commenced his work with the fol- lowing words: ‘‘ Without the least taint of flattery it may be safely asserted that Japan is indebted to no other country so much as to the United States. This indebted- ness began on her first trial of that in- ternational intercourse which she has kept up ever since, and will doubtlessly continue as long as the world shall last. It is an undeniable fact that the honor of having opened the hitherto secluded Empire of Japan to foreign intercourse, commercial and otherwise, rests with the United States.”’ THE JAPANESE APPRECIATION OF WHAT PERRY DID On July 14, I9g01, a monument was erected in memory of our revered Com- modore Perry at the spot where he held his first conference with the Japanese authorities. It bears an inscription composed by Marquis Ito, the most prominent of our living statesmen, rec- ognizing in appropriate terms the serv- ices of that gallant sailor and shrewd diplomatist. On the occasion of the dedication of the monument the chair- man of the committee in charge said in his address: ‘‘It was at this spot that the modern civilization of our Empire had its beginning. aun, WWaen Commodore Perry set his foot on this shore the Japanese Empire was en- shrouded in the fogs of a seclusion of nearly three hundred years. ; This monument is erected to preserve in stone our determination never to forget 221 the friendship of the United States that sent Commodore Perry to induce us in a peaceful way to have intercourse with foreign powers.’’ Such is the memory that the Japanese of today cherish. Indeed, the more we study the magnitude of the transforma- tion that Japan has undergone since the advent of Perry, the higher becomes our appreciation of his work and the part played by the United States in re- gard to Japan. Ifthecountry had been forced open by any means but peaceful, nobody knows where that little Empire would stand today. Were it not for the policy the United States patiently and firmly pursued toward the upbuild- ing of new Japan, it is impossible to realize what progress she would have made. I am happy to acknowledge frankly our sense of indebtedness to you, and I am proud to say that your kind assistance was not in vain. In fact, these remarks might not have been quite pertinent to the subject chosen for the speech of this evening, but this very day being the fiftieth anniversary of such a memorable event in the history of the international relations of the two countries, it would not have been proper had I not paid my feeble tribute to the noble deeds of your countrymen. THE RESTORATION The subject of my speech for this evening is ‘‘A chapter from the Japa- nese history,’’ and the chapter I refer to is the one which deals with the history of the restoration consummated in the year 1868. It is impossible, however, to treat the subject thoroughly and com- prehensively within the limit of time which, in my judgment, would be en- durable to my audience. I shall there- fore confine what I have to say to the main course of events which resulted in the so-called ‘‘ restoration.”’ The term ‘‘ restoration’’ in the mod- ern history of Japan means the reinstat- ing of the political powers to the de jure 222 sovereign of Japan, the Mikado, which had been taken away from him for a period of 682 years (1186-1868) and which had been wielded by the de facto sovereign, the shogun or the military government. The history of Japan dates back 2,565 years, exclusive of the ages of gods, when our first Emperor, Jimmu, laid the foundations of the Empire, and our august ruler of today is the r21st of the Emperors descended from the direct and unbroken line of the Imperial family. Even prior to 1186 the powers of the Mikados had, in a large measure, passed into the hands of the Fujira family, but at that period Yoritomo, a military man of great ability, founded the shogunate or military government for the first time in Japanese history, whereby he prac- tically usurped the political powers of the Mikado and substituted his rule for that of the legitimate sovereign. It was an incidental consequence of one of the phases of human history. In Japan, as in other feudal countries, there had been an alternate tendency toward strong and weak central governments. In order to maintain peace and order and to preserve the nation as a compact unit against a strong tendency toward decentralization which was then prevailing, Yoritomo had fought a series of bloody battles with local chieftains and magnates, and finally succeeded in establishing a vigor- ously centralized military government over the whole Empire and by the side of that of Mikado. ‘This was the be- ginning of the dual government in Japan which so much perplexed the westerners at the beginning of the foreign inter- course. The letters of credence which the President of the United States addressed to the Emperor of Japan were handed over by Commodore Perry to the shogun of the time, and when Townsend Har- ris, the first United States minister to Japan, was told by the shogun that the treaty required the approval of the M1- kado he was astounded. Since the es- THe NaTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tablishment of the first shogunate by Yoritomo, in 1186, down to the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate, in 1868, all real power, civiland military, had passed entirely from the hands of the Mikados, they themselves being allowed to retain only an outward semblance of author- ity. It was remarkable, however, that through the period of nearly seven cen- turies when the military government was in predominance no one ever dis- puted the legality of the Imperial author- ity. On the contrary, all the shoguns formally recognized that authority by obtaining the Imperial sanction for the appointment of each successor to the shogunate government, as well as in other matters. It was in 1868 that this de jure sover- eignty of Japan was restored to full au- thority after the nominal existence of seven centuries. The manner in which it was brought about is almost unique in the annals of mankind, but what made it more remarkable was the inauguration of a new policy so radically different from what had existed before in Japan, upon which the foundation of New Japan was firmly laid down. THE FEUDAL SYSTEM OF JAPAN IN 1868 In order to realize the real magnitude of the dramatic period of Japanese his- tory it is necessary to know something of the political regime that existed in Japan at the time of the restoration. Roughly speaking, Japan, under the Tokugawa government, had a feudal system with 276 daimios or feudal barons. ‘These barons had their own respective domin- ions, and within them they wielded an autocratic power, without any restric- tions outside of a certain sort of super- vision exercised by and acertain homage: paid to the chief baronor shogun. ‘The size of the dominions, the revenues and expenditures, the number of the vassals or retainers, called Samurai or military class, the barons possessed differed ac- A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE History cording to the rank and influence they enjoyed at the time. Under the feudal system the people were divided into four classes, viz, Samurai, or military class, farmers, tradesmen, and merchants. Of these the Samurai was the privileged class, which was maintained at the pub- lic expense of each feudal lord, and it was in the hands of this class that the political activities of Japan found their home. The feudatories, with the assistance of the retainers or Samurai (who num- bered some 400,000 men, and, with their families, 2,000,000 people in the whole Empire), formed the bone and sinew of the nation at that time. While, in the latter part of the Tokugawa government, education was diffused more widely among the farmers, tradesmen, and merchant classes and their social status gained some elevation, yet they remained the class of producers for the support of a government in which they had no voice. In a word, Japan, under the feudal system, can be considered as having been divided into so many states with com- plete political autonomy within the re- spective domains of the feudatories as to legislative, administrative, judicial, and military affairs. Every institution was in its nature local and heteroge- neous. There existed no single sys- tem of law or finance that was common to the nation. WHAT THE VOLUNTARY SURRENDER OF PRIVILEGES BY THE SAMURAI MEANT The restoration of the Imperial power meant the unification of the govern- mental powers, and the unification of the governmental powers meant the sur- render of the powers, rights, privileges, properties, and what-not possessed by the feudatories and Samurai, because, without a complete abdication by the feudal lords and vassals of their prerog- atives, a real unification of the govern- mental powers and the restoration of 228 the Imperial authority was impossible. This meant to the feudal lords the sur- render of that exalted position which resembled that of an independent po- tentate, and taking rank not only among their former vassals, but even with the tradesmen and merchants, who, in their eyes, had no place in the political and social existence of Japan. This aban- donment of the high position involved the surrender of the landed property which had been inherited from time im- memorial. The surrender of the pre- rogatives and property by the feudal chiefs meant in the case of the Samurai, a class in whose hands the real political power of the nation rested, the loss of the very means of subsistence to the 2,000,000 of the cream of the population of the nation ; it meant the disposses- sion of their military employment, the privilege of wearing a sword, the mark of a gentleman, the cherished pride of this class ; it meant to them that they had to throw away all that distinguished this order from time immemorial and to step down into the company of the peas- ant or the merchant and to join the ranks of common bread-winners, whom they despised ; and what was the most mar- velous aspect of the situation was that this grand coup a’etat could be carried out only by the efforts of those who had to suffer the consequences of the change. JAPAN IS TODAY MORE DEMOCRATIC THAN THE MOST DEMOCRATIC OF EUROPEAN NATIONS. And yet it wasdone. Japan of today is perhaps more democratic in its insti- tutions than the most democratic of European nations. Although the de- scendants of the old Samurai still retain their ancient class name, it has only a historic value in the political and social life of Japan of today. The spirit of equality, liberty, and fraternity per- vades the institutions of Japan. It is almost beyond human power to fully comprehend this most dramatic incident in history, which resulted in 4 224 the surrender of fiefs to the Mikado. No annals of mankind record an inci- dent which appears more inconsistent with the course that human experience would have predicted. Many expla- nations have been attempted. ‘The weakened condition of the Tokugawa government, selfish motives of some ambitious southern Daimios, personal motives of various kinds, the inability of appreciating the real consequences of the change on the part of the Daimios and Samurai, are mentioned among the causes. Ido not hesitate to say, how- ever, that such a grand achievement in human history cannot be caused by such petty and selfish motives. It was solely and entirely due to the lofty spirit of pa- triotism and loyalty which found ready echo for action in the spirit of self- sacrifice nurtured for centuries under the rigid feudal system. From the following words of Captain Brinkley, an eminent authority on Jap- anese history, you will get some idea of the spirit of self-sacrifice: ‘‘It had so long been the bushi’s habit to associate great deeds with some form of self-im- molation that he had learned to regard the latter as a kind of finger-post to the former. History shows that the ro- mantic element occupies a prominent place in Japanese character, and that the educated classes can always be led into feverish pursuit of an idea which appeals to their sense of moral nobility. The atmosphere was full of loyalty and patriotism in 1869. The mood of the nation was exalted. Any one hesitat- ing for plainly selfish reasons to follow a course apparently essential to the new order of things, and sanctioned by the example of the great southern clans, would have seemed to forfeit the right of calling himself a Samurai.’’ THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE OF THE SAMURAI’S SELF-SACRIFICE Such was the spirit of the people of the time in whose hands rested the des- THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tiny of the Empire. But what was the immediate cause which called forth such a marvelous display of the extreme de- gree of self-sacrifice? It was the advent of black snips to the coast of Japan. It is true that the long peaceful reign of the Tokugawa government resulted in undermining its strength and power, which infused into some ambitious feu- dal barons the spirit of revolution. It is true that toward the end of that government the spirit of loyalty to the throne received an impetus from the advocates of the Imperial authority, but were it not for the appearance of the black ships of the various western nations along the coast of Japan and the pressure brought upon her by those powers Japan would never have seen the day of restoration. Long before the formal opening of the country to the world at large a certain sort of intercourse was estab- lished with the Dutch, who had been permitted to reside at Deshima, a little island lying near Nagasaki. Through the Dutch settlers the glimpse of the West was being introduced into Japan in a certain measure. What overawed the people of Japan the most at the time were the black ships which moved about on the surface of the water as freely as would a wagon on land, emit- ting big volumes of black smoke and raising hideous noises. It was a mar- vel to them that these sailing ships with triangular sails could go against the head wind. Through the Dutch they heard of the greatness of England and France. The Russian fleet made occasional appearances in the northern islands, perpetrated havoc among the inhabitants, and left letters of threat. The following extract from Mr Aston’s article on ‘‘ Russian Descents on Japan”’ is interesting in this connection : AN EARLY VISIT FROM RUSSIA ‘‘From Ruitaka the Russians crossed over to Rushin, a small island near the ee A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE History entrance to Soya (Japanese) harbor. Here they found four junks, mostly laden with stores for the Soya garrison. These junks they rifled and burnt, car- rying off, amongst other booty, a ten- pounder bronze cannon captured by Taikosama from the Koreans. The officers in charge of the junks reported to their government that they had been wrecked in the storm at Rushin. The Russians sent ashore the prisoners taken at Kushunkotan and Itorup. ‘To one of them was entrusted a message to the Japanese authorities, which was taken down in Japanese and ran as follows: ‘“* To the Governor of Matsumaye : ‘«« The distance between Russia and Japan being but small, our Emperor sent his officers across the sea to request that trade between the two countries might be permitted. If due inquiry had been made and a treaty of commerce concluded, all would have been well, but although our officers went repeatedly to Nagasaki they were sent away without an answer. Then things took an. un- pleasant turn, and our Emperor com- manded us to give you a specimen of his power in return for your refusing to listen to his first request. If you per- sist in refusing his offers, we will take all your northern territory from you, and if possible get an answer out of you in that way. ‘The red men (Russians) can always conie to Saghalien and Itorup and chase you about. If you comply with our wishes, we shall always be good friends with you. If not, we will come again with more ships and behave in the same way as we have done before this year. ‘“ “OQROSHIYA (RUSSIA).’ ’’ About the time when Commodore Perry entered the waters of Japan, in March, 1853, and his return there, in February, 1854, the rumors of trouble between the Chinese and European powers were being constantly received through the Dutch by the statesmen of 212.5 Japan with the greatest concern. The incessant and increasing visits of the black ships and the persistent demands of the various powers to open the country to the intercourse of the world deeply occupied the minds of the thinking population of Japan. ‘They never had those awe-inspiring black ships on their side, nor had they any of those magical sailing ships which could steer their way against the head wind. They never heard before such a tremendous roaring of cannon as that sounded on those mon- ster vessels. The years following the conclusion of the first international treaty of Japan, in 1854, are marked with the tremendous agitation over all the Empire, and the question of national defense was a matter of paramount im- portance. The Tokugawa government, by the pressure so tactfully brought upon them and by the persuasion so skillfully ad- ministered by the American envoy, were finally compelled to accede to his de- mands, but public opinion was strongly opposed to the opening of the country. It is impossible to say whether those people who advocated the policy of ex- clusion really believed in its practica- bility or not, but it was a policy which had been followed during several centu- ries, and they cherished the quiet peace of seclusion. ‘‘Respect the throne and expel the barbarians’’ was the byword by which public opinion was guided. The pressure of public opinion and the difficulty of the situation compelled the Tokugawa government to openly recog- nize the authority of the Emperor and the Imperial court, around which now thronged the Samurai of the great and ambitious clansof Satsuma and Choshiu, and, further, to submit the treaty to the Kmperor and refer the same to public dis- cussion by the Daimios. It was an act which found no precedence in the history of the Tokugawa government. Boththe Emperor and the Daimios vetoed the action of the Tokugawa government. 226 THE MARTYRDOM OF LORD II Heavy as they felt the foreign pressure on one hand, the Tokugawa government could not ratify the Amer- ican treaty on account of the strong internal opposition. There appeared a martyr in the person of Ii Kamon-no- Kami, who assumed the portfolio of the premier of the Tokugawa government at this critical moment, and who, in de- fiance of the Imperial order and the public opinion, ratified that American treaty. He was areal martyr, because soon after he fell by the hands of assas- sins, being regarded by the opposition as a traitor to the country. Whatever might have been the popular verdict upon his conduct at the time, it is clear now that he acted in that spirit, as is explained in the following poem of his own : ‘“As beats the ceaseless wave On Omi’s strand So breaks my heart for my beloved land.”’ Agitation was intensified by this dar- ing act of ord Ti. A revolutionfol lowed, and the Tokugawa shogunate, which prospered during two centuries and a half, and under whose wise and peaceful administration the arts of peace made such advances as to have surprised the world, finally came to an-end, and the present Emperor, Mutsuhito, was proclaimed on the 27th of March 1867, as the sole and absolute ruler of Japan. At the same time the feudal system, which was originated seven centuries ago, was blotted out from the pages of Japanese history by the voluntary sur- render by the shogun and Daimios of all the rights, privileges, and properties descended from their illustrious ances- tors or earned by their own distinguished exploits. This noble deed, which in- volved such an enormous sacrifice, was entirely due to the public spirit of the men who had been convinced by the turn of events that the only way of de- fending the country against the external THe NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE aggression was to bring about the unifi- cation of the administration and cen- tralization of power—a condition which was possible only on the absolute aboli- tion of the regime then existent. THE OATH. OF ACCESSION The Emperor, on his accession to the throne, proclaimed the following articles of oath, thus solemnly laying the foun- dation for the grand policy of new Japan: ‘7, A broadly based deliberative as- sembly should be convened for the pur- pose of conducting state affairs in con- formity with public opinion. ‘‘ 2. High and low should unite their minds and vigorously carry out the grand affairs of the state. ‘© 3, Civilians and military, as well as common people, should be allowed to freely carry out their minds’ aspira- tions, and their spirit of progress should not be suffered to be hampered. “a. Cast off the uncivilized customs of the past and let us found our princi- ples on the laws of nature. ‘"5. Seek knowledge in the world and strengthen the foundation of the Empire. ‘“ Desiring to introduce the reforms unparalleled in the history we, ahead of all our subjects, took the oath before the gods of heaven and earth and sol- emnly established the fundamental pol- icy for the Empire and endeavor to lay the foundation for the way of promot- ing the happiness and prosperity of the people. You should likewise share the same principle and cooperate with us.”’ CHAOS HOR A PEyay The tasks attendant to the consum- “mation of this grand revolution, which shook to the heart the political and social organizations of the country, taxed the wisdom, energy, forbearance, and self- sacrifice of the patriots of Japan in a manner almost unknown in the history of mankind. An anti-foreign, con- A CHAPTER FROM JAPANESE History setvative, anarchistic, and destructive spirit pervaded all classes of the people. The Samurai of different Daimios sev- ered their allegiance with their former lords in order to carry out their own conviction by the use of swords and vio- lent means. Misunderstandings, jeal- ousies, and intrigues were rampant, and assassinations were of common occur- rence. In a word, the whole Empire was inastate of chaos. To tame these unruly elements, to infuse order and harmony among them, and to graft on them an order and regime entirely for- eign to the soil, and to develop them to the condition in which they are now within the short space of the last 37 years is the grandest of the achieve- ments that man has ever accomplished. SOME OF THE PROMOTERS OF THE GREAT CHANGE The men who conceived and achieved this unique revolution were chiefly Samurai of inferior grade, without off- cial rank or social standing. The most prominent of them do not exceed 55 in number, and among them only 13 are aristocrats ; but these latter played only a secondary part in the movement, with the exception of Sanjo and Iwakura. The other 42 men were all young Samu- rai. ‘The average age of the 55 men did not exceed 30 years. The four great clans of southern Japan—Satsuma, Choshiu, Tosa, and Hizen—promoted the revolution, and the prominent persons of the present era came chiefly from the Samurai of these four clans, and more particularly from those of Satsuma and Choshiu. Many great statesmen of this period have al- ready departed from this world, but such names as Saigo, Okubo, Kido, Iwakura, and Sanjo cannot justly be passed over without mention. Still alive and actively taking part in the affairs of state are Marquis Ito, who was one of the younger members among the promoters of the revolution and a statesman of the great- 227 est constructive genius of the Meiji era, whose name is connected with nearly every great work in the history of new Japan, and whose legislative career is crowned by the drafting of the consti- tution; Marquis Yamagata, to whom the nation is indebted for the organiza- tion of the efficient army now fighting in Manchuria and to whom was en- trusted the chief command of the Im- perial army against China in 1894; Mar- quis Oyama, a most genial, loyal, and brave general and statesman, now lead- ing the Imperial army in Manchuria ; Count Inouye, a resourceful, undaunted, strong-willed statesman, who held the portfolio of foreign affairs for nearly ten years at the most troublous time of Japan’s foreign relations ; Count Mat- sugata,an eminent financier, whose name has covered the title page of the history of the gold-standard system of Japan ; Count Okuma, now leader of the pro- gressive party and a politician of the most subtle, versatile; and vigorous in- tellect ; Count Itagaki, formerly leader of the liberal party and the most ardent advocate of the constitutional govern- ment. The careers of these men are full of incidents most entertaining and in- structive, but I have no time to dwell upon them here. HIS MAJESTY THE EMPEROR MUTSU- HITO It would be improper to close this speech without some allusion to our most beloved and revered sovereign, who was suddenly called to the actual duties of the head of the nation at the age of sixteen and at the most turbu- lent period in Japan’s history. During the last thirty-seven years of his most marked and enlightened reign he has given the nation the enjoyment of all the best fruits of the civilization of the West, and, above all, has raised the country, in the face of the immense ob- stacles, from the position of an insignifi- cant oriental state to that of a formid- 228 able unit in the comity of nations. Much need not be said about his public acts. Facts are too abundant and con- spicuous to make explanation necessary. His Majesty the Emperor Mutsuhito was born on the 3d of November, 1852, and ascended the throne in February, 1867. He isa person above the ordi- nary Japanese height, with large, wide- set eyes and broad forehead. He is robust in health, studious in habit, kind and sympathetic in sentiment, and strong and loyal in character. Out of the civil list, which is only $1,500,000 a year, he supports, borrowing the words of Captain Brinkley, ‘‘ the whole of the princely families, including that of the Crown Prince; he accompanies all pat- ents of nobility with handsome sums; he makes liberal allowances to cabinet ministers by way of supplement to their salaries; he pays the honoraria that goes with orders and medals; he gives large amounts to charitable purposes, many of which escape the public attention al- together, and he devotes considerable sums to the encouragement of art.” The $65,000 which were given for the entertainment of the soldiers on the 11th of February last, the occasion of the anniversary of the foundation of the Empire by the first Emperor, Jimmu, came out of the Imperial purse. ‘‘ His manner of life is simple and frugal, and it may be trulysaid that his record does Tue NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE not show one act unworthy of the rev- erence with which his subjects regard him.’’ Indeed, the people of Japan love, honor, and respect His Majesty, who has so faithfully and assiduously ful- filled the oath which he took on his accession to the throne. I have heard sometimes certain sar- castic remarks on the reports to the Emperor from the generals and ad- mirals on the field, which generally end with the phrase ‘‘ This glorious success is due to the virtue of your Majesty.”’ To your ears this may sound strange. Foreigners may take it as a mere form of oriental flattery ; but to our mind there is nothing more truthful and sin- cere. In Japan loyalty and patriotism are interchangeable terms. Were it not for the devotion of men and officers to ‘“‘Our Lord and country,’’ no admiral or general, however great a military genius he may be, could ever achieve the glorious successes which crowned their efforts during the present war. The sentiment expressed in our na- tional hymn that ‘*May our Lord’s dominion last Till a thousand years have passed Twice four thousand times o’ertold. Firm as changeless rock, earth-rooted, Moss of ages uncomputed,”’ truthfully reflects the hearts’ wishes of the fifty millions of his most loyal sub- jects. OUR SMALLEST POSSESSION—GUAM By WILLIAM E. SAFFORD Mr Safford was formerly a lieutenant in the U. S. Navy, and his cruises took him to many of the islands of the Pacific, where he made many notes and collections. Fle so felt the wantof a handy volume describing the luxuriant tropical plants, a large number of which are very useful, that when he later joined the botanical staff of the Department of Agriculture he resolved to write a book on the subject. This book, a volume of 420 pages, profusely tlustrated, and with an introduction by Mr frederick V. Coville, Curator of Botany, has just been published by the U.S. National Museum under the title ‘‘ The Useful Plants of the [sland of Guam.’ In it the author describes the principal plants used for food, fiber, oil, starch, sugar, and forage in our tropical islands, and he further includes much interesting information about the people of Guam and their descendants. UAM is considerably larger than (5 Tutuila, the most important of the Samoan Islands owned by the United States, though its chief port, San Luis de Apra, cannot be com- pared with Pango-Pango, our naval sta- tion in the South Pacific, and perhaps the finest harbor in the world. The advantage of Guam as a station for re- pairs and supplies is evident, forming, as it does, a stopping place for vessels between Hawaii and the Philippines. Its strategic importance has been greatly enhanced since ‘it has been made the landing place of the trans-Pacific cable, and the completion of the Panama Canal will make it still more valuable to our government. The extreme length of the island from north-northeast to south-southwest is 29 statute miles. Its widthis from 7 to 9 miles, narrowing at the middle toa neck only 4 miles across. On the north- west coast of this neck is situated Agana, the capital, a city of over 6,000 inhab- itants. The entire population of the island, according to the census of 1901, was 9,676. THE COMING OF MAGELLAN The Island of Guam was discovered on March 6, 1521, by Magellan, aftera passage of three months and twenty days from the strait which bears his name. An account of the privations The following article is based on this report : and suffering of his crew, many of whom died on the way across the hitherto un- explored ocean, is graphically given by Antonio Pigafetta, Magellan’s historian. He describes how the expedition arrived at Guam with the crews suffering from scurvy and in a starving condition, hav- ing been compelled on the passage to eat rats and even the leather from off the standing rigging to keep soul and body together. In comparison with Magel- lan’s feat of crossing the vast Pacific, the first voyage of Columbus from the Canary Islands to the West Indies seems insignificant. The natives of Guam came to meet the Spaniards in strange ‘‘flying praos’’ (canoes pro- vided with outriggers and triangular sails of mats). The Spaniards had dropped anchor, furled their sails, and were about to land, when it was dis- covered that a small boat which rode astern of the flagship was missing. Suspecting the natives of having stolen it, Magellan himself went ashore at the head of a landing party of 40 armed men, burned 40 or 50 houses and many boats, and killed seven or eight natives, male and female. He then returned to his ship with the missing boat and im- mediately set sail, continuing his course to the westward. The natives did not fare much better at the hands of later visitors. Mission- aries came in 1668. Tue NatTionaL GroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 230 ‘sont 19]eM OOquIeG UI 1d}eM BuLX11e9 st Ovqeivs Sunos ay“ (urery} WOIf JUIMIYSTINOU I13Y} SALIOp jou Op jnq sjue[d Joy}O uO MOIS YIM sjURTdasre mens) jo pues] “jso1oy sy, WINssny [PUOTIVN ‘S “Q ‘pioyes “sy “A WO ) uol}ejas9A [v}Aqdids Surmoys Our SMALLEST PossEssION 2 1 Museum 10ona afford, U. S. Nati aS From W. E I On the Main Road Across the Island of Guam 2202 THe NaTIonaAL Geocrapiuic MAGAZINE A Fish Intoxicant ; the Fruit of the Barringtonia speciosa, Natural Size The natives of Guam, and of a number of other tropical islands of the Pacific, use this fruit to stupefy fish (see opposite page). The species does not occur in the Hawaiian Islands, but it is found in the Malay Archipelago, the Andaman Islands, and Ceylon. The fruits are light, and as the tree grows down to the very edge of the sea, they often fall into the water and are carried by currents and cast upon other shores. The dried fruits are used by the natives as floats for their nets. Our SMALLEST PossEss{toONn " ‘Though Guam lies within the tropics, its climate is tempered throughout the greater part of the year by a brisk trade wind blowing from the northeast and east. Its mountains are not high enough to cause marked differences in the dis- tribution of rain on the island, and the island is not of sufficient extent to cause the daily alternating currents of air known as land and sea breezes. Gen- erally speaking, the seasons conform in a measure with those of Manila, the least rain falling in the colder months or the periods called winter by the natives, and the greater rainfall occur- ring inthe warm months, which are called summer by the natives. The mean annual temperature is about 80° F. in December, the coldest month, to 82° F. in May and June, the hottest months. The highest absolute tempera- ture recorded in 1902, 90° F., occurred in June and July, the lowest, 66° F., in December. Though the mean monthly tempera- ture varies only 2° on either side of the mean annual temperature, yet the ‘‘ win- ters’’ of Guam are so definitely marked that certain wasps which during the summer make their nests in the open fields among the bushes invade the houses of the people at that season and hibernate there. The forest vegetation of Guam con- sists almost entirely of strand trees, epiphytal ferns, lianas, and a few un- dershrubs. ‘The majority of the species are included in what Schimper has called the Barringtonia formation. ‘The prin- cipal trees are the wild, fertile bread- fruit, Artocarpus communis ; the Indian almond, 7evminalia catappa,; jack-in- the-box,, Hernandia peltata, and the giant banyan. CATCHING FISH WITH INTOXICANTS The fruit of another common tree (Barringtonia speciosa) the natives use to stupefy fish. The fruit is pounded into a paste, in- closed in a bag, and kept over night. ae The time of an especially low tide is se- lected, and bags of the pounded fruit are taken out on the reef next morning and sunk in certain deep holes in the reef. The fish soon appear at the surface, some of them lifeless, others attempting to swim, or faintly struggling with their ventral side uppermost. The natives scoop them in their hands, sometimes even diving for them. Nothing more striking could be imagined than the picture presented by the conglomeration of strange shapes and bright colors— snake-like sea eels, voracious lizard- fishes, gar-like houndfishes, with their jaws prolonged into a sharp beak; long- snouted trumpet-fishes, flounders, por- cupine-fish, bristling with spines; squir- rel-fishes of the brightest and most beautiful colors—scarlet, rose color and silver, and yellow and blue; parrot-fishes (Scarus), with large scales, parrot-like beaks, and intense colors, some of them a deep greenish blue, others looking as though painted with blue and pink opaque colors; variegated Chaetodons, called ‘‘ sea butterflies’’ by the natives; trunkfishes with horns and armor, leop- ard-spotted groupers, hideous-looking, warty toadfishes, ‘‘ zz/fw,’’ armed with poisonous spines, much dreaded by the natives, and a black fish witha spur on its forehead. As many young fish unfit for food are destroyed by this process, the Spanish government forbade this method of fish- ing, but since the American occupation of the island the practice has been re- vived. In the mangrove swamps when the tide is low hundreds of little fishes with protruding eyes may be seen hopping about in the mud and climbing among the roots of the Rhizophora and Bru- guiera. These are the widely spread Periophthalmus koelreuteri, belonging to a group of fishes interesting from the fact that their air bladder has assumed in a measure the function of lungs, ena- bling the animal to breathe atmospheric air. 234 Tur NaTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From W. HK. Safford, U. S. National Museum A Coffee Tree in Full Bloom, Island of Guam Every family on the island grows its own coffee From W. E. Safford, U. S. National Museum Betel-nut Palms The nut is greatly esteemed by the natives of Guam, who chew it with the leaf of the betel pepper. It imparts ared color to the saliva, so that the lips and teeth appear to be covered with blood, and in time become blackened. In Guam betel chewing is a matter of etiquette at all wedding assemblies, festivals, and funerals. 220 THE NATIVES AS THE SPANIARDS FOUND THEM Both sexes were expert swimmers, and were as much at ease in the water asonland. As they threw themselves into the sea and came bounding from wave to wave they reminded Pigafetta of dolphins. The men were good divers. Legazpi states.that they would catch fish in their hands. The children accom- panied their parents while fishing, and were so expert in the water that Garcia declared that they appeared rather fish than human beings. According to the testimony of early writers, their houses were high and neatly made and better constructed than those of any aboriginal race hitherto dis- covered inthe Indies. They were rect- angular in shape, with walls and roofs of palm leaves curiously woven. ‘They were made of cocoanut wood and palo maria (Calophyllum inophyllum), and were raised from the ground on wooden posts or pillars of stone. In one of the narratives of the Legazpi expedition it is said that some of the houses sup- ported on stone pillars served as sleep- ing apartments; others built on the ground were used for cooking and other work. Besides these, there were large buildings that served as storehouses for all in common, wherein the large boats and covered canoes were kept. ‘‘ These were very spacious, broad, and high, and worth seeing.’’ As described by the missionaries, some of the houses had four rooms or compartments, with doors or curtains of mats, one serving as a sleeping-room, another as a store-room for fruits, a third for cooking, and a fourth asa workshop and boat-house. They were a happy, careless people, fond of festivities, dancing, singing, story telling, and contests of strength and skill, yet sufficiently industrious to cultivate their fields and garden patches, build excellent houses for their families, braid mats of fine texture, and con- struct canoes which were the admira- THe NaTIonaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tion of all the early navigators. They were much given to buffoonery, mock- ery, playing tricks, jesting, mimicry, and ridicule, offering in this respect a striking contrast to the undemonstrative Malayans. That they were naturally kind and generous is shown by their treatment of shipwrecked sailors cast upon their - shores and their reception of the early missionaries who founded the first colony on the island. These mission- aries complained that they could not make the natives take life seriously, saying that what they promised one minute they forgot the next. On the other hand, the missionaries spoke of the remarkable intelligence shown by the children in learning the Christian doctrine, the moderation of the natives in eating, and the absence of intoxi- cants. Their sense of hospitality was very marked Women were treated with consideration, and had greater au- thority than in almost any other land hitherto known. THE PRESENT PEOPLE OF GUAM The natives of Guam are, as a rule, of good physique and pleasing appear- ance. Owing to their mixed blood, their complexion varies from the white of a Caucasian to the brown of a Malay. Most of them have glossy black hair, which is either straight or slightly curly. Itis worn short by the men and long by the women, either braided, coiled, or dressed after the styles pre- vailing in Manila. Though the natives of Guam are nat- urally intelligent and quick to learn, little has been done for their education, and many of them are illiterate. The college of San Juan de Letran was founded by Queen Maria Anna of Aus- tria, widow of Philip IV, who settled upon it an annual endowment of 3,000 pesos. ‘Through misappropriation and dishonesty the annual income of the college gradually dwindled to about Our SMALLEST PosskEssIoN 1,000 pesos. ‘The greater part of this was absorbed by the rector, who was usually the priest stationed at Agana, and by-the running expenses of the school, which were the subsistence and wages paid to janitor, porter, steward, doctor, and the lighting of the building. The people are essentially agricult- ural. There are few masters and few servants on the island. As a rule the farms are not too extensive to be culti- vated by the family, all of whom, even the little children, lend a hand. Often the owners of neighboring farms work together in communal fashion, one day on A’s corn, the next day on B’s, and so on, laughing, singing, and skylark- ing at their work and stopping when- ever they feel so inclined to take a drink of tuba from a bamboo vessel hanging to a neighboring cocoanut tree. Each does his share without constraint, nor will he indulge so freely in tuba as to incapacitate himself for work, for ex- perience has taught the necessity of temperance, and every one must do his share 1f the services are to be reciprocal. In the evening they separate, each going to his own rancho to feed his bullock, pigs, and chickens. _ After a good sup- aus per they le down for the night on a pandanus mat spread over an elastic platform of split bamboo. None of the natives depends for his livelihood on his handiwork or on trade alone) —“Ihere are men who can. make shoes, tan leather, and cut stone for building purposes, but such a thing as a Chamorro shoemaker, tanner, stone mason, or merchant who supports his family by his tradeisunknown. Inthe midst of building a stone wall the man who has consented to help do the work will probably say, ‘‘ Excuse me, Sefior, but I must go to my rancho for three or four days; the weeds are getting ahead of mycorn.’’ And when lime is needed the native to whom one is directed may say, ‘‘After I have finished gathering my cocoanuts for copra I will get my boys to cut wood and gather limestone to makea kiln. Never fear, Sefior, you shall have your lime within six weeks.”’ On one occasion a blacksmith was de- layed two weeks in making a plow owing to the fact that the man from whom he got his charcoal had been so busy sup- plying visiting vessels with fruits and vegetables that he could not find time to burn it. PRE MILCH=GOA LE HE Department of Agriculture has been so successful in its experiment of introducing the beautiful Angora goat into this country, by means of which an industry worth several million dollars has been created, that it is now trying to arouse an inter- estin the milch goat. Every travelerin Europe is familiar with the sturdy little animal, which does not hesitate to climb to the attic of a dwelling and when sev- eral stories up allow itself to be milked. It is estimated that Germany owns about 3,000,000 of these animals, that they are worth about $12,000,000, and yield milk and kids each year worth $36,000,000, or three times their origi- nal value. A good goat gives four or five quarts of mukdaily. Itcan eat many kinds of herbage, so that its keep is not a diffi- cult nor expensive problem. ‘The milk is believed to be richer and freer of tu- berculosis than cow’s milk, and if kept cleanisnot odorous. Families living in crowded suburbs may find a solution of the milk problem in keeping milch goats. > Y] AZINE G Tur NaTIionaL GtEoGRAPHIC Ma Dis : 991] BpBYs JUIT[POXKS UB JI 9yeUI sayouriq Surpeaids ay} s[IyM ‘spuory U1oJ IeY-USpleld SB 9}BOT[op SB jSOT[e rvadde saaval peplAtp-A4[auy as1e] OI, ‘sordo3} oy} Jnoysno1yy sezejd Auewt uslope 0} possn Mou St 4ynqG ‘TEOSeSEPeIL JO VATVVU B SI 991} [NJI}NVsq SIT], OOTY, OFLOd ‘SenBEeD) eVZe[d 94} Ul Vol T, OMe] 7 TIMISNJ [BUOIBN “S ‘A ‘SUITIOD “N “DS puev YOO) “yf “O Wo1y o> aS Pur Geiss Pree or Porro Rico ‘asn JO [oI OUIOS YSN] YOM sued sfqevjaseaa pur ‘sjmay ‘saat} ‘sqnays ‘spaaM Jo sotijua Ooo'f jnoqe Sapnyoul uTZeT[Nq ey 4‘wnasny [euoNeN ‘SQ 24} 4q paystiqnd ‘sul[joD "N “5 pue Yoo) “y‘CO sassey Aq ,,‘OOrY OVO JO sjue[q oImouoDyY sy],, uo jaoda1 & OI} de UOT}eIYsNI]T Surpsosid ay} pue siqy, “sMor[id pue spaq aYVUI O} Spaas 9Y} SULIIAOID 10}}O9 9} VSN SUBITY OVOg 3 I, OOTY OVIOg ‘souog Avau ,,‘W0}}0D AIIG,, 10 ‘sary, eqIad oq} Jo UeUOedg pipuslds VW Neen = 2 From Henry Gannett, U. S. Geological Survey 1a . Grove, Californ iposa e tea, Mar ia gigan Group of Sequoi A GEOGRAPHIC NOTES NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY T the last meeting of the National Geographic Society for 1904—’05 President Willis L. Moore announced that the membership of the Society had reached 5,000, making the National Geographic Society the largest geo- graphical society in the world. Nearly every section of the globe is represented in this membership. The members are reminded that the Society will always welcome from them notes of geographic development and interest. Members are also urged to send to the Society for preservation in its library copies of photographs taken From George Fayette Thompson, U. S. Department of Agriculture A Group of Milch Goats. by them, either at home or on their travels, that have a geographic value. Some features which the National Geographic Society will publish in its Magazine during the next several months are: ‘An article on ‘‘Storms and Weather Forecasts,’’ illustrated with 20 charts, showing storm tracks, hot and cold waves, etc., by Dr Willis L. Moore, Chief United States Weather Bureau and President of the National Geographic Society; an address on ‘‘The Philip- pines,’’ by the Secretary of War, Hon. William H. Taft, with a new map of the Philippines, 23 by 36 inches and in (See page 237) DP. three colors ; an address on ‘‘ The Pan- ama Canal,’’ by Admiral C. M. Chester, Superintendent of the Naval Observa- tory ; anaddress on ‘‘ The Evolution of Russian Government,’’ by Dr Edwin A. Grosvenor, Professor of International Law in Amherst College; an address on ‘“’The Commercial Prize of the Orient,’’ by. Honv7O.-P. Austin’ Chief orsthe Bureau of Statistics. A series of illustrated papers on some of the principal geographic features of them Wnited) States.) | lhe? Bio. horn Region of Wyoming,’’ by N. H. Darton; ‘“‘The Bad Lands,’’ ‘‘ The Yosemite,’’ ‘‘’'The Great Plains,’’ etc. UTILIZING THE DESERT NEW method of making the desert useful, which may perhaps give value to millions of acres now worthless, has been suggested by Mr W. P. Spill- man, Agrostologist of the Department of Agriculture. In certain parts of Texas ranchmen Tur NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE have been accustomed when forage has failed because of drought to cut down the prickly pear and* feed itatoveatile: They remove the thorns by singeing the plants ina fire or with a plumber’s gaso- line torch or cut the cactito pieces with a machine. ‘The cactus makes an ex- cellent food, and in some sections of southern Texas the stock industry is almost entirely dependent on it during portions of the year. Cacti grow scat- teringly in many parts of the dry region, but outside of southern Texas they are found only in limited areas in sufficient abundance to be used as forage. Now Mr Spillman suggests that varieties of cacti might be planted in those parts of the United States where they now grow scatteringly, and thus possibly utilize areas in Texas, Arizona, New Mexico, California, Kansas, Idaho, Montana, Colorado, Nevada, Utah, and even as far north as Nebraska, which are now of little value. The Department of Agriculture has From David Griffiths, Department of Agriculture One of the Common Prickly Pears of Texas in Full Fruit GrocraPHic Nores 24 From David Griffiths, Department of Agriculture Singeing the Prickly Pear of Texas with a Torch From David Griffiths, Department of Agriculture A Type of Pear Cutter, as Set Up and Operated 24.4 THe NationaL GeoGraPpHic MAGAZINE From Hugh M. Smith, Bureau of Fisheries Gathering Irish Moss at Scituate, Massachusetts published a bulletin on ‘‘ The Prickly Pear and Other Cactias Food for Stock,”’ by David Griffiths, which contains many interesting facts on this subject. It is believed by somie that the natural cactus with its long thorns would be more serv- iceable than the thornless cactus of Mr Burbank, as it would not need to be pro- tected against foraging cattle. THE SEAWEEDS OF THE UNITED STATES ITH seaweed resources certainly not inferior to those of Japan or any other country, and probably much superior, the United States may be said practically to ignore these val- uable products except at a few points on its extensive coast. Statistics re- cently gathered give the paltry sum of $35,000 as the value of the marine algze prepared in the United States in one year. ‘The business is practically re- stricted to Massachusetts, and is ad- dressed to a single species,‘the ‘‘ Irish moss’’ (Chondrus crispus). Consider- able quantities of seaweeds are used as fertilizer on farms adjacent to the coast, but this is not a commercial enterprise. In Monterey and Santa Barbara coun- ties, California, the Chinese fishermen dry certain algze for food, medicine, and feniiizer, GEOLOGIC FOLIOS IN SCHOOLS HE Germans have a study in some of their schools which they call ‘‘Heimathskunde’’--the study of home. Pupils are instructed minutely in the knowledge of their immediate environ- GerocrRAPHIC Nores 24.5 From Hugh M. Smith, Bureau of Fisheries Bleaching and Curing Irish Moss at Scituate, Massachusetts ment. They learn not merely the names and characteristics of the moun- tains that surround their native place and the streams that flow through it, but they study the special resources and industries of the locality, the city’s streets, parks, museums, art galleries, water works, garbage plant, mre. department, etc. It is a study that makes them more enlightened citizens. pas Similar studies are prosecuted in many American schools, and the Ameri- can teacher has at his command a val- uable aid in studying many localities, of which, unfortunately, few avail themselves. This aid consists of the separate folios of the geologic atlas of the United States which the United States Geological Survey is engaged in publishing. Each folio includes a top- ographic map and geologic map of a small area of country, together with explanatory and descriptive texts. Fre- quently these folios also contain struct- ure section sheets and columnar section sheets, maps illustrative of the artesian water supply of the area, diagrams of coal sections, or photographic reproduc- tions of specially interesting topographic features or of peculiar fossil types. The Survey has issued 119 geologic folios up to date. That means that teachers may have at very little cost the most complete and scientific description yet published of 119 different areas in the United States, each illustrated by the latest topographic and geologic maps. As text-books in geography, geology, and mineralogy for the limited 24.0 THe Natrona, GreocraPHic MaAGAaZzINnE From Israel C. Russell, U. S. Geological Survey Excellent Examples of Weathering near Logan Butte, Cook County, Oregon These peculiar-shaped mounds have been carved by the action of sun and rain from soft shales. Numerous well-preserved bones of extinct mammals have been found in these beds. GEOGRAPHIC Nores area each represents, they should be highly appreciated. To encourage the purchase of these folios for educational purposes, the Geo- logical Survey has lately reduced the wholesale price on folios. When pur- chased separately, the folios of ordinary size cost 25 cents each, those of greater 24.7 of these folios, when regarded as text- books, consider the New York city follows see; tetall price) is 50, cents a copy, It contains! 17 pages of text, 12 pages of maps (each one of which would cost 5 cents if purchased separately), and 2 pages of plates. Other cities covered by geologic folios are Washing- Stacking Alfalfa with a Derrick on a Western Farm From an interesting report on our great forage crops by A. S. Hitchcock, of the Department of Agriculture. length cost 50 cents each, and a few of extraordinary size cost 75 cents each. The Survey now offers 34 folios of the ordinary size for $5.10, which makes the price of each copy only 15 cents. A corresponding reduction of 4o per cent is made on the wholesale price of the large folios. To show how reasonable is the price tonjand: Chicaso,. One: folio’ (No, 50, Holyoke) has been issued for the New England=area, Lhe price of*each of these is 50 cents. Those desiring information as to the areas now covered by the folios should apply, atOuwmtnesirector sof sthe: Waited States Geological Survey, Washington, be Cc: From S. A. Knapp Department of Agriculture Carts with Bamboo Covers, Ceylon GEoGRAPHIC Nores NOTE ON THE ACTIVITY OF SHI- SHALDIN VOLCANO N March, 1903, the NATIONAL GEO- GRAPHIC MAGAZINE published some striking photographs of the mountains on Unimak Island, Alaska, and gave a vivid account of the nature of Shishal- din’s activity. It will not be without interest to add some personal observations of a later date. On September 14, 1904, while in command of the Coast and Geodetic Survey steamer J/cArthur and while passing Shishaldin at a distance of from 15 to 18 miles, I made the following observations on the volcano, which was visible for several hours during the afternoon: The volcano was seen to be in a mild state of activity. In addition to a con- tinuous emission of dense white smoke or steam, circular rings apparently sev- eral hundred feet in diameter and of remarkable symmetry and whiteness were seen to emerge in puffs at short intervals from the very top of the mountain. Frequently two or three of these would remain visible at the same time. HomER P. RITTER, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. COTTON CULTIVATION IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE N interesting geographic contribu- tion is a British blue book of last year on cotton cultivation in the British Hmpire and Egypt, prepared by Prof. W. Dunstan, director of the Imperial Institute at South Kensington, with the aid of his scientific staff (folio, 40 pages, map, and diagrams). He discusses, in all that broad belt from 4o degrees north to 40 degrees south, the natural condi- tions and past efforts for developing the cotton industry in all the British pos- sessions that seem at all fitted by nature for growing this plant, with a brief treatment of the characteristics of cot- ton. He makes the fullest acknowl- 24.9 edgment to American works on the entire industry from the seed to the finished product, and pays high tribute to the knowledge and labor of our De- partment of Agriculture. In fact, he considers our ‘‘paramount’’ position due to the operation of this branch of the government. After this compre- hensive survey of the matter, he finds no hope of displacing our leadership, but the most promising territory for competition with us is in Africa, with something additional in the East and West Indies. Butto any one acquainted with our cotton area it is feared that Professor Dunstan is not a safe guide. In his ‘‘ sketch map of the cotton belt of the world ’’ he actually has cotton grow- ing in the United States up to the lati- tude of New York and thence straight across beyond the Mississippi River— at least double the space on which it can be possibly produced. He also has cotton in China as far north as Peking. It is most likely that such blunders arose from employing a purely bookish man to do practical work. CoNe, WATER EROSION THEORY A FALLACY With Apologies to Prof. H. L. Fairchild * HE arguments against the possi- bility of erosion by running streams may be summed up as follows: 1. No one ever saw a stream eroding its bed or banks. 2. True, some streams are often muddy, which is interpreted by certain geologists as evidence of erosion, but the amount of detritus thus carried is trifling, if itis measured without preju- dice. 3. Rivers deposit detritus in certain places ; therefore they cannot erode. 4. Insome places rivers flow over soft material without moving it ; hence they never erode. * Ice Erosion Theory a Fallacy, by Prof. H. L. Fairchild. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 16, pp. 13-74. 250 5. In many places no deposits from rivers areseen. If there are nodeposits, there can have been no erosion. The amount of deposit discovered must equal the amount eroded, for none is carried to the sea or otherwise hidden. 6. The water in the middle of a’stream moves faster than that near the bottom or sides; hence the upper layers move over the lower layers, and the latter thus become nearly stagnant, and lose what- ever cutting power they might have pos- sessed. 7. Water, being liquid, flows around and over obstacles instead of cutting them away. The existence of an island in a stream is conclusive proof of the stream’s inability toerode. Being liquid, water cannot hold up its cutting tools to their work. 8. The fluency of water diminishes with the amount of sediment carried. Since a river has no means of getting rid of its load of detritus, this load ac- cumulates near the mouth, where it must eventually become too great to allow erosion ; hence stream erosion, if there be any, must be confined to the upper reaches of the streams, where the load of detritus is moderate. 9g. True, flowing water does change the form of canyons carved by other agencies. Thus it changes the cross- section of a glacier-carved valley from a U shape to a V shape, but we will not call this erosion. 10. It is perfectly possible for streams to carry sharp-edged sand along their bottoms and sides without doing any erosion. 11. If one cannot prove absolutely that erosion is in any case caused by running water, therefore it must have been done by ice. ) 12. The majority of geologists and physiographers are in accord with these views. mG: Field Courses in Geology.—A joint an- nouncement has been-issued describing the field courses in geology which will Tue NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE be given during the summer of 1905 by Chicago, Columbia, Harvard, Johns Hopkins, Kansas, Minnesota, North Carolina, Ohio State, Leland Stanford Junior, and Wisconsin Universities. There is also an inter-collegiate Appa- lachian course of five weeks’ duration, which will be given under the direction of several instructors, and will include the study of the tertiary and cretaceous formations of Maryland, the paleozoic strata of the Susquehanna-Juniata dis- trict of Pennsylvania and central New York, the crystalline and paleozoic rocks of the Little Falls district of eastern New York, and the metamorphic and triassic rocks of western Connecticut. The courses offered by the several uni- versities cover a wide range of territory, extending from Vancouver Island and California, on the Pacific coast, to North Carolina, Maryland, and New York, on the Atlantic, while one course is announced for Iceland, where four weeks will be spent in the study of volcanoes, glaciers, and geysers. Hach of these courses will be under the guid- ance of a geologist familiar with the geology of the region studied. In the list of instructors appear the names of the following well-known geologists : J. C. Branner|. Wim: 5B. Clan eres Cushing, Wm. M. Davis, A. W. Gra- bau,.C. W. Hall, FE. Haworth Aye Er. Hobbs, Charles S. Prosser, R. D. Salis- bury, N.S. Shaler, Stuart Weller, J. B. Woodworth, T. C. Hopkins, S. Barrell, R. T. Chamberlin, W.W. Atwood, T. A. Jaggar, Collier Cobb, and J. F. New- som. THE ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE PLATEAUX IN TROPIC AMERICA BY J. RUSSELL SMITH, PH. D. Tropic America presents the unusual specta- cle of a region in which one type of district supports most of the population and another supports the more important foreign trade. In temperate North America and in Europe the centers of population and production are upon the lowlands. In tropic America the centers of population are upon the highlands, GEOGRAPHIC Nores while the lowlands are the natural place for the production of the most desired products of that zone. Accordingly, the majority of the people live upon the poorest land, in positions very difficult of access to commerce, and the fertile and accessible regions are unsettled, while the civilized world experiences a grow- ing demand for the really tropical products, which they now produce in an unsystematic way. The tropic highlands, in one-half or more of their exports, are competing with temperate- zone lands. The lowlands are the real tropics of commerce. The economic question is, Can they become populated and developed? Two methods are now available—the impor- tation of the Asiatic coolie and the application of science to make these lands habitable by Caucasians. The first method is being suc- cessfully tried in some countries and the second is full of possibilities. Science is just begin- ning to be applied to the problems of eliminat- ing disease, improving tropic agriculture, and overcoming the difficulties of environment. The present century may witness the opening up of practically a new world to population and commerce through the settling of this now neglected part of the world by people who will at least be socially and industrially organized by the most advanced races. THE EXPLORATION OF ALASKA BY ALFRED H. BROOKS, CHIEF OF ALASKAN DIVISION, U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY The first knowledge of Alaska was obtained by the Russians, who in the early part of the eighteenth century had established themselves on the western shore of Bering Sea and first learned of the continent beyond the sea from the natives, for it was not until 1841 that they obtained any definite knowledge of North- western America by personal observation. It was then that Bering made his fateful voyage and definitely established at least one point on the mainland of Alaska. Subsequently explo- ration appears to have taken place from three directions. The Russians came from the west, across Siberia, Bering Sea and Straits; the English from the east, by way of McKenzie Valley, and navigators of various nationalities explored its coast, approaching from the south by following the eastern shore of the Pacific. Among the important expeditions were those led by Bering, Lutke, Kotzebue, Cook, Van- couver, Franklin, Beechey, Malaspina, La Pérouse, and several Spaniards. By the mid- dle of the eighteenth century the coast-line of Alaska was fairly well known, but the detailed charting has not even yet been completed, though the United States Coast Survey has been actively at work for many years. Of the 25a interior of Alaska the Russians knew compar- atively little, though they explored the lower stretches of the Yukon, the Kuskokwim, and Stikine. The Upper Yukon was reached by the Hudson Bay traders in the middle of the nineteenth century. In 1865 the exploration of Alaska was much accelerated by the work of the corps of ex- plorers organized by the Western Union Tele- graph Company, of whom William H. Dall and Robert Kennicott were the most promi- nent. When Alaska came into the possession of the United States, but little attempt was made to explore its interior, though a few expedi- tions were sent out under various auspices. Thus it was that Schwatka made an explora- tion of the Lewes and Yukon rivers, though these were already pretty well known, thanks to the traders and prospectors. Allen trav- ersed the Copper, Tanana, and Lower Koyu- kuk rivers, while Stoney took up the explora- tion of the Kotzebue Sound region, and in the same district Cantwell and McLannigan made important explorations. Though public enterprise amounted to little, yet the ever-ready American frontiersman and prospector penetrated this wilderness and did much in making it known totheworld. Among the most prominent were Frank Densmore, Arthur Harper, Jack McQuestin, and Jack Dalton. In 1891 the Coast Survey was represented in the interior in Alaska by parties which located the international boundary and made an ex- ploration through tothe Arctic coast from the Yukon drainage basin. During the same period Schwatka and Hayes made a journey of explo- ration from the Yukon to the Copper by way of the head of the White. It was, however, not until the discovery of the famous Klondike gold fields that Congress awoke to the necessity of systematic explora- tions and surveys of this great area. Appro- priations for this purpose were made in 1898, which have been continued up to the present time. Muchof the interior of Alaska has been explored by the many parties of the United States Geological Survey. These have covered an area which can be approximated at 100,000 square miles, and now practically every large river in the territory except the Noatak, Col- ville, and Alsek has been surveyed. All of the mountain ranges except those of the ex- treme northern part of the territory have been outlined by exploratory surveys, and much of the great interior basin has been mapped with a sufficient degree of accuracy for present pur- poses. Of unknown regions there are in Alaska only three of considerable extent. The small-. est of these embraces the great snow-covered 2152 Saint Elias range, which, though but a short distance from tide-water, is so inaccessible that little is known of its geography or geol- ogy. A second unexplored area lies adjacent to the Arctic coast and the international bound- ary, and extends southward down into the Yukon Basin,and embraces about 40,000 square miles that are practically unknown. A third unexplored area lies in the north- GEOGRAPHIC Anemia in Porto Rico. By Bailey K. Ashford. Bureau of Printing, San Juan, Porto Rico. 1905. Another convincing instance of the great work being done by our govern- ment to help the people in our semi- tropical possessions is given in the recently published report of the com- mission appointed to report on the pos- sibility of suppressing ‘‘anemia’’ in Porto Rico. Anemia has always been more or less active in Porto Rico, but after the hurricane of 1899 it became specially troublesome. People thought that it was the result of poor food, worry, destitution, etc., but Dr Bailey K. Ashford, U. S. Army, identified it as the same disease as tropical anemia, prevalent in Mexico and elsewhere, and caused by a parasitic worm in the in- testines. Through the cooperation of Governor Hunt the Porto Rican legislature in the winter of 1904 was induced to ap- propriate $5,000 for the study and treat- ment of the disease. Governor Hunt appointed as members of the commis- sion Captain Ashford, Surgeon W. W. King, and Dr Igaravidez. These gen- tlemen made a tour of the island, ex- amining and treating 500 to 600 persons a day. ‘The patients would begin to atrive early in the morning, in many cases having traveled since the day be- fore, generally on foot ; sometimes they spent several days on the road. Very bad cases were carried in hammocks to thecamp. In practically every case the THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE western part of the territory west of the r51st meridian and north of the 68th parallel. This also includes about 40,000 square miles and is almost entirely unknown, though Schrader and Howard have traversed its eastern mar- gin. Of little-known areas we have also the Kuskokwim Basin, which probably embraces some 15,000 square miles, less than half of which have been surveyed. LITERATURE disease was found to be caused solely by ‘‘uncinaria.’’ Patients were given a prescription which they presented to the apothecary, who delivered the medi- cine with directions as to how it should be taken, the patients, or those accom- panying them, being required to repeat these instructions until they were thor- oughly understood. They were directed to return in one week for reexamina- tion and more medicine, most of them doing so with considerable regularity. The more advanced cases were treated in hospitals hastily constructed of tents. In his report on the work of the com- mission Captain Ashford states that probably go per cent of the rural popu- lation of Porto Rico suffer from anemia. Such a large percentage of affected must injure the economical power of the coun- try. The parasitic worm usually gains entrance by the penetration of the larvze through theskin. The disease is cura- ble in the great majority of cases and can, believes Captain Ashford, be prac- tically stamped out of the island if hy- gienic laws are enforced. ‘The limited sum at the disposal of the commission enabled them to carry on their work for a few months only. The members re- ceived no salary, and each member pro- vided his own instruments and labora- tory equipment. Sweden: Its People and Its Industry. Edited by Gustav Sundbarg. Pp. xi + 1143. Illustrated. Stockholm. 1904. This is the third edition, the first GEOGRAPHIC being in French and the second in Swed- ish, of a most comprehensive and valu- able hand-book of Sweden, historical and statistical. It comprises about one hundred and fifty separate memoirs, written by a hundred or more of the leading Swedish scientists and officials, covering almost every phase of indus- trial, social, commercial, or agricultural activities. The principal subdivisions are physical geography, the Swedish people, constitution and administration, education and culture, agriculture, for- estry, fishing, mining, manufactures, commerce, navigation, internal commu- nications, credit and insurance, indus- trial and labor legislation, and social statistics. The volume is provided with excellent maps, well chosen and attractive illus- trations. ‘The translation is good, the typography of a high order, and an in- dex enhances the value of the volume forstandard reference. The publication is most creditable to the Swedish gov- ernment and toits editor, G. Sundbarg, who has compiled valuable and compre- hensive statistics, extending in some in- stances totheendof 1903. A.W.G. The Moon. By William H. Pickering. Pp. vilit1o3. 125@ x 1056 inches. New York: Doubleday, Page & Co. 1903. $10.00 net. With the aim of summarizing some of the more recent lunar knowledge chiefly acquired in the Harvard obser- vatories located in low latitudes, Prof. Pickering has given us one of the most entertaining volumes in existence on this subject for the general reader. It has been found that the clearest atmos- phere can be obtained only in the trade- wind belt, which isso largely free from the terrible storms raging in the tem- perate zones. Hence chief progress has been made in the two stations of this foremost American university. Prof. Pickering treats of the origin of the moon, its motion, its physiography, with a very readable sketch of the his- LITERATURE 3 tory of lunar research. There are a number of beautiful illustrations based largely on the photographs taken by the author and his assistants. The whole volume is in the fine typographical dress usual with this firm of publishers. CoM Early Western Travels, 1748-1845. Ed- ited by Reuben G. Thwaites. Vol. vil, Buttrick’s Voyages, 1812-1819 ; Evans’ Pedestrious Tours, 1818. Pp. 364. Vol. x, Hulme’s Journal,1818 ; Flower’s Letters from Lexington and the Illinois, 1819; Flower’s Letters from the Illinois, 1820-1821 ; Wood’s Two Years’ Residence, 1820, 1821. Pp 357.) Cleveland: “Arthur HE: Clark Co. 1904. $4.00 zet. Buttrick’s experiences give glimpses of life in Kentucky and along the Natchez trail, while Evans describes conditions in Michigan and along the great rivers from Pittsburg to New Orleans. Volume x covers the English settle- ment made under Morris Birkbeck and George Flower in Illinois near Cairo, which led to violent discussions in which William Cobbet was prominent. Wood presents in clear and definite form the thoroughly novel conditions of agricult- ure and trade of frontier life and the social problems which confronted the English colonists. Both volumes are specially interesting as illustrating the conditions of life west of the Alleghanies after the war of 1812, when tens of thousands re- moved trom the Atlantic states to these fertile regions. In general the annota- tions of the editor are pertinent and judicious. Wi xa The Future of Road-making in Amer- ica (Historic Highways of America, vol. 15). By Archer Butler Hulbert. Pp. 211. 75@x5 inches. Cleveland: hhe Anthiirds Clark Co.” “To905: With the aid of Messrs Dodge, EI- ridge, Page, of the United States govern- 25 4 ment service in Washington, and Mr Harrison, of New Jersey, Mr Hulbert gives us a Symposium on the vast prob- lem of good roads. He contributes the first paper, which forms the title of the volume, composed largely of extracts from the words of other men summing up the blessings of improved highways. His co-laborers treat of government aid, the advantages to farmers, the proper material for constructing the bed, and the methods followed in New Jersey. The volume is thus a happy combination of the ideal and the practical, all told in readable style, with the aim of popu- larizing the subject. “Hience technical details are pleasantly passed over,though enough of the realistic side is presented to assist a man of fair common sense to undertake some improvement himself, since the views of experts are rather liberally borrowed. One of the most striking utterances on this transporta- tion question is that of President Win- ston, of the North Carolina Agricultural College. He declares that bad roads are unfavorable to matrimony and in- crease of population. In this day of interest in the Racial Suicide theory this position should arouse the greatest attention. OR Gi The Great American Canals, vols. 1, 11. By Archer B. Hulbert. Cleveland : The Arthur Hi Clark Coe 1e04: 1. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal: The Pennsylvania Canal. Pp. 231. Illustrated. 1. he Brie Canal, ~Pp. 234." dlls: trated. These volumes, 13 and 14 of Historic Highways, supplement the series of memoirs on the public roads of the United States by accounts of the great waterways. ‘The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal was a continuance of the effort of the Potomac Company fostered and directed in its earlier years by George Washington to provide adequate trans- portation facilities to the trans-Alle- ghany region. Through an appropria- THe NatTIonaL Gzeocrapuic MAGAZINE tion by Congress the route for a canal from Washington to Pittsburg was sur- veyed, but construction was never com- pleted further than Cumbe Island, Md. This point was reached in 1850 after twenty-six years’ work and at a cost of more thaneleven millions. The rivalry between the canal and the Baltimore and Ohio Railway,as well asthe mixture of politics and business which practi- cally doubled the cost, affords interest- ing reading. More important was the Pennsylvania Canal, which by a system of railways and waterways 394 miles in length, united Philadelphia and Pittsburg. It consisted of a railway to Columbia, on the Susquehanna, whence canal-boats ran through to Pittsburg, crossing the Alleghanies by a portage road from Hollidaysburg to Johnstown, on the Allegheny. This system, although twice the length, cost one million dol- lars less than the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal. The two canals here described may be said to represent the rivalries of the ports of Baltimore and Philadelphia. The Erie Canal, while representing the commercial interests of New York, proved to be more permanent and far broader in its utilities. It affected the trade of the entire region of the Great Lakes and of the upper Mississippi, and this marked an important epoch in the commercial history of the United States. It is to be regretted that the space given to local politics was not used for an analysis of its economic influences. A. WeiG, Historic Highways: Pioneer Roads, vol. 1. By Archer B. Hulbert.) eps 208- Illustrated. Cleveland: The Arthur EL. ‘Clatk .Co, “agoe4e This volume is rather heterogeneous in its material, which covers the evolu- tion of turnpikes from trails and brief experiences in frontier travels. The volume scarcely equals in interest others of the series. A. W. G. Vol. XVI CONTENTS FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS. A Description of Storms, Hot and Cold Waves, _ Tornadoes, Floods, and Weather Forecasting by the Chief of the United States Weather Bureau and the President of the National Geographic Society, Dr WILLIS L. MOORE. With 20 full- page Charts (15 being colored) and 5 Illustrations. Map SHOWING SEAT OF WAR IN MANCHURIA. Supplement. 18 by 44 Inches, in Two Colors. Beginning just North of Mukden, and Covering the Country North to Harbin and East to Vladi- vostok; the Map shows all Roads, Trails, and Mountains over which the Armies must Pass. Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall | eh a Washington, D. C. “\ $2.50 a Year | | 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., ac Second-Class Mail Matter | NATIONAL _ GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE _| N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publahes by the NationaL GEOGRAPHIC Society. All edict § communications should be addressed tothe Editor of the Nationa Grocrarnic MaGazine. — Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. as CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army Ww J McGEE Chief, Department of Anthropology and Ethnology, Pousstage Pur- chase Exposition Cc. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE. Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. Department of A. griculture Oo. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Oo. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Ta ahs A of Commerce and abor — DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ment of Agriculture Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. Pr ‘ @. E. GILBERT | ALEXANDER McADIB ALMON GUNN ISON ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D.C. ; DAVID T. DAY Chief of the Division of Mineral | emilee U.S. Cae rail ALFRED H. BROOKS U. S. Geological Survey ANGELO HEILPRIN os Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- rh delphia ye R. D. SALISBURY Oniversity of Chicago UY 5. Geological Survey Professor of Meteorology, U. s. By: heii Bureau, areal Men. ; sivearasnsies St. cae Univesity ay Pyotr. XVI; No. 6 WASHINGTON LTT santtGxan Lf | GEOGIRAVPIBIIC MAGAZIINIE JUNE, 1905 au FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS* By Proressor Witutis L. Moore, LL. D., CHIEF UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU AND PRESIDENT NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HE author would urge all intel- ligent persons to abandon the idea that the weather map is an enigma too difficult for them to solve. To one who will read this chapter once or twice, and carefully follow the charts as they at successive steps illustrate and make clear the text, the daily weather chart will be an object of interest as well as pleasure and profit. Sometimes the problems presented by the map are so simple that one possessed of the most elementary knowledge of its con- struction can accurately forecast the character of the coming weather; and again, the most expert forecaster is un- able to clearly foresee the impending changes. Weather maps differ as much as do the members of the human family ; no two are precisely alike, although they may be similar in their fundamental charac- teristics. Some are so radically dissim- ilar to others that it requires but a glance to learn that similar weather cannot follow both. Weather forecast- ing may be fairly placed upon a plane with the theory and practice of medi- Cites jlhe torecaster dS sin an deonee guided in his calculations by symptoms, and he is able to diagnose the atmos- pheric conditions with about the same degree of accuracy that the skilled phy- sician is able to determine the bodily condition of his patient. He is able to forecast changes in the weather with rather more certainty than the physician can predict the course and the result of a well-defined disease. While but less than a century ago we knew not whence the winds came nor whither they went, we are now able, through the aid of daily meteorological observations and the telegraph that joins our places of observation by an electric touch, to trace out the harmonious operations of many physical laws that previously were unknown, and that determine the go- ings and the comings of the winds, and the sequence in which weather changes * Copyright, 1905, by the National Geographic Society. 256 occur; but in weather forecasting it will never be possible to attain the ac- curacy acquired by astronomers in pre- dicting the date of an eclipse or the occurrence of celestial events. In this connection it is interesting to note that at the time of the founding of the first of the Thirteen Colonies, at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1607, practi- cally nothing was known of the prop- erties of the air or of the methods of measuring its phenomena. Today, at over 200 stations in the United States, Canada, and the West Indies, electric- ally recording automatic instruments measure and transcribe, for each mo- ment of time, the temperature, the air pressure, the velocity and the direction of the wind, the beginning and the end- ing of rainfall, the amount of precipita- tion, and the duration of sunshine. It was not until 1643, twenty-three years after the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth Rock, that Torricelli dis- covered the principle of the barometer, and made it possible to measure the weight of the superincumbent air at any spot where the wonderful, yet simple, little instrument might be placed. His great teacher, Galileo, who was so cruelly persecuted for teaching the truth of the Copernican theory and for the invention of the telescope, died with- out knowing of the barometer. He therefore never understood why “‘ nat- ure abhors a vacuum.’’ But meteorol- ogists as well as astronomers must ever pay homage to his great intellect, for, among many other valuable inventions, he discovered the principle of the ther- mometer. ‘The data from the readings of the barometer and the thermometer form the foundation of meteorological science. Their inventors as little ap- preciated the value of their discoveries as they dreamed of the great empire then just rising from the mists of the western seas, which should come into existence and first use their instruments to detect the inception of storms. THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE RESEARCHES OF BENJAMIN FRANKLIN About one hundred years after the invention of the barometer Benjamin Franklin, statesman, diplomat, patriot, and scientist, divined that northeast storms were caused by atmospheric dis- turbances located to the southwest of the regions experiencing the north- east winds. He compared the move- ment of the air to water held in a canal by a gate at the lower end. When the gate is opened the water nearest it moves first, then that next higher up, and so on, until motion is imparted to the water at the far end of the canal. His simile does not explain what actu- ally occurs, but it closely approaches the truth. It was prophetic that this idea should come to him long before any one had ever seen charts that show weather observations simultaneously taken at a system of stations scattered throughout a broad area. His theory was equally as important as his act of drawing the lightning from the clouds and identifying it with the electricity of the laboratory, but his contempora- ries thought little of it and it was soon forgotten. It will aid in understanding the cy- clonic motion of storms, which will be fully explained a little farther along in this chapter, to learn how Franklin came to reach his conclusions as to the cause of the northeast winds. He had arranged with his brother in Boston to take observations of a lunar eclipse at the same time that he himself would take them in Philadelphia. Early on the evening of the eclipse an unusually severe northeast storm began at the latter place, lasted many hours, and pre- vented Franklin from getting observa- tions. As the wind blew fiercely from the northeast, he reasoned that of course the storm came from that direction, and that his brother’s views in Boston also were obscured. What was his surprise, a few days later, to receive word that the FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS night was clear and that good observa- tions were secured, but that a severe northeaster began the next morning. He then sent out many inquiries to stage stations, and learned that at all places southwest of Philadelphia the storm began earlier, and that the greater the distance the earlier the beginning, as compared with its advent in Phila- delphia. Northeast of Philadelphia the time of beginning was later than at that city, the storm not reaching Boston until twelve hours after its commence- ment at Philadelphia. Franklin’s analogy of the water is all right so far as it goes. But if, instead of the canal, he had imagined a broad ocean, and in place of the gate he had located a maelstrom a hundred miles wide in the center of the ocean, toward which the waters within a circle a thou- sand miles in diameter were moving, first slowly and directly toward the center, then with accelerating velocity and increasing deflection to the right of the center, and finally faster and faster as they drew near and gyrated with fearful speed about the orifice down which they must plunge, he would have gained a clearer idea of the motions of the air in a large cyclonic storm, except that to make the analogy perfect it is necessary to invert the maelstrom and have the upper surface of the ocean face downward upon the land to represent the atmosphere, and then the maelstrom, with its vast system of in-flowing cur- rents, must have a movement of transla- tion eastward. The northeast hurricane that swept the region from Boston to Philadelphia was caused by the suction exercised by a cyclonic storm advancing from the southwest, which drew the air rapidly from Boston toward Philadelphia, while the source of the attraction—the center of the cyclone—was several hundred miles to the southwest of the latter place. The velocity of the northeast winds increased as the center of the cy- a5 7 clone came nearer and nearer, until the winds reached the force of a hurricane. When the center of the storm reached the vicinity of Philadelphia the winds suddenly became variable and light, and as the center of the disturbance passed the winds arose as quickly as they had subsided, but with this difference : they now blew from some westerly point in- directly, or spirally toward the center of the storm that was passing eastward, and diminished in force as the center gained distance. Had the telegraph been in existence in Thomas Jefferson’s day he doubtless would have conceived the idea of fore- casting the weather. In conjunction with his friend, James Madison (after- ward Bishop), he conducted a series of weather observations, which were be- gun in 1771 and continued during the stirring times of the Revolution. Madi- son was near the sea, at Williamsburg, the colonial capital of Virginia; Jeffer- ‘son was at Monticello, 120 miles west. They took simultaneous observations for several years, until the British ran- sacked Madison’s house and carried off his barometer. By comparing observa- tions they discovered that barometric and thermometric changes occurred at Monticello three or four hours before they did at Williamsburg. THE BEGINNING OE THE AMERICAN WEATHER SERVICE Although American scientists were the pioneers in discovering the progress- ive character of storms and in deter- mining the practicability of forecasting the weather, the United States .was the fourth country to give legal autonomy to a weather service. But it would re- quire an international service, embrac- ing all the countries of Europe, to equal the service of the United States in ex- tent of the areacovered. Furthermore, forecasts for the countries of western Europe can never cover the time in ad- vance or attain the accuracy of those Py fet >) made for the region east of the Rocky Mountains on the American continent, because of the ocean that lies to the west of these countries in Europe, from which observations cannot be secured. To be sure, wireless telegraphy may partly relieve the situation, but irregu- lar observations from moving vessels cannot take the place of stable land stations. ? At the time of the beginning of the U. S. weather service, in 1870, and for some years thereafter the forecasts and storm warnings were. looked upon by the press and the people more as ex- periments than as serious statements. The newspapers were prone to comment facetiously on them, and many were clamorous for the abolition of the serv- ice. We knew nearly as much about the theory of storms then as we do to- day; but we had never had the oppor- tunity to train a corps of expert fore- casters, such as now form a considera- ble part of the staff of the Chief of the Weather Bureau, and from which he himself was graduated. This could only be done by several years of daily watching the inception, the develop- ment, and the progression of storms. After a time mariners began to note that in the great majority of cases storm warnings were followed by dangerous winds and to take heed accordingly. With experience the warnings became still more accurate, until now no port, however small, is without its storm- warning tower, and no mariner sails the seas who does not consult the sig- nals, and no shipper of perishable com- modities runs his business a day in the winter without being in touch with the source of cold-wave warnings, and no large grower of fruits or vegetables is content to be excluded from the receipt of the frost forecasts. Redfield; Espy, Henry, Loomis; Maury, Abbe, and Lapham are the Americans to whom the world owes most for the founding of meteorological THe NaATIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE science and for the demonstration of the feasibility of weather forecasts. HOW THE DAILY WEATHER CHART IS MADE It is essential to a comprehension of the problems involved in the making of forecasts that one gain a knowledge of the methods of gathering meteorological observations and making weather re- ports. This morning at 8 o’clock— 75th meridian time—-which, by the way, is about 7 o’clock at Chicago, 6 o’clock at Denver, and 5 o’clock at San Fran- cisco—the observers at about 200 sta- tions scattered throughout the United States and the West Indies were taking their observations, and, with the aid of carefully tested instruments, noting the pressure of the air, the temperature, the humidity, the rainfall or snowfall, and the cloudiness at the bottom of the aerial ocean in which we live, and which, by its variations of heat and cold, sun- shine, clouds and tempest, affect not only the health and happiness of man, but his commercial and industrial wel- fare. By 8.15 the observations have been reduced to cipher for purposes of _ brevity, and each has been filed at the local telegraph office. During the next 30 to 40 minutes these observations, with the right of way over all lines, are speeding to their destinations, each sta- tion contributing its own observations and receiving in return, by an ingenious system of telegraph circuits, such ob- servations from other stations as it may require. The observations from all stations are received at such centers as Washington, Chicago, New York, and other large cities, and nearly all cities having a Weather Bureau station re- ceives a sufficient number of reports from other cities to justify the issuing of a daily weather map. Before examining the accompanying charts it may be well to glance at the central office in Washington, while the observations are coming in, so as to get FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS an idea of how the charts are made for the study of the forecast official. From these he gets a panoramic view, not only of the exact conditions of the air over the whole country at the moment of taking the observations one hour before, but of the changes that have occurred in those conditions during the preceding 12 and 24 hours. As fast as the reports come from the wires they are passed to the Forecast Division, where a reader stands in the middle of the room and translates the cipher into figures and words of intelligible sequence. A force of clerks is engaged in making graphic representations of the geographical dis- tribution of the different meteorological elements. On blank charts of the United States each clerk copies from the trans- lator that part of each station’s report needed in the construction of his par- ticular chart. One clerk constructs a chart showing the change in tempera- ture during the preceding 24 hours. Broad red lines separate the colder from the warmer regions, and narrow red lines inclose areas showing changes in tem- perature of more than 1odegrees. The narrow lines generally run in oval or circular form, indicating (as will be shown subsequently) that atmospheric disturbances move and operate in the form of great progressive eddies ; that there are central points of intensity from which the force of the disturbance di- minishes in all directions. A second clerk constructs a chart showing the change that has occurred in the barometer during the past 24 hours. As in the construction of the temperature chart, broad, heavy lines of red separate the regions of rising barometer from those of falling barom- eter. Narrow lines inclose the areas over which the change in barometer has been greater than one-tenth, and so on. Here, for instance, throughout a great expanse of territory, all the barometers are rising—that is to say, the air cools, contracts, becomes denser, and presses = 58. with greater force upon the surface of the mercury in the cisterns of the in- struments, thereby sustaining the col- umns of liquid metal at a greater height in the vacuum tubes. Over another considerable area the barometers are falling, as increasing temperature rare- fies and expands the volume of the air, causing it to press upon the instruments with less force. ‘This chart is extremely useful to the forecaster, since, in con- nection with the general weather chart, it indicates whether or not the storm centers are increasing or decreasing in intensity, and, what is of more impor- tance, it gives in a great measure the first warning of the formation of storms. A third clerk constructs two charts, one showing the humidity of the air and the other the cloud areas, with the kind, amount, and direction of the clouds at each station. It is often in- teresting to observe at a station on the cloud chart high cirrus clouds composed of minute ice spiculze moving from one direction, lower cumulo-stratus com- posed of condensed water vapor moving from another direction, and the wind at the surface of the earth blowing from a third point of the compass. Such erratic movements of the air strata are only observed shortly before or during rain or wind storms. A fourth clerk constructs a chart called the general weather chart, show- ing for each station the air temperature and pressure, the velocity and direction of the wind, the rain or snow fall since the last report, and the amount of cloudiness. The readings of the barom- eter on this chart are reduced to sea- level, so that the variations in pressure due to local altitudes may not mask and obscure those due to storm formation. Then lines, called isobars, are drawn through places having the same pres- sure. By drawing isobars for each dif- ference in pressure of one-tenth of an inch the high and the low pressure areas are soon inclosed in their proper 260 circles. The word ‘‘high’’ is written at the center of the region of greatest air pressure and the word ‘‘low’’ at the center of the area of least pressure. Under the influence of gravity the air presses downward and outward in all directions, thus causing it to flow from a’ region of great pressure toward one of less. The velocity with which the wind moves from the high toward the low will depend largely on the differ- ence in air pressure. To better illus- trate: If the barometer read 29.5 at Chi- cago, Ill., and 30.5 at Bismarck, North Dakota, the difference of one inch in pressure would cause the air to move from Bismarck toward Chicago so rap- idly that after allowing forthe resistance of the ground there would remain a wind at the surface of the earth of about 50 miles per hour, and Lake Michigan would experience a severe ‘‘north- wester.’’ CYCLONIC STORMS - Chart No. r shows a winter storm (cy- clone) central in Iowa at 8 a.m., Decem- ber 15, 1893. The word ‘‘low’’ marks the storm center. It is the one place in all the United States where the ba- rometer reading is the lowest. The heavy, black lines, oval and nearly con- centric about the low, show the gradation of air pressure as it increases quite uni- formly in all directions from the storm center outward. ‘ The arrows fly with the wind, and, as will be seen, are almost without ex- ception moving indirectly toward the low or storm center, clearly demonstrat- ing the effect of gravity in causing the air to flow from the several regions marked high, where the air is abnor- mally heavy, toward the low, where the air is lighter. As the velocity of water flowing down an inclined plane depends both on the slope of the plane and on the roughness of its surface, so the ve- locity of the wind as it blows along the surface of the earth toward the storm THe NatTionaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE center depends on the amount of the de- pression of the barometer at the center and the resistance offered by surfaces of varying degrees of roughness. The small figures placed at the ends of the arrows indicate wind velocities of six miles per hour and more. At Chicago, where the wind is blowing at the rate of 40 miles per hour, the anemometer is 270 feet high, while at Minneapolis, where the instrument is so low as to be in the stratum whose velocity is restricted by the resistance encountered in flowing over forests to the northward, the rate is not great enough to be marked by a figure. At Chicago and Davenport the wind is blowing against the pressure gradient, away from the low. ‘This is due to the fact that it has flowed swiftly from the south and gained such momen- tum that it rushes by the storm center - before the gradient on the north of the center can overcome its movement and tuUniatt, Now picture in your mind the fact that all the air inside the isobar (heavy black line) .marked 30.2 as it moves spirally inward is rotating about the low in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands of a watch, and you havea very fair conception of an immense at- mospheric eddy, or cyclone. Have you ever watched the placid water of a deep running brook and ob- served that where it encountered a pro- jecting crag little eddies formed and went spinning down the stream? Well, storms are simply great eddies in the air that are carried along by the general easterly movement of the atmosphere in the middle latitudes of both hemispheres and by the westerly movement of the general circulation in the tropics. But they are not deep eddies, as was once supposed. The low marks the center of an atmospheric eddy of vast horizon- tal extent as compared with its thickness or extension in a vertical direction ; thus a storm condition extends from Wash- ington to Denver in a horizontal direc- FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS tion, and yet extends upward but four or five miles. The whole disk of whirl- ing air four or five miles thick and 1,500 miles in diameter is called a cyclone or cyclonic system. It isimportant thata proper conception of this fundamental idea be had, since the weather experi- enced from day to day depends almost wholly on the movement of these trav- eling eddies, cyclones, or areas of low pressure. That one may gain a clear under- standing of the difference between the movements of the air in the cyclone and the movement of the cyclone itself, or its translation from place to place, let him picture in his mind the solarsystem, with all of its planets and_their satellites, turning each upon its own axis and “pursuing its orbit about the sun, and then imagine the sun also as rotating and as moving forward in space without change in the relation of the planets to the sun, or the satellites to the planets, and he will have less difficulty in com- prehending the various phases of the translation of a cyclonic system and the sequence in which the force and the di- rection of the wind changes ; how the wind must blow into the front of the storm in a direction partly or wholly contrary to the movements of the storm itself and into the rear of the storm as it passes away ; how the wind increases in velocity as it gyrates spirally about the center and approaches nearer and nearer the region where it must ascend ; how centrifugal force, in causing the higher layers of air to move away from the center, tends to cause an accumu- lation of air about the outer periphery of the storm, which in turn presses downward and impels the surface air inward. ‘This whole complex system of motion moves forward the same as does the sun and his system. The black round disk indicates that the weather is cloudy at the moment of the observation, and the open disk clear sky. S. and R. stand for snow and Pork rain. The large figures in the four quarters of the cyclone show the aver- age temperature of each quadrant. The greatest difference is between the south- east and northwest sections. This is due in part to the fact that in the south- east quadrant the air is drawn north- ward from warmer latitudes, and in the northwest quadrant the air is drawn southward from colder latitudes. Chart II, constructed from observa- tions taken zz hours later, shows that the storm or cyclonic center, as indi- cated by the word ‘“‘low,’’ has moved from central Iowa since 8 a. m. and is now, at 8 p..m., central over the south- ern point of Lake Michigan. The shaded areas show that precipitation has occurred during the past 12 hours in nearly the entire region covered by the cyclone. Unfortunately for the science of forecasting, precipitation does not show that relation to the configuration of the isobars that temperature, wind velocity, and wind direction do. Note that none has fallen in the south- ern portion of Ohio, in northwest Mis- souri, and in West Virginia and eastern Kentucky, although they are near the storm center, while a fall has occurred in New England, quite remote from the center of barometric depression. ‘These facts illustrate how a forecast of rain or snow may fail for a portion of a state or for a whole state, even though the storm pass over the state and the wind and temperature change precisely as pre- dicted. However, all the places men- tioned as failing to receive precipitation were showered upon during the further progress of the storm, except northwest Missouri, as will be seen by referring to chart III of the following morning. The cyclone has continued its course toward the northeast, and has brought the rain area eastward to include nearly the whole Atlantic coast region. The weather has cleared on the west side of the storm. Charts II and III contain red lines, 262 which, like the dark shading, do not ap- pear on chart I, which was purposely left clear of these symbols, so that the movement of wind in accordance with pressure gradients could be the better shown. These red lines connect places having the same temperature. Note how, on both charts, they trend from the Atlantic coast northwestward into the southeast quarter of the cyclone, and where they leave the storm center how precipitately they drop away to- ward the southwest. A cause can be easily found for this by examining the direction of the arrows. In the first case the isothermals are being pushed northward by southerly winds, and in the other forced southward by winds from the northwest. As the cyclone proceeds eastward the regions now un- der the influence of warm southerly winds will be, in less than 24 hours, on the west side of the storm, and cold northwest winds will sweep over them. The line of arrows leading from west- ern Wyoming to the center of the storm on chart III shows the place where the cyclonic circulation of wind began that constitutes the storm and the course pursued by the storm center. The small circles surrounding crosses mark the places where the storm was central at each 12-hour interval. The figure above the circle indicates the date, and the letter below evening or morning. As previously explained, the large figures give the average temperature for each of the four quarters of the storm within a radius of 500 miles from the center. ‘The same information may be gathered from the isotherms, but cannot be sostrikingly presented. Now, remem- bering that the air ascends as it spirally moves around the center, one may see how the cold air of the northwest quar- ter is mingled with the warm air of the southeast portion, which in each of the three cases presented by the charts so far brought into the discussion is more than three times as warm. On chart Tur NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE III the two quarters are represented— one by 13 degrees and the other by 47 degrees. The mixing of such cold and such warm masses of air and the addi- tion of cold due to expansion as the mix- ture rises is a fruitful cause of precipi- tation, but not the only one, for we see that rain has fallen in the Gulf states, as exhibited on chart III, probably only as the result of cold northwest winds flowing into and mingling with the warm air of the south. Precipitation may also occur as the result of the warm humid air of southerly winds under- running cold and heavier air, and by © other processes not yet understood. ANTI-CYCLONIC STORMS Attention is now directed to the aztz- cyclone or high-pressure area shown on these three charts as resting over the Rocky Mountain plateau. Hereallthe functions of the cyclone are reversed ; hence the name anti-cyclone. The air has a downward component of motion at and for a considerable area about the center, instead of an upward compo- — nent ; the winds blow spirally outward from the interior, instead of inward, and are deflected to the left of their initial direction, instead of to the right, and the air is mostly clear, cool, and dry, instead of cloudy, warm, and humid. The center of this high moved but little during the three 12-hour periods, but its area expanded eastward as the low advanced, and if the chart of Decem- ber 17, 8 p. m., were shown the high pressure would be seen to cover with clear, cool weather the region now em- braced within the limits of the low pressure. These are winter conditions that are being described. ‘The storms are gen- eral, not local, as in summer, when the highs and the lows exhibit small differ- ences of pressure, move slowly, and sel- dom embrace large areas. The summer type of local storms gradually merges into general storms as the heat of sum- FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS mer wanes, the first general rainstorms usually occurring during the latter part of September. This has given rise to the erroneous idea of an ‘‘equinoxial storm.,”’ HOT WAVES For some reason there come, in sum- mer, periods of stagnation in the drift of the highs and the lows. Atsuch times, if a high sluggishly rests over the south Atlantic Ocean between Bermuda and the coast of the United States and a low over the northern Rocky Mountain region, there will result what is popu- larly known as a warm wave, for the air, on account of its slightly greater specific gravity, will slowly and steadily flow from the southeast, where the press- ure is greater, toward the northwest, where the pressure is less, and, receiv- ing constant accretions of heat from the hot, radiating surface of the earth, with- out any cyclones to mix the upper and lower strata, will finally attain a tem- perature almost unbearable to animal life. This superheated condition of the lower stratum in which we live continues until the high over the ocean dies out or drifts away to the east and the low- pressure area in the northwest begins to gyrate as a cyclone and moves east- ward, mixing in its course strata of un- equal temperatures and precipitating the cool and welcome thunder showers. COLD WAVES Chart IV shows the beginning of a cold wave in the northwest on the morn- ing of January 7, 1886. Observe that the heavy, black isobar passing through Montana is marked 30.9, while the iso- bar curving through southern Texas is marked 29.8, a difference of I.1 inch in the air pressure between Montana and Texas. The red isothermal line in Mon- tana is marked 30 degrees below zero, while the isotherm on the Texas coast indicates a temperature of 50 degrees. The people of the Gulf states, with 2:63 a morning temperature of 4o to 50 de- grees, knew nothing of the great volume of extremely cold air to the northwest of them; but from the distribution of air pressure shown by chart IV the forecaster anticipated that the cold air of the northwestern states, on account of its great weight, would be forced southward to the Gulf and eastward to the Atlantic Ocean, or, more accurately speaking, that the conditions causing the cold in the northwest would drift southward and eastward. He therefore issued the proper warning to the threat- ened districts. Now turn to chart V of the following morning, and it will be seen that the cold wave has covered the entire Missis- sippi Valley. The 10-degree isothermal line has been forced southward almost to Galveston, where the temperature the preceding morning was 50 degrees. The low shown on the preceding chart as being central in southern Texas has moved northeastward to Alabama and on chart V appears as a fully developed storm. The difference in pressure be- tween the central isobar of the low and the central isobar of the high is now 1.4 inches. The low is lower and the high is higher—conditions that argue ill for the coast line toward which the low is mov- ing. Next look at the arrows at the coast stations from Key West, Florida, to Eastport, Maine; they are found to have short bars at one end, which indi- cate that every port, large and small, between these two places is flying dan- ger signals, and that every promontory or island along this vast stretch of sea- shore will exhibit the warning lights of the Weather Bureau as soon as night falls. Twenty-five years ago mariners de- pended on their own weather lore to warn them of coming storms; then, al- though the number of ships plying the seas was much less than it is now, every severe storm that swept across them left 204 death and destruction in its wake, and for days afterward the dead were cast up by the subsiding waters and the shores were lined with wreckage. Hap- pily thisis notnowthe case. Theangry waters and the howling winds vent their fury the one upon the other, while the great mass of shipping, so long the prey of the winds and the waves, rides safely at anchor in convenient harbors. The large figures in the four quarters of the low again strikingly illustrate how great may be the difference in tem- perature, under cyclonic influence, be- tween regions separated by but short distances. It is certain that as the low or cyclonic whirl moves toward the northeast, along the track usually fol- lowed by storms in this locality, the cold of the northwest quadrant, by the action of the horizontally whirling disk of air that constitutes the low, will be driven southeastward toward Florida, lowering the temperature in the orange groves to below the freezing point. Chart VI shows that the center of the cyclone has moved during the preceding 24 hours northeast to the coast of New Jersey, with greatly increased energy, the barometer at the center showing the abnormally low reading of 28.7 inches. Cold northwest winds, as shown by the arrows, are now blowing systematically from the high-pressure area of the north- western states southeast to Florida and the South Atlantic coast. The red iso- therm of 30 degrees passes through the northern part of Florida, where, on the day before, the temperature was over 50 degrees. The cyclonic gyration of this storm extends 1,000 miles inland and probably to an equal distance out to sea. Heavy snow or rain has fallen throughout the area under its influence, seriously impeding railroad travel, and a gale of hurricane force has prevailed on the coast ; but when, on the day pre- ceding, the storm was central in Ala- bama all these conditions were foreseen and the necessary warnings issued. THe NAtTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Chart VII shows the conditions 24 hours later. Thestorm center, asshown by the line of arrows, has been three days in passing from southern Texas to the mouth of the St Lawrence. ‘The temperature has fallen still lower on the Atlantic coast and in Florida as the re- sult of uninterrupted northwest winds, and no material rise in temperature can occur until the high pressure of the northwest is replaced by a low pressure, and convectional currents are drawn to- ward the northwest instead of being forced southward from that region. : When the charts indicate the forma- tion of a large volume of dense, cold air in the northwest, as shown by the ba- rometer readings, the skilled forecaster is on the alert. He calls for special observations every few hours from the stations within and directly in advance of the cold area, and as soon as he be- comes convinced that the cold wave will sweep across the country with its at- tendant damage to property, destruction to animal life, and discomfort to human- ity, the well-arranged system of dissem- inating warnings is brought into action, and by telegraph, telephone, flags, bul- letins, maps, and other agencies the people in every city, town, and hamlet, and even in farming settlements, are notified of the advancing cold 12, 24, or even 36 hours before it reaches them ; and it is safe to say that $10,000,000 is a low estimate to make of the value of the perishable property that is pro- tected in the United States as the result of the warnings that are distributed by the government in advance of the com- ing of only one of several severe cold waves that occur each winter. In the late spring and early fall the highs or anti-cyclones, while possess- ing less energy than in the winter, may at times bring down to the earth such unseasonably cold air as to cause inju- rious or destructive frosts, the frosts being caused not necessarily by the cool air of the high, but by the clearness of FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS the air, which allows a free escape of heat from the earth by radiation at night. As in the case of cold waves, warnings are widely distributed in ad- vance of the high that may cause frosts, with great profit to the growers of tender fruits and vegetables. In a general way the degree of cold in a cold wave, or rather the departure of the temperature from the normal of the season, will be proportional to the height of the barometer, and a neces- sary concomitant of a cold wave is an area of low pressure immediately in ad- vance of the high pressure, the upward movement in one increasing the down- ward motion of the other; and the greater the difference in the barometer between the two the greater the velocity with which the air will gyrate about and into the low, and the greater the downward and outward movement of the air in the high, and the more intense the cold. It therefore follows that a high that is not preceded by an active low will have a less degree of cold for a given pressure, and that the extent and intensity of cold waves depends con- siderably on the form and the charac- teristics of the preceding low and its location ; if north of the center of the country the cold that follows will not reach the Gulf states in severe form, if at all; but if a low of considerable energy forms in the region of Texas and moves northeastward to the Atlantic coast, as nearly all lows do that orig- inate in this region, and a high of equal intensity develops at the same time over the northern plateau of the Rocky Moun- tains, the latter will be drawn far to the south as the former moves out of the way toward the east, and cold north- west winds, driven by the high and at- tracted by the low, flow into the Gulf of Mexico itself, even reaching the islands of the West Indies. It would be impossible for a cold wave to come upon the Pacific Coast states with the highs that drift in from the 20 5 ocean, because of the warming effect of the water upon the air to considerable elevations ; but frosts and cold waves visit the interior valleys of California and other coast states and reach almost to the ocean’s edge. ‘They are due to highs that move southward and then eastward along the plateau. The highs may be moving eastward very slowly, but the diameter of the areas covered by them may increase so rapidly that some cold air is pushed over the mountain tops and flows from the northeast into the interior valleys of the coast states. The U. S. Weather Bureau has adopted certain arbitrary thermal limits to determine what constitutes a cold wave. Both the extent of the fall of temperature and the degree of cold that must be reached vary for season and place. For example, in December, Jan- uary, and February a cold wave in the northern Rocky Mountain region occurs when the temperature falls 20 degrees in 24 hours and reaches a minimum of zero or lower; in Tennessee a fall of 20 degrees, and to 20 degrees or lower is required, while along the Gulf coast afallof but 16 degrees and to 32 degrees constitutes a cold wave. The fall in temperature is reckoned from any given hour of one day to the same hour of the next day or from the minimum of one day to the minimum of the next. The area and the intensity of cold waves depend upon the size of conti- nents and their distance from the trop- ics. The interior of North America and of Siberia have geographic condi- tions that cause the most severe cold waves of any parts of the world. If the elevation of the Rocky Mountain plateau in North America were one-half of what it is and if the mountain chains were leveled away, or even trended to the east and west instead of north and south, the vaporous atmosphere of the Pacific, which extends upward but a very short distance and which decreases in density rapidly with elevation, be- 206 cause of the inability of water to exist in the vaporous form in considerable quantities except under the action of the comparatively high temperatures of the thin stratum near the earth, would flow far into the interior of the conti- nent, and by absorbing the heat of the sun during the day and restricting radi- ation from the earth at night markedly decrease the severity of cold waves and other changes in temperature. Hence it is seen that the height of mountain systems and their trend relative to large bodies of water and to the prevailing direction of winds are important factors in the causing of cold waves. As stated before, the air has a down- ward movement in the anti-cyclone, which may beso feeble as to cause only a slight change in temperature at the earth, or it may be active enough to lower the temperature down to the frost line in spring or fall, or even have such energy as to cause a cold wave in winter. In the latter case the air possesses such intense cold at the elevation from which it is drawn that, notwithstanding the fact that it gains heat by compression at the rate of about 1 degree for each 200 feet of descent, it is still far below normal temperature when it 1eaches the earth. Its initial temperature is so low that it can contain only a minute portion of water vapor ; it therefore evaporates all fog or cloud as it gains in temperature during its fall, and by flowing away lat- erally along the earth it drives away the more humid airofthelowerstrata. The downward motion thus introduces con- ditions of clearness and deficiency of water vapor that promotes free radia- tion and the loss of much of the heat dynamically gained as well as that given off by theearth tothe air. Ittherefore seems that departures from the normal temperature of a time and place are the result of the motions of the air below the height of 10 miles. Ascending and de- scending currents cease before this alti- tude is reached, and it is probable that THE NatTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the temperature of this region changes but little from season to season and from year to year, although short-period observations with the bolometer, which registers changes in the amount of heat that falls upon the outer limits of the air, indicate that in timeit possibly may be necessary to modify this opinion. Few people realize that the cold wave has an important therapeutic value. It scatters and diffuses the carbonic-acid gas exhaled by animal life and the fetid gas emanating from decaying organic matter. Its dense air not only gives more oxygen with each inspiration of the lungs, but the high electrification that always accompanies it invigorates man and all other animal life. ‘The cold north wind, if it be dry, asi usually is, brings physical energy and mental buoyancy in its pure but bois- terous breath. HURRICANES Most of the storms that gain such a velocity of gyration as to consitute hur- ricanes originate in the tropics and move northwestward to latitude 26 degrees to 32 degrees, where they recurve and move toward the northeast. These are the most severe of all the storms that visit the North American continent. ‘The West Indies and the Philippines are the re- gions wherein these forceful storms originate in the greatest numbers, and the commerce of all nations has profited largely by the spirit that has prompted the United States to establish, since 1898, a complete system of cable-report- ing meteorological stations in both of these sections, which enables a central station to keep mariners advised of danger. At times hurricanes remain several days in the Gulf of Mexico or off our South Atlantic coast, and the only in- dication we have of their proximity is a strong suction drawing the air briskly over some of our coast stations toward the center of the storm. Again, a FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS heavy ocean swell may be caused by the friction of the rapidly gyrating air on the surface of the water, and when the hurricane has a slow progressive move- ment, as it usually has south of latitude 30 degrees, this swell may be propagated outward from the center of the storm faster than the storm is moving and reach the coast several hours before either the barometer or the wind move- ment gives any indication of the coming storm. The tracks of West Indian hurricanes are usually in the form of parabolas. These storms come from the southeast, but on reaching the latitude of our Gulf coast they, as a rule, recurve to the northeast and pass along our coast line or near to it. Chart VIII shows a West Indian hur- ricane just making its advent into Florida. The effect of the storm is felt as far north as Wilmington, where the wind is being drawn from the northeast at the rate of 24 miles per hour, and dan- ger warnings, as indicated by the bars on the arrows, are being displayed as far north as Norfolk, both at the regu- lar observation stations of the Weather Bureau and at all the numerous large and small harbors of the South Atlantic coast. The winds at Savannah and Jacksonville are moving from the north- east and north, respectively, at 20 miles per hour, which is four miles less than at Wilmington, farther away from the storm center. This apparent inconsist- ency may be due to the low and re- stricted exposure of the instruments at the nearer stations, but not necessarily so, as the winds never blow into or around a storm at velocities that are evenly and consistently in accord with the pressure gradients, but rather in the form of rising and falling gusts. Observe that there are no warnings flying at Key West; this is because the storm center is moving away, and the wind cannot therefore reach any higher velocity than it now has, and must steadily decline. 267 In studying the winds about this storm center, or rather about such part of it as projects over the land, recall the story about Franklin’s northeast storm. It will be seen how itis possible for storms to progress against the wind. In thunder-storms this rule does not hold. ‘They cover but an infinitesimal area in comparison with a cyclone, and there is a horizontal rolling of the atmos- phere, caused by cold and heavy air from above breaking through into a lighter superheated stratum next the earth. This rolling motion throws forward the cool air in the direction in which the cloud is moving. © Chart IX shows a slight aberration in the northeast course of the storm, which places the center inland, so that the whole cyclone can be charted. From eastern Florida the usual course is north- east over the ocean instead of up through Georgia and the Carolinas. What caused this storm to depart from the usual course? ‘The reason can be easily found, and it is important that one should find it. The high over New England and the contiguous ocean had a tendency to crowd the storm inland and eause it to seek the route of least re- sistance, and the low over the Lake re- gion attracted it. That is the reason ; it will be made plainer when we come to consider the translation of storms. The storm has been destructive to marine property, the wind at Savannah reaching 72 miles per hour, and 48 miles at Jacksonville, and warnings are now displayed at all ports northward to New England, as the hurricane will move northward between the two highs along the lines of least pressure. Chart X shows that it traveled from northern Georgia to central New York during the next 24 hours. The storm center passing northward over the land instead of the water, the hurricane winds on the water were onshore—a condition that strewed the coast with the wreckage of many vessels that were unable to see the warning signals in time to seek har- Mae ANS J TPA SUE ONY SORA ERR VN CA) i=) L ny | | | | : | CHART I.—Winter Storm, December 15, 1893, 8 A. M. 269 FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS ‘Wd § ‘C6gr ‘Sr Jaqma0aq] ‘M10JS IdUIA\—'J] LAVHD ‘SINOY HZ 4S] JO VorIB UOTyezIdioeid smoys Surpeys | ‘emooho Jo URI “‘penb qove ai ommyeredme, osvieae moys seinsy osaery = > ‘8018 ainsseid-ao] 16 ‘ouopoAd Jo 10}UE0 sez¥BOIPUL ALOT ‘BO18 emsseid-ysty 10 ‘ouopoAorue Jo 104Ue0 so}B0IPUl HOTH mous S$ ‘ures Y ‘fpnojo @ ‘Apnoro Apyavd @ ‘{avep> O ‘qq ST] wey} | || o10M sl 41 GeyM APIOOTOA PULA mOYS sMOIIG JO PUS 4B SOINSY :SULMOTQ SI PUM WOTOOIIpP UI 4yUIod sMosIB feIny -siedme4 [enbo sutavy sooutd yoouu00 sour, pos ‘ernssord 5 8 Ubtho- hie [enbe Ssutavq seovjd yoouuos seul yoelq |" LOS’ TY Hint ft dH i Ml j ils ‘i PS a os Meow \W. | Tur NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ae | A i! TCL Ye Hl a FRY PT HATE Pa j i tie tht anil aarriilii i) " yi it H wt if h ' \ i Large figures show ‘average temperature in each quad- HIGH indicates center of anticyclone, or high-pressure rant of cyclone. area; LOW indicates center of cyclone, or low-pressure O clear; @ partly cloudy; @ cloudy; R rain; S snow. area. | Black lines connect places. having equal be é [| pressure; red lines connect places having equal tempera- ture; arrows point in direction wind is blowing; figures at end of arrows show wind velocity, when it is more than light. Shading shows precipitation area of last 24 hours. CHART III.—Winter Storm, December 16, 1893, 8 A. M. FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS a ———— AUN S ii [ yy 5 \ HAE A i "y U ae A a al aM lh: i i f 6. A: \ IN sy \ a poy * i bat Hh i" XE y a , 7 hei Fa Dm VP r Ray ep a . CQ) ’ x ie \ eo afb Otte = RN ev altves eS a . a 8 we S : i il oy Y g | ra i", rt) Leen tt ar nny 7 | i i il \ f Hat ey, | i ee 77 7 G 4) WA Oi AS == aw => J _ i=: = y rally ql } Mik Ra, i N ne tl it ne HIT RMMATITTIA ii ! | i 1 I} Ly od La . MFM OA ea Td ll i Kil ns of last 12 hours. CHART IV.—Cold Wave, January 7, 1886, 7 A. M. area. ; Shading shows precipitation area ns° - no° 252 Tue NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE il 4 tl ~B\ ig . mecca Pees 5.85 HL) - a & terial. and 25 - STARS Poi teDOEe ¢ 5 Bl mS S, Mp aii l il ui i wT ll ie Hit I HA di CMM, ere ' emake. THe eM, TOR ry et iWirqnes fe 25 i Sts AEE Ai 2 J 34 PO iy Per Wie . \ eae Wy 7) I LR \, | CHART V.—Cold Wave, January 8, 1886, 7 A. M. udy; R rain; Say De Polae ee no” I 105" O clear; @ partly cloudy; @ cl Shading shows precipitation aréa of last 24 hours. HIGH indicates center of antic 4 Large figures show average temperature in each quad- | Black lines connect places haying equal\b rant of cyclone. at end of arr || than light. area. L = fs FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS ‘wv Z ‘oggt ‘6 Arenuef ‘aaeAy, PlOO— IA Laved a a ee] a= i = ‘SINOY FZ FSV] JO ore uotyszidriooad smoys Surpeyg | | “euopodo Jo yuBI| if! -penb ove ut o1nyesoduley o8vi0ae MOS soinsyg osaery = | "BO1B einsseid-Mo] 10 ‘euoposd Jo 10}U90 SezVBOIPUL MOT ‘vor8 einsseid-ys1y 10 ‘ouopoAo1VUB JO 1a}Ued SoyBOIPUL HOTH ‘mous § furer Y ‘Apnopo @ ‘Apnojo Apy1ed @ ‘rv9po O “FAST weqy OIOU SI YI May ‘AZIOOTOA PUTA MOYS SMOLIB JO pu 4B geInsy {SUIMOTq SI PUI UOTOeIIp ut yuIod sMorre foIny -viodue} [enbe Sutavy seovid yoauu0d soul, per feansseid J | | ' a a a Te A wl Tue Nationat GrocraPHic MaGaZInE (A . ° 4 Dp 1 o 1? | KE Al 0, Key a = a SS i o : Md), y, denM on 7 ap Se, = 1» oA ae al a ! } (i | | . ' I 1! ean: | Winnie Ny Matlti if os a hi gheg gts sal, ny Ay int iP t \ ‘S ‘ OT Nhe. . Be f yal te tH ™, Nay, ANS A, g 7 ff N 5 Is Uli. He © ES a be. = 2 q Y, ys ~ 5 EB | “hy . x4 t . SeOREE 2 ¥ e ; a i , V wl M i & Y Ne l | I bee ih \ Wy i) CHART VII.—Cold Wave, January 10, 1886, 7 A. M. 2a@ - OD * S OD fe #5 &§385 /S2H 28 eo 2oo Fs Aa) Sa eenss 0+ ona ° a" Sms 4 Se ae Sl a= ey Be 255 2 ay a) Rea Epo a i Tio OF ao BS B38 5 at & —e<- Coy ° j (2 gees | 8 @u% ‘Sei Boars S) On bows ~~ _t, \ oF ™3 9 8s a ( 4 Bua om { oF so AS) | Ad ~,ae2 38 rs re Pro's Q ha. ~ Bae om f aCe 82.8 2 2.60 ) Ses | a 03° 4 ays eae ae Bowens | Pe SSS So a | ; Ae 8 | SOK 8 Sn | wom ; 4 Sa aS FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS ‘W “Vv g ‘C6gr ‘Zz ysnBny ‘oueolliny, ueipuy 4se,\\—'JJIA LavHO ae SOU Piss su ‘SINOY ZL ISB] JO Bare uoTyeyIdioord smoys Burpeys ‘BOIU “9Insseid-MO] 10 ‘auo[oAD JO 19}U90 SoyBOIPUL A\ OT ‘BoIB einsseid-ysty 10 ‘auopoLotyUe Jo 18490 SoyVOIPUL HOTH ‘mous § ‘uter Y ‘Lpnojo @ ‘Apnojo caved @ ‘rv9po2 O dS ueyy @10Ul St I Tey ‘ZIOOTeA PUIM MOYS sMOIIB so pus 4v | If seinsy ‘SUIMOT SI pUIM UOTyeItp aut yulod smorss So1ny -ereduo} [enbe sutaey seovtd yoouuos seuty per ‘ornssoid i si1ldhioreg [subo Sutavyq seovjd yoouuoos soul; yout Ss =) a © BS xt fa > O F \ Jost é O% \ 6 te) ‘\4 a c \ AGS ZZ g ; oF} GG A ae 3 pena 06 0 Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 27.6 ‘WV g ‘C6gI ‘gz Jsnsny ‘ouRoTIINy, UvIPUl \SaM\—’X] LAVHD p = we P og coo eS 2 Oo zoqmeuy eh WE ry 4 4, Oe 7 ors, «tae X/ é Y O Ih ° A VERS Ay fi Cab oY i lr JIN, § Q ‘ VE, Na H) \ Bill bh til it Uh vii! dp visi Hie od OTe y 5 yy "" iy D a = S ¢ Je fin \ ~ =< @ U DAL HA oS d d If it We Bye 4 s Ce | H i % ail f vA 2 Arai Wy age ee i rf 50 | | ye { i | i . “4 y | it zea a7, FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS it ‘y 9 ‘C6grI ‘6z ysnsny ‘suvsllINnZ UeIpPU. ISeA\—’X LAVHD I T ‘SINOY ZL JSVl JO vor nouenaterd SMOYS SUIPCYS ] “earIe | | ainssatd-mMoy Io ‘amopofo Jo 1eqyued SayVOIpUL MAO ‘voIe mal arnssoid-ysty 10 ‘auopoAOIyUS JO 19}U90 SoyBoIpPUl OTH f ‘mous S turer Y ‘Apnopo @ ‘Apnoyo Apyavd @ ‘xvapo O VAST Uvyy _ 910 Sl JI Tomm ‘AQID0TAA PUIA MOS SMOIIG JO puo 4v seinsy {Summolq St pum TOTeIIp Ut yulod smoatv fan} -viodure} [enba sutaey saovtd yoouuos saurt par feinssaad | |f dyomorvq [enbs sSuravy saovjd yoouuos saul, your gt Wi i i ri : ¢ os 15 nu 273 Tue NaTIionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CHART XI.—The Galveston Hurricane, 1900 FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS ZO) se Nie | apani\ Ka . as SU ae i CHART XII.—Storm Tracks for August | | SRE MIN 280 XN THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Wiens Ae \\ Hee NES WR? \ 3 eee ‘ winter types, and April and May be- tween the winter and the summer con- ditions. At times there is an abnormal change in the rate of drift of the highs and the lows simultaneously over the eastern and the western continents and the in- tervening oceans that throws weather forecasts temporarily into confusion. It is difficult to assign a reason to such sudden departures from usual condi- tions. It may be due to the accumula- tion of large bodies of air over conti- nents or oceans from which no daily reports can be received. When mo- mentum expends itself against gravity there may be a banking up of air in unexplored regions, and its potential may hecome suddenly available in such a way as to accelerate or retard the gen- eral drift of storms, or it may be due to the complex dynamics of motion of the vast gaseous sphere from which the earth receives light, heat, and various other radiations When winter has become well estab- lished there often develops a permanent high over the great plain between the Rocky Mountains and the coast ranges, which remains inactive for weeks at a time, lows and other highs passing down from the north along its east front without materially disturbing it. Its principal function is to stop the drift of storms into the continent from the ocean immediately west of it. In mid- summer the high may be replaced by a stagnant low, and hot scorching winds blow steadily for many days over the states lying east and southeast of the low, withering the wheat and corn of the central Mississippi and lower Mis- souri Valleys. Charts XIV and XV show the most frequent routes of storms in the Northern Hemisphere. The influence of the area of high pressure in deflecting storms from their normal or usual course is set forth by Professor Garriott in his paper on ‘“Tropical Storms in September.’’ In FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS this paper Professor Garriott divided the tropical storms. of September into three classes, namely: First, those that recurved east of the sixty-fifth meridian; second, those that recurved between the sixty-fifth and ninetieth meridians ; and, third, those that passed west of the ninetieth meridian or reached the United States without a recurve. Of the first class of storms, all of which first ap- peared east of the fiftieth meridian or north of the twentieth parallel, Professor Garriott observesthat only two appeared far enough to the south to render their advance over or near the West Indies a probability, and that in every instance the westward movement of the cyclones which recurved east of the sixty-fifth meridian was apparently prevented by anti-cyclonic areas which moved east- ward over the Southern states and ob- structed the westward advance and forced arecurve to the northward. He states that the recurve of storms of the second class—z. e., those that recurved between the sixty-fifth and ninetieth meridians—was apparently due to the obstruction offered to a westward course by anti-cyclonic areas which had ad- vanced or had been drawn from the continent over the west Gulf and South- western states. A large proportion of the third class of storms advanced westward from the eastern West In- dies. On their arrival in about longi- tude west 80 degrees, the average lon- gitude in which September tropical storms recurve, the pressure over the west Gulf began to decrease and rain set in, while the interior eastern districts of the United States were occupied by an extensive area of high pressure. As storms prefer to follow the path of least resistance, the centers moved toward the region of decreasing pressure and avoided the high and increasing pressure to the northward. When the pressure continued high over the eastern districts of the United States the storms were unable to recurve, and were penned in 289 over Mexico or the Southwestern states. In such instances, Professor Garriott states, the cyclones developed great vio- lence before disappearing. Similarly cyclones of this class that advanced northwestwardly toward the Middle or South Atlantic coast of the United States were apparently prevented from recurving by high pressure over the ocean to the northward and northeast- ward, and, being forced upon the coast, developed destructive energy. From the foregoing it appears that the effect of distribution of pressure in determining a storm’s path is recognized in practical forecasting. NEW METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE DIRECTION AND VELOCITY OF STORM MOVEMENT Local Forecaster Edward H. Bowie, in charge of the local office of the U.S. Weather Bureau at St Louis, Mo., has devised a new method of estimating the future course and rate of translation of storms, which, while not being absolute in its determinations, is a marked ad- vance over anything heretofore accom- plished in this direction. The unusually high degree of accuracy that has at- tended Mr Bowie’s forecasts for the past several years attests the value of his sys- tem. Storms follow the lines of least resistance ; but the trouble is that with the movement of vast systems of air, due to the excessive heat of the equator, combined with the rotation of the earth and the continual breaking up of the currents on the outer edges of these sys- tems into cyclonic or anti-cyclonic vor- tices, the lines of least resistance are always changing, sometimes slowly and again rapidly. The usefulness of Mr Bowie’s work lies in the fact that while some of his values are but roughly as- signed he has been able by a study of the pressure gradients about the base of the storm, in connection with the gen- eral drift of the upper air, to obtain a ‘resultant that approaches with close pre- Tue NaTIionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 290 9h : : SWRQ BVRVH SKK Ly TH 5 SRY 3 SK SON ml rete gst i ee eas » YD SS 6 \ QR > iS ya pa LK, TLR UY XY \\ AK Yj, = yp My My Meee \\ l] Lf RW My My AN \\ ¢ Ts AN Uf We rl B ae \W, “1 | | AUN ez Z We \\ Lay \\ PPG NAN Z LEE \ IY IRQDOAS Wises es $ fx o% J aX haga SOLS d an PSL TID BERS as Ly ASSESS ‘ me iia BA ISS SRO KVRNN tf x Thy x ; : past RRR L] SRR aS ; ot < ; f “ SS SS De SSO ; ee SSIS L% x SS Le ne oS & a, xs? SX > SRS a 0 SOX? XL © BOK eu Mates Me Y 0, 54 S © KOKI LIL Me 8 CAS sete TH Ob eee coasenenne Y L OLMIS, ey SoH eeeee 4 | } KK? S, OD e aes ot cy i Sp Sea Khe 4 KS s eo oS WEIS SSS 2? £x> SOOO ‘) x BS SNS 5 Sess SN nT ETE TLL LIL LIE, KOCK ROI IS SAIN Get otal gsaee oe Fa SRL SSSI SSS SSG " SOK ISS SEK SS SSO OOOO A HL i SNR SSO ISIS OS My Ls : \ LO Lf Uy, XD fs 53 \ ww s\\ My Le hy oS Uy YY Ny Ls \\s A x S Ny My 1 My My, ly Mi Yy Vite My HD LM} My HHP f i hbo : Lyf i ttt ih My Ve BD 6d * AH TH Py im l ih LH Ue tt if | ee al vo ut quell SN YET ASNT 48 SM S = ean rT Mh My ei HW p L | Corry Hea DH py Ok Hy i Na" Mi \ i oe > fa Mi \ 2 CL RROQOQG Rs ] ANS SRS s LD a, iy Pe i I] IN Hs TS AN AX \ per ae aac jl il (7 » 25 | LA AC otal SS SS ne | i B=8-\ oe aw iti | \ . \\ {Z Y h- I MO oc 3 | TOE er A VN Hr a Pe Veet KV ee HM | NS EESSSY aS hor Ph THUY | SSE” LEX |, AES Rn A> Leon | Wien ee ie Vas SR RTL TET | PTRSEA, IIS SSSI S RIO NRG af sueetseaan RRR RRR RTL) SSSRISQ ISS SSSR RHI ERO LILLE ETD PSD OSI SIL) SRO PAT PLL A | ASSO SSS oS oes SR RRR AIEEE LOT [ERS mae ES RRA A TI RAK ps RESO RRO RKB enter ; ISI IR SO RKC KISS uh | RARE ERS LETTE sausonssrissetansetante eseststetstetetetanestseoeesreceate a MOM UAC AOU LU La UA per OL ia = OLE st (oer ont eet Ao2 cision to the line of least resistance at the moment of the taking of the obser- vations on which the weather chart is founded. In the majority of cases his system locates the place to which the storm center will move during the com- ing 24 hours with considerable accu- racy. It might be improved on by tak- ing into account the vate of change in air pressure at all stations during the two hours preceding the observations, and constructing a hypothetical chart based upon such rate continuing for 12 or 24 hours, and then applying the sys- tem to the latter chart instead of the real weather map in the effort to deter- mine the future course of the storm. The description of Mr Bowie’s method is told in his own words as follows : ‘‘Assuming erratic storm movement to be due to unequal pressure distribu- tion, itis manifest that the direction and velocity of storm movement could be de- termined were it possible to obtain cor- rect values that would represent the pressure exerted upon a storm from all directions and the eastward drift of air at high levels that carries the storm with it. Working on this theory, effort has been directed toward obtaining a value that would represent the 24-hour east- ward drift from any given locality. To find this value it has been neces- sary, first, to determine the resultant of the pressure from all directions to- ward the storm center. To represent this pressure from all directions, lines radiating from the storm center to the north, northeast, east, southeast, etc., have been given, after considerable ex- perimental work, a length of one centi- meter for each tenth of an inch tncrease in barometric pressure along these lines, working with a map the scale of which is 160 miles to an inch, or that of the Washington weather map. The result- ant of such lines, or forces, acting to- ward the storm center, which may be found by the rules governing the poly- gon of velocities, will show the direction Tue NatTionaL GeoGRAPHic MAGAZINE toward which the unequal pressure is forcing the storm. | ‘“Tf the’ pressure of the air trom all directions toward the storm center be a factor in determining the direction and velocity of movement of a storm, it is obvious that this resultant, representing the value of and direction toward which the unequal pressure forces the storm, becomes one of the components that de- termine the storm’s path. ‘‘As the 24-hour movement of any given storm is the measure of the forces that determine that movement, it follows that by using this resultant of pressure toward the storm center as one of the components which cause the storm to move along its path it 1s possible to find the other component of motion by re- solving a force representing a storm’s 24-hour movement into its two compo- nents. One of these components, repre- senting the pressure effect, being known, the other component, representing the eastward drift, may be found by the rules governing the parallelogram of forces. If there bea basis for this theory, it must necessarily be that the second component, representing the eastward drift, should have approximately the same direction and value for two or more storms in the same locality for any given month of the year, provided the appropriate value is given the pressure acting toward the storm center from all directions. ‘“ This component has been found for a large number of storms, whose values when charted show an agreement that appears to be more than accidental or merely coincident. ‘‘“Having found the component rep- resenting the 24-hour eastward drift, which component is apparently fairly constant in value for any particular locality from year to year for a given month and the resultant of the pressure exerted on the storm center from all directions, the value of which is a vari- able quantity, it is patent that the direc- WEATHER AND STORMS 203 TING THE ForRECAS Co61 ‘sesueyly ‘Woes, 32 BUI poop yy V 294 tion and amount of movement of a storm is the resultant of these two forces. Thus, for instance, a December storm charted in Colorado, subject to a press- ure that tends to force it southward 400 miles in 24 hours, is during the same period being carried eastward 450 miles by the flow of the upper currents. It is evident that the storm’s actual path will lie between the two lines represent- ing the eastward drift and the pressure that forces the storm to the south, the resulting movement being almost due southeast and a distance of approxi- mately 600 iiles. ‘‘From a study of storm movement along the lines outlined above it is ap- parent that the rate and direction of movement of a storm in relation to its normal movement is governed by this variable component, representing the deflective force, or the resultant of the pressure exerted on the storm from all directions ; hence it follows that when this deflective force 1s toward the left (when facing the direction of normal progression) the storm will move to that side of the normal direction of advance, and when toward the right the converse will betrue. When this deflective force is acting in conjunction with the east- ward drift the storm’s rate of movement will be accelerated, and when in oppo- sition the storm’s progress will be re- tarded. It appears that in nearly all in- stances the storm increases in intensity when this component, representing the pressure of the air toward the storm center, is acting to the left of the normal direction of advance, but when toward the right the storm, as a rule, will de- crease in intensity. ‘‘ Naturally exceptions are to be found in applying the method outlined above, but in practically all instances the ex- ceptions have been the result of an un- foreseen increase or decrease in the press- ure toward the storm center from some one of the several directions, which, in addition to offering an explanation of THe Nationa, GeoGRAPHic MAGAZINE the exceptions, tends to prove the cor- rectness of the principle. Of course the application of the method is limited when the storm center is near a region from which no pressure observations are available—as, for instance, the storms that move along the Canadian border. In cases where there are a number of ill-defined storm centers it is not always possible to determine which center will become the primary one and which cen- ters will be dissipated, and therefore there is more or less doubt whether the deductions will be borne out by subse- quent events. In nearly all instances involving exceptions the error in prede- termining the movement of the center is apparently due to inability to determine the exact values that should be used to represent the pressure toward the storm center from the several directions. ‘The values determined by the meth- ods used in the research along the lines indicated above are necessarily approx- imations only, and therefore tentative ; but it is believed that by refined meth- ods of computation values representing the pressure exerted on the storm center as well as the normal direction and ve- locity of the eastward drift can be found that will show the exact conditions, and thus lead to a higher degree of accuracy in charting the direction and movement of storms. ‘‘The accompanying charts illustrate the method followed in developing the ‘normal storm tracks’ and the appli- cation of the system in practical fore- casting to determine the direction and rate of movement of storm centers dur- ing 24-hour periods. ‘‘Chart XVI shows the method fol- lowed to determine the correct value for each tenth of an inch increase in the barometric readings along lines radiat- ing from the storm center to the north, northeast, east, etc., to represent the influence of the pressure exerted on the storm center from the several directions ; it also illustrates the method followed in FoRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS Cob ‘sesuey1y | asseAoly ysng AT[oOx dq} YSno1y} 13je\\ Jo ysny oy], : MaGAZIN THe NaTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC 6 29 Co6I ‘Iddississifq ‘osuvise’T ‘poo[y e Jo SUIWIOD 94} Jo} uolyeledorg Ul soeAe’] 94} SuImaq}3u9139 FORECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS developing the ‘normalstorm tracks’ for a given locality. Inthis figure, drawn to to the scale of the Washington weather map, the vector X represents the direc- tion and movement in 24 hours of the storm that was centered near Amarillo, Texas, 8a.m., May 26, 1903. The vector X, isthe resultant of the pressure acting from the north, northeast, east, etc., in the direction indicated, and was deter- mined from an increase in pressure from the storm center outward at 8a.m., May Lo eftmar/llo a ot “4, gu reo on CHART XVI —Showing method followed in developing normal storm tracks and in ascertaining the correct value to represent the pressure exerted on a storm center that causes it to depart from a normal track, 26, as follows: Tothe north, 0o.10inch; northeast, 0 00; east, 0.60; southeast, 0.30; south, 0.30; southwest, 0.30; west, 0.30, and northwest, 0.20, each tenth of an inch being given a value of one centimeter. The vector Y repre- sents the 24-hour movement of the storm that was centered over Amarillo, Texas, at 8a. m.; May 28, 1903. The vector Y, is the resultant of the pressure exerted on the storm center, determined, as above, from an increase in pressure from the storm center toward the several Seale of Miles 709 200 300 2o7 directions, as follows: To the north, 0.30 inch; northeast, 0.20; east, 0.60; south- east, 0.30; south, 0.10 ; southwest, 0.10 ; west, 0.10, and northwest, 0.40. ‘‘ The vector X being the resultant of the forces that propelled the storm in the direction and to the point indi- cated in 24 hours, it is possible to elim- inate the pressure influence (if it be given an appropriate value) by resolv- ing the vector representing the track of the storm into its two components, one of which, X,, being the result- ant of the pressure exerted on the storm, the other, X,, will represent the 24-hourvaluethat should be given the general circulation of the atmosphere that carried the storm with it. Similarly, Y, represents the 24- hour value that should be given the general circulation that car- ried the storm of May 28 with it. It will be observed that X, and Y,, representing the 24- hour values of the general cir- culation on the two dates, are of equal length and vary not more than 3 degrees 30 min- utes in direction, from which it may be assumed that the general circulation of the at- mosphere in May that carries the storms of the region of New Mexico and northwest Texas with it may be represented by a mean of a number of vectors determined as above. It is manifest, therefore, that should a storm in May in the region indicated be acted upon by a distribution of pressure whose resultant is zevo its 24-hour direction and rate of movement will be that of the general circulation represented by a cor- rectly determined mean of a number of vectors, suchas X, and Y,. Hence such © means determined for the various dis- tricts of the country have been desig- nated ‘normal storm tracks,’ and are shown for May in chart XVII. Tue NaTIonaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 8 2, Co61 ‘ poopy @ JO UOIZEUSIA 9} 19}Je AyD sesuvy je SpieA JY SII 9} Ul sUV0G 299 ForRECASTING THE WEATHER AND STORMS ‘sInO’y 14 UI JUIN poolyy 300 “, SW Ne Coal YS is ison Litchiwartse © Miupushan a= ws AK yan anchink. Tol. eo ig ) WS i O (On ZS Ve Vr ae ) Kachaty rt APIA id \ é ot Se VAtopaush \ Sing chan Le WES C Shantants: DStaosuihe > on hod fai Rs ‘\ ge ie Shasakai yV Ny AN YY Panchuentse K is ( lkaiocal \ fapanchan yy rs \ © a Ve ES Sy Z Mokhai i\e, Shekatai ; wis Chenlanchisetungd HE ma alyau tung yp AS basis 177 Ler ‘\ e.. Borchihotar) orto) ,e Tai (( aS neo ‘s en Pimchau N\A Nit ae sep WY if } aG Mokhy aN aS Pakiakia Mossin CAs > oo (ors sa oes Wig 7 \\\\ Hy) > Se NZ he ) ‘ ol SS ius ete mi SOS se [ie e ney taf Gran hotst Core Sh thwang chend pu = Echoyatinsp.) * lira ‘ ‘S See ee Font Soe aa Seaver : | ( ahu > =A) NaF \ : CM (sy ae ) Sas ee vA( t—~ a ee Uy : MCs Z / SE / ea : { (C s ~3 SD tifa SAKA’ 7 . SSS Jee AOC Wi \ 4 Wf AY, VSS E Som Ao Va ? zo Ax N XS <7 me Lae | C Cae ue a D ZAC S)) Seek ge = (eZ } / Ca WAG = ~ ) ( hi “ah DURIA Wea 27 Rhone pWizhn 4 gy (| LE ie 2 eS Waa, a ————_— - & i ( ‘SEN \Fron? fos Usse of fongetieu & | ‘Gas 4 de Za Lee J C EG re =) fe SS ) Kadi in Seer Khanke@ - fo, A A Bat Ie MG IAG SS ON (C=) Nd 4 5 LF ( : - fe A 4 ZF a y; D\ OE fa 5 Y f wee Les!) 7 ~) J UALS. 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Wf D5 y Spo inane Gas! % oll a aa Taaohiatu 2K pen, Taykiatun 902 OV ew xe =~ SS = olsun B\ ASS Se “ithoch t, w Hise 7) y WN cS iG Lge teohay oes Aas : WI Wi yy ones ns oer (e \\, her skiatun et X GEES KE, Is = \) cal ais KO UP SRA y Se a) gx Be ae SA ae SS = Nb ee ss 2 eee \ \gatadheng \ \ uplics \ ae a Fj OS EEE ~~ re : iy fen * As ‘ ys piss) Nes fy DY aS oy iN AO NINN NOS cA ee Ss ts Ne ee See MT Liukiaras an RU i eer” i (Ge \ ‘“ypkigton Wr ee WO) Ss | lus 4) fy JM: os ) er" fe Ny er) \ Weishenpu) WAY/Shis (eum 8 2 Le Y, =F Se tsar? Ng Qoeeea > NOM (ac) miiaccere alle = ) Arg a re S : | Se tifishoche eng Mu kisi ene ; ZL Mafsehiaus 1a Wg aN NN WS) j a, Choskion valle ; i poke (ae sea wy, a Me A 2 , 1 WA . NS thes - _| i iG =a SSRu he hier bangin MOUS, ee B7 We aN ye TL MIC 2) 429° BL 132° 133° 134° 135° 123° a — moon Se ee ALISEIE ene — - - : g Tae oF MILE S i SAHA MHOGRAPHERS, WASHINGTON, 0. c. Authority" Karte vor Ost-China" by the Preuss Landes Aufnahme. 0 o 20 = —r— = =] ee 0 Ce Second Division. General "Stash (Military Information Division) Was hangear april) 1905. Se ae ——_——~ 2 2 a : SERED sis ; “DUBLISHED AS A SUPPLEMENT TO THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, WASHINGTON, D. C., FOR JUNE 190 aaa : Lsdasspaerieaberse sin iy oa ee DP a porte she aol taiceianbarereny sca silos biel ies eal Se is Sela sh nia: in . rs (ihe J : fe, hema i's NR ; M wae ag quake nek (0 I 4 ee exon CONTENTS : PAGE The Evolution of Russian Government. By Dr Edwin A. Grosvenor. I[lustrated with 14 Full-page Illustrations . 309 The Purpose of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. a Hon. Eki Hioki, of the Japanese Legation . . . . 333 The Purple Veil—A Romance of the Sea. By Hy AS irk Illustrated Homie Our Mines and Quarties. elias The Home of the National Geographic oR The Geographical Balance . - Victoria Falls. Illustrated William Ziegler. Illustrated The Foreign Commerce of Japan Geographic Literature Published by the National ‘Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Seeend-Class Mail Matter NationaL GEOGRAPHIC Baie | NATIONAL | | GEOGRAPIEMC I _MAGAZINE All oiatel | A N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, sublished by he communications should be addressed to the Editor of the Nationa, Grocrapnic Macazine. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. a5 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army W J McGEE Chief, Department of Anthropology and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- chase Exposition Cc. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. Po Department of A. ericulture Oo. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey O. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ment of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY Chief of the Division of Mineral keesources, U.S. Geological Survey ALFRED H. BROOKS U.S. Geological Survey ANGELO HEILPRIN Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- deliphia R. D. SALISBURY University Me Chicago G. EK, GILBERT U.S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, U. Bi! Weather Bureau, San bidaisicnnv! ALMON GUNNISON President ‘Se, Lawrence Oniversty Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. bo Vou. XVI, No. 7 WASHINGTON JuLy, 1905 EVOLUTION OF RUSSIAN GOVERNMENT* By Epwin A. Grosvenor, LL.D, PROFESSOR OF MODERN GOVERNMENT AND INTERNATIONAL LAW IN AMHERST COLLEGE OUNTLESS questions arise at 2 the very mention of the name of Russia. Many of these ques- tions are of vital interest and interwoven with the crisisin the Far East. Never- theless, I shall endeavor to push all other issues aside and devote myself entirely to the single subject—The Evolution of Russian Government. At the beginning I am confronted by one peculiar difficulty. It is that I am an American and that the great majority of my hearers are of the same nation- ality. I know, indeed, that in no other country under the sun is there so large an acquaintance with foreign matters as in the United States. In no other is there so large an ability to judge of for- eign questions, of their causes and ulti- mate solution. But this advantage is more than counterbalanced by the diffi- culty created in our minds through the rapid progress of our political life. We have not yet attained, nor are we alto- gether perfect. Sometimes things are done in this our boasted country which cause usshame. Nevertheless, we have represented during the last 125 years the foremost constitutional, self-governing experiment of mankind. Only a little more than acentury ago did our fathers draw up that Constitution which is still our organic law. There did not then exist a single other written constitution, defining civil functions and regulating the relations of different departments of state. We were the first who ever em- barked upon the sea of national self- government under the zgis of a consti- tution formed by the people. Hence it is dificult or impossible for us Ameri- cans to fully realize how rapidly we have advanced under the guidance of a brief but an enlightened experience. The rapidity with which we have rushed for- ward since astounds the beholder, but is barely perceived by ourselves. For we are in the very midst of the progress, and meanwhile receive and share all that is being achieved. ‘The fleet-footed are not tolerant of the slow. Scant pa- tience have we for the tardier progress made by nations in less favorable con- ditions than ourown. ‘The same step *An address to the National Geographic Society, February 3, 1905. Z10 must they keep and push on with the same tireless speed. Great Britain, sur- rounded by the inviolate sea, and safe from even the threat of a hostile foot, has wrought out farther than any other people, perhaps farther than ourselves, the application of principles to civil and constitutional government. But her as yet unwritten, unformulated constitu- tion has had a thousand years for its making. The nations move on like troops of soldiers in a long and weary march Some reach the place of bivouac and light the camp-fires while others are straggling far behind. Some of the seeming loiterers have been pressing on all the time toward the bivouac as the rear guard, with their faces to the foe ; and others are struggling forward, wounded and disabled, with slow and uncertain step ; andothers still, because of less ability, of less forceful energy, but with just as strong determination and just as good a will, find themselves, when night approaches and time for halt has come, far from the bivouac and the front. Around one nation gleam the watch-fires of the twentieth century; another is fifty years behind; a third is groping still among the breaking shadows of the eighteenth century, and yet another has only of late emerged from the darkness of the middle ages. RUSSIA LEFT THE MIDDLE AGES IN 1689, 240 YEARS AFTER THE REST OF EUROPE HAD EMERGED FROM THAT DARK PERIOD To the close of the middle ages in western and southern Europe are as- signed different dates. There modern times began four or five hundred years ago, perhaps when Constantinople fell or when Luther and Raphael were born or when America wasdiscovered. Then universal disorder ceased; centralized states stood forth; the various peoples felt newthrillsof national life. Withthe ascent of the boy, Peter, to the throne the middle ages were ended in Russia. THe NatrionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE That wasin 1689. Thus in the onward progress the inhabitant of other parts of Europe had by two hundred and fifty years the start of the Russian. THE INFLUENCE OF THE PLAIN The Russian had been left thus far in the rear by no fault of hisown. In natural endowment the Slav is not in- ferior to the Latin or the Teuton or the Celt. Geographic conditions and geo- graphic environment determined Rus-- sian history and molded Russian nature. In that enormous plain, which consti- tutes the Russiaof today, mountains, at once a bulwark and defense and inspi- ration, were denied him. ‘The Scotch, the Swiss, like the Vaudois Christian, could sing : ‘‘ Hor the strength of the hills we bless Thee, Oh! God, our father’s God ; Thou hast made thy children mighty By the touch of the mountain sod.”’ But the dwellers of the plain, exposed _ to attack from every side in a wild and lawless age, had no other destiny than to suffer and endure. After the barbaric invasions ceased in western Europe, for generations count- less Asiatic hosts roamed over Russia, sparsely populated and difficult of de- fense, and devastated the land at will. Moreover, the sunless forest and dreary steppe wrought upon human nature their repressive influence. Physical con- ditions fashion character as the sculptor shapes the clay. Thence were devel- oped those traits of sluggish patience, _of long endurance, of morbid self-sacri- fice which distinctly mark the Russian people today. ADVANCES BEGIN AT THE TOP AND WORK DOWNWARD In most countries each political or economic advance has derived its first impulse from popular feeling which swelled into a resistless demand upon authority—that is, the progress has begun from below and worked upward. EvVoLuTION oF RussIAN GOVERNMENT In Russia the very opposite is true. There almost every advance has re- ceived its first impulse from the Tsar— that is, the progress has begun from above and worked downward. Thus, for example, were brought about the emancipation of the serfs and the insti- tution of the zemtsvos. Peter the Great was the typical Russian Tsar, though built on the most majestic and colossal scale. He forced his reforms upon an indifferent or unwilling people. While many Russians are, from one point of view, enlightened and others are crudely educated and correspondingly radical, the fact remains that to any proposed change the masses block the way ; nor is it strange that the reforms in other lands extorted from the rulers by the people are in Russia, if they exist at all, forced upon theruled by the ruler. No other process is posstble among a people conservative by instinct and tolerant only of autocracy.* THE PECULIAR ATTITUDE OF THE RUSSIANS TO THEIR TSAR In May, 1896, as magnificent a pano- rama as I,urope has beheld was presented at the city of Moscow. I leave to poets and word-painters the description of the scene. It was the coronation of the Tsar. Its significance for us is found not in its attendant splendor, but in its enunciation throughout of the funda- mental principle of Russian govern- ment. Though the gorgeous rites con- tinued for hours, the culmination of each ceremony, whether prayer or promise or benediction, was always some fresh as- sertion or acknowledgment of autoc- * The Tsar’s proclamation of religious free- dom and equality, issued on April 30 and re- ceived with enthusiasm by the European and American world, is probably most unwelcome to the great majority of his subjects. It seems almost irony that this noble message of relig- ious progress will especially benefit the Ras- colniki, or Old Believers, the dissenters or sect reactionary even for Russia and bitterly hos- tile to all western influence and to all attend- ant progress. % 21a racy. The Metropolitan of Moscow, having bestowed the orb and scepter on the new sovereign, concluded his prayer of consecration with the words, ‘‘ The Lord preserve with His pro- tection-the established rule.’’ In the profound silence the kneeling Tsar ex- claimed, ““iord God -of my fathers, Thou hast elected me to be ruler of this) Dhy people..47) Last act of all, the Metropolitan of St Petersburg an- nounced, ‘‘ God hath crowned this God- given, God-adorned, most God-fearing autocrat Emperor of all the Russias.’’ And then, turning to the Tsar, he said, ‘‘ Take thyself the scepter and orb of the Empire, the visible image of the sole sovereignty over the people given by the Most High for their gov- ernment, promotion, and every desira- ble well-being.’’ The Tsar took no oath of obligation like that so many times repeated from the steps of our Na- tional Capitol. He made no promise. He simply accepted the burden placed upon his shoulders. That burden is ‘“sole sovereignty over the people.’’ He personifies the theory of the father who never grows old and never dies, and whose national family is made up of children who never reach maturity and are always young. A few weeks ago at Tsarkoe Selo the Tsar received the deputation of workmen. As they talked of him in the vestibule the only name by which they called him was °* The Little Father.’’ They were griz- zly veterans of labor, horny-handed by years of toil, and he a stripling, but to them the little father. When ushered into his presence, the first words they heard from his lips were ‘‘My children.’’ Despite the difference in years,they were children around their father’s feet. That is the attitude of the Russian Slavs toward their autocratic head. Such an idea of governmental paternal- ism is absolutely contrary to our own, nor can it be appreciated or credited except as one acknowledges the essen- R42 tial difference of race accentuated by history and environment. When dis- cussing the French we are talking about a Celto-Latin race ; when the Germans, a’Teutonic race; when the United States of America, a cosmopolitan race, a min- gling of allthe peoples ; when the Rus- sians, a Slavic race, a stock distinct from every other European race. From its very cradle, through the more than thousand years since, the Russian branch of the Slavic race is, in whatever per- tains to government, the direct antith- esis of our own. It is as difficult for the average Russian to appreciate our modern, twentieth-century sentiment as it is for us to appreciate their docile, submissive sentiment, which has been wrought out in the interminable forest and steppe. : THE TSAR AS’ THE POLITICAL HEAD So the Tsar is the all-controlling, all- comprehending political unit. He is the legislative, the executive, the ju- dicial. His authority extends over 8,500,000 square miles and 150,000,000 people. He cannot know the needs of all nor can he reach in relief to all. Consequently he summons to his service advisory boards, on whose intelligence and loyalty he must depend. There isthe Ruling Senate — Pravitelstvuyushchiy Senat—established in 1710 by Peter the Great. It is divided into six sections, each presided over by a lawyer of emi- nence, who represents the Tsar. The sections are at once courts of justice and examining boards. In behalf of the Tsar the Senate promulgates the laws. ‘There is the Council of State, purely consultative, organized in 1801 by Alexander I and reorganized on broader lines four years ago. It ex- amines proposed laws and discusses the budget. It is divided into four depart- ments, devoted respectively to legisla- tion, to civil and ecclesiastical adminis- tration, to economy and industry, and to commerce and sciences. There is Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the Committee of Ministers, varying, like the Cabinet of Great Britain,in num- ber and office, and, moreover, including several high functionaries and-.Grand Dukes. There isthe Holy Synod, which superintends the religious affairs. The great metropolitans and bishops com- pose it, but its decisions have force only ~ as approved by the Tsar and are issued inhisname. There are several so-called cabinets, mainly philanthropic or eco- nomic. ‘There are the 78 governors general, one over each province of the Empire, and 792 administrative coun- cils, one for each provincial district. The members of all these different Im- perial boards, of whatever name or dig- nity, are responsible to the Tsar. THE VILLAGE MIR The Tsar may be called the infinite unit. In Russia there is another or an atomic unit, just as real, but in compar- ison infinitely small. This is the mir. None the less 777 is the most important word in the Russian language. It means the village and the village assembly. To the mind of the peasant it means the world. European Russia is made up of 107,676 communes or villages. Each is and hasits mir. Asin national af- fairs the Tsar decides or acts through his senate or council or synod, so in local affairs the mir acts for him. Apart from affairs of state, in the mir the peas- ant has a political existence of his own. Over the mir, in much akin to the town meeting of New England, presides the starosta, elected by it. Several com- munes united compose a volost or can- ton, of which there are 10,530 in Euro- pean Russia. Tothe cantonal and pro- visional assemblies, each composed of duly elected delegates, is applied the name, of late become so familiar, of the zemtsvo. ‘The mir or volost decides all questions of local nature, such as con- cern roads, schools, health, justice, and acts as a peasants’ court in cases not involving more than 60 dollars. But EvoLuTIoNn oF Russian GOVERNMENT SES From ‘‘All the Russias,’’ by Henry Norman. Copyright, 1902, by Charles Scribner’s Sons The Tsar and Tsarina at Home over every act or meeting impends the shadow of the Tsar. His delegate or commissioner is always near and may, though he seldom does, reverse all the proceedings. Thus autocracy stands forth alike in the lowly mir or in the Imperial Senate. Not far astray is the Slavic proverb, ‘‘In Russia two are everywhere, God and the Tsar.”’ This system is not the result of usur- pation by violence or fraud. ‘The pro- cess of its evolution and corresponding sanction is to be read on every page of Russian history. THE EARLY RULERS OF RUSSIA—THE RURIKS The first articulate cry of Russia was a prayerforaruler. The Russian Nes- tor tells the story. In 862, one thou- sand and forty-three years ago, in their first assembly, the Russians said, ‘‘ Let 14 THe NaTrionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Latest Picture of the Tsar of all the Russias and His Interesting Family, including Baby Tsarevitch EvoLuTIon oF Russtan us search for a prince who will govern us.’’ They decided on a foreigner, the Norman Rurik. To him and to his brothers they sent messengers to say, ‘‘OQur country is large and abundant, but order and justice are lacking. Come and take possession of it and rule over us.’’ It would be difficult to recall a similar instance in any other country. Rurik vouchsafed a favorable reply, and founded the first Russian dynasty. A hundred years later the sovereign, Wladimir, then a pagan, became a Chris- tian. At Kief he ordered his subjects to assemble on the banks of the River Dnieper and be baptized. They joy- fully obeyed. ‘‘If baptism were not good,’’ said they, ‘‘ our prince and our boyars would not have submitted to it.’’ The common formula of a royal order was, until the time of Russia’s subju- gation by the Tatars, ‘‘ This is my will, and hence the law. Hear and obey.’’ From 1205 to 1472 the country groaned under the merciless sway of the Mongol Tatars. Resistance was of no avail against the overwhelming numbers of the invading horde. ‘The period is fitly called in Russian history ‘‘ The Age of Tears’’ or ‘‘ The Age of Woe.’’ No other country of Europe has ever been subjected to such horrible and long- continued suffering. The only allevia- tion to the awful distress was found in the efforts of the royal Russian fam- ily—itself tributary and a vassal, always weak, but determined and shrewd—to modify the ferocity of the conquerors and to keep the sense of nationality from dying. Upon their princes, fel- low-sufferers with them in a common and intolerable subjection, the people looked as their only hope. When at last Prince Demetrius of the Don won a decisive victory over the horde and made it evident that its final expulsion was only the work of patience and time, the delirious gratitude of the people knew no bounds. ‘They were ready to swear themselves the subjects of Demetrius GOVERNMENT From ‘‘All the Russias,’’ by Henry Norman. right, 1902, by Charies Scribner’s Sons Copy- Home of Romanoffs, Moscow and his heirs forever. The city from which the deliverance had proceeded was henceforth ‘‘ Holy Mother Mos- cow.’’ Autocracy, by its immense serv- ices, had enshrined itself in the Russian heart. Gradually the broken horde was pressed back to the waste lands which stretch along the Azoff and the Caspian, nor is it strange if subjection through 273 hideous years to inhuman Asiatic masters left traces, hard to eradicate, upon Russian character. From 1462 to 1584 three princes occu- pied the throne—Ivan III the Great, Wassili, and Ivan IV the Terrible, or, more accurately rendering the Rus- sian adjective, Ivan the Awful. Ruth- less, sometimes monstrous, but always mighty, always persistent in one pur- pose, these three built up Russia from its humiliation and weakness into glory and strength. Before Ivan IV, the mar- velous madman, died he had made him- THe NaTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 316 ‘OD UR] [TIMOR 94} Aq yy S1IAdoD HPF oes aR DRES MOOSOW ‘atenbs isa}vst,], Ul pMoIg VW ‘QIBIIID WIM Aq ,,‘VISSNYy I9yea19 ,, WoIg Ee: es ca ene " ie ze EVOLUTION OF RussIAN GOVERNMENT eu ies: From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y,. Priests of the Orthodox Greek Church on a Float upon the Neva River, St Petersburg Blessing the waters to make them safe for drinking. The ikons or sacred pictures are indsipensa- ; ble to this ceremony 318 Tue Nationa, GreocrapHic MaGaZzIne From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N.Y. Splendid Temple of Our Saviour in a Western District of Moscow Built to commemorate the disastrous failure of Napoleon’s attempt to conquer the Czar’s’empire. Seven thousand people attend mass at one time under the dome, which is covered with pure gold. The gilding of the five domes alone cost nearly a million dollars. The procession is a party of school girls coming from the church guarded by a vigilant chaperone. EvoLuTIoN oF Russian GOVERNMENT I From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Old Defenses of the Kremlin—the Citadel of Moscow These walls have withstood many medizval sieges, but would fall at once if modern artillery or bombs attacked them. The clock tower marks the sacred Gate of the Redeemer, where the THE NaTIoNaL GEeoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE W NS) O From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Russian Cloth Market in ‘‘ the Fair’’ of Nijni-Novgorod, Russia EVOLUTION OF RussIAN GOVERNMENT BK From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. The Market Place, Viborg, Finland 21212 From ‘‘Greater Russia,’' by Wirt Gerrare. Copyright by the Macmillan Co. Old St Petersburg 6 self a ‘‘ god inthe minds of his people.”’ Autocracy had received a fresh sanction in their absolute and whole-hearted submission. THE FIRST OF THE ROMANOFFS— MICHAEL, A BOY OF 17—IS ELECTED RULER Suddenly the boy prince, Demetrius, the last heir of Ivan, died. With him the royal line of Rurik became extinct. There followed thirty years of lawless- ness and anarchy, of disastrous civil and foreign war. At last, in 1613, a great assembly, made up from every rank and class in Russia, got together in Moscow. A national assembly, equally represent- ative of a nation, neither Russia nor Europe had everseen. ‘This assembly, after long and fierce contention, chose Michael Romanoff as Tsar. Not a sin- gle condition did they impose upon that untried boy of seventeen thus unani- mously elected ruler. When he appeared THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE before them, upon their knees they shouted, ‘‘ Promise that thou wilt gra- ciously consent to rule over us.’’ And so with autocratic power the dynasty of the Romanoffs was seated upon the Im- perial Russian throne. ‘There is no other royal house reigning in Europe today which in equal degree owes its elevation to the free voice of the people. There is no other reigning house that does not trace its origin back to some successful warrior and owe its earliest advancement to the sword. In every other country, on some bloody plain, a Hastings or a Marchfield, William the Conqueror, the Hapsburghs, the Hohen- zollerns, have carved for themselves and their descendants a title to the crown. The father of Michael Romanoff was no brilliant soldier, only a faithful parish priest, who was renowned for piety and ability, and who because of his noble qualities attained high ecclesiastical dis- tinction. : Upon the autocratic throne, thus broad-based upon the popular will, sov- ereign succeeded sovereign for more than a century. On each monarch de- volved the duty of choosing his heir from among the male or female mem- bers of the Imperial family. Always that choice was accepted by the nation. Smallpox caused the sudden death of Peter II, in 1730, before he had ¢ex- pressed any preference as to his suc- cessor. There were then living four descendants. of Michael Romanoff. Three of them were women—Anna Ivanovna, Catharine Ivanovna, Eliza- beth Petrovna—and a male infant a few months old. Eight of the most power- ful nobles banded themselves together in what they termed ‘‘ The High Secret Council.’’ They obtained control of the army and of every department of government and administration. A CONSTITUTION IS OFFERED They then offered the crown to Anna Petrovna, subject to the following con- ditions: (1) The High Council should EVoLuTIon oF Russtan GOVERNMENT 22.3 From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. A Reservoir After Evaporation. Turning up the Salt, Salt Fields, Solinen, Russia Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Moscow Workmen in one of the Street Markets ate - RS ye sate From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. A Characteristic Russian Troika (three-horse carriage) before the Old Petrofski Palace in the Northwest Suburb of Moscow The Palace is not now occupied as a royal residence R210 Tue Nationa, GeocrapHic Macazine From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Siberian Hides and Village of the Tartars, Nijni-Novgorod, Russia EvoLuTion OF RussIAN GOVERNMENT 2 CS & From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Wheat for Export at Russia’s Great Southern Seaport, Odessa 2238 Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From stereograph copyright by Underwood & Underwood, N. Y. Country Women Tramping into Krief, Russia, with the Morning Supply of Milk An enormous weight is carried uncomplainingly with the help of the pall over the shoulders to which the milk-jars are attached. These women do the heaviest part of the farm work, milking at daybreak or earlier, and often walking five or six miles to deliver their wares. Very few of them can read or write, and they are helpless under the domination of the priests and village head-men. EvoLuTION oF RussIAN GOVERNMENT be a permanent body, self-perpetuating, and should be consulted by the Tsarina in all state affairs. (2) Without the consent of the council the Tsarina should make neither peace nor war, should levy no taxes, should alienate no public territory, and should appoint no public official of higher rank than colonel. (3) No member of the nobility should be executed or condemned, and no prop- erty of a noble should be confiscated except after a fair trial by his peers. (4) The Tsarina should neither marry nor appoint a successor without the consent of the council. (5) Violation by the Tsarina of any of the aforesaid stipulations should constitute forfeiture of the crown. Anna accepted all these conditions, solemnly signed the docu- ment, and was then proclaimed Tsarina or Empress of Russia. Magna Charta, with all its sublime provisions, seemed thus naturalized upon Russian soil. The homo liber of the Norman Latin in the English charter meant practically the same as the word tchin, or noble, in the paper of the High Secret Council. So from the banks of the Thames Runnymead had been trans- planted to the banks of the Neva. The 24 Norman barons who forced the sub- mission of King John lived again, 515 years after, in the eight Russian lords who had secured the acquiescence of Anna. Inviolability of person and prop- erty, habeas corpus, trial by jury, hith- erto the monopoly of distant English islanders, were now the guaranteed right of the Slav. The Slavic Empire, no longer autocratic, possessed a con- stitution. . THE PEOPLE REJECT THE PROFERRED CONSTITUTION AND REFUSE TO LIMIT THE POWERS OF THE TSAR The announcement of this constitution was received with general indignant pro- test. Under severe penalties the High Council forbade the people anywhere to assemble ; but they could not disperse and silence the crowds which got to- Oey) gether all over Russia and denounced the new system. The Tsarina was put under guard and only partisans of the new order allowed to approach her. Thus the council hoped she might be kept ignorant of the mounting tide of popularfeeling. Yet the council found itself powerless, despite its being en- trenched in possession of the govern- ment and despite the rank and wealth and personal influence of its members. On February 25, 1731, a zemski sobor, a national assembly, dared to convene in Moscow. The eight hundred elected deputies belonged to the nobility, the clergy, the professions and trades, and the peasant class. They drew up a formal and unanimous protest against the constitution. The Tsarina entered the hall and was greeted with frenzied shouts, ‘‘ We will not let laws limit our isaninay Let our’ Vsarina, bevan autocrat just like her predecessors !’’ The Tsarina calmed the tumult and adjourned the meeting. At the next session a formal petition was voted by the eight hundred for the reeéstablish- ment of autocracy. The council melted away. Autocracy reigned again as in all the days since the time of Rurik. Thus ended the first, if not the only, genuine attempt at a liberal government in the Muscovite Empire. This is the most important, the most significant, event in the history of Russia. Through another century successive sovereigns sat upon the autocratic throne. In 1822 the childless Alex- ander I was Tsar. His brother, the Grand Duke Constantine, had been ac- knowledged as heir. Constantine de- sired to marry the Polish girl Jane Grodzinska. Because she was of hum- ble origin, a Catholic, and a Pole, Alex- ander could not tolerate his brother’s choice as the future Tsarina. Between the maiden and the throne Constantine was compelled to choose. ‘To him her love was dearer than the Imperial crown. He solemnly renounced his rights as- heir apparent in favor of his younger 33 brother, Nicolas. This renunciation was known only to Alexander and their mother, the Dowager Empress Maria, and kept secret even from Nicolas him- self. ‘Two years later Alexander died. Then ensued between the two surviving brothers a contest almost without par- allel. Constantine, then governor of Poland, ordered the troops at Warsaw to swear allegiance to Nicolas. Nicolas at St Petersburg ordered the troops throughout Russia to swear allegiance to Constantine. The fraternal rivalry con- tinued for three weeks. It was ended only by the solemn declaration of Con- stantine that he had once renounced the succession, and that nothing could in- duce him to go back upon his word. Constantine was the older. More- over, he was a soldier and the idol of the army, which had been determined to enthrone him against hiswill. Nich- olas was a younger brother and almost unknown. There then existed in the country two secret organizations—the Society of the North and the Society of the South—both imbued with the ideas of the French Revolution and hostile to the autocracy. By them the devotion of the masses to the principle of legit1- macy was cunningly made to serve an attempt at revolution. Some of the colonels at the capital, though favorable to Constantine, were inclined to this lib- eral party. Those officers ordered their men to shout, ‘‘ Long live Constantine ’”’ and ‘‘Long live the Constitution ”’ (Constitutza)! ‘‘Who is this Con- stitutza?’’ asked the puzzled soldiers. ‘‘ Long live Constitutza! She must be Constantine’s wife.’’ Onecolonel cried, ‘‘Long live the Republic!’’ The sol- diers said, ‘‘ Who is Republic? ‘That is not the name of the Tsar.’’ ‘The col- onel replied that it was the sort of gov- ernment they were going to set up and that there would not be any Tsar in it. ‘*QOh,’’ said the soldiers, ‘‘ then it isn’t the right thing for Russia. We have got to have a Tsar.’’ And they them- selves arrested the colonel. THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Nicolas I, his son Alexander II, his son Alexander III, his son Nicolas II, the present Tsar, such is the succession since that time to the present hour. It is not unusual to speak of these men as irresponsible autocrats and to regard the Russian system as an irre- sponsible autocracy. But an irrespon- | sible autocrat never has held the scepter, ' and irresponsible autocracy never has existed, even in phlegmatic Russia. | An irresponsible autocrat among peo- ple of Indo-European stock is an utter impossibility. Each autocrat is weighed in the balances and judged—if need be punished—by those over whom he reigns. This judgment no Russian autocrat from the accession of Michael Romanoff has escaped. The kindly, well-intentioned, feeble, self-contra- dictory, ill-starred Nicolas II is being weighed in that balance now. Your judgment and mine, the judgment of foreigners or of posterity, will concern or affect him little. But long-suffering, patient, little exacting as the Russian people are, they are inexorable as fate, merciless as doom once their judgment made. The dumb popular heart makes no harsh or hard demand upon its sover- eigns. It asks that the autocrat shall be profoundly Russian, Russian in feel- ing and sympathy, in orthodoxy and faith, in fidelity to old tradition, in heart-whole devotion to her whom the peasant reverently calls ‘‘ Holy Russia.’’ It asks that he shall develop the na- tional resources and augment the na- tional strength; that he shall increase the national territory and maintain the — prestige of the national arms; that he shall keep Russia’s name glorious. This is not too much to require of him to whom the nation has intrusted its all. THE GENERAL CHARACTER OF THE TSARS When Peter III, unnatural and de- bauched, drank in his orgies to the suc- cess of foreign troops and gloated over EVvoLuTION oF RussIAN GOVERNMENT disasters to his own; when Paul, cynic and half mad, flouted the church and betrayed the national cause, the cup of wrath was full. It matters little that the executioners who struck them down were self-appointed, and, no better than hired assassins, held no mandate for regicide. In the line of Russian auto- crats those two stand out with a shame- ful preeminence. Not all the sovereigns since Michael Romanoff have been great. More than one has been deficient in private virtue. In some there flowed not a drop of Slavic blood. But they all bore the test of being supremely Russian, only Rus- sian, at the core. Save the execrated two, each down to the accession of Nic- olas II, in 1894, contributed his full share to Russian power and prestige, both at home and abroad. Like the concentric rings of an oak tree were the territorial accretions of the Russian Km- pire. Each larger ring indicated a later reign. In other lands there have been other autocrats, but always alike in this: each has fallen or stood according to his ul- timate military failure or success. Had the mass of the people on whom his power rested really desired equal rights and personal liberty and self-gov- ernment, the autocrat would not have been tolerated for an hour. The fore- most autocrat of all time is the great Na- poleon, child of the French Revolution. ‘* He was a despot—granted ! But the avtos of his autocratic mouth Said yea i’ the people’s French ; he magnified The image of the freedom he denied : And if they asked for rights, he made reply, “Ye have my glory!’ and so, drawing round them His ample purple, glorified and bound them In an embrace that seemed identity. He ruled them like a tyrant—true! but none Were ruled like slaves: each felt Napoleon.”’ Thus was it while Marengo, and Aus- terlitz, and Jena, and Friedland, and Wagram studded like stars his victo- Shel rious name. ‘The march to Moscow, the retreat from Leipsic, the catastro- phe at Waterloo, could have no other meaning than St Helena. Since February 6, 1904, the on-look- ing world has beheld an unexampled spectacle. It has seen Russia stagger- ing under such humiliation from a foe, once despised, as no other European nation ever endured at the hand of an Asiatic. In the monotonous story of a dozen months there is not a single alle- viating feature to salve Russian pride except the admirable working of the trans-Siberian railway and the stolid, unbroken valor with which the Russian soldier has faced continuous defeat. The diplomacy of Russia, before and during the war, has been as deplorable as her generalship. Her state papers, whether in the form of protests orof com- munication with other powers, have been querulous and almost puerile. Her wily and unscrupulous enemy, equipped with all the appliances of the West and all the subtlety of the East, has so excelled at every point asto render haughty Rus- sia an object of pity and derision. All this detail the common Russian does not know. He does know that, despite hundreds of millions lavished and thousands of men sacrificed, the blackness has not been relieved by a single victory, and that the total has been defeat, retreat, and surrender. The dull ache of unspeakable humilia- tion isin hissoul. Marvelous is it that in fury, blind as Samson’s, the whole nation has not already risen as one man to pull down the pillars of the state. Strikes and riots there have been, and massacres by infuriated men, but neither revolution nor rebellion, no universal outburst commensurate with the hid- eous tragedy in the Kast. There are many voices, but, as in the crowd before the temple, some cry one thing and some another. The only audible sounds breathe indignation and rage. 334 Nowthere has come atemporary hush. For a time the gaze is diverted to that forlorn squadron plowing its uncertain way through unknown and treacherous waters. One signal victory of Rodjest- vensky’s fleet may reverse all that has gone before, retrieve all the battles lost, redeem autocracy and the Tsar. Inthe anguish of suspense the autocrat and the nation listen and wait. THE PRESENT TSAR Upon a train some days ago I sat near two gentlemen engaged in earnest con- versation. They were talking about a third, apparently a friend of their youth. They seemed to be summing up his life and character. Said one, ‘‘ He was al- ways hampered by his inheritance.’’ Said the other, ‘‘ Well, I think he blun- dered along just as well as he knew how.’’ Then I caught another sentence, ‘He never knew whom he was able to trust.’’ ‘Their conversation ended with, ‘« He would have been a great deal hap- pier if he had been a clerk in New York.’’ Despite the distance in race and rank, those random remarks epito- mize the life story of Nicolas II. Far happier for him a simple house in Yonkers or Harlem than the sumptu- ous halls of the Winter Palace. Better fitted is he for the routine of an office and a desk than for the perils and re- sponsibilities of acrown. ‘Then, when the day’s work is done, what joy to reach his home and toss his children in his arms, and picnic on a holiday or a Sun- day in the suburbs with his family. Such, they tell us, isthe gentle, homely, Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE wife-loving nature of the present Tsar. Whatever the destiny of the autocrat and of the autocracy, the Russian peo- pleremain. Rudyard Kipling, in ‘‘ The Man Who Was’’—perhaps the most powerful story Kipling ever wrote— puts upon the lips of Dirkovitch the prophecy of that for which the centuries have been waiting: ‘‘ The Czar! Posh! I snap my fingers—I snap my fingers at him. Dol believeinhim? No! But the Slav who has done nothing, 427 I be- lieve. Seventy—how much ?—millions that have done nothing—not one thing. Napoleon was an episode ! Hear you, old peoples, we have done nothing in the world—out here. All our work is todo: and it shall be done, old peoples. Getaway! Seventy mil- lions—get away, you old people!’’ * * Some good books on Russia are : ‘‘Greater Russia.’? Wirt Gerrare. Mac- millan Co. I904. Several chapters deal with Russia, but the larger portion of the work re- lates to Siberia and the Amur territory. $3.00. **Allthe Russias.’’ Henry Norman. Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1902. A very satisfactory account of the resources and general adminis- tration of Russia. $4.00. ‘“The Great Siberian Railway.”’ Shoemaker. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1903. ‘‘Russia.’?’ Sir D. M. Wallace. Henry Holt. $2.00. The best general account of Russia in'the English language. ‘*Russiain Asia, 1558-1899.’’ A. S. Krausse. Henry Holt. 1899. $4.00. A history of Rus- sian advance across Asia. ‘Story of Russia.’’ W.R. Morfill. G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 1890. (Story of Nations’ series.) $1.50. ‘The Russian Advance.’’ A. J. Beveridge. - Harper Bros. 1903. $2.50. A graphic por- trayal of the causes of the sweep of Russia across Asia. M. M. THE PURPOSE OF THE ANGLO-JAPANESE ALLIANCE”* By Hon. Ex1 Hioxk1 FIRST SECRETARY OF THE JAPANESE LEGATION dresses a British or American audience, excepting for the language that he has to use, and in talking to a gathering of Englishmen living in America he doubly feels among friends. We of Japan realize how much we owe to the great Anglo-Saxon nations, how much they have taught us, and how much we have still to learn from them. Some of your English writers have called us ‘‘the English of the Orient,’’ and it was an American who termed Japanese ““the Yankees of the Far East.’’ We have not as yet progressed so far on the road to Yankeedom as to be able to sell you gentlemen of Boston wooden nutmegs, but we are still young in the ways of modern civilization. Give us time and there is hope we may even teach Connecticut a thing or two. Having the honor to be with you to- night—inadequately taking the place of His Majesty’s minister plenipotentiary, whose health unfortunately makes it impossible for him to be present, greatly to his regret—it is proper for me to ex- press felicitations for this great day, echoing the sentiment deeply imbedded in the bosoms of the fifty millions of His Japanese Majesty’s loyal subjects. Nothing would be more out of place, however, than an attempt on my part to dwell upon the significance of the Empire Day before the British audience. Let it suffice to say that the memory of Queen Victoria, that high personage, whose reign distinguishes itself in his- tory not only in point of length, but in O Japanese need feel himself among strangers when he ad- the fact that it is so peculiarly coinci- dent with the wonderful tide of general advancement of civilization and material prosperity which has blessed Great Britain and the world in general, may perpetually be preserved in so fitting a manner as is done here tonight by the United British Societies in America. This is not an occasion for making a long address, but being present here as the representative of Japan and as a guest of Britishers, I feel I cannot let the opportunity pass without saying a few words about that remarkable com- pact that binds our two countries to the satisfaction of ourselves and to the benefit of the world. The object of the alliance, as is well known to you, cannot be better ex- plained than by the language of Lord Lansdowne. In his covering and ex- planatory dispatch to Sir Claude Mc- Donald, British minister at Tokio, Lord Lansdowne wrote: ‘‘ We have each of us desired that the integrity and inde- pendence of the Chinese Empire should be preserved ; that there should be no disturbance of the territorial status quo either in China or in the adjoining re- gions; that all nations should within those regions, as well as within the limits of the Chinese Empire, be afforded equal opportunities for the development of their commerce and industry, and that peace should not only be restored, but should for the future be maintained. ‘His Majesty’s government trusts that the agreement may be found of mutual advantage to the two countries ; that it will make for the preservation of peace, * An address delivered at the Empire Day Banquet given by the United British Societies of Boston, May 24, 1905. Seine and that should peace unfortunately be broken it will have the effect of restrict- ing the area.of hostilities.’’ Here you have in the fewest possible words the spirit that animated Japan no less than Great Britain. Various com- ments have been made by different writers and statesmen as to the effect of the alliance upon the world. It has been asserted by some newspapers that this alliance is directly responsible for the present war. Let them say whatever they choose, but a conscientious study of the docu- ment itself cannot fail to convince any fair-minded man that these allegations are entirely groundless. The alliance is purely peaceful and defensive. In one of the passages of the dispatch above referred to, Lord Lansdowne said that ‘‘we join in entirely disclaiming any aggressive tendencies.’’ But you must observe that the fact which made Great Britain abandon her long cher- ished traditional pride and policy of ‘“splendid isolation’’ is initself a suff- cient proof that the situation in the Far Fast was one of grave danger and de- manded unusual precaution. It was evident that Russian aggressions were no mere phantoms, but were terribly real and threatening. These aggressions mainly called this alliance into existence for the mutual protection of the interests of the signa- tories, and later forced Japan to take up arms against her colossal neighbor for the defense of her rights and her very existence. The primary objects of the alliance are the maintenance of the integrity of the Chinese Empire and the mainte- nance of the open-door policy in China, the policy which was conceived and so ardently advocated by the British states- men, and which was so skillfully and happily inaugurated asa matter of in- ternational concern by one of the fore- most statesmen and diplomats of our day—Hon. John Hay—three years be- THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE fore the conclusion of the Anglo-Japa- nese alliance. Inspite of all the adverse criticisms emanating from unfriendly sources, I confidently declare that all the objects of the alliance have been so far nobly and successfully accom- plished. a By the recent course of events in the Far East these conditions which immi- nently menaced the integrity of the Chinese Empire have largely been re- moved and the ground for the open- door policy has been made firmer. Were it not for the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the war might have occurred in 1902, when China demanded the evacuation of Manchuria by Russia. It was in fact delayed at least for some time, and the area of hostilities has been quite effectively restricted, since its outbreak, by reason of this alliance, which has in this respect received indirectly a very strong support from the enlightened policy pursued by the United States in reference to China. To me it appears that the effect of the alliance has given so much satisfac- tion that, if the language used by the President of the Victorian Club in his invitation to this banquet extended to the Japanese representative expressed the sentiment of the British public— which I believe and hope to be the case—the renewal of that compact after the expiration of the prescribed terms is inevitable. We are anxious, with Great Britain and the United States, to see China be- come rich, strong, and self-repecting. We have our own salvation to work out in our own way. We wanted simply to be let alone and to settle the problems that demanded solution. We were not animated by territorial greed or lust of conquest. We preferred the conquest of peace to the victories of war. We know that the Far East has a great future, and the greater the future the better for all the world. Japan could hope to gain nothing by war and had (HE ANGLO-] APAN ESE ALLIANCE evervthing to gain by peace. The Anglo-Japanese alliance sought to give no advantage either to Great Britain or to Japan that was not comnion to all other nations. England, too, always stood for ‘‘equal opportunity,’’ for a fair field and no favor, and that is our policy, and it has long been the avowed policy of the United States. The say- ing, ‘‘ May the best man win,’’ applies to nations as well as to individuals. Certainly, neither England nor Japan made this alliance with the hope that it will provoke war. In laying the treaty before the House of Lords, Lord Lands- downe said that it was a guarantee of peace, and so it was regarded by the Japanese statesmen. I think no further evidence is needed to prove that the alliance was not con- cluded with the hope that it would lead to war; I think, on the contrary, every fair-minded man must be convinced that both Great Britain and Japan were ani- mated solely and sincerely by the single purpose to preserve peace and give com- mercial development full sway. And I repeat it to you, gentlemen, with full appreciation of my statement, that the alliance has fulfilled its purpose. It had made for peace as much as it could. There comes atime in the life of every nation, as in the life of every individual, when the nation must choose between duty and its stern responsibilities, or weakly yield to escape obligations and pay the penalty for weakness tenfold. The war now unhappily waging in Man- churia wasinevitable. Itis a war not of our seeking. It was forced upon us, as I said before, by aggression and arro- gance. I assume you are familiar with the history of the negotiations preceding the outbreak of hostilities, and I feel confi- dent that you can have only reached one conclusion from a study of the facts. You cannot fail to have been impressed by the spirit of forbearance, patience, and absolute fairness displayed by His BS) Majesty's government, and the desire, pushed almost to the extreme limit of generosity, to do everything possible to avoid war. But we should have been unworthy the respect of our friends in England as well as in America, we should have forfeited our own self-re- spect, if we had permitted our desire for peace to make us play the part of weak- lings and surrender our rights and inter- ests because we were not men enough to defend them. We have done what Englishmen would havedone. Wehave done what Americans, Frenchmen, Ger- mans, and even Zulus would have done. Our national existence was at stake. To die in its defense was more honorable than to live and lose all that we hold most precious. It is most fitting to quote as an expression of my own desire what was said by President Roosevelt : ‘“ We wish peace; but we wish the peace of justice; the peace of righteousness. We wish it because we think it right, and not because we are afraid.’’ JAPAN DOES NOT MENACE THE UNITED STATES POLITICALLY OR COMMERCIALLY The sympathy of America having been so freely expressed in our favor— a sympathy, I beg to assure you, very precious to us and which we shall ever most sacredly cherish—it may appear ungracious for me to take exception to any expressions of American opinion, but I avail myself of this opportunity, knowing that what I say will not be misinterpreted, to correct an erroneous impression. It is quite evident a belief exists that the strength and power of Japan is both a political and commercial menace to the United States. It has been said that Japan dwells with covet- ous eye on the Philippines and longs for the Pacific Island possessions of the United States. I assure you no serious- minded person in Japan entertains any such thought. Japan has enough to do for many a year to come to develop her 336 own resources, to assist in the regenera- tion of Korea, to improve the condition of Formosa, to profit by the commercial growthof Manchuria. The Philippines are outside of the sphere of our interest and form no part in our industrial and commercialexpansion. Instead of Japan coveting the possessions of the United States in the Pacific, Japan welcomes the United States as a neighbor as tend- ing still further to increase the bonds of friendship that exist between the two countries. - For the same reason that Japan does not menace the United States politically Japan does not threaten the United States commercially. I have seen it stated that Japan will control the mar- kets of China to the injury of American trade; but that is an imaginary fear. There never has been, is not now, or ever will be a strong commercial rivalry between Japan and the United States. Japan sells to China principally sea- weeds, salt fish, beche-de-mer and other marine products, mushrooms, ginseng, copper, coal, matches, cotton yarns and fabrics. The United States sells to China flour, kerosene oil, timber, ma- chinery, railway materials, and cotton goods. Where do Japan and the United States come into conflict ? Hach is sup- plying China with articles which admit of no competition. Japan is buying a large quantity of flour from the United States. She does not produce kerosene, timber, machinery, and railway mate- rials. ‘The only article in which there can be a possible competition isin cotton goods. In this, however, the competi- tion is in theory rather than in fact. In the first place, Japan does not pro- duce cotton, and therefore all raw ma- » terial used in the cotton industry is imported from the United States, India, and China. Now, there are five com- petitors in this line of goods in the Chinese market—Great Britain, the United States, India, Japan, and China. The British and American interests lie principally in cotton fabrics and yarns THE NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of the finer quality, and between these two countries there exists competition. The interests of Japan and India lie principally in cotton yarns and fabrics of a coarser kind, while the Chinese in- terests are similar to those of Japan and India, and there exists competition be- tween these three countries. But be- tween the former two and the latter three there is almost no competition. Further, a careful study of the result of competition in China shows that in- stead of one article driving its compet- itor out of the market, both competitors simultaneously increased their respect- ive sales. The reason for this is that in a vast country like China, where there exists practically an unknown and an inexhaustible market and as yet such a small portion is open to the influence of foreign commerce, the result of com- petition is always to widen the extent of the market. Nay, instead of ugly commercial ri- valry between Japan and the United States, we shall, I hope, have a peace- ful and harmonious trade relation be- tween the two countries. We shall sell to America in increasing quantities pro- ducts that America needs and does not produce—such as tea and silk—and take from her such articles as are more prof- itable to buy than to raise or produce in our own country. Instead of being rivals we shall be in the broadest sense partners—the one country will be a complement of the other. The United States will not be swamped by the products of the loom and the forge of Japan ; Japan will not be stifled under an avalanche of factory-made goods of New England and the Pacific coast ; but those great ships that move so ma- jestically across the broad bosom of the Pacific will be freighted deep with the wares of the Orient and the Occident, adding to the wealth of the world and making both countries richer because of the enlightened policy that leads na- tions to buy and sell to each other and profit by both operations. Tue Puree VEIL In China, Japan seeks no unfair ad- vantage. Sheasks no favor from China that is not granted to England or the United States or to the entire-world. With England and the United States she stands for the open door and, in the words of your great President, ‘‘square deal.”’ Under these conditions Japan is will- ing to take her chances in the rivalry of trade. We believe in the survival SRE, of the fittest in trade as well as in social development. If, in a fair field, we cannot hold our own position we shall be crowded out of the race, and it is right we should be. But we know that the trade of China is large enough for us all; that we can all share in it to our profit as well as to that of China, and instead of building on the ruins of a rival, we can build side by side for mutual advantage. THE PUR PEE V-B IL A ROMANCE OF THE SEA FF the New England coast a () curious object is often found floating on the water, some- what resembling a lady’s veil of gigantic size and of a violet or purple color. The fishermen allude to it generally as the ‘‘ purple veil,’’ and many have been the speculations concerning its nature and origin. In 1871 the late Prof. Spencer F, Baird had the opportunity of examining one of these objects at sea, and he found it to present the ap- pearance ‘‘of a continuous sheet of a purplish-brown color, 20 or 30 feet in length and 4 or 5 feet 1n width, com- posed of a mucous substance, which was perfectly transparent, to which, as a whole, a purple color was imparted by the presence of specks distributed un1- formly throughout the mass to the num- ber of about thirty or more to the square inch,” On examining the substance with a magnifying glass it was found that each little speck consisted of an embryonic fish, moving vigorously within the nar- row limits of a little cell in the jelly- like mass, so that it was obvious that the purple veil, as a whole, was the egg-mass of a fish. It is somewhat startling to be told, by so good an authority as Dr Theodore Gill, that the purple veil is the product of a single fish, and not so very large a fish either, as it rarely exceeds 3 feet in length, and that as many as 1,000,000: eggs may be contained in a single egg- mass. By allowing the eggs to develop under observation, Alexander Agassiz succeeded in identifying the parent fish as the Lophius piscatorius—variously known as the ‘‘ Goose-fish,’’ the ‘‘A]]- mouth,’’ or the ‘‘Angler,’’ one of the most remarkable fishes in existence. It derived its name of ‘‘ Goose-fish ’’ from its ‘‘ having been known to swal- low live geese,’’ a statement almost incredible ; but a reputable fisherman told the late G. Brown Goode that ‘“he once saw a struggle in the water, and found that a Goose-fish had swal- lowed the head and neck of a large loon, which had pulled it to the surface _ Fic. 1.—Three eggs embedded in the gelat- Inous membrane in which they are laid; mag- nified. (After A. Agassiz.) “Fic. 2,—Young Angler taken out of theegg just previous to hatching. (After A. Agassiz. ) and was trying to escape.’’ ‘There is authentic record of seven wild ducks having been taken from the stomach of one of them. Slyly approaching from below, they seize birds as they float upon the surface. Reliable Cape Cod fishermen, Captains Nathaniel E. At- wood and Nathaniel Blanchard, assured Dr D. H. Storer that ‘‘ when opened entire sea-fowl, such as large gulls, are frequently found in their stomachs, which they supposed them to catch in the night, when they are floating uipon. the surface of, the water.’’ . Dr Storer was also informed by Captain Leonard West, of Chilmark, Mass., that he had known a Goose-fish to be taken having in its stomach six coots in a fresh condition. These he consid- ered to have been swallowed when they had been diving tothe bottom in search of food. Any one who has looked into the vast cavity behind the jaws of this fish will concede the aptness of the name ‘‘AIl- mouth.’’ ‘The fish is a most voracious, carnivorous animal—indeed omnivor- ous—and quite indiscriminate in its diet. In Massachusetts it is said to annoy the fishermen ‘‘ by swallowing the wooden buoys attached to the lobster pots,’’ and a man is stated to have caught one ‘‘ by FIG. 3.— Young Angler not long after hatch- ing; the yolkbag has entirely disappeared. (After A. Agassiz. ) Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE using his boat anchor for a hook.’’ Another feature of the fish is the slow- ness of its digestive powers, which is aptly illustrated by Couch, who says that on one occasion there were found in the stomach of this fish ‘‘ nearly three-quarters of a hundred herring ; and so little had they suffered change that they were sold by the fishermen in the market without any suspicion in the buyer of the manner in which they had been obtained.’’ The name ‘‘Angler’’ is not one in general use among shoremen and fisher- men. It isa book name, and was spe- cially coined for the Lophizus piscatorius by Thomas Pennant in 1776. In his British Zoology he says he ‘‘ changed the old name of /ishing-frog for the more simple one of Angiler’’ simply be- cause he did not like the former, which was one of the popular names. ‘There was no lack, however, of other popular names from which tochoose. In Eng- LEE ata Fig. 4.—Young Angler with 2 elongated dorsal rays and rudiment of third and 2 large ventral rays. (After A. Agassiz.) land the fish was known as the Fishing- frog, Frog-fish, Toad-fish, Pocket-fish, Monk- fish, Nass-fish, Sea-devil, Devil- fish, Wide-gut, Wide-gap, and Kettle- maw, and in America still other names were employed. Onthe Massachusetts coast it was known as the Goose-fish, in Rhode Island as the Bellows-fish, in Connecticut as the Molly-gut, and in North Carolina as the All-mouth. Although the Angler in its adult form is familiar to the fishermen of most countries under some of its va- rious names, little or nothing was Pur PureLe. VEIL hy Nb f YW) py tenern : MA Px AZ eth OP (ILE sR 00 orem eee f B SRN}. : = ceiesscencaedeer ste tosce 157,933,000 | 23,044,c00 | 24,271,000 BO f0). [Shed docsoqdeaodsdaeacdadoun 184,938,000 | 28,952,000 | 37,346,000 NoTE.—Value of yen: 1884, 86.9 cents; 1889, 73.4 cents; 1894, 49 6 cents; 1899 to 1904, 49.8 cents. The principal articles imported into Japan from the United States in the calendar year 1904 were: Kerosene oil, 5.5 million dollars ; flour, 4.6 millions ; raw cotton, 4.5 millions; machinery and parts thereof, about 2 millions ; iron and steel manufactures, 1.9 mil- lions; leather, 1.7 millions; cotton manufactures, 1.1 millions; wheat and other grains, canned provisions, cars and carriages, leaf tobacco, and coal, the last five items showing figures less than 1 million dollars. Japan’s principal exports to the United States were: Raw silk, 30.4 mil- lion dollars ; silk manufactures; 6.1 mil- lions ; tea, 5.6 millions ; mats and mat- ting, 2.3 millions; porcelain and earthen ware, about 1 million dollars, and cam- phor, straw braids, wood-chip braids, sulphur, tooth brushes, and rice, from $620,000 to about $300,000 each. 358 The August number of this Magazine will contain an address by the Secretary of War, Hon. William H. Taft, on the Philippines, illustrated with a four-col- ored map of the Philippine Islands. A Tribute to American Topographers. In an account of a lecture given by Mr Bailey Willis before the geographers of Venice, Professor Penck, than whom there is no higher authority on topo- graphic maps, pays a high compliment to American topographers : aah Above allan opportunity was afforded of obtaining an insight into the really astounding cartographic results achieved by Willis’ party in China. The maps which were exhib- ited gave proof of the very decided superiority of American topographic methods over those employed by most European expeditions. The Willis party carried on plane-table surveys, on a scale of 1:yo,o00, with 20 to 30 meter contours, from Paitingfu to Taijaufu. This mapping was the work of Sargent, the topographer of the ex- pedition, one of that group of expert cartographers of the United States Geo- logical Survey. In 58% days Sargent mapped no less than 8,500 square kilo- meters, occupying 103 stations, locating 2,600 points by intersection, and meas- uring the altitudes of 2,150 points.”’ eb: “The Negritos of Zambales” is the subject of a recent publication of the Ethnological Survey of the Philippines. The pamphlet is very fully illustrated with maps and pictures showing the cus- toms and life of the little brown people. Although living in the mountainous and wooded portions of the islands, the Negrito grows tobacco, maize, and vege- tables. He usually plants in cleared spots in the forest, because the soil is * Penck, Prof. Dr Albrecht : The Investiga- tions in China by the Carnegie Institution. Die Zeit, Wien, April 15, 1905. Tue NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE loose and needs no plowing, as in the case of the lowland. All work of dig- ging up the soil, planting, and cultivat- ing is done with sharpened sticks of hard wood, sometimes, but not always, pointed with iron, for iron is scarce. The piece of ground for planting is regarded as the personal property of the head of the family which clearedit. No one else would think of planting on it, even though the owner had abandoned it, unless he declared that he had no more use for it. Many of the vices of the Negrito, says the report, are due to contact with the Malayan, to whom he is, at least in point of truthfulness, honesty, and tem- perance, far superior. While living in the wild state, they have a very simple form of government. They simply gather around the most powerful man, whom they are quick to recognize in this way for superior abil- ity or greater wealth; but when living peaceably scattered through the moun- tains each head of a family is a small autocrat, and rules his family and those of his sons who elect to remain with him. When he dies the oldest son be- comes the head of the family. DECISIONS OF THE U. S. BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES April 5, 1905 CHINESK PROVINCES Anhui (not Nganhwei, Ngan-hwei, Ngan-hoei, Ngan-hui, Ngan-hwuy, nor Ngan-Hwuy). Chehkiang (not Cheh-kiang, Chekiang, nor Che-kiang). Chihli* (not, Pechili, Chih-li, nor Chi-li). Fuhkien * (not Fukien, Fu-kien, Fuh-kien, nor Foo-kien). Honan (not Ho-nan). Hsin chiang (not Eastern Turkestan nor Kashgaria). Hunan (not Hu-nan nor Hoo-nan). Hupeh (not Hu-peh nor Hoo-pe). Kansu (not Kan-su, Kansuh, nor Kan-soo). Kiangsi (not Kiang-si nor Kiang-se). Kiangsu (not Kiang-su). Pe-chili, Pe-chi-li, * Revision of previous decision. GeoGRAPHIC Nores Kuangsi (not Kwangsi, Kwang-si, nor Quang- se). Kuangtung (not Kwangtung, Kwang-tung, Kwantung, Kang-tung, nor Quang-tung). Kueichou (not Kui-chou, Kweichou, Kwei- chow, nor Quei-chow). Shangtung (not Shantung nor Shan-tung). Shansi (not Shan-si nor Shan-se). Shensi (not Shen-si nor Shen-se). Ssuch’uan (not Szechuen, Sze-chuen, nor Sze- ehuan). Yiinnan (not Yunnan, Yun nan, nor Yun-nan), Mukden; city, China (not Mookden nor Moukden). Banka; island, lying between Sumatra and Borneo (not Banca nor Bangka). Captains; bay, Alaska, between Iliuliuk Bay an Nateekin Bay. Carquinez ;* bay, point, and strait, connecting Suisun and San Pablo Bays, California (not Carquines, Karquines, nor Karque- nas). Chouteau ;* county, Montana (not Choteau). Dona Ana;* county, post-office, railroad sta- tion, and precinct, New Mexico (not Donna Ana nor Dofia Ana). Grass; river, tributary to the St Lawrence River, St Lawrence County, New York (not De Grasse, Grasse, nor La Grasse). Iliulink ;* harbor, Alaska, an arm of Unalaska Bay, east of Dutch Harbor (not Unalaska, Captains Harbor, nor Levashef). Le Conte; bay and glacier, east of Mitkof Island, Frederick Sound, southeastern Alaska (not Hutli, Hnlti, nor Thunder). Lewis and Clark;* county, Montana (not Lewis and Clarke). Little Salmon ; stream, tributary to Lake On- tario, near Texas and about 4 miles west of Salmon River, Oswego County, New York (not Salmon). Port Levashef ; port, Alaska, at head of Cap- tains Bay (not Captains Harbor nor St Paul). Sycamore; creek, tributary to Verde River from the northeast, Yavapai County, Ari- zona (not Dragoon nor Dragoon Fork). May 3, 1905 Chefoo; city, China (not Chifu, Chi-fu, Che- foo, Chee-foo, nor Tschi-fu). Liaoyang; city, China (not Liau-yang, Liao- yang, nor Liaoyan),. Tieling ; city, China (not Thieling, Tie-ling, nor Tielin). American Corners; village, post-office, and district, Caroline County, Maryland (not American Corner). Hinchinbrook ; principal entrance to Prince William Sound, southern Alaska (not Meiklejohn). * Revision of previous decision. © 359 Choga; creek, Macon County, North Carolina (not Chogee). - Hughes; post-office and railroad station, Butler County, Ohio (not Hughs). Indian ; creek, Chowan County, North Carolina (not Dillard nor Dillard Mill). Marshyhope ; branch of the Nanticoke River, Dorchester and Caroline counties, Mary- land, and Kent and Sussex counties, Dela- ware (not Marshy Hope, Marsh Hope, West Branch of Nanticoke River, West or Northwest Fork of Nanticoke, nor North- west Prong of Nanticoke). Norris ; glacier on the west side of Taku Inlet, southeastern Alaska (not Kadischle, Ka- dishle, nor Windom). Salt Lake City ; city, capital of Utah (not Salt Lake). Santeetlah; creek and _ post-office, Graham County, North Carolina (not Santeetla nor Santutlah). Shewbird ; post-office and mountain, Clay County, North Carolina (not Shoo Bird nor Shoobird). Shoshone ; established for all place names, but not for tribal name or reservation. Taku ; glacier at the head of Taku Inlet, south- eastern Alaska(not Klumu Gutta, Klumma Gutta, nor Foster). June 7, 1905 Donaldson; creek, Caldwell County, Ken- tucky (not Dollison, Dollarson, nor Don- alson). Hayden ; island in Columbia River, Multno- mah County, Oregon (not Shaw’s, Shaws, nor Vancouver). * Horniblow ; point, Chowan County, North Carolina (not Hornblower, Horniblow’s, nor Skinners). Kivalina ; river, debouchiug in Corwin Lagoon, on the Arctic coast of Alaska, 60 miles southeast of Point Hope (not Kevulik, Kevuleek, Kuveleek, Kivalena, Kivalinag- miut, Kiveleena, Kivilenya, Kivelow, nor Kiv-a-linyah). Kobuk; river in northwestern Alaska tributary to Hotham Inlet (not Kowak, Putnam, Kooak, Kubuk, nor Kuvuk). Poverty ; point, Dorchester County, Maryland (not Brockman, Brokman, nor Brohawn). Roasting Ear; point, Dorchester County, Maryland (not Roasting Gar nor Rose Neck). Tigari; Eskimo village on Point Hope, Arctic coast of Alaska(not Tikira, Tik-i-rah, Tik-i- rah-mun, Tikirak, Tik-é-ra, Tikera, Tieka- gagmiut, Tiekaga, Tigera, Tig-a-ra, Tig-a- rah, nor Figarok). Whale; island, between Afognak and Kodiak, Alaska (not Tobopymeriu, Tobopymek, Ketoy, nor Kittiwake). *Reversal of previous decision 206 Earthquakes. By Clarence Edward Dutton, Major, U.S.A. Pp. xxiii+ New York: 314. 8% x 534 inches. G. P. Putman’s Sons. 1904. This volume, by a specialist, gathers up in a technical way the most impor- tant results of the new seismology which has developed within the last third of a century chiefly under the leadership of Prof. John Milne, an Englishman who taught science for several years in the Imperial University of Japan. These investigators confine themselves largely ~ to the study of the wave motions in the earth, looking on earthquakes as an effect of geologic forces. Our author treats of the nature and causes of earth- quakes, describes the instruments used for recording vibrations, and discusses the views and theories of observers based on this mechanical data. Healso points out the chief areas of these disturbances and gives a final chapter on seaquakes. He draws illustrations from the various quarters afforded by these phenomena and makes copious use of pictures and diagrams. There is a short index. The volume is indispensable in its field, as it practically has no rival, but it is not intended for the general reader, though a man of ordinary education can readily get considerable information from it. C. VE. Thomas Hutchins. A Topographical Description of Virginia,Pennsylvania, Maryland, and North Carolina. Re- print of original edition of 1778. Ed- ited by Frederick C. Hicks. Pp. 143, with maps. Cleveland: Burrows .Bros.-Co... 1904. This reprint of a rare and valuable book will be welcomed by all students of the formative period of the United States, and the work of the only man who filled the office of civil ‘‘ geogra- pher of the United States’’ should be of interest to every student of geography. Mr Hicks supplements the reprint by valuable notes, and contributes an ex- cellent biographical sketch of Hutch- ins, with a list of his works. He was Tue Nationa, GeocrarpHic MAGAZINE not merely an American by birth, but in his sympathies and activities, resign- ing his commission in the British army to serve his country during the Revolu- tionary War. To Hutchins is probably due the system of land platting used by our General Land Office. He also ex- ercised a potent influence on colonization through his extensive travels, road sur- veys, and land tracts. During his serv- ices as geographer, as one of the com- missioners to run the boundary line between Pennsylvania and Virginia, and also between New York and Massa- chusetts, and in establishing the sys- tem of surveying public lands, Hutchins displayed conspicuous scientific ability. Prof. Hicks says that ‘‘ his geograph- ical works formed the basis for the famous American geography of Jedi- dah Morse,’’ and adds that ‘‘as a pio- neer, soldier, patriot, surveyor, litera- teur, and scientist, we find him to have been a man who justly is en- titled to a place among the great Amer- ican civilizers.’’ Ae WeG: Geographen Kalendar, 1905-1906. By Hermann Haack. With 16 maps. Pp. 530. 4% x 6% inches. Gotha Justus Perthes. 1905. $2.50. The volume for 1905-1906 of this useful geographical annual contains a summary of geographical progress in 1904 by Professor Paul Langhaus, a review of geographic publications in 1904, a directory of the working geog- raphers of the world, and a series of admirable small maps, including maps showing the route of the English Tib- etan expedition, the Baikal railway, Siam, the Signal Corps telegraph lines in Alaska, French explorations in Sa- hara, and maps picturing the territorial expansion of the United States and Japan. ‘The map of the United States is in error, as it represents Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Indian Territory as states. [he directory does not contain the names of a considerable number of American geographers, who ought to be included. — Vol. XVI AUGUST, 1905 : No. 8 CONTENTS Map of the Philippine Islands. [In four colors, 23 x 36 inches ule Supplement The Philippines. By Secretary of War, Hon. William H. Taft. Illustrated . 361 Forestry at Home and Abroad. By Gifford Pinchot, Forester. Illustrated 375 The Central Great Plains. Illustrated . 389 Published by the National Geographic Society — Hubbard Memorial Hall ! Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year | 25 Ceats a Number ' Entered at the Pest-Offiee in Wachington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter THE NATIONAIL eee N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by the NatTionaL GeEroGRAPHIC SOCIETY. All editorial communications should be ad- dressed to the Editor of the NationaL Geocrapuic MaGazine. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army W J McGHE Chief Department of Anthropology and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- chase Exposition C. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture oO. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey O. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ment of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID Tf. DAY Chief of the Division of Mineral Resources, U.S. Geological Survey ALFRED H. BROOKS U. S. Geological Survey ANGELO HEILPRIN Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- delphia R. D. SALISBURY University of Chicago G. K. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON 1 President St Lawrence University - Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D.C. _ Vor. XVI, No. 8 WASHINGTON AvuGuST, 1905 rT 1 2 PA PPINES* By THE SECRETARY OF War, Hon. Wittiam H. Tarr | HEN your veracious commit- tee came to see me to invite me to address the National Geographic Society I gathered from what they said—possibly they did not say it directly—that I was to have the pleasure of sitting and talking in a par- lor with a few ladies and gentlemen much interested. in geography and the far countries of the world ; who would not require a speech or lecture, but merely an informal talk. I said to them that my engagements at present were such as to make it altogether im- possible for me to prepare anything which would be worthy of an august audience. They said, ‘‘ That is en- tirely unnecessary. ‘Talk about the Philippines, you know all about that, and you can talk that in a parlor with- out difficulty.’’ Andso Idid not know until this morning, when I was advised where I would find the Rifles’ Armory, that I was to speak to so intelligent, and, I may be permitted to say, ‘‘ terri- fying’’ an audience as this. I make this explanation both because of the des- ultory character of the remarks which you shall hear, and also to avoid the charge which I am constantly receiving at home from my wife and my mother, whose instructions I hope to follow, that I should not harp on one string so much. Those who are responsible for the Philippine administration under this government have had the disadvantage, or advantage, of being subject to criti- cism ever since they began, on all sides. For a long time—if I may designate what they said by so opprobrious a term—the ‘‘ noise’’ came from the anti- imperialists, and we were attacked for oppressing a people struggling for in- dependence. We were attacked, after we had taken control, for not giving at once to that people all the liberties they were entitled to. We were attacked for proposing to stay any number of years there in order to enable that struggling people to get upon their feet. When it was suggested that we should stay and educate them, it was said to be al- together too long. Well, we have fought out that fight, if I understand it, with the American people, and that people, being a sensible people, have decided that, so far as the issue raised by the taking of the Philip- pines and our establishing a government *An address before the National Geographic Society, May 5, 1905 362 there are concerned, those issues are set- tled; and therefore we may properly turn to the critics whom, with deference for the anti-imperialists of Boston and elsewhere, I regard as much more for- midable,the critics who found what they have to say in derogation of our govern- ment upon the experience of the great- est colonial government of the world— the British Empire ; and we find, curi- ously enough, or perhaps not so curi- ously, though, when you come to con- sider the facts, that the very things for which we are attacked by the anti- imperialists in the Philippine govern- ment are made the only basis for ap- proval on the part of the British critics. And in what I have to say tonight I should like to take up, not in very great detail, but subject by subject, the grounds for the criticisms of the Philip- pine government which have appeared in publications of the British critics. The first one of these, who is hardly worthy of notice, vet I do notice him for the purpose of saying one or two severe things about him—he deserves it—is Mr John Foreman. Mr John Foreman published a book upon the Philippine Islands before they came under the American regime that, on the whole, furnished the most material and possibly the best information, the most accurate information, although there were a great many inaccuracies in it, concerning the Philippine Islands. He left the islands, it was said, because of some strictures which he made upon the Spanish friars, and did not return there until long after the Americans had es- tablished a government. Then he made a very summary visit, and returned last summer in time to publish an article in the fortnightly Review on what the Americans had done in the Philippines. I suppose that the editors of that very reputable review permitted the publica- tion of the article because Mr Foreman had established a good reputation by the book which he had published ; but Tur Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE no one can read it, and read hetween the lines, without perceiving the bitterness and utter irresponsibility of the criti- cisms which he made upon the present condition of affairs in the island. He must first, although professing to hold in the greatest contempt those who were struggling for independence in the isl- ands, have made his home with irrecon- cilables, for he gave credence to the very wildest statements concerning the gov- ernment which I am in a position, hav- ing formed a part of that government, to be able to deny without hesitation. He had an insinuating way of saying, for instance, ‘‘ The government is now taking up the work of the Spanish gov- ernment, proceeding with the harbor works, which will bring into use 160 acres of valuable lands just below the Malecon drive, for warehouses and other purposes. This will doubtless be ap- propriated by the Americans in the gov- ernment service.’’ He had no founda- tion, so far as I know, for saying that the lands would be disposed of except at public auction, and it is a gratuitous insult to any one connected with the government to suggest that those of us who are connected with the government would divide these lands between us. Now, I pass Mr Foreman by with the statement that the character of his arti- cle entitles him to be classed in the cate- gory of those ‘‘ European waifs’’ who are found upon the shores of the Orient. We had in Manilaa collection of per- sons from America and Europe, and all along the shore between, attracted there by the disturbed condition of the coun- try, whom it took us two full years to eliminate, and when they found the police force of Manila growing more and more strict in its regard for the presence of good individuals and the absence of bad individuals, they took up their march, or their swim, or their sail up the coast, and they put in at Shanghai, which seems to be the final home of all the ocean waifs of the Tue PHILIPPINES Orient and of most of the Oriental liars ; and they, becoming established there, became very well known in Manila in my time as ‘‘ Shanghai roosters.’’ They occupied most of their time in libelling the American government. I am bound to say that Mr Foreman has established his claim to take a position on that roost. The next of these British critics is Mr A. R. Colquhoun, a gentleman of avery different order from Mr Foreman, if we may judge by the writings of the two. Mr Colquhoun has been the correspond- ent of the London 7zmes, was at one time in the colonial service of Great Britain, was the district governor, or commander, of a district in Burma, is a gentleman in every way, and has written two very interesting books—one ‘‘’The Mastery of the Pacific,’’ and the other ‘‘A Greater America.’’ Mr Colquhoun traveled with the commission when we were establish- ing civil governments in the islands. He was about three weeks in the islands at one time, and about ten days at another. I have a great respect for him, and read what he had to say with keen interest. I shall not take up what he had to say, because what he has had to say has been amplified and treated with more elabora- tion, and possibly with more authority, by another Englishman or Scotchman, Mr Alleyne Ireland, nowconnected with the Chicago University, and whose ex- perience in the investigation of tropical colonies makes what he says worthy of consideration, and makes it, also, most interesting. THEY SAY WE ARE SPENDING TOO MUCH FOR EDUCATION Now, his first criticism of the Philip- pine government is that it has devoted three million dollars a year, or at least 25 per cent, and perhaps more, of its total revenue, for education, and he says that that money would be much better ex- pended in the construction of roads and in the material development of the coun- try. Hesays this because experience in 363 English colonies makes him think that the Filipino needs material development much more than he does mental develop- ment, by no means admitting, however, that he has mental development sufficient to dispense with any of it. Upon this subject those of us who are responsible for the course pursued in the Philippines must take issue. The question as to which is right of the two policies de- pends upon and goes back to the pur- pose of the colonization. Weblundered into colonization; we did not go into it with malice aforethought. We found ourselves in possession of the islands because we could not help it, and then we determined that we would do the best we could with them, working outa policy as nearly consistent with the prin- ciples of our own government as was possible. Now, then, that means in the end a government of the people, by the people, and for the people; but a gov- ernment of the people, by the people, and for the people is absolutely impos- sible unless you have the great body of | that people with intelligence enough to exercise the strong public opinion that is necessary to sustain and restrain any popular government. If it be true, as Mr Ireland says, that tropical peoples are incapable of self-government and incapable of education up to self-govern- ment, then I agree that the argument is with him And heassumes as the basis of his argument the experience that the English have had in their colonies. OUR COLONIAL PROBLEM IS EN- TIRELY DIFFERENT FROM ENGLISH COLONIAL PROBLEMS Well, you judge of how experience ought to lead you in your conclusions by how far that experience has gone. Iam not aware as yet of any attempt on the part of England to try the peo- ples of tropical colonies in self-govern- ment or to educate them up to the point where they may be capable of self-gov- ernment. Again, experience is useful 364 as the experience is in accord with the conditions which you expect to meet and to which you expect to apply that expe- rience. The peoples that the English have had to handle in the tropics have been the Mohammedans and the Hin- doos. ‘They are a people whose religion is so deepseated that it is impossible to hope that they may ever in any great numbers be made Christians. The Mo- hammedans look with disdain on Chris- tianity as an older religion. They have a new patent, and therefore they look with contempt on European ideas and on American ideas. Now, in the Phil- ippines we have a very different condi- tion of affairs. We have 6 millions of people, nearly 7 millions, who are sin- cere Christians, and who have been so for 250 years. ‘Theyare Christian chil- dren because they have been brought up by the friars, who thought that it was unwise to expose them to the tempta- tions and demoralizations of the Spanish or any other world. But they did in- still in them the principles of Christian- ity, and they did turn their faces, their minds, and their ambitions toward Eu- rope and toward America. It is from these two countries that these people derived their ideas. ‘Therefore I think that we are right in saying that experi- ence founded on dealing with Moham- medans and Hindoos in respect of pop- ular self-government may be doubted as an absolute guide as to what we may expect to do with people who are the only Christian Malays and the only far- Oriental Christians. Another objection which may be made to the education of these people is that if you educate them you will educate some of them so that they will become unruly; they will become constant revo- lutionists, and you will always have trouble. Well, I agree that it is possi- ble to educate a man much beyond his capacity, so that he uses his education for purposes for which a man of much less education would not waste it. But Tue Nationa GeocraPHic MAGAZINE the advantage and absolute necessity in a popular government of having pub- lic opinion that comes from a wide- spread intelligence, not profound, not university, but based on primary edu- cation, furnishes an antidote for the poison of the revolutionary tendency of light-headed, irresponsible characters. You can tell often whether a people are fitted for education by whether — they take to it or not. We have in the Philippines a much severer struggle to teach the Filipinos than they would have in the Malay states, or in Java, or in India, because we have a people who have no common language that is fit to be used by a civilized people, and there- fore we have not only to teach them, but we have to teach them a different language from their mother tongue. There are some twelve different dialects or languages in the Philippines among the civilized tribes, and until they shall have a common language, it is hope- less to expect solidarity as a nation or intelligence asa people. ‘Therefore we determined that we ought to teach them English. It is true that they had learned, some of them—about 7 per cent of them—Spanish, but they did not look to Spanish as a language which they cherished. Spanish is not the lan- guage of the Orient. Spanish is not the language of free institutions, and we concluded that as the question was only between teaching 93 per cent and 100 per cent we might as well do the job thoroughly and teach them English. ARE WE FORCING ENGLISH DOWN THEIR THROATS AS Withos FORCE PUMP? Now, our anti-imperialist friends say, and I think that even the president of Cornell University has intimated, that we are forcing English down the throats of an unwilling people as with a force pump. Asa matter of fact, the teach- ing of English began before civil gov- ernment reached the islands; the instinct Tue PHILIPPINES of the Americans whether they wear a military uniform or the garb of peace, to teach the youth how they should grow and to spread intelligence, led the army into the establishment of an edu- cational system in the Philippines, and in every company of that army two or three men were detailed right in the villages where insurrection was rife to open schools and teach the little Fili- pinos English. Of course, it was a de- fective school system, but nevertheless we found it there, and on what they had done we builded. We sent to America for a thousand school teachers, and we organized, and as the army paci- fied the islands we followed closely with civil government and with schools. Now, we had at the end of the first year after we reached there organized schools enough so that there were reciting in English 10 per cent of the youth of school age of the islands. The next year this was increased to 13 per cent, and last year it increased to 19 per cent, and there were in July and August of last year reciting in English in the schools 263,000 Filipino youth. We do not have any compulsory school laws, because a compulsory school law is predicated on your having schools and teachers enough to teach all the youth in the community, and we have, as you see, only about one-fifth of the teachers needed and only one fifth of the school-houses needed. That is what we are doing now. Next year I have no doubt the increase will be 100,000. And all this indicates to you—at least it does to me—the earnest desire of those people, those children, and the fathers and mothers of those children that they should learn English, and that they should become educated. Now, there are 263,000 of them, and the average attendance is 70 per cent. That coun- try is a country where between doing a thing and not doing it you usually choose not to do it, and therefore if 70 per cent of the pupils attend you may count 365 on a very strong feeling in favor of education everywhere. The trouble is that we have not money enough to make their education what it should be. We do not want to make them university professors. We shall have a university there. We ought to have one simply as a keystone for the arch of education for a comparatively small number of Filipinos who can afford to take that education ; but what we wish to do isto spread the primary schools, the manual- training, industrial, and normal schools. We are now using 800 American teach- ers, in the first place, to teach the Fili- pino teachers how to teach their Fili- pino children. In other words, we are hoping to build up a body of from ten to fifteen thousand Filipino teachers who can teach English, and thus teach the whole islands a new language—a common language and a language, as I have said, of free institutions. Now, it seems to me that this statement of mine, this statement of fact, itself answers my friend Mr Alleyne Ireland as to the wisdom of our expending 25 per cent of our income in teaching. It is what the people want, and we can be certain that if they learn the English language and read English books they will learn. | OUR SYSTEM OF GOVERNING THE PHILIPPINES IS DESIGNED TO TRAIN THE PEOPLE TO SELF-GOVERNMENT Now, the next subject of criticism is as to the form of government. Mr Ire- land says that we have made a mistake, because we have established municipal and provincial governments under the commission. We have had elective officers in the municipal governments ; we have had an elective governor, who is one-third of the provincial council, the other two members being appointed under the civil-service rules and being, generally, Americans, the ‘‘fiscal’’ or prosecuting attorney being a native and the secretary of province being a 3606 native. He says that that makes too many officers; that we would get along a good deal better if we followed the English custom of having one English commissioner, who acts as judge, as executive, as legislature, as everything else, and has under him natives who are intelligent enough to understand his commands and carry them out. Now, it is perfectly true that that government there could be much more efficient if we put an American in charge of every province and made him absolute ruler there. It would not be any trouble to doit at all. Wewould have less taxes, the work would be attended to with more care, and, on the whole, for the next ten or fifteen years it is probable that the people would be in better condition, but:they would not have any responsi- bility about the government. They would not be subject to scolding at every mouth by the officers above them, they would not find out what it is to be re- sponsible for the government of others, and they would not be enjoying the edu- cation or partial education—or, rather, an educationin partial self-government— which our system gives them. It adds to the expense and it does not give them so good a government, and therefore, if our policy were only the best for the time, I should yield to the criticism of Mr Ireland. But what we are trying to do is to teach these people by object lessons, as well as by direct education in the primary schools, what it 1s to be a free people. The idea that freedom can be en- joyed by a people without learning how to enjoy it issomething that belongs to theory, not to’ practice. It. may be found in Boston, but nowhere else. I ought to add that this system of government was most useful in bring- ing about peace, in satisfying the natives that we were there with the idea of giv- ing them as much self-government as we could. Mr Ireland and the others who criticise ought in fairness, it seems Tue Nationat GeocraPuic MAGAZINE — to me, when they consider what is done there, to put themselves more or less in the position of those who had to do the job and to take into consideration those difficulties that present themselves on every side. We said that we were there for the benefit of the Filipino people ; we said that we were there to give them as much of self-government as they could stand, and we did it. We may have given them a little more, but it is a good deal better to extend it a little beyond what they can stand and teach them the lesson and then say to them, ‘‘ When you do educate yourselves up to this we will extend it a little more,’’ as we have had occasion to do in a number of prov- inces, than it is to give them the im- pression that we were deceiving them in what we said we wished to do for them. One of the chief characteristics of the Orientals—indeed, one of the chief char- acteristics of all nations that are igno- rant—is suspicion and distrust, and the primary rule of policy in dealing with them is absolute honesty and straight- forwardness. BUILDING ROADS Now, Mr Ireland says that there is a woeful lack of improvements in the Philippines, especially in the matter of roads, and then he refers to the roads of the Roman Empire. Those roads have been made the basis for many an ora- torical period, without knowledge as to how many years, how many decades, and how many centuries it took to con- struct them. But it is true that roads are a most important feature of civil- ization. Intercommunication is what helps, as much as education itself. We began our career as legislators in the Philippines by voting a million dollars to be expended by General McArthur in the construction of roads in the Phil- ippines, and we have been trying to build them ever since. Well, there are 3,000 islands there. ‘There are 140,000 square miles. A great many of the 3607 Tue PHILIPPINES nderwood, New York ht by Underwood and U copyrig ’ From stereograph ipinos i] Young F Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 68 << Beek HK SS SS From stereograph, copyright by Underwood and Underwood, New York Primary Pupils in a Municipal School, Manila Tue PuHIbipPinges 6 From stereograph, copyright by Underwood and Underwood, New York The Right Road to Filipino Freedom [Boys in the Normal High School, Manila Se provinces lie in the low land, where there is no rock which can be used to be broken up and made good metal. They have to go into the bottom of the streams and get the gravel that comes down from the mountains and use that. And then we have, sometimes, six or eight months of torrential rains. You do not know what rains are, living here in the temperate zone. Think of 52 inches of rain in one month! That is what they have in the province of Ben- guet in the month of August. And then take another feature of the civilization which we found there. It would seem as though Providence or nature were playing a joke. The roads are very hard to construct; but the natives, in order to make it still harder to preserve them, use wooden wheels for their carts and shave them down on the edge. They are solid wheels, and they shave them down to a knife edge, and then load the wagons and take them in this rainy weather over the roads. Well, the wheels cut as a razor would cut your finger, and this plays havoc with the roads. We attempted to cure that by imposing a fine of five dollars on every wagon that had a tire less than 2% inches broad. But they concluded that this was only for taxation, and they paid the tax and continued to use the wagons. And then we had to im- port wagon wheels to show them what we meant, and we imposed a fine-and- imprisonment penalty for the use of the wagons with narrow-tired wheels. Of the three millions of dollars which was voted by Congress part of it was expended in order to break up a corner in rice, which promised to be a rice famine, and two millions of it were spent in the construction of roads. Those roads are not all completed yet. You know that when you go through a tropical jungle with engineering in- struments it is not so easy a matter as in this country, where you can seea long distance ahead, and the very work THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of laying out a road is along one, taken with the difficulty of getting the mate- rial for making a permanent road. All road building must go slowly. ‘There- fore when a gentleman goes along on an inspection tour in the Princess lrene, or one of those beautiful vessels of the Hamburg Steamship Company, and lands in India at Bombay, and drives out and sees those beautiful roads all through India, that have for 250 years been building, and then comes to Ceylon, where they have for so many years been building roads under the Dutch and English, and then comes to Singapore and into the Confederated Malay States, where they do not have any taxes, because they raise so much money out of the three-quarters of the tin product of the world that they get out of the mines there—they have been 50 years building roads—and then comes here to the poor Filipinos and finds that roads have not been con- structed on every one of the roo islands, and that the roads that have been con- structed show signs of the previous year’s torrential rains—it is a little difficult for a critic, however impartial, not to think that the government is very much to blame for not having con- structed all those roads through all the islands as they ought to be, and as I hope some day they will be constructed, both for the peace of the islands and for the uplifting of the population. But meantime we are doing what we can. NEW HARBORS, A PURE WATER SUPPLY, AND RAILWAYS Well, to begin with, we have united Manila with every one of the 44 prov- inces by telegraph lines, and this is an opportunity for the spread of informa- tion and intercommunication. We have very good postal facilities. We have just opened 33 miles of street railway in Manila, and that a modern street rail- way. Manila, for its population, had more teams and more horses and vehi- Tue PHILIPPINES cles, I suppose, than any other city in the world. They were not very large horses and they were not very commodi- ous vehicles, but such as they were they traversed the streets, and they were an absolute necessity, because everybody rides in Manila except the very poorest and humblest. In no other city in the world was a street-railway system more needed than in Manila, and I have no doubt that its presence there today—and it has begun both with great enthusiasm on the part of the people and on the part of the gentlemen who look forward to dividends from the franchise, given about a month ago—I have no doubt that the presence of that street railway will reduce the cost of living of the peo- ple of moderate incomes 25 per cent because of the absolute necessity of get- ting about and the opportunity of dis- posing of the horses and earriages and the necessity of feed and all the other expenses attendant upon the keeping of horses and carriages. Weare engaged in the expenditure of 6 millions of dollars in the harbors of Cebu, Manila, and Iloilo, and we shall probably have the best harbor in the Orient at Manila. People who are not familiar with the islands suppose that the Bay of Manila affords a harbor; but the Bay of Manila is 30 miles long and about 25 miles wide, with a 6-mile entrance at Corregidor which offers a fullsweep tothe southwestern monsoon, which comes in for six months in the year, which makes it impossible, espe- cially in the afternoon, to land from boats that do not get behind a break- water. This harbor is to be shut off from the wind by large breakwaters. It is very nearly completed. Weare to have wharves, alongside of which the largest vessels can come, and, as I have said, 160 acres are to be reclaimed for the construction of warehouses and for business purposes of the city. We are just putting in—just adver- tising the bonds for, have the plans for, as and are just about to put in—a sewer systemin Manila. Manila is about seven feet above the ocean—it does go up to about 10 feet—and you cannot sink a hole anywhere without striking water within 3 or 4 feet. That makes the problem of sewerage very difficult, and we have a plan now which involves the pumping of the sewerage away out to sea, so as to rid the city of any danger from it. Mr Desmond Fitzgerald, of Boston, whom we sent for as an expert engineer, has pronounced the plans to be correct. We have had to go back into the mountains about fifteen milesin order to increase the water supply of Manila and to be sure that we shall get above the region where the water would be im- pregnated with cholera germs or other undesirable inhabitants. This will cost about two millions of dollars, but we are just now ready to construct it. We are engaged, under an act of Con- gress recently passed, in preparing in- vitations to bid for the construction of a thousand miles of railway in the islands. When we have the thousand miles of railway constructed, so as to open each island to the sea, we shall proceed much more rapidly in the construction of wagon roads, because then we shall have some means by which we can haul road material from one point to another. I would like to dwell on the subject of the railways, but I have not time. PHILIPPINE CIVIL, SERVICE Mr Ireland criticises, in some detail, the civil service of the islands. Well, I was a civil-service reformer when I went to the islands, and I was deter- mined that we should put in force there as strict civil-service rules on the basis of civil-service reform here as we could, and we did; and nobody can get into the service there now without first pass- ing an examination. But Mr Ireland says that the examination is only up to the standard of the ordinary high-school She examination, and he compares it with the examination that a man has to pass to enter the colonial service of Hong- kong, China, or Calcutta, India. That is an examination, I should judge from what he says, equal to that a man must pass when he gets the degree of ‘‘A. B.”’ at Harvard or Yale. Well, I said to Mr Ireland that if that were the kind of examination we had to put a man through we would not have anybody in the government service of the islands. That is all right for a country that has been 250 years in colonial government, with such a lot of sons anxious to go out somewhere and fit themselves for the service; that has been in the business long enough to establish schools and universities in England, where they directly fit people for the service, and that has been sufficiently long in the colonial service to establish a service where you have a pension, and where a man may look to that service as the service of his life, and as a place from which,at the very reasonable age of sixty or sixty-two years, he may retire on his pension knowing that he and his family will be taken care of. Now, it is pos- sible to get men under such circum- stances; and no one has a more pro- found admiration for the colonial service of England than I have. I know that itis an admirable service, and I wish that we, too, could have such a service ; but the idea of talking about our hav- ing such a service when we have been in the islands three years, and that we could have a university education as a basis for a complete civil service seems to me to indicate that our brother Jreland shot too far. He did not know how ‘‘to restrain himself,’’ as Lord Coke said, ‘‘ to the fitness of the thing.”’ IF WE INTRODUCE CHINESE WE WILL HAVE A REVOLUTION Now, the next issue that Mr Ireland makes is a very serious one—one, I agree, upon which strong arguments can THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE be made upon both sides—and that is the question as to whether we should admit Chinese laborers to the islands to build them up. Mr Ireland says that we have no laborers in the islands wor- thy of the name, and that if we expect to do anything there we might as well at once admit the Chinese ; that they would build up the islands, and that it would be for the benefit of the Filipinos. But I do not think that Mr Ireland looked at the result of that policy as he saw it exhibited at Singapore and in the Straits Settlements, with a full consid- eration of what it meant tothe Malays, who were there before they admitted the Chinese, for he found that all the busi- ness and allthe work and all the money and all the influence and everything that was worth having was Chinese. There is a superficial appearance of English in the government, but the money and the work and the business are largely Chi- nese, and our friends the Malays sit around in the park and enjoy the sight. They are relegated to the back bench. Now, then, that is certain to be the case if we admit the Chinese to the Philip- pines, and the question is whether under our promise to them to govern the Phil- ippines for the benefit of the Filipinos we can afford to bring about a condition in which the Filipinos shall be relegated to the back seat and the Chinamen shall be invited forward to share all the ben- efit that may come from the development of the rich country. Another reason why we cannot do it is because if we do we will have a rev- olution. There is the deepest feeling possible against the admission of Chi- nese into those islands. There are to- day about 50,000 of them in the islands, if not more. ‘The reason why the Fili- pinos do not like the Chinese is this : A Chinaman will come into the islands and he will work for twelve or fifteen dollars (silver) a month—that is, six dollars or six dollars and a half a month. He will save out of that about ten dol- Tue PHILipPiINnEes lars (gold) a month. He does that in some way. I donot know how he does it. He will live there a year, and at the end of that year he will go out of the laboring business and he will set upa store next to a Filipino woman, who is the man of the concern ordinarily and who is the business person of the com- munity among the Filipinos. He will drive that woman out of business within six months. That is the reason why the Filipinos do not like the Chinese there, and that is the reason why, in the history of the islands, if you will go back, there has been massacre after massacre of Chinamen. It would seem, therefore, an unwise political move. But if the development of the country without the admission of Chinamen is impossible, possibly we ought to run the risk of both. Well, now, is it? Mr Ireland says that itis. We have let this very large public work, which will cost from four to five millions of dollars—the construction of the Manila harbor works. We let it, after advertising, to the At- lantic and Pacific Gulf Company of the United States. Mr Mullen was at the head of it, and he came out and looked around. He said that he did not think that the Filipinos were good for any- thing, and that he would employ Amer- icans and Chinamen and any one else he could get. There are only 50,000 China- men in the islands, and they know that no more can come there and they know that that increases their value, and that that makes them more desirable, and then they become less useful, so that they do not make as good laborers in the Philippines as they do at home, where they have to scramble for a living. MR KRUSI’S METHOD OF GETTING GOOD LABORERS A gentleman by the name of Mr Krusi came out as vice-president of the com- pany, and he concluded that he would make a different experiment. The com- pany had a big quarry from which they 373 had to take the stone to construct the breakwater. Mr Krusi built a house. You know they can build a house there—such a house as they live in there—constructed of bamboo and nipa palm. The floors are made of split bamboo, and so the floor serves the pur- pose of both the bed and the floor, and you can see through to the ground 4 or 5 feet belowit. Everything is airy and comfortable. Now, that is the kind of house he built for each family. He had a theater, he had a church, he had a school-house, he had actresses, he had a priest, he had a teacher, he had a cock- pit, he had a band. The band played every evening, the cockpit was open on fiesta days, the theater was open three times a week, the church was open all the time. Before three months had passed he had 1,500 laborers there, and he had to call the police to keep others away who were trying to get work there. He says that he has never had better labor than he has had in his quarry. He had to employ from 5 to 8 per cent of American foremen—that is, men who would go in—not gentlemen foremen, but men he sent in to help to do the work—to show the men how the work was to be done. He said that he had no trouble whatever, and that the work was much better than it was before. Well, now, another example: The street railway has just been con- structed—33 miles of it—and they have had from 1,000 to 1,200 men at work, and they have constructed the street railway in Manila ata less cost per mile than they could have built it in Wash- ington or New York. ‘That shows that the cost per unit of product of labor is less with the Filipino laborer. So it has been the case with the government works; but it was supposed that be- cause the government paid a little more than the rest that it could get better labor. Now, it is quite possible in this instance, being in and about the city, that they got the benefit of the best SPs labor, and it is quite possible that when you go into the country you will find more trouble in congregating labor ; but those instances are enough to dem- onstrate that Filipino labor is possible of training ; that what is wanted is wages enough to attract them and training enough to make them effective ; and so, with due respect to Mr Ireland, with considerable personal experience in the matter, I am confident that Filipino labor is capable of development, and that while the islands may develop more slowly with Filipino labor, they will develop much more to the advan- tage of the Philippine people than if we should admit the Chinamen. IS OUR GOVERNMENT TOO EXPEN- SIVE? And now a serious charge that is made against the government is that it is expensive ; and Mr Ireland figures out that whereas Ceylon, Trinidad, the Straits Settlements, and Burma cost only about 27 per cent of the total exports, the cost in the Philippines is AO per cent, «1 agree that’ the yecost of the government, under the circum- stances, is very heavy. It must be taken into consideration, first, that this proportion is made larger by the ex- ports because of the deficiency of rail- ways in the islands. In those other colonies to which reference is made the proportion of railways to the area is very much greater than in the Philip- pine Islands. In the Philippines there is only one line of railway, 120 miles in length; so that when we introduce railways 1,000 miles in length we may suppose that the exports will become greater, and that the proportion of the exports will be very much reduced. But I wish also to call attention to the fact that we have been going only three years; that we have been until three years in a stateof war; that our educa- tion is 10 per cent of the exports; that our constabulary necessary to restrain THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE disturbed conditions is 6 percent. Now, the education of these other countries was considerably less than 1 per cent. That we have had because we have so many to control, to build up an island navy which cost us nearly three millions of dollars and costs us upward of six or seven hundred thousand dollars a year to run; that since we have been there we have had a terrible scourge of chol- era, which necessitated the expenditure in the health department of a million dol- lars; that we had the rinderpest, that carried away go per cent of our draft animals and reduced the business of pro- ducing for the purposes of export. Now, all these things Brother Ireland does not consider at all in his comparison between these countries of Ceylon, Trin- idad, the Straits Settlements, and Bur- ma, all of which have been prosperous, and the Straits Settlements, as I have said, receiving all its income from tin and opium. I agree that we have too many Ameri- cans in the government. You cannot get an American to go 10,000 miles away from home without paying him some- thing and paying him much more than you would pay a Filipino for doing the same work, and we must expect to re- duce the number of Americans as the government goes on, and by reducing the number of Americans reducing the total expenditure, because in getting a Filipino who will do the same work as an American you ought to be able to get him for half the price. Then Mr Ireland criticises severely the treatment of the islands by this country with respect to the tariff, and in that respect I fully concur with him. I sin- cerely hope that next year Congress will reduce the tariff to nothing on all goods produced in the Philippine Islands, ex- cept tobacco and sugar, and reduce that to 25 per cent, merely to justify our putting a duty in the Philippines against you until 1909, in order that the gov- ernment may be supported and not lose Forestry ABROAD AND AT HoME that revenue until thattime. And then when 1909 comes, and we are released from the necessity under the treaty of Paris from giving the same privileges to Spain as to the United States, then we can have complete free trade be- tween the islands and America. It is true, as Mr Ireland says, that the Phil- ippines are less developed than any of the colonies to which he refers. It is true that, in a certain sense, the people are less educated. It is true that they are more like children. But it is not true that they are not the best material for self-government. It is true that those islands, the gems of the Orient, have been undeveloped in a way that it is hard to understand unless you read 573 the history of the islands, and then you see that these people were brought up to be children constantly, in order that they might not know the wickedness of the world, and that all development was restrained. Now, may we not hope that under American influence, which shall tend to uplift the islands and at the same time to invest good American and other capital there for the purpose of introducing railways and developing the wealth of these islands that there is in the soil, in the mines, in the forests— may we not hope that in 4o years hence, when Brother Ireland goes around the world again to compare the various civ- ilizations, that a new light will break in on him when he looks at the islands ? FORESTRY ABROAD AND AT HOME“ By GIFFoRD PINCHOT CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF FORESTRY XCEHPT China, all civilized na- K tions care for the forest. Un- til recently the United States ranked nearly with China in this re- spect, and our country still remains far behind the progressive modern nations in nearly all that relates to the protec- tion, preservation, and conservative use of the forest. Japan has a well devel- oped forest service and a national forest school. In Austria, Italy, and Norway and Sweden government forestry is a well-established portion of the national life. Turkey, Greece, Spain, and Por- tugal give attention to the forests. Russia, dealing like ourselves with vast areas of forests in thinly peopled re- gions, but by methods wholly different from our own, is drawing enormous rev- enues from the systematic care and use of the forests. In Germany the scien- tific treatment of forests has reached perhaps its highest development. The foresters of France have perfected a most practical and effective general sys- tem of forestry, and have created the difficult art of controlling the floods of mountain torrents by planting trees. The Republic of Switzerland, by the use of methods most instructive to citi- zens of the United States, has developed a type of government forest policy more worthy of our attention and imitation than any other in Europe. In Austra- lia and New Zealand forestry has al- ready made important advances. In Canada the English have made real progress in forestry. The government sells the timber from its forests, but re- tains possession of the landsand employs fire guards. Atthe Cape of Good Hope they have an excellent forest service ; *A chapter from a ‘‘ Primer of Forestry,’ part II, by Mr Pinchot, recently published by the Department of Agriculture. 376 Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE From Gifford Pinchot, Forester An Exceedingly Productive Spruce Forest in Bavaria in British India they have met and an- swered many questions which still con- front the American forester, and in a little more than thirty years have cre- ated a forest service of great merit and high achievement. The United States has scarcely yet begun. THE FOREST IN EARLY TIMES In very early times the forest was preserved for the game it contained. Forestry then meant the art of hunting, and had very little to do with the care of trees. Even the word forest, which really comes from the Latin fov7s, mean- ing out of doors, was thought in Eng- land to be derived from the fact that it was a place given up to wild animals for rest. But gradually the forest came to be considered more than the game, and the serious study of forestry began. MODERN FORESTRY Forestry as a science is of compara- tively recent origin, although a work in which all the European trees are de- scribed was one of the earliest printed books. Until the end of the eighteenth century forestry was discussed chiefly by men who were either scholars or practical woodsmen, but who were not both. Then appeared Hartig and Cotta, two men who united these points of view, and their writings are at the base of the whole modern growth of the sub- ject. Both were German. Each cov- Forestry ABROAD AND AT HoMeE ered the whole field as it was then un- derstood, and together they exerted an influence which has not been approached by any other authors since. From Ger- many their teaching spread to France, and early in the nineteenth century their doctrines were introduced into the French Forest School at Nancy by Lo- rentz, who, with his successor, Parade, was the founder of modern forestry in France. Under the feudal system, which was finally destroyed in France by the revo- lution of 1789, the forest was the prop- erty of the feudal lord. In order to make the life of their serfs, who were useful both as taxpayers and as fighting men, easier, and so increase their num- ber, he gave them the privilege of taking from his forest the wood which they re- quired. For similar reasons the wealthy religious houses, like that of the Grande Chartreuse, made grants of land and of rights in the forest. But after a time the number of peasants increased so much that their wants absorbed nearly the whole produce of the woodlands. Then it was found necessary to limit the prescriptive rights to forest product by restricting them to certain parts of the forest, or to make an end of them by exchanging them for the absolute ownership of smaller areas. Thus many of the communities, to which, and not to individual peasants, these rights be- longed, came to possess forests of their own. But the communes, as they were called, managed their forests badly, and about three hundred years ago the gov- ernment was forced tointervene. Under the management of officers of the gov- ernment forest service the results from the communal forests have been excel- lent. At present these forests not only supply fuel to the villages which own them, but in some cases they produce enough to pay all the village taxes as well. GERMANY Germany still holds the high position S97), in forest science, which began with Hartig and Cotta. The German forest schools, of which there are seven of the higher grades, are still among the very best, and the study of forestry, both in the schools and in the forest experiment stations, is eagerly pursued. The for- ests in Prussia, Saxony, and other Ger- man states are admirably managed and yield important returns. The total value of the German forests, public and private, is said to be about $4, 500,000, - OOO. FRANCE Forestry in France has long been associated with the names of famous men. Henry of Navarre and his friend and minister, Sully ; Palissy, the great potter, who called the neglect of the forest prevalent in his time ‘‘ not a mis- take, but a calamity and a curse for France ;’’ Colbert, the minister of Louis XIV ; the botanist Duhamel du Monceau ; Buffon, the celebrated natu- ralist, are among the men to whom France owes the rise and progress of her present excellent forest policy. Their peculiar service was to lay the foundation, both in law and in public opinion, upon which modern forestry in France now rests. The forests of the French govern- ment are admirably managed. ‘They cover only about 2,750,000 acres, but they yield a net return each year of more than $2 per acre. Besides hand- ling their natural forests with great in- telligence and success, the French for- esters have done much for the general progress of forestry. They developed the art of reforesting denuded moun- tains, and were the first to plant trees on moving sand dunes along the sea- shore. More than 150,000 acres of these dunes, which once were blown about by the wind until they over- whelmed great stretches of fertile ground, and even threatened to bury whole towns, are now covered with forests of pine, which produce great 378 quantities of turpentine, lumber, and charcoal. SWITZERLAND In Switzerland forestry received at- tention from very early times. Nearly two hundred years before the discovery of America the city of Zurich began to make rules for the protection and man- agement of the Sihlwald, a forest which it still owns, and which now yields an annual return of about $8 per acre. In the canton of Bern a decree of the year 1592 warned the people against the wasteful use of timber and provided for the protection of the forest. It also directed that for every tree cut down a young one should be planted in its place. It is curious to find this mis- taken prescription for the ills of the forest already in fashion more than three centuries ago. ‘To save the forest every old tree must be replaced by many young ones. The first general forest law of Bern was passed as early as 1725. It em- bodied the most important principles of wise forest legislation as we know them today. But this was only one of a long series of forest laws in which, from the beginning, the idea of the importance of the forest to others besides its owner became steadily stronger. The citizens of Bern have grown ever more willing to place restrictions on themselves for the benefit of the commonwealth. There were great floodsin Switzerland in 1834, and they were the cause of a general awakening of interest in for- estry. Somewhat later a federal forest commission was appointed. Since the appearance of its final report,in 1861,the progress of forestry in Switzerland has been steady. In 1875 a federal forest inspector was appointed, and a year later the first Swiss forest law was passed. This law does not extend to the whole of Switzerland, but only to the Alps and the steeper foothills. In a country of steep mountains it is of first THe NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE importance to guard the forests on the higher slopes. Consequently all the for- ests on these higher lands which serve to protect the lowlands against floods, ava- lanches, and other similar dangers of wind and weather are put in charge of the Swiss federal forest service. ‘Our forest laws,’’ said Elias Landolt, a great and simple man, whose name stands first among Swiss foresters, ‘‘ are intended to work more thorough instruc- tion, good example, and encouragement than by severe regulations. This method is somewhat slower than one which should involve harsher measures, but the results achieved are more useful and lasting. When forest owners do some- thing because they are convinced of its usefulness it is done well and with an eye to the future, but what they do under compulsion is done carelessly and neglected at the first opportunity. What they have come to learn in this way and have recognized as good will be carried out, and that better and better from year to year. BRITISH INDIA For many years after the British con- quest forestry in India made very little progress. Much time was wasted in half measures, until in 1856 Dr (now Sir Dietrich) Brandis was put in charge of the teak forests of Pegu. He acted at once upon the idea of preserving them by making them pay. At first the output of teak had to be somewhat restricted, much against the will of the timber mer- chants of Rangoon, who protested that the business of their city would be ruined. But afterthis momentary check the teak trade of Rangoon grew until it was far greater than ever before, and it is now a chief and increasing source of the prosperity of that city. The appointment of Dr Brandis was the beginning of the Indian forest serv- ice. In 1866 he was made inspector general of forests, and from that time progress was rapid. The Indian forest ORESTRY ABROAD AND AT Home if 194S910 A ‘yoyoUlg ployrg wo01ly euling jo SJSOIO 9} Ul SS0’] Sulsseiq 10} pasy) sjueydary Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 80 19}s3104 ‘JOYOUTd PIOYIO wWo1y eulIng JO Splex IJoqwMIN’] 94} Ul JoquITy, Surg GSES SI Forestry ABROAD AND AT Home JoysotJoy ‘youoUId ploygry wo1y ~~ S eee eUlIng JO Splvex Joqtun’] 34} Ul JoquITy, SUITIg 382 Tue NatTIonNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From Gifford Pinchot, Forester A Mixed Forest in Need of an Improvement Cutting The crooked old chestnut in particular should be removed service now has nearly 300 superior offi- cers and over 10,000 rangers and forest guards. It has charge of about 200,000 square miles of forest, and produces a net revenue, afterall expenses have been paid, of about $3,000,000 a year. In addition, the forests furnish to peasant holders of forest rights products whose value is estimated to be considerably greater than the whole cost of the forest service. About 30,000 square miles are effectively protected against fire, at an average yearly cost of less than half a cent per acre. These admirable results. are especially interesting because India. is like the United States in the great. Forestry ABROAD 383 AND AT HOME ia Bi 2 Pe Hi 3 From Gifford Pinchot, Forester A Mixed Forest After an Improvement Cutting extent and variety of her forests and in the number and fierceness of forest fires. FORESTRY AT HOME The forests of the United States cover an area of about 699,500,000 acres, or more than 35 per cent of the surface of the country. Before so large a part of them was destroyed they were perhaps the richest on the earth, and with proper care they are capable of being so again. Their power of reproduction is exceed- ingly good. In the northeastern states and as far west as Minnesota once stretched the great white-pine forest from which, since settlement began, the greater part of our lumber has come. South of it, 354 ES Es a ae f *. eg 43 Tue NatTionaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From Gifford Pinchot, Forester Conservative Lumbering in the Adirondack Mountains, New York Note the height of the stump in a broad belt along the Atlantic and the Gulf coasts, lies the southern pine forests, whose most important tree, both for lumber and naval stores, is the south- ern yellow pine. In the Mississippi Valley lies the interior hardwood forest of oaks, hickories, ashes, gums, and other hardwood trees. It is bordered on the west by the plains, which cover the eastern slope of the continental divide until they meet the evergreen Rocky Mountain forest, which clothes the slopes of this great range from the Canadian line to Mexico. Separated Forestry ABROAD AND AT Home 385 From Gifford Pinchot, Forester Wasteful Lumbering on the Pacific Slope Note the height of the stump from the Rocky Mountain forest by the interior deserts, the Pacific Coast forest covers the flanks of the Sierras, the Cascades, and the coast ranges. Its largest trees are the giant sequoia and the great coast redwood, and its most important timber is the fir. The forests of the Philippine Islands cover an area of more than 40,000,000 acres. Their timbers, almost wholly different from those of the United States, are exceedingly valuable, both as cabi- net woods and as construction timber. An efficient forest service was organ- 336 ized in 1898, and following its reorgant- zation in 1902 a new and excellent forest law was passed in 1904. ‘The Philip- pine forest service costs but half as much as the revenue received from the forests of the islands. The island of Porto Rico contains a national forest reserve, the site of which was once covered with valuable hard- woods ; but this forest has been much abused. Porto Rico, like the Philip- pines, has many kinds of wood valuable for cabinet-making. THE SETTLER AND THE FOREST When the early settlers from the Old World landed on the Atlantic coast of North America they brought with them traditions of respect for the forest cre- ated by generations of forest protection at home. ‘The country to which they came was covered, for the most part, with dense forests. There was so little open land that ground had to be cleared for the plow. It is true that the forest gave the pioneers shelter and fuel and game for food, but it was often filled with hostile Indians ; it hemmed them in on every side, and immense labor was required to win from it the soil in which to raise their necessary crops. WNatu- rally, it seemed to them an enemy rather than afriend. ‘Their respect for it dwindled and disappeared, and its place was taken by hate and fear. The feeling of hostility to the forest which grew up among the early settlers continued and increased among their descendants long after all reason for it had disappeared. But even in the early days far-sighted men began to consider the safety of the forest. In 1653 the authorities of Charlestown, in Massa- chusetts, forbade the cutting of timber on the town lands without permission from the selectmen, and in 1689 the neighboring town of Malden fixed a pen- alty of 5 shillings for cutting trees less than 1 foot in diameter for fuel. An ordinance of William Penn, made in THe NaTIonNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 1681, required that 1 acre of land be left covered with trees for every 5 acres cleared. But these measures were not well followc up, and the needless de- struction of the forest went steadily on. FIRST STEPS IN FORESTRY More than a hundred years later, in 1795, acommittee of the Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, Arts, and Manufactures in New York made a re- port on the best way to preserve and increase the growth of timber. Four years afterward Congress appropriated $200,000 for the purchase and preserva- tion of timberlands to supply ship tim- bers for the Navy, and in 1822, with the same object in view, it authorized the President to employ the Army and Navy to protect and preserve the live-oak and red-cedar timber of the government in Florida. Since that time more and more attention has been given to the forests. In 1828 Governor De Witt Clinton, of New York, spoke of the reproduction of our woods as an object of primary im- portance, and in the same year the gov- ernment began an attempt to cultivate live oak in the South for the use of the Navy. ‘Three years later an act was passed which is still almost the only pro- tection for the much-abused forests of the public domain. In 1872 the Yellowstone National Park was established, and in 1873 Con- gress passed the timber-culture act, which gave government land in the tree- less regions to whoever would plant one- fourth of his claim with trees. In1875 the American Forestry Association was formed in Chicago through the efforts of Dr John A. Warder, who was one of the first men to agitate forest questions in the United States. In the centennial year (1876) Dr Franklin B. Hough, perhaps the foremost pioneer of forestry in America, was appointed special agent in the Department of Agriculture. This was the beginning of educational work in forestry at Washington. Soon after- Forestry ABROAD AND AT HoME ward Congress began to make appropria- tions to protect the public timber, but nothing was done to introduce conserva- tive forest management. ‘The present Bureau of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture was established as a division im, ESOT. About this time forest associations began to be established in the different states, the most influential and effective of which has been that in Pennsylvania. The states also began to form forest boards or commissions of their own. In 1888 the first forest bill was intro- duced in Congress. It failed to pass, but in 1891 an act was passed which was the first step toward a true policy for the forests of the nation. The first step toward national forestry is control of the national forests. This act, whose chief purpose was to repeal the timber-culture act, contained a clause which authorized the President to reserve timberlands on the public domain, and so prevent them from passing out of the possession of the government. THE PUBLIC DOMAIN In all the states and territories west of the Mississippi except Texas, and in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wis- consin, Florida, Alabama, and Missis- sippi, all the land originally belonged to the government. This was the pub- lic domain. It has gradually been sold or given away until in many of the states it has all or nearly all passed to otherowners. But it stillincludes more than 470,000,000 acres, or nearly one- third of the United States, not including the territory of Alaska, which has an area of about 350,000,000 acres. A large part of the public domain has been surveyed by the government and divided first into squares 6 miles on each side, called townships, then into squares of 1 mile, called sections, and these again into quarter sections and smaller divis- ions. The lines which mark these divisions are straight and at right angles oy to each other. When any part of the public domain is reserved or disposed of itis usually located by reference to these lines. FEDERAL FOREST RESERVES When the President was given the power to make forest reserves the pub- lic domain still contained much of the best timber in the West, but it was pass- ing rapidly into private hands. Acting upon the wise principle that forests whose preservation is necessary for the general welfare should remain in gov- ernment control, President Harrison created the first forest reserves. Presi- dent Cleveland followed his example. But there was yet no systematic plan for the making or management of the reserves, which at that time were alto- gether without protection by the gov- ernment. Toward the end of Presi- dent Cleveland’s second administration, therefore, the National Academy of Sciences was asked to appoint a com- mission to examine the national forest lands and report a plan for their control. The academy did so, and upon the rec- ommendation of the National Forest Commission, so appointed, President Cleveland doubled the reserved area by setting aside 13 additional forest reserves on Washington’s birthday, 1897. EARLY OPPOSITION TO FOREST RESERVES DISAPPEARING The Cleveland forest reserves awak- ened at once great opposition in Con- gress and throughout the West, and led to a general discussion of the forest policy. But after several years of con- troversy widespread approval took the place of opposition, and at present the value of the forest reserves is rarely dis- puted except by private interests im- patient of restraint. The recommendations of the National Forest Commission for the management of the forest reserves were not acted upon by Congress, but the law of June 338 4, 1897, gave the Secretary of the In- terior authority to protect the reserves and make them useful. The passage of this law was the first step toward a na- tional forest service. The second step was the act of Congress, approved Feb- ruary I, 1905, which transferred the control of the national forest reserves from the Department of the Interior to the Department of Agriculture. This act consolidated the governiment’s forest work, which had been divided between the General Land Office and the Bureau of Forestry, and secured for the reserves the supervision of trained foresters. President McKinley, and after him President Roosevelt, continued to make forest reserves. The latter introduced a system of examining the proposed forest reserves, so that now their boundaries are better located than ever before. Under him great progress has been made by the government in bringing about the practice of forestry by forest owners and in awakening the great lumber interests, as well as the people in general, to the dangers of forest destruction. USE OF FOREST RESERVES The forest reserves lie chiefly in high mountain regions. ‘They are 62 in num- ber, and cover an area (January I, 1905) of 63,308,319 acres. ‘They are useful, first of all, to protect the drainage basins of streams used for irrigation, and espe- cially the watersheds of the great irriga- tion works which the government is con- structing under the reclamation law, which was passed in 1902. ‘Thisis their most important use. Secondly, they supply grass and other forage for. many Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE thousands of grazing animals during the summer, when the lower ranges on the plains and deserts are barren and dry. Lastly, they furnish a permanent supply of wood for the use of settlers, miners, lumbermen, and other citizens. ‘Thisis at present the least important use of the reserves, but it will be of greater conse- quence hereafter. The best way for the government to promote each of these three great uses is to protect the forest reserves from fire. The forest service plans to add a trained forester to the executive force of each forest reserve to introduce practical forestry on all re- serves. STATE FORESTRY Many of the states have taken great and effective interest inforestry. Among those which have made most progress are New York and Pennsylvania. New York has a state forest preserve of 1,436,686 acres, and Pennsylvania one of 700,000. Michigan, Minnesota, and other states are following their example. In 1892 the first example of system- atic forestry in the United States was begun at Biltmore, in North Carolina. It is still in successful operation. The first professional foresters in the United States were obliged to go abroad for their training, but in 1898 profes- sional forest schools were established at Cornell University, in New York,and at Biltmore, in North Carolina, and they were followed by the Yale Forest School in 1900. Others have sprung up since. At present thorough and efficient train- ing in professional forestry can be had in the United States. THE CENTRAL HE United States Geological Survey has for a number of years been studying the under- ground waters which are flowing hun- dreds of feet beneath the surface in many sections of the Central Great Plains, including the greater portions of South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kan- sas and the eastern portion of Colo- rado and of Wyoming, an area of about one-half millionsquare miles. In order GREAT PLAINS that we may make the best possible use of the underground ‘‘ rivers’’ which it it is believed flow perhaps continuously for some hundreds of miles, it is neces- sary to understand the structure and stratigraphy of the water-bearing for- mations. The question of water supply, both overground and underground, is one of great interest to the people in this dis- trict, and although considerable progress From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey Artesian Well at Woonsocket, South Dakota This well throws a 3-inch stream to a height of 97 feet 3 has been made in some sections in de- veloping well waters, there are vast areas in which the present supplies are inadequate, even for local domestic use. The investigation has been in charge From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey Artesian Well at Lynch, Nebraska This well has a flow of 3,100 gallons a minute from an 8-inch casing, with a pressure of 85 pounds to the square inch. A first flow was found at 740 feet and a second at 875 feet of Mr N. H. Darton, who has recently brought together the results of the work in a handsome quarto volume of 400 pages published by the Survey, and en- titled ‘‘ Geology and Underground THe NatTionaL GrocGrRaPHic MAGAZINE Water Resources of the Central Great Plains.’’ Mr Darton gives an excellent geologic history of the region, describ- ing not only those sections which con- ceal water far down in the earth, but also those places which are dry below as well as above. Smooth surfaces and eastward - sloping rolling plains are the character- istic features of the region, but in portions of the province there are buttes, extended escarpments,and local areas of badlands. The report reproduces more than one hundred beautiful photographs by Mr Darton of different scenes in the Great Plains. Several of these are given here. The thick succes- sion of sedimentary for- mations underlying the Great Plains includes por- ous strata containing large volumes of water. These water - bearing deposits comprise widespread sheets of sandstones or sand, from Cambrian to ‘Tertiary in $age; al re sandstones of the older formations are in sheets’ often several hundred feet thick, alternating with bodies of relatively im- permeable shales or lime- stones, so that they pre- sent favorable conditions as water-bearers. To the west they are upturned by the great uplifts and out- crop along the high moun- tain slopes; to the east most of them rise gradually to the surface, while in the central and northern regions they lie at great depth under the heavy man- tle of younger deposits. THe CENTRAL GREAT PLAINS Part of the surface water passes into the sandstones in their elevated outcrop zones along the foot of the western mountains and flows east through the permeable rocks, in most cases finally escaping in springs in the low-level areas of outcrop eastward and southward. In such water-bearing strata as the Dakota and underlying beds, which are overlain by a thick mass of impermeable deposits, the waters are under great pres- sure, for the intake zone has an altitude of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet and the region of outflow is only from 1,000 to 1,200 feet above sea-level. The existence of this pressure, as found in many wells in eastern South Da- kota, is the strongest evidence we possess that the waters flow underground for many hundreds of miles. Several wells show sur- face pressures over 175 pounds to the square inch and two are slightly over 200 pounds, the latter indicating a pressure of 780 pounds at the bottom of the well. In South Dakota the Da- kota sandstone carries a large volume of water, which has been extensively utilized by artesian wells. This water is under pressure so great that in the eastern portion of the state flows are obtainable in all but the very highest lands, except in the southeast corner, near the zone, where the head is lost by the sandstone reaching the surface. Over a thousand deep wells have been sunk east of the Missouri River, most of which are from 500 to 1,000 feet in depth and generally yield a large supply of flowing water, much of which is used for irrigation. The aggregate flow from these wells is esti- mated to be about 7,000,000 gallons a day. The illustration on page 389 shows a Ske remarkable well. Another phenomenal well in the same state is a well at Spring- field, which has a flow of 3,292 gallons per minute, although its closed pressure is not so great as that of many other wells in the state. It furnishes power for a 60-barrel flour mill by day and for From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey Pulpit Rock, Kansas An outcrop of Dakota sandstone an electric-light plant by night. Fora while it threw sand, and when this finally ceased the flow was thought to have slightly decreased. It is believed by some persons that owing to this great draft upon the re- sources the available supply is dimin- ishing, but there is as yet no valid evi- Tur NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 308 Jsva Suryoo'T ‘sd}jnq Surd[jno ur pue punoisai0j ul padred a19M spue[peq YOIyA jo Jno nvajzeid Jo syueumes { a0Uue}sIpP Ul (Spaq UOpasO) Av[o atnag Aq ule[12A0 ‘skev[o UOIpeYD JO SUIIO} pepunol oN\sT19}OeIeY) [lel], Ino} Jo sey ‘vjOxVC YMosg ‘spuv[peg sig ADAANG [Bd1BOTOSH ‘SQ ‘N0}1Vd “HON WO1y 393 THe CentTRAL Great PLAINS PeqIO “My Oo 4q ydess0j0yg OpelO[OD ‘Ioyoyey,y, ean dnoiy uozsg ul suojsoml’y uloyuseiy) ‘o[eYS PUL SUIOJSOMM] JO WOI}eUID}[e SUIMOYS MIA =.) GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THe NatTIonaL Sa js¥9 SUIYOO’T “YOY ssnoy-j1n0D wor MatA SoueIsIp Ul 9}32[q YON jo Aay[eA “Av[O apn1ag jo sodojs ‘ suojspues Sulsoy Jo SulIoy}VOM JO WIO] payeT[oqseo SulMoys yooy. pref AdAING [BOISO[OIy xan ‘toyed “HN Woy Wut CENTRAL GREAT PLAINS 395 See Ny, cle From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey Archway Eroded in Monument Creek Sandstone, at ‘‘Elephant Rock,”’ Near Monument, Colorado Showing massive character of sandstone 6 THe NatTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From N. H. Darton, U. S. Geological Survey Cathedral Spires, Garden of the Gods, Colorado ie Vertical strata of lower Wyoming red grits. Looking north eo ee THE CENTRAL dence that this is the case, excepting locally where there are numerous wells. Individual wells often diminish in effi- ciency owing to leakage, clogging, and other causes, but ordinarily new wells in the same vicinity show the same pressure and flow as were found in the older ones ; but it is probable that if this large flow is permitted to continue the available volume of artesian supply will eventally be greatly diminished. The source of water is believed to be in the Black Hills and in the Rocky Mountains, for the sandstone appears to be a continuous stratum or a series of strata, permeable throughout, and containing water which to the east has much of the initial head or pressure due to the high altitude of the zone of in- take on the mountain slopes. ‘There are extensive areas in central South Da- kota in which the underground waters have not yet been developed. Appar- ently in these areas the Dakota sand- stone lies deep, but not at an impracti- cable depth for well-boring. Probably further drilling will show that flowing waters may be obtained all the way up Cheyenne Valley and its two branches to the Black Hills, and up the valleys of White, Bad, and Owl rivers nearly to longitude 102°. The Central Great Plains region pre- sents considerable variety of climate. To the east, on the plains, the precipi- tation varies from moderately humid to nearly arid, the change taking place gradually from east to west. To the east there are 4o inches of rainfall per year, while to the west, in the region adjoining the Rocky Mountains and the other ranges, there are less than 12 inches over an area of considerable ex- tent. To the east the precipitation is ample for crops, and that portion of the region is one of the greatest producers of corn, wheat, and other agricultural products in the world, while to the west there are broad tracts in which no crops can be produced without irrigation. On the mountains in the western por- GREAT PLAINS 397 tion of the area there is locally increased precipitation, which in many areas is sufficient for agriculture. The amount of water that falls in the arid area is enormous when the number of cubic feet per square mile is calculated, but much of it comes in very heavy showers, after long intervals of drought, often with severe hot winds. If a portion of the rainfall could be stored, much of it could be used for irrigation. DEFORESTATION AND CLIMATE \ \ 7 HETHER forests exercise a per- ceptible influence upon the cli- mate is a very old question, and even today it is not definitely settled. At a recent session of the German Meteoro- logical Society at Berlin a lecture on ‘“Deforestation and Climate’’ was de- livered by Doctor Hennig, from which the following extracts are taken : In many countries a drying up of the climate has occurred, which is shown perhaps most strikingly in almost the whole of Africa. That deforesting has assumed constantly growing proportions in almost every part of the world is still moreapparent. The climate of Greece, where today only 16 per cent of the area 1S covered with forests, has de- teriorated. Anincrease of temperature and decrease of rain are noted, com- pared with ancient times, especially in Attica, which was thickly covered with forests about 3,000 years ago, and where hardly any rain now falls, while the heat in the open air attains a degree which would make the ‘‘ Olympian games’’ almost an impossibility. | Gx —t- I hs | q f Y 1 | 1 boy i l a i | i i 7} a) + I ee i . ’ y as UBS Vernando * @(srERNN ee O PrDimpiqui ® | Sannagol- eres | I f { hi he Fae lg : 1 z Re f : Scruzle " COabvite P een hy PED £5 | “Aiyjsbant pe PrTubile gata Ra pu-rap | Templo!. —-gysint. PrUngay Pr.Bonde$ ponrausit ||, PrBingay : . half | Tatas Aemeurae Lon, PiGuinduganan , ins a | = Pinamatay + hers or = : i i yet Macstre dle Campol. Banton! Org ‘HART BOCA ENCANO 1 “| ,. 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Bangaleo i 6 f \, Taganakt Me ee sav} Tonguil se dl F z fi a Sandahin 3 Capl Silanésn ve “Sates Is 4) i | - ' ‘ Laparanll. ~ rae : | a x i C= ‘Deato-Bato!. carengsato P & ! : 2 7Z TajaSZau\s, “GN> mane jong | | 4 ‘ . g | i : Botipenged | ' e ne | | | =, & . | Pfangua.— FiGval i Fa S a | / (GABSSGAET | F = opel, Bet" a] 6 Soranga f 4 “Napaant | a Balitl,7 > \ i ane 5 i ty J | eae N5I3404 COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 407 254,155,000 798461,000 Commerce| 1904 Foreign ae TE TN TETAS The Network of Railroads Covering India Today and the Resultant Vast Increase in Her Commerce. goods, ivory, and gold dust came from Africa; leather, tapestry, cloths, cop- per; and iron from Spain and the ad- joining territory, and these were ex- changed at the points already mentioned for the silks, and spices, and woods, and carvings, and pearls, and precious stones from India and China. But the most important result to com- merce and geography of this temporary extension of Oriental influence into the Occident was the acquaintance which it gave to the west with that important device of the Far East, the mariner’s See page 416 compass. While doubts have been ex- pressed as to the origin of the compass, it is believed that it was developed by the Chinese many centuries before it was known to the West, and used in the desert by the Arabs, and that it was certainly introduced to the Europeans by the Mohammedans during their con- trol of the countries fronting on the Mediterranean. Whatever its origin, its introduction in the West revolution- ized conditions of commerce, navigation, and geographic knowledge. The ocean, formerly considered a barrier to com- 408 ee THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE \ mi PORTICO Tra | an an tCANTON “ »: fh caeae Roe a y 2 RAILROADS —— 7 SS hs =¢ a UNLT AND PROPOSED: i Sita me | Wah es eer = IN=CHINA-—= Commerce {1904 Foreign oe $223,084,000 356,159,000 Railways Constructed and Proposed in China merce and exploration, became at once its highway. It gave a new stimulus to the efforts to find an all-water route by which to reach the commercial prize of the Orient, and the result was, first, the discovery of the American continent, and a little later two all-water routes to the very doors of the Orient, one of these by the Portuguese, around Africa and across the Indian Ocean, and the other by the Spanish, around South America and across the Pacific. But the knowledge that the Orient could be reached by sailing around the continents at the south did not satisfy the people of northern Europe. The Portuguese, as the first explorers of the Indian Ocean, claimed the exclusive right of navigation in those waters, and the Spanish claimed a similar monopoly of the waters south of the American: continents. As a result, the English and Dutch devoted their attention to. efforts to find other water routes to the Orient, along the northern coasts of the continents of America and Eurasia. The Dutch sent expeditions to fight their way through the ice along the northern coasts of Europe and Asia ; and England sent vessel after vessel to. explore the northern coast of North America, each in the vain hope of find- ing a passage to China. For years the merchants of northern Europe waited in vain for the opening of a northwest. passage to the Orient, until it finally COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT vey TELEGRAPH =LINES=0F=CHINA te | FRENCH IIN=1904 Telegraph Lines of China in 1904 became apparent that the water route to the Far East lay at the south only. Finally, the theory of Grotius, that the high seas should be open to the ves- sels of all countries, prevailed, and then the struggle among modern nations for the commercial prize of the Orient was renewed with a vigor, greater, if possi- ble, than ever before. Ships came and went at will over all seas and in all directions Great commercial compa- nies were formed and chartered by their Tespective governments, their purpose being to trade with the Orient, and they gradually established trading stations on the coasts of India, China, and the islands of the East Indian archipelago. The commerce by way of the Mediter- tanean and the caravan routes rapidly declined, and sailing vessels from the countriesof western Europe landed their merchandise and silver and gold at the doors of the Orient, and returned laden with silks, and ivory, and woods, and spices, and with many other articles of the Orient formerly considered too bulky for transportation by the caravans of earlier centuries. It may be interesting to pause for a moment here to study the cause of the anxiety of western men to find and main- tain an all-water route to the Orient. Of course, the mere contrast of the cost of transportation by water with the cost on land was of itself of great importance, and especially at that time, when there were no railways, but there were other reasons. The land routes between west- ern Europe and the Orient were ex- tremely difficult. At the north the Ural Mountains interposed an almost impass- able barrier; in the central region a 410 great desert stretched almost continu- ously from the Mediterranean to India and China, and threatened the lives of men and animals which invaded it. At the south of that desert was that im- passable mass of mountains known as ‘<’The Roof of the World ’’—the Hima- layas. 300 245 254 v4) 58 1880 1890 1900 1903 1860 1880 1890 1905 JAPAN INDIA 1880 1890 1900 1905 CHINA FOREIGN COMMERCE OF JAPAN, INDIA AND CHINA (In millions of Dollars.) A Comparison of Japan, India, and China Today. See page 416 RUSSIA AN EARLY ARRIVER IN THE ORIENT Only by working through the passes in the Ural range and thence cross- ing the trackless wilds of Siberia was it possible for Europeans to reach the Orient by the land route; and it was by this route that one nation did find its way by land to the Far East, while the others were relying upon the water route. That nation was Russia. We are accustomed to think of Russia Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE as a newcomer in the Orient, but in fact it was earlier in that field—much earlier than is realized by many who have but casually read the history of that persistent people. Even before the discovery of America the Russians were looking over the Urals toward the east and making short incursions into the territory which they were des- tined to occupy. By the year 1580 they had established permanent set- tlements in the eastern part of what is now known as Siberia. By 1620 they were half way to the Pacific ; by 1638, only eighteen years after the Pilgrim Fathers landed at Plymouth Rock, they had actually established themselves on the Pacific coast; by 1741 they had crossed Bering Sea into northwestern America, and before the adoption of our Constitution they had established a permanent settlement in Alaska, where they remained until the purchase of that territory by the United States, in 1867. But beginning with the middle of the last century there came a new and marked development of the com- merce of the Occident with the Orient. Prior to 1842 all trade in China was carried on through the ‘‘ Hong mer- chants,’’ designated by the Chinese government as intermediaries for trade with foreigners. In 1842 the British government, through what is known in history as the ‘‘ opium war,’’ forced the Chinese government to open five ports to the trade of its vessels, and two years later similar privileges were given to the United States, and shortly thereafter to other countries, and these ‘‘ treaty ports’’ have been increased from time to time until they now number about forty. In 1854 Japan, upon the insist- ence of the United States, opened its doors to our commerce, and a little later to other countries of the world. In 1858 the British government took the entire control of India and began the COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT work of developing its commerce by constructing canals, roads, and rail- roads.. In 1869 the Suez Canal was opened, shortening by several thousand miles the water route between the Occi- dent and the Orient. : But there are other great changes during the century just ended which had an equally important effect upon the commerce of the whole world and upon the exchanges between the Orient and the stillexpanding Occident. Prior to 1800 most of the manufacturing of the world was still performed by hand, and largely in the household. Now machinery, driven by steam or the power of the waterfall, performs, under the guidance of a single individual, tasks which would have required hun- dreds of persons to perform a century ago. ‘Then the products of the interior could only be carried to the seaboard by man or animal power, or at the best by floating them in oar-propelled boats upon the streams which made their way to the ocean. Now railways penetrate all parts of the great interior and carry. the natural products to the water’s edge for exchange with other countries and continents. At the beginning of the century all exchanges between the con- tinents were carried by slow sailing ves- sels, whose carrying capacity was small and danger of loss great. ‘Today the bulk of the international commerce is carried by great vessels propelled by steam, and the cost of transportation is reduced to a small fraction of that of a century ago. In 1800 there were no methods of communication on land save by the post-rider, and none on the ocean other than that furnished by the slow sailing vessel, whose speed was subject to the caprices of nature as expressed in winds or storms or calms. THE POSSIBILITIES OF COMMERCE HAVE BEEN MULTIPLIED BY INVENTIONS Today the producer at the most in- 411 terior point of the Occident may speak with the consumer in the distant Orient, the message flashing across the land and under the ocean in less time than is required to describe the process. The merchant of New York who a century ago sent his order to China by sailing vessel might consider himself fortunate if he received the merchandise within a full year, while now the dealer in the most distant city of our great interior may wire his order in the morning with the knowledge that the goods may be- fore night be placed on board a fast steamer and reach him within less than a month. In 1805 the world had not a single steamer upon the ocean, a single mile of railway on land, a single span of tele- graph upon the continents, or a foot of cable beneath the ocean. In 1905 it has over 18,000 steam vessels, 500,000 miles of railway, and more than 1,000,000 miles of land telegraph, while the very continents are bound together and given instantaneous communication by more than 200,000 miles of ocean cables, and the number of telephone messages sent aggregates 6,000 millions annually, and one-half of them in the United States alone. The effect of this enormous increase in the power of production, transporta- tion, and communication has been to multiply commerce in all parts of the world. The world’s international com- merce, which a single century ago was less than two billions of dollars, is now 22 billions, and the commerce of the Orient, which was less than 200 million dollars, 1s now nearly 3,000 millions. THE COMMERCE OF THE ORIENT IS INSIGNIFICANT WHEN COMPARED WITH THAT OF THE REST OF THE WORLD But this commerce of the Orient, amounting to nearly 3,000 millions of dollars annually, is yet small when com- pared with its area and population, and 412 thus its possible producing and consum- ing power. The population of Asia and Oceania is 850 millions, while that of all other parts of the world combined is but about 750 millions. Its land area is 18 million square miles, and that of all other parts of the world 34 millions ; yet its commerce is slightly less than three billions of dollars, and that of other parts of the world 1g billions. This Tue NaTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE ORIENT HAS BEEN HANDICAPPED BY LACK OF MEANS OF TRANSPOR- TATION AND COMMUNICATION Now, what is thecause of this lack of commercial development in the Orient ? With half the world’s population and all the attention which the world has given it during the past four thousand years thecommerce is yet but one-eighth of the total world’s commerce and one- From ‘‘ Kingdom of Siam.”’ Copyright, 1904, G. P. Putnam ’s Sons Elephants with Howdahs (Bangkok), which Have Been Eclipsed in Popularity by the American Trolley Car on Opposite Page gives an average commerce in the entire Orient of about three dollars fer capita per annum, while the average in all the rest of the world combined is 27 dollars per capita per annum. Thus the Orient, which has more than one-half of the world’s population and more than one- third of its land area, has now but one- ninth as great as the average per capita in all other parts of the world combined. ninth as large per capita as that of the remainder of the world. While its growth, considered bv percentage of in- crease, has of late been as rapid as other parts of the world, its total, when con- sidered from the standpoint of area, population, and producing and consum- ing possibilities, is ridiculously small. What is the cause of the slow com- mercial development of the Orient ? ComMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT Can that condition be overcome by the application of those agencies which have caused the greater and more rapid de- velopment in other parts of the world ? The answer to these questions is not difficult. The world’s commerce has developed in conjunction with and asa result of the development of facilities of transportation and communication. Without steam power for transporta- tion and electricity for communication 413 world, showing the facilities for trans- portation and intercommunication in its various great sections, will, in some de- gree at least, answer this question. Where it is, of course, practicable for the progressive, commercial people of the Occident to send their steamships to the doors of the Orient in pursuit of the commercial prize of that part of the world, the Orient itself cannot send its products from the great interior to the From ‘Kingdom of Siam.”’ Bangkok Tramway the world had buta single century ago less than two billions of international commerce. Now, with the steamship and railways and telegraphs, it has over 22 billions. Of this growth of over 20 billions in the last century but little more than two billions occurred in the Orient and about 18 billions in other parts of the world. What is the cause of this great disparity of erowth? A glance at a map of the ocean ports without railroads ; and here is at least a partial answer to the ques- tion. That section of the world which we are considering as the Orient, while it has more than one-half of the popu- lation and one-third of the land area of the world, has but about one-tenth of the world’s railways and less than one- tenth of its telegraph lines. Can there be any doubt that this is at least one of the great causes of the fact that it has Copyright, 1904, G. P. Putnaim’s Sons ‘ From The Awakening of the East. but one-eighth of the world’s commerce? The people of the Orient are, as a rule, industrious, painstaking, and now dis- posed to commercial intercourse with the Occident, but without facilities for transporting their products from the interior to the seaboard, where they may sell or exchange them for products of the other parts of the world, they are powerless to develop a great commerce. THE RECENT DEVELOPMENT OFINDIA AND JAPAN COMPARED TO THAT OF CHINA It is apparent, from this comparison of the railways and telegraphs of the Orient with those of the Occident, that the small fer capita of commerce in the Orient is due, in part at least, to the lack of facilities for transportation and communication on land; and there is a means by which this theory can be NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC ‘Kingdom of Siam.’’ MAGAZINE Copyright, 1904, G. P. Putnam ’s Sons A School for Girls, Bangkok tested. There are, in the Orient, two countries which have been sufficiently supplied with railways in recent years to enable us to determine, with some degree of accuracy, their effect upon Oriental commerce. While their rail- way mileage is yet small in comparison with that of the great commercial coun- tries of the Occident, it is sufficient to justify a momentary study as to the growth of commerce which has followed that development. These two Oriental countries in which railroads have de- veloped, or at least began to develop, are India and Japan. India has about 28,000 miles of railway and Japan about 4,500 miles. ‘True, these coun- tries in each case have but about one mile of railway for each 10,000 inhab- itants, while in the United States we have one mile for each 4oo inhabitants, vet the contrast in the commerce of COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT 4.15 From ‘‘An American Engineer in China,’’ by William Barclay Parsons Copyright, 1900, McClure, Phillips & Co. A Group of Chinese Watching an American Railway Engineer Japan and India, when compared with that of other Oriental countries having practically no railways, is at least sug- gestive as to the effect of railways upon commercial development. The three great countries of the Orient are China, India, and Japan. They have about nine-tenths of the popula- tion of what is generally known as the Orient, and the relative development of commerce among these three great groups of Oriental people which are or are not supplied with railways should be at least suggestive as to the effect of railways upon commerce and com- mercial growth. Railway construction in India began about 1853, but did not make rapid development until more re- cent years. In Japan railway-building began about 1872, but most of the de- velopment has occurred during the past decade. In China nearly all of the rail- way now existing has been constructed since 1900, and under circumstances which have not permitted its develop- ment as a system which would have material effect upon commerce. We may, then, fairly compare the growth of commerce in these three great Oriental countries, two of them with young but rapidly developing railway systems, the other with practically none. The foreign commerce of China, with its 400 million industrious people, but no railways, has grown but 160 million dollars since 1870; that of India, with 300 millions of people and a system of railways, has grown 258 millions, and that of Japan, with only 45 millions and a system of railways, has grown 215 millions. The Chinaman is known by those familiar with the conditions in the Orient as a natural trader and business man. A large share of the trade in the Orient is in the hands of the Chinese, and the positions of trust in the great 416 banking establishments are largely held by Chinamen, yet, despite these com- mercial characteristics of the Chinamen, the foreign commerce of China, with no railway system, is but 85 cents per capita; that of India, with 28,000 miles of rail- ways, is about $2.25 fer capita, and that of Japan, with 4,500 miles of railways, is $5.86 per capita. In other words, the commerce of China, without a sys- tem of railways, is about one-third as From ‘‘An American Engineer in China,’? by William Barclay Parsons Copyright, 1900, McClure, Phillips & Co. Transportation in China Junks on the Han River with Hankow in the Distance much fer capita as that of India and one-sixth as much fer capita as that of Japan, each of which has one mule of railway for each 10,000 inhabitants. PROJECTED RAILWAYS IN THE ORIENT But there is another feature of this recent railway development in the East which must be considered as likely to prove of great importance in the future relations of the Orient with the Occident. China has 2,000 miles of railway, most of it connected with the great Trans- Siberian line, and several thousand miles Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE more have been authorized or definitely proposed. French Indo-China, lying ‘ust at the south of China, has over 1,000 miles constructed and many new lines projected, while the Malayan Pen- insula, still farther at the south, has some 300 miles, Siam about 350 miles, and Burmah 1,500 miles. The French Indo-China system is to be connected with the railways of China by a line 230 miles long, now under construction, at a prospective cost of some 20 million dollars. The railway lines under con- struction or projected in China promise to extend to her southwest border, where a few hundred miles of railway would connect them with the systems of Burmah, which in turn will connect with that of India, about 28,000 miles in length. From India the railway system again stretches westward into Persia, and the construc- tion of but a few hundred miles would put this great system into communica- tion with the 2,000 miles of road in Asiatic Turkey, which in turn connects withthe railways of south- ern Europe, while a com- paratively short stretch of road at the north of India would also connect the Indian railway sys- tem with that of Russia. While it is a fact that serious political obstacles to some of these unions of railway systems now exist, it is not unlikely that the demand of commerce will in time be sufficiently strong to overcome or sufficiently modify these political conditions to render possible a union of these numerous systems, great and small, so far as relates to an interchange of passengers, freights, mails, and the establishment of other transportation COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT systems between the railroads of Europe and those of Asia. Already the great Siberian Railway connects the system of Europe with that of China at the north, and, now that the construction of a few short links would furnish another continuous line from China to Europe at the south, we may confidently expect that the traveler may, within a com- paratively few years, make the entire circuit of Eurasia by rail, traveling com- fortably from Paris through the coun- tries of northwestern Europe, Russia, and Siberia, into China, and thence southward through Indo-China, Bur- mah, India, Persia, Turkey, and the countries of southern Europe to the place of starting. The development which would come to the commerce of Europe with the Orient through the operation of this great railway circuit of the Eura- sian continent could but be of great im- portance. While it isa fact that the Orient, with more than half of the world’s population and one-third of its land area, has now but one-tenth of its railways and tele- 417 graphs, and one-eighth of its commerce, we are not justified in considering its commercial prize as of little value, pres- ent or prospective. The total commerce of Asia and Oceania, which we may broadly consider under this title,is nearly three billions of dollars, about equally divided between imports and exports, and its percentage of growth, even with the limited railway facilities offered, has been quite as rapid in recent years as that of the more favored Occident. The commerce of India is four times as great as when its railway system was begun, and that of Japan is six times as great as at the beginning of the construction of its railroads, and we may therefore expect that the development of the great railway systems now projected in China, Korea, Indo-China, Siam, Burmah, Ma- layan Peninsula, the Dutch East Indies, and the Philippines, with the additions planned for India, Japan, Siberia, and Australia, will enormously increase the commerce of that part of the world. j«4 The imports of all the countries and islands of Asia and Oceania now amount From C. L. Marlatt, Department of Agriculture On One of the Interior Canals of China 418 THE NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From C. I.. Marlatt, Department of Agriculture Transportation in China. A Country Cart to nearly as much as the total exports of the United States. At present we supply but about 8 per cent of that great importation, and it needs but a moment of reflection to realize what an addition it would give to our foreign trade if we could treble or quadruple our shares in the growing imports of that great sec- tion. OUR PROSPECTS OF INCREASING OUR SHARE IN THE COMMERCE OF THE ORIENT VERY BRIGHT What are our prospects of increasing our share in that commerce? Europe is, of course, our chief rival in the at- tempt to supply the imports of the Orient. The European countries, in- cluding the British Isles in this term, send to Asia and Oceania about 600 million dollars’ worth of merchandise annually, and the United States sends about 1oo millions; and we are gain- ing ground in the Orient even more rapidly than are the European countries. The imports of China, Japan, and Aus- tralia from all the European countries combined show an increase in 1903 of but 45 millions as compared with 1890, while their increase in importations from. the United States alome;iny the same period was 49 millions thus show- ing that our gains in their import trade are actually greater than those of all Europe combined. Comparing the total imports of all Asia and Oceania in 1903 with those of 18go0, we find an increase of about 22 per cent in the imports from all Europe and of 160 per cent in the imports from the United States salinjuso Aueur 1oj srrduiy 9y} JO suOT}OAS AUP JNOYSNOIY] JARO PUL AS¥IIIVS SB PaAsaS SEIT MOIILGIASTM at, eu.) Ul uoreyIodsuRIy, dIn}[NoLIsy jo powyiedsaqd ‘.el1eW VT (D wWoly 419 COMMERCIAL PRIZE OF THE ORIENT THe NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ee

>. Qur IMMIGRATION IN 1905 435 Comparative statement showing the number of aliens (exclusive of aliens in transit) admitted to the United States, by countries, during the fiscal years ended June 30, 1904 and 1905, respectively, showing increase or decrease for each country. Countries. igeelievt were). 6" @nut § | ‘eo -« |_| @le te #10) @) (6 6),.*0) 10. 0: 6, (e a ore = 0456 16) 'e: 10 0 Ke) 16! (elle. 2) 2] le peace mincluding, COrsica.. 2. wc. cece ee et ee: SHSIMETENT, Tay Ob eh ae ee ae earn aren reECee si... . ... OE Bhi aC pee ee ERs AU ee Italy, including Sicily and Sardinia........... 1 SERCO eee es ae ern er DSTA. Soa Se a Portugal, including Cape Verde and Azore Islands... cy ome ele: -e (oe @ so -< 1°) 0) 0) 6's) 6-0) @\ ‘eo sje © Ie gUlaSE.GL: Os, oe eae, re ner aoe Servia, Bulgaria, and Montenegro............ Spain, including Canary and Balearic Islands. 2 EV SGIGNSL 4 9 bak 8 Sie Cir ee tec eA Sayiuzerland =! )...5...... Turkey in Europe. oe oe eee eee ee oe ee er ®/[BIN@) 0) 0)ce)/0\ (6 (0) 6 wi © .@ © ce) @ o 16 0, 0 0 © © 6 6 0 @ 0 © 8 6 #6 CO -5/0°O OSC OG OO Cety Oem ed cc ku) cep cikrarsecher Cure) Omen) emer elre@lis\ eee | e- (0 (e@ @.01@s:'6 6 110 6 © 6 «ev « « 0 0 0 0 6 Sil#| ste chee © 0 ese ee ee oe oe we ww ero oO wee we woe ‘ov e) a) @; | 4,0) (0, © | elie 16) (6 e@) «| pejc.e\Je. « 6) 6. © 2 | oY Turkey ee eG Other Asia. .... Oi," Foe Ve) se: 306 cise fees rh = im ete: eels! ¢ Total Asia. oie ei lei tee se eccere: 16" e) e:le) 0) 3) 0, 6, eens ie PRUs PPMMPMMe ies SEP Loe /S 8. Sin) ted oe eed aseytes Sa a Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand iadippine Islands............. Pacific Islands, not specified British North America. | CC ee ey aioe {ieee ic 0 ie 0 '@ '« se ee eo oe Cr 1) 6 (ee: 0a, (e'Se ©) 10! ieiie: ej56 <8, ¥i \e 18. MACKICO 2. .... Le ee ee South America .. West Indies Cc ee) @] ie) e) @, eye: 6, + (0's!) ke’ :e; @, © i = 0.18 6 610) -@) © © 6 « (b) 6) 0 6 er ed 1905. 1904. Increase. | Decrease. tee een \ 177,156. cote Neo Curr kee aamet IAS Oo 5,302 3,976 Te ia te 8,970 8,525 AAR ON ect oak 3 10,168 9,406 762 ae 40,574 AMOR SON sees ae serait 5,806 LOV5 5 PA eet os. 5 828 221,479 193,296 ZO GOQ Maha © a tica! 4,954 4,916 Ou eed Soe fa 25,0604 23,808 1,256 5,028 OTA a hea ehe oe Be teat 1,687 v437 TOO ER rows tees ie gel 2,650 eee \ 145,141 BOAO ale cae eee 2,043 Tah PTT eh eet ad 2,600 3,996 tae 1,396 26,591 DRT OGM cinemas. sess i172 4,269 BROZS arate. Bard 754 4,542 4,344 TOS. igs cmecton 64,709 38,626 2O;OOB Naan ee 52,945 36,142 TO,003 atene. 16,977 EL;O92 OOS aN oy seals te 2503 1730 TOE aes Rye 1, BAG elses ¢ 130 974,273 POTGOBS 1200; 340) Ween cer 2,166 4,309 2,143 10, 331 FAR2O Aah lGa Melon Senne 2hQ83 190 P16) leona ae Pe yi Ons 7, 5 2215 G22 ope Ranke 5,081 207 DIQOAP ike: aeons 22,025 2OAMOO) |e cases 2,201 HS 686 7H Fe Sarat i ee 2,091 1,461 O2Os he a aaa 39 Sn kas meen 13 26 AQ hasthrae eee sid.2 6 2,168 DRONA kta stots 669 123 109 A gen tated Fe. o.tee, 1,072 605 AGH. NN Sa faba 2,637 1,009 TNO2S0 (ares. 2,576 1,667 GOO me oh: 16,641 10,193 (oy 71 Vilte Well Res ap a een 161 go nial 1,026,499 812,870 PAOCOQ OV IN Ron hte Mee: 436 of manufactures in the year just ended amounted to $543,620,297, as against $452,415,921 in the preceding year, $433,851,756 in 1900, and $183,595,743 in 1895. The growth in exports of manufactures far exceeds the growth of population or the growth in com- merce as a whole. This is apparent from an examination of the following table, showing the population, com- merce, and exports of manufactures of the United States in 1800, 1875, and 1905, and the percentage of increase in each since 1800 and 1875, the beginning of the greatest era in American devel- opment : Commerce E (imports and a omestic Year. Population. a doldash manufact- dise). pate Dollars. Dollars. T8OO is. so sccsenscc. 5 308,483 162,224,548 2,493,755 TS7Oteceresecacceens 45,137,000 | I,001,125,861 100,492,055 TQOSpesecseeeseecees 83,145,000 2,636,074,349 543,620, 297 Per cent of increase : 1800-1876... 750 517 3,930 1876-1905.. 84 63 441 Iron and steel manufactures supply about one-fourth of the manufactured articles exported from the United States, the total in 1905 having been $134,727,- 921, as against $111,948,586 in the pre- ceding year, an increase of nearly 23 million dollars. Steel rails showed an increase of 6 million dollars, chiefly in shipments to Canada, South America, Mexico, the West Indies, Japan, and other oriental countries, 1n several of which railway development is proceed- ing at a rapid rate. Machinery also showed an increase in 1905 of more than 6 million dollars over 1904. A con- spicuous feature, however, is the large increase in exports of locomotives to Japan, 151 engines having been sent thither in 1905, as against 74 in the pre- vious year. Mexico and Argentina in- creased their purchases of American sewing machines, while Japan increased THe NatTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE her purchases of electrical machinery and builders’ hardware, each in a substantial déeree. Copper manufactures, consisting large- ly of pigs and bars, form the item of second importance in our exports of manufactures, the total being $86,225, - 291 in 1905, as compared with $57, 142,- o81 in the preceding year. This growth of practically 30 million dollars in a single year is accounted for by an in- crease of nearly 10 millions in exports to China, 3 millions to the United King- dom, 1% millions to France, 3 millions to Germany, 4% millions to Nether- lands, 114 millions to Russia, and nearly 2 millions to other countries. Refined mineral oil ranks third in the exports of manufactures, the total being $71,888,317, as against $71,753,552 in the preceding year. Owing to the fall in price, the value remained practically stationary, despite the fact that the quantity increased from 847 million gal- lons in 1904 to 951 millions in 1905. The countries to which the largest ex- portations were made were United King- dom, 221 million gallons; Germany, 142 millions; Netherlands, 117 millions ; China, 90 millions; Belgium, 46 mil- lions; British East Indies and Japan, each about 30 millions; Italy, nearly 29 millions, and France, 272 millions. South America, as a whole, took about 55 million gallons. Cotton manufactures present one of the striking features of the year’s ex- port record, having advanced from $22,403,713 in 1904 to $49,666,080 in the year just ended. The growth oc- curred chiefly in cotton-cloth exports, $14,696,199 being the total in 1904 and $41,320,542 the figure for 1905. To China there was an increase of about 400 million yards over last year’s ex- portation of 76.9 millions, and the value of our cotton-cloth exports to that country increased from 4 million dol- lars in 1904 to 2734 millions in 1905. Japan was the only other country to show a considerable increase in takings STATISTICS OF CITIES from ts, the total being 16 million yards, valued at 114 million dollars, as against less than 440,000 yards in 1904, valued at 55 thousand dollars. Leather and manufactures of leather, fourth in importance in the list of manu- factured articles exported, showed an increase of 4 million dollars, the total in 1905 having been 38 million dollars, as compared with 34 millions in the preceding year. In this class, also, Japan should be credited with the chief increase. To Japan we exported 16 million pounds of sole leather, valued at $4,146,428, as against 2 million pounds, with avaluation of about a half million dollars, in the preceding year. The increase in boots and shoes is princi- pally in exports to the West Indies and Mexico, each of those countries being credited with about $400,000 in excess of the 1904 figures, while the total in- crease in boot and shoe exports to all countries was but little over $818,000. Other important articles exported were: Agricultural implements, 2034 million dollars ; chemicals, drugs, dyes, etc., nearly 16 millions; wood manu- factures, 12% millions; cars, carriages, and vehicles, 1024 millions; scientific instruments, 8 millions; paper. and manufactures of paper, 8% millions; paraffin and paraffin wax, 734 millions ; fiber manufactures, 634 millions; to- bacco manufactures, 524 millions; books, maps, etc., nearly 5 millions, and india-rubber manufactures, 434 mil- lions. STATISTICS OF CITIES HE Bureau of the Census has just issued a very useful report, Bul- letin 20, presenting statistics of cities having a population of over 25,000. This bulletin contains comparatively few statistics relating to the population living in these cities, but is for the most part a compilation of data relative to the resources, transactions, plant, and ma- chinery of the municipal corporations. One finds in these tables such facts 437 as the length (in miles) and the area (in square yards) of the paved streets classified with reference to kind of pav- ing ; miles of sewer; number of street lamps; miles of street railway track ; number of school buildings and number of teachers and pupils; the number of public libraries with the number of vol- umes they contain ; the number of alms- houses and. orphan asylums with the number of inmates ; the number of po- licemen and the number of arrests they have made ; the number of firemen and fire engines, the number of fires occur- ring during the year, and property loss from such fires; thenumber of marriages recorded in the office of the city or county clerk and likewise the number of divorces. ‘There are also tables show- ing the total population of each city, and the deaths and death rates from each of the principal causes of death. But by far the greater part of the tabular matter consists of financial sta- tistics presenting the expenditures and receipts of each city classified by de- partments and offices, the public debt, sinking funds, etc. By reference to these tables one may readily compare the cost of government and of the sev- eraldepartments of government in differ- ent cities. In the aggregate the financial trans- actions of the 175 cities included in this report equal in magnitude those of the national government. The total corpo- rate receipts for these cities amounted to $541,624,203, while the revenues of the United States government in the fiscal year 1904, exclusive of postal rev- enues, were $540,631,749. The total corporate expenditures of the cities were $535,804,200 ; the expenditures of the United States government were $582,- 402,321. The national debt in 1904 amounted to $895,157,410; the aggre- gate debt of the 175 cities, exclusive of sinking fund assets, was $1,134,578,783. The receipts, expenditures, and debt for the city of New York represent about one-third of the city totals. 4.38 THE COMMERCIAL VALUATION OF RAILWAY OPERATING PROPERTY IN THE UNITED STATES HE United States Bureau of the Census has just published Bul- letin 21, presenting the results of an Tue Nartonat Grocrapuic Macazine extended inquiry in regard to the cott- mercial value of railway operating prop- erty in the United States. has in quiry was conducted by the Bureau of the Census, with the cooperation of the Interstate Commerce Commission, Ratio of Commercial | Per cent : ee ee eeneean an ee assessed value of railway | of total | Rank pane e: RASS ACP to com- STATE, TERRITORY, OR DISTRICT. operating prop- for of : mercial erty asof June | United | state poe 0, 1904. States. 2 per Se) Date. Amount. cent) WiattteGeStatese. vmcc.sses-rezeeenee ccesereriasl| * $11,244,852,000 TOO.L000: | lic oes 255cil| ccietiscavses cnnisns 4s omenelllselarie ciate efector Il REtaetsts aan FUME MOB a0VasednencrdepocdeG) padandabecsno acospondaccdarcanc 150,211,000 1.336 24 1905 | $53,926,026 35.9 NII sanorarib udeanadenodusooed, sannouaen covecsecooulsot 100,000 0.001 BI |. seesesee caadsebwansieegtl seeucsemeee saueserg | Mae eet atemenas sie ESET UZ OTA ete tec hciecis: dan tnessites cae dteeete tas dee teee 68,356,000 0.608 44 1904 6,667,349 9.7 ATIGAMISAS yc gseectcnsermebcscaes Wares cma deuiceeaase 124,626,000 1.109 27 104 | 34,709,023 27.8 (QRUIUION RON nacberbdecaduntdacede.) | Sogsonacedeaenss aso 350,694,000 3.119 8 1904 | 92,378,550 26.3 COLOTAG OLE wc ccacka tease on ne oe de casoteetenae: 198 261,000 1.764 19 Dec; 31, 1903 49,492,135 25.0 Connecticut........ 105,369,000 0.937 32 || Sept. 30, 1904 | 120,493,648 114.4 VOVENB AEN eS a nad aadddouaooRoBasdeds caddogsouneusouand mobo 17,285,000 0.154 AG || voeoasede vanccdaes soelliocen stem emetee sol eerdeeae manent Distnict of Colwimibia\2....:.. cect eecnseec = 5,578,000 0.049 50 || June 30, 1904 2,486,024 A4.6 Rel mA Ca Mas ictecers voc, wenestease Wisse outer cenem ee 80,467,000 On lon By 1904 | 21,817,478 Digit (EYSvoy teal: sjuarnqueodooedeecboancvosnds HaadonDoenueost 9G at 156,603,000 1.392 22 1903 | 63,105,8:0 40.3 TG oVC suo comandacacorcocmosatidaucuosdkocendéduhpcancandet 91,877,000 0.817 34. 1904 | 10,115,378 11.0 DIU TTTVoy iaedbneciaaae acts yrinecnctansasaed erp esdae abuse 805,057,000 7.159 Bi 1904 | 425,709,055 63.8 Nendwvana Merit oryeerstere sess sect ance ecient 79,405,000 0.706 AO ||. cacesssedessincse snes de cl easioee ence eeeeeen|l Gemeente HavGi amas vce ven casacat con eauiisen mecnene see eneee 375,541,000 3.340 6 1904 | 165,863,367 44.2 TOWiAlshebeechions Memence taeeb aa en ceteeccist hones tancite 344,847,000 3.067 9 || Jan I, 1904 | 57,535,160 16.7 NEANISAS aca: eccemerneisncics 6 ceiaten ricielseeneerte scission 356, 350,000 3.159 7 1904 | 60,093,534 16.9 KentuGk yn....2.- Mav rcoduie cash ele entiaslenameeenuloes ame 155,772,000 1.335 23 1904 | 77,658,040 49.9 TOUISTANIA, clecteatinnbenes tee dseteosasserccines le ecsecme 123,401,000 1.097 28 1904 | 29,044,195 28.9 DUET Sie aca omar cede cies asean scone bac qarcta ede scan 80,146,000 0.713 G23 | (eee eee en esate seccolllsacsoruaced ane Mialty laid eecercancts caisson seme sepacesctensnetena: = 132,342,000 1.177 71a) | BRERA PPP A Eeeenbert lee agance! Acitiscas: \iesesoncon scion: MiasSaiGlHUSGttsite-susms:-ceseescaetaee deers antes ae 250,052,000 2 224 D5, ede wn ereeleteje ne sivewrll ates oearamgemn tite cml ll Cae tren ee bte ters Michipatiyie..ccesse Loe ceasnayremaenee as scoorinaebtige 277,597,000 2.469 13 || Jume 30, 1904 | 196,795,000 -70.9 Minnesota ...... oni Rne a ten abnsoHesamteitos dear bee 466,734,000 4.151 Bal eater pesied's “isiesee| a dvedencee oben Sena | Mae Meeunmee at MASSISSID Pils. occ-tonceeeclscccnectotew sete icmecc sere 107,884,000 0.959 31 1902 | 29,847,640 Z| IMSS OUT Ge.cds osc. cogennesteicce cet aiesarccameceon anes 309,768,000 2.755 II |} June 1, 1903 | 97,916,869 31.6 ING Rove eyo Velenraa cee acai cauaHunann EnBAAbcactuaboreeendadon 196, 209,000 1.745 20 1904 | 36,759,827 18.7 INE bras a ie sel eretd Mens atact scatters ese meet ammeeoe 263,170,000 2.340 14 1904 | 46,082,853 18.5 INievaldiar neces. sete ce sdedtcdneasmeustbnns ennccesegeny 43,745,000 0.389 46 | 1904 | 13,778,049" 31.5 New HamipSlinens 2.25 2 ncenecwecesre ioe ectrn 79,786,000 0.709 39 1904 | 22,625,000 28.3 ING WAIICLSE Vin feoracee - sacoesctees coseecee Paes, * 332,565,000 2.966 10 1904 } 231,655,525 69 5 INGiw? Me@xX1COR iE gitencse secon dueteaueensne aeteesee 86,400,000 0.768 36 1904 8,511,538 9.9 Ni@ we W OG tro es sch sces eee pea coe een eememae * 898,222,000 7.988 2 1903 | 229,582,064 25.6 INorehy Carolia c.....s-aseeeaeecederss Lgcissteter 113,146,000 1.006 30 1904 | 69,480,974 O1.4 NorthiDakotaty i. jas.cedsesacseses sre ostncen tess: 123,390,000 1.097 29 1904 | 22,160,304 18.0 OMIO i shee gies Leases a hee oe ee ee eee 689,797,000 6.134 4 1901 | 133,858,945 19.4 ORM aM Onlaek weiss se essence ecco ue eeee meee 78,668,000 0.700 41 1905 | 11,936,317 15.2 (@) rete0) 0 Perec mann Se ndoces Heer ooacepnaragnwonéadnobacoac 75,661,000 0.673 (APG aepcsoconedrenonnnincence| (sonbornedeoocaots|||lsagcesodotosas0 Peninsy | vata itn sccdset at seetes anette I,420,608,000 12.633 Li llc sdubetieiweiawenellenctcay|e abioune ease nee eee Genera Me Rhode) Islands 0.22 scce Sees anette auaeee 25,719,000 0.229 48 1904 | 15,832,003 61.6 South Carohivasntssecthac eee naee es. eacceene ae 75,500,000 0.671 43 1903 | 29,467,716 39.0 SOUChMD aAkOtata cas cese ieneespeceneeanenaeeeren: 49,646,000 0.441 45 1904 | 14,254,930 28.9 SU GIMME SSC OL. se cckun ea vuwats sateen mnehpelesaisate meee ad 131,166,000 1.167 26 1903 | 58,539,566 46.6 | BS fe ee paseo go conadboncaHeasth dphaopouaddéon odsienobaona 237,718,000 2.114 16 1904 | 95,209,785 40.0 LOR olanOM eer HeRRr nr Hiner PacMpnEnOnAGansadcst ceasHne tedods 90,325,000 0.803 35 1904 | 20,682,461 22.9 WASH OKO) bY OMS hemrn eer en snc edconsdcnncabeocdncacor oeeonbe 37,311,000 O 332 47. Dec, I1g02 | 27,344,020 73-3 DYBb tea bob ie bys teriee secre Me Enric a HEGAS once bobocnne 211,315,000 1.879 17 || June 30, 1904 | 63,269,623 Bie Washimotominc.c..25 sw ioeet cones see eee 182,837,000 1.626 21 1904 | 26,066,949 14.3 West Virginiatiie seo ec tee aessereaeeee 201,799,000 1.795 18 1904 | 28,771,358 14.2 WAS CONSE iS. ien. ses neeel stoskeanene docucenneeties 284,510,000 2.530 12 1904 | 218,024,900 76.6 Wiy ONG So iam irdne ancteveeueaearecmndees scmsmeraes 100,307,000 0.892 Be 1904 7,498, 232 Tes * Exclusive of Jersey City ferries of the Pemmsylvania Railroad system. 5,698,000, The value of this ferry property is 4 a VALUATION OF RAILWAY OPERATING PROPERTY under the supervision of Prof. Henry C. Adams, statistician to that Commission. The first part of the bulletin, discussing the main results of the investigation, was written by Professor Adams. ‘The sec- ond part, or ‘‘Supplement,’’ consists of a series of papers by experts considering ‘‘Various Aspects of the Question of Railway Valuation.’’ The commercial value of railway oper- ating property in the United States, com- puted for the year 1904, was $11,244,- 852,000. ‘The apportionment of this value among the various states and ter- ritories of the Union (foreign posses- sions excluded) may be seen from the table on the preceding page. The above valuation does not include the value of. Pullman cars or private cars. ‘The physical value of this equip- ment, that is tosay, its value independ- ent of the commercial use to which it is put, is estimated as follows: LE UEIDCOC Oa Ce) Cain a $51,000,000 UV AECH CANS ch helayrle cise sie 's o'ele a's 72,000,000 The total number of Pullman cars ‘‘ available for the business of the com- pany’’ on July 31, 1904, was as follows: Standard cars with sleeping accommo- GAMIOMS Wein ley ee. yk ek fe ae 2,903 Ordinary, or tourist, cars with sleeping MOCOMMMOCAMONG 0. 560i seis peed wee 547 atdOL CALS: oe sc. 2. +. Ee ete r,s oct eee 464 Composite, dining, and other cars..... 85 MNO clae meters sikh e.g kis, daa estoldeats 3,999 By commercial value is meant the market value. The two chief factors determining the market value of railway property are the expectation of income arising from the use of the property and the strategic significance of the property. _ The value submitted was determined not with a view to discovering a proper purchase price for the railways of the United States, nor as a basis for taxing these railway properties, but as one step in ascertaining for the Census Bureau the total wealth of the United States. Po Whether or not the value ($11,244,- 852,000) above submitted represents the value upon which the railways of the United States might properly be taxed depends upon whether the state under- takes to tax the roads at their full com- mercial value, including the values of both tangible and intangible property, or whether it seeks to confine its taxa- tion to the value of the tangible property alone. In the former case the value submitted is believed to be substantially correct so far as it concerns the operat- ing properties of the railways; in the latter case it is too high. | The results of the investigation re- ported in this bulletin have been care- fully tested, and it is believed that the methods employed conform closely to those followed in the business world. THE ZIEGLER POLAR EXPEDITION HE loss of their ship, with most of their stores and equipment, al- most at the beginning of their Arctic campaign, was mainly responsible for the modest achievements of the Ziegler Polar Expedition of 1903-1905. ‘The party did not get farther north than 82° 13’, which is some degrees south of Abruzzi’s record, but they did consider- able surveying and conducted scientific observations of value. On the arrival _of the expedition in Norway, Command- er Fiala issued the following statement : ‘‘ Our rescue was most timely. By my order the America wintered in Teplitz Bay, where early in the winter of 1903-4 the ship was crushed in the ice and be- came a total loss, together with big quantities of coal and provisions. ‘* Supplies of stores left at Franz Josef Land by various relief parties saved us very serious privations. Three attempts to reach a high latitude failed. The scientific work, however, as planned, was successfully carried out by Mr Wm. J. Peters, of the United States Geologi- . cal Survey. ‘‘ Our rescue was due to the splendid 44.0 efforts of Mr William S. Champ, secre- tary of the late William Ziegler, com- manding the relief expedition, who, owing to the terrible weather, failed to reach us last year, and to the untiring zeal of Captain Kjeldsen and his Nor- wegian officers and crew, who for six weeks persistently forced their way through solid floes of ice and finally reached us. ‘‘An abundance of stores had been left in the Franz Josef Archipelago by the expedition commanded by the Duke of Abruzziand the André relief expedi- tion, so that we did not suffer serious difficulties on that score.’’ In the spring of 1904 repeated at- tempts were made eastward and west- ward to force a passage to the Pole. The conditions, however, were insur- mountable. The expedition found much open water, and day after day encoun- tered fresh dangers and difficulties. Ultimately the supply of provisions ran short and a painful journey southward was begun, the members of the expe- dition finally reaching the depots at Cape Flora, Cape Dillon, and Camp Ziegler, among which they were distributed and where they managed to eke out the limited supplies by catches of walrus and bear. The relations between the members of the expedition were most cordial and all took turns at duty, doing the hard work willingly. Mr W. J. Peters, second in command, and who had charge of the scientific work, under the direction of the Na- tional Geographic Society, has cabled the following report to Dr Willis L. Moore, Chief of U. S. Weather Bureau and President of National Geographic Society: ‘‘ No record. Conditions unfavorable. Considerable scientific work.’ Mr Champ, leader of the relief ex- pedition which sailed from ‘Tromso June 14 on the Zerra Nova, deserves | much credit for bringing back the party. Tue Nationa, GeocraPHic MAGAZINE The ice was unusually thick the past summer, and a less courageous man would have failed to get through. On July 29 the 7erra Nova reached Cape Dillon, and found six members of the Ziegler expedition safe and well. From this outpost sleds were dispatched to notify Mr Fiala at the headquarters camp of the arrival of the rescue ship. The Zerra Nova reached Cape Flora July 30, and found more members of the expedition. These had become weakened by the hardships they had endured, and some of them were so ill that they could not have held out for another winter. | Returning to Cape Dillon, Mr Champ organized a sled party and started for the headquarters camp, from which he brought back Mr Fiala and his com- rades. The Zerra Nova sailed for home Au- gust 1. It got out of the ice pack Au- gust 6, and returned in excellent condi- tion, arriving in Tromso August Ir. THE HIGHEST DAM IN THE WORLD HE U.S. Geological Survey an- nounces that the town of Roose- velt, Arizona, humming as it is with the activities of its 3,000 inhabitants, is doomed. Its lease on life is only three years long. In 1908, when the engi- neers of the Reclamation Service shall have completed the highest dam in the world, Roosevelt will lie 172 feet below the surface of the water in the recla- mation reservoir. Work has been in progress there for about a year, but men are laboring now, night and day, in three shifts of eight hours each, in order that no more than three addi- tional years may be consumed in the task Then the town of Roosevelt will disappear, and in its stead 250,000 acres of now barren land near Phoenix will be reclaimed and give rich support to many more people than Roosevelt now contains. Lest the sweeping away of the 3,000 people should appear too se- K Tuer Hicuest Dam IN THE WorLpD vere, it should be explained that Roose- velt isin reality acamp; that practically all of its inhabitants are gathered to help along the gigantic Salt River Rec- lamation project, which will cost over $3,000,000. ‘The engineering problems connected with the work are great. Before the dam could be commenced 80 miles of road had to be constructed. Most of the material has to be brought from Globe, the railway station, which is 40 miles away. The power canal, which i$ to be 19 miles long, is well under way. Its construction has in- volved the excavation of about 600,000 cubic yards of material and the driving of nearly 9,000 feet of tunnel. The canal will furnish power to generate electricity to operate all the works. The government will make on the spot all the cement required, instead of purchasing it. It is expected that about 200,000 barrels of cement will be required in the construction of the Roosevelt dam, the power canal, and the various Tonto improvements. The cement used in the preliminary work cost $5.35 a barrel, delivered at the point where it was used. Bids were later re- ceived for furnishing cement at $4.81 a barrel. It will cost the government $1.60 a barrel to make the cement on the ground. If the cost of the plant, $120,000, be added to the cost of the 200,000 barrels of cement required, the total cost of the government cement will still be only $2.20 a barrel. ‘This means a saving of $2.61 a barrel, or a saving of $522,000 on the entire work. After the dam and canals have been completed the cement plant will still he capable of further use, and considerable salvage may doubtless be realized. The ce- ment mill is now in operation. The fuel used in burning cement in the kilns is crude petroleum from the California oil fields. Map of Panama Canal.— In the October number THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 441 MAGAZINE will publish as a supplement a map of the Panama Canal region, 24 by 33 inches and in five colors. The map was prepared by the Isthmian Canal Commission and is republished through the courtesy of Hon. Theodore P.Shonts, chairman of the commission. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE REPUBLIC OF PANAMA TNITED STATES Consul General Joseph W. J. Lee, Panama City, Panama, reports that the natural re- sources of the Republic of Panama are but little known to the world at large, the interest in the monumental project of a transisthmian canal overshadowing them. The work of the Panama gov- ernment in opening the country and facilitating the exploitation of its re- sources by extended improvements in transportation and communication has not been advertised as fully as war- ranted by present accomplishment and expected results. Harbors, highways, and railways and a new city are among the projects to which President Amador has given his approval and upon which work is in progress. At present the central provinces of Los Santos, Cocle, and Veraguas are the fields for the greater part of these improvenients, for which $1,050,000 (silver) have been appropriated. The harbors of Pescaderias and Puerto Posada are to be improved, so that it will be possible for passengers and cargo to be received and landed at wharves. With the exception of Pan- ama City, the port of Agua Dulce is at this time the only harbor on the Pacific where it is possible for vessels to dis- charge and load from piers. The project is to construct first good roads and later railways, stretching across the plains and foothills, through the mountain passes, to the Atlantic, and thus develop rich natural resources which today lie dormant. Gold mines long ago abandoned have 44.2 recently been relocated and are now worked with profit. The crude meth- ods of the Spaniards were only success- ful where the mineral veins were most accessible. The results obtained by the use of modern facilities will surpass those of the original discoverers. Be- cause of the lack of transportation facil- ities, coal and iron have lain undisturbed in the flanks of the hills. A large area of fine woods will become accessible when . better communication is established. Cocoanuts, coffee, and rubber grow wild in luxuriance. At the base of the hills rolling plains suitable for grazing large herds of cat- tle stretch for miles. Flourishing plan- tations and ranches covered this country until abandoned because of a series of disastrous revolutions. Now, secure of protection and peace and bettered by means of communication, the introduc- tion of capital is certain to be followed by most satisfactory results. The Panama government has ap- pointed Vincent Peterson, an American engineer, to take charge of the develop- ment of the interior provinces. Mr Peterson has had much experience in mining, railway, and municipal engi- neering in the United States and Mexico. Last November he came to Panama as assistant engineer to the minister of public works. He has organized the engineering corps of the Republic and surveyed the boundary line between the Canal Zone and the country in the vicinity of Panama. No government undertaking has ever meant so much to the interior of this Republic, whose isolated dwellers are now about to profit by the rich advantages at their com- mand. act The improvements to the harbor of Puerto Posada and the highway between that place and Penonomé are under way. Basket and rope making and the manu- facture of genuine Panama hats are car- ried on in this vicinity. The port of Tue NaTrionaAL GeoGrAaPpHic MAGAZINE Posada will serve as an outlet for the products of these industries. On the far side of Penonomé the highway will be continued through mountain passes ‘and over the hills to the Atlantic. From the port of Agua Dulce to the city of the same name the highway, with its necessary grades and bridges, is practically completed.. This route will be further continued beyond Agua Dulce to the Santa Maria River. The river is to be spanned by an extensive steel bridge, the contract for which has been allotted to an American bridge company. Beyond the far side of the Santa Maria River the route divides, one branch leading to Chitré, capital of the province of Los Santos, and the other leading toward Santiago, capital of the province of Veraguas. Prelimi- nary surveys of these routes are prac- tically completed. Still another high- way will connect Antom (or Pescaderias) with Agua Dulce, passing through Nata and Pocri and crossing the route which joins Puerto Posada and Penonomé, thereby opening the surrounding coun- try to the influence of commerce and in- dustry. All these national roads are to be 50 feet wide, and the highways, as well as all bridges upon them, are to be built with a view to the practicability of par- alleling them with narrow-gauge rail- ways. Midway between Agua Dulce and Penonomé a site for a model town has been planned. A public plaza, 460 feet square, is to be the center of the town, and around it will.be grouped a church, school, government and mu- nicipal buildings, and a market. This town will be provided with a complete system of waterworks, electric lights, sewerage,and drainage. Plans for these works are open for competition. All the necessary preliminaries have been approved by the President of the Re- public. ome GROGRAPHIC The Philippine Islands. Edited by Emma Helen Blair and James Alex- ander Robertson. Vol. XXIV, pp. Bao; Vol. XXV, pp. 322. Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark Co. 1905. In these two volumes we have the conclusion of Medina’s early Augus- tinian history and a survey of affairs generally in the Philippines for 1630- 1636. It is, of course, all original ma- terial translated into English, the Span- ish text not being given. There are enough notes to explain the most im- portant points. With the present rise of Japan into world politics it is very significant to note the friction at that eatly period between the governments of these two archipelagoes. A con- siderable part of these pages deals with church quarrels, and Medina gives numerous biographies of ecclesiastics. Religious zeal is very apparent, just as in other Asiatic lands today, as there are constant calls for more missionaries. The volumes are up to the high level of the previous ones as to paper, print, and binding. Antarctica. By Otto Nordenskjold and ' J. G.. Anderson. With many illus- trations and maps. Pp. 608. 6% x9 . inches. New York: The Macmillan zoe. 1905. This is a perfunctory and uninterest- ing description of life in Antarctic re- gions. The expedition of which the book is a narrative followed beaten ‘tracks and accomplished little that is new. Beyond the fact that some brave men incurred danger and passed a winter in a hut about g by 6 feet, there is really --no reason for the existence of the book. The illustrations are lifeless and poorly printed. SOME RECENT GOVERNMENT REPORTS. Loug Range Weather Forecasts. FE. B. Garriott, U. S. Weather Bureau, Bull. 35. Soil Inoculation for Legumes. George T. Moore, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 71. LiTgRATURE 4.4.3 Periodic Variation of Rainfall in the Arid Region. Wm. B. Stockman, U. S. Weather Bureau, Bull. N. Seeds and Plants Imported, 1900-1903. Da-: vid G. Fairchild, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 66. Development of Single-germ Beet Seed. C. O. Townsend and E. C. Rittue, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 73. Copper as an Algicide and Disinfectant in Water Supplies. George T.Moore and Karl F. Kellerman, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 76. Beneficial Bacteria for Leguminous Crops. George T. Moore and T. R. Robinson, U. $ Departmentof Agriculture, Farmers’ Bull. 214. What Forestry Means to Representative Men. President Roosevelt, the Ambassador of France, Secretary Wilson, Senator Warren, Congressmen Lamb, Lacy, Reeder ; Mr Charles D. Walcott, Dr David T. Day, F. H. Newell, Guy E. Mitchell, J. B. Lippincott, A. P. Davis, Rev Edward Everett Hale, Overton W. Price. Giffort Pinchot, etc., Bureau of Forestry Cir- cular 32% Imports of Farm and Forest Products, rgo!- 1903. Compiled by the Division of Foreign Markets, Bureau of Statistics, Bull 31. Exports of Farm and Forest Products, tgor- 1903. Compiled by the Division of Foreign Markets Bureau of Statistics, Bull 32. Report of the Condition of "Treated Timbers Laid in Texas, February, 1902. Hermann Von Schrenk, Bureau of Foresty, Bull. 51. Forest Conditions of Northern New Ham- shire. Alfred K. Chittenden, M. F., Bureau of Forestry, Bull. 55. Chestnut in Southern Maryland. Raphael Zon, Bureau of Foresty, Bull. 53. Forest Planting in Western Kansas. S. Kellogg, Bureau of Forestry, Bull. 52. The Basket Willow ; also Insects Injurious to the Basket Willow. William F. Hubbard and F. H. Chittenden, Bureau of Forestry, Bull. 46. Coyotes in Their Economic Relations. vid E. Lantz, Biological Survey, Bull. 20. Raspberries lL. C. Corbett, Farmers’ Bull. 23 The External Parasites of Hogs. Earle C. Stevenson, Bureau of Animal Industry, Bull. Royal Da- Information Concerning the Milch Goats. George Fayette Thompson, M. S., Bureau of Animal Industry, Bull. 68. The School Garden. L. C. Corbett, Farmers’ Bull, 218. Investigations for the Promotion of the Oyster Industry of North Carolina. Caswell Grave, Ph. D., U. S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Report, 1903. Pp. 247-341. Report of the Special Commission for the Investigation of the Lobster and Soft-shell 444 Clam. Messrs Hugh M. Smith, George H. Sherwood, Frederic P. Gorham, Jamies L, Kellogg, U. S. Commission of Fish and Fish- eries, Report, 1903. Pp. 139-224. Report of the Commis-ioner of Fisheries to the Secretary of Commerce and Labor for the Year Ending June 30, 1904. Commercial Fisheries of the Interior Lakes and Rivers of New York and Vermont. John N. Cobb, U. S. Commission of Fish and Fish- eries, Report, 1903. Pp. 225-246. A Revision of Malaclemmys, a Genus of Turtles. Wm. Perry Hay, Bureau of Fisher- ies, Bull. 19048)" Ep wa 20% The Seaweed Industries, of Japan. The Utilization of Seaweeds in the United States. Hugh M. Smith, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. of 1904. Pp. 133-181. State Ichthyology of Massachusetts. Theo- dore Gill, Bureau of Fisheries, Report, June, 1904. Pp. 163-188. The Salt-marsh Anphipod: Orchestia Pa- lustris. Mabel E. Smallwood, Cold Spring Harbor Monographs. Mammals from Beaver County, Utah, Col- lected by the Museum Expedition of Ig04. J. A. Allen, the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Science Bull., Vol, 1, No35- Additions to the Coleoptera of the United States, with Notes on Some Known Species. Chas. Schaeffer, the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Science Bull., Vol. 1, No. 6. Minnesota's Eastern, Southern and Western Boundaries. Alexander N. Winchell, Minne- sota Historical Collections, Vol. X, 1905. The Origin of Certain Place Names in the United States. Henry Gannett, U.S. Geolog- ical Survey, Bull. 258. A Geological Reconnaissance Across the Cascade Range. George Otis Smith and Frank C. Calkins, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 235. Results of Primary Triangulation and Pri- mary Traverse, 1903-04. Samuel S. Gannett, . U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 245. Lessons from the Grain-rust Epidemic of 1904. Mark Alfred Carleton, Farmers’ Bull. Bull. 219. A Gazetteer of Indian Territory. By Henry Gannett, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 248. Limestones of Southwestern Pennsylvania. Frederick G. Clapp, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 249. Rock Cleavage. Charles Kenneth Leith, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 239. to Irrigation. Tue Nationa, GrocraPuic MAGAZINE Economic Geology of the Iola Quadrangle, Kansas. George I. Adams, Erasmus Haworth, and W. R. Crane, U. S. ‘Geological Survey, Bull. 238. The Lignite of North Dakota and its Relation F. A. Wilder, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and. Irrigation Paper No 117. Contributions to Devonian Paleontology, 1903. Henry Shaler Williams and Edward M. Kindle, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 244. Bibliography and the Index of North Ameri- can Geology, Paleontology, Petrology, and Mineralogy, for the Year 1903. ton Weeks, U. 5. Geological Survey, Bull. 240. THe Porcupine Placer 1] District, Alaska. Chas. Wa Wright, U. S. Geological Survey, Bull. 23 Underground Waters of Eastern United States. Myron L. Fuller, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. I14. Water Powers of Alabama, with an appendix on Stream Measurements in Mississippi. Ben- jamin M. Hall, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 107. Preliminary Report on the Underground Waters of Washington. Henry Landes, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irriga- tion Paper No. III. Water Resourcesof the Philadelphia District. Florence Bascom, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 106. Hydrography of the Susquehanna River Drainage Basin. John C. Hoyt and Robert H. Anderson, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. Iog. Preliminary Report on the Pollution of Lake Champlain. Marshall Ora Leighton, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irriga- tion Paper No. 121. The Disposal of Strawboard and_-Oil-well Wastes. Robert Lemuel Sackett and Isaiah Bowman, U. S. Geological Survey, Water Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 113. The Stone Industry in 1903. David T. Day, U. S. Geological Survey. The Production of Gold and Silver in 1903. Dr David T. Day, U. S. Geological Survey. Report of Progress in the Geological Resur- vey of the Cripple Creek District, Colorado. Waldemar Lindgren and Frederick Leslie Ransome, U.S. Geological Survey, Bull. 254. Mineral Resources of the United States, Calendar Year 1903. David T. Day, U. S. Geological Survey. Fred Bough- 4 is ei tr odin I/ cieNATIONAL EOGRAPHIC GAZINE CONTENTS PAGE Map of the Region of the Panama Canal, in 5colors, 24x38 inches . Supplement The Panama Canal. By Rear Admiral — Colby M. Chester. Illustrated . . . 445 Progress on the Panama Canal . . . 467 The Great Canals of the World a eae: oe ds Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year O5 Cent a Nambes Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Seeond-Ciass Mail Matter fis TEE NATIONAL GEO GRAPHIC MAGAZIN Ie N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, publigee by th Nationa Gerocrapnic Society. All editorial communications should he ee) dressed to the Editor of the Nationa. Grocraruic Macazine. Business communications | should be addressed to the National Geographic Society.” : oe , ee 25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR © ee ‘Editor: GILBERT H.GROSVENOR ie ey ; Ne : Associate ‘Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Chief Signal Officer, U.S. Army _ Washington, D. ic ae oe WwW J McGEE | ‘DAVID T. DAY oe | Chief Department of Anthropology Chief of the Division of ‘stineratl and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- __ Resources, U.S. Coe SH ehase Exposition La ALFRED H. BROOKS C. HART MERRIAM U.S: Geological Survey Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture | ANGELO HEILPRIN WILLIS L. MOORE | Academy of Natural Sciences, Phil Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. s. delphia Department of Sens R. D. SALISBURY O. H. TITTMANN : University of Chicago ‘Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Helin We enhy : a Ez. GILBERT aie O. P. AUSTIN Ue WOR ba a S. Seer Survey. Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, | Department of Commerce and (ALEXANDER McADIE- , Labor fey | | AM ‘Professor ‘Ore ‘Metec ue | | i Pi clashinnad le a e DAVID G. FAIRCHILD | 8 | ne “a i Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ALMON GUN NISON ae ment of sal eEe | eae Vo. XVI, No. 10 WASHINGTON OCTOBER, I905 GEOGRAPIRIIC MIAVGAZIINIE, THE PANAMA CANAL* By Rear ADMIRAL CoLBy M. CHESTER, SUPERINTENDENT U. S. go into the history of canal explo- ration or exploitation. Thereare a number of routes available for uniting the two oceans which wash the American Continent, and there is still a divergence of opinion as to which is the best locality for building the canal. Several routes have good points, and it has been only by a discussion of the pros and cons, weighted for their relative values, that a final conclusion has been reached as to which is the best. Many years ago this process eliminated all but two of the routes—Panama and Nicaragua—from serious consideration. | T is not the purpose of this address to THE PROMINENT PART TAKEN BY THE Weise NAW AY The work of solving the canal problem has fallen largely on the Navy of the United States. Company after company has been formed for the exploration of the different sections which it seemed desirable to examine, but in each and every case they came to the government for assistance, and their requests were referred to the Navy Department. F1- We oee NE NAVAL OBSERVATORY nally the government itself took up the matter and put it under naval control. The selection of the navy to perform this work was a wise and economic pol- icy. Its officers are educated at ascien- tific school and drilled in surveying the coasts of the United States as well as in making surveys in all parts of the world covered by the voyages of naval vessels, as required by the following extract from the U.S. Naval Regulations,viz: ‘‘ He’’ (the captain) ‘‘shall, when his duties aud other circumstances permit, makea careful survey and construct a chart of any shoals, harbors, or dangers to navi- gation that he may discover or find inac- curately located.’’ Such duties make the naval officer well fitted for the work of exploration. Not only was this an enforced duty on the navy, however, but willing hands were found whosought to carry the American flag into and across the inhospitable and almost im- penetrable forests which abound in the tropical regions, where Nature herself has almost built a canal. While many spasmodic efforts were made to cut the Gordian knot, about the *An address to the National Geographic Society, March 10, 1905. 4.40 middle of the 19th century it was seen that nothing but a systematic and scien- tific treatment of theproblemwouldavail, and one of the first to realize this was the late Rear Admiral Daniel Ammen, U.S.N. He had sought permission from the Navy Department to take charge ofa party to explore the Isthmus of Panama early in the fifties, but was refused. Soon after this, civil war broke out in the country, and the navy had its hands too full to consider other than military matters. Hardly had the war ceased, however, before Ammen took up the problem and, enlisting the influence of his great friend, General Grant, he ham- mered away at it until the day of his death. Fortunately, Ammen was suc- ceeded in that office of the Navy Depart- ment having charge of such matters by Rear Admiral John G. Walker, U.S.N. His earnest interest in the subject is demonstrated by the fact that he is now the Presidentof the Isthmian Canal Com- mission.* But today the canal project owes no man more for its promising fu- ture than it owes General Grant. Well-equipped expeditions were fitted out for surveying the different routes se- lected for examination by such men as Shufeldt, Lull, Selfridge, Crossman, Col- lins, Hatfield, all officers of the navy, and when the mass of evidence seemed to be pointing toward Panama as the most favorable site for a canal, a French naval officer came in suddenly and un- expectedly took the stake. I say this with some fear of contra- diction, yet I believe this contention can be maintained. To be sure, a number of the leading men in ourcountry favored the Nicaraguaroute, and many navalofh- cers were strong in their conviction that its location was the most favorable for a canal, but Iclaim this view waslargely in- fluenced by political considerations and the imperfect knowledge then extant re- garding the work necessary to construct a canal on so large a scale. * Since this address Admiral Walker has been succeeded by Hon. Theodore M. Shonts. Tue Nationa, GreocrapHic MaGAaZINE One of the first official'acts of the gov- ernment of the United States in connec- tion with canal investigation was a reso- lution passed by the United States Senate March 9g, 1866, reading ‘as follows: ‘‘ Resolved, That the Secretary of the Navy furnish, through a report of the Superintendent of the Naval Observa- tory, the summit levels and distances by survey of the various proposed lines for interoceanic canalsand railroads between the waters of the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans, as, also, their relative merits as practicable lines for the construction of a ship canal, and especially as relates to Honduras, Tehuantepec, Nicaragua, Panama, and Atrato lines; and also whether, in the opinion of the Superin- tendent, the Isthmus of Darien has been satisfactorily explored ; and, if so, fur- nish in detail charts, plans, lines of lev- els, and all information connected there- with, and upon what authority they are based.’’ The result of the resolution was a com- prehensive report of the whole canal question as far as then known by the late Rear Admiral Charles H. Davis, U.S. Navy, Superintendent Naval Observa- tory, of which 8,000 copies were printed by order of Congress. Another able and voluminous report on the ‘‘ Problem of Interoceanic Com- munication by way of the American Isthmus ’’ was prepared in pursuance of an order of the Navy Department by Lieut. John T. Sullivan, U.S. Navy, in 1883,which was published in accordance with authority of Congress, and which became a standard reference book on the subject. THE PANAMA ROUTE Capt. E. P. Lull, U.S. N., surveyed this route in 1875, and he estimated, as the most practical plan, for a lock-canal of alength of 41.7 miles from sea to sea; but the real origin of the Panama Canal as an accepted project may be found in the brief surveys of Lieutenants Wyse and Réclus of the French navy. Onthe THe PanaMa CANAL 6th of October, 1876, Wyse had been au- thorized by asociety called the ‘‘ Societe Internationaledu Canal Interoceanique’’ to proceed to Central America forthe pur- pose of exploration. His examinations were begun on the Pacific coast about the middle of December, 1876, and ter- minated in the first part of April, 1877, a period of not more than four months, during which time no part of the expe- dition penetrated as far as the Atlantic coast. The party, under the charge of Lieutenant Réclus, spent from April 3 to April 20, 1878, making a survey of the valleys of the Obispo, Chagres, and Rio;}Grande, along the lineof the Panama railroad,thelevel-lines and cross-sections being run up only to the extremities of the then proposed tunnel, and not con- tinuing over the divide. Armed with this incomplete record concerning the Panama route, but with a concession for building a canal which embracedthe wholecountry of the United Statesof Colombia, thusincluding all the proposed routes except Nicaragua and Tehuantepec, Wyse reported to his com- pany in Paris. On the 15th of May, 1879, an inter- national conference was held at Paris under the auspices of the Paris Geo- graphical Society. The conference was composed of 136 members, of whom 74 were of other nationalities. The con- ference, which was controlled by the great engineer Count Ferdinand de Les- seps, who had just built the Suez Canal, after mature consideration, but consider- ation wherein political elements largely predominated, finally concluded as fol- lows: ‘‘The conference deem the con- struction of an interoceanic canal so de- sirable, in the interest of commerce and navigation, as possible; and in order to have the indispensable facilities of ease of access and use, which a work of this kind should offer before all others, it shouldbe built from the Gulf of Limon to the Bay of Panama.’’ Thusthe Panama railroad was a prime factor in inducing 447 the Paris conference toselect the Panama Isthmus as the location foracanal. The company which built the railroad held a concession from the Colombian govern- ment dated June 28, 1848. The con- cession, in a slightly different form, had lapsed from a French company which had been unable to control the capi- tal stock, and the grant was revived in favor of Henry Aspinwall, John Lloyd Stevens, Henry Chauncey, and their associates under the name of the Pan- ama Railroad Company, an organization which later, in 1849, was incorporated by the legislature of the state of New York. Under this grant the company constructed the road, and on the 27th of January, 1855, it was completed and the first passenger train passed over the track. DE LESSEPS’ COMPANY A company, of which de Lesseps be- came president, was soon formed for the construction a tide-level canal, and be- cause of the prestige of its chief it was an easy matter to obtain subscriptions to its stock. Unfortunately, among the stock- holders there was a large element of the poorer classes in France, who believed that de Lesseps would make a fortune for them out of their small holdings, and many of them sacrificed their little all in the scheme. The capital stock of the company of 300,000,000 francs($60,000- 000) was soon half taken up and work began on the construction of the canal. Wyse expected to be named as director general of the canal, but failing to se- cure what he considered his rights, a coolness sprang up between him and the president of the company which was anything but favorable to the work. Finally, in 1881, M. Réclus initiated the enterprise and began clearing theground, assembling the plant, and constructing buildings, hospitals, etc. But troubles grew more rapidly than did the canal. No well-developed plans had been pre- pared, and in fact hardly any one knew 44.8 what was required. Directors and en- gineers of the construction company changed so rapidly that it became a com- mon saying on the Isthmus that ‘‘ it was worth a man’s yearly salary to simply come there, and he wasa very poor engi- neer who could not make a fortune in six months and go away.”’ In October, 1885, four and one-half years after ground was broken, the state of affairs on the Isthmus was given by one good authority as follows: ‘‘ There have been moved a total of from 16,000,- 000 to 17,00,000 cubic meters of earth, 12,000,000 only being from the canal proper, and 88,000,000 are still to be excavated ; besides there have been pre- pared buildings and stables on an ex- travagant scale, farms and gardens at great expense around headquarters, rail- road branches, field hospitals, and roads, three of which are of but little use except for pleasure riding of employés.”’ It was about this time (1885) that, after several years’ absence, it was again my privilege, as commander of the U.S. ship Galena, to return to the Isthmus of Panama and become an enforced but interested spectator of the construction work on the canal, and my recollection of the state of affairs accords with that above given. In fact, an eye-witness could foresee even at this early date that the extravagance which prevailed must lead to the failure of the company. For the next three years, while the progress of the first Panama Canal Company’s work was at its height, I spent portions of each winter at Colon and watched with increasing interest the operations of the great undertaking. From that time to the present I have never lost faith in the final success of the Panama Canal. In the meantime a rival company was organized to construct the Nicaragua Canal, and having for a number of years been interested in surveying and having had an extensive association with the officers who had been making THe NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE explorations in Central America, I was asked to associate myself with others in support of the Nicaragua Company. To all such suggestions I made answer that I was a Panama Canal man first, last, and all the time, and that I believed when the financial elements of the op- posing canals were finally settled by bringing up the then estimated cost for constructing the Nicaragua Canal, which was placed at about $45,000,000, to a reasonable basis of not less than $100,000,000, and the French company should failand sell outitsassetsforasong, as then seemed to me more than likely, that some new Panama Canal Company could and would build a better canal for an amount, including the purchase price of the defunct company’s holdings, less than the cost of a poorer canal at Nicaragua. I have been so strong in this conviction that two years before the Isthmian Canal Commission made its report in favor of purchasing the interests of the reconstructed Panama Canal Company for $40,000,000,I offered to wager that such a finding would be the result of their deliberations. I must say that my feelings in this matter were not altogether freed from a little bias, owing tothe fact that while our own officers had done the principal work of exploration of the canal zones, and when, as it seemed to me, the sen- timent of the country was crystallizing in favor of building a canal across the Panama Isthmus, a French naval officer with but little actual exploration to his credit should, by the use of the great name of de Lesseps, come in and steal a march on us. . : While on the Isthmus during the lat- ter part of 1887, I ventured to ask Mr Charles de Lesseps, who was then the company’s manager, if he really ex- pected, as was then widely published, that the canal would be completed the following year. Hereplied that, while he would not like to have it known, he did not mind telling me that, in order THe Panama Cana to complete it at that time, as well as to procure revenue for continuing the dig: ging down to the sea level, the company might be forced to the lock system of construction. This would surely be ac- complishedin theend. Before the time limit was up the entire plans of the canal had been changed to the lock system, but as the money was then practically all gone and no more could be obtained, the company was forced into bankruptcy. This took place in February, 1889, but a short time after I left the Isthmus. tHe HARLEY PLANS The plan that was first adopted by the old Panama Canal Company, was for a sea-level canal having a depth of 29.5 feet, and bottom width of 72 feet, with a total length of about 47 miles. Natu- rally, the estimates for constructional work on the canal at this time were very crude, being based on insufficient data regarding the physical conditions of the country as well as on insufficient sur- veys. As at first planned, the canal passes through low ground from Colon on the north, by a direct line for a dis- tance of 6 miles to Gatun, where it inter- sects the valley of the Chagres River, passes up that valley a distance of 21 miles to Obispo, where it follows the val- ley of a small tributary, cuts through the continental divide at Culebra, and thence descends by the valley of the Rio Grande to the Bay of Panama. As it was necessary to provide easy curves everywhere in the canal, a point was selected for crossing the divide somewhat higher than that of the low- est pass. The maximum height on the center line in the Culebra Cut was 333 feet above the sea. The greatest prob- lem the company had to solve was the controlef the floodsof the Chagres, which at times rose to enormous proportions. Various schemes were proposed to meet this difficulty, the most prominent being the construction of a dam at Gamboa to impound the waters of the upper river, 449 and the excavation of two independent channels, one on either side of the main canal, to carry off the surplus waters to the sea. The cost of the canal as estimated by de Lesseps in 1880 was $127,600,000, and the time required for its completion was 8 years. As has been stated, in 1887 his com- pany was forced to admit that it was im- practical to build a sea-level canal inthe time and with the money available, and a tentative scheme for opening the canal in order to precure revenue was adopted which contemplated the use of locks. This being a temporary expedient, the summit level was to be supplied with water from the Chagres River by pumps; but, with the funds exhausted, even this became a hopeless task, the company was forced into bankruptcy, and in May, 1889, work on the canal ceased alto- Serer: DISAPPEARANCE, OF THE SHCURTEIES After much difficulty in arranging the concessions, a new company was organ- ized on the 20th of October, 1894, with a capital stock of 650,000 shares of 100 francseach. Thus, after deducting 50,- ooo shares given as full-paid stock to the Colombian government, in compliance with the terms of the extension of the concession, the cash capital of the com- pany was only 60,000,000 francs, or $11,640,000, a sum which allowed only for some provisional operations then con- templated. It is hardly necessary to go into the scandals connected with the failure of the old company, as they do not affect the problem. The old com- pany and the liquidator had raised by the sale of stock and bonds the sum of $246,706,431.68, while the securities issued to raise this sum had a face value of $435,559,332.80. The number of persons holding them is estimated at over 200,000. There had been pur- chased and transported to the Isthmus an enormous quantity of machinery and 4.50 other plant at an estimated cost of $29,000,000. It is said that the terre- plein of Christobal Colon, on which the superintendent’s residence was built, was constructed almost entirely of dis- carded material from this purchase. In fact, I saw a great amount of material so disposed of myself. It should be noted that the Panama Railroad, which ran over practically the same route as did the canal, was of great importance to the canal company in con- structing the canal, not only on account of its facilities for handling supplies, but because the railroad company’s conces- sion covered any system of transporta- tion which might be adopted along its line. This made it necessary, in order to control the road, for the canal company to purchase most of its stock, which alone took out nearly $19,000,000 worth of assets. FEARFUL LOSS OF LIFE It should also be noted that the sani- tary question was not only an impor- tant, but a very expensive, item to the company. ‘There was ample provision for caring for the sick, with large and expensive hospitals under control of the company, but little or no attention was paid to precautionary measures, which now are considered such important fac- tors in sanitary science. Those of us who visited Colon in the height of the boom may recall the ghastly scenes which met our eyes. One might wit- ness on almost any morning a scaven- ger’s wagon going about the town gath- ering up the bodies of those who had succumbed during the night in the hov- els of the place or in the streets to the prevailing disease which fed on the filth of the land. The celebrated suburb of Colon, ‘‘ Monkey Hill,’’ was the recep- tacle for these corpses, which received in transportation and burial less consid- eration than would usually be given to a dead dog. The plan adopted by the new Panama THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Canal Company, as stated in theIsthmian Commission’s report, involved two levels. above the sea level; one of them, an arti- - ficial lake to be created by a dam at. Bohio, to be reached from the Atlantic side by a flight of two locks, and the other, the summit level, to be reached by a flight of two locks from the preceding, the summit level to have its bottom 68: feet above the sea and to be supplied with. water from a feeder leading from an arti- ficial reservoir to be constructed at Alha- juela in the upper Chagres Valley ; the ascent on the Pacific side to be likewise of four locks, of which the two middle- ones are combined in flight ; the canak to have a depth of 29.5 feet, and a bot- tom width of about 98 feet, with an in- creased width in certain specified parts.. Its general location was that adopted by the old company. The cost was. éstimated at $101,850,000 for the work, which did not include administration. or financing ; this matter of financing was estimated at nearly $100,000,000. While this was the plan recommended: by the French engineers, they worked! out in detail a second plan, which is an. extension or modification of the fore-- going, which they seemed to prefer im itself, but which they feared would re- quire more time to execute. Under the: second plan the upper level was omitted, the cut through the continental divide- being deepened until its bottom was 32- feet above the sea; Lake Bohio was. made the summit level and was fed di- rectly by the Chagres; one flight of locks on the Atlantic side and one om the Pacific was omitted; the feeder- from Alhajuela was omitted, but the- dam at that place was retained. The- estimated cost of completing this plan: was not much greater than that for the- other, being about $105,500,000. In both plans the dam at Bohio converted the river between that point and Obispo. into a lake of such dimensions as not to. be seriously affected by the partial floods. admitted to it, while diversion channels. 451 Tue PanaMa CANAL UIIO IYURL]}V 94} preMo} ‘JSomyjIOU SuTyooT ‘erqetndg jo do} mo1y [eued 4S$9}B2ID) S,P]IOM OY} UI sjnd peystuygug YIOA MON ‘pOOMIapU pue poomMIspug ‘yYWs11AdOD ATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Tue N 452 ISPSEL “d “M Wool odsiqQ seg 3% Ind yoy THe Panama CanaL TOPSEL “d “M WOIn YWON Buryoo’y ND viqs[ng sy, Lee THe NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 54: 4 "AA THOT BUOBICL) Je THe PanaMA CANAL were to be constructed on both sides of the canal from this lake to the sea. With a carefully designed system of sluices and controlling works, the vio- lence of the floods was to be checked by impounding the water both above the Alhajuela dam and Lake Bohio, so as to keep the flow below the Bohio dam within the capacity of the two di- version channels. It will be seen that in brief this second plan of the new company simply does away with the upper level at Culebra and leaves but one continuous stretch on the level of about 32 feet above the sea from Bohio to Miraflores, a distance of 22 miles. THE PLAN RECOMMENDED BY THE FIRST. ISTHMIAN : CANAL COMMISSION The plan prepared by the first Isthmian Canal Commission,* which was made be- fore the transfer of the property to the United States government took place, seems to follow this general plan very closely, except that it raises this section to an elevation of about go feet above the mean sea level. This plan was only tentative and depended upon further investigation, which is now being car- riedon. ‘There can be no question but that for such a stupendous scheme this investigation cannot be too exhaustive, and time used in it will save many months in the final completion of the canal. The Commission is, however, going ahead with such work as must be done in any scheme that may be adopted. The canal as thus projected may be described as follows: Beginning at the 6-fathom curve in Limon Bay, a channel 500 feet wide at bottom is excavated, curving to the left until it reaches a point just inside the jetty constructed by the old Panama Canal Company. Here it changes direction to the right and is then conducted ina straight line toa * See map of the Panama Canal region pub- lished as a supplement to this number. 455 point about 2% miles from deep water in the bay. For about a mile this wide channel is inside the low shore line, form- ing anarrow but well-protected harbor. Near the apex of this second curve the bottom width is increased to 800 feet for a length of 800 feet to provide a turning basin. From the inner end of the har- bor the bottom width of the canal is 150 feet and the level of the water is main- tained at sea level for a distance of about 14% miles to the Bohio locks. This sea- level section is cut through low land or swamps until it reaches Gatun, 6 miles from the initial point, where the first highlandismet. In facta cross-section of the canal prism here is so high as to make it possible to construct the first locks—a contingency which is still an open question. At Bohio is located a double flight of locks, having a total lift varying from 82 feet at the minimum level of the lake to go feet at the maximum, 41 to 45 toeach lock, the normal lift being 85 feet. ARTIFICIALLY CONSTRUCTED LAKE BOHIO While there is some question about the feasibility of locating locks at Gatun, the Commission was of the opinion that no location suitable for a dam existed in the Chagres River below Bohio, and, while this location is not without diff- culties, it has the great advantage that about 3 miles southwest of the dam, near the head of the Rio Gigante, the tribu- tary of the Chagres, there exists an ex- cellent site for a spillway, by which the discharge from the lake can be keptaway from the dam and accessory works, even when extremely large, without incon- venience to the canal itself or to the country below the lake. The height of this spillway would regulate the height and area of the lake. After careful con- sideration of the requirements for flood control and for storage against deficiency in the dry season, and also of the effect upon the amount of excavation required 456 for the canal through the continental divide, the Commission decided to fix this height at 85 feet above mean tide, and to make the spillway a fixed weir 2,000 feet long. The area of the lake at this height is 38.5 square miles. Above the Bohio locks the canal en- ters the artificial lake formed by the dam and known as Lake Bohio. For the first 7 miles it will become a broad, deep body of water, affording room for an- chorage as well as navigation. The length of the channel in Lake Bohio is about 12% miles from the locks to the point where the canal] leaves the Chagres River or 13% miles to the point where it enters the cut through the mountain divide which separates the Atlantic and the Pacific slopes. Near the entrance to the summit cut at Obispo will be placed a pair of gates 100 feet wide, so that if it should be necessary to draw off the water from the summit cut the level of Lake Bohio would not be affected by it. It should be noted that the Commis- sion’s plan to increase the height of Lake Bohio from 32 to gc feet gives it the increased area by distributing the im- pounded waters over a large section which would not be covered by the lower level. The higher level also allows a great saving in the excavation of the canal prism in this section, and should it be used will probably reduce the total amount of cost for excavation. At all events, as it will not take much longer to raise the vessels the additional height in the locks, but will allow for a greater speed in the lake, the time of their pas- sage through the canal must be short- ened. | The summit of ‘‘ Culebra Cut,’’ as it is called, is nearly 8 miles long from the Obispo gates to the Pedro Miguel locks. The highest point of the divide is about 5 miles from the Obispo gates, where the canal axis is 286 feet below the natural surface of the ground. The Pedro Miguel locks, the begin- ning of the next section of the canal, Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE will be similar to the Bohio locks, the aggregate lift varying from 54 to 62 feet. The level of this section is therefore about 28 feet above the sea, and it ex- tends for a distance of 1.33 miles to the last lock, which is at Miraflores. The Miraflores lock has a lift varying from 18 feet at high tide to 38 feet at mean low tide. Fora little over 4 miles beyond the Mi- raflores lock the canal extends through a low, swampy country through which the Rio Grande flows. This brings the canal to a point known as La Boca, where the Panama Railroad Company has constructed a large and substantial wharf. A dredged channel 200 feet wide will extend from this point for about 4% miles to the 6-fathom line in Panama Bay. COLON HARBOR One of the most important questions in the canal problem, which heretofore has received practically no attention from any of the companies which have had to deal with the canal, is the con- struction of a harbor at its northern en- trance. A committee has recently re- ported to the Commission a solution for this problem which contemplates the construction of a breakwater at Colon at a cost of $6,500,000. Indeed, this de- cision has come none too soon, for already material for the construction of the canal is arriving at Colon, which must be the main depot for the reception of canal supplies, and the difficulties for trans- shipment are great. There is a small harbor which has been made by widen- ing the canal prism at Christobal Colon, but it is too small and too dangerous of approach for vessels of any size in stormy weather, and as Limon Bay is at the present time an open roadstead, almost any weather may be considered stormy there. THE TERRIBLE NORTHERS AT COLON Naval officers who have had for the past half century to police the Isthmus of THe PAanaMa CANAL Panama and protect its transit have had many disagreeable experiences while an- chored in the harbor of Colon or Aspin- wall, as it used to be known. One event in my own service there I can hardly re- call even at the present day without a shudder. It was in the winter of 1886 when we reached this port with some of the Galena’s machinery needing re- pairs. After coaling from a Norwegian barque, which was lashed alongside the ship with much difficulty, owing to the heavy sea, we began to take the ma- chinery apart. Realizing, however, that if caught by a ‘‘norther,’’ which might come up at any time—without power to movethe shipoutof the harbor—disaster was likely to follow, I decided to pro- ceed to the little closed harbor of Porto Bello, which lay about 30 miles to the eastward of Colon, and there make the necessary repairs. At the end of two days, when about to return to Colon, word was received through the com- manding officer of a French corvette that during our absence a heavy norther had occurred at Colon, and that the French ship had escaped from the harbor almost by amiracle. Asthat vessel was a much higher powered steamer than the Ga/ena, I cannot bear to think of what might have occurred had we remained in this treacherous harbor. Returning to Colon as soon as possible, the sight that met our gaze I shall never forget. Nineteen vessels had been totally destroyed by the terrific storm, and wreckage and dead bodies strewed the beach for miles around. The barque from which we had taken coal was driven ashore at Christobal Colon, near which we had been anchored, and there was not a ves- tige of her in sight. A similar fate would surely have been the Ga/ena’s had she remained in the harbor with her motive power inoperative. Over 50 lives were lost in this storm and the destruc- tion of property was enormous. No doubt this loss of property took a large share of the money which was unac- 55) J counted for belonging to the canal company.* THE PROBLEM OF SANITATION Few persons who have not visited the Isthmus can have any conception of the magnitude of this problem, and only those who witnessed the great waste of life and money from the want of proper sanitary measures during the closing months of the old Panama Canal Com- pany’s existence can form a proper estimate of the value of good sanitary conditions in this trying country. It should be remembered that practi- cally all of the labor used in the canal section must be imported. At first, under the influence of de Lesseps’ great name, large numbers flocked to the Isth- mus from Jamaica, which island is said to furnish a class of labor second to none for tropical work. Impetus was given tothis emigration of the islanders by the fact that the trade in sugar, which was then the staple article of production in Jamaica, was ruined by the bounty paid for the cultivation of this important commodity in our own southern states, and the great fruit business which now gives theislandconsiderable revenue was then initsinfancy. It was therefore not a difficult matter for the company to make contracts with the idlers to go the short distance to the Isthmus, where good prices for labor prevailed. But when, after a comparatively short time, a few decrepit negroes returned to their homes in an endeavor to eradicate from their systems the effects of diseases, with reports that the thousands who did not return had gone to their last resting places, a reaction set in and the Jamaica market became less available. Further, the Britishgovernment, seeing their beau- tiful island overrun by paupers who had returned from the Isthmus without the power of earning the food for their de- pleted bodies, finally put a stop to this emigration altogether. * See page 472. THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 458 ISPSEL “d “M MOM {Nd BIGIIND 94} UI FIOM 3e [PAYS wieI}9 VW THe PanaMa CANAL SCOURING THE WORLD FOR LABORERS Then the coasts of Africa were scoured for able-bodied men, but even there after a short time the promises of remunera- tive prices for their services ceased to draw men to the canal zone. I have seen a ship come into the port of Colon from the coast of Africa, where it had been sent under a most liberal contract on which it was expected to bring 1,500 or 2,000 men for the canal working parties, with only one or two hundred on board. It was estimated that their passage money cost the canal company in the neighborhood of $1,000 apiece, and yet one-half of them were invalided to the hospitals almost as soon as they landed. ‘Thus the enormous cost of the voyage was the principal result of such expeditions. PREVENTIVE SANITATION The climate was not so much the cause of this awful havoc among the laborers as the want of preventive sani- tary measures. My experience, which has covered portions of five or six years in Isthmian waters, leads me to ap- prove what has been reported by the U. S$. minister to Panana as given in THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA- ZINE of October, 1904. It will bear re- peating here. He says: ‘‘ When the able sanitary corps, which has charge of bettering the health con- ditions in the Isthmus has carried out its plans for the improvement of the canal strip and the cities of Panama and Colon,’ there is no reason why the Isthmus should not be one of the health- iest places in the world. There has been hardly a single instance of serious illness among the considerable number of young men employed here in work connected with the canal, while the percentage of sickness among the larger group of laborers employed at Culebra is not greater than among those engaged in similar excavating work in are) the United States. Among the 400 ma- rines located half way across the Isth- Hius, at ‘Hmpire, there has not. beenca single death from local diseases, while the percentage of those in the hospital is not larger than would be found at the average post in the United States.”’ THE SANIFARY PRECAUTIONS TAKEN BY. DHE Uses: (NAV Y As the sanitary condition of the Isth- mus is in the hands of army and navy officers, I want to make a statement concerning what I consider a reflection on these services made by a lecturer before this representative body only a few weeks ago. Lest we forget ! A distinguished medical gentleman who recently lectured here stated that neither in the curriculum of the U. S. Naval Academy nor at West Point was any attention paid to the subject of physiology or hygiene, which accounted in part for the great sacrifice of human life which took place among our forces during the Spanish-American war in 1898. While the statistics he gave are based mainly on army records, he by inference made them apply to the navy as well. As far as the U.S. Navy is concerned, his premises are wrong and his conclu- sionsare wrong. Inthe first place, there is a chair of physiology and hygiene at the Naval Academy (and one was later established at West Point), which is and has been occupied by distinguished medical officers of the navy, and the young men there undergoing instruction are givena very good general knowledge of physiology and hygiene—sufficient at all events to enable them as execu- tive officers of ships to understand at least the questions which arise in the practical parts of the profession. Each ship in our navy carries one or two and sometimes three medical officers, so the sanitation of our ships is well provided for. In fact, the success that has fol- lowed the navy’s efforts to stamp out 460 disease has been a source of pride. No brighter page in the history of sanitary science can be found than that which pertains to the medical records of the navy during the summer of 1898. To prove this let me quote from the report of the Surgeon General of the Navy dated October 1, 1899: ‘‘In the returns from the squadron operating in Cuban waters are repre- sented 48 vessels, with an average com- plement of 11,599. As showing the effects of war service upon the crews of the various types of ships, the monitors gave an average rate per 1,000 of force sick daily during the war of 17.48 ; for 1897, 10.87; battleships, 12.34, against 12.381n 1897; cruisers, 16.01, as against 17.21 for 1897. gunboats, 15.74, (as against 20.14 for 1897.”’ THE HEALTH OF OUR SQUADRONS IN TIME OF PEACE AND WAR So that for this squadron, in spite of diseases especially incident to the tropics in midsummer, the daily average sick- ness for the whole force of nearly 12,000 men was but 1.56 per cent. Thus it will be seen that, leaving out the monitors, the average sickness dur- ing the war of 1898 was less in reality than in the peace year 1897, when our squadrons summered at some of the health resorts along our Atlantic coast; but, even including the monitors, the general average of sickness is less for the war period than that for the ‘‘try- ing times of peace.’’ Sailors have a trite saying that ‘‘those who go down to the sea in ships see the wonders of the deep, but those who go in monitors see the infernal regions.’’ This record of comparative sickness for the monitors would seem to lend credence to this statement. A slightly better result than this was obtained from Admiral Dewey’s squad- ron in the Philippines during the same period. It may be remembered also that the Navy Department sent a battalion of Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE marines to Cuba during the war period, the average strength of which was 588. On June 10 a landing was made at Guantanamo, where the battalion was in camp for the remainder of the war and until some time after the main force of the army had left for home. The daily average of this force sick was but 2.23 per cent. Remember (this sas shore service, the same as in the army. The Surgeon General’s report continues: ‘‘’There were six deaths, all of which occurred in the engagements with the Spanish troops, ot a single fatal case oc- curring from disease.’’ If there is any town in the United States with an equal number of inhabitants that had less. sickness for the same period, I would like tosee the statistics. Let this state- ment be compared with Japanese records. and the disparagement will not appear so great as that given by the learned doctor. With the sanitary corps on the Isth- mus in charge of such men as Col. Wil- liam C. Gorgas, U.S. A., chief sanitary officer, whose record as a destroyer of yellow-fever germs in Cuba recently has given him fame, assisted until re- cently by Medical Director John W. Ross, U.S. N., director of hospitals, and other officers of the army and navy, we need not fear the result of any com- parisons made under like conditions with any people on the globe. Dr Ross has been connected with various im- portant sanitary enterprises during his long and useful career in thenavy. As long ago as 1878-1879 he made an en- viable record as a volunteer in the yel- low-fever epidemic of east Florida, for which he was promoted by special act of Congress in 1888. THE PANAMA PURCHASE A GREAT BARGAIN That the government of the United States hassecured a great bargain in the purchase of the assets of the Panama Canal Company is beyond question. When de Lesseps undertook the man- BIQMIO[OD) ULO1Z NOY 9} UO sseg oy} Surlpienyy ‘1aAry ouedeg ay} UO aseTIIA ve }e SiaIpjog eMeUEY YIOK MON ‘poomiopug pure poomispuyg ‘yys1rs1AdoD PANAMA CANAL am 462 agement of the great enterprise which should cut the western continent in two he laid great stress on the fact that prob- lems that seemed insolvable at the time would become simplified by the growth of engineering knowledge developed in the course of the construction work. No engineering scheme has ever been so exhaustively studied as that for building the canal. Immense sums of money have been spent to study the don’ ¢s of the problem and still larger amounts have gone to eliminate the mzzsfi¢s of the per- sonnel who should control its destiny. No value can be set on this accumulation of knowledge which the Commission can use as a powerful weapon in weaving together the new plans which are to bring our work to a successful issue. But aside from these ‘‘ consequential damages,’’ as they might be called, and which would have cut a large figure in the beginning of operations in any new field, the visible assets turned over to the United States are well worth the price paid for them. ‘The popular mind is rather apt to estimate the property de- livered to us by the French company as consisting of but little more than the partially dug canal and the Panama Railroad, but astudy of the schedule of equipment will show scores of machine shops, some 2,500 houses built of wood, stone, and metal, for all conceivable purposes, and which will accommodate from 15,000 to 20,000 people; hospitals, extensive in numbers and in size, which represent an investment of a vast sum of money. ‘These buildings not only ac- count for a good slice of the purchase price, but as they would all have to be built before work can be systematically carried on, the government is saved the expense of these preliminaries. The labor question, always a serious one, here becomes vital. The loss by sick- ness alone, before the people who are required to work on the canal could be comfortably housed, would greatly aug- ._ ment the total cost of construction. .. This expense account would be a large THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE factor in any original operations, say at Nicaragua. One of the greatest benefits that has accrued to us and on which no money value can be placed is our power to abso- lutely control the 10-mile strip bounding the limits of the canal zone. No one who has not had to deal with the deli- cate questions which constantly arise on the Isthmus with reference to our gov- ernment’s guarantee to keep open the transit and to safeguard the sovereignty of the country through which it passes can realize the difficulties and expense which this sacred obligation has en- tailed. A SEA-LEVEL CANAL The first definite engineering plans for the construction of the Panama Canal have just been submitted to the Isthmian Canal Commission under date of February 14 last by the engineer- ing committee of that body, consist- ing of Commissioners Burr, Parsons, and Davis. ‘The principal recommenda- tions are summed up in this resolution: ‘‘Resolved, That this committee ap- prove and recommend, for adoption by the Commission, a plan for a sea-level canal, with a bottom width of 150 feet and a minimum depth of water of 35 feet, and with twin tidal locks at Mira- flores, whose usable dimensions shall be 1,000 feet long and too feet wide, at a total estimated cost of $230,500,000. Such estimate includes an allowance for administration, engineering, sanitation, and contingencies amounting to $38,- 450,000, but without allowance for in- terest during construction, expense of zone government and collateral costs, and water supply, sewers, or paving of Panama or Colon, which last items are to be repaid by the inhabitants of those Citless The committee estimates that a sea- level canal can be completed within from ten to twelve years from the pres- ent time. The committee decided that under no THe PANAMA CANAL circumstances should the surface of the canal be more than 60 feet above the sea, and estimates that at this level the cost would be $178,013,406. A 30-foot level is estimated to cost $194,213,406. It is recommended that the Chagres River be controlled by adam at Gamboa, built to a crest height of 200 feet, and the waters of the lake thus created dis- posed of through tunnels. The work on the foundation of the dam will re- quire from one to one and a half years, and the committee reports should begin at once. The dam at this place, it is stated, involves no formidable obstacles, which is not the case at the Bohio loca- tion. The construction of adam at Gamboa in this connection would also control the Chagres River, except that it would be necessary to provide a safety spillway by the construction of a tunnel some eight miles in length through the divide, discharging the surplus waters of the Chagres into the headwaters of the Juan Diaz, or the alternative plan of construct- ing a tunnel four miles long through the divide separating the Chagres Basin from the headwaters of the Gatuncillo, a stream which enters into the Chagres Valley at Gatun. Should this latter course be adopted, it would be necessary to construct an auxiliary channel for the Chagres from Gatun to the sea in order to divert its flood waters into the bay eastward of Colon. The dam would also provide the water supply for the entire line of the canal, including the cities of Panama and Colon. It would also provide a plant for the generation of electric power sufficient to furnish ample power for the operation of the Panama Railroad and for the operation of any machinery that might be used in the construction of the canal. It would require two years to construct thisdam, and, roughly estimated, its cost, including spillways, would be between $15,000,000 and $16,- 000,000, not including the power plant. Actual work in the Culebra Cut has 463 demonstrated that the entire excava- tion can be done at a saving of $15,- 000,000 over former estimates, and is given as a justification for the recom- mendation for a sea-level canal. Immediate work is recommended at Colon in constructing a safe harbor. To this end, an outer breakwater is sug- gested, as well as the construction of an inner harbor at the entrance to the canal. It is recommended that bids be invited for this work. Other minor features of canal con- struction recommended include com- pleting the Gatuncillo diversion chan- nel, begun by the old canal company to divert from the canal the Gatuncillo and Mindi rivers and other smaller streams. Inconnection with this, three small dams must be built—two across the Chagres River near Mindi and one across the Boca Mindi. AIlof this work is independent of the decision as to a level for the canal, and its immediate execution is recommended. Other sub- sidiary features depend on the level determined on and are not discussed. The committee makes these observa- tions in summing up: ‘‘ The practicability of certainly and satisfactorily controlJing the floods of the Chagres by so simple and econom- ical a method as the Gamboa Lake and its outflow channels, and the reduced cost of excavation as actually demon- strated by the work of the Commission in the Culebra Cut, makes the construc- tion of a sea-level canal at a reasonable cost far more available than has hereto- fore appeared possible. These recent developments in the conditions attend- ing the construction of the canal are so important as to be almost controlling in character. The remaining element is that of the time required to make the great summit excavation. ‘It is to be carefully observed that the results thus far obtained in the Culebra Cut have been reached under disadvantageous conditions of both or- ganization of plant and force. ‘The 464 railroad tracks serving the excavators are yet fragmentary and tentatively placed to serve the purposes of investi- gation. In both respects the disposi- tion of plant is far more unfavorable, both to economy and celerity of oper- ations, than will be the case when a complete track system has been ar- ranged and laid down to serve a large number of steam shovels operated by an experienced force. ‘‘In the face of these disadvanta- geous conditions the cost of excavation has been reduced far lower than was anticipated, and it has been demon- strated that each steam shovel may be counted upon to yield an average record of at least 1,000 cubic yards per work- ing day. The chief engineer estimates that with roo steam shovels installed, with a complete system of tracks serv- ing them, a yearly record of 30,000,000 cubic yards of excavation may be reached without requiring a greater output per shovel or greater speed in working than has already been attained. The rate of working could probably be reached within two years from the pres- ent time. ‘‘With the rate of progress which now appears reasonable to anticipate, this committee believes that a sea-level canal, with a tidal lock 1,000 feet long and 100 feet usable width at Miraflores, can be completed within ten to twelve years from this time, the bottom width of the canal being 150 feet and the mini- mum depth of water 35 feet. ‘“These considerations have induced this committee to express to the Com- mission its unanimous judgment that with the contemplated system of work- ing and with the rate of development which appears to be justified by the work now being performed at Culebra, a sea-level canal, free from the restric- tion of locks, should be adopted. This committee believes that such a canal, with terminal harbors, can be con- structed for a sum mot exceeding $230, 500,000. THe Nationa, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE ADVANTAGES OF A SKA-LEVEL CANAL ‘‘'The advantages of a sea-level canal across the Isthmus are most obvious. It would be a waterway with no re- strictiou to navigation, and which could easily be enlarged by widening or deep- ening at any time in the future to ac- commodate an increased traffic without any inconvenience to the shipping using it, whereas a lock canal is in reality a permanent restriction to the volume of trafic and size of ships that useit. Al- though it is possible to design and con- struct locks adapted to the future trans- formation to a sea-level canal, that transformation cannot be made without serious inconvenience to navigation and at a cost so great as to be excessive. ‘“The additional cost of a sea-level canal over that of a canal with locks, with a summit level of 60 feet above mean tide, is $52,462,000, or $79,742,000 more than the estimated cost of the lock canal, with a summit level 85 feet above mean tide, proposed by the former Isthmian Canal Commission, after al- lowing $6,500,000 for the Colon break- water and direct entrance not previously estimated. This committee considered this additional expenditure fully justi- fied by the advantages secured.”’ From this latest report from the canal zone it would seem that there is a pos- sibility of the Commission going back to the first plan of the old Panama Canal Company, and this seems to me, and indeed it has always seemed to me, to be a most desirable outcome of the vast amount of work, thought, and intelli- gence that has been given the matter. The sea-level canal will surely cost more than if it be constructed on the lock system, but it is more than prob- able that enough will be saved for main- tenance during, say, a fifty-years’ serv- ice of the canal to pay for the increased cost, and the saving to the 10,000,000 tons of shipping which it is expected will use this great highway of commerce in demurrage will more than compen- 46 5 PANAMA CANAL THE AIOA MON ¢ pooMisapuy pue AYD eweueg jo 1oqiey poomispuy ‘yystAdopg dU} Ul Joye IoOj ssigq Surpur’y SEE THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 466 myey 0} ‘emvueg jo Wodx’q Jord oy} ‘seueueg Sursurig ‘1aary soi8eyd oy} UO ,,siNO-8Nq ,, UeIpUy YIOA MON ‘poomiospun pue pooMispuy ‘jWSs11AdoD Sg ProGRESs OF THE PANAMA CANAL sate the people of the United States for the outlay. As was expected when de Lesseps began his work, wonderful strides have been made in the science of engineering during the last quarter of a century. We can never say that the ideal has been accomplished, but we may state 467 that the science of engineering has reached such a state within the past few years that with the intelligent man- agement which is now being given to the canal problem a new standard in engineering will be set for the peoples of the whole world by American pluck, perseverance, and skill. PROGRESS ON THE PANAMA CANAL HE map of the region of the Panama Canal, which is pub- lished as a supplement to this number,* shows the plan submitted to Congress by the Isthmian Canal Com- mission of 1899-1901. It is the only plan on which the Canal Commission has as yet any authority to spend money, and is described by Admiral Chester in his address to the National * Through the courtesy of Hon. Theodore P. Shonts, President Isthmian Canal Commis- sion. Geographic Society, published in this number, pages 455-456. The plan will undoubtedly be very largely modified in the near future, but the map will, we hope, serve asa guide to the members of the National Geographic Society in the discussion and changes of the com- ing months. ‘The most striking feature of the plan here presented is the great lake (shown in light green on the map). The lake covers an area of nearly 40 square miles, and would be artificially formed by the construction of the giant 2 c= VO ni oo ' le Ke Diagram showing Yearly Amount of Rainfall in Inches on the Panama Isthmus 468 dam at Bohio; but the trouble with this project is that it entrusts too much to the Bohio dam. If the dam gave way, 10 miles of the waterway would disap- pear and the canal would be put out of business for years. The investigations of the American engineers during the past two years have brought to light a number of new and important facts which promise to sim- plify the two principal engineering prob- lems connected withthe canal: (1) The control of the torrential floods from the River Chagres and (2) the Culebra Cut. These results are described by Admiral Chester on pages 462-463. The discov- ery that it will be necessary to go down 170 feet below sea level instead of 128 feet in order to reach bed rock at Bohio makes the plan of the dam at Bohio al- most impracticable. Our American en- gineers have, however, found a better site for a dam at Gamboa, and it is now proposed to construct the dam to control the Chagres floods at this point. The lake thus created would cover about 10 square miles and would be entirely out of the canal. The building of the dam at Gamboa will not only furnish complete and ef- fective means of control for the Chagres floods, but it has the further advantage of being entirely accessible by the Pan- ama Railroad for the transportation of men and materials. The plan of the dam will probably require a masonry core, with a great mass of earth and rock fill on either side of it, from the waste excavation of the summit cut. The conditions attending the con- struction of this dam are in no way un- precedented. The depth of bed rock below water surface is only about one- third that at Bohio and no greater than has already been reached by the use of heavy timber sheet piling for founding masonry structures in the United States. The proposed height of thisdam from its foundation to its top is far less than found in a number of masonry dams al- THe NaTIoNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ready built, and the making of the earth embankments on the two sides of the masonry core is simply wasting the ma- terial from the summit cut.. The con- struction of the Gamboa dam, therefore, involves no formidable obstacles not heretofore successfully encountered in engineering practice. Experiments made with American steam shovels show that the Culebra Cut can be made in about one-half the time and at about two-thirds the ex- pense formerly estimated. The length of time originally believed necessary to cut Culebra Hill down to sea-level was the reason that the First Isthmian Canal Company recommended a canal with locks. In view of the diminished ex- pense and the great reduction in the estimate of time required for Culebra Cut, general sentiment seems to be that we should construct a sea-level canal and nothing else. But no plan has as yet been definitely adopted. WHAT PLAN WILL BE ULTIMATELY ADOPTED IS UNDECIDED ‘“T haven’t as yet the slightest idea what plan the advisory board will recom- mend for the Panama Canal, and I am certain that not a member of the board has.’’ These were the parting words of a prominent member of the Inter- national Consulting Board of Engineers on the Panama Canal as he stepped on board the steamer which carried the con- sulting engineers to Panama in Septem- ber, 1905. The board had been in ses- sion for several weeks in Washington. It had listened to the various plans sub- mitted by Messrs Bunau-Varilla, Bates, and others, and had digested the results of the past two years’ surveys and inves- tigations on the Isthmus by the Walker and Shonts Commissions. But no vote had been taken, nor is any definite de- cision to be sought until the board has been carefully over the ground together. Not a single member of the board is new at the Panama problem ; every engineer ProGREss OF THE PANAMA CANAL has, in some capacity, been associated with it from 5 to 25 years and knows the tremendous difficulties to be over- come. ‘Their decision will be submitted to the Isthmian Canal Commission which may accept it or not as they deem best. The Isthmian Canal Commission recom- mend to Congress, which alone has the power to determine the plan. MR BUNAU-VARILLA’S SCHEME Next to the sea-level canal, the most interesting project is that proposed by Mr Bunau-Varilla. Mr Varilla asserts that it will take the United States many years to construct a sea-level canal, owing to the great difficulty we shall have in securing sufficient laborers. He advocates a plan of his own invention, which he says can becompleted in four and one-half years. be large enough to handle double the amount of traffic which statisticians have calculated will use the canal dur- ing the next generation, and can grad- ually be converted into a sea-level canal without interruption of traffic. Mr Bunau-Varilla’s preliminary canal is not unlike that recommended by the first Isthmian Commission, and shown on our supplement. ‘The most interesting feature of the scheme is a dam at Bohio, built entirely of mud and without any artificial core, and of nearly twenty-five times the width of the dam proposed by the Isthmian Commission. The dam would be formed of sandy clay, which is to be sucked up by dredges from the Chagres Valley,and then forced through pipes and deposited in the required po- sition and allowed gradually to harden. The mud, Mr Varillasays, would harden in the manner of cement, and in this way the dam could be constructed at very small expense. The amount of water that would filter through the ground below the dam would be insignificant. The dam would form a lake, similar in position to the lake shown on the map and extending The canal would, 469 to the vicinity of Gamboa. At Gamboa another dam built of concrete and steel and strengthened by embankments of earth would form a second lake outside the canal line. Mr Bunau-Varilla pro- poses two locks at Bohio, ascending to Lake Bohio, and two more locks near Obispo for the ascent to the summit level, which extends from Obispo through Culebra Cut. As the summit level is 130 feet above the sea, the amount of excavation in the Culebra Hill is comparatively small. There are four locks on the Pacific end, making eight in all for the canal. A CONVERTIBLE CANAL This serviceable lock canal, which is to be put into commission four and one- half years from the day of commence- ment, Mr Bunau-Varilla proposes to lower to sea level entirely by dredging. Lake Gamboa is to furnish the electric power to drive the dredges, while into it is to be dumped all the excavated rock and mud. ‘The flow of excavated rock and ground into Lake Gamboa will go on, says the designer, at the rate of 4,000 cubic yards an hour, or 90,000 cubic yards a day, with a very ample margin of safety for accidents. Lake Gamboa, owing to its enormous dimen- sions, may absorb many times the total cube to be excavated from the canal. A LYABOR-SAVING DEVICE The following paragraphs are quoted from Mr Bunau-Varilla : ‘In all countries of the world dredg- ing is incomparably superior to dry excavation when the ground necessi- tates no mining. On the Isthmus of Panama this advantage is transformed into an enormous superiority. If there is an instrument of work which coun- terbalances as much as it is physically possible all the evil influences of the Isthmus, it is the dredge. It counter- balances them because, first, it is the only excavating instrument where the 470 white man can work without expense of physical energy, where he can work seated, so to speak, protected from the sun, protected from the rain; second, because it is the only instrument where the colored man remains under imme- diate supervision, where he is attached to tasks always the same and under the eye of the overseer ; third, because it is the instrument least liable to suffer from an error or an accident. If alittle slide comes it withdraws and is not buried, as an excavator or asteam shovel. If the attack of the ground is too hard, it simply stops instead of risking to lose its equilibrium ; it does.not derail,’’ &c. DREDGING WAS PREFERRED TO OPEN AIR ROCK EXCAVATION DURING THE OLD PANAMA COMPANY WORK, WITH MUCH LESS POWERFUL DREDGES THAN ARE NOW USED ‘“‘Anybody who has worked on the Isthmus with the two systems cannot but be struck with the enormous supe- riority of thedredge. Itisso apparent, so obvious, that I did not hesitate at Culebra, as soon as the conditions be- came compatible with a dredging plant, to endeavor to substitute the work of the dredge to that of dry digging, and this in a hard clay that necessitated the employment of explosives for the work of excavating machines. ‘‘Unfortunately, the plant was just in action when the collapse of the old company came; but however small has been its period of activity, perhaps a couple of months, the result completely confirmed my expectations and filled my hopes. Unfortunately for the canal, the inevitable and blind reaction which followed such a disaster as that of the Panama enterprise put into suspicion the clearest results obtained. I con- sider that it has been, among others, one of the most fatal mistakes of the New Panama Canal Company not to continue in the same line of effort. ‘‘ What they have done in the Culebra Cut would have been infinitely cheaper THe NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and quicker done if they had followed my last plans and not simply continued dry excavations, which I had put in action for a much longer period than the wet process. ‘“Since that time no more dredging has been done on the Isthmus, and there- fore the truth has not been able to be again found and recognized. ‘‘Tt can be stated with certainty from practical experience, such as the records. of the Suez Canal may show, that under the very propitious conditions in which the excavation will be made on the Isthmus, without currents or without. variation of water level, it can be made at a cost less than $1 per cubic yard, including repairs and depreciation of machinery. It can be equally stated from the same Suez Canal records that _their rock may beextracted anddumped, including repairs and amortization of machinery, at a cost not reaching 75. cents a cubic yard. - As for the hard clay, even with the light blasting it re- quires, the price ought to be kept be- low 30 cents a cubic yard with ordi-_ nary dredging and much reduced with electrical appliances, even including 12 cents for the amortization of the locks. ascending to Lake Gamboa, ‘The ex- cavation of hard clay may be brought still lower with the new dredging ap- paratus resulting from the combination. of cutters and suction pumps, but this. is an eventuality of the future, and, though already resting on large experi- ments in Canada, it is not sufficiently proved adaptable to the isthmian ground to base reasonable and conservative esti- mates on, such as I give today. “T have prepared the way for the em- ployment of electricity in the working: of the dredges, and I had built in Hol- land by Smulders an _ electric-driven. dredge in 1895, according to special. plans which I drew, and which was, so: far as I know, the first electric dredge ever employed in public works. The results I obtained on the River Elsa, in. PROGRESS OF THE PANAMA GANAL Spain, have been eminently satisfactory, and convinced me that thereby the dredge could acquire new qualities, reducing the expenses and the risk of accidents by unforeseen obstacles met under water.’’ ASTONISHING DECREASE OF THE PRICE OF EXCAVATION AND OF TRANSPORTATION ‘‘Such a distribution of power under electrical form will practically leave on board the dredge but an insignificant number of men, and one may readily understand the extraordinary economy of such a system of excavation, produc- ing 6,500 cubic yards in twenty-four hours with three shifts of 15 men, say with 45 men a day, even admitting the | average abnormal price of $3 per man. The price of excavation proper will be reduced to $135 for 6,500 cubic yards, or about two cents acubic yard, for the labor. ‘This will be associated with a very reduced amount of expense for the repair of machinery, owing to the em- ployment of electricity, and with no ex- pense to speak of for the generation of power, which will be given by the fall of Gamboa Lake. ‘The transportation would also be realized at a cost of perhaps one cent a cubic yard. ‘“The scows would have electric- driven screws and would take their power from a trolley line along the summit level and on the lake. One line would be for scows going to the dump and the other for scows return- ing. Assistance of tugs would only be required near the dredges, near the locks, and near the dumping places. ‘‘T firmly believe that such a plant would reduce the price of excavation to a level difficult to believe. ‘‘FRrom every point of view, one must consider that the substitution of wet for dry excavation, if so understood, will create a veritable revolution in the prices and in the output of the work, owing 471 to the great economy, efficiency, sim- plicity, and limitation of labor thus realized.’’ Mr Bunau-Varilla proposes that the sea-level canal when completed shall be 600 feet wide at the surface and 500 feet wide at the bottom and have a minimum depth of 45 feet at- low tide. This would mean a canal three times wider and 10 feet deeper than the sea-level canal described on pages 462-464. He makes the further astounding claim that _ this immense sea-level canal by the pro- cess of dredging can be built in the same time required for the small sea-level canal (twenty-five years) if the latter is excavated by the dry process, and that the former will cost $300,000,000 as against $230,000,000 for the latter. THE LABOR PROBLEM The Isthmian Commission have now from 11,000 to 12,000 men at work, and of these 1,500 are Americans; 2,000 of the men are employed by the sani- tary department, while the others are engaged in constructing sewerage and water systems, in building and repair- ing houses, in constructing tracks fo cars, and in getting everything ready for active digging of the canal. From 500 to 1,000 men are landing at the Isthmus each month seeking employ- ment. They come fromthe West Indies principally, and a good number from Colombia. Of the labor problem, Secretary of War Taft says in a recent report: ‘“The French Panama Company did much of its work with Jamaica negroes, and a large part of the 3,000 employés now engaged by the Commission is com- posed of Jamaicans; but it will not be easy to secure all the Jamaican laborers that will be needed. The governor of Jamaica, Sir Alexander Swettenham, whom I visited at Kingston, was un- willing to consent to our taking 10,000 laborers from the island unless we de- posited five pounds sterling ($25) per 472 laborer with the island government to meet the burden which his leaving the island would probably throw on his par- ish under the poor law of the island for the support of those dependent on him. He also insisted that we should agree to pay the expenses of the return of each laborer, whether he was satisfactory or not and whether he abandoned the work in violation of his contract or not. It is probable, however, that Jamaica la- borers will come voluntarily in consid- erable numbers to the Isthmus, because there are two direct lines between King- ston and Colon, the fare is only $5 a person, and the wages paid in the canal zone are double those paid in Jamaica. Indeed, the governor informed me that about 6,000 Jamaicans were leaving the island annually to work in Panama and Central America. It is hoped that satis- factory labor may be obtained in Porto Rico.”’ The labor problem will probably be harder to solve than any of the engi- neering difficulties. THE STORMS AT COLON In view of Admiral Chester’s account of the destruction in Colon harbor caused by the terrible northers (p. 457), the following experience of the Isthmian Commission in January, 1905, is inter- esting: The norther began blowing soon after noon of January 26 with such force that three steamships in the harbor of Colon at that time were compelled to seek safety by putting to sea and remaining away for three days. The U.S. Ship Dixie was preparing to leave at about that time and was obliged to hasten her departure to escape the danger of the storm. Not a vessel of any description remained in the harbor except two schooners in the slips adjacent to the Panama Railroad station, which were tied by a number of cables at a sufficient distance from their piers to prevent dam- age from excessive pitching and rolling. Tue Nationa, GroGraPpHic MAGAZINE They could not get away, and were com- pelled to ride out in the gale in grave danger to themselves and to the neigh- boring piers. At the time of the committee’s visit storm waves of great magnitude and force were rolling directly into the har- bor, breaking over the entire water front of that part of Colon known as Aspin- wall and blocking the marginal streets with deluges of water and great quanti- ties of coral rock and other débris. The same effects were produced on Christobal Point, seriously injuring a number of houses and rendering them uninhabita- ble, as well as putting out of use the marginal street. The magnitude and violence of the wave action along the entire water front of Colon not only drove to sea every vessel that could get away, but it also endangered the piers or wharves, some of which have been heretofore seriously damaged in similar storms. Further than this, great incon- venience and some loss was caused, not only to the shipping interests affected, but also to the canal work in interrupt- ing the discharge of cargo urgently needed and in other ways injuring isthmian transportation. These storms ocur on the average but once or twice a year, and during some years they do not occur at all. For proba- bly not less than three hundred and sixty days in the year the harbor of Colon is free from any objection of this kind. If the construction of the canal were a purely commercial enterprise, the protection of an outer terminal harbor open to storms at rare intervals, as in this instance, would not be justi- fied. This project, however, is a great public work by the United States Gov- ernment, in which no feature contribut- ing effectively to either safety or eff- ciency should be omitted. Plans and specifications are being pre- pared for a breakwater extending across the mouth of Limon Bay approximately on the line drawn from the light on PROGRESS OF THE PANAMA CANAL Toro Point to the Colon light. This breakwater will probably be designed in two parts, each about 4,000 feet long, with an opening between them 700 to 800 feet wide for the entrance of ships. REMOVING SOURCES OF INIECTION One of the most interesting features of the work has been the blood exam- inations to determine the malarial index of infection of the native population. About 80 per cent of the natives, says Colonel Gorgas, at the present time have the malarial parasite in their blood. Four times out of five when a female Anopheles bites one of the natives she becomes infected, and when she, in turn, bites one of our nearby laborers he becomes infected. It is thus evident that our force will rapidly be used up, just as was the French, unless our sani- tary measures prevent it. There are two means of protection—quinine, which is harmless to man and fatal to the ma- larial parasite, and the destruction of the mosquito. The following description of the clean- ing of the town of Culebra is an in- stance of what is being done by our American sanitary corps throughout the canal zone: The brush in the vicinity of the town _ has been removed and the streets, which are badly paved, are being kept clean. All manner of water containers were found buried under the brush, removed, and by removing the same the breeding places of the s/egomyza were destroyed. The mosquito-proof water barrels have been regularly inspected and are in good condition. As a relatively large non- immune population live at Culebra, every effort is being made to stop the breeding of stegomyia in the vicinity. The garbage from each house is regu- larly removed, as well as the nightsoil from the pail closets that now exist. The surface drains are being kept in shape, and no mosquito larvee are visi- _ble therein. All hogs have been re- nel ee moved from the town and all horses and cows are kept tied to stakes to pre- vent the ruination of the existing sys- tem of drainage. THE MOSQUITO CAMPAIGN IN PANAMA CEE, Colonel W. C. Gorgas, Chiet Sanitary Officer of the Isthmus, in his official re- port for July, 1905, describes the cease- less fight waged by his corps against mosquitoes : ‘““The Administration Building in the city of Panama has been kept ‘stegomyia proof’ during July. No eggs of sfegomyia or other mosquitoes were found during the month, although all containers in this building, which is quite large, have been carefully and con- tinuously scrutinized daily. . This build- ing is being fumigated every two weeks. After the two fumigations in July the floors were carefully swept and no mos- quitoes were found, although the fumi- gations were strong enough to kill the flies which had entered the building. It takes a longer and strongerfumigation to kill flies than to destroy mosquitoes. There are about 400 employés, mostly non-immune Americans, in this build- ing, who are specially anxious not to contract yellow fever, and it is reported by them that no mosquitoes are present. The building is undoubtedly a safe place at present for non-immunes. ‘“'There is quite a noticeable decrease in the number of stegomyia present in Santa Ana Park since the same was trimmed out by this department in June. No cases of yellow fever or suspects were found in this vicinity during July, although it seemed to be a focus in pre- vious months. ‘* The house-to-house inspection force has been increased, and some sections of the town are inspected every four days, and all houses and yards are in- spected at least every six days. ‘Whenever the inspector finds a water deposit containing mosquito larvee the same isemptied out. Every 47 4 room of each house is carefully in- spected for mosquito larve in water- containers placed therein. The work of the inspectors is also sufficiently checked, so that we know that the work is being properly and thoroughly done. ‘‘ During July, 1905, 5,189 house and yard inspections were made, and the mosquito larve (mostly in the early stages of development) were found in 579 of the houses inspected. By means of this continuous inspection at short intervals the mosquito larve are de- stroyed before they reach the pupal stage. ‘<’The streets all over the city are being constantly torn up for the installa- tion of the water and sewer systems. The rainy season is at hand, and so we have a collection of pools and water holes all over the city. A brigade of oilers is at work and these water sur- faces are being kept covered with oil. The house-to-house inspection, com- bined with the work of the oil brigade, is giving good results.’’ SPLENDID RESULTS OF VIGILANCE A comparison between the conditions that obtained during the first year of canal work under French administration and present conditions shows how suc- cessfully the United States is solving the question of sanitation. In 1881 the French reported an average force of 1928 men on the Isthmus, with a death rate of 66.8 per thousand, while in the Ancon hospital alone the deaths from yellow fever reached the proportion of 23.7 per thousand. In reassuring contrast to that record, the death rate on the canal zone among the 10,000 employés May, June, July (1905), was but 2.6 per thousand. This would make an annual mortality of about 10 per thousand. Of 12,000 men at work during August, 301 were constantly sick, or less than 25 per thou- sand. The number of cases of fever, most of which recovered, decreased from 72 in THe NaTIoNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. June to 28 in July, due to the scientific efforts of the sanitary officers in screen- ing, cleaning, draining, and taking all the other precautions that our Cuban victory over the fever has taught us to employ. It should be kept in mind that since De Lesseps’ time science has solved the problem of checking yellow fever. The United States, therefore, has over- ~ come what seemed to be to the French an unsurmountable obstacle. © PURE-WATER SYSTEM INAUGURATED The marked decrease in the number of cases in what may be considered one of the worst months of the year is also due, in part, to the new water supply for the city of Panama that was first turned into the mainson July 4. With half pressure on a 6-inch main, 12 streams of water were thrown higher than the Administration Building, and this pure water is now turned in on several mains through the center of the city. Faucets have been attached to the hydrants and the people are now pro- vided with free water. The advantages of this improvement can only be ap- preciated by those who are acquainted with the conditions that formerly ob- tained and can scarcely be overestimated. There was a celebration on the Fourth, and of course a game of baseball. The water supply for Colon and the sewer- ° age systems of Panama City and Colon are rapidly nearing completion. ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE COMFORT OF THE EMPLOYES Another important change that will add to the health of the Isthmus is now well under way, and that is the establish- ment of comfortable quarters along the entire line of the canal, and by the end of the present month every non-immune employé can be comfortably lodged out- side of Panama and Colon, which appear to be the only two foci of the diminish- ing fever on the Isthmus. Plans are also under consideration Tue Great Canats oF THE WorLp looking into the establishment of a re- frigerating system, so that meat, vege- tables, eggs, butter, poultry, and other foodstuffs can be brought from cold storage in the United States, transported in cold storage by vessels to the Isth- mus, and then distributed by refrigerat- ing cars to the ice-boxes of the hotels and boarding-houses along the line of the canal, With the installation of this service the personnel of the canal will be properly housed, will have pure water, will be well fed, and the question of proper sanitation will be solved. _. The most efficient scientists and engi- neers are thoroughly convinced that eventually the Isthmus will be a pleasant and agreeable place of abode. They affirm that the fever is not indigenous to the Isthmus. The nights are cool and, with the exception of a short period in the middle of the day, the heat is not oppressive. Both Panama and Colon ar fs can be rendered as agreeable places of residence as Mobile or Pensacola. The Commission have about twelve American steam shovels at work ; others are arriving at the rate of about two a month. The Isthmian Commission found that their employés were not being properly fed ; local merchants lacked capacity or enterprise to provide for so many new- comers; prices for food had nearly doubled in the past two years, with the result that the employés had great dif- ficulty in securing sufficient food of the right quality. In view of this fact, the Commission have made arrangements with an American firm to supply the employés of the company with whole- some food at rates varying from about ¢10 to $30 a month. ‘The rations must reach a standard set by the Commission, which will inspect the food. Gest, (ee THE GREAT CANALS OF THE WORLD* HE Suez Canal is usually consid- ered the most important exam- ple of ship canals, though the number of vessels passing through it annually does not equal that passing through the canals connecting Lake Superior with the chain of Great Lakes at thesouth. In length, however, it ex- ceeds any of the other great ship canals, its total length being 90 miles, of which about two-thirds is through shallow lakes. The material excavated was usu- ally sand, though in some cases strata of solid rock from 2 to 3 feet in thickness were encountered. The total excavation was about 80,000,000 cubic yards under the original plan, which gave a depth of 25 feet. In 1895 the canal was so en- larged as to give a depth of 31 feet, a width at the bottom of 108 feet and at the surface of 420 feet. The orginal cost was $95,000,000, and for the canal in its present form slightly in excess of ¢100,000,000. The number of vessels passing through the canal in 1870 was 486, with a gross tonnage of 654,915 tons; in 1875, 1,494 vessels, gross ton- mage, 2,940,703 tons ~. in 1380, 2,026 vessels, gross tonnage, 4,344,519 tons; in 1890, 3,389 vessels, gross tonnage, 9,749,129 tons; in 1895, 3,434 vessels, gross tonnage, 11,833,637 tons; and in 1900, 3,441 vessels, with a gross tonnage of 13,699,237 tons. ‘The net profits of the canal for 1903 were 65,579,347 frances ($12,500,000) and the stockholders re- ceived dividends of 12 per cent. The canal is without locks, being at the sea level the entire distance. The length of time occupied in passing * The facts in this article are derived from an exceedingly instructive monograph published (1905) by the Bureau of Statistics of the Department of Commerce and Labor, entitled ‘‘ The Great Canals of the World,’’ by O. P. Austin. 476 through the canal averages about eight- een hours. By theuse of electric lights throughout the entire length of the canal, passages are made at night with nearly equal facility to that of the day. The tolls charged are g francs per ton net register, ‘‘ Danube measurement,’’ which amounts to slightly more than $2 per ton, United States net measurement. Steam vessels passing through the canal are propelled by their own power. THE CRONSTADT AND ST PETERS- BURG CANAL The canal connecting the Bay of Cron- stadt with St Petersburg is described as a work of great strategic and commercial importance to Russia. The canal and sailing course in the Bay of Cronstadt are about 16 miles long, the canal proper being about 6 miles and the bay channel about 10 miles, and they together extend from Cronstadt, onthe Gulf of Finland, toSt Petersburg. ‘The canal was opened in 1890 with a navigable depth of 20% feet, the original depth having been about 9 feet; the width ranges from 220 to 350 feet. The total cost is estimated at about $10,000,000. THE CORINTH CANAL The next of the great ship canals con- necting bodies of salt water in the order of date of construction is the Corinth Canal, which connects the Gulf of Cor- inth with the Gulf of Atgina. The canal reduces the distance from Adriatic ports about 175 miles and from Mediter- ranean ports about roo miles. Its length is about 4 miles, a part of which was cut through granitic soft rock and the remainder through soil. There are no locks, as is also the case in both the Suez and Cronstadt Canals, already described. The width of the canal is 72 feet at bot- tom and the depth 26% feet. The work was begun in 1884 and completed in 1893, at a cost of about $5,000,000. The average tolls are 18 cents per ton and 20 cents per passenger. THe NatTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL The Manchester Ship Canal, which connects Manchester, England, with the Mersey River, Liverpool, and the At- lantic Ocean, was opened for traffic Jan- uary I, 1894. The length of the canal is 35% miles, the total rise from the water level to Manchester being 60 feet, which is divided between four sets of locks, giving an average to each of 15 feet. The minimum width is 120 feet at the bottom and averages 175 feet at the water level, though in places the width is extended to 230 feet. ‘The minimum depth is 26 feet, and the time required for navigating the canal from five to eight hours. The total amount of excavation in the canal and docks was about 45,000,000 cubic yards, of which about one-fourth was sandstone rock. ‘The lock gates are-operated by hydraulic power ; railways and bridges crossing the route of the canal have been raised to give a height of 75 feet to vessels traversing the canal, and an ordinary canal whose route it crosses is carried across by a springing aqueduct composed of an iron caisson resting upon a pivot pier. The total cost of the canal is given at $75,000,000. The revenue in 1901, according to the States- man’s Yearbook, was £621,128, and the working expenses, £483,267. For the year ending June 30, 1903, the canal yielded £55,105 ($275,525) toward pay- ing the £225,000($1,125,000 )of interest which the city of Manchester has to pay on the capital invested in the enter- prise. ‘The freight-paying tolls on the canal are increasing each year. THE KAISER WILHELM CANAL Two canals connect the Baltic and North seas through Germany—the first, known as the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal, having been completed in 1895 and con- structed largely for military and naval purposes, but proving also of great value to general mercantile traffic. Work upon the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal was Tue Great Canals oF THE WorLp begun in 1887 and completed, as above indicated, in 1895. The length of the canal is 61 miles, the terminus in the Baltic Sea being at the harbor of Kiel. The depth is 29% feet, the width at the bottom 72 feet, and the minimum width at the surface 190 feet. The route lies chiefly through marshes and_ shallow lakes and along river valleys. The total excavation amounted to about 100,000,- 000 cubic yards, and the cost to about $40,000,000. The number of vessels passing through the canal in 1904 was 32,038, with a tonnage of 4,990,287, and the dues collected amounted to about $580,000. SHIP CANALS CONNECTING THE GREAT LAKES OF NORTH AMERICA Three ship canals intended to give continuous passage to vessels from the head of Lake Superior to Lake Ontario and the St Lawrence River are the Wel- land Canal, originally constructed in 1833 and enlarged in 1871 and 1900; the St Marys Falls Canal at Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., opened in 1855 and en- larged in 1881 and 1896, and the Cana- dian Canal at St Marys River, opened in 1895. In point of importance, measured at least by their present use, the canals at the St Marys River by far surpass that of the Welland Canal, the number of ves- sels passing through the canals at the St Marys River being eight times as great as the number passing through the Wel- land, and the tonnage of the former nearly forty times as great as that of the latter. One of the important products of the Lake Superior region, iron ore, 1s chiefly used in the section contiguous to Lake Erie, and a large proportion of the grain coming from Lake Superior passes from Buffalo to the Atlantic coast by way of the Erie Canal and railroads centering at Buffalo. The most important article in the westward shipments through the Sault Ste. Marie canals, coal, originates in the territory contiguous to Lake Erie. These conditions largely account for the aPler fact that the number and tonnage of vessels passing the St Marys River ca- nals so greatly exceed those of the Wel- land Canal. The Welland Canal.—The Welland Canal connects Lake Ontario and Lake Erie on the Canadian side of the river. It was constructed in 1833 and enlarged in 1871 and again in tgoo. ‘The length of the canal is 27 miles, the number of locks 25, the total rise of lockage 327 feet,and the total cost about $25,000,000. The annual collection of tolls on freight, passengers, and vessels averages about $225,000 and the canal is open on an average about two hundred and forty days in a year. The Sault Ste. Marie Canals.—The canals of Sault Ste. Marie, Mich., and Ontario are located adjacent to the falls of the St Marys River, which connect Lake Superior with Lake Huron and lower or raise vessels from one level to the other a height of 17 to 20 feet. The canal belonging tothe United States was begun in 1853 by the state of Michigan and opened in 1855, the length of the canal being 5,674 feet, and provided with two tandem locks, each being 350 feet in length and 70 feet wide and al- lowing passage of vessels drawing 12 feet, the original cost being $1,000,000. The United States government, by con- sent of the state, began in 1870 to en- large the canal, and by 1881 had in- creased its length to 1.6 miles, its width to an average of 160 feet, and its depth to 16 feet; also had built a single lock 515 feet long and 80 feet wide, with a depth of 17 feet on the sills, which was located 100 feet south of the state locks. The state relinquished all control of the canal in March, 1882. In 1887 the state locks were torn down and replaced by a single lock 800 feet long, 100 feet wide, and a depth of 22 feet of water on the sills. This lock was put in commission in 1896. Thecanal was also deepened to 25 feet. The Canadian Canal, 1% miles long, 150 feet wide, and 22 feet deep, 478 with lock goo feet long, 60 feet wide, with 22 feet on the miter sills, was built on the north side of the river during the years 1888 to 1895. The number of vessels passing through the United States canal in 1902 was 17,588, and through the Canadian canal 4,204. In 1900 the number of vessels passing through the United States canal was 16,144, and through the Canadian canal 3,003, showing an increase of 1,200 in the number of vessels passing through the Canadian canal, and a sight decrease in the number through the United States canal, the increase in the number passing through the Cana- dian canal having been due to the devel- opment of the Michipicoten district. The tonnage passing through the United States canal in 1902 was: Registered tonnage, 27,408,021 tons; in IgOI, 22,- 222,334 tons, against 20,136,782 in the year 1900; the freight tonnage in 1901 was 25,026,522 tons, against 23,251,539 tons in 1900. The Canadian Canal shows: Registered tonnage in 1902, A547, 501% “1 *19@1, » 2-4045042 satons, against 2,160,490 in 1900. A marked contrast between the business of the St Marys Falls and Welland canals is found in a comparison of their figures for a term of years. The number of vessels passing through the Welland Canal in 1873 was 6,425, and in 1899, 2,202, a reduction of more than one-half in the number of vessels. The number of ves- sels passing through the St Marys Falls Canal in 1873 was 2,517, and in 1902, through the American and Canadian canals, 22,659. THE CHICAGO SANITARY SAND? SHIP ko te ‘CANAL The Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal connects Lake Michigan at Chicago with the Illinois River at Lockport, a distance of 34 miles. The canal was cut for the purpose of giving to the city of Chicago proper drainage facilities by reversing the movement of water, which formerly THe NatrionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE flowed into Lake Michigan through the Chicago River, and turning a current from Lake Michigan through the Chi- cago River to the Illinois River at Lock- port, and thence down the Illinois River to the Mississippi. The minimum depth of the canal is.22 feet, its width at the bottom 160 feet, and the width at the top from 162 to 290 feet, according to the class of material through which it iscut. The work was begun September 3, 1892, and completed and the water turned into the channel January 2, 1900. The flow of water from Lake Michigan toward the Gulf is now at the rate of 360,000 cubic feet per minute, and the channel is estimated to be capable of carrying nearly twice that amount. The total excavation in its construction in- cluded 28,500,000 cubic yards of glacial drift and 12,910,000 cubic yards of solid rock, an aggregate of 41,410,000 cubic yards. Inaddition to this, the construc- tion of a new channel for the Desplaines River became necessary in order to per- mit the canal to follow the bed of that river, and the material excavated in that work amounted to 2,068,659 cubic yards, making a grand total displacement in the work of 43,478,659 cubic yards of ma- terial, which, according to a statement issued by the trustees of the sanitary district of Chicago, would, if deposited in Lake Michigan in 4o feet of water, form an island one mile square with its surface 12 feet above the water line. | All bridges along the canal are mova- ble structures. The total cost of con- struction, including interest account, aggregated $34,000,000, of which $21,- 379,675 was for excavation and about $3,000,000 for rights of way and $4,000,000 for building railroad and highway bridges over the canal. The city and state authorities, by whom the canal was constructed, are now propos- ing to Congress to make this canal 'a commercial highway in case Congress will increase the depth of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers to a depth of 14 ne ae THe «PEACE OF feet, with locks for fleets of barges from Lockport, the terminus of the drainage canal, to St Louis. This, it is argued, would give through water transportation from Lake Michigan to the Gulf by way of the drainage canal, the Illinois River, and the Mississippi River, and would enable the United States, in case of war, to quickly transport light-draft war ves- sels from the Gulf to the Lakes. This work of deepening the Illinois River would also give through water connec- tion from Rock Island, on the upper Mississippi River, to Lake Michigan via the Illinois and Mississippi Canal, else- where described, which extends from Rock Island, on the Mississippi River, to Hennepin, onthe Illinois River. The estimate of the Chicago sanitary district trustees of the cost of deepening the Illinois and Mississippi rivers from the terminus of the ship canal to St Louis to a-depth of 14 feet is $25,000,000, including five locks and dams. THE PEACE OF LATIN AMERICA * EARLY three-fifths of the 15,- 000,000 square miles of the Western Hemisphere is covered by the twenty different nations which are broadly included in the term Latin America. All these nations are re- publics; in name at least. :. It may be a mere coincidence or it may be a fact of profound importance, that dur- ing the current year the entire area has been practically free from revolution. It is doubtful if the experience of the last eighty years can duplicate the pres- ent situation. We are inclined to regard this as something more than a coincidence. We believe it to be significant, a sign of political development and a proof of increasing stability. We do not at- tribute the condition to a fear of the ‘“big stick’’ or to an apprehension of any broadening of the ‘‘ corollary of the * From the New York Sun. ~ Monroe Doctrine.’’ LATIN AMERICA 479 It is more prob- able that it is due to two well-defined though little recognized influences. One of these is the force of example, notably that of Mexico. ‘The other is the extension of industry and commerce. There is in all these lands a growing recognition of the fact that revolutions are unprofitable. With the great mass of the people the idea is probably sub- conscious, but we believe it is there, and that it is busily working out a des- tiny of peace for our Latin American neighbors. A Colombian writer, Sefior Enrique Perez, recently made an admirable state- ment of the case for the Latin Ameri- cans. He says: ‘‘Tt should be borne in mind by those who are always ready to pass criticisms on South American affairs that not all nations have had at their disposal the means of improving their conditions which, by a chain of exceptionable cir- cumstances, it has been given to the United States to profit by. Civilization was not carried from Spain to South America, as to a certain extent it may be said that it was transferred from all European countries to the United States. ‘The South American countries did not have the same happy chances. The greed for gold and the race for El Do- rado were the main inducements of the Spaniards who, at the peril of their lives, crossed the ocean in unfit vessels in a mad pursuit after the gold and all other precious property of the Indians. The Spanish conquerors did not teach the natives, outside of religion, any of the practical methods of life, or rather those considered practical in those days. ‘““After the conquest was accomplished there came a period, covering three cen- turies, during which nothing was done by Spain to better the condition of those countries.’’ This is an interesting and a precise statement of the case. From California to the Southern Andes and from Carta- @ 480 gena to the Rio de la Plata, the country now known as Latin America was seized by men whose purpose was to find gold, or in other ways to acquire wealth quickly and easily. Simon Bolivar, about 1820, was perhaps the first man who really saw the matter in its broader light. The history of the federation which he established has been in gen- eral the history of theentire region. It was an effort to plant a new civilization among a people imperfectly prepared for it. To those who settled on the coast of what is now the United States the terms freedom and self-government had a defi- nite meaning. ‘The motives which led them to seek homes in the new world were widely different from those which impelled the gold-seekers and the con- quistadores who landed further south. Any similarity in the later political structures was impossible. Signs of development in the southern countries can be traced for somewhat more than fifty years. During the last twenty years the signs have become ever increasingly marked. Mexico, Chile, Peru, Brazil, and Argentina are no longer to be classed among the turbu- lent. An ambition for progress and polit- ical stability is noticeable in nearly all, if not in all, of the remaining peoples. The people of Cuba, of Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua resent the charge or the insinuation that they are hotbeds of revolution. They pride themselves on every added year of do- mestic peace. Colombia aspires to re- peat the experience of Mexico. Cipriano Castro, today almost unique, is a sur- vival of the despot who ruled the peon a century ago, and even in his case the type is essentially modified. It is perhaps too much to expect that this peace of months will expand itself into a peace of years; but the situation is noteworthy, and we believe it to be deeply significant. Ture NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE FORESTRY IN CALIFORNIA ALIFORNIA has over 28,000,000 acres, or over one-fifth of its total area, under forest cover. Much of this land is finely timbered, and, with forest management, will be increas- ingly valuable for the wood which it can supply. But in California the for- ests have another use, which, as is well understood in that state, is even more important than the production of tim- ber—to conserve the water supply. The wonderful agricultural develop- ment which irrigation has made possi- ble is perhaps the largest fact in Cali- fornia’s recent economical history. Be- cause of the need of water and the fear of floods, public sentiment in favor of forest protection in California has al- ways been well in advance of that in other states, as was conspicuously illus- trated after President Cleveland, in 1897, proclaimed the 13 Federal re- serves, created at the close of his ad- ministration. Everywhere else in the West the opposition aroused was so strong that the proclamation was soon afterward temporarily suspended ; but a special exception was made in the case of California, where public opinion was from the first strongly in favor of the reserves. Something less than one-third of the entire wooded area of the state is now embraced in the Federal forest reserves. That the remaining 20,000,000 acres of its forests may be made to serve the public interest in the fullest possible measure, the state has solicited and se- cured the cooperation of the Forest Service in working out a proper forest policy for it. But the subject of paramount impor- tance is the prevention and control of fires. A good opportunity for experi- ment along this line was afforded the service by codperation with the private owner of an 80,000-acre tract, who had previously introduced a crude fire-pro- tection system. A comprehensive plan CHINESE LaBor IN Mexico was outlined and its execution begun. There has not been time for a thorough trial, but its installation has had an ex- cellent effect. The patrolling of the ‘tract has been greatly improved, and the neighbors now voluntarily report all fires, whether on or off the tract. There has not been a serious fire on that tract this season. This splendid show- ing is an impressive object lesson. It proves the efficiency of intelligent care and of fighting fires at the start. The present fire laws of the state are incom- plete andinadequate. One result of the work of the Service will be the recom- mendation of a fire law which, if adopt- ed, will be the best ever passed by any state. The most encouraging fact in forest management is the growing determina- tion of large timberland owners to em- ploy private foresters to handle their holdings. This will ensure a method of lumbering less wasteful than that at present practiced, and, more important by far, it will be the means of better protecting the forests and making them yield a continuous crop. Such expert control will be especially valuable in solving the problem of the best way to get rid of the slash, which, until burned, is aconstant menace to the forests. Ex- tensive experiments in slash burning have already been carried on by the Service with satisfactory results. The study of chaparral has led to fruitful practical conclusions. It shows in California the same remarkable ability to encroach upon and spread over open country that it exhibits in Texas and elsewhere in the semi-arid portions of the southwest. It makes a satisfactory watershed cover and almost constantly replaces a forest destroyed by fire. Its composition varies with aspect and ele- vation and with damage by fire. ~ > 3{CHINESE LABOR FOR MEXICO NITED States Consul Anderson, of Amoy, China, reports that the owners of certain plantations in Mexico, 481 especially in Yucatan, seem to be making an effort to secure Chinese labor for their establishments. According to an adver- tisement in a native paper, the Japanese now have charge of the work of enlisting men in this proposed agricultural army. The advertisement, as translated, says, among other things : ‘‘About a year ago a certain agricul- tural concern in Mexico sent a special agent to Fuchau for the purpose of se- curing Chinese laborers, such laborers to take their families with them if nec- essary. They were to be shipped to Mexico to work on hemp plantations, but to do no other work. This enter- prise had the consent of the governor of Yucatan, Mexico, but owing to the igno- rance of Chinese law on the part of the agent, he undertook to issue an official proclamation himself, and consequently his mission was brought to a sudden end by the order of the Mexican consul. The agriculturists of Mexico need labor just as badly now as a year ago, and have applied to the Cho Kiu Kan, emi- gration agents of Japan, for assist- ance. Everything set forth in this notice is entitled toconfidence. In- cidentally, it may be added that the treaty concluded between China and Mexico provides for the free emigration of citizens of either country and for the mutual protection of such emigrants. Emigrants take no risk whatever. It is understood that the foreign office in Fuchau has issued a proclamation on the subject, publishing all treaties and regulations relating thereto.’’ The response to this proposition does not seem to have been as general from any part of this province as was hoped, but it is probable that it will be general enough to make up a fair-sized shipment of coolies to Mexican territory. Not less than 2,500,000 people from the Amoy district are abroad in such enter- prises. The number of Chinese emigrants leaving Amoy this year seems to be about the same as usual. Something FT 482 Tur Nationa GeocrapHic Macazint like 75,000 will go to Singapore and the Straits Settlements and between 5,000 and 6,000 to the Philippines. Ten thou- sand will probably go to Hongkong, Saigon, and other ports. The money sent home by these emigrants is by far the largest financial resource of the peo- ple of this district. POLAR EXPLORATION HE year 1905-1906 will be. the quietest, as far as polar work is concerned, known for some time. Only two expeditions, those of Commander Peary and the Amundsen Magnetic Ex- pedition, are now in the Arctics, none are in the Antarctics, and no others are planned against either Pole. The latest word from Commander Peary comes by Dr Frederick Sohon of Washington, D. C., who left Etah, Greenland, the last week in August. He reports that the Roosevelt, Peary’s ship, left Etah steaming north on Au- gust 20. Nothing but open water could then be seen toward the north, or when Dr Sohon left several days later. Ap- parently conditions were very favorable for Commander Peary and it is generally believed that he succeeded in taking his ship at least as far as the entrance of Kennedy Channel. ‘This point is con- siderably farther north than he has suc- ceeded in getting his supply ship before, which means that his base will be so much nearerthe Pole. The Roosevelt car- ried from Etah 68 Eskimo men, women, and children and 250 dogs. Commander Peary will distribute them in stations along the coast. THE POPULATION OF JAPAN CCORDING to the last official Jap- anese census, the population of Japan had grown from 41,388,313 in 1893 to 46,732,841 in 1903, an increase of 5,344,528 in ten years. ‘This is ex- clusive of Taiwan (Formosa), which in 1902 had a population of 3,000,111. In round figures the population of the Em- pireof Japan may be stated at 50,000,000. Except in the acquirement of Formosa in 1895, there has not been any sudden increase in Japan’s population, but a steady increase year after year, begin- ning with 423,902 in 1894 and closing (for this computation) with 710,332 in 1903, an average increase of 534,000 for each of the ten years. The 1903 population of Japan proper, namely, 46,732,841,consisted of 23,605,- 571 males and 23,131, 270females. This equality of the sexes is noticeable, espe- cially as it has continued through all of the ten years. The population of Taiwan(Formosa), 3,000,111, has grown at the rate of from 68,000 to 84,000 a year since 1898. In 1902 it consisted of 2,953,034 natives and 47,077 Japanese. in the island numbered 25,585. The number of deaths in Japan proper was 937,644 1n 1893 and 952,252 in 1903, the figures for each of the ten years being nearly the same. It was not so with the yearly births. They were 1,178,428 in 1893 and steadily increased each year, reaching 1,493,599 in 1903. Here we see the necessity for Japan’s. expansion into Korea: Japan’s area is. limited and only 12 per cent of it is ara- ble land; consequently providing for 534,000 increase in population each year was a most serious question. That point is settled now, and the Japanese are flocking into Korea. In the ten years the average marriages. per 1,000 of the population of Japan have been 8.71. Divorces averaged 9,400 a year, or 2.13 per I,000 mar- riages. ‘That is certainly a low divorce rate for an oriental country. In 1903 the ratio of urban population was 20 per cent, an increase of 7.5 per cent since 1896, and of suburban 80 per cent, a decrease of 7.5 per cent. In the seventeen years, 1886-1903, the: urban population increased by 4,448,656,. and the suburban by 3,215,494. Thus. Japan has the American problem to deal with—the overcrowding of people into the cities. WALTER J. BALLARD: In 1898 the Japanese | " 2 Wg See : : : oe 9.40 a. ; 9°20 79°30: fi | 9°10. . | NOTE. e S| Nig co} = i 5 @ GuRInibeEM eno sen cere Borie Onte OC ALS emetes 3 og § ¢ | Tha elevations of the origiual aurface are taken from the litho ge: Vertical Scale iss s § a fs | Geological profile, scale sekn,furnished by te New Panamd Canal Co. and pro: 2 = I a | pared from data of the Old Company. = g 8 al | x | ‘The elevalione of the present wurfice on the Atlantic Orran Level andin 3 @ & 3 8 | the Culebra Cut are fran Crone Sections anade by the Camminnion In < = g a 4 | Februavy, 1900, The additional excavation in the Culebra Cut, nut on cl & 3 a i) 1 the axia of tho Canal,ia shown by the broken line, qd ° 4 2 Zz 5 & s a} & The elevations of the proment surface of other parts of the Cann! Zz 5 5 Z = 5 & & & ° BS line are from a Profile, ucale vatws published by the New Panama Canal S 2 = & S 3) ns) 3 8 8 4 24 4 ; £ fal z S 5 LO Cain 1808 ae cue 3 B 3 og). A 2 |€ 8 & 8 28 z £2 g He mee Z E x a Sg on | iS g 2 § < 33 fa z eo OR er : a e cs ) oP a ae @ = Ef Ss cas mine 5 5 ol 5 & rs Ss g me & 2 2 ny RY 8 g £2 ¢ re! 8 a. DO < : Ey ES) Oe 2 ¢ ¢ ey ye e232 é é Ye 38 a & Fs 5 5 5 cs Ss £ § a § § § & S SoS RES Bb R 5 3 Ri ee ge q 8 g Ey & o ° o 5 € q Se Ses eS 3 3 a RP RP RP Re eS ees S B55 iy 8 2 3 gy F < oD 3 Be 16 S @ Boe s Sans. §6s§ § SS Sins: 3 Lee bet £ ma y is) 2 = 3 a gs g 2s g Se aes 3 ane yes 8 AS > |s @ 24 as 8 2 Areaed a os = Re & & e S PRES ET oa ; 2A is) a8 | % g a : High Hi a : $ : S ) ATLANTIC OCEAN 3 S 5 > Ss eam 2 he 2 Pe acd ae e = es g 5 S £ PACIFIC OCEAN = 8 Rk) fal S 5 cy © 4 ae s s 8 S & 8 é ge € < co = Mean Oceon bevel } Present . Original Heighte from | *urface nurface Miles a4 3 20 27 an 20 ao a a2 MAP SHOWING LOCATION OF PANAMA CANAL AS RECOMMENDED BY THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION OF 1899-1902. Ager, PEAS OmPAa St ‘ Regie Aasas lags Rogae 2.127 M._10208 0760 1.0234 0713 DOISG_DOsel ASE} 0.038 Nose NO0735, VYoaTs\ /0507 RB2020 500979 iray ABO AD: D.1 O88 hoes? Rosa nowsz A ous. Do. Dads? Hoeds ions 0163 10.732 (Aaa as was Note Haase? —\w..oad_7 A146) 2860 MILES. Riles 1.300 M. D.1,.087 : L Scale 106,006 Statute Miles ; 1% we vs 0 E = 4 ee eee 16 Leg Nautigal Miles fe oily — at Kilometers af ee —— 90.1 eet Rio we Ane ty — lary, CPrivta EID Sane Hirt i FS Fe IN RE Pal) Cho a jos pe peo cp ua pee “Ail Mit Monte Lirio SS is S 4 ren ohte Locks aiid Dain NOTES 49 Line of Canal Panama Railroad j Rancho C amachd Proposed diversion of Railroad \river diversion Altitudes and Soundings are referred to Mean Ocean Level Topography is taken from amap published by the New Panama Canal Co.in 1899; except the Chagres River above Santa Barbara,which was surveyed by the Commission. Soundings in Limon Bay were taken from Hydrographic Chart N? 1008 corrected to 1895. Soundings inPanama Bay were taken from a Ms. map furnished by the New Panama Canal Co. dated March 26,1900. if \ \ 80 00 West of Greenwich 9’00' ; 79°50 Puonewielcnavanicon Limocniencaniocentonnile ere 5 Fe a A - - : . ; : = 5 “ahr j Oliver B. Harden del. SUPPLEMENT TO THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, WASHINGTON, D. C., OCTOBER, 1905. ay ng PER / Gie NATIONAL | GEOGRAPHIC MAGA ZINE NOVEMBER, 1905 No. 11 CONTENTS PAGE Geography. By the late Sir William Wharton, formerly Hydrographer of the British Admiralty : ? : . 483 The Birthplace of Civilization. Illustrated : ; . 499 The Proportion of Children in the United States. Illustrated ° 504 The Returns from Alaska. Illustrated . : : : a oo We Occupy the Best Position on the Map . : : : . 534 Forests Vital to Our Welfare . ; : Bare) Cotton and the Chinese Boycott : : t , ; . 516 Immigration to the Southern States f : ? ait) 7 Gannett’s “Commercial Geography.” Ilusteated : ‘ i 520 Alleyne Ireland’s “The Far Eastern Tropics” . ; : i B25 National Geographic Society . : : y E : BS RUES 4 Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year t 25 Cents a Number _ Entered at the Post-Office in Washington, D. C., as Second-Ciass Mail Matter _ NATIONAL | GEOGRAIPIENC wee. : | _ MAGAZINE - GrocrapHic MAGAZINE. N ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published by the Nationa, GeroGrapHic Society. editorial communications should be ad- dressed to the Editor of the Nationa — Business communications All should be addressed to the National Cooney Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; $2.50 A YEAR | Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Army W J McGEHE Chief Department of Anthropology and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- ehase Exposition € HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. &. Department of Agriculture O. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey O. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor DAVID G. FAIRCHILD | Agricultural Explorer of the Rea: . ment of Agriculture | ’ ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY Chief of the Division of Mineral . Resources, U.S. Geological Survey ALPRED H. BROOKS ~ U. S. Geological Survey ANGELO HEILPRIN Academy of Natural Sciences, eae delphia R. D. SALISBURY University of Chieago G. K. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON - President St Lawrence University Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C Vor, XVI, No. 11 a WASHINGTON GEOGRAPHIC MA\GAZIINIE, NovEMBER, I905 af GEOGRAPHY“ By Rear-ApMIRAL Sir W. J. that she has any right to consider herself as a science, the objection being apparently founded on the view that it is a subject that can be learned by heart, but not studied on any systematic line or reduced to principles which enable advance to be made, as in the more ex- act sciences, by continual investigation by means of laws discovered in the course of such investigation. This, it appears to me, is a misapprehension due to an incomplete recognition of what science is and of what geography is. Science is, in the simplest interpreta- tion, ‘‘knowledge,’’ such knowledge as comes from an intimate acquaintance with and study of any subject duly coor- dinated and arranged. The subjects which the advancing education and civ- ilization of the world have caused to be minutely studied are very many, and as knowledge has increased specialization has become a necessity, until the list of Sciences is very long. Science may be broadly divided into several categories : pure or exact science, | T is sometimes denied to geography ? IL. Warton, 6-3. FIRS. such as mathematics; natural or phys- ical science, which rests on observations of nature; moral science, which treats of all mental phenomena. Some sciences are of ancient founda- tion, some have arisen from new inquiries and needs of man or from fissure in sub- jects too wide for convenient treatment as one. Many of them are capable of exact definition, and their boundaries and limits can be well marked. ‘To others no very distinct limitations can be assigned. From their nature they overlap and are overlapped by other sub- jects, and it is impracticable to confine them by a strict line. Geography is one of the latter. Geography is one of the most ancient subjects studied with the view of coor- dinating facts. Adesire for exact knowl- edge of, first, the bearings and distances of one place from another for the pur- poses of intercommunication must have arisen aS soon as men became collected into groups whose growing civilization and needs required travel to obtain what could not be obtained in the community. * An address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Johannesburg, South Africa, August 30, 1905. Sir William Wharton was unfortunately taken sick only a few days after the address was delivered and died at Capetown, September 29, from enteric fever and pneumonia. Admiralty. He was 62 years of age, and for a number of years had been Hydrographer of the 4.84 This was the earliest form of geography, and it is an aspect which still remains, and to some is, in the modern shape of maps, the principal, if not the sole, end of geography. From the earliest times, however, geographical information included other than topographical data. It was soon found that for the traveler and states- man, whether in peace or war, more was wanted to enable geography to supply requirements. The nature of acountry, the supply of food and water, the char- acter of the rivers, the manners and customs of the inhabitants, their lan- guage and affinities, the climate, and other matters, were all of much moment, and geography dealt with them all, being, as its name denotes, in the broad- est sense a ‘‘ description of the earth.’’ After the first crude guesses of rela- tive positions, founded on times occu- pied on journeys, other knowledge was enlisted in the cause. Astronomy was soon recognized as the only means by which to ascertain the dis- tances of places far apart and separated byseas, but for many centuries this could only be applied to latitude. Still the sci- entific geographer had to study and use the astronomical and geodetic methods known. GEOGRAPHY IS THE PARENT OF MANY SCIXYNCES As knowledge increased, the subjects became too wide to be strictly considered as one study, and many have become the objects of special research under differ- ent titles. Geodesy deals with the precise form of the earth and its dimensions. Geology studies the nature of the ma- terials forming the earth’s crust. and the changes in it in past ages. Ethnology and Anthropology treat of the different races of mankind. The study of Economics takes note of the conditions of communities and na- tions, their laws and systems of govern- ment. Tue NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Lotany and Zoology nowconcern them- selves with the details of vegetable and animal life. Archeology investigates the remains of past civilizations which cover the earth. Meteorology strives to unravel and re- duce to law the complicated conditions of the atmosphere, its continual move- ments, and the results which have such varying effect on our daily life. Oceanography, the study of the phe- nomena of the sea as distinct from the dry land, is still regarded as an integral part of geography, but is rapidly becom- ing a subject by itself. Of all these subjects geography may be considered to be the parent; and though the family be large and has gone off on many separate lines, it is neces- sary when taking a large and compre- hensive view of the united results of knowledge thus gained, especially from the point of view of distribution, to re- turn to that parent and consider them on a general or geographical basis. I cannot pretend to define geograph- ical science in a clearer or shorter form than that in which it has been already . put by General Sir Richard Strachey, and I will quote his words: ‘“To investigate and delineate the various features of the earth, to study the distribution of land and sea, and their effects upon climate, the configu- ration and relief of the surface, positions on the globe, and so forth, facts which determine the existent conditions of various parts of the earth, or which in- dicate former conditions, and to ascer- tain the relations that exist between those features and all that is observed on the earth.”’ Strabo, in the opening words of his introduction to his great geography, puts it thus: ‘“Tf the scientific investigation of any subject be the proper avocation of the philosopher, geography, the science of which we propose to treat, is certainly entitled to a high place. In addition GEOGRAPHY to its vast importance in regard to social life and the art of government, geog- raphy unfolds to us the celestial phe- nomena, acquaints us with the occupants of the land and ocean, and the vegeta- tion, fruits, and peculiarities of the various quarters of the earth.’’ This was written when geography in- cluded all natural science, and before it gave birth to so many separate subjects ; but it sets forth so admirably the aims which the geographer still pursues that it is worthy of remembrance. GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE ESSEN- TIAL TO THE MAN OF AFFAIRS It is not advocated, nor is it in any way necessary, that all should study geography in the extended sense thus indicated ; but it cannot be too strongly pointed out that an educated man—and education is now essential to the suc- cessful conduct of affairs—must have a considerable knowledge of the element- ary facts of geography. These elementary facts are, it is true, of the nature of a lesson, and must be learned, so to speak, by heart by the aid of maps and books ; but this is nothing more than making use of the labors of others, without which no advance is pos- sible in any subject, and is common to all studies. We must, in fact, distinguish between the science of geography, which con- sists in ascertaining and coordinating new facts and putting them into a shape for the use of others, which is the work of comparatively few; and the practical geography which consists of making use of that work, and, as in many other branches of science, is within the reach of all who choose to devote time to it. It is impossible to have a clear com- prehension of history, whether past or current, without calling in the aid of geography; but unfortunately much his- tory has been written and taught with- out such aid. To read the daily papers requires 485 either geographical knowledge or con- stant reference to maps, and if readers would only make a practice of such ref- erence on every occasion when they are at fault, they would soon find themselves acquiring knowledge of the greatest use to them in the easiest and most interest- ing manner and with the smallest ex- penditure of time. The mistakes made even by those re- sponsible for the conduct of public af- fairs, by reason of the want of this essential but elementary knowledge, are innumerable, and to this day there are many who consider themselves highly educated and capable men who cannot even rightly understand a map. GOOD MAPS THE FOUNDATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE As I have before indicated, good maps are the foundation of all sound geo- graphical knowledge, and these maps must be founded on good surveys. Now a good survey is a comparatively modern operation, and the parts of the world that have been subjected to it are small indeed. It is true that we now have general maps of the larger parts of the world, which more or less convey a fair repre- sentation of the configuration of land and sea when large areas are considered, but details are sadly lacking almost everywhere. To many people one map is as good as another. They do not pause to con- sider on what it is based or what degree of accuracy it probably possesses, but so long as there is a map they are satisfied. A vast number of existing maps are compiled from the roughest materials ; in partly occupied countries, from draw- ings of small areas placed together as can best be done, by means of places here and there, the relative positions of which are fairly known by distances along roads, with perhaps in some cases angles and astronomical positions ; in less civilized parts by routes of travelers 486 laid down by estimation of the dis- tance traversed and direction of march, checked perhaps by a few astronomical observations of more or less value as the traveler possesses or does not possess the necessary skill. The compilers of such a map havea difficult task. Discrepancies are, of course,multitudinous. Nothing agrees, and one has to accept, reject, and ad- just as best he can on his own responsi- bility and with what knowledge he can procure of the respective trustworthi- ness of each author. Happy is he if he has even a few po- sitions on kis map which have been properly determined, as between them he is saved from the constantly increas- ing errors of adding one little area to another, which if carried on indefinitely culminates in great errors. Of course such maps are of no prac- tical use, save as giving a very general idea of a country, and when required by the administrator or traveler lead to endless mistakes and annoyances. THE COAST LINE OF THE WORLD PRACTICALLY DETERMINED The feature of our globe which is now, broadly speaking, most accurately laid down is the coast line. The safety of navigation has caused general ma- rine surveys to be carried on all over the world during the nineteenth cen- tury, which have finally determined the position and shape of the boundaries of the sea. These surveys, executed for the most part by skilled naval officers with proper instrumental outfit, and supplied espe- cially with trustworthy chronometers, and based upon frequent carefully de- termined astronomical positions, have resulted in this boundary line being de- lineated with an accuracy, so far as its absolute position is concerned, far in advance of any other main feature in maps. Here I may perhaps explain to those unversed in these matters why this is so. THe NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The position of any spot on the earth’s surface can be ascertained in two ways: either by careful measurement by means of an accurate system of triangles from another spot already fixed, or by inde- pendent observations of the heavenly bodies and calculations from them, which give the precise latitude and lon- gitude of the place. The former is suitable for positions inland, but en- tails much time and labor, and is only adopted when a perfect map is to be made, for which it is the indispensable foundation. The latter can be carried on from a ship, and in most circum- stances only from a ship, because of the limitations of the methods of determin- ing longitudes. Longitude can now be satisfactorily and rapidly ascertained in two ways— by the electric telegraph or by use of chronometers. The places served by the electric tele- graph are still few, and its use is there- fore restricted; but the chronometer has been in working use for more than a hundred years. This instrument, which is merely a watch of especial construction, will only keep a steady rate when it is undis- turbed by irregular shocks or motions. No means have yet been found for transporting a chronometer on land without upsetting its regularity, and therefore rendering it useless; but on board a ship it can be so suspended and stowed as to prevent its being disturbed by any ordinary movements of or in the ship. The accurate time of any place departed from, ascertained by as- tronomical observations, can therefore be carried about on board ship for con- siderable periods, and by comparison with the local time, also determined by sextant observations of the heavenly bodies, at any required spot on the coast, the difference of longitude is at once obtained with very small limits of error when a number of chronometers are employed. ‘These two simple yet mar- velous instruments—the sextant and GEOGRAPHY | the chronometer—have thus placed in the hands of sailors ready means of fix- ing with great exactitude and celerity the position of selected points on coasts all over the world; and it will be seen that, while the detail of the line of coast between such fixed positions will de- pend upon the degree of accuracy of the survey or sketch, the general line cannot get far out, as it is constantly checked at the selected points. It is not claiming too much to say that at the present time very few salient points on the coast lines of the world are as much as two miles in doubt. It should be a source of great satis- faction tothe Briton to know that both of these instruments were devised by Eng- lishmen, John Hadley producing the sextant in 1730, in the form still used, on the basis of ideas formulated by New- ton fifty years before, and John Harri- sion the chronometer in 1736. ‘The latter instrument has undergone modi- fications in detuil, but the principle re- mains the same. It required seventy years before its value was fully recog- nized and it came into general use. MARINE SURVEYS BY BRITISH NAVAL OFFICERS It is astill further satisfaction tothink that it is British naval officers who have made by far the greatest use of them in mapping the coasts of the whole world. Since the time of the great Captain Cook, British surveying vessels have been con- stantly employed in this work, not only in British colonies, but in all parts, aid- ing and often paving the way for British commerce and for the men-of-war that protect it. It is difficult to find coasts of any ex- tent that have not been laid down by British marine surveyors. ‘The whole of Africa has been their work. By far the greater part of America, all the south and east coasts of Asia, Australia, and most of the innumerable islands in all oceans have been fixed and laid down 487 by them. Even in the Mediterranean, until very lately, the charts were mostly founded on British surveys, and the im- provements now being carried out by other nations on their own coasts in de- tails required for modern navigation do not materially modify the main shapes and positions formerly determined by the British. It has been, and is, a great work, and I hope I may be pardoned for dwelling on it with pride as the result of the wise administration of the admiralty for many years, and of the immediate labors of my predecessors as hydrog- rapher, and as a very great contribu- tion to geographical knowledge, more especially as I do not think that it is gen- erally realized that this great advance in geographic accuracy is due to marine surveyors. To give an idea of the comparative accuracy of the chronometer method, I may mention that on taking at hazard eleven places distributed all over the world at great distances from England, the longitudes of which have been re- cently determined by means of the elec- tric telegraph and elaborate series of observations, I find that the average dif- ference between the chronometer and the telegraph positions is 700 yards. ‘The shapes of the different continents and the positions of islands as at present on our maps and charts will never be altered except in insignificant degree, and the framework is ready for many years’ work of land mapping. THE PERILS OF THE DEEP It is not to be inferred from what I say that marine surveys are approach- ing theirclose. Itisfarotherwise. The time given to these enormous extents of coasts and seas and the necessarily small scales on which the surveys have been carried on have caused them to be very imperfect in all details. Hundreds of rocks and shoals, both stretching from the land and isolated in the sea, have 488 been missed in the course of them, and loss of ships and life on these unknown dangers still continues. With the in- crease of shipping, increased number of ships of heavy draft, the closeness of navigation due to steam, and the desire to make quick passages, smaller inac- curacies of the charts become yearly of greater importance. As an illustration of the condition of affairs, I may mention that in Hamoaze, the inner harbor of Plymouth, one of the headquarters of the British fleet for more than 300 years, a small but dangerous pinnacle of rock was only dis- covered five years ago, while numerous other dangers of asimilar character have been yearly revealed in close surveys of other harbors in the United Kingdom supposed to be well examined and charted in the last century. There never was a greater need for close marine surveys of places frequented by ships than now. THE EARLIEST MAPS It is interesting to look back and see the gradual progress of the delineation of the world and to mark how very recent any approach to accuracy is. The very earliest maps of any extent of country are unfortunately lost to us. The first man who madea map of which any historical record exists is Anaxi- mander of Miletus, about 600 B. C., but we know nothing of it. A map is men- tioned by Herodotus as having been taken in 500 B. C. by Aristagoras of Miletus in the shape of an engraved bronze plate whereon the whole circuit of the earth was engraved, with all its seas and rivers, to influence Cleomenes, King of Sparta, to aid the Jonians against Persia. This was probably the work of Hecatzeus, to whom early geog- raphy owed much. His worksare also only known to us by quotation; but they are especially interesting as con- taining an early idea of the limits of Africa, which he represents as entirely Tue Nationat GreoGRaPHiIc. MAGAZINE surrounded by the sea—a circumstance apparently either forgotten or disbe- lieved in later years. Erotosthenes, 250 B. C., and Hip- parchus, 150 B. C., made great advances, and the former made the first attempt to measure the size of the earth by the dif- ference of latitudes between Assouan and Alexandria in Egypt, an attempt which, considering the great imperfec- tion of his means, was remarkably suc- cessful, as, assuming that we are right in the length of the stadium he used, he made the circumference of the globe 25,000 geographical miles, whereas it should be 21,600. He also devised the system of merid- ians and parallels as we now have them ; but the terms ‘‘ latitude’’ and ‘‘ longi- tude,’’ to denote positions on those cir- cles, were introduced by Ptolemy. The maps of Ptolemy, the great Alex- andrian astronomer and geographer of A. D. 150, are the earliest we possess. He drew, besides a general map of the whole known world from the southern | part of the Baltic to the Gulf of Guinea, north and south, and from the Canary Islands to the China Sea, east and west, a series of twenty-six maps of the dif- ferent parts. Ptolemy’s maps and his method of rep- resenting the spherical globe on a flat surface had a great influence on geog- raphy for many years. After his time the Greek civilization waned, and the general decline of the Roman Empire, followed by its disruption by the inva- sion of barbarians, closed the course of discovery inall branches of research for centuries. It is not too much to say that for 1300 years no advance was made, and until the commencement of explo- ration by sea, which accompanied the general revival of learning in the fif- teenth century, Ptolemy’s maps repre- sented the knowledge of the world. As might be expected, the further he got from the Mediterranean, the greater were hiserrors ; and his representations GEOGRAPHY of eastern Asia and northwestern Eu- rope are somewhat grotesque, though quite recognizable in the main. Of Africa south of the equator he knows nothing, and his map of it termi- mates with the border. AFRICA PROBABLY CIRCUMNAVI- GATED 600 B. C. This is somewhat remarkable, as I am one of those who firmly believe in the circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians sent by Necho, King of Egypt, in 600 B. C. from the head of the Red Sea. As described by Herod- otus, the voyage has all the impress of veracity. My personal faith in Herod- otus was much strengthened by find- ing when I surveyed the Dardanelles in 1872 that his dimensions of that strait were nearer the truth than those of other and later authorities, even down to the time at which I was at work, as well as by other geographical tests I was able to apply. When, therefore, he records that the Phcenicians declared that in their voyage they had the sun on their right hand, and says he does not believe it, he registers an item of information which goes far to prove the story cor- rect. Influenced by Hecatzus, who though surrounding Africa by the sea cut it far short of the equator, Herod- otus could not conceive that the trav- elers had passed to thesouth of the sun when it was in the southern tropic. No historical incident has been more discussed than this voyage, commen- tators varying much in their opinions of its truth. But we have today some new facts. No one who has followed the exploration of the ancient buildings in Rhodesia, and considered the infor- mation we possess on the early inhabit- ants of southern Arabia, whether we call them Sabzeans or Himyarites, can doubt that the former were mainly the work of men coming from Arabia ata very early date, whilethe period of time mecessary to carry out gold-mining op- 489 erations over the large areas now found to have been exploited must have been very great. It seems strange that no record of the constant voyages to this El Dorado should remain,. but the very natural desire to keep lucrative information to themselves is not an unknown thing among traders of the present day, while the conditions of society and the absence of written records of south Arabia would make concealment easy. The Pheenicians, an allied race and the great seafaring trading nation of the Mediterranean, succeeded in keeping the majority of their marts secret, and we have incidents recorded showing their determination not to allow others to fol- low their steps, while to this day we are very doubtful of the limits of their voyages. It may be considered certain that while we naturally quote Greek histo- rians and geographers as the early au- thorities for the growth of geographical knowledge, and that the scientific basis for proper maps of large areas was really provided by them, the seafaring na- tions—Arabians, Phoenicians, and Chi- nese—knew avery great deal practically of the coasts of various parts of the Old World that were absolutely unknown to the Greeks. THE PERIODIC WINDS ALONG THE COAST FAVORABLE The favorable conditions afforded by those remarkable periodic winds, the monsoons, would in the China Sea, Bay of Bengal, and the Arabian Sea natu- rally facilitate any attempts at extensive sea voyages, and would lead to such attempts under conditions that in the regions of variable winds would be con- sidered too dangerous and uncertain. The fact that the monsoons in nearly every case blow practically parallel to the coasts in opposite directions is a most important factor in considering early navigation. ‘The direction of the 490 wind itself in such cases roughly guides a vessel without a compass, and the pe- riods of cyclones and unsettled weather between the monsoons would soon be noted and avoided, as they are to this day by the Arabs and Chinese, whose vessels, I have very little doubt, have remained practically the same for thou- sands of years. The unknown Greek author of that unique and most interesting document, the ‘‘ Periplus of the Erythraean Sea,’’ probably of the first century A. D., de- scribes vessels built without nails, the planks of which were bound together by cords, in precisely the same way as many Arab dhows now navigating the Indian Ocean. His personal knowl- edge of Africa evidently ceased at Cape Guardafui, though he gives informa- tion gained from others on the east coast as far as Zanzibar, which—or rather a part on the mainland near— he describes as the limit of trade to the south. We know that Arabs had pene- trated further, but no doubt they kept their knowledge to themselves. EARLY NAVIGATORS HAD CHARTS WHICH HAVE BEEN LOST These early navigators very proba- bly had charts. When Vasco da Gama first passed along the eastern coast of Africa he found that the Arab dhows had charts. Unfortunately none of them has come down to us, or it would have been interesting to compare them with those of the west coast used by the Portuguese at the time, and which were of the crudest description. I claim for sailors of all ages that they would be the first to make practi- cal maps of the shape of the coasts. Their safety and convenience demanded it, while it is a far easier task to com- pile such a picture of the earth from successive voyages along coasts over the sea, where average distances from known rates of sailing and courses from the sun and stars can be more accurately ascer- THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tained, than from long and generally tortuous land journeys in directions governed by natural features, towns, and so forth. A navigator must be a bit of an astronomer. A landsman to this day seldom knows one star from another. It was the sea oe or portolant, of the Middle Ages that on the revival of learning first gave respectable repre- sentations of the shape of the coasts, at a time when the learned monks and others were drawing the most fantastic and absurd pictures, which they called maps. At the same time, it must be remem- bered that in all ages and down to the present day pilots who, within a hun- dred years were usually carried by all ships, even for sea voyages, jealously keep their knowledge largely in their heads, and look upon good charts as contrivances to destroy their profession, and that such charts or notes as they had they would keep religiously to poh fraternity. The Egyptians were no sailors, pat we know that they habitually employed Phoenicians for sea expeditions, while we have the historical record of the Old Testament for their employment by David and Solomon for a like purpose in the Red Sea, and probably far to the south. It is therefore almost impossi- ble to doubt that the Phoenicians were also acquainted with the navigation of the Red Sea and east coast of Africa. Such a voyage as that recorded by He- rodotus would in these circumstances be far from improbable. The varying monsoons which had led the Arabians centuries before to get so intimate a knowledge of the east coast as to enable them to find and work the gold fields would be well known to the Pheenicians and the hardy seamen who braved the tempestuous regions lying between Cadiz and Great Britain would make little of the difficulties of the African seas. i = GEOGRAPHY The limit of easy navigation from and to the Red Sea is Sofala. Ido not think that it is too great a use of imagination to suppose that it would be from infor- mation received in what is now north Rhodesia that it was learnt that to the westward lay the sea again, and that this fed-to the attempt to reach it by the south. Once started from the neighborhood of Sofala, they would find themselves in that great oceanic stream, the Agulhas Current, which would carry them rap- idly to the southern extremity of Africa. I, as a sailor, can also even conceive that finding themselves in that strong current they would be alarmed and at- tempt to turn back, and that after struggling in vain against it they would have accepted the inevitable and gone with it, and that without the Agulhas Current no such complete voyage of cir- cumnavigation would have been made. As Major Rennell in the last century pointed out, once past the Cape of Good Hope, the periodic winds and, over a great part of their journey, the currents would help them up the West African coast, and the general conditions of navigation are favorable the whole way to the Straits of Gibraltar, the ships keeping, as they would do, near the land ; but we can well understand that, as recorded, the voyage occupied nearly three years, and that they halted from time to time to sow and reap crops. I should say that it is highly probable that either Simon’s Bay or Table Bay was selected as one of these stopping places. THE WELL-KNOWN SECRECY OF THE PHGNICIAN VOYAGERS No reference to this voyage has been found among the hieroglyphic records, and, indeed, so far few such records of Necho, whose reign was not for long, are known, but that it was regarded at the time as historical is evident, for Xerxes, a hundred years later, sent an 49h expedition to repeat it in the contrary direction. This, however, failed, and the unfor- tunate leader, Sataspes, was impaled on his unsuccessful return. This attempt shows that the greater difficulty of the circumnavigation from west to east, as compared with that from east to west, was not realized, and points to the concealment of any details of the successful voyage. Of Hanno’s voyage from the Straits of Gibraltar to about Sierra Leone, the date of which is uncertain, but from 500 to 600 B. c., we should know little had not good fortune preserved the record deposited in a Carthaginian temple. But the well-known secrecy of the Phoenicians in all matters connected with their foreign trade and voyages would explain why so little was known of Necho’s voyage, and our present knowl- edge of the extensive ancient gold work- ings of Rhodesia shows how much went on in those times of which we are wholly ignorant. I have dwelt perhaps too long on this subject, but it has to me a great inter- est, and as it has not, so far as I know, been dealt with by a seaman who is per- sonally well acquainted with the ways of seamen in sailing ships and with the navigation of the coasts in question, I hope I may be excused for putting my views on record. There are several references in Greek and Latin historians to other circum- navigations, but none of them can be trusted, and apart from Necho’s voyage we hear nothing of the east and south coasts of Africa until the arrival of the Portuguese at the end of the fifteenth century. But they found a thriving civilization along the coast from Sofala northward—Shirazi, Arab, and Indian. Ruins exist in many places which have not yet been properly investigated, and we are quite unable to say from what date we are to place the earliest foreign settlements, nor how many 492 breaks existed in the continuity of the gold mining, which apparently was pro- ceeding at or very shortly before the Portuguese visit. After the recommencement of explo- ration by sea in the fifteenth century, seamen slowly gathered enough infor- mation to draw the lines of the coasts they passed along, and in time—that is, by the middle of the eighteenth cen- tury—most lands were shown with ap- proximately their right shapes. But of true accuracy there was none, for the reason I have before mentioned, that there was noexact method of obtaining longitude. If we look at a general world chart of A. D. 1755—and to get the best of that period we must consult a French chart— we shall find on this small scale that the shape of the continents is fairly repre- sentative of the truth. But when we examine details we soon see how crude it all is. THE BEST CHARTS OF 1755, ON AN AVERAGE, FORTY-EIGHT MILES IN ERROR I have compared with their true posi- tions the positions of thirty-one of what may be taken as the fundamental points in the world as given in the larger scaled French charts of 1755, from which the general one is drawn, and I find that on an average they are forty-eight miles in error. ‘The errors vary from 160 miles to 2 miles. If the delineation of the coast lines between be considered, the inaccuracies are very much greater. Very shortly after this date more ac- curate determinations began to be made. The method of lunar distances was per- fected and facilitated by tables published in the various astronomical ‘‘ ephemer- ides,’’ and seamen and explorers com- menced to make useof it. Still the ob- servation required constant practice, and the calculation, unless constantly made, was laborious, and it was used with complete success by thefew. The great ‘LHe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Captain Cook, who may be looked upon as the fatherof modern methods of sur- veying, did much to show the value of this method ; but the chronometer came into use shortly after, and the principal advance in exact mapping was made by its aid, as I have already stated. There is a vast amount yet to be done for geography. Until we possess pub- lications to which we can turn for full information on all geographical aspects of things on this globe of ours, there is work to bedone. Seeing that our pres- ent publications are only now beginning to be worthy of being considered trust- worthy for the very small amount of knowledge that we already possess, geo- graphical work in all its branckesis prac- tically never-ending. VERY LITTLE OF EXPLORATION REMAINS TO BE DONE But of exploration pure and simple very little remains to be done. ‘The charm of traveling through and describ- ing an entirely new country which may be practically serviceable to civilized man has been taken from us by our pre- decessors, though limited regions still remain in Central Asia and South Amer- ica of which we know little in detail. I must except the Polar regions, which are in a somewhat special category, as their opening up affords few attractions to many people. But a knowledge of the past history of our globe—fit study for human thought—can only be gained by study of the portions still under glacial conditions. What is there round the South Pole— a continent or a group of large islands? What is going on there? What thick- ness doesice attain? Have these regions always been glaciated, and if not, why not? Can we get any nearer the mys- tery of magnetism and its constant changes by study at or near the mag- netic poles? All these and many other scientific questions can only be solved by general geographical research in ~ GEOGRAPHY these regions, and all interested in such questions have been delighted at the re- cent attempts to gain more knowledge. The object of these «xpeditions was frankly and purely scientific. All hope of remunerative whale or seal fisheries had been dispelled by the visit of the Norwegian whalers in 18¢2 to the region south of Cape Horn, and the known gen- eral condition of the land forbade any expectation of other profitable indus- tries, unless, indeed, gold and other val- uable minerals should be found, which isalways possible. Beyond the fact that exploring expeditions of this character keep alive the spirit of enterprise and bring out the finest characteristics of a race—which is a point by no means to be despised—no immediate practical benefit was to be expected. Progress under the conditions must be slow, but I think that Great Britain may well be satisfied with the information collected in the Antarctic by Capt. R. F. Scott and his gallant companions The unfortunate detention of the Duscovery by an unfavorable summer prevented the further coastal exploration which was part of the programme, but gave op- portunity for further detailed examina- tion of the inland conditions, which was carried out in defiance of the severest atmospheric and topographical difficul- ties, and with the greatest zeal and in- telligence; and it may be doubted whether science in the end has not gained more than she lost by the unexpected diversion of energy. The healthy con- ditions which prevailed throughout area standing proof both of Captain Scott’s eminent capacity asa leader and of the cheery spirit which animated the whole expedition. The full results of the sci- entific observations are not yet worked out, and in many cases for a complete appreciation of their bearing they must be compared and correlated with those of the other Antarctic expeditions, but many highly suggestive points have al- ready been revealed. goo) For the firsttime Antarctic continental land has been traveled over for long dis- tances, and though the actual area of new discovery looks small on a map of the world, the distances covered can only be described as extraordinary, and far exceeding the most sanguine anticipa- tions. Hew who considered the moun- tainous coast line of Victoria Land and its complete glaciation, as reported by Sir James Ross from his distant view, thought that it would prove practicable not only to ascend those mountains, but to reach to heights much surpassing them behind. The reason that it proved feasible is that, while there are occasional heavy snowstorms, theannual snowfallissmall, and the surface, therefore, is generally unencumbered with soft deep snow. And what did Captain Scott find after his memorable struggle up the glacier through the mountains? An enormous plateau at an elevation of about 9,000 feet, nearly level, smooth, and featureless, over which he traveled directly inland for more than 200 miles, seeing no sign at his farthest point of any termination or alteration in charac- ter. So far as could be seen from other journeys, glacial discharge from this. great ice-sheet is very small, and prac- tically it appears tobedead. Its accre- tion by fresh snowfall is insignificant, while on all sides along the flanks of the coastal mountains there are signs of diminution in the mass of ice. THE GREAT ICE MASS IN THE ANT- ARCPICSMS APPARENTLY DISAPPEARING The great ice-barrier east of Ross Island tells the same tale. This mag- nificent feature presents to the sea a face of perpendicular ice cliffs varying from 60 to 240 feet in height and 450 sea miles long. Sir J. Ross mapped its position in 1841, and Captain Scott finds that it has retreated on an average 15 miles, varying much in different parts. 4.94 Should this rate of retreat continue, the whole of thisice mass, so far as Cap- tain Scott saw it, will have vanished in 1,000 years. As the motion of the ice mass is also about 15 miles to the north in the same time, icebergs covering collectively an area of 450 miles by 30 have been dis- charged from it in 60 years. Captain Scott traveled over it nearly due south to a point 300 miles from its face, and then saw no sign of its end. It is bordered on its western side by a mountainous coast line, rising in places to 15,000 feet. He found the ice prac- tically flat and wholly unfissured, ex- cept at the side, where its northerly motion, found to be about 130 feet in the month, caused shearing and vast cre- vasses. All that is known of its eastern edge is that it is bordered, where it meets the sea, by land from 2,000 to 3,000 feet high, suspected by Ross and verified by Captain Scott. This may be an island, or more probably the eastern side of the great fiord or bay now filled by the barrier. Captain Scott is of opinion that this great ice-sheet is afloat throughout, and I entirely agree with this conclusion. It is unexpected, but everything points to it. From soundings obtained along the face, it undoubtedly has about 600 feet of water under it. It is difficult to believe that this enor- mous weight of ice, 450 miles by at least 360, and perhaps very much more, with no fall to help it along by gravity, can have behind it a sufficient force in true land glacier to overcome the stupendous friction and put it in motion if it be rest- ing on the bottom. It is sufficiently astonishing that there is force enough even to overcome the cohesion at the side, which must be very great. The flat nature of the bottom of the Ross Sea and the analogies of many geo- graphical details in other parts of the world make it most probable that the water under the whole barrier is deep. Tue NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A point on which I have seen no com- ment is the difference in the appearance of the slopes of Mount Terror. Captain Scott found the bare land showing over large areas, but during the two summers of Ross’s visit it was wholly snow-clad. Sir Joseph Hooker, the sole survivor of Ross’s expedition, when questioned had no doubt on the subject and pro- duced many sketches in support. This may be due to temporary causes, but all the information collected by the expedition points without doubt to steadily diminishing glaciation in recent times. We have, therefore, this inter- esting fact, that both’ im JArectic and Antarctic regions, as indeed all over the world, ice conditions are simultaneously ameliorating, and theories of alternate northern and southern maximum glaci- ations seem so far disproved. But this does not mean that climatic conditions in the Antarctic are now less severe—probably the contrary. It has been pointed out by many that land glaciation may arise from varied primary causes, but one obvious necessity is that the snowfall should exceed - melting and evaporation. It need not be heavy, but if it is it may produce glaciation under somewhat unexpected conditions. This would entail a vapor-laden air more or less continuously impinging upon the land at a temperature which will enable it when cooled, either by passing over chilled land or when raised to higher regions by the interposition of moun- tains, to give up its moisture freely. This condition is not fulfilled when the air as it arrives from the sea is already at a very low temperature. It was my fortune to spend two long seasons in the Straits of Magellan, and I was daily more impressed by what I saw. There you have a mountainous ridge of no great height—very few peaks rising more than 4,000 feet—opposed to the almost continuous westerly winds pouring in from the Pacific at a very GEOGRAPHY moderate temperature and charged with much moisture. The result is that in the latitude of Yorkshire every mountain mass over 3,000 feet high is covered with eternal snow and sends glaciers down to the sea. I was convinced by what was going on under my eyes that it only required an upheaval of the land of 2,000 feet or so to cover the whole of Patagonia with ice. But then the climate would still not be very severe. The temperature of the wind from the sea would be the same, and such part of it as blew along the channels and on the lower land would moderate the cold caused by the ice-covered slopes. The shores of the whole of western southern Patagonia, deeply indented with long and deep fiords, indicate, ac- cording to all received views of the origin of such formations, that the land was formerly higher, while signs of glaciation are everywhere present. CHANGES OF CLIMATE The results of geographical research show us that in many parts of the world climate must have greatly changed in comparatively recent times. In the now arid regions of northern Africa, central North America, and in parts of Asia, there is ample evidence that the climate was in times past more humid. Ina remarkable paper on the causes of changes of climate, contributed by Mr F. W. Harmer to the Geological - Society in 1901, and which has not ob- tained the notice it deserves, it is pointed out how changes in the distribution of the prevalent winds would vastly alter climatic conditions. Like everything else in nature, and especially in the de- partment of meteorology, these ques- tions are exceedingly complex, and similar results may be brought about in different ways; but therecan be nodoubt that the climate of South Africa would be greatly modified, and more rainfall would occur, if only the cyclonic storms 4e)5) which now chase each other to the east- ward in the ocean south of the Cape of Good Hope could be prevailed upon to pursue a slightly more northerly line, and many obstacles to the agricultural prospects of South Africa now existing would be removed. This is, howevc beyond the powers of man to effect; but, as I have just said, there are other ways of attaining the object, and it is earnestly to be hoped that the attention now being paid to afforestation may re- sult in vigorous efforts to bring about by this means the improvement in hu- midity so much required in many parts of the country. NEW KNOWLEDGE OF TIBET The other recent event in geograph- ical exploration is the result of the expedition to Lhasa. It was an un- expected solution of this long-desired knowledge that it should come from political necessities and by means of a government mission. The many ardent travelers who have dreamed of one day making their way in by stealth have thus been disappointed, but our knowl- edge is now fuller than could otherwise have been gathered. The most important fact is the reve- lation of the fertility of a large part of southern Tibet. Much has been added to topographical knowledge, but the route maps of the secret Indian native surveyors already had given us a rough knowledge of the country on the road to Lhasa. It was not, however, real- ized how great was the difference be- tween the aridity of the vast regions of the north, known to us from the travels of men of various nationalities, and the better-watered area in the south, though from the great height of the plateau— some 12,000 feet—the climate is very severe. ‘The upper course of the Brah- maputra has been traced by Captain Ryder, but unfortunately a political veto was placed on the project to solve the interesting problem of how this great 496 river finds its way to the Indian plains, and this still remains for the future to unravel. RECENT STUDY OF THE OCEANS HAS BROUGHT MUCH 410 TIGHT It is of the ocean, more than of any other physical feature of our globe, that our knowledge has increased of late years. Forty years ago we were pro- foundly ignorant even of its depth, with the exception of a few lines of sound- ings then recently taken for the first submarine telegraph cables, and conse- quently we knew nothing of its real vast bulk. As to the life in it and the laws which govern the distribution of such life, we were similarly ignorant, as of many other details. The Challenger expedition changed all this, and gave an impetus to oceano- graphic research which has in the hands of all nations borne much fruit. Soundings have been obtained over all parts of the seas, even in the two Polar seas; and, though much remains to be done, we can now form a very close approximation to the amount of water on our earth, while the term ‘‘ un- fathomable ocean’’ has been shown to have been based on an entire miscon- ception. Biological research has also revealed a whole world of living forms at all depths, of the existence of which nothing was known before. In my former address, eleven years ago, I gave many details about the sea, of which I will only repeat one—which is a fact that every one should know— and that is that the bulk of the ocean is about fourteen times as great as that of the dry land above water, and that if the whole of that land were thrown into the Atlantic Ocean it would only fill one-third of it. Eleven years ago the greatest depth known was 4,700 fathoms, or 28,000 feet. We have since found several places in the Pacific where the depth is nearly 5,170 fathoms, or 31,000 feet, or some- THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE what higher than Mount Everest, which has been lately definitely shown to be the culminating point of the Himalayas. These very deep parts of the ocean are invariably near land, are apparently in the shape of troughs, and are probably due to the original crumpling of the earth’s surface under slow contraction. THE EFFECT OF THE SEA UPON CLIMATE The enormous area of the sea has a great effect upon climate, but not so much in the direct way formerly be- lieved. While a mass of warm or cold water off a coast must to some extent modify temperature, a greater direct cause is the winds, which, however, are in many parts the effect of the distribu- tion of warm and cold water in the ocean perhaps thousands of miles away. Take the United Kingdom, notoriously warm and damp for its position in lati- tude. This is due mainly to the preva- lence of westerly winds. ‘These winds, again, are part of cyclonic systems prin- cipally engendered off the coasts of — eastern North America and Newfound- land, where hot and cold sea currents, impinging on one another, give rise to great variations of temperature and movements of the atmosphere which start cyclonic systems traveling east- ward. RS The center of the majority of these systems passes north of Great Britain. Hence the warm and damp parts of them strike the country with westerly winds which have also pushed the warm water left by the dying-out current of the Gulf Stream off Newfoundland across the Atlantic, and raises the temperature of the sea off Britain. When the cyclonic systems pass south of England, as they occasiona?ly do, cold northeast and north winds are the result, chilling the country despite the warm water surrounding the islands. It only requires a rearrangement of the direction of the main Atlantic cur+ GEOGRAPHY rents wholly to change the climate of western Europe. Such an arrange- ment would be effected by the submer- gence of the Isthmus of Panama and adjacent country, allowing the equa- torial current to pass into the Pacific. The gale factory of the western Atlantic would then be greatly reduced. The area south of the Cape of Good Hope is another birthplace of great cyclonic systems, the warm Agulhas Current meeting colder water moving up from the Polar regions; but in the Southern Ocean the conditions of the distribution of land are different, and these systems sweep round and round the world, only catching and affecting the south part of Tasmania, New Zea- land, and Patagonia. MOVEMENTS OF THE LOWER STRATA OF WATER In 1894 I spoke of the movements of the lower strata of water in the sea asa subject on which we were only begin- ning to get a little light. Since that year we have learnt a little more. It is a common idea that at the bottom of the sea all is still ; but this isa mistake, even for the deepest parts, for the tidal influence reaches to the bottom and keeps every particle in motion, though such motion is quiet and slow. Near the shore, however, though still in deep water, the movement may be considerably increased. Cases have oc- curred in late years where submarine cables have broken several hundred fathoms deep, and when picked up for repair it has been found that the iron wire covering has been literally rubbed away as byafile. Thiscan only be the result of an undercurrent along the bot- tom moving the cable to and fro. Such a: current might be caused by asubmarine spring, for there is no doubt that much fresh water finds its way into the ocean in this fashion, but it is more probably generally an effect of acceleration‘of the tidal movement due to the rising slope oH of the continent. In connection with this, further facts have come to light in the course of recent marine surveys. Many isolated shoal spots in the great oceans have figured in our charts, the results of reports by passing sailors who have said they have seen breakers in fine weather. Such places are the terror of seamen, and it is part of the duty of surveying ships to verify or disprove them. Very much has been done in the last eighteen years, with the result that the majority of them have, as dangers, disappeared. In many cases, however, a bank has been found, deep in the ordinary ac- ceptation of the word, but much less deep than the surrounding sea—solitary ridges, in fact, rising from the ocean floor. Frequently, in examining these banks in search of shoaler spots, breakers have been reported and recognized as such on board the surveying ship from a . distance, but on approach they have proved to be small overcurls caused by tide ripplings, and the depth of water has proved to be several hundred fathoms. These ripplings are clearly caused by the small tidal motion in the deep water, generally in these cases of more than 2,000 fathoms, meeting the slope of the submerged mountain range, being con- centrated and accelerated until the water finally flows up the top of the slope asa definite current, and taking the line of least resistance, that to the surface, makes itself visible in the shape which we are accustomed to associate with com- paratively shallow water. These cases form remarkable instances of the manner in which extensive motion of water may arise from very small be- ginnings. An observation I was anxious to make in 1894 has been successfully carried out since. This was to ascertain whether there was any permanent undercurrent in the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb due to more water being forced through the straits on the surface by the persistent 498 southeast wind of winter than could be evaporated in the closed Red Sea. Such return undercurrents have in somewhat similar circumstances been shown to exist in the Dardanelles, Strait of Gibraltar, and in the Suez Canal. The observation at Bab-el-Mandeb was difficult. The wind is strong and the disturbance of the sea is consider- able, while the water is 120 fathoms, or 700 feet, deep. But a surveying vessel maintained herself at anchor there dur- ing four days, and, by the aid of an in- genious apparatus sent from England for the purpose, clearly proved the exist- ence of a current of 1% knots flowing steadily at depths below 70 fathoms out of the Red Sea, while in the upper strata there was a similar current flowing in. In such ways is interchange of water provided for by nature in places where tidal action does not suffice. MARVELOUS PROGRESS OF AFRICA In what I fear is a very discursive address I have not mentioned the in- terior of Africa. In the first place, it is a subject of itself; and as we shall have, I hope, many papers on African subjects, I have thought it better to deal mainly with generalities. Still I cannot refrain from a few words to express the astonishment I always feel when I hear people complain that Africa goes slow. When I look at what has been effected in my own lifetime, it appears to me that, on the contrary, it has been rushed. ‘The maps I learned from asa boy showed the whole interior as a blank. ‘There are now no parts that are not more or less known. ‘The great lakes have all been revealed ; the great rivers have all been traced ; Euro- peans are now firmly fixed with decent governments in parts formerly a prey to tribal wars and the atrocities of the inland slave traffic. Railways are running over regions unknown forty Tue NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE years ago, and one of the most astonish- ing things to me is that I should be able to hope now to visit in comfort and luxury the great Victoria Falls, which my old friend Sir John Kirk—whom I left the other day hale and hearty—was, with the exception of Livingstone, the first white man to see, after a long and laborious journey in his company in 1860. I could not help being amused as well as interested at seeing a short time agoa proclamation by the government of Northern Rhodesia, dated not far from Lake Bangweolo, calling on all con- cerned to observe neutrality during the present war between Russia and Japan. I think that if any one had prophesied to Livingstone, as he lay in 1873 lonely and dying by the shores of that newly discovered lake, that such an edict would be issued in thirty years he would have expressed a doubt as to its fulfillment. To southern Africa nature has denied two of the features that facilitate rapid progress—good harbors and _ sufficient rainfall—but the energy of man has done wonders to provide the former where possible, and will doubtless do more, while I believe that the lack of the latter will also be overcome in the same way. The coordinated—or, in other words, thescientific—observations made in many other countries have pointed out a possible solution. On the other hand, the height of the inland plateaux makes it possible for the white man to live and work in latitudes which would under other conditions be tropical. South Africa must have a great future before it ; and, while some present cir- cumstances may delay development of its natural advantages, I am inclined to think that in the long run prosperity may be more solid and material for being reached in the face of difficulties, as has so often occurred in the history of the ‘world. € —— THE SUPPOSED BIRTHPLACE OF CIVILIZATIONS: T can bestated without exaggeration that in central Asia, particularly in Russian Turkestan, there are hun- dreds, perhapsthousands, of square miles of buried towns and cities. What pro- cesses of nature converted the region from a Garden of Eden, filled with mil- lions of prosperous and wealthy people, into waterless wastes, inhabited only by nomads, are mysteries, to solve which little attempt has been made until re- cently. Mr Raphael Pumpelly, known so widely for his work in China, suggested to the Carnegie Institution in 1902 that an examination of the Turkestan ruins might (1) reveal the birthplace of civil- ization, (2) show how changes in man’s environment alter man himself, and (3) give a clue to recent geological time, which is now more or less told by guess- ing. Inasmuch as geological changes have occurred in central Asia since man has lived there, evidence may be discov- ered among the traces left by the earlier inhabitants which will tell how long these changes were in the making. The Carnegie Institution gave Mr Pumpelly a grant sufficient to enable him to make an extended reconnaissance of Turkestan. Mr Pumpelly was accom- panied by Prof. William M. Davis, of Harvard University, and Mr Ellsworth Huntington. The results have just been published in a special volume by the Carnegie Institution.* In view of the exceeding importance of the investiga- tion, we make the following liberal quotations from Mr Pumpelly’s report: The investigation was proposed be- cause (1) there is a school that still holds the belief that central Asia is the region in which the great civilizations of the Far Hast and of the West had their origin; and (2) because of the supposed occurrence in that region, in prehistoric times, of great changes of climate, resulting in the formation and recession of an extensive Asian Medi- terranean, of which the Aral, Caspian, and Black seas are the principal rem- nants. * Explorations in Turkestan, by Raphael Pumpelly, William M. Davis, and Ellsworth Huntington, with 174 illustrations and maps. Pp. 325,9 x I2inches. Washington, Carnegia Institution, 1905. Paikent, a Sand-buried City The ruins of Paikent represent the type of cities abandoned for lack of water and then buried by the progressive desert sands. Paikent was a great center of wealth and of commerce between ‘China and the west and south till in the early centuries of ourera. The recessions of the lower ends of the Zerafshan River brought its doom. Now only the citadel mound and the top of parts of its walls rise above the waves of the invading sands. 500 Tur NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From Wm. M. Davis, Carnegie Institution A Sand Dune Advancing Across the Desert It had long seemed to me that a study of central Asian archeology would prob- ably yield important evidence in the genealogy of the great civilizations and of several at least of the dominant races, and that a parallel study of the traces of physical changes during Quaternary time might show some coincidence be- tween the phases of social evolution and the changes in environment; further, that it might be possible to correlate the physical and human records and thus furnish a contribution to the scale of recent geology. While we have been surprised at the abundance of the data in natural and artificial records offered by the region toward these solutions, we are impressed with a realization of the intimate rela- tion in which this region stands to the Quaternary and prehistoric history of the whole continent. Physically it forms part of the great interior region extend- ing from the Mediterranean to Manchu- ria, whose history has been one of por- gressive desiccation, but in Russian Turkestan the effects of this have been mitigated by the snows of the lofty ranges and the lower altitude of the plains. Archeologically this region has, through a long period, been a center — of production and commerce, connect- ing the eastern, western, and southern nations, and its accumulating wealth has made it repeatedly the prey of in- vading armies. It has been from re- mote time the field of contact and con- Tue SupposeD BirTHPLACE OF CIVILIZATION 501 From Wm. M. Davis, Carnegie Lnstitution Ae ssequle of Medizeval Samarkand The ruins of Samarkand are very extensive. Its position must have made it an important center for commerce and wealth probably throughout the whole period of prehistoric occupa- tion, as it has been during historic times. Situated in the heart of the very fertile oasis of the Zerafshan River, it lies also on the most open and easiest carayan routes connecting China and eastern Turkestan with Afghanistan, India, and Persia. Samarkand has, even within the past two thousand years, been sacked, destroyed, and rebuilt many times. Like Mery, its rebuild- ings have often been on adjoining sites, and the determining of the whole area covered by these various sites remains to be made. There is evidence that it is very extensive. As in all Turkestan, so at Samarkand, the older structures still standing are those of the Mohammedan period. The many immense and wonderfully decorated mosques built by Tamerlane, though now falling into ruin, belong among the wonders of the world; and this not only on account of their great size, but also because of the beauty of their decoration. Seen from Afrosiab, these ruins tower high above the rich foliage of the oasis city—evidence of the wealth of treasure that Tamerlane had accumulated in Turkestan within two centuries after Genghis Khan had sacked the country and massacred much of the population. test between the Turanian and Aryan stocks; but its problems, both physical and archeological, are partsof the greater problem underlying the study of the de- velopment of man and his civilization on the great continent and of the environ- ment conditioning that development. The many fragmentary peoples sur- viving in the remote corners and in the protected mountain fastnesses of Asia, preserving different languages, arts, and customs, indicate a very remote period of differentiation, with subsequent long periods for separate development. They point also to the long periods of unrest and battling in which the survivors of the vanquished were forced into their present refuges. And this unrest was probably the remote prototype of that which in the later prehistoric and his- toric time sent out its waves from the Aralo-Caspian basin. It was probably from the beginning a condition in which the slowly progressive change toward 502 aridity in the interior Asia was ever forcing emigration outward, displacing other peoples, and thus working against the establishment of a stable equilibrium of population. Asia is thus the field for applying all the comparative sciences that relate to the history of man—the materials that lie in cave deposits, in rock pictographs, in tumuli, dolmens, Tue Nationa, GEoGRaPHic ,MAGAZINE . records buried in ashes and earth; but the fertility of the soil produced wealth, and the position kept it ever a commer- cial center. , So far as our problems of archeology and physical geography are concerned, Turkestan is practically a virgin field. In geology and cartography the Russians have done a surprising amount of ex- From Ellsworth Huntington, Carnegie Institution Folds in the Limestone in the Sugun Valley west of Shor Kul, looking west and ruined towns, in languages, cus- toms, religions, design patterns, and anthropological measurements. Turkestan, from its geographical po- sition, must have been the stage on which the drama of Asiatic life was epitomized through all these ages of ferment. Peoples and civilizations ap- peared and disappeared, leaving their cellent work ; but the modern methods of physico-geographic study have been only begun to be applied, and the little archeological work done there has been mostly in the nature of hunting curios and treasure, chiefly by foreigners, and in so destructive a manner that the Russian government has till now wisely prohibited excavations. ee ae ee oe e -. ge Ai THE Suppos—ED BIRTHPLACE OF CIVILIZATION The thickness of made earth in the abandoned sites of Turkestan is suffi- cient to give reason for expecting evi- dences of very long-continued occupa- Sy ee) met with—the earth itself, the charac- ter, the position, and association of frag- ments—is part of history cannot fail to be most fruitful in results. From Ellsworth Huntington, Carnegie Institution Limestone Gorge of the Western Kichik Alai Where it enters the Ispairan River on the north side of the Alai Mountains. Probably the upper portion of the gorge was widened by a glacier, and the narrow slit at the bottom represents post-Glacial cutting. The main valley, from the side of which the photograph was taken, is clearly of glacial origin, and the side valley must have borne a hanging relation to that of the master stream. pation. makes possible the preservation of any traces of written or incised documents that may have existed. Excavation con- ducted with the idea that everything The dryness of the climate We have shown that the recent phys- ical history of the region is legibly re- corded in glacial sculpture and moraines, in orogenic movements, in valley-cutting and terracing, in lake expansions, and 504 Tue NatTIioNnaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The Kirghiz in the Alai Valley in the building up of the plains, and we have made some progress in correlating these events. We have also found full confirmation of the statements as to a progressive desiccation of the region of long stand- ing which has froma remote period con- tinually converted cultivable lands into’ deserts and buried cities in sand. We have found widely distributed PROPORTION OF CHILDREN UNITED ANY interesting suggestions as to the probable tendency of the birth rate in the United States are offered in a bulletin by Walter F. Willcox entitled ‘‘Proportionof Children in the United States,’’ recently pub- lished by the Bureau of the Census. great and small abandoned sites of human occupation with evidences of great antiquity. We have reason to think that a cor- relation of these physical and human events may be obtained through con- tinuance of the investigation, and that archeological excavations will throw light on the origin of Western and East- ern civilizations. IN Peas STATES At the beginning of the nineteenth century the children under Io years of age constituted one-third and at the end less than one-fourth of the total popu- lation. ‘The decrease in this proportion began as early as the decade 1810 to 1820, and continued wuninterruptedly, CHILDREN IN THE UNITED STATES though at varying rates, in each suc- cessive decade. This of itself, however, is not enough to prove a declining birth tate, as the decrease in the proportion of children in the total population may indicate merely an increase in the aver- age duration of life and the consequent survival of a larger number of adults. But by taking the proportion of chil- dren to women of child-bearing age we are able to get a more satisfactory index of the movement of the birth rate. Be- tween 1850 and 1860, the earliest decade for which figures can be obtained, this proportion increased. But since 1860 it has decreased without interruption. The decrease has been very unequal from decade to decade, but if twenty- year periods are considered, it has been very regular. In 1860 the number of children under 5 years of age to 1,000 women 15 to 49 years of age was 634 ; in 1900 it was only 474. In other words, the proportion of children to potential mothers in 1900 was only three-fourths as large as in 1860. One is thus led to the conclusion that there has been a per- sistent decline in the birth rate since 1860. No attempt is made by the author of the bulletin to determine the probable causes of this decline. An extended argument by Gen. Francis A. Walker is given, suggesting that it is largely due to the influx of foreigners and the resultant shock to the population in- stinct of the natives. Professor Willcox does not express a definite opinion, claiming that the vital statistics of the United States are not sufficiently devel- oped to afford a sound basis of judgment. He notes, however, that there has been a similar marked decline in the birth rate of Australia, where there has been no such torrent of immigration. DECLINE GREATEST IN NORTH AND WEST If this decline were due in large part to the influx of immigrants, we should expect it to be greatest in those sections BNO S of the country to which most of the im- migrants have gone—greater in the North and West than in the South. It is found, in fact, that in the North and West there has been a more or less regular decline, while in the South the change has been less regular and the decline less marked. In 1850 the pro- portion of children to 1,000 women in the North and West was five-sixths of what it was in the South; in 1900 it was less than three-fourths. In 1900 the smallest proportion of children was in the District of Colum- bia, where the number of children under 5 was hardly more than one-fourth the number of women of child-bearing age. But from the sociological standpoint the District of Columbia should be classed with cities rather than with states and territories. The next smallest propor- tion was that for Massachusetts, where it was slightly more than one-third. The largest proportion was in North Dakota and Indian Territory, in each of which it was two-thirds. There was an unusual decrease in the proportion of children between 1860 and 1870, which must be attributed to the direct and indirect results of the civil war. PROPORTION OF CHILDREN AMONG WHITES The decrease in the proportion of white children under ro to the total white population began as early as the decade 1810 to 1820, and has continued without interruption, but with varying rapidity, to the end of the century. The greatest decreases were found in the decades of greatest immigration, and may have been due in part to the disproportionate number of adults in the new immigrant population. The decreases in the decades 1850 to 1860 and 1890 to 1900 were very slight. The fact that these were the decades imme- diately following the great waves of im- migration suggests that the check in PHIC GEOGRA TIONAL THe Na BOOKS SORES. 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PROPORTION OF CHILDREN AMONG NEGROES The figures for negroes are not given separately, but are included with those for Indians and Mongolians. The ne- groes, however, constitute so large a proportion of the total that we are justi- fied, in most cases at least, in accepting these figures as representing conditions among negroes. In the last twenty years the decline in the proportion of negro children has been especially rapid. The proportion of children among ne- groes was greater than that among whites at every census except that of L370. PROPORTION OF CHILDREN GREATER IN COUNTRY DISTRICTS THAN IN CITIES In 1900, for the. United States as a whole, the proportion of children was only two-thirds as great in cities as in the country districts. In the North Atlantic division, however, it was almost as great in the cities as in the country. In the Southern divisions it is hardly KETCHIKAN HE thriving town of Ketchikan is the first call port of all the Ameri- can steamers which followthe inland pas- sages between Puget Sound and Alaska. Owing to this fact and its growing im- portance as a mining center, it will doubt- less soon be included among the towns which are connected with the govern- ment cable system, but at present it is dependent on its postal facilities for com- munication with the rest of the world. The photograph which we publish Tue Nationa GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE more than half as large in the cities as in the country, while in the Far West the difference is intermediate in amount. ‘This is probably due in large measure to the fact that the immigrant popula- tion who have been swarming into the northern cities of recent years, especially into the cities of the North Atlantic states, have been multiplying by nu- merous births with much rapidity, while the corresponding laboring class which has immigrated to southern cities from the surrounding country districts has not been thus increasing.’’ GREATER FECUNDITY OF FOREIGN- BORN WOMEN A comparison is made between the proportion of children born of native mothers to 1,000 native women of child- bearing age and the proportion of chil- dren born of foreign-born mothers to 1,000 foreign-born women of child-bear- ing age. In 1900 the former proportion was 462, the latter 710, the difference indicating the greater fecundity of for- eign-born women. ‘The comparison also indicates that the total decrease in fecun- dity of white women between 1890 and 1900 was the result of a decrease for native white women partly offset by an increase for foreign-born white women. was taken last summer, and shows in the center of the picture its pride, the public school-house on the hill. The town is about fifty miles north of the boundary and is situated on Revillagi- gedo Island, on the north side of Ton- gass Narrows. What effect the establishment of the trans-Pacific terminal of the Grand Trunk Railroad near Port Simpson will have on Ketchikan cannot be foretold, but in all probability it will serve to in- crease its importance. OFS: KETCHIKAN Photo by O. M. Leland, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey The Town of Ketchikan, Alaska, in the Spring of 1905 oe THe NaTIonAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 510 (v1S a8ed 90s) uters 94} JNO SuIpesry, BIOINN ‘Wie oly JMeMUIBAON ‘ory SuIysoiyy, Jo poyyey surddryimg 511 PROGRESS OF THE PHILIPPINES BION ‘WIRY DIY JSMUIIAOy ‘AIOUINORIY UROISMIY YUM sory SUIYSoIY J, ty | nnieeaeiaeaeeniemaamaaiaieaiiiaal MOY sv Iej Os s}isodeq [e1sul Surmoys ‘veysety jo dey Tue NatTIionaL GeEoGRaPHic MAGAZINE 612 AdAING [BdLSoTOayH *S ‘A ‘sHooI_ "H perTV WoIY el Ac eel yorauesisy i ci 9) "1 HVIGO ¢ soy = < : Taepy cae a fl) Selig SS —, : ple 3 oo rosned \ $08 valle : K y CUE S 4 y eS = Qt! : WN3{04133q4 0 eoog suaoejd uly X& sepoj ust jeddoy 0 SBPO[ JdATIS PUB PIOD > saar2e\d plod @ . @N3937 PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES THE RETURNS FROM ALASKA E are getting more gold out of Alaska each year than the ter- ritory cost usin 1867. In 1904 $9,000,- ooo of the yellow metal were shipped to the United States from Alaska. Of this sum $6,000,000 were from placer de- posits and the balance from lode de- posits. Big as is the present output from the gold placers, Mr Alfred H. Brooks, of the Geological Survey, esti- mates that the amount will be doubled in a few years. The Cape Nome fields are still in the lead, but the Fairbanks district is being developed very rapidly. The great need of the territory at the present time is some roads. ‘There are not more than 50 miles of road in Alaska, and these were built by private enterprise. The expenditure of $1,000,- ooo in constructing a few trunk lines would be many times repaid in increased gold production. Many of the fields cannot now be worked profitably be- cause of the cost of transporting ma- chinery and provisions. A hundred feet of 8-inch 16- gage hy- draulic riveted steel pipe costs in Fair- banks $175. On Fairbanks Creek, 20 miles away, the same roo feet of pipe, with freight at 20 cents per pound, costs, if transported in summer, $301, repre- senting a freight charge of $126. In the Klondike, where the topography is nearly the same, the same pipe would be landed ona claim 20 miles from Daw- son for a freight charge of $9.45. Already over 300 miles of wagon road have been built by the Canadian gov- ernment in the Yukon territory and the Atlin district of British Columbia, while over 600 miles of sled roads have been made inthe Yukon territory. The fact that in the summer wagons and vehicles of all descriptions, and even bicycles, may be seen daily about Dawson, the Klondike creeks, and Atlin, in British * Gravel and Placer Mining in Alaska,’’C. W. Purington, Bull. 263, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1905, p. 227. 5S Columbia, while the winter roads in Canadian territory afford continuous easy routes for horse sleds down the Yukon’ to Dawson, is evidence of the success of the Canadian road-building enterprise. Four important reports on the mineral resources of Alaska have been recently published by the U. S. Geological Sur- vey: ‘‘ Mineral Resources in Alaska in 1904”’ (Bulletin 259), by Alfred H. Brooks, C. W. Purington, F. E. and C. W. Wright, Arthur C. Spencer, Arthur J. Collier, George C. Martin, L. M. Prindle, and Ralph W. Stone. The bulletin describes progress in de- veloping the gold, coal, petroleum, and tin resources. ‘‘ Fairhaven Gold Placers, Seward Peninsula’’ (Bulletin 247), by Fred H. Moffitt, with two large new maps (one geologic and one topo- graphic) of northeastern portion of Seward Peninsula. ‘‘Gold Placers of Forty-Mile, Birch Creek, and Fairbanks Regions’’ (Bulletin 251), by Louis M. Prindle, with a reconnaissance map of the Yukon Tanana region. ‘‘ Methods and Costs of Gravel and Placer Mining in Alaska’’ (Bulletin 263), by C. W. Purington. PROGRESS IN THE PHILIPPINES HE Report of the Philippine Com- mission for 1904, which has just been published by the War Department in. three volumes, gives an interesting account of the operations of a steam rice-thrasher which the insular govern- ment installed on the experimental farm in 1904. During the rice season the thrasher covered 125 miles and proved so popular that, in spite of the moder- ate toll charged, nearly $500 were cleared after paying all operating ex- penses. ‘The natives obtained so much more grain by steam-thrashing that some of the ignorant thought that there was adevil in the machine, or that there must be some trickery in its operation. The people in tramping out rice with 514 their feet or driving carabaos (see illus- trations, pages 510-511) over it asa means of thrashing it, generally occupy the best part of three months in the work and suffer losses of rice in waste, stealage, leakage, etc., of 25 per cent of the entire crop. They thrash the crop so slowly in fact that in many cases they eat it up as fast as they thrash it. Their methods of hulling and cleaning are equally crude, and the valuable by-products, as well as much of the rice, are wasted. By thrashing the crop by steam-power the rice be- comes a marketable commodity at once, and the farmer and his laborers have time to put in other crops. Several steam-thrashing outfits have been or- dered by Filipinos. ‘‘One curious trait of the Filipino,’’ says Mr W. C. Welborn, chief of the Bureau of Agriculture, ‘‘seems to be that he is willing to buy what he has actually seen to be good ; but one need not talk about any improvement or ad- dition to what he has not seen. He will believe none of it, and wants what he has seen demonstrated—no more and no less. It is often charged that the Filipino will not work, and hence will never develop the country. I believe he nowexpends enough energy (largely unprofitably spent, carrying heavy bur- dens long distances, tramping out rice, cleaning it in mortars, and doing all manner of hard work in the crudest way) to make the country a garden if properly directed.’’ | Some of the developments of the year were (1) improvements in the parks, buildings, and sanitation of Manila; (2) continued work on the harbor sys- tem, which when completed will enable Manila to ‘‘ offer to the shipping of the world a safe and commodious harbor, with a minimum depth of 33 feet, which will undoubtedly be the best in the Orient ;’’ (3) the completion of the Benguet road to the Bagino sanitary resort; (4) useful experiments in the Tue NationaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE introduction of American cattle, and im- proved and new varieties of agricultural products. WE OCCUPY THE BEST POSITION ON THE MAP : A few paragraphs from the address of the Sec- retary of the Treasury, Hon. Leslie M. Shaw, to the American Bankers’ Convention, Wash- ington, October 17, 1905. \ \ 7¥E point with pride to our export trade of a billionand a half, and with our thumbs in the armholes of our waistcoats we contemplate our skill and foresight and our ability as international merchants. Of our aggregate exports about $1,- 000,000,000 consists of raw cotton, food products, petroleum products, crude cop- per, lumber, and other raw materials and crude articles, of which we produce a surplus which the world not only needs, but must have. The time is coming, gentlemen—with our increasing population more largely urban than ever, with factories multiply- ing more rapidly than farms, with limit- less manufacturing resources and match- less aptitude for production—when the United States will need new.and impor- tant markets. The world may come to us in its own ships for the products of our farms and the raw products of our mines, but it will not come in its own ships for the finished products of our factories. The time iscoming when we will need international bankers and in- ternational merchants and an interna- tional merchant marine. We occupy the best position on the map. We have the safest and most con- venient form of money in the world. We speak the language of commerce. Our farms produce more than the farms of any other country. Our mines yield more gold literally by the carload, silver by the train load, and there is unloaded on the shores of a single commonwealth more iron ore than any other country produces. Our forests yield 100,000,000 Forests VITAL TO Our WELFARE feet of lumber for every day of the cal- endar year. Our factories turn out more finished products than all the factories of Great Britain and Germany combined by more than three thousand millions every twelve months. Wetransport this matchless product of farm and factory, forest and mine, from the interior to the sea at one-third what similar services cost anywhere else beneath the skies. We carry it from point to point along the coast in better vessels, on quicker time, and at cheaper rates than others. But at our coast line we are brought to an abrupt halt. Here we are no longer independent. Our foreign commerce is four times as large as forty years ago, but we carry in our own ships only one- third as many gross tons as forty years ago. We have protected and encouraged every interest but our merchant marine, and every protected interest has flour- ished. Wehave every facility for inter- national commerce except international merchants, international bankers,and an international merchant marine. Shall we not have these? I am not urging ship subsidies. I am speaking of re- sults, not of methods. If we will but take advantage of our opportunities, we will send these products of farm and fac- tory under every sky and into every port, and make our financial centers the clearing houses of at least a fraction of the world’s trade. FORESTS VITAL TO OUR WELFARE From an Address by President Roosevelt at Raleigh, N. C., October 19, 1905 ND now I want to say a word to you on a special subject in which all the country is concerned, but in which North Carolina has a special concern. The preservation of the forests is vital to the welfare of every country. China and the Mediterranean countries offer examples of the terrible effect of de- forestation upon the physical geography, and therefore ultimately upon the na- tional well-being of the nations. One of 545 the most obvious duties which our gen- eration owes to the generations that are to come after us is to preserve the ex- isting forests. The prime difference be- tween civilized and uncivilized peoples is that in civilized peoples each genera- tion works not only for its own well-be- ing, but for the well-being of the gener- ations yet unborn, and if we permit the natural resources of this land to be de- stroyed so that we hand over to our chil- dren a heritage diminished in value, we thereby prove our unfitness to stand in the forefront of civilized peoples. One of the greatest of these heritages is our forest wealth. It is the upper altitudes of the forested mountains that are most valuable to the nation as a whole, es- pecially because of their effects upon the water-supply. Neither state nor nation can afford to turn these mountains over to the unrestrained greed of those who would exploit them at the expense of the future. We cannot afford to wait longer be- fore assuming control, in the interest of the public, of these forests; for if we do wait the vested interests of private parties in them may become so strongly intrenched that it may be a most serious as well as a most expensive task to oust them. If the Eastern states are wise, then from the Bay of Fundy to the Gulf we will see within the next few years a pol- icy set on foot similar to that so fortu- nately carried out in the high Sierras of the West by the national government. All the higher Appalachians should be reserved, either by the states or by the nation. I much prefer that they should be put under national control, but itis a mere truism to say that they will not be reserved either by the states or by the nation unless you people of the South show a strong interest therein. Such reserves would be a paying in- vestment, not only in protection to many interests, but in dollars and cents to the government. The importance to the a1 Southern people of protecting the South- ern mountain forestsisobvious. These forests are the best defense against the floods which in the recent past have, during a single twelve-month, destroved property officially valued at nearly twice what it would cost to buy the Southern Appalachian reserve. The maintenance of your Southern water powers is not less important than the prevention of floods, because if they are injured your manufacturing interests will suffer with them. The perpetuation of your for- ests, which have done so much for the South, should be one of the first objects of your public men. ‘The two Senators from North Carolina have taken an hon- orable part in this movement. But Ido not think that the people of North Car- olina or of any other Southern state have quite grasped the importance of this movement to the commercial develop- ment and prosperity of the South. COTTON AND THE CHINESE BOYCOTT From an address by President Roosevelt to the citizens of Atlanta, October 20, 1905 AM glad to see diversifications of industry in the South, the growth of manufactures as well as the growth of agriculture, and the growing growth of diversification of crops in agriculture. Nevertheless it will always be true that in certain of the Southern States cotton will be the basis of the wealth, the main- stay of prosperity, in the future as in the past. The cotton crop is of enor- mous consequence to the entire country. It was the cotton crop of the South that brought $400,000,000 of foreign gold into the United States last year, turning the balance of trade in ourfavor. The soil and climate of the South are such that she enjoys a practical monopoly in the production of raw cotton. Under proper methods of distribution, it may well be doubted whether there can be such a thing as overproduction of cot- ton. Last year’s crop was nearly four- teen million bales, and yet the price was Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE sufficiently high to give a handsome profit to the planter. The consumption of cotton increases each year, and new uses are found for it. At present our market for cotton is largely in China. The boycott of our goods in China during the past year was especially injurious to the cotton manu- facturers. This government is doing, and will continue to do, all it can to put a stop to the boycott. But there is one measure to be taken toward this end in which I shall need the assistance of the Congress. We must insist firmly on our rights, and China must beware of per- sisting in a course of conduct to which we cannot honorably submit; but we in our turn must recognize our duties. exactly as we insist upon our rights. We cannot go into the international court of equity unless we go in with clean hands. We cannot expect China. to do us justice unless we do China jus- tice. The chief cause in bringing about the boycott of our goods in China was. undoubtedly our attitude toward the Chinese who come tothis country. This. attitude of ours does not justify the ac- tion of the Chinese in the boycott, and: especially some of the forms which that action hastaken. But the fact remains that in the past we have come short of our duty toward the people of China. It is our clear duty, in the interest of our own wage-workers, to forbid all Chi- nese of the coolie class—that is, laborers, skilled or unskilled—from coming here. The greatest of all duties is national self-preservation, and the most impor- tant step in national self-preservation is. to preserve in every way the well-being’ of the wage-worker. I am convinced . that the well-being of our wage-workers. demands the exclusion of the Chinese coolies, and it is therefore our duty to. exclude them, just as it would be the duty of China to exclude American la- boring men if they became in any way a menace to China by entering her coun- try. The right is reciprocal, and in our IMMIGRATION TO THE SOUTHERN STATES last treaty with China it was explicitly recognized as inhering in both nations. But we should not only operate the law with as little harshness as possible, but we should show every courtesy and consideration and every encouragement to all Chinese who are not of the laboring class to come to this country. Every Chinese traveler or student, business man or professional man should be given the same right of entry to, and the same courteous treatment in, this country as are accorded to the student or traveler, the business man or professional man of any other nation. Our lawsand treaties should be so framed as to guarantee to all Chinamen, save of the excepted coolie class, the same right of entry to this country and the same treatment while here as is guaranteed to citizens of any other nation. It is needed in our own interest, and especially in the interest of the Pacific slope and of the South At- lantic and Gulf states; for it is short- sighted indeed for us to permit foreign . competitors to drive us from the great markets of China. IMMIGRATION TO THE SOUTHERN STATES * N recent years, especially within the last ten, there has been a gradual but marked change of sentiment in the South in regard to the desirability of imm1- gration. The South now wants it and is working hard to getit. The resources of the South have scarcely been touched, and under the most favorable circum- stances it will require many generations to develop them. There are millions of acres of cotton, cane, rice, and tobacco lands that have never been cultivated. Louisiana alone has 19,000,000 acres of vacant land out of a total of 26,000,000 ; and it is estimated that not more than one-eighth of the cotton lands of the South are in cultivation. The mineral *A summary of an extremely interesting study by Prof. Walter L. Fleming, of the Uni- versity of West Virginia, published by Ginn & Co. Dy resources of the South are almost un- limited ; it has more timber than any other section of the United States; in every Southern state thereis water power never yet used, and there are ideal sit- uations for market-gardening on the largest scale. The negro cannot furnish either in quality or in quantity the labor neces- sary to develop the South. The pro- gress of the South since the war has been almost wholly in the white dis- tricts. Florida sends out lists of state lands, maps of the attractive portions of the state, and beautifully illustrated pamph- lets relating to cattle-raising, lumbering, fruit and truck growing, fish and game, and winter resorts. Louisiana pub- lishes free information concerning the climate, soil, resources, industries, schools, and churches, and sends out lists with descriptions and prices of 6,000,000 acres of land for sale. ‘The other Southern states follow much the same methods. Mostof the states have representatives in New York and in the West, whose business it is to disseminate information and secure immigration. The state immigration bureaus have had fair success. | Louisiana has probably secured the best results. The authorities confine their work principally in the middle West, aiming to attract substantial farmers rather than laborers. Since 1900 many Northern farmers have set- tled in Louisiana. In New Orleans, however, the work of the negro roust- abouts, who loaded and unloaded the steamers at the wharves, became so un- satisfactory that whites from the West were brought in to supplant them. South Carolina has secured several set- tlements of Scotch, Canadians, and Ger- mans, and is now trying to secure Scan- dinavians. Maryland secured 4,000 very desirable immigrants in one year at an expense of only $15,000. The state authorities have been greatly aided by hundreds of immigration and 518 development societies, Every commer- cial and industrial body acts also as an immigration society. In Louisiana alone there are more than one hundred ; one of them has 7,000 acres of land for sale. The ‘‘colony’’ plan has also brought desirable immigrants to the South. But the most potent factors in the immigration movement are the rail- roads. Each important railroad com- pany has hundreds of thousands of acres of land for sale and wishes to see in- dustries developed along its lines. Until witnin the last few years the North and South lines have not offered special rates to homeseekers except in colonies. Now, on the first and third Tuesdays in each month special homeseekers’ rates are offered on every road east of the Rockies that runs into the South or the Southwest. These excursions have proved a great success. ‘The Union sta- tion at St Louis is crowded every other ‘Tuesday with men from the Northwest bound to the South and Southwest. On the night of September 15, 1903, the Iron Mountain road carried out of St Louis within two hours six special trains with three thousand homeseekers. The South does not want the lower class foreigners who have swarmed into the Northern states ; it wants the same sort of people who settled so much of the West. The newcomers from the Western states and from western Europe are not mere laborers. They work for themselves on their own holdings. In those parts of the South, however where unskilled labor is wanted to supplement the work of the blacks, such immigra- tion will not solve the problem. One planter complained that he had land sufficient to produce 1,000 bales of cot- ton, but labor enough for only 300. He thought that the exclusion laws could be repealed if the Southern states should advocate the policy. It is cer- tain, however, that the South will not tolerate the introduction of large num- bers of Chinese, for fear of possible race complications. | Tur NaTIonaL GeocraPHic MaGaAZziIni The solution seems to be to induce the Italians to come in as farm laborers, with the prospect of becoming land- owners on a small scale. ‘They have come in larger numbers than other for- eigners, and, much to the surprise of all, they have proved successful farmers on the cotton and sugar plantations. The great lumbering companies also are employing them. The north Italian is preferred, but the principal immigration is from southern Italy, Sicily, and the old Papalstates. The numbers are con- stantly increasing. In Louisianain 1900 there were 17,000 Italians; in 1904 there were 30,000. In 1904 it was es- timated that more than 100,000 Italian farm laborers were working in the Southern states of the Mississippi Val- ley. Numbers come from Sicily or from the North to work during the cane- cutting season, and then return to the North or to Sicily. Between New Or- leans and Baton Rouge the Italian laborer has largely displaced the negro, and the same is true of many other lo- calities. At Independence, Louisiana, in 1904, 275 car-loads of strawberries, valued at $500,000, were produced by Italian la- borers. These colonists have begun to purchase little farms, have good homes, and money in the bank. The younger ones do not expect to return to Italy. A tract of 1,600 acres of land in this community sold, in 1879, for $1,600; in 1904, 200 acres of the same tract sold for $10,400. In the same community other pieces of the land have risen in value from $1 to $50 per acre within two years. Many planters have sub- stituted Italians for negroes as tenants. The former are not criminal, are prompt to pay debts, and have improved mor- ally as well as materially since they arrived in America. In conclusion, it may be said that im- migration to the South seldom reaches the black belt. There seems to bea dislike of contact with the negro. ImMPpoRTANT GEOGRAPHIC PUBLICATION Where newcomers enter the black belt they go in colonies, settle near the rail- road, and dispense with the negro. Much of the immigration does not in- crease the population of a community ; it simply displaces the negro. Com- pared with the great volume of immi- gration to the West and North, the numbers that go South are insignifi- cant ; but compared with the numbers that went South ten years and more ago, the recent movement is very im- portant. There is plenty of vacant land, and the Southerners say that if a mil- lion settlers have come and are satisfied, there is no reason why other millions may not come. AN IMPORTANT GEOGRAPHIC PUBLICATION HE report of the Kighth Inter- national Geographic Congress, which met in the United States in Sep- tember, 1904, has just appeared from the Government Printing Office, and copies are now being distributed to the members of the Congress. The volume makes a book of 1065 pages, illustrated by maps, diagrams, and photographs, and contains 148 papers and abstracts contributed by geographers from all parts of the world. It is one of the most valuable additions to geographic knowledge published during recent years. ‘The expense of publication has been paid by the United States govern- ment in accordance with an act of Con- gress passed March 3,1905. A useful feature of the report is the arrangement of the proceedings by means of which any act of the Congress may be readily found. The arrangement is: History of the Congress, organization, with offi- cers, committees, lists of members, of associate members, and of delegates and institutions represented, and a summary of membership and attendance, diary of the Congress, minutes of the general meetings, minutes of the meetings of the presidency, addresses, reports of Eo committees and resolutions adopted, and papers. ‘Ten of the papers included in the volume have been published in this magazine. ‘The following titles show the wide range of subjects discussed in tHeirenort. Scientific Exploration of Caves. Martel. The Valleys and Lakes of the Alps. brecht Penck. The Geography of Alaska. Mr A. H. Brooks. A Climatological Dictionary for the United States. Prof. A. J. Henry. The Canadian Climate. Prof. R. F. Stupart. Evidences of Land Near the North Pole. Prof. R. A. Harris. Glacial Exploration in the MontanajRockies. Prof. L. W. Chaney. Geographic Work of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Messrs W. C. Hodgkins and G. R. Putnam. Evidence in Favor of the Former Connection of Brazil and Africa. Prof. Charles C. Adams. Prof. E. A. Dr Al- The Conditions of Man’s Origin. Dr Leoni- das Chalikiopoulos. The Peoples of the Philippizxes. Mr Henry Gannett. Africa Between the River Juba and the Nile. Dr A. Donaldson Smith. A Comparative View of the Arctic and Ant- arctic. Dr Frederick A. Cook. The Everglades of Florida. Rev. J. N. Mac- Gonigle. Geography of the Pan-American Railway. Charles M. Pepper. Future Explorations in Australia. David Lindsay. Maps: Handling, Classifying, Cataloguing. Thomas Letts. Some Recent Governmental Influences upon the Geographic Conditionsof Commerce. Prof. Emory Rk. Johnson. Rise and Development of the German Colo- nial Possessions. Graf von Pfeil. The Economic Importance of the Plateaus in Tropic America. Prof. J. R. Smith. The Atlantic Ferry. Capt. D. J. Kennelly. The Caribbean Sea Regions and Their Re- sources. Francis C. Nichols. A Plea for the Establishment of a Commer- cial Game and Fur Preserve in the Northwest. Dr Townsend W. Thorndike. Geography and History in the United States. Prof. Albert P. Brigham. IRRIGATION REPORTS HE following Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers have been issued recently by the U. S. Geological Sur- Prof. 520 vey. Of these 4,000 copies have been delivered to Senators and Representa- tives in Congress and 1,500 copies to the Survey for general distribution. Applications can be made for them either to members of Congress or to the Survey. Requests specifying certain papers and stating reasons for asking for them are granted whenever practi- cable, but it is impossible to comply with a general demand for all of the series, as no mailing list is maintained. 1og. Hydrography of Susquehanna River Basin. J. C. Hoyt and R. H. Anderson. 110. Contributions to Hydrology of Eastern United States, 1904. M. L. Fuller, Geologist in Charge. 111. Preliminary Report on Underground Waters of the State of Washington. Henry Landes. 112. Underflow Tests in Basin of Los Angeles River. Homer Hamlin. 113. The Disposal of Strawboard aud Oil Wastes. R. L. Sackett and Isaiah Bowman. 114. Underground Waters of Eastern United States. M. Ll. Fuller, Geologist in Charge. 115. River Surveys and Profiles Made Dur- ing 1903. W. C. Halland J. C. Hoyt. 116. Water Problems of Santa Barbara, Cal. J. B. Lippincott. 117. The Lignite of North Dakota and Its Relation to Irrigation. F. A. Wilder. 118. Geology and Water Resources of a Por- tion of East-Central Washington. F. C. Calkins. 119. Index of Hydrographic Progress Re- ports of the U. S. Geological Survey. J.C. Hoyt and B. D. Wood. 120. Bibliographic Review and Index of Papers Relating to Underground Waters Pub- lished by the U. S. Geological Survey. M.L,. Fuller. 121. Preliminary Report on the Pollution of Lake Champlain. M. O. Leighton. 122. Relation of the Law to Underground Waters. D. W. Johnson. 123. Geology and Underground Water Con- ditions of the Jornadodel Muerto, New Mexico. C. R. Keyes. 124. Atlantic Coast of New England ,Drain- age. | oe. Hudson, Passaic, Raritan, and Dela- ware River Drainages. 126. Susquehanna, Patapsco, Potomac, James, Roanoke, Cape Fear, and Yadkin River Drain- ages. 127. Santee, Savannah, Ogeechee, and‘ Alta- maha Rivers, and EKastern Gulf of Mexico Drainages. Tur NaTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 128. Eastern Mississippi River Drainage. 129. Great Lakes and St Lawrence River Drainage. 130. Hudson Bay, Minnesota, Wapsipinicon, Iowa, Des Moines, and Missouri River Drain- ages. 131. Platte, Kansas, Meramec, Arkansas, and Red River Drainages. 132. Western Gulf of Mexico Drainage. 133. Colorado River and the Great Basin Drainage. 134. The Great Basin and Pacific Ocean Drainages in California. 135. Columbia River and Puget Sound Drain- age. 136. Underground Waters of Salt River Val- ley.. W. T. Lee. 137. Developmeut of Underground Waters in the Eastern Coastal Plain Region of Southern California W. C. Mendenhall. 138. Development of Underground Waters in the Central Coastal Plain Region of Southern California. W.C. Mendenhall. 139. Development of Underground Waters in the Western Coastal Plain Region of South- ern California. W.C. Mendenhall. 140. Field Measurements of the Rate of Movement of Underground Water. C. S. Slichter. 141. Observations on the Ground Waters of Rio Grande Valley. C. S. Slichter. 142. Hydrology of San Bernardino Valley, California. W. C. Mendenhall. 143. Experiments on‘ Steel-concrete Pipes. J. H. Quinton. 144. The Normal Distribution of Chlorine in the Natural Waters of New York and New England. D. D. Jackson. 145. Contributions to the Hydrology of Eastern United States, M. L. Fuller, geologist in charge. 146. Proceedings of Second Reclamation Conference. Compiled by F. H. Newell. 147. Destructive Floods in the United States in 1904. KE. C. Murphy and others. - Commercial Geography. By Henry Gannett, Carl Louise Garrison, and Edwin J. Houston. With maps and illustrations. Pp. 420. 534 x 8 inches. New York: American Book Company. 1905. $1.00. Now that the exploration of the world is practically completed, and the acqui- sition of land by conquest is becoming more difficult each year, the struggle for commercial supremacy becomes princi- pally a matter of education and training. Germany, realizing this fact some years Nis vy Sten oat ComMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY oki ei | Nie Oy (Gare! eee SS ARCTIC] CIRCLE TK ree ALIS RIES NS cS RE A Kee A ES =; From Gannett, Garrison, and Houston’s “ Commercial Geography”? Copyright, 1905, by American Book Company Relative Density of Railroads in United States and Europe. x Z 4 N x ) S = an Au e 4 ) O ea O — < Z S sy Zz ea an) HH a2 Auedmo0d yoog uvorssury Aq ‘So61;'348114do5 « AYdeis0a5 [BOIIM MOD ,, S, UOJsNHOH pure ‘MosTIIey ‘yjouUey Woly Po ae re Va vn eae PFI IV ee? ORS oY (Gear, a8u0d> vVT7 Peyo---- ca li SN : zg ' O°, uapeyuayy WW uow/eocono = % \ Os re! Qe. | Ysan@] sse+s 429K) 0000 YQ | , vo ’ van Y Lo: J8ISGOT ++++ YSHEUNY ra) x ‘ a 9 7 ‘ aa BUIIIAJ{ —— = NG SS i © z= Ss 16 Salle eagle |e: Sofie Op 7 Ol : a! SS TES >) ‘ : 48 a2 yy C) COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY reno Share of the United States in the World’s Industries and Products. Area Population Cultivated land Wheat Corn Oats 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70 aaa] St eae Sars % Potatoes Wine Beer Spirits Sugar Tobacco Cotton Wool Cattle Sheep Meat Fish Butter & Cheese Leather Paper Glass Cotton Cloth Woolen Cloth Gold Silver Coal Petroleum Iron Ore Pig Iron Steel Copper Lead Zinc Mercury Salt R.R. Mileage Tonnage Ships Imports ae Exports Total Commerce 10% From Gannett, Garrison, and Houston’s ‘‘Commercial Geography” 20% ago, has established many industrial and commercial schools of great efficiency and usefulness, and has emphasized the study of commercial geography in all her schools.* In the United States, on * See Nat. Geog. Mag. March, 1905, pp. I1I- 117. a aes : Wifes Be nite ad = a 5 ae ees 7 Ee 30% the other hand, we have not paid much attention to the subject until recently. Protected by a high tariff, and assisted by a general inventive faculty greater and more practical than any people have ever shown, we have gone on de- veloping our own resources until we are 524 now able to manufacture not only nearly everything we want for ourselves, but also an unlimited surplus which we are desirous of selling at best profit to other countries. The subject of commercial geography, the wants of other people and how they are supplied, now be- comes to us very important, and as the authors of this book state in their pre- face: ‘‘As applied to our own country, this study is especially stimulating ; for we have advanced to the front rank in the leading industries of agriculture, min- ing, manufacturing, and transportation. If this prosperity were due entirely to the generosity with which nature has showered her gifts upon us, no lesson could be drawn from it ; but the history of the past, and a comparative study of the different countries in the present, teach us that without man’s earnest and thoughtful cooperation the greatest wealth of natural resources may co-exist with the greatest stagnation in develop- ment. If, therefore, in the face of the competition that grows keener as the years advance, we would maintain our superior position, we must not grope blindly, but must know the causes of success and failure and act with the clearest understanding.’’ ‘‘Commercial Geography’’ is de- signed as a text-book in the high school and academy, but it will doubtless prove no less useful and just as interesting to many of the grown-up generation, who were offered no such course in their school-days, and who have had to obtain their knowledge of commercial geog- raphy as best they could. It begins with a study of the influence on indus- trial progress of climate and topog- raphy, of social conditions, of manu- facturing and transportation facilities, and of financial conditions, giving due weight to each as a factor in economic development. When this foundation is laid the student is ready to consider with a broader interest the chief commercial products of the world, their relative im- THe NatTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE portance in different regions, and the modern processes of manufacture of the staple articlesconsumed. Then, begin- ning with the United States, he studies in greater detail the actual conditions existing in the principal countries of the world and the forces that are oper- ating to the continuance or change of — such conditions. ‘The relations of the various industries to one another and their location in different parts of the world are shown graphically by maps and by percentage diagrams or tables, while definite quantities are given in tables at the end of the book. For world diagrams the authors have generally used a map of the world on Mollweide’s elliptic projection. On this map every part of the globe appears in equal proportion, with the result that the geographical distribution of prod- ucts is shown without being distorted as we get away from the equator. An excellent index is given. Theltalianin America. By Eliot Lord, John J. D. Trenor, and Samuel J. Barrows. Illustrated. Pp. 268. 8 x 5% inches. ~ New York= 7b... Buck &7Co- What becomes of the hundreds of thousands of immigrants into the United States each year? What work do they take up to support themselves in their new country, and where do they goto? In 1904 we accepted 191,000 Italians, and in 1905 221,000. How are they prospering now? is a question which many are constantly asking, but to which we have had much difficulty in finding the answer. ‘‘ The Italian in America’’ attempts successfully to give us this information, and we are glad to learn that it is one of a series of volumes to be published by Benj. F. Buck & Co. treating of the principal nationalities comprising our recent immigration. The authors of the present work think very highly of our Italians. They are frugal, ambitious, and loyal citizens and are important contributors to the ma- GEOGRAPHIC terial development of the United States. It is unfortunate that so many have been compelled to remain in our big cities, but there are many thousands who are spreading over the land, buying and settling down on cotton plantations in Texas and Louisiana and on the citrus and fruit farms of southern California. The average Italian, says Mr Eliot Lord, prefers the country and goes there as soon as he gets enough money to take him. Mr Lord quotes Adolfo Rossi, supervisor of the Italian emigra- tion department, as saying that 84 per cent of the Italians coming here are be- tween 18 and 45 years of age; 84 per cent are, in other words, producers. Every Italian costs his country $1,000 to bring up; but by leaving Italy the $1,000 invested in him by his country is lost. ‘‘ We spend a thousand dollars to bring up and develop a young man, and then you reap the profits of the investment.’’ The Far Eastern Tropics. By Alleyne imeland, F.R.G.S. 8vo, pp. 7-339. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1905. This is a critical account of the gov- ernment, administration, and to some _ extent the industrial condition of certain eastern peoples—Hongkong, Borneo, Sarawak, Burma, Malay States, Straits Settlements, French Indo-China, Java, and the Philippines. . Mr Ireland is English by birth, and while it may not be quite fair to quote, with reférence to him, the old saying, ‘‘What’s English is good, what isn’t, ain’t,’’ the book unquestionably sug- gests it. Heis also everywhere cock- sure of himself. Hongkong, he says, is a marvel of growth, a city of 300 000 people, built up in sixty years. But to us that is not so strange, for San Francisco, with an equal population, is younger, while Chicago, with its 2,000,000 inhabitants, is but little older. He tells us that the foreign commerce of Hongkong exceeds LITERATURE as that of any other city on earth, for- getting that everything that comes and goes is foreign, even the nightly boat to Canton. If we should add to the foreign commerce of New York its do- mestic commerce, including the fleet that every night goes up the Sound, Hongkong would not be in the same class. It is, however, with what he says about the Philippines and our conduct of their affairs that we are most inter- ested, and to this subject he devotes nearly half thebook. Incompany with many Hnglishmen, who are watching with critical eyes our course in the Philippines, he entirely misunderstands our purpose. We are not governing the Philippine Islands, as they suppose, but are helping the Filipinos to govern themselves, and between these there is a great difference. Mr Ireland is sur- prised and disturbed that we have not molded the Philippine government on the pattern of English colonies, and, with sublime assurance, assumes that our failure to do so is due simply to our ignorance of British colonial meth- ods. It has not occurred to him that the statesmen who framed the Philip- pine government, being entirely familiar with foreign colonial history, made use of the experience of other nations only as farasitcouldhelpthem. Mr Ireland can rest assured that wherever the Phil- ippine government departs from British colonial methods there exists a good reason therefor, even though he may be unable to explain it. He also ob- jects to our plan of developing a good government before developing the in- dustries, forgetting that the latter can- not and will not take precedence of the former. Did the world ever see indus- trial development under unstable gov- ernment? Mr Ireland has a very low estimate of the industrial efficiency of the Fili- pino, obtaining his measure of it by the curious method of dividing the exports of the Archipelago by the number of BAG inhabitants. What relation the result- ing figure has to anything it would be difficult to discover, but by means of it he places the Filipino at the foot of all tropical peoples, with $5 each, as com- pared with $12 for Porto Ricans and $44 for the people of the Federated States. Let us extend the comparison on the same basis; the Chinese would stand at the bottom with only 50 cents—~. e., they are only one-tenth as efficient as the Filipinos. The people of the United States, who may fairly be regarded as efficient, rate at $18, far less than the people of the Federated States, less even than the negroes of Sierra Leone. The fact is, as is shown in the Census Report, the Filipinos are at least as efh- cient as any other tropical people. Mr Ireland criticises the expense of the Philippine government, and, as a basis for comparison with other colonial governments of the Far Hast, he com- pares the cost of government with the amount of exports. Here again there does not appear to be any relation be- tween the two factors. The statement that the cost of government is a certain proportion of the export trade is utterly meaningless. One would suppose that he would have compared the cost of government per capita of the people governed, the ordinary method of com- parison, but this would not yield the results which he wishes, since the cost of government in the English colonies in the East is much greater per capita than in the Philippines. He ridicules the Philippine Civil Serv- ice examinations and contrasts them with those held for the East Indian service. Ifthe examination for the Kast Indian service, which he instances is for the same grade of clerk as is the Philip- pine examination—-7.é. ,the lower grade-— he merely succeeds in holding up to ridicule the Indian examinations. Why should a clerk be expected to be versed in the higher mathematics, in Sanskrit, and in the old English poets in order to Tue NatTIoNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE audit accounts or keep books? Yet that is apparently required. The book bris- tles with errors and misstatements, but enough have been adduced to put the reader on his guard. H. G. A Century of Expansion. By Willis Fletcher Johnson, lL. H. D. With maps. Pp. 316. 5x7%inches. New York: The Macmillan Co. The author gives a very thoughtful analysis of our expansion as a nation. He shows that our growth has been reg- ular, not spasmodic, and that if we would continue strong we must continue developing intellectually and physically. The saying, ‘‘ When growth ceases the man begins todie,’’ isas true of nations as of the individual man. ‘‘Territorial expansion increases power, enlarges the sphere of activity, adds to responsibilities and duties, cre- ates new problems for solution, leads to new relationships, and thus induces con- stitutional—that is, intellectual and moral—development of the nation. The physical growth of a man is steady, persistent progress, not an irregular se- ries of disconnected spasms. We may say the same of our territorial expan- sion. However widely and irregularly separated by time, the individual acts of territorial acquisition are all intimately and essentially related. Order and de- sign characterize them. The law of cause and effect is dominant among them. Inthe first step of expansion, in colonial times, every subsequent step was forecast and made inevitable. From Washington at Great Meadows to Dewey in Manila Bay, the span in both time and space is enormous, but it is a span of unbroken links of cause and effect—co- herent, logical, and inevitable.’’ Mr Johnson’s style is clear, concise, and rich in classic allusions and inci- dents. He furthermore handles his sub- ject in aclever, suggestive way that tells just enough and stimulates the reader to do some thinking for himself. | bao . s4 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY SOME RECENT GOVERNMENT REPORTS The Avocado. G. N. Collins, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 77. The Variability of Wheat Varieties in Resist- ance to Toxic Salts. L. Ll. Harter, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 79. Agricultural Explorations in Algeria. Thomas H. Means, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 80. Evolution of Cellular Structures. O. F, Cook and Walter T. Swingle, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 81. Grass Lands of the South Alaska Coast. C. V. Piper, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 82. Tie Witality of Buried Seeds. J. W.-T. Duvel, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 83. The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil. W. D. Hunter and W. E. Hinds, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bull. 51. Experiments in the Culture of Suger Cane and its Manufactureinto Table Syrup. H.W. Wiley, Bureau of Chemistry, Bull. 93. 57 Tobacco Investigations in Ohio. George T. McNess and George B. Massey, Bureau of Soils, Bull. 29. The Commercial Cotton Crop. James L. Watkins, Bureau of Statistics, Bull. 34. Statistics of the Fisheries of the New Eng- land States. A. B. Alexander, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. 575. A Revision of the Cave Fishes of North America. Ulysses O. Cox, Bureau of Fisheries, Bullies 79: The Gas Disease in Fishes. M. C. Marsh and F. P. Gorham, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. 578. Critical Notes on Mylocheilus Lateralis and Leuciscus Caurinus. John Otterbien Snyder, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. 574 Notes on the Fishes of the Streams Flowing into San Francisco Bay, Cal. The Life History of the Blue Crab. W. P. Hay, M.S, Bureau of Fisheries, Bull. 580. Geology of the Tonopah Mining District, Nevada. J. E. Spurr. Geological Survey, Prof, Paper 42. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HE completed program of the pop- ular and technical meetings of the National Geographic Society for 1905- 1906. THE POPULAR COURSE The addresses in this Course will be delivered in the National Rifles Armory, 920 G street, at 8 p. m. on Friday even- ings of the following dates: November 10—‘'‘A Review of the Russo-Japanese War—from the Sinking of the Variag to the Signing of the Treaty of Portsmouth.’’ By Mr Robert Ll. Dunn, special correspondent of Col- lier’s Weekly in the Far East. The address is a pictorial summary of the war, being illustrated by nearly 200 views. November 24—‘‘ The Panama Canal.’’ By Hon. James R. Mann, Member of Congress from Illinois. December 8—‘‘ What Shall be Done with the Yosemite Valley.’’ By Mr William E. Curtis. Illustrated. The Yosemite Valley has been receded to the federal government by act of the California legislature, but has not yet been formally accepted by Congress. December 9 (Saturday )—‘‘A Military Observer in Manchuria.’’ By Major Joseph Kuhn, U.S. A. Illustrated. December 22—‘‘An Attempt at an Interpretation of Japanse Character.”’ By Hon. Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japanese Legation. January 5—‘‘ Russia and the Russian People.’’ Mr Melville EK. Stone, Gen- eral Manager of the Associated Press, has accepted the invitation of the So- ciety to deliver the address on this sub- ject, provided the demands of the public service do not interfere. January 9 (Tuesday)—‘‘ The Ziegler Polar Expedition of 1903-1905.’’ By Messrs W. S. Champ, Anthony Fiala, and W. J. Peters. A novel feature of this meeting will be the exhibition of moving pictures of Arctic scenes. January 19—“‘ Railway Rates.’’ By Hon. Martin A. Knapp, President of the Interstate Commerce Commission. £20 February 2—‘‘Austria Hungary.”’ By Edwin A. Grosvenor, LL. D., Pro- fessor of International Law in Amherst College, author of ‘‘ Constantinople,’’ ‘‘ Contemporary History,’’ etc. February 16—‘‘ Africa from Sea to Center.”” By Mr Herbert, L»Bridg- man. Illustrated. Africa in transition today challenges the attention of the world. Few intel- ligent Americans know to what extent its possibilities have been developed since Livingston’s day, a development that in rapidity promises to exceed that of North America. February 23—‘‘ The Personal Wash- ington.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, of the Century Company. Illustrated. This is not a lecture in the ordinary sense of the word, but-it is an exhibi- tion, through the medium of the stere- opticon, of the greatest collection of prints, manuscripts, and letters refer- ring to the personal side of Washington, ever brought together. March 2—‘‘ Our Immigrants: Where They Come from, What They Are, and What They Do After They Get Here.”’ By Hon. F. P. Sargent, U. S. Commis- sioner General of Immigration. Illus- trated. March 1{6—‘‘ Oriental Markets and Market Places.’’ By Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief U. S. Bureau of Statistics. Il- lustrated. March 30—It is hoped that official business will permit the Secretary of the Navy, Honorable Charles J. Bona- parte, to address the Society on ‘‘ The American Navy.”’ April 13—‘‘ The Regeneration of Ko- rea by Japan.’’ By Mr George Kennan. Illustrated. SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS The meetings of this course will be held at the new home of the Society, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Sixteenth and M streets, on Friday evenings, of the following dates. Tur NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE INovember 17—‘‘ Morocco.”’’ Ion Perdicaris. November 25 (Saturday)—‘‘ The Pan- ama Canal.’’ By Mr Bunau-Varilla. December 1—‘‘ The Development of the Mineral Resources of Alaska, with particular reference to the Fairbanks and Nome Regions.’’ By Mr Alfred H. Brooks, Chief of the Alaskan Division, U. S. Geological Survey. December 15— ‘‘ Surveying our Coasts. and Harbors.” By Hon. WO.¥a. Tite mann, Superintendant U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. December 29—‘‘ Problems for Geo- graphical Research.’’ By Gen. A. W. Greely, U. S. A. ‘“The Binding Power of Road Mate- rial.’’ By Mr,A. S. Cushman. January {2—Annual meeting. Re- ports and elections. ‘‘ Progress in the Reclamation of the West.’’ By Mr F. H. Newell, Chief Engineer Reclamation Service. January 26—‘‘ The Carnegie Institu- tion.’’ By President R.S. Woodward. February 9—‘‘ The Introduction of Foreign Plants.’’ By Mr David G. Fair- child, Agricultural Explorer, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture. February 24 (Saturday)—‘‘ Hunting with the Camera.’’ By Hon; George Shiras, Member of Congress from 3rd District, Pennsylvania. : March 9—‘‘ The United States Bu- reau of the Census.’’ By HonS.N.D. North, Director. | March 23—‘‘ The Death Valley.’ By Mr Robert H. Chapman, U. S. Geolog- ical Survey. April 6—‘‘ The Total Eclipse of the Sun, July, 1905, as Observed in Spain.’’ By Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. N., Superintendent U. S. Naval Observatory. April 20—‘‘ The Protection of the United States Against Invasion by Disease.’’ By Dr Walter Wyman, Sur- By Mr . geon-General Marine Hospital Service. CEO GRAPH \GAZINE DECEMBER, 1905 CONTENTS The Parsees and the Towers of Silence at Bombay, India. By - William Thomas Fee, U.S. Consul General, Bombay . China and the United States. By Sir Chentung Liang-Cheng, K. C, M. G., Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipo- tentiary from China to the United States . ; What Has Been Accomplished by the United States Toward Building the Panama Canal. By Theodore P. Shonts, Chairman of the Isthmian Canal Commission Russia in Recent Literature. By General A. W. Greely, Chiet sromenal Offices U. SiA. . . we Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. 554 558 $2.50 a Year | | 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Ofiee in Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter ae (Caer MAGAZINE. Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; Editor; GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors GENERAL A. W. GREELY Chief Signal Officer, U. S. Aenry W J McGEE Chief Department of Anthropology and Ethnology, Louisiana Pur- ehase Exposition €. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U. & Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Burean, U. &. Department of Agriculture Oo. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 0. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, | Department of Commerce and Labor DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Depart- ment of Agriculture Hiabheard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. ot NATIONAL | GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE IN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY, published. by the NationaL GerocrapHic Society. editorial communications should be ad- dressed to the Editor of the NatIonaL | Business communications — should be addressed to the National Geographic Al $2.50 A YEAR ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY Chief of the Division of Mineral — Resources, U.S. Geological Survey ALPRED H. BROOKS U. S. Geological Survey ANGELO HEILPRIN Academy of Natural Sciences, Phila- im delphia : R. D. SALISBURY University of Chieago G. K. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, U. s. Weather Bureau, San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON i President St Lawrence Univer Vor. XVI, No. 12 WASHINGTON DECEMBER, I905 na @iak PARSEES AND THE TOWERS OF SILENCE AT BOMBAY, INDIA GEOGRAPIRIC MAGAZIINIE a By Wititiam Tuomas Fees, U.S. Consut GENERAL, BOMBAY The following story of the Parsee people and the description of the Towers of Silence at Bombay were written at the United States Consulate largely during hours in the night-time, at seasons when the excessive heat of India prevented Dame Nature from performing her part of the ‘‘ sweet restorer.’’ Lt is not claimed that anything new has been told, though it 1s hoped that some of the old may have been stated in a new light. It is mainly descriptive and written solely for the pleasure and profit of my fellow-countrymen, who of late years have found much of interest in the traditions and customs of the people of India. Lam under great obligations to many Parsees for considerable data and help given me, but especially to my friend, the late Dossabhai Framjee Karaka, the historian. Lhe drawing and photographic feature ts made use of to illustrate the development and individual attainments of members of this remarkable race. HOUGH comparatively small in point of numbers, the Parsees occupy one of the foremost places among Indian nationalities. Their social position, peculiar customs, manners, and foreign designation are impressively striking to a stranger on his first visit to Bombay. ‘Their story is a romantic tale of a people whose ancestry appeared at the very dawn of history, and who occupied Persia when Abraham was a nomadic wanderer, tend- ing his flocks on the sandy plains beyond the Euphrates. They claim that their WM THOS: FEE. ancestral race was the foremost Asiatic nation of their time, whose grandeur, magnificence, and glory were unsur- passed; that their kings were the most powerful and wisest of monarchs, whose armies were renowned for courage and military prowess ; that they were valor- ous and energetic, bringing up their youth to ‘‘ride, draw the bow, and speak the truth;’’ that their heroes were as humane as they were courageous; that their women were as braveas they were fair, and as celebrated for the freedom allowed them as for their modesty. a3 “RELIGION OF ZOROASTER ”’ The Parsees are of Persian origin, of the Iranic race, and are supposed to have had a common ancestry, somewhere in West-Central Asia, where man, as we now know him, is said to have had his birth. More than 3,000 years ago their forefathers left the uplands of that mys- terious Aryan home from which our own ancestors had already gone forth, and were in all probability the first of the Indo-European family to embrace a purely monotheistic faith. In religion they are followers of Zo- roaster, who was a religious reformer and founder of this ancient Persian re- ligion at a period probably prior to the Assyrian conquest of Bactria, his native country, which is said to have taken place 1,200 years before the Christian era. At all events, the religion of Zo- roaster can certainly claim a hoary antiquity which unquestionably chal- lenges our deep respect. The scripture of this faith, the Parsee Bible, is called the ‘‘ Zend-Avesta’’ or, more properly, simply ‘‘Avesta,’’ or “Avesta and its Zend.’’ While Zend is understood to mean the translation of the original text and commentary, inthe Zend language, the oldest form of Iranic speech known, and to which Dr March gives the name of ‘‘ Old Bactrian,’’ the Zend-Avesta embraces the whole Parsee religious literature, ancient and modern. The Avesta proper is one of the most interesting documents coming to us from the early history and religion of the Indo-European family. of several distinct parts, many of which are fragmentary and of different ages, some of which must be many centuries older than ourera. This religious sys- temisamonotheism. It recognizes the dual principle of good or light, and evil or darkness. Fire is its principal em- blem, as being the purest of allelements ; hence the misconception that its ad- herents are fire-worshipers. The com- It is made up. Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE mon charge of worshiping fire, the sun, water, and air, brought against the Par- sees, is not well founded. ‘The Parsees emphatically deny the charge, and his- tory gives several accounts of acts of hatred shown by the Parsees toward idolatry. ; God, according to the Parsee faith, i the creator, preserver, and ruler of the universe. Heisthe emblem of glory and light. In view of this a Parsee while engaged in prayer is directed to stand before fire or turn his face toward the sun, because they appear to be the most proper symbols of the Almighty. Such is still the present practice among their descendants in India. Zoroaster, the Parsee Moses, appears as a being of supernaturai endowments and as receiving from the supreme di- vinity, by personal interviews, by ques- tions and answers, the truths which he is to communicate to men. The idea of a future life and the immortality of the soul pervades the whole of Avesta literature. The doctrine of the resur- rection of the body at the time of the last judgment is claimed as a genuine Zoroastrian dogma, without the slight- est trace of its being borrowed from a foreign source. With religion Zoroaster has com- bined both moral and speculative phi- losophy in a remarkable degree. In regard to man, he takes cognizance of two intellects—the ‘‘Asno-Krato,’’ the innate or born wisdom, and the ‘‘ Go- ashosruto-Kratu,’’ or acquired wisdom. The Zend-Avesta insists in emphatic terms that ‘‘ virtue alone is happiness in this world,’’ and its path is the path of peace. The moral foundation of the Parsee religious works is built upon three basic injunctions, which are pithily expressed in the Avesta, viz., ‘‘ Humata,’’ ‘‘ Hu- khta,’’ and ‘‘ Hvarshta,’’ which mean ‘‘ good thoughts,’’ ‘‘ good words,’’ and ‘“ good deeds.’’ THe Parsres oF INDIA EMIGRATION TO INDIA When the Persian Empire of Sassa- mides was destroyed by the Saracens imeosr A-D., the great mass of the nation was forced to adopt the faith of Islamism, the religion of their Moham- medan conquerors ; but a small num- ber clung to the old Zoroastrian faith and took refuge in the wilderness of the Persian province of Khorasan. After much wandering and enduring great persecution and hardship, they, in the eighth century, emigrated to India and made a settlement at Sanjan, in the neighborhood of Surat. Here they lived in the Sanjan country for some seven hundred years in tranquillity and in full enjoyment of their religious rites, under the government of the Hindoo rajahs of Sanjan, Guzerat. They chiefly occupied themselves in agriculture and industrial pursuits. It is said that they not only turned the face of the territory they occupied from a dreary jungle into a fruitful garden and made it blossom as the rose, but they also enjoyed considerable pros- perity. About the time of the discovery of America the Hindoo rajah’s govern- ment, under which they lived, was over- thrown bya Mohammedan-Afghan con- queror. The Parsees, with a high char- acter for fidelity, were loyal to the Indian kings, who had given them and their ancestors a welcome when they had been driven from their own Persian homes by the same foe. They gathered their forces to the standard of the rajahs, and proved themselves of great valor. The result of the campaign was, how- ever, one of disaster. They were finally dispersed from the Sanjan country and compelled to seek new homes in other parts of Guzerat. It was probably some time after this event, though there does not seem to ex- ist any authoritative record of the exact date when the Parsees arrived in Bom- bay. It may, however, be safely said opt that their settlement in that island was some time before Bombay was ceded to the British, in 1669, by the King of Portugal, asa dowry of Catherine, Prin- cess of Braganza, who became the wife of Charles the Second of England. As a sect in Persia they have disap- peared under religious persecutions, and have sunk into ignorance and poverty, though still preserving a reputation for honesty, industry, and obedience to law superior to that of other Persians. THEY HAVE RETAINED THEIR INDI- VIDUALITY FOR 1,200 YEARS There seems to be no authoritative in- formation as to the number composing the first exodus to India, or if the Parsee colony was ever materially increased by early additions from Persia. Some tra- ditions have it that there was a paucity of females among them, and that they intermarried with Hindoo women on their first coming to India. This tra- ditional intimation of racial mixture is not well received by the Parsee people of today. However it may have been, there is one thing certain, that if ever the practice did occur it surely was short- lived, as no custom of today is more re- ligiously observed than that of inter- marriage among their own people. For some 1,200 years they have lived among theall-absorbent Hindoos, yet this mere handful of people have not been ab- sorbed. During the last 300 years the transmissiveinfluenceofan Anglo-Saxon civilization has been reflected upon them, yet they remain Parsees still. India has in turn been conquered and reconquered by all the great nations of history, from Greek to Britain. Her conquerors have each shaped the affairs of half of the earth. The possession of the Indian Peninsula seems an indispensable re- quirement for sovereignty in the East. Internecine wars, racial strifes,and caste prejudices have robbed her of her own; pestilence and famine have blighted her fairest flower; yet during all these cen- turies,amid all the vicissitudes of oriental Soo life, have lived the worthy descendants of the ancient Persian people, true to their faith, and have substantially pre- served and transmitted the main char- acteristics of their ancestral race. The Parsee stands unique in the history of mankind. The Parsees of India have been ex- ceedingly prosperous and have steadily increased in number, now being vari- ously estimated at about 100,000 souls. They are most numerousin Bombay. A few have settled in China and remote places in India for the purpose of trade, but these outlying settlements do not contain more than perhaps 4,000 people. It is calculated that about 85 per cent of the Parsees in India reside in the Bom- bay presidency, which was found by the census taken by the government of India in I901I to be 78,552. Of these 46,231 reside in city of Bombay. On the spread of Mohammedanism to India they became again the subject of persecution. Since the occupation of India by the British they have fared better, and now form a peaceful, intelli- gent, wealthy, and influential commu- nity. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS Physically they are tall and erect, hav- ing remarkably small hands and feet, with facial features resembling the Eu- ropeans. ‘They have a quickness of ac- tion bordering on nervousness. ‘Their hair is jet black and their eyes are dark. In their manners they are exceedingly polite, kind, and hospitable, often put- ting themselves to great inconvenience to accommodate a stranger. In the habit of diet they are religiously ab- stemious, and are exceedingly temperate in the use of tobacco and intoxicating liquors. Excepting, perhaps, fisa, fowl, and mutton, they are not a ‘“‘ meat-eating people.’’ Like most oriental nations, a principal food among them is rice, served in curries and in a hundred dif- erent ways. Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE Fully three-fifths of the population of the globe live on rice; the founders of the five great religions of the world were nourished by it. It might be worth while for scientists to look a little more closely into the brain-making qualities of this worthy food. They were never known to have prac- ticed the barbarous custom of ‘‘suttee,”’ the burning of the widow on the funeral pyre with the corpse of her husband, or of following their Hindoo neighbors in the cruel practice of prohibiting their widows, often mere infants, from re- marrying. ‘They are also free from the caste system so rigidly practiced by the Hindoos.. Since they have freed them- selves from Hindoo influences and be- come amenable to Western civilization, the practice of infant marriage has sub- stantially ceased among them. ‘Their women are treated with respectful con- ' sideration and have long since been lib- erated from the seclusion of the zenana and the use of the purdah. The long, flowing ‘‘ saree’’ of many silken tints, wrapped about the body in graceful folds, gives to the female Parsee a garment of exquisite beauty and rarecomfort. It would bea matter of great regret if this graceful dress should give place to modern European fashion, with the tight corset and the high-heeled shoe, that destroy the grace- ful carriage and health of the wearer. The Parsee women are generally of good figure and of pleasing and intelli- gent countenance. Many of them have a light olive complexion and are consid- ered very handsome. ‘They appear to great disadvantage by being obliged to conceal their hair, of which nature has. graced them in a most luxuriant manner, under the ‘‘mathabana,’’ a custom re- garded as a token of feminine modesty. A Parsee historian states that there is no injunction against keeping the head uncovered ; yet the Parsees haveimbibed the notion, supported by long usage and originally imported from Persia, that it is sinful and contrary to religion to leave Tue Parsges oF INDIA the head uncovered, either by day or night ; hence a Parsee is never without his skull cap or a woman without her ‘“‘mathabana.’’ The latter is a thin white linen of the size of a small hand- kerchief. CUSTOMS AND MANNERS As a separate community the Parsees have not only their peculiar religion, but also their own moral code, and as acivil body they are not only permitted, but also aided by the state, in inforcing their own laws of marriage and divorce. Their ancient custom governing inherit- ance and succession has been enacted for them, on their petition, into the form of a legal statute by the empire. They enjoy full religious freedom, and their peculiar customs and manners are fully protected by the liberality of the British rule in India. For a number of years after they came to India they adhered to the use of their native Persian language; but as time rolled on they gave it up for Gujerati, the language of the Hindoos, among whom they dwelt. Gujerati now forms their vernacular. They are taught English from earliest childhood, and they study in the schools Persian and Sanskrit as classics. They all speak Hindustani, and many of them are fluent in the Persian tongue, in which they keep up communication with their brethren in Persia. Their worship in the course of time became tainted by many Hindoo prac- tices, and the reverence for the fire and sun, as emblems of the glory of ‘‘ Or- muzd,’’ naturally degenerated into idol- atrous practices. However, the wor- ship in recent years has been restored to its pristine purity, and the sacred fire which Zoroaster is said to have brought down from heaven is kept burning in consecrated spots and temples are built over subterranean fires. They have a priesthood which, strange to say, are not educators or 533 teachers of the people, as is usually the case in other religious systems, nor are they themselves necessarily educated, but are simply a class of men who per- form the ceremonial rites of the religion at marriages and funerals, tend the fires on the temple altars, burn incense, chant hyms, and say prayers. The Parsee is imbued with a spirit of toleration and is most respectful toward the religions of others. Besides their own sacred days, they observe many of those of the Hindoos. In Bombay they celebrate the holidays of the English and close their shops and places of business on the Christian Sabbath. There is now a marked desire on the part of the Parsees to adapt themselves to the manners and customs of the Euro- peans. The Parsee mode of life may be described as an eclectic ensemble, half Huropean and half Hindoo. As they advance every year in civilization and enlightenment, they copy more closely European manners and modes of living, adopting the bad with the good—regretfully too much of the for- mer. A Greek historian has remarked that of all nations the ancient Persians were most distinguished by their readi- ness in imitating foreign manners and customs. This peculiarity their de- scendants have retained to the present day. During their sojourn in Guzerat they willingly adopted the language, dress, and other social customs of that country, and they now have taken as completely to English manners and customs, so much so that when they speak of “‘ going home’’ they mean to England. The educated and influential classes have al- ready adopted in their domestic life the comforts, conveniences, elegancies, and, we may also add, the costliness of the European style. The domestic arrangements of their houses have also undergone, of late, vast changes. Their houses are generally built in good taste, upon well-conceived 54 plans, and they are well ventilated. Their villas or garden houses are some of the best in Bombay. ‘The drawing- rooms are richly furnished and deco- rated and the walls adorned with land- scapes and historical pictures, while the particular boast of a Parsee is to have his house brilliantly lighted with many lamps and chandeliers of every descrip- tion. A great improvement has taken place among the Parsees in their mode of taking meals. Years ago they used, like the Hindoos, to eat them squatting on the ground, and the viands were served to them in a brass dish, on which they were all spread out at the same time, a practice still in vogue among the poorer classes. The better classes have for a long time past adopted the table and chair, with all the usual accompaniments of a Europeandinner. At large parties the tableis spread outin English fashion, instead of as formerly, when hundreds sat in a line in rows upon an oblong sheet of cotton cloth laid upon the floor, each eating his food off a plantain leaf upon which it was laid out. The public and private schools of Bombay are largely attended by their children, and every effort is made to pro- cure translations of standard English books. Asa matter of fact it may be said that the Parsees are very progress- ive, and that it is only necessary for them to understand the value and ad- vantage of whatever may be offered them to induce them to accept it with eager- ness. PUBLIC-SPIRITED GENEROSITY At present they seem to have lost all their military spirit. Many follow com- mercial and mercantile pursuits, some of them being the wealthiest merchants in India, while others have obtained high favor in government offices or have won distinction by reason of their char- itable gifts. Four Parsees have been especially honored by the late Queen Tur NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Victoria. The heads of two families. have been made baronets—Jamsetjee Jeejeebhai and Dinshaw Maneckjee Petit—and knighthood has been con- ferred upon the late Kavasjee Jehangir Readymoney and M. M. Bhownagree, at present representing the district of Bethnal Green in the British House of Commons. They provide for their own poor and infirm. Strikingly strange, one never sees in Bombay a Parsee soldier, servant, or beggar. But their faultless generosity is. broader than their race, and many of the fine public buildings, colleges, and hospitals, of which Bombay is justly proud, owe their origin and maintenance to the liberality, wealth, public spirit, and genius of the Parsees. Indeed, it is a most significant fact that the one hun- dred thousand followers of Zoroaster who still tend the sacred flame, in spite of their numerical insignificance, play so large a part in the development of India. A comparison of the political stand- ing and social surroundings of the Parsee community in Bombay with that of their sister community in Persia furnishes one of the most remarkable examples in the whole range of English history of the beneficence of British rule. ° It is interesting to relate that the Parsees of Persia have been helped by their wealthy kinsmen in Bombay, espe- cially as regards their education and the lightening of their political burdens. The rupees which the Parsee commu- nity has spent till now for the allevia- tion of the sufferings of their followmen, irrespective of caste or creed, are to be counted in crores, and one of the hap- piest and most remarkable features of it is that this spirit of catholic charity burns not only at home—that is, in the country which they have adopted as their own—but wherever they take themselves, either for the pursuit of business or pleasure. 535 Tur Parsges oF INDIA ‘EOLISUTY PoIIAOOSIP snqminjod o1049q siead ool ys¥oo 1ye19lny 9qq} UO pez qst] sem ‘uelueg-1-yassty ayy 0} Surps0s.e ‘yey eIY potoes sures oy} ,,epeAPN,, }e Surging ydoy st osoy} Aepoy, ,,"Yeyg uesy,, Jo omeu oy} 4q umouy SI pue ‘erpuy UL Ssasieg ey} Aq pepunoy o[dute} ory ys1y oq} sem sin, ‘uelueg ze “q “y 06/ tea aq} ynoge ur ajdmaq ory ye013 & pepunoj Avy} ‘WIO}s B1aANs B AG UdAL}IIAO o19M Ady} Udy “eIpUT 0} a8vAOA Iq} UO saasteg 94} q apeU MOA B jo JUSTIN uy epeapy je s[dmay, ay 536 oe oe aS sae ee fee ae i | j oN | || S : THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Interior of Fire Temple There are some thirty fire temples in Bombay. The picture shows the sacred fire and attending priests in the Anjuman, or Community, fire temple at Dhobie Talao, Girguam Road, Bombay. HIGHLY EDUCATED AND PROGRESS- IVE PEOPLE It will be of interest to note the per cent of literacy of this people in com- parison with the principal races of the Bombay presidency, as obtained by the last government census. The popula- tion of the presidency of Bombay, in- cluding the native states, is given at 25,435,000 of. people. ‘The literacy of the inhabitants of the entire presi- dency is given at 6.4 per cent. The literacy of the Hindoos is given as 60 ; the Mohammedans as 41 ; the Jains as 270; the Brahmins at 320; the Parsees at 650 per 1,000 of their respective people. In point of intelligence, edu- cation, wealth, refinement, and public charity, the Parsee stands preeminently at the head of all the races of Western India. There are perhaps few, if any, large cities where the death rate approaches that of Bombay, yet it speaks well for the sanitation and vitality of the Parsee community, on observing the compara- tive death rate of the different races in Bombay, that the Parsees are next low- est tothe Europeans. It might be fur- ther stated that the European in India Tue Parsges oF INDIA A Parsee Lady in Regulation Dress 538 Tue National GreocraPHic MAGAZINE Jamsetjee Nusserwanjee Tata, the Business Prince and Philanthropist of Bombay By commerce, trade with China, and cotton manufacture Mr Tata has accumulated vast wealth. His firm has branch houses and representatives in the principal cities of the world, and he has become one of the foremost business men of his race, and of India. His city resi- dence in Bombay is palatial and his hospitality unbounded. He isthe most loyal subject of the King Emperor, yet one of his present great aims is to develop some of the vast resources of India. He has recently visited America to learn something of her manufacturing skill and methods, that he might be enabled thereby to reduce the iron ores of which India is so rich. He has set aside thirty-two lakhs of rupees (one million dollars, gold) of his wealth for the founding of an ‘‘Indian University of Research,’’ for the purpose of affording facilities for original scientific research and investigation in the broadest sense possible. Mr. Tata is a leader in the building improvement of Bombay. The vast hotel which he is constructing is a monument to his public-spiritedness and will reflect great credit upon the city. It is built of basalt rock, is seven stories high, covers two squares of ground, and fronts on the Bay of Bombay, over which it has a magnificent outlook. It has been building for the past five years, and is now nearing completion, at an estimated cost of more than twenty-one lakhs of rupees (about seven hundred thousand dollars, gold). He intends to make it ‘‘not only the finest hotel in India, but in all the East.’’ Tue Parsgegs oF INDIA s 1 Yee & ¢ & % 4 % % From Stereograph, copyright, by Underwood & Underwood A Parsee Schoolmaster and His Class of Boys 540 ‘Tue Nationat GrocrapHic MAGAZINE Navrozjee Maneckjee Wadia, C. I. E. A Parsee merchant and a companion of the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire. He is reputed to be the richest man in Bombay. His mother, the late Bai Motlibhia Maneckjee Wadia, has endeared her memory for many generations to come by her munificent charitable ifts. Mr Wadia will leave by deed of trust his entire vast fortune to universal charity and relief of the distressed, without distinction of nationality, race, cast, color, sex, or condition. He is also the Bearer of the Cross of the Legion of Honor, conferred upon him by Napoleon III. Tue Parszges oF INDIA A Parsee Bride and Groom A promising barrister-at-law of Bombay, with his handsome bride 541 542 invariably sends his children home. The fact is there are but very few European children in Bombay, and the European population consists mainly of the adult class; hence the death rate among them would naturally be the minimum. The Parsee has many chil- A Parsee School Girl in Regulation Dress dren ; therefore it can be well stated that the mortality rate is decidedly in favor of the Parsee. The reason that brought a custom into life in the Hast may have long since ceased to exist and is perhaps forgotten, yet the custom may be continued. On Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE seeking to learn why, one is met with the answer, ‘‘ It is an immemorial cus- tom’’ or ‘‘It is part of religion,’’ when in fact religion has little to do with it. But religion has a broad back. After some devastating famine in times gone by cattle became scarce, and to encourage their increase became a necessity. The cow with the high hump was selected by the Brahmin caste or some powerful rajah and pro- nounced sacred; hence she was per- mitted to propagate and roam at will; yet today it would seem difficult to give a reason why one kind of a cow more than another, or even why any, should be considered sacred. SOME PECULIAR CUSTOMS In the early days the use of soaps and disinfectants were unknown. ‘The urine of cows was found to contain an element of ammonia. The Parsees were taught to use it for cleansing and puri- fying purposes and as a disinfectant. Surely the reason for the practice of this disgusting and filthy habit has long ceased ; yet, strange to say, it is still continued in use today, and it is even said to have a religious sanction. A corpse, though it may have died of plague or other contagious disease, is first washed and disinfected (?) with the product of the cow before being borne on an open bier through the public streets of Bombay to the Towers of Silence. In connection with the ceremony of the dead, the face of a deceased Parsee is exposed three or four times to the gaze of a dog during the funeral oration and the dog is finally led, following the corpse, to the Towers of Silence. One is told that the dog is supposed to guide the soul of the dead toward heaven and to ward off the bad influences of evil spirits to which it may be exposed. The exact object and meaning of this strange ceremony cannot be satisfacto- rily given. ‘The better-educated Par- Tue Parsges oF INDIA sees claim that there is no reason for it, and none seems to be found. It is a striking example of a custom being con- tinued after the reason has ceased to exist or at least has been forgotten. Another odd custom in vogue among the Parsees is that the name of the father is given to the son asa surname. For instance, if a Parsee of the name of ‘* Framjee Dossabhoy '’ had ason whose mame was Maneckjee, his full name would be ‘‘ManeckjeeFramjee.’’ When again his son had a son whose name was Jebanjir, his full name would be “‘ Je- hanjir Maneckjee.’’ ‘The grandfather’s name is dropped entirely within three generations. Sometimes the name of a distinguished ancestor is added after the father’s name, but this is not even continued for more than a few generations. This practice has a tendency to destroy the family unit and lessen its influence and mag- nify the caste or tribe. While the general voice of the Parsee community seems to be unfavorable to the admission of aliens to the Zoroas- trian faith, and the trustees of the prin- cipal Fire Temple in Bombay have pro- hibited such persons from entering its sacred precincts, nevertheless prose- lytism to the religion does occasionally occur. Parsee priests are to be found whose objections can be overcome and who will permit the sacred precincts of the Fire Temple, over which they pre- side, to be invaded by alien converts to the Parsee faith. MARRIAGE CEREMONIES The Parsees, owing to their coming in contact with the Hindoos, adopted a number of their customs, among which was unfortunately included the practice of infant marriage. Hindoos are most strictly enjoined by their ‘‘ Shastras’’ to have their girls married before they have reached the age of nine years. Great disgrace is attached to the parents on their failure to do so. The Parsees ers seemed to have participated in this idea, and consequently practiced, until within recent years, infant marriage of their daughters. This custom is now no longer followed by the Parsees in Bom- bay, but instances of the kind, we are informed, may still occur in some out- of-the-way place in Guzerat, where the A Parsee School Girl in Regulation Dress light of a higher civilization has not yet dawned. The most sensible persons among them have always disapproved of the absurd custom, and it may be stated that the practice of infant mar- riage among the Parsees is nowa custom of the past. Marriages are generally arranged by the parents of the contracting parties. 544 Tue NaTIonaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The Framjee Dinshaw Petit Parsee Sanitorium A handsome structure for a noble purpose, built out of a fund set apart by the late Mr Framjee Dinshaw Petit for the benefit of his Parsee community. The length of the building is 293 feet and the depth is 75 feet. thirty-six families in all—twelve on each floor. It can accommodate To each of such families two rooms are assigned, with a bath-room, kitchen, and other necessary arrangements. A noticeable feature in connection with the sanitary arrangenients of the building is the introduction of the ‘‘ Macerating Bacteriological Tanks’’ for the disposal of sewage and sullage. The cost of the building, including grounds, is nearly five lakhs of rupees. Sometimes they may commission a match-making priest to find a suitable party for their child. The horoscope of the boy, as well as that of the girl, may be examined by the professor of astrol- ogy to determine whether the respective stars of the proposed pair are in har- mony. ‘The wealth, position, and social standing of the parents are thoroughly investigated and considered. When the heads of both families have been satis- fied and approval given as to the suit- ability of the match, the betrothal takes place, usually at a day fixed by the astrologer. There is little ceremony attending this occasion, and it is con- sidered to be made binding by the ex- change of presents. For several days preceding the date of marriage, which is usually fixed on cer- tain days of the year supposed to be propitious for such ceremony, a succes- sion of dinners and ‘‘natches’’ are given to friends of thefamily. Itiscustomary Sir Jamsetjee Jijibhai, Third Baronet He represented the city of Bombay at the Coronation of King Edward VII, and is by com- mon consent the recognized head of the Parsee community of Bombay The vast wealth of his family has built bridges and reservoirs, founded and maintained uni- versities, colleges, hospitals, schools, and charitable funds for the benefit of all races, without regard to cast, color, or creed. 546 on these occasions to make exchange of presents between the kinsmen of the bride and groom. ‘The bride is also pre- sented with valuable ornaments by the proposed father-in-law. Many thou- sands of rupees are spent upon these antenuptial festivities. On the wedding day a large number of friends are invited by the contracting parties to witness the nuptial ceremony. Following the custom of the Hindoos, the wedding always takes place after the sun has set, in accordance with the promise given to the Rajah of Sanjan by the Parsees on their first landing in In- dia. The wedding guests, when assem- bled, to the number frequently of one thousand and more—the men in full Parsee costume of snow white, the ladies arrayed in rich jewelry and dresses of variegated colors,splendidly ornamented with gold and embroidery, the evening enlivened by the music of a band— form a beautiful scene, rarely witnessed in any other part of the globe. Bouquets of flowers, upon which rose- water is sprayed from a golden jar, in order to give them a perfume, are passed among the guests. Packets of ‘‘ pan- supari,’’ made of the nut of the arica palm, upon which a portion of chunam or lime is smeared, wrapped in the leaf of the beetle vine and pinned together with a clove, are distributed to the guests. The procession of the bridegroom was formerly attended with great splendor and state, as is still the practice of the Hindoos. Gaily comparisoned horses, chariots, and sometimes elephants are used to convey the bridegroom to the home of the bride. On reaching the home of the bride, the bride and groom are seated opposite each other in chairs, placed on a carpet or large rug, and the guests and relatives are seated in circles about them. For the following details the writer has abbreviated from a description of a mar- riage ceremony furnished him by his Tue NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE good friend, the late Dossabhai Framjee Karaka : A piece of cloth is held between the bride and groom, as a curtain, so as to screen them from each other’s sight. Under this curtain they are made to hold each other’s right hand in their grasp. Then another piece of cloth is placed around so as to encircle them, and the ends of the cloth are tied together in a double knot. In the same way raw twist is taken and wound round the pair seven times by the officiating priests, who during the performance repeat the short prayers of Yatha Ahu Vairyo. On completing the seventh round the twist is tied seven times over the joined hands of the couple, as well as round the double knot of the ends of the cloth previously put aboutthem. When this is over incense is burnt on a fire placed in a flat metallic vase, after which the curtain is suddenly dropped down and the bride and bridegroom, who have each beeu provided with a few grains of rice, hasten to throw them at one another. Thisis followed by a clapping of hands from the ladies seated around the bridal pair, and the applause is taken up by the gentlemen outside. After throwing the rice the couple sit side by side, when the recital of ‘‘ ashir- wad,’’ or blessings, by two ‘‘ dasturs,’”’ or chief priests, follows ; one of these stands before the bride and the other before the bridegroom. The holding of the curtain between the bride and the bridegroom and its subsequent removal are meant to show that up to the time of the ceremony they were separated from each other, but that they areso no longer. Their being made to sit opposite to one another at first and side by side a little later on also expresses the same notion. ‘The grasping of their right hands by each other and their being tied by a string signify that they are thenceforth united. The putting round of the string and the cloth,so as to encircle them with a double VRAIS A rb A Parsee Wedding 548 Tue Nationat GrocrapHic MaGazIne The Tower of Silence and Fire Temple at Uran The photograph was taken froma rock in the cliffs of the overhanging mountains by an artist especially sent out by Messrs Underwood & Underwood, of New York. The Tower has been but recently dedicated, and hence the grounds are yet unimproved. The wall, capped with broken glass, that surrounds the grounds is noticeably in the foreground. The Tower is not a large one. very distinctly shown. The inclined pathway to the door that admits the corpse and pall-bearers is The oblong white arched-roofed building to the right, near a targola palm, is a small Fire ‘femple, where the sacred fire is ever burning, and is used by the mourners for prayers. knot at the ends, means that they are now joined and made one. ‘The object of using raw twist, and of its being put round them seven times, is to show that while raw twist itself can be very easily broken, when it is strung round seven times and twined into one it forms so strong a band that it cannot be broken by ordinary strength, thusimplying that the love and affection of the husband and wife for each other should be so strong that nothing can undo it. The reason for the twist being strung round seven times is because this num- ber is held to be very auspicious among the Parsees, there having been seven archangels, seven heavens, and seven continents known to the ancient Per- Tue Parsges oF INDIA sya ey, A Model of a ‘‘ Tower of Silence’’ This model gives a fair idea of a Tower of Silence ; the circular wall, steps, drainage wells, the door, and also the inside construction are exactly represented in miniature. sians. Lastly, the throwing of a few grains of rice upon each other is watched with much interest by the friends and re- lations of the bride and bridegroom. - The eyes of all, particularly of the ladies, are upon the pair to see which succeeds in throwing first the rice as soon as the curtain is withdrawn. The one who succeeds is supposed to evince the more love and affection of the two. Then the senior ‘‘ dastur’’ begins the more solemn part of the marriage cere- mony, and pronounces the following blessing: ‘‘ May the omniscient Lord bless you with many sons and grand- sons, with good livelihood, heart-rav- ishing friendship, and an existence of one hundred and fifty years.’’ Portions of the brief address which follows the blessing are given below. By the helping name of Ahura Mazda may your happiness increase. May you be brilliant. Try to do good deeds. Be increasing. Be victorious. Learn to do good deeds of piety. Be worthy to do good deeds. Think of nothing but the truth. Speak nothing but the truth. Do nothing but what is proper. Shun all bad thoughts. Shun all bad words. Shun all bad actions. Praise deeds of piety. Commit no acts opposed to piety. Praise the Mazdayasnan religion. Do nothing without mature consideration. Acquire wealth by good means. oS Say what is true before your superiors, and act according to their orders. Be courteous, sweet-tongued, and kind toward your friends. Do not indulge in scandals. Avoid being angry. Do not commit sins for the sake of avoiding shame. Do not be ambitious. Do not torment others. Do not entertain wicked jealousy. Do not be naughty. Ture NaTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Treat your friends in a way agreeable to them. Do not enter into any discussion with persons of illfame. Speak in an assembly after great consideration. Speak with moderation in the presence of kings. Preserve the good name of your father. In no way annoy your mother. Keep yourselves pure by means of truth. Be immortal like Kaikhosru. Be well-informed like Kaus. Be as brilliant as the sun. From Stereograph, copyright, by Underwood & Underwood Tower of Silence Where vultures devour the Parsi dead, Malabar Hill, Bombay, India. Avoid evil thoughts. Avoid evil passions (revenge). Deprive not others of their property. Keep away from the wives of others. Be industrious in following good professions. Do good to the pious and to the virtuous. Do not quarrel with the revengeful. Never be a partner with an ambitious man. Do not become a companion of a backbiter or a scandal-monger. Do not join in company of persons of illfame. Do not cooperate with the ill-informed. Fight with your enemies only by fair means. Be as pure as the moon. Be as illustrious as Zarthosthra. Be as strong as Rustam. Be as fertile as the earth. As soul is united with the body, so be you united, friendly with your friends, broth- ers, wife, and children. Always keep good faith, and preserve a good character. Recognize only Ahura Mazda, the omniscient Lord, as your God. Praise Zoroaster as your spiritual leader. Treat Ahreman, the evil spirit, with contempt. Tue Parsges oF INDIA When the ceremony has been con- cluded the bridegroom, accompanied by his friends, retires to his own house, where they all sit down to a banquet. The bride’s party are entertained by her father. The ladies are first served, and when they have left the table it is pre- pared for the gentlemen. The Parsees, from their earliest so- journ in India, have refrained from eat- ing meat on the day of marriage, toavoid giving offense to the feelings of the Hindoos. ‘The viands, therefore, con- sist of fish, vegetables, sweetmeats, fruits, preserves, and similar articles. Wines are drunk freely, and several toasts are proposed by the company, in- cluding the health of the wedded pair, their parents, and the chief men of the assembly. After dinner the ladies retire to their own houses, but the gentlemen sit till alate hour enjoying the pleasures of a ‘‘natch,’’ or of a band that follows. A repetition of the nuptial benediction is also performed by the priests after midnight before a few select friends and relatives. As the couple are invariably young, separate accommodation is seldom al- lotted them after their marriage, nor even when they have attained adult age do they leave the parental roof. They live in the same house with the other members of the family. Though a father has six or seven sons they all reside, with their wives and children, in the house of their sire, and the gray-headed old man is often able to look with pride and pleasure upon the group of children and grandchildren around him. THE TOWERS OF SILENCE Mr John Fryer, who arrived in Bom- bay in the year 1671, says in his book of travels: ‘‘On the other side of the great inlet to the sea is a great point abutting Old Women’s Island, and is called Malabar Hill; a rocky, woody mountain, yet sends forth long grass. G5) At the top of all is a Parsy tomb, lately reared. On its declivity, towards the sea, the remains of a stupendous pagod, near a tank of fresh water, which the Malabars visit it mainly for.’’ This ““Parsy tomb,?’ or ‘“dokma,’’ .as‘it is called in the vernacular, still exists on Malabar Hill. In accordance with religious injunc- tions, the Parsees build their Towers of Silence on the tops of hills, if available. No expense is spared in constructing - them of the hardest and best materials, with a view that they may last for cen- turies, without the possibility of pol- luting the earth or contaminating any living beings dwelling thereon. On Malabar Hill, a long, prominent, rocky ridge, paralleling and overlook- ing the Arabian Sea, are built the ‘* Towers of Silence.’’ ‘They are five in number, the one mentioned by Dr Fryer now more than 230 years old; another for the use of suicides only, and three others. They are surrounded by about six- teen acres of ground, artistically laid out and planted with beautiful flowers and tropical plants. Just inside the entrance gate is a peculiarly constructed building, set apart for a fire temple and a house of prayer. ‘These ‘‘ Dokmas,’’ or ‘‘ Towers of Silence,’’ are built upon one plan, but their size may and does vary. The largest of them measures 276 feet in circumference, or about 90 feet in diameter, surrounded by a cir- cular wall, 20 to 30 feet in height, built of the hardest stone, and faced with chunam or white plaster. There is an opening or door just above the ground level, through which the dead bodies are carried by professional corpse-bearers, who have gone through certain religious ceremonies and who are alone privileged to carry the corpses into the tower. No one else can enter or touch them. That an intelligent idea may be given I have annexed hereto a ground plan of a tower of silence. Inside the tower eye Tue NarionaL GreocrarpHic MAGAZINE gsi Ly WD fags. f Lityys giRCREONA yy: Ig > NY yi pr = Pe UD La ty 4 SS A i) a Yy, ; K | (<4 \ f} Wf, TAPP ZS WN va) eae IONS YY ei y el, Ay A 4 OZ S Gy » as “a CaTZA | UZaZae Ground Plan, Towers of Silence, Malabar Hill, Bombay ae a. Row of Favi for children. é. Outer wall. 6. Row of Pavi for females. J. Underground drain. c. Row of Pavi for males ad. Foot paths. g. Charcoal filter. hk. Undergronnd well Tue Parsges oF INDIA is a circular platform, about 270 feet in circumference, and entirely paved with large stone slabs, and divided into three rows, called ‘‘ pavis,’’ for the bodies of the dead. As there are the same num- ber of pavis in each concentric row, they diminish in size from the outer to the inner ring. THE DISPOSAL OF THE DEAD The outside row is used for the bodies of males, the next for those of females, and the third or inner row for those of children. These receptacles or ‘‘pavis”’ are separated from each other by ridges called ‘‘dandas,’’ which are about an inch in height above the level of the pavis, and channels are cut into the pavis for the purpose of conveying all the liquid matter flowing from the corpses and rainwater into a ‘‘bhandar’”’ or a deep hollow, in the form of a pit, the bottom of which is paved with stone slabs. This pit formsthe center of the tower. When the corpse has been completely stripped of its flesh by the vultures, which is generally accomplished within an hour at the outside, and when the bones of the denuded skeleton are per- fectly dried by the powerful heat of a tropical sun and other atmospheric in- fluences, they are thrown into this pit, where they crumble into dust, the rich and poor thus meeting together after death in one common level of equality. Four drains are constructed leading from the bottom of the pit. They com- mence from the surroundiug wall of the bhandar and pass beyond the outside of the tower into four wells sunk in the ground at equal distances. At the mouth of each drain charcoal and sand- stones are placed for purifying the fluid before it enters the ground, thus ob- serving one of the tenets of the Zoroas- trian religion, that ‘‘ The mother earth shall not be defiled.’’ The wells have a permeable bottom, which is covered with sand to a height of 5 to 7 feet. +53 However distant may be the house of a deceased person, whether rich or poor, high or low in rank, he has always a walking funeral. His body is carried to the Towers of Silence on an iron bier by official corpse-bearers, and is followed in procession by the mourners, male relatives, and friends, dressed in white flowing full-dress robes, walking behind in pairs, and each couple joined hand in hand by holding a white handkerchief between them in sympathetic grief. This mode of disposing of the dead, which the Parsees have practiced for countless generations, is repulsive to the sentiment of nations accustomed to bury their dead in the ground ; but it is thoroughly sanitary, and clears away most effectually one of the greatest dif- ficulties encumbering. the path of san- itary reformers in great cities. According totheir religion, earth, fire, and water are sacred and very useful to man, and to avoid their pollution by contact with putrefying flesh, the faith strictly enjoins that the dead bodies shall not be buried in the ground, burnt, or thrown into the rivers or sea. They further claim that it really carries out the doctrine of the equality of man more satisfactorily than burying or burning, since the bones of the whole community, rich and poor, rest together at last in the well within the Tower of Silence. | A dismal impression is made at first thought upon the foreigner by these towers, where absolute silence has reigned for centuries, and where, within the last half century, more than fifty- thousand Parsees have been exposed. THE VULTURES It is estimated that some five hundred vultures make their homes in the lofty tropical palms in the gardens that sur- round the towers, and when a corpse is exposed in one of them they swoop down and do not rise again until all the flesh has been devoured. Within its silent precinct they are secluded and free from Sy GG: all outside interference, and I have been told by those who have watched for the purpose that they never rise to the top of the tower with any substance what- ever. ‘They are disqualified by the form of their weak, little curved, unretractile talons from seizing or carrying away living prey. These birds lay two eggs at a time, and are said to produce but once a year. Like the American eagle, they build their nests in inaccessible rocks and places remote from the hands of man. These jackals of the air are large in size and have remarkably keen sight. They have naked heads and necks, a broad, powerful, hooked bill, and strong, thick legs. They are gregarious, slow in flight, gluttonous of habit, and prefer carrion to living prey. In view of the fact that the corpses of all Parsees, regardless of the cause of death, even of the most contagious fever, smallpox, Bombay plague, or cholera, are thus exposed in the towers, it is re- markable that these vultures have never been known, so far as investigation can determine, to spread the contagion or suffer from it themselves. When all is over they come to the top of the towers, where they sit for hours without moving. Toe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE There is nothing of a sacred character ascribed to the birds which admirably perform this disgusting though useful work in the economy of nature. ‘The fact is that there is no unpleasant taint of this charnel-house in the grounds about the towers, there being not the faintest odor of death to mingle with the perfume of the flowers blooming in this beautiful garden. Europeans may regard the Parsee sys- tem as barbarous and repugnant to civ- ilized ideas. The Parsees are quite as much justified in so regarding our sys- tem of sepulture. The undoubted fact remains that from the sanitary aspect the Parsee system is infinitely the better of the two. ‘True, we do not like to think of the vultures hovering around the funeral procession for the last few miles, or of others awaiting it, perched on, and greedily gazing down into, the tower. Their system is at all events the more perfect solution of the sanitary side of the question, especially in this hot and moist tropical climate. Death is a solemn reminder of the equality of all men before the law of nature, and their mode is an efficient preventive to post-human distinction, vanities and funeral pomp. CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES* By Sir CHentune Liane-Cuene, K. CC. Mage ENVOY EXTRAORDINARY AND MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY FROM CHINA TO THE UNITED STATES ROM the earliest intercourse of i the United States with China, the relations between our two coun- tries have been of the friendliest charac- ter. When the governments of Europe in the past century, singly or in combi- nation, took aggressive action against China,the United States always refrained from acting with them or following their example. But especially since the days when your distinguished citizen, Anson Burlingame, after having represented the government of the United States at the court of Peking,served so ably as theam- bassador of the Imperial Chinese govern- ment in making a series of treaties with * An address to the Commercial Club of Chicago, November II, 1905. CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES foreign powers, and particularly the treaty of 1863 with your government, we have been drawn more closely together. The constant policy of your govern- ment in regard to the affairs of the Far East has been one of conspicuous mag- nanimity and justice. This was amply manifested in the settlement of the dif- ficulties of 1900 and throughout the ne- gotiations with the powers in the follow- ing year. I recall with unspeakable pleasure the conduct of President Mc- Kinley at that time, through whose wis- dom and forbearance my country was saved much humiliation. The policy which he marked out was followed by his successor, President Roosevelt, whose fairness and high sense of justice have been always evinced toward us. Norcan I fail to mention the friendship and pro- tecting careof that eminent and lamented statesman, John Hay,Secretary of State. _ For these reasons the Chinese, as a gov- ernment, are under a deep sense of grati- tude, and, asa people, are naturally most friendly inclined toward the govern- ment and people of the United States. Hence it was that I experienced a feel- ing of no little satisfaction when I was honored with the mission to represent the country of my birth in the country of my education. The subject about which doubtless you would be glad to hear from me— the commercial possibilities between the two countries—is one respecting which the members of the Commercial Club, with their long experience and keen judgment, are better judges than my- self. But I cannot fail to see that, as China is brought more and more closely in contact with foreign countries, as the people come to learn the necessities, the conveniences, and the comforts enjoyed by the people of other lands, as by travel, by education, by long residence abroad, her demand for foreign com- modities will be largely increased. China is not, to a great extent, a manu- facturing country; nor is she likely to Ce): be in the near future. Her people are too easily satisfied with what they can readily purchase in the world’s markets. Nor are her people, who have enjoyed art, culture, refinement for centuries, disinclined to modern luxuries and con- veniences. The present foreign trade in that ancient empire is chiefly confined to the coast provinces. It is anticipated that the abolition of the likin tax, as provided in the recent comniercial treaties, when fully carried out, will forever destroy that formidable barrier to internal commerce so long deplored by merchants, both foreign and native alike. When her immense natural re- sources shall have been developed, her purchasing power will indeed be greatly increased. It is this commercial growth I long to see established between the two coun- tries, and it has been my pleasure, as well as my duty, to smooth all differ- ences which might threaten its complete realization. But there is one difference now engaging the serious attention of the two governments which I may be pardoned for bringing to your atten- tion. ‘The exclusion question and the administration of the exclusion laws are matters which seem to have engaged very little the consideration of the American people; but they are matters of vital importance to the Chinese di- rectly concerned. WhileI wishit to be understood that it is not my intention to unduly criticise the laws or the ad- ministration of the laws, the mention of some facts may aid you in a proper con- sideration of this question, which has a direct connection with the improvement of our commercial relations. When the American Commissioners went to Peking to negotiate the immi- gration treaty of 1880, in the first memo- randum which they submitted to the Chinese plenipotentiaries in setting forth the object of their visit, they stated that the restriction they desired was “‘ en- tirely of laborers.’’ An examination of 556 their detailed negotiations, which were fully reported to their government, will show that they made no other demands. After receiving most sacred assurances that the restriction shall be ‘‘ reason- able, and not absolute prohibition,’’ the Chinese government gave consent to the American government’sdemands. This was considered at the time by the Amer- ican Commissioners, as their official reports show, as a concession from the Chinese government without any guid pro quo. The Chinese government had good reason to believe that the question would be handled with dueleniency, and that the American p2ople would not take advantage of their good nature. Fourteen years elapsed, and the Amer- ican government by resolution of the Senate again sought to negotiate a modi- fication of the treaty with the Chinese government. Thetreaty of 1894, which expired December last by limitation, containing a provision that no Chinese laborer shall enter the United States, wastheresult. It should be stated that there is no indication in this resolution that the Senate desired the exclusion of _ any other class of Chinese than laborers. It is evident that the object of the Amer- ican government was to secure, and the consent of the Chinese government was given to, the prohibition of Chinese la- borersonly, and nootherclass. During more thana score of years of restriction and prohibition, abuses have sprung up on both sides. Time will not permit me to enumerate the numerous cases of hardship and unjust treatment of which the exempt classes of Chinese have been made the victims because of the over- zealousness of some United States gov- ernment officials in discharging their duty in keeping out the prohibited class of Chinese. Suffice it to say that prior to the President’s order of last June it had so stirred up the feeling of the Chinese people that the boycott against American goods was the regrettable con- sequence. THe NatTionaL GgroGraPHic MAGAZINE In compliance with the wishes of the American government, the Chinese gov- ernment has issued an imperial decree, warning the people to respect every treaty stipulation under penalty of se- vere punishment, and urging them to suppress the boycott pending action of Congress to relieve the situation, and the provincial authorities have issued similar proclamations. The Chinese government, while viewing with con- cern the exclusion of Chinese laborers under undue discrimination is, never- theless, not unwilling to take into con- sideration the condition of things al- leged toexist in thiscountry. But aside from the laboring class, all other classes should be admitted, and should receive the same treatment as is accorded to similar classes of Europeans entering this ‘‘land of freedom.’’ As the laws and the immigration regulations stand today, aside from the five classes named in the expired treaty of 1894, namely, students, merchants, teachers, travelers, and officials, the following classes of Chinese cannot enter the United States, to wit, bankers, lawyers, journalists, priests and the clergy, physicians, den- tists, insurance agents, brokers, and traveling commercial agents. Nothing was farther than this from the thought of the original negotiators. In fact, the laws on the subject seem to be in such a state of hopeless con- fusion that different attorneys-general have rendered conflicting opinions as to the meaning of certain vital require- ments, with the result that the regula- tions, which should be intended merely to carry into effect the provisions of the laws, impose conditions additional to the laws and unwarranted requirements, which have the force of legal enact- ments. In consequence Chinese sub- jects have been made to suffer great hardship in their attempt to land in the United States, and after being admitted they have been incessantly harassed by immigration agents of the government CHINA AND THE with domiciliary visits and unreasonable interruptions while pursuing quietly and peaceably their lawful vocations in this country. True, every nation has the supreme right to make its own laws, but it is liable to be held accountable in some future day for any wrong done thereby to the subjects of foreign governments. Any new settlement of the exclusion question, therefore, in order to satisfy the Chinese government and to be in accord with the dignity and sense of justice of this great American republic, must have regard to the unsatisfactory manner in which the laws and regula- tions relating to Chinese immigration, made in pursuance of treaty stipula- tions, have been administered, and should correct the abuses that have gradually sprung up, which render the present state of affairs intolerable. What China asks is only fair play and due consideration, and she can well rely on the justice of the American people -and on the wisdom of their law-makers, headed by their illustrious President, who is the champion of peace, of hu- manity, of just dealing, to bring this important question to a successful set- tlement and remove the only serious obstacle to the freer development of our commercial relations. A lamentable event has recently taken place in the murder of several American missionaries in one of the remote locali- ties of China, to which I think it proper to refer. Repeated imperial edicts have recognized that foreign missionaries are lawfully in China; their beneficent work in instruction, hospitals, and charity has been recognized by my government, and the authorities have been enjoined to afford them all possible protection. The cause of the recent mob violence has not yet been definitely ascertained, but the Foreign Office at Peking has hastened to inform the American minister that UnNITFD STATES 557 prompt punishment will beinflicted upon the murderers and full indemnity made for the injuries and losses sustained by the missionaries. Unfortunately the Chinese govern- ment, though influenced by a sincere de- sire to repress lawlessness, is not always able to anticipate and prevent mob vio- lence ; but China is not the only country which is sometimes put to shame by the acts of excited and bad people. It does not excuse the bloody deeds of which the missionaries are the sufferers to say that more Chinese subjects have been cruelly murdered by mobs in the United States during the last twenty-five years than all the Americans who have been murdered in China by similar riots, but it may in some degree palliate the shocking crimes. in China. I cannot, however, refrain from saying that in every instance where Americans have suffered from mobs the authorities have made reparation for the losses, and rarely has the punishment of death failed to be inflicted upon some of the guilty offenders. On the other hand, I am sorry to say that I have not been able to recall a single instance where the penalty of death has been visited on any member of the mobs in the United States. guilty of the death of Chinese; and in only two instances of mob violence out of many has indemnity been paid by the authorities for the losses sustained by the Chinese. I am free to say that the United States. government has on many occasions ex- erted its power and authority to secure punishment of the criminals through the. courts, but public opinion in the locali- ties has been so strongly against the Chi- nese that all the murderers have escaped punishment. Let us hope that a better: day is coming for our respective peoples, and that the civilization and humanity ot both nations will prevail over barba- rism and savagery. WHAT HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHED BY THE UNITED STATES TOWARD BUILDING THE PANAMA CANAL”® By TuHeopore P. SHonrTs CHAIRMAN OF THE ISTHMIAN CANAL COMMISSION HEN I received Vice-Presi- dent Lupton’s invitation to come before your association and talk on the Panama Canal, I ac- cepted it with pleasure because of the opportunity it afforded of talking to busi- ness men in a business way of whatisa great business project. As Iviewit, the building of the Panama Canal is a busi- ness, not a political, proposition. I pro- pose, in what I have to say to you, to talk as a practical man to practical men who are themselves engaged in large commercial enterprises and who know from experience the difficulties to be met and the enormous amount of thought and labor involved in the inauguration of great undertakings in the United States. You will be able to appreciate, therefore, how every difficulty was ag- gravated in an enterprise of the magni- tude of the Isthmian Canal, in which the preparatory work had to be carried on 2,000 miles from the base of supplies. But this is not all. The work had to be done ina hostileclimateand under health conditions which, through centuries of neglect of allsanitary principles, had be- come a menace to the lives of all persons save natives of the tropics. In order, therefore, to make the Isth- mus a place fit to live in and to work in, there were three fundamental tasks which had to be performed in advance of all others: First. Thorough sanitation of the Isthmus. Second. Providing suitable habita- tions for all classes of employés. Third. Providing a system of food supply which would afford to all em- ployés opportunity of obtaining whole- some food at reasonable cost. First. In regard to sanitation: When the United States began this work there were no systems of water works, of sew- erage, or of drainage on the Isthmus. The peopie depended largely on unpro- tected cisterns for their water supply, filled during the rainy season, and on barrels filled from neighboring streams, all breeding places for mosquitoes. The filth of ages had accumulated around the dwellings and in the streets, undis- turbed except when washed away by torrential rains. Pools of stagnant water had existed for years in proximity to dwellings, and insect-breeding swamps lay undrained adjacent to the cities and many of the towns. Seventy per cent of Panama is now supplied with pure mountain water, fed from a storage large enough to furnish sixty gallons per day to each inhabitant after its present population shall have increased one-half. Fifty per cent of a complete modern sewerage system has been in- stalled, and work on the remainder is being carried rapidly forward. The first million of brick for paving its streets are on the ground. ‘The city has been fumigated time and again, first house by house, to stop the spread of disease, and again as a unit—that is, the entire city at one time. A large force is just finishing a thorough cleaning of the city—the first scrubbing it has had dur- _ ing its centuries of existence ; and Gov- * Am address to the American Hardware Manufacturers’ Association, Washington, D. C., November 9, 1905. THe PANAMA CANAL _ ernor Magoon, under whose jurisdiction all this work has been so successfully accomplished, is arranging to raze many of the worst shacks and replace them with modern sanitary buildings. Within a year, it may confidently be predicted, Panama will bea city well watered, well sewered, well paved, and clean and healthful. What has been done for Panama is being done for Colon and every impor- tant labor camp across the Isthmus. Work on Colon’s water reservoir is well under way, and temporary measures are being employed to safeguard the city’s health pending the report of a board appointed to recommend plans for per- manent improvements. An abundant supply of pure water from mountain springs has been provided at Culebra and at other important labor centers along the line of the canal, and ade- quate drainage is being installed in them also. Four thousand one hundred men are now employed in these sanitary under- takings. So effective has been the work that yellow fever has been virtually ex- tirpated from the Isthmus. In June last there were 62 cases of yellow fever there; in July, 42; in August, 27.; in September, 6, and in October, the worst month of the year for yellow fever, 3— no one of the latter among the em- ployés and all originating many miles from the line of the canal. In regard to general health conditions, I was told, when on the Isthmus in October, that there were over a hundred less patients in Ancon Hospital than there had been for many months, although we had brought in 4,000 additional laborers during the previous two months, and it was from the new arrivals that the hos-. pitals were usually recruited. - To fully understand what has been accomplished by our sanitary work, it is only necessary to compare the present rate of sickness with that which pre- vailed on the Isthmus when the French death rate was I12 per 1,000. 559 were in possession. In August, 1882, the second year of the French occu- pancy, with a force of 1,900 men, the In Au- gust, 1905, with a force of 12,000 men, there were only eight deaths, or two- thirds of a man per 1,000. | If we have not, as our critics com- plain, made ‘‘the dirt fly,’’ we have made the filth fly, and we have made yellow fever, that supreme terror of the tropics, fly so far from the Isthmus that it will never, let us hope, find its way back again. We have established a hospital sys- tem which includes a large hospital at Colon and another at Ancon, and a num- ber of smaller hospitals at convenient points along theline. The one at Colon is built on piers over the Atlantic Ocean, and patients there have at all times the benefit of cool and invigorat- ing seaair. That at Ancon is one of the largest and best equipped in the world, situated on the hill above Panama and commanding a superb view of moun- tains and sea. The management and service of the hospitals are on a par with the natural advantages and beauty of location. Colonel Gorgas, who is in direct charge of hospitals, has organized a staff of doctors and nurses for which it would be difficult.to find a superior anywhere. Mr Isham Randolph, one of the mem- bers of the consulting board of engi- neers, who recently visited the Isthmus, said, in a letter published on his return: ““The hospitals are a source of just pride to our people. If sickness could ever be regarded as a boon, it may be so thought of in Ancon and Colon.’’ No less emphatic testimony comes from Mr D. M. Hazlett, who speaks from personal experience as a patient in Ancon Hospital. Writing in the Pan- ama Mail, he says: ‘‘ The medical staff and corps of trained nurses are beyond criticism. No expense has been spared in providing the various wards with all 560 the conveniences which science and ex- perience cancommand. ‘There is prob- ably no institution in the world where patients receive better treatment or more faithful service than in Ancon Hospital.’’ Second. In regard to providing quar- ters for the employés: The commis- sion inherited fromthe French company ‘more than 2,100 buildings, all in bad condition. During the past year 649 of them have been repaired, 58 new build- ings have been erected, and 67 more are in course of construction; two new hotels, three stories high and containing from 55 to 60 rooms each, have been completed, and authority has been granted for eight others, a portion of which are under construction at the present time. Work is in progress also ‘on cottages for married employés and on bachelor quarters. In this work of construction 2,400 men are employed, and additional carpenters are being sent out with every steamer. This work is being pressed forward with the utmost vigor. Third. In regard to food supplies: This was the most serious problem that confronted us. If wecouldn’t feed the men, we couldn’t build the canal. Owing to the fact that the natives never look beyond their present necessities, no surplus food supply ever accumu- lates. ‘This normal condition of no surplus was greatly intensified by the almost total failure of the crops for the two preceding years, by the abandon- ment by agricultural laborers of their farms back in the hills for work on the canal, where they received higher pay for shorter hours, and by quarantine against the port of Panama on account of bubonic plague, which prevented the arrival of foodstuff from neighboring provinces. _ We were thus brought face to face with the problem of feeding twelve thousand (12,000) men, with base of supplies 2,000 miles away. We immediately arranged to open THe NatTionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE local commissary stores at every im- portant labor camp, to provide mess- houses, and to furnish food, both cooked and uncooked, to all employés at cost. We cabled orders to have our steamers equipped with refrigerating plants ; we arranged for the erection of a temporary cold-storage plant at Colon, and we pur- chased refrigerator cars for immediate shipment to the Isthmus, thus establish- ing a line of refrigeration from the mar- kets of the United States to the com- missary stations of the Isthmus. We also purchased from individual lessees the equipment in existing hotels and assumed their management ourselves. The net result of these efforts is that today we are affording to all employés opportunity to obtain an abundant sup- ply of wholesome food, cooked and un- cooked, at reasonable prices. Thesilver men—by which I mean the common laborers—are being fed for 30 cents per day, and the gold employés—by which I mean those of the higher class—at go cents per day, and it is good food in place of bad. ‘There may be dispute about the blessing of tainted money, but there can be none about the curse of tainted food. But in addition to these fundamental tasks of improving the health conditions on the Isthmus and providing for the physical comfort and well being of all classes of employés, another essential preliminary to actual canal building has been receiving our earnest attention. I refer to the enlargement and improve- ment of our facilities for receiving and distributing the immense quantities of materials and supplies which will enter into the construction of the canal, as well as into the work referred to. The only really valuable instrument essential to canal building acquired by our gov- ernment in its purchase from the French was the Panama Railroad. But this instrument, like all the others whose wrecks cover the Isthmus, had been neg- lected and its equipment allowed to be- — tae er Se THe PanaMa CANAL come obsolete. If the docks, wharves, warehouses, terminal yards, locomo- tives, and cars of the Panama Railroad had been in good repair, which they were not, they still would have been entirely inadequate to properly care for and handle the small commercial busi- ness the road was transacting. The existing facilities, poor as they were, were rendered less efficient by the entire absence of any mechanical appliances on the docks to assist in receiving or dis- charging the steamers’ cargoes. The negro laborer was the only power em- ployed ; he was at once the only hoist- ing machine and the only traveling crane in use. Imagine, then, the congestion which necessarily ensued when the ac- cumulated orders in the states began to arrive in large quantities on both sides of theIsthmus. To aggravate the situ- ation, while the deluge of arriving ma- terial Was at its height, the commercial business of the road increased nearly 50 per cent over the year before; and at the moment when we thought affairs could get no worse, two cases of bubonic plague at La Boca resulted in two con- secutive quarantines at that place, com- pletely tying up that outlet for 60 days. Furthermore, the personnel of the Pan- ama Railroad as acquired had not been educated on modern lines, and therefore was completely paralyzed when con- fronted with the onerous conditions caused by thiscongestion. It was neces- sary, consequently, to begin at once the construction of new wharves equipped with modern mechanical appliances, and of large terminal yards at both ends of the road; of extensive warehouses ; of suitable machine shops, aud of a modern coal hoisting plant, which will reduce the cost of handling coal from ship to engines from $1.30 to about 12 cents per ton. We have also purchased new and more powerful locomotives, larger cars for both passenger and freight services, and heavy steel rails for relaying the 561 road, and have strengthened the bridges to enable them to carry the heavier equipment. We have reorganized the personnel of the road, putting into the higher positions experienced, aggres- Sive, up-to-date men, with the result that with the old equipment and facili- ties they have cleared up during the last thirty days an accumulation of over 12,000 tons of commercial freight. With the advent of our increased dock facili- ties, terminal yards now nearly com- plete, and new power and equipment now arriving, the road will be in a posi- tion to handle efficiently and economic- ally a vastly larger volume of business than heretofore. While all this necessary work was in progress the task of purchasing, for- warding, and distributing the enormous quantity of materials and supplies of all kinds was receiving our constant and most careful attention. The purchases included not only the items entering into the permanent plant, but also those required for the preliminary work. To give you an idea of the magnitude of these purchases I will read for you the principal items : 61 steam shovels. 1,300 flat cars. 12 rapid unloaders. 22 unloading plows. 13 earth-spreaders. 324 dump-cars. 12 hoisting engines. 120 locomotives. 5,000 tons of steel rails. 125,000 cross-ties. 12,000 pieces of piling. I4. air compressing machines. 3 cranes. 152 rock-drills. 30,000,000 feet of lumber (approxi- mately ). 2 dipper dredges. 646,000 pounds blasting powder. 617,500 pounds dynamite. 7,000,000 paving brick. 3,500,000 building brick. - 562 500,000 square feet roofing tile. 36,000 barrels cement (approximate- ly). : 3 steel water tanks and towers. 12 stand pipes. 2 ocean steamships. The approximate total cost of our pur- chases was about $9,000,000. It should be borne in mind that at the time when or- ders for most of these items were placed the industries of the United States were crowded with domestic business and were unable, consequently, to make prompt deliveries. It should be borne in mind, also, that after machinery had been man- ufactured here and set up, it had to be taken apart, shipped two thousand miles over steamship lines already taxed to their full capacity, and on arrival on the Isthmus had to be again set up before ready for use. ‘Then, too, on account of many reports as to the prevalence of yel- low fever on the Isthmus, it wasvery diff- cult at a critical time for concerns fur- nishing material to get steamers to take it there, because of fear that their crews might become infected and their vessels might be quarantined when they wished to return tothe United States. Finally, the steamers of the United Fruit Line from NewOrleans, which had been carry- ing a considerable amount of the freight going tothe Isthmus, were put out of ser- vice on account of yellow fever in that city. To the various causes of delay men- tioned is to be added the requirements of law, that all bids for materials used in government work shall be advertised for. This compels a delay in all cases of from ten to thirty days. Furthermore, in addition to the pur- chases for the canal, the following have been ordered for the Panama Railroad : 500 box cars—4o-ton. I2 caboose cars. 10 refrigerator cars. 6 passenger coaches. 24 locomotives. 2 wrecking cranes. THE NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 1 locomotive crane. 1 pile-driver. 3 track scales—r1oo-ton. I modern coal-hoisting plant. 1 cantilever crane for coal-hoisting plant. In regard to all equipment purchases, both for the canal and the railroad, it should be stated that the gauge of the Panama Railroad, being wider than the standard gauge in the United States, made it impossible to use second-hand rolling stock of any kind; all locomo- tives and cars had, therefore, to be built toorder. After the supplies reached the Isthmus we had to contend not only with the lack of terminal facilities and me- chanical appliances already mentioned, but also with an inadequate equipment with which to distribute it to its destina- tion or the force to handle it. These ob- stacles have been largely surmounted. The elimination of yellow fever and the establishment of better systems of hous- ing and feeding the employés have ena- bled us to recruit our working forces till » those assigned to the material and sup- ply division now number over 2,100 men. I have so far, gentlemen, endeavored to give you an idea of the difficulties which we have had toencounter and over- come in order to make the Isthmus a place fit to work in and to collect the tools with which to work. So far as. actual excavation and dredging are con- cerned, we have not endeavored to ac- complish much. Asa general principle, in which J think you will all concur, it is inadvisable to attempt to run a rail- road before the tracks are laid. Weare now working, however,six steam shovels in Culebra Cut, which is the largestsingle factor in the construction of the canal, and have removed approximately 1,000,- ooo cubic yards of material. By this work we are accomplishing two things : First, we are putting the levels of the cut in proper condition for the installa- tion of the largest number of machines which can be effectively operated, and, THe Panama CANAL second, we are gathering data which will be useful in future estimates of the cost of canal construction. In the Culebra work 2,600 men are nowemployed. We are also building railway tracks and yards, and are dredging at both ends of the canal, so far as advisable, until the question of typeof canalisdecided. This should be determined within the next ninety days. It should be understood that all the work we have done is appli- cable to any type of canal. The question of labor is a grave and perplexing one. We have advanced far enough to knowthat wecan secure a suf- ficient supply of labor from the tropics, so far as numbers are concerned. The question of quality is a very different matter. Unlessa much greater efficiency can be developed than is secured at pres- ent, we shall have to look elsewhere. Probably I can best convey to you a just estimate of the quality of this labor by relating an incident which came under the observation of Senator Millard dur- ing his visit ontheIsthmus. Sitting on the deck of the steamer Havana, he was watching the unloading of a heavy piece of machinery from the hold of the ves- sel. The tackle got caught in the rig- ging on the deck above; the foreman in _ charge of the gang of laborers sent one of them above to free the tackle. The laborer went to the place to which he was sent and did what he wastold todo. The foreman, paying noattention to him after he started on his errand, missed him a few minutes later, and looking around for him, discovered him sitting peace- fully at the spot to which he had been sent. ‘‘ What are you doing there?’’ yelled the foreman. ‘‘ You told me to come here, sah.’’ ‘‘ Well, why didn’t you come back?’’ ‘‘You didn’t tell me to, sah.’’ It is to this class of labor that we are paying from 80 cents to $1.04 per day in gold, and out of which it is estimated we do not get more than 25 per cent of the efficiency of labor in the United 563 States. This is the kind of labor to which we are compelled to apply the eight-hour law—that is, to aliens, who know nothing of the law’s existence until they arrive onthe Isthmus. Such application will increase the labor cost of canal construction at least 25 per cent and will adj many millions un- necessarily to the total expenditure. [n my opinion, tt ts a mistake to handicap the construction of the Panama Canal by any laws save those of police and sanitation. I want to go on record here that the ap- plication of the eight-hour law, of the contract-labor law, of the Chinese ex- clusion act, or of any other law passed or to be passed by Congress for the benefit’of American labor at home, to labor on the Isthmus, is a serious error. Over 8o per cent of the employés of the canal will be aliens. A majority of the other 20 per cent employed will be in a clerical or supervisory capacity. The application of these lawson the Isthmus will benefit a very small number of. American laborers, but will enormously add to the cost of construction, and American labor at home will have to pay its share of the consequent increase in taxation. As business men, you will understand the force of this statement. That is the story, gentlemen, of what we have been doing on the Isthmus. In line with this, let me add that Chief Engineer Stevens, a man well equipped for the great task he has undertaken, is preparing three complete sets of plans applicable to as many types of canal, so that when a decision shall have been reached as to what type will be used, no delay in beginning work will ensue. It is our confident belief that by the rst of July next the plant as purchased will be installed and working to its fullest practical capacity. In other words, by that time the dirt will begin to fly in earnest. The canal will be built—rest assured of that—and it will be built at Panama. Those two phases of the problem have 564 passed irrevocably from the field of de- bate. There isan industrious and vol- uble band of hired Ananiases moving to and froin the land whose mission it is to deny this. The burden of their song is: ‘‘The canal will never be built at Panama, and everybody connected with the enterprise, including the President and commissioners and engineers, is convinced of it.”’ You can hear the members of this band chanting their song, to the accompaniment of their lyres, singly and in chorus, wherever men congregate and wherever a few reporters are gathered together. They are rehearsing for their grand burst of noise when Congress shall have assem- bled. When they are not rehearsing they are putting the words of their song into bogus interviews and other written forms of newspaper publication, which they are sending forth by thousands from their bureaus of publicity in this and other cities. As one contemplates the output of this singular industry, this factory of fiction, he is moved to say of its guiding spirit as Shakespeare says of Captain Dumain: ‘‘ He will lie with such volubility, sir, that you would think truth were a fool.”’ Who is capitalizing this industry ? What is the bountiful source of this Tue NaTIonNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE spouting spring of mendacity? Isit to be found among the friends of an Isth- mian canal? Are these supplying funds for the sustenance of such a campaign of misinformation ? What interests, ex- cept those foolishly dreading the com- petition of an Isthmian Canal, would put up money to delay and possibly de- feat its construction? ‘That there are interests of that kind is not a matter of suspicion or speculation, but of his- tory. They have been fighting a canal for more than half a century, and they fought it successfully till Theodore Roosevelt, armed with his ‘‘ big stick,’’ appeared as its champion. From that moment their efforts have been power- less, but they have not yet discovered the fact. They are wasting their ener- gies and their cash, for behind Theo- dore Roosevelt stand the American people in solid mass and with deter- mined front, shouting as one man: ‘‘Give us a canal that will be adequate to meet the demands of the commerce of the world, and give it to us at the earliest possible moment.’’ That, gen- tlemen, is the command which the Com- mission, under the inspiring lead of the President, is obeying to the letter. We are building the ‘‘ Roosevelt Canal.” — RUSSIA IN RECENT LITERATURE* By GENERAL A. W. GREELY CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER U.S. A. T no time in the history of the world have the present condi- tions and future fortunes of Russia excited more interest and been of greater importance thantoday. Itis * Russia. New and much enlarged edition. net. By Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace. Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1905. Russia under the Great Shadow. By Luigi Villari. I1].,330 pp. James Pott & Co. therefore thought that the members of the National Geographic Society will deem timely the presentation of the va- rious phases and aspects of Russian life as depicted in two very interesting vol- 9% x 6¥ inches. $5.00 net. $3-50 Ill., maps, pp. xx + 672. Russia IN Recent LITERATURE umes of Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace and of Luigi Villari, the latter being an original work. Wallace’s ‘‘ Russia’’ is an enlarged edition of a work which, though it orig- inally appeared thirty years since, is yet recognized as a standard authority upon the land of the Czars. Sir Don- ald’s observations of Russia now cover a period of thirty-five years. The changes in Wallace’s book are very few, indicating slight modifications as to discomforts: of travel, scarcity of good roads, absence of domestic com- forts, and, above all, the continued low state of the clergy. While stating that the younger priests have aspirations for the future improve- ment of the people, he speaks of the sys- tem as ‘‘ presenting continual simony, carelessness in religious rites, and disor- ders in administering the sacrament, thus transforming the service of God into a profitable trade.”’ Of the original volume the only mate- rial changes have been in the treatment of local self-government, but the value of the volume is largely increased by ad- ditional chapters on industrial progress, nihilism, socialism, and other revolu- tionary movements. With regard to the zemstvo, now of forty years standing, he expresses the opinion that it is destined ‘‘to play a great political part in the future.’’ This system of local government has suffered from restrictions on the devel- opment of education, through gov- ernors’ suspending its action, by in- creasing the representation of the bu- reaucracy at the expense of the peas- antry, from preventive censure as to its publications, and by opposition to its efforts to establish equitable taxa- tion. ‘The zemstvos in late years have improved local conditions materially as to hospitals and asylums, and less so as to primary education, agriculture, roads, and bridges. With its defects, the zemstvo is ‘‘infinitely better than the institutions it displaced.’’ 565 The growth of nihilism and its reac- tion are carefully treated. Repressive measures failed to check it, the decline being due to the foundation of a liberal party. Nihilism found its warmest par- tisans among students, whose beautiful theories lacked the power of even sug- gesting concrete forms. The trans- formation of nihilism into socialism is attributed to Tolstoi’s educational re- form, which brought the revolutionists into closer contact with western social- ism. The various phases of propaganda, agitation, energetic repression, and of terrorism, with its associated crimes, culminated in the assassination of Alex- ander II, which discredited terrorism. The development of manufactures and the creation of a proletariat mate- rially affected the revolutionary move- ment, which assumed the form of social democracy. Politicalagitationsand trade unions resulted in labor troubles, but the efforts of the government, through legislation and its support of working- men in labor disputes, failed to control the situation. Father Gapon’s connec- tion with labor unions and his subse- quent career are discussed, together with his failure asa self-appointed repre- sentative of the oppressed people and the leader of a political revolution. Sir Donald admits his inability to state whether the outcome will be reform or revolution. He outlines Plehve’s repressive policy, the demands of the constitutionalists, the aims of the social democrats and agrarians. The liberals counsel peaceful methods, while the rev- olutionists resort to popular disorders. Considering a strong man necessary, he says of Witte: ‘‘As an administrator he has displayed immense ability and energy, but it does not follow that he is a statesinan capable of piloting the ship into calm waters.’’ The most interesting, if not most im- portant, chapter is on industrial progress and the proletariat. A protective tariff and government support have wonder- fully developed manufacturing indus- 566 tries, which, in order of importance, are textile fabrics, articles of nutrition, and ores or metals. In total production Russia ranked fifth among the nations. This tremendous growth has been through M. Witte, who declares agri- cultural countries economically and in- tellectually inferior to nations manu- facturing commodities. Competition and overproduction led to failures and a commercial crisis, from which Russia was slowly recovering at the commence- ment of its war with Japan. With manufacturing industries the urban populations increased, notably of Lodz and Moscow, the latter reaching a million. Big factories with cheaper methods of manufacture are killing rapidly homeindustries. Whole groups of ‘‘industrial villages have fallen under the power of middlemen, who advance money to the working households and fix the price of the products.’’ There are brief allusions to the in- dustrial workers, especially in connec- tion with their unfortunate material conditions. While the workmen com- plain of long hours, low wages, arbitrary fines, and brutal severity, yet there are other important evils emphasized— those associated with the barrack sys- tem, the company store, and unsanitary surroundings. As a contrast and supplement to the English view of Russia represented in MacKenzie’s volume, is that of ‘‘ Russia under the Great Shadow,’’ by an Italian, Luigi Villari. His services as corre- spondent of the London 7imes afforded unusual opportunities for acquiring .an excellent knowledge of European Rus- sia. This exceedingly well-illustrated volume, with interesting and often bril- liant descriptions, covers the salient points of modern Russia and supple- ments them by broad generalizations of evident value. Of Russia he says: ‘‘Animmense country, richin natural resources, inhabited by a people who, if primitive and ignorant, have many very Tue NationaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE fine qualities, strong, capable of the hardest toil, inured to the struggle with nature, brave, intelligent, and religious, has been kept out of the march of pro- ' gress in a condition of semi-Asiatic bar- barism for thesake of impossibleschemes of universal dominion.’’ Of especial interest for the light reader are the chapters on St Petersburg, Mos- cow, Nijni Novgorod, and the Crimea. To the student or more serious reader may be commended provincial Russia, the industrial development, the work- ing classes, Poland, and the economic situation. He characterizes St Petersburg as representing ‘‘the foreign element of Russian civilization.’’ Its picturesque Alexander’s market, or Thieves’ bazar, is happily described. Moscow, he says, sums up the essence of many distinct civilizations. It still remains a living force, while presenting every aspect of Russian life, every phase of Russian history. Asa holy city sec- ond only to Kiev, it has innumerable miracle-working images, which are re- garded with the deepest veneration. The Iberian Virgin, where the Czar in- variably pays his devotions, is noted for its great popularity, which is uttlized as a valued source of income to the church. Per contra is the Moscow University a plague spot of liberalism, vexatious to the government and not favorable to advanced instruction, owing to censor- ship and frequent closing by the gov- ernment. On this point Villari says Russia is especially cursed with an intellectual proletariat, with indigent students, insufficiently clothed and de- pending on benevolent societies and scholarships. He adds: ‘*’These students and graduates over- flow the offices and liberal professions and become the most active agents of revolutionary propaganda. One finds, indeed, glaring contrasts among the Russian educated classes between ad- vanced and daring ideas and complete 2 ty Russia IN Recent LITERATURE ignorance of matters which are common knowledge to the rest of Europe. Side by side with the most revolutionary doctrines that would shock the most advanced of English or French radicals, there are students, like one whom I met last autumn, who simply refuse to be- lieve that such a thing as religious free- dom exists in any country in the world. These incongruities are but the result of the system of repression of ideas _ which, while it succeeds admirably in ‘destroying all independent thought among the stupid masses, drives others. to the wildest extremes of revolutionary ideas in politics, literature, and philoso- pay” Nijni, the site of the renowned fair, is in its decadence, although still most picturesque. Its description is worthy of perusal. It istersely described ‘‘asa piece of medizeval Hurope and unchang- ing Asia, with an infusion of modernity, it is unequaled even in this land of glar- ing contrasts.’’ Provincial Russia, from Moscowsouth- ward to the Crimea, is briefly treated. The great cities are lamentable specta- cles, through their absence of local patriotism, local information (many large towns have no local newspaper), and owing to the corruption and bru- tality of local officials. The situation is perhaps best conveyed by the state- ment that censorship forbids the papers of a large provincial town to publish ‘“descriptions of love scenes, criticisms on reactionary journals, the mention of trade unions, criticisms of the acts of police officials, the mention of the name of Gorky, accounts of the religion of the Japanese, praises of Tolstoi, the word ‘bureaucracy,’ the names of cer- tain diseases, the enumeration of ele- mentary schools, facts concerning the bad organization of the local hospital and the barracks, criticisms of the arti- cles by Krushevan (the instigator of the Kishinieff massacres).’’ In the Black Sea country, one of the 567 most fertile regions of the world, with its grain, wine, iron, coal and oil, Odessa is perhaps the most remarkable port, with a population of nearly half a mil- lion. The Jewish question is treated in the description of Odessa, where the streets, promenades, and buildings are Superior, owing to the large Hebrew - element, about one-third of the popu- lation, which controls chiefly the busi- ness. Of the Jews, Villari says: ‘The great majority are extremely poor, and engaged in various handi- crafts and small trades. One of their chief grievances lies in the obstacles placed in the way of the education of their children’’ (limited to one-tenth the whole number of pupils). This rule means selection and com- petition, which bring forward the ablest Jewish students, who ‘‘are not infre- quently elected by their fellow-students as presidents of the literary and scien- tific societies. . They generally come out with the highest honors, and those who do not go into business be- come lawyers or doctors, the only liberal professions open to them, and rapidly ac- quire the best practice. The result . accentuates the bitterness against them on the part of the Christians.’’ Their unpopularity is due to many causes, principally economic. Specula- tion in grain, most widespread, brings them in bad standing with the peasants, who hate the Jews, but trade with them, as they often mistrust more the Chris- tian merchants. He adds: ‘‘In spite of their many undesirable qualities, the Russian Jews are absolutely indispensable to the wel- fare of thecountry. Without them there would be no trade, in many districts money would not circulate, and eco- nomic activity would be paralyzed.’’ The industrial development of Russia, stimulated by the government, has been astonishing in the past twenty years, especially in textiles and metallurgy. These industries are divided by Villari 568 into zones: Moscow covers particularly textiles, sugar, and beer ; in the Baltic iron, textiles, and ship building flour- ish; Poland produces textiles and tanned goods ; in southern Russia the coal and iron industries are predominant; the Ural zone is given over to minerals, without coal; Baku is well known the world over for its oil productions. These industries had a tremendous development, but overproduction and wild speculation induced equally start- ling collapses and bankruptcies. Foreign employers ‘‘all have a high opinion of the skill and working powers of the muzik (peasant ), althoughinother respects—sobriety, morality, education, and honesty—they regard him as far inferior to the artisan of western Eu- rope.”’ Of the workmen Villari says: ‘‘They are underpaid, ill-fed, worse housed, and are not cheap. The peas- ant has great industrial possibilities, is docile, quick to learn, but is without initiative, careless, and needs constant supervision.”’ The artisan, however, ‘‘has a new feeling of human personality and dig- THE NEW ERIE CANAL HE new Erie Canal, to which New York is committed and which will cost more than $100,c00,000, is by far the greatest work ever undertaken by any state. The canal is overshad- owed in the public mind by the Panama Canal on account of the international character and the interesting complica- tions that have attended the inaugura- tion of that work by the United States, but in commercial importance the Erie isin many ways the equal of the Panama Canal. The canal is described in the report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1904, just published, by Col. Thomas W. Symons, U.S. A.,who was so largely instrumental in preparing the plans. On the Panama it is hoped some time to THe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 9) nity,’’ is inspired with new ideas,and driven to new movements. Confirming Wallace’s opinion, Villari states that the Eastern Church is an inert body, almost devoid of vitality. It contributes little to the moral and in- tellectual progress of the people, but merely keeps them enslaved and igno- rant. The average priest, his one thought money exaction, is grasping, avaricious, and callous to the moral con- dition of his flock. While the average Russian is devoted to his faith and most carefully observes its practices, yet ‘‘ the liberal movement will render the abso- lute domination of the church a thing of the past.’ The elevation of the people is declared essential, as ‘‘ until the conditions of the mujik are radically altered and improved, Russia can never hope to be really peace- ful or prosperous.’’ Altogether, the volumes of Wallace and Villari are not only of current in- terest and value, but will continue so until the methods of Russian adminis- tration are materially improved and the rights of man are more generally recog- nized and respected. . reach a tonnage of 10,000,000; on the Erie all works, structures, water sup- ply, etc., are predicted on a tonnage of 10,000,000, and provisions are made for accommodating at slight additional expense a tonnage greatly in excess of this. On the upper Great Lakes there is a water-borne commerce of very nearly 90,000,000 tons per year. The Erie Canal will furnish the cheapest route for connecting this vast lake com- merce with the seaboard, and its wide- reaching influence can hardly be con- ceived or appreciated except by those who have given years of study to the problem. In magnitude the work that New York has undertaken exceeds the work at Panama. More earth and rock must be excavated, more masonry used, and ROUTH OF THE ems Gs SES GE Canal following Capalzed Bivers qemerceeess Canal followlng new Route BARGE CANAL : ese Canal following old Robte TO 'BE BUILT ACROSS THE HPerePPPR Part of Erie Canal abandoned STATE OF NEW YORK Based un the Map of Edward A, Bond, State Faginecr and Surveyor. WATUAAL BCALE 1: 1,970,660 CALE OF MILES ‘ as Y : Be GI AOA OE 4h ZzgeE [| Kuck Me Souk brena Cis _ Z ates Céntre hi g TOR Middtep et | ing LAY) Por; 7 5 ww ¢F wet ncorr™’ K H < Fale t > ee : wa NE : “ See TE sal ee E XN & ie jis sr? ‘Tol . ra iy ¥ Soak gam) sone oth $ I : Q 2, ns Bic l yes lomo ae Savann ee AT ; eT ry a Sa h ea leis ee FP a, Selonn OWI rk —: gOPO RW cctis Amity ; ‘ Mule Si SS Rte a in| Set i \ Roe Gearon eavugth hun Al ennenn oS FLPlain QS” 2 z I < ~~. a \ajobaric > a oe 3 ! Y —_MONTGOMER v ® ; A a < ae a “sd ch ) ; tuchticidd Ae rel G7 a : Spr J. _.-.e{ SCHENECTADY, 1 dese series P-L i ! f Ze} ie a sfecronag J AL ANY} ensteler y) ty ; : © TIS|E/G 0 Ay pel ae Sal Ws SS ipscuonnxria . > >. = c a = < {cua ait rt Map showing Route of New Erie Canal 7.2 more dams built. The cost per unit is not nearly so high as at Panama, be- cause the work will be done in the tem- perate zone, where labor, tools, and materials are abundant and reasonably cheap. The canal will be located, wherever possible, in streams and lakes, and it will have notowpath. This will reduce the cost of maintenance enormously, for the cost of keeping the towpath in order is the heaviest item of expense of the present canal. The existing canals may be called ‘*hillside’’ canals, as they go through the open country and along the upper portions of the valleys above the rivers, from which they religiously keep away to the greatest extent possible. The new and greater canal is put in the val- ley bottoms and in the water courses and lakes wherever practicable. It is interesting to note that the new canal is to follow the water route across the state of New York used by the pioneer settlers of the western portion of the state a century ago. ANNUAL DINNER OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY A Bee annual dinner of the National Geographic Society will be held at the New Willard Hotel in Washing- ton, D. C., on December 20. ‘The Sec- retary of War, Hon. William H. Taft, and Mrs. Taft will be the guests of honor of the Society, and there will be a num- ber of other invited guests, including Messrs W. S. Champ, Anthony Fiala, and W. J. Peters, of the Ziegler North Polar Expedition. ‘The dinner will be- gin at 7 p. m., and at its close several brief toasts will be given. The presi- dent of the National Geographic So- ciety, Dr Willis L. Moore, will preside. It is hoped that many of the members of the National Geographic Society who live not far from the national capital may be able to attend the dinner. The So- ciety, with 1905,completes its eighteenth Tur NaTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE year. It hasnowa handsome home and a substantial membership of 10,000 per- sons, and is in fact the largest geographi- cal organization in the world. On another page is pasted a blank form which members who can attend the dinner are requested to fill out and mail to the Society. Members may invite their friends to attend as their personal guests. The price per plate is $5 for members or their guests. AUSTRALIA’S FUTURE N his budget speech in the Federal House of Representatives the other day, Sir John Forrest, Minister of Finance, took a very hopeful view of the future of the Australian common- wealth, in spite of the fact that the total government revenue of $57,300,000 was $545,000 below the estimate. Sir John pointed out that though the population was only 5,000,000, Aus- tralia had since 1852 raised gold and other minerals to the value of $3,055,- 000,000, an average of nearly $59,000, - ooo yearly. Inthe single year 1904 the gold yield was $80,000,000, and that of other minerals was $40,000,000. Acres under cultivation numbered 12,000,000, with exports of wheat $26,250,000, of butter $12,500,000, and of wool $85,- 000,000. The foreign commerce for the year was $472,500,000, of which 74 per cent was with Great Britain and British possessions. ‘The ordinary banks held ¢480,000,000 deposits, $107,500,000 of coin and bullion, with $175,000,000 also on deposit in the savings banks. The shipping tonnage which entered Aus- tralian harbors during the year totaled 29,000,000 tons (Sir John did not men- tion American ships). Most of these figures are record-breakers. ‘The ex- ternal trade exceeds that of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, or Japan individually. The production from primary indus- tries, including manufactures, exceeds $600,000,000 a year. < eis AUSTRALIA S FUTURE The $545,000 loss in revenue was more than covered by the $900,000 shrinkage in customs andexcises. Evi- dently Australia, like Canada, is losing by her tariff preferential in favor of Great Britain. The total expense to Australia of fed- eration for the year was $1,485,000, or 34 cents per capita of the population. That is just for running the federation machine. The minister advises the taking over by the federal government of all the state debts, aggregating the enormous (for so few people) sum of $1,170,000, - 000, or $275,000,000 more than the United States interest-bearing debt. At first sight that looks like a big burden for the federal government to assume, but with the taking over of the debts the federal government would not have to continue the present unwieldy plan of returning the revenues over and above expenses to the various states. The sum of $35,705,000 was so returned last year. Further, any federal govern- ment, to be able to do its best for its constituents, should have entire control of the national finances. Moreover, a strong centralized government can bor- row money at cheaper rates than can individual states. Recent chronicles in the English papers show how much easier it was for Japan and other cen- tralized governments.to borrow money in London and Europe than those Aus- tralian states which were seeking loans. Neither of those states has enough people, nor is the sparse population suf- ficiently evenly divided, to enable them tostand alone. That is the main reason why the total debts of the various states, $1,485,000,000, is $297 per capita of the total population. It would seem as if what the com- monwealth of Australia needs is less states’ rights, less labor and other class government, less politics for men and more for country, more centralization in and wider powers to the federal gov- 5am ernment, before she can draw what is her greatest need—more people. Just as in the United States, get the people there, and all else follows—money for developing dormant resources, money for building up manufactures, money for railways, steam and electric, and money for building operations. When the people are there they must be fed, clothed, and housed. That means work, and it is by work, and work alone, that nations are built up into prosperity. WALTER J. BALLARD. THE WORLD’S PRODUCTION OF GOLD* T is not alone to the raisers of grain that nature has been bountiful of late. The mines of the world have been yielding treasure as lavishly as have our fields. In every day of this year, 1905, work days and feast days, holli- days and Sundays, there will be drawn from the ground a million dollars of new gold. And then, when the total is finally cast up, there will be a num- ber of odd millions to spare above that average. ‘The mines of the world will produce this year $375,000,000 of gold. The final figures for the production of gold in 1904 have recently been made, and they footed $347,000,000. We may reasonably look forward in the near future to an annual average output of ¢400,000,000 of new gold for at least a considerable number of years. When we remember that in 1885 the production of gold was but $115,000,000 we begin to get acomprehensive view of the significance of thisincrease. When we remember further that the entire monetary stock of gold in the world is. about $5,700,000,000, we can calculate that the output from the mines in the next fourteen years promises to equal a total as great as the present monetary stock of gold. ‘These figures are start- * From an address to the Neaeean Bankers’ Convention, by F. A. Vanderlip, October I1,. 1905. Sy ling. They perhaps suggest the possi- bility of a disturbance of values. It does not follow, of course, that with the production of $400,000,000 of gold per annum the monetary stocks will be increased by that amount. The uses of gold in the domestic arts draw off at least $75,000,000 a year, but that will leave over $300,000,000 a year to add to the gold reserves. . While there will undoubtedly be a tendency to advance prices as a result of this influx of gold into the bank re- serves of the world, Ido not believe the gold production is likely to become a serious menace. I do not believe that it will so disturb those business relations that are based upon the terms of money as to cause any vital derangement of affairs. What I do believe is that there is likely to follow just what followed in the two former periods of the world’s history when there was an extraordi- nary production of gold added to the monetary stocks. Oneof these periods followed the discovery of America, when the treasures of Mexico and Peru were exploited. The other was in the years following the discovery of gold in Cali- fornia and Australia. In each case a mighty impulse was given to the ex- ploitation of virgin fields of develop- ment. It seems to me not improbable that the next few years will witness the expansion of the field of commercial enterprise into new places. Countries that are commercially and industriously backward will yield to this new influ- ence. It seems to me that one of the direct and important effects of this great production of gold will be to give an impulse to the development and indus- trial exploitation of South America, Africa, Asia, and eastern Europe. our own hand is South America on one side and China and Japan onthe other. We are rapidly awakening to the commercial possibilities within these countries. Jake THE Nationa, GroGraPpHic MAGAZINE CHINA IS NOT OVERPOPULATED UR minister to Peking, Mr W. W. Rockhill, shares the view of Ad- miral C. EK. Clark, published in this Magazine in June, 1905 (page 306), that the population of China is greatly ex- aggerated. The last official estimate, that of 1885, which was made by the Chinese board of revenue, gave 377,- 636,198 as the population of the Empire. Mr Rockhill believes that the popula- tion does not exceed 275,000,000 at the present time, and that probably it falls considerably below this figure.* He vouches for the fact that none of the northern provinces are overpopulated, and he is inclined to think that China could support a much larger population than it now has, which would be im- possible if the number had reached the enormous figure given by some imagi- native writers. An Observer in the Philippines, or Life in Our New Possessions. By John Bancroft Devins. Illustrated. Pp. 416. Boston, New York, Chicago: American Tract Society, 1905. The Philippine Islands. By Fred. W. Atkinson. Illustrated. 8vo, pp. 426. Boston: Ginn & Co., 1905. Our Philippine Problem. By Henry Parker Willis. 8vo, pp. 478. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1905. There has been a vast deal written about the Philippine Islands in the past five years, much of which is wrong and some of which is false. Contradictory statements abound, and the plain reader is at his wits end to know what to ac- cept and what to reject. Dr Devins, the editor of the New York Odserver, spent two months in the Archipelago. It was long enough to learn the situa- tion, but by no means long enough to understand it. The book is largely nar- rative, describing with interesting detail life on an army transport, on which the - *Report of Secretary of Smithsonian Insti- tution for 1904, page 675. Books ON THE PHILIPPINES author crossed the Pacific, and several trips made about the Archipelago. The characteristics of the people, their in- dustries, institutions, health, etc., are touched upon. Naturally, much space is devoted to matters of religion, and the Protestant missionary work receives great attention. The author is opti- mistic, and has written a very readable book. Quite different is the character of Dr Atkinson’s book from that of Dr Devins. Dr Atkinson was the first superintendent of schools of the Archipelago under the American civil government, and the present admirable school system is mainly his work. He was inthe Archi- pelago nearly two anda half years; his work took him everywhere and among all classes of people, so that he has writ- ten from a full knowledge of his sub- ject, with authority and generally with accuracy. His introduction is a most admirable summary of the character of the people and the necessities of the situation—the several chapters treat of topography, history, climate, health, industries, and commerce, thecityof Manila, the people, their superstitions and religion, govern- ment and education. He is not clear or definite in his account of temperature at Manila (pp. 125 and 126), so that the reader may easily be confused. On pages 174 and 175 he contrasts the yield of sugar in the Philippines with that in Hawaii as follows: ‘‘A (Hawaiian) planter usually obtains 75 tons of sugar to the acre, whereas in the Philippines he (the Filipino) considers half a ton a fair amount.’’ If he would substi- tute 4 for 75, and 1 for %, the contrast would becorrect and would still be suff- ciently startling. There are numerous other slight errors scattered through the book which leads one to regret that the author had not awaited the appear- ance of the Census report and thus hive avoidel the slight blemishes on what is otherwise a most valuable work. 573 Mr Willis’ book is of a still different class. The author, a professor in Wash- ington and Lee University, devoted sev- eral months of 1904 toa study of the conditionsof the Philippines. The book, like many others, is a discussion of the government and the political, social, and economic conditions of the islands. It is not easy to take the writer seri- ously. He says we are in the Philip- pines to exploit them ; that the people are antagonistic to us; that the exist- ence of ladronism shows that the insur- rection is still going on; that the press is muzzled and that speakers are not allowed to speak ; that the natives pre- fer church schools to public schools; that the teaching of Englishis a mistake and that the teaching should be in the Malay tongues; that the Philippine civil service is a farce; that the native con- stabulary is rotten, and that the Philip- pine Commission favors the regular Catholics rather than the Aglipayans. Not one of these statements, it is un- necessary to say, is correct. Mr Willis was probably filled with tales of woe by some American trader who had been dis- appointed in his hopes of great profits by the withdrawalof thearmy. There are many such in the Philippines. Michigan. By Thomas McIntyre Coo- ley Wath map.) Pp 410s, 5x74 inches. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1905. $1.10 net. This is one of the best of the ‘‘ Amer- ican Commonwealth ’’ series, published by Messrs Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The author realizes, what some histo- rians are apt to forget, the important in- fluence of the natural resources of a state. In his history he gives not merely a record of Michigan’s governors and legislatures and their acts, but he de- scribes the development of the material wealth and prosperity of the state. The census of 1900 shows Michigan ninth among the states in population, in Dist amount of capital employed in manu- factures, and in the production of flour ; second in lumber, copper, and iron ore ; sixth in the manufacture of agricul- tural implements and chemicals, and seventh in railway cars; eighth in the production of cheese and of wood-pulp and paper; tenth in manufactures gen- erally, and thirteenth in agriculture. Two Bird Lovers in Mexico. By C. William Beebe. With roo pictures from photographs by the author. Pp. 408. 6 by 8% inches. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1905. An entertaining description of nature life in Mexico. ‘The author writes well and his account of things Mexican is novel and well worth the reading. ‘“As we rambled through the trenches we sometimes brushed against a mass of large golden globes, strung close to- gether along the leafless twigs of the _plant—brittle and five-sided and as light as air. They reminded one in shape somewhat of the sea-jellies (evoé) which drift in the currents of the ocean. And the simile is not confined to the ex- terior, for within hangs a small round sac containing the tiny flat brown seeds, just as, in certain of the animal jelly- fishes, the pendulous stomach is swung. Out of curiosity I counted the seeds in one of these seed-vessels and found 253. A single branch which I brought home with 79 globes would therefore scatter some 18,000 fruit. The least touch or breath of air sets each of these many seeds vibrating within their hollow spheres, producing a sweet, sifting tinkle, comparable to nothing I have ever heard in nature.’’ Arizona Sketches. By Joseph A. Munk. With too illustrations. Pp. 230. 6 x9% inches. New York: The Graf- ton Press. 1905. Dr Munk has given a very readable account of the territory of Arizona, which has been aptly dubbed ‘‘the Tue NaTionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE scientist’s paradise,’’ for it possesses grand scenery, a salubrious climate, pro- — ductive soil, rich mineral deposits, rare archeological remains, and a diversified fauna and flora. Some of the chapter headings are A Romantic Land, The Open Range, Ranch Life, The Round- up, A Model Ranch, Some Desert Plants, Hooker’s Hot Springs, Cafion Echoes, The Meteorite Mountain, The Cliff Dwellers, The Moqui Indians, A Fine Climate. The illustrations are particularly good. Cram’s Atlas of the Dominion of Can- ada and of the World. Edited by Dr Eugene Murray - Aaron, 14x 18% inches. Chicago: George F. Cram; Toronto: The Arnt-Gill Co. 1905. This new atlas of Canada should prove useful to the many who are in- terested in the recent rapid material progress of Canada and in the new trans- Canadian railway. The maps are ona large scale and clearly printed, the sta- tistics are the latest available, and the text contains a good summary of the history and resources of each province of the Dominion. The Bontoc Igorot. By A. E. Jenks. Pp. 266. 7% x 10% inches. With 160 full-page plates. Manila: Eth- nological Survey Publications. Vol. I. 1905. The author of this volume and his wife lived for five months in the pueblo of the Bontoc Igorots, who are a primi- tive mountain tribe of Luzon. His de- scription of the people is made especially valuable by the large number of excel- lent photographs accompanying the report. The Bontoc Igorots are an ex- ceedingly dirty people, not 5 per cent of them being free of skin sores, but otherwise Mr Jenks has nothing but good to say of them. He found them honest, of kindly and likable disposi- tion, courageous, industrious, and will- NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ing to learn. The Ethnological Survey is doing good work in studying the primitive inhabitants of the Philippine Islands. A previous report on ‘‘ The Negritos’’ was noticed in this maga- zine several months ago. Report of the Smithsonian Institution ‘for 1904. Pp. 800. 6 x g inches. Illustrated. Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office. 1905. The Report of the Smithsonian Insti- tution for 1904 contains papers of geo- graphic value, as follows: On Mountains and Mankind. Douglas W. Freshfield. Morocco. Theobald Fischer. SWE: The Work of the Reclamation Service. F. H. Newell. The Yuma Reclamation Project. J. B. Lip- pincott. The Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon. Prof. W. A. Herdman. Flying Fish and Their Habits, Dr Theodore Gill. An Inquiry Into the Population of China. W. W. Rockhill. The Economic Conquest of Africa by the Railroads. A. Fock. The Present Aspects of the Panama Canal. William H. Burr. The Sanitation of the Isthmian Canal Zone. W. C. Gorgas. The Projected New Barge Canal of the State of New York. Col. Thomas W. Symons. Archzeology of the Pueblo Region. Edgar L. Hewett. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HE annual dinner will be on De- cember 20. For special announce- ment see page 569. THE POPULAR COURSE The addresses in this course are de- livered in the National Rifles Armory, 920 G street, at 8 p. m. December 8—‘‘ What Shall be Done with the Yosemite Valley.”’ By Mr William FE. Curtis. Illustrated. The Yosemite Valley has been receded to the federal government by act of the California legislature, but has not yet been formally accepted by Congress. December 22—‘‘An Attempt at an Interpretation of Japanese Character.’’ By Hon. Eki Hioki, First Secretary of the Japanese Legation. December 23 (Saturday)—‘‘A Mili- tary Observer in Manchuria.’’ By Major Joseph Kuhn, U.S. A. Illustrated. January 5—‘‘Russia and the Russian People.’’ By Mr Melville KE. Stone, Gen- eral Manager of the Associated Press. January 19—‘‘ Railway Rates.’’ By Hon. Martin A. Knapp, President of the Interstate Commerce Commission. January 25 (Thursday)—‘‘ The Zieg- ler Polar Expedition of 1903-1905.’’ By Messrs W.S. Champ, Anthony Fiala, and! WJ Peters: A novel feature of this meeting will be the exhibition of moving pictures of Arctic scenes. February 2—‘‘Austria Hungary.’” By Edwin A. Grosvenor, Ll. D., Pro- fessor of International Law in Amherst College, author of ‘‘ Constantinople,’’ ‘‘ Contemporary History,’’ etc. February 10 (Saturday)—‘‘A Fla- mingo City.’’ By Dr Frank M. Chap- man, American Museum of Natural His- tory. February 16—‘‘ Africa from Sea to Center.’’ By Mr Herbert L. Bridg- man. Illustrated. Africa in transition today challenges the attention of the world. Few intel- ligent Americans know to what extent its possibilities have been developed since Livingstone’s day, a development that in rapidity promises to exceed that of North America. : February 20 (Tuesday )—‘‘ China.’’ By Hon. Charles Denby, of the State Department. 576 February 23—‘‘ The Personal Wash- ington.’’ By Mr W. W. Ellsworth, of the Century Company. Illustrated. This is not a lecture in the ordinary sense of the word, but it is an exhibi- tion, through the medium of the stere- opticon, of the greatest collection of prints, manuscripts, and letters refer- ring to the personal side of Washington ever brought together. March 2—‘‘ Our Immigrants: Where They Come from, What They Are, and What They Do After They Get Here.”’ By Hon. F. P. Sargent, U. S. Commis- sioner General of Immigration. Illus- trated. March 1{6—‘‘ Oriental Markets and Market Places.’’ By Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief U. S. Bureau of Statistics. Il- lustrated. March 30—It is hoped that official business will permit the Secretary of the Navy, Honorable Charles J. Bona- parte, to address the Society on ‘‘ The American Navy.”’ April 13—‘‘ The Regeneration of Ko- rea by Japan.’’ By Mr George Kennan. Illustrated. SCIENTIFIC MEETINGS The meetings of this course are held at the home of the Society, Hubbard Memorial Hall, Sixteenth and M streets, at 38 p. m. December {2 (Tuesday )—‘‘ Norway as itis.’ By a Norwegian, Rev. B. E. Bergesen. | Tue NatTIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE December 15—‘‘ Surveying our Coasts and Harbors.’’ By Hon. O. H. Titt- mann, Superintendent U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. December 29—‘‘ Problems for Geo- graphical Research.’’ By Gen. A. W. Greely, U. S. A. ‘“The Binding Power of Road Mate- rial.’ By Mr A. S. Cushman. January 12—Annual meeting. Re- ports and elections. ‘‘ Progress in the Reclamation of the West.’’ By Mr F. H. Newell, Chief Engineer Reclamation Service. January 26—‘‘ The Carnegie Institu- tion.’’ By President R.S. Woodward. February 9—‘‘ The Introduction of Foreign Plants.’’ By Mr David G. Fair- child, Agricultural Explorer, U.S. De- partment of Agriculture. February 24 (Saturday)—‘‘ Hunting with the Camera.’’ By Hon. George Shiras, Member of Congress from 3d District, Pennsylvania. March 9—‘‘ The United States Bu- reau of the Census.’’ By Hon. S. N.D. North, Director. March 23—‘‘ The Death Valley.’’ By Mr Robert H. Chapman, U. S. Geolog- ical Survey. April 6—‘‘ The Total Eclipse of the Sun, July, 1905, as Observed in Spain.”’ By Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. N., Superintendent U. S. Naval Observatory. April 20—‘‘ The Protection of the United States Against Invasion by Disease.’?’ By Dr Walter Wyman, Sur- geon-General Marine Hospital Service. INDEX Abruzzi, Duke, referred to..............cccccscsccscseeseccecees 440 Adams, George I., Erasmus Haworth, and W. R. Crane, Report on economic geology ot the Iola WD AIG ARI C GY one 020005) aoe cccode ocoesesineiencsecaceses evesdl eovece 444 Africa probably circumnavigated 600° Bi Garenee: 459 MEE MEIONS DEOSTESS Of.....;:.....000ccecececesscssreeseccees 498 African dates, American tea and.. Alaska, A growing camp iu the Tanana gold fields f Me erence nee te dee cesoseiecisces tc ssince'eccdceiedeccaeet sesacwelicseucnurces 104 = , Experimental NOTIN oh Sees iicteace ree Usih ehinarvelen Goatees 85 See SD LOMA OMI O Ries eos calsssichecs cas cietadesssvacccocecscsssecsees 251 EU IICAMONS NELALITIO; LO. sdec.0ccs0csccssceccsu ets saccceoas 513 meee POC CULEAIG RON are cnet ssc arrscsieeSascdecewsoeccceccessecscceaseses 513 —, Russian settlements in, referred l0................. PALO —, Some notes on the Fox Island Passes................ 427 Aleshire, J.B. cited om bilipino,laborers..........5.4 190 Alexander, A 'B., Report on fisheries by................ 527 Alge in water supplies, Means of destroying........ 44 Algué, José, cited on climate of the Philippinesi... 192 Alkali lands PReelanmation) Off)... ic..cc-.cecteccee cesesseocees 82 Pee PONS OM PN site Saikis censor nvsctfaenstesss eaves soecscvesece 43 Along the Nile with General Grant, Keview of...... 307 Aller, J. A., Report on collections of mammals from Beaver county, IVI GIRHSIAIN eee acc SiocoesaSeebacccssssledaccdee 444 America. Huture of road- making in, Book on......... 253 PINON CI OOK ONY. sie ccnc cat clcccseccecsieasesceccsscoscseceaccesds 135 =— , Ship canals connecting the Great Lakes of... 477 =, United States OfPPRIEV TS WOR yeti less tssceseceee’s 308 American Cauals, The Great, Review of.. ....... ...... 254 — Forestry Congress... Rabaceesteses eotcae ase cn SIL — — —, Book containing proceedings Sao acon 136 — immigration, EATS a eee ce eee ct stata = ve censs ccscilsetes'slesaaeeSs _ aor Our ignorance of the peoples blending into ENE. cccacs BER ee eee cae bef casee odecshniewes saccuatectece iat cease se) SRCARA ING pAMIs Ga TG ALES: esses cecestvecccoceccecessecsce esccs 42 — tropics, Economic importance of the plateaux in. 250 ee OOM ia DMRS, MrIDULe TOs. 06..6.02-.-02...eseceseeeeseectes 358 — water service, Beginning of the........... 60... ccceeeeee 257 Anderson, George H.; The wonderful canals of Aer eee ool sscceeseedesacdecveacsveste 68 Anderson, J. G., and Otto Nordenskjold, Book on SOMA GC TENG IS ID VM Mers Lee cclcde voy ecescadeacadesosesosccuse'els cave 443 Anderson,R H.,and J.C. Hoyt, Report on hydrog- Taphy of the Susguehanna River basin by....... 444, 520 André, Eugene, Book on A Naturalist in the Guianas PON jetesceeeectet ee non ate euethe Nee cans ctdeucelaseestaee susie d 89 Anemia in Forto Rico, Review Of............c000. ceeeeeees 252 SMe m iS Le BUT ple Vell) .o......ccsccceseecd. sccewedsese 337 Anglo-Japanese alliance, The purpose of the......... 333 Animals and meat, The inspection Ofec Aes 4t —, Producing new PEC US Ole sins oe stccassccuideasedons AI Antarctica, EVA C VA Olean eMuer sce dae ccAbL ck sccullsnins Leese 443 Antarctics, The great ice mass of, disappearing.... 493 Arbitration in The Hague court, Review of............ 133 Atrelano, C. S., cited on judiciary of Philippines.. 191 Arizona, ieiieched Ghats nen kn eine 88 Ashford, Bailey K., Book on Anemia in Porto Rico.. 252 Aspinwall, Henry, TELETTEGNtOs esc eesek ee 447 Atwood, Nathaniel K., cited on gig lee fishing...... 338 Atwood, W. W., POLCE EA 05... ccascioac5koiA.Hoskien shes 250 Atkinson, Edward ; Some lessons in geography... 192 Austin, O. P.; ; Commercial prize ofthe Orient, The.. 399 —, Address by, reprinted in Japanese..................... 421 Elected to Board of Managers, Najional Geo- ~ graphic SOLS)? see he Re a terest sate ona ee 87 —, quoted on the great canals of the world... wee 475 eR CRETGT EC GONCO!, cradars sine | onoescaeSe ave beseatoaSeaceeebes tlacbdcaees 57 PATA sae EUNUE TIE GOL co cecckscctovencecaascs sveceeuee Ueretacstoceeses 570 Austria-Hungary, Immigrants from....................... 5 Batista ISlands, BOOK ON. ...........csa0s)sivbestacniseseveeoes! 136 Baird, Nathaniel, cited on angler fishing............... 338 Baker, Emelie Kip, Book on ‘‘ Out of the North- land” WIN amidase ert ccccsnecuacarensttas tes eet eee Rane cet ete gl Baldwin-Ziegler ‘expedition FETEHTEM tO. actus te ceite.: 355 Balkan desire for emigration to the United States.. 9 Ballard, Walter J.; The population of Japan ........ 482 ae European populatio TDS ee seal eee de haere Re ead 432 Barrels Si relerred tO sactareceavesscoe adders sracseusescoconeses 250 Barrow, David P., cited on tribes of the Filipinos. 192 Barrows, Samuel ae Book on Italiansin America... 524 Bascom, Florence, ‘Report on water resources of the Philadc Iphia district.................. Reese Basinger DGs referneahto:s-n-c-.:scscnsetce) ccscceseceseccees 426 Batavia Quadrangle, Geological Survey map of..... 125 Bell, Alexander Graham, elected to Board of Man- agers, National Geographic SOGCIEEY ir sccscsecstocs sees 89 —, thanked by Natioual Geographic Society......... 342 Bell, Mrs Alexander Graham, thanked by National Geographic SOGGY A Aer sc reteie nee eten senor enetaes renee 342 Bell, Charles J., thanked by National Geographic Society Ce p DS COOBO FE ERU Cd) CoE TOSR OE onan cE EACCnC ctr Hodaacbached BECK HaG 342 Bell, Mrs Charles J., thanked by National Geo- graphic SOCIE Ya. tis. et ettareceCeten se eat oe ee coeeiereeates aes? 342 Bell, Gardiner H.,thanked by National Geographic Society 0006 actidcnodig deco ese DoauebuAS badude soacgHOnSsedooasoaaconaccd 342 Bell, Grace H., thanked by National Geographic SOGCTE HY save rieeek- capes caretacucoecsentretsoeeh ane aunevesds UU ema teds 342 Bell, Helen A., thanked by National Geographic Society : Bell, Robert W., thanked by National Geographic SOGCIEE Vor ee oace eae vy re eae eecnca neuen conas seek condo useneneeds 342 Beverage, A. J., cited on ‘Russian Advance”’........ 332 Biological Survey, IWOOT O fe eer see ee cc aR ta oy 84 Blanchard, Nathaniel, cited on angler fishing........ 338 Blair, Emma Helen, and James Alexander Robert- son, Book on Philippine Islands by............... 207, 443 Bohio Pake'an Gidaimgesee sca ria ce see eet cy eons erate 453 Bowie, Edward L,., cited on determining storm IMOVENIENES T ccuias.soureleececceseccasrcome sesttscicssettessecciec 289 Bownian, Isaiah, and R. L. Sackett, Report on dis- posal of strawboard and oil wastes Byline hoe: 520 Bratmer,, JiG@y, HelerkeG COcccccreessesedacteocth neeteteoereae 250: Brandis, Sir Dietrich, FETE HRCA LOR Heise co seas e eae 378- Breaking the Wilderness. EWIC WiOLe eect tases 200: Brignam, Albert Perry, Students’ laboratory man- ual of physical geosraplly! Dyis.v...dcete.ccsoetees «does 136) British Empire, Cotton cultivation in the............... 249) Brooks, Alfred H.; The exploration of Alaska...... 251 —- , cited on goid da BGS ave 6 ca Met My ee aa) 513; —— TELE LENE Gs ton iscasmhrsaies re cra as lataeec eleee se) es een gs 87 ; Tribute to American topographers..............0000 358 Brown, Marcus, cited on immigration......... cccceceee 19 Bunau-Varilla’s scheme for Panama Canal............ 469 Califordiax Foresthy 10 i.yc testers vdeo ei eoek stv ces cae 444 Calkins, F. C., and George Otis Smith, Report ou a geological FECOMNMAISSANCEsb yi! ns. .2256 ede s ee —, Report on geology and water resources of Wash- ington 19.6 BESO EE EAC CH DoRE EE Bnet eecincer meres oleae es are 520 Gana siok Chitmal..2s.sssses ines obscene cose seach ee a tie em neon 68 Canals of the Great Lakes. s.-<....csccenseecn: onthe lesahcdessees 478 Canalsiof, the) worlds.ta. 58 cect sieecdccet eee steskscicctieke coe 478 Cannon; Josephyneferreds tome ee cess ee 254 Carleton, Mark Alfred, Report on lessons from the grain rust epidemic of LOOANS Cee toed coe ies eee Palen ue - 444 Census-Bureaul referred tO. 1. 521:s...:0ccst ods cineceees ae. 504. Century of expansion, Review Of........ ......ccc00e eeeeee 526 Chamberling ih. Sc erelerredutO a.c.ccsssscestscrcusctteccdene 250 Champ, W. ish Leader of the Ziegler relief expe- GICION SG: cc. eevee se oeioee kee k caaatel seat Seat ee eae 355, 440 Chapmawtie Ryo. srelerred | fOrscs- cos saseccses scenes ck eee 427 Charts of early navigators......... 0. ...ceceeees eeseweecncestee 491 Sa Ss Sion 2) tp 0) ip hs ei Pe ea Ae i a Se Re 492 Chauncey, Henry, Tefernedtomis is Ne wt eae AE 447 Chester, Colby M.; The Panama Canal.................5 445 Chicago sanitary and SUI p (Cama veccvsa.rsss--tusce te 478 Children, Proporticn of in country districts........... 508 eer ees miteduStaeee nme ey hs a aN 505 China and the United States; Sir Chentung Liang CHEM Oe oyrretersee tes ceomes sedate rae casinos abkeecccsaheninacans 554 — , Immigration pO feb at ne Am bey Mere AltAR a Ue RSD ar AE eat PLO OLESS SUM vet tereree esc seer eR Leek eee tae taaent — ’ Recent development of, compared to that of Japan eAueliplitiichiallomrads noe ees coats soceset sneha. favacsen st cae, 414 —, What is the population Of.............c.ccc08 socees 306, 572 Bye : Page China pwWornderfiullcainalsiofi-sscccssceccerceecesnossteeke eee 68 ChineseiboycottvCotton and the.::325:5./.7.2¢eans ee 516 == Labor tOr MEd COM. 2. ssecsacs:scscentsschnecotseseeoterneneteeat 481 Chittenden, Alfred K., Report on forest conditions of northern New Hampshire Dynveaate teeta 443, Chittenden, F. H., and William af Hubbard, Re- port on the basket willow DY se ace ee, 443 CitlesStabistiesro fits able cht wat cs Munsee nents, ueeiaes 437 Citrous LEWES PNG wie eee caac lesen ene eceh esseeLeEUeG 42 Civilizations, The supposed birthplace of............... 4 Clapp. Frederick G.. Report on limestones of south- western Pennsylvania. iu cletisla ddcidow shine sac antewssivatienaeiees - 444 Clark, C. E.; The population of China..............2c008 Clark Wine eB Winelerred!tone.-.s-saetsedeesesse a asute ae oseee 250 Cleveland, President, referred tO..........ccccecceeceesceees 387 Climate, Deforestation and...........ccccccese coececcsceceeees 307 Cliniatey hifect.of theiseaiipOi...1.s..tcer.cc.scee dabdistrdss 496 Clinton, De Witt, cited Om fOrests........ ..eceececeeceeeee 386 Coast and Geodetic Survey referred to...... 144, 427, 509 Cobb, Collier referred to. ssc) .iiccatescee neste eet 250 Coe, Robert, referred to.. paar Collier, Arthur i fae Report on work in Alaska by... - 513 Collins, C. M., Report on the Avocado by.............4. 527 ColouPhar born. cench. ec pese ts cciessec ons seteacdedece aca suva neeeess 456 NE OLOUIMNSIAE ta cscsctenoueced toe cetice cacte eee nae srceaa cate ete see 456, 472 Colquhoun, A. R, cited on Philippines.................. 363 Conimerce, ‘Ihe possibilities of, multiplied by in- VERILTOINS sass tans vaciee conconasneten sem sct eset ome eet e nace amare AIL Commercial geography, Gannett’s book on............ 520 Comtractdaborlaiw iii Re ee ee 12 Cook, O. F.,and Walter Il. Swingle, Report on evo- lution of cellular structures by 2.-Aeei sh Bie: 527 Copernican theory, mefienned tonis::.-c.ssecsccs edoeaces oe 256 Corbett, L. C.. Report on raspberries by................5 443 , school gardens 101 Aon ee PR aren eR a ee Bp Sania 443 Corinth canal sh electntenk cuter eiadacecscresadecdsceecosae cone Eee 476 Cormorants, Fishing with... ee cece cece rec eeeees 213 Cotton aud the Chinese boycott Of................cceeeceeee 516 —, Boll weevil, Experimental work in combating 4 CIR iice Soskeckcotees save stkeccbe vended cen we Sbhossarenecetecteee: ames 3 —, Cultivation of in the British pass Meadddastaeeehet 249 —, Cultural work on.. i seh chacevouccnacevtastcetmeeAS Coville, Frederick v., ‘Teferred to. She RS PEO a restr 229 Cox, Ulysses G. Report on revision of cave fishes inthe Winrited: States! Dyssicec.c--csseitaccecsceota haeceaeestons 527 Crane, W. R., George I, Adams and Erasmus Haworth, Report on economic geology of the Tola Quadrangle DY......0...--.2-200 sees seceeenseececece senses 444 Cripple Creek District, Colorado. .i:2 i.cscscrcsaeeeees ones 424 Ctoatians, Imig ration Of. (1120.2). ceswines estes seatadent 8 Cronstadtiand Sti Petersbu rei. ....cscccsoss noes omcesr sceaes 476 Crop investigation and forag GOR ALe cicalere ence een ate 43 Crops requiring little WATET hasendlss hee erates - 44 Cuban seed tobacco, Growth Of...........cecetececeecce cee ees 82 Culebra Cut, The, referred: tOs stoi sceatess ek tens 456 Cummin, K. D., referred: tows. i522 $OMi0, nee 425 Cushine HHeomy wefierreds tolsc-n..0uescse-tyecos meee senate 250 Gy. ClomiICiStOriMS. -. ese 2cc. .catesc warats a teteatnve rene eatscaawaee stare 260 Daibutsu; The ereat,OriginiOts.\eccccestecsecteece edece 95 Dai-Nippon (Japan), Review Oficncscsceessteces fc EES 134. Dall, William H., referred to...2..2.06..c.ssres on -tieccentece 251 — Chapter ou paleontology i in Bahama Islands by.. 136 Dalton, Jack, referred t0......csccsessesessessereeeeseene cee 251 Dalmatian,settlemets::siiscusseesshecwsss sastecsbenese Malou 9 Dam, The highest in the world ..............cccesecececeseee 240 Darton, N. H.; The Central Great Plains.......0...... 390 Darwin, Charles, GEER TGEC Ones. waste cuen sndrencatte act aaeentos 194 Davis. A. P.; Views on what forestry means to representative WIVES tosogncy seneodubtcescannoadsadddoesdbacodaonaee 443 Davis, Che Hi referred Mot iar. .u vies eaeenese 446 Davis, W. - Tides i in the Bay of Fundy..... ......... 71 —,re pues ‘ Ses aaeaen ete tene Tete Sa Ol Ace CRR es, Gatch iat Bie a 499 Day, David ’., Geographic excursionists’ gift to... 199 —, Report on mineral resources of United states... 444 — — — gold and silver production in 1903 by.......... 444 == Stollen G@uStinvaltlLQO3.-.-.csccereacnucestecsseseesc 444 Decisions of U.S. Board on Geographic Names.. 131, 358 Deforestation aid) climate... 0c. .csssecceccccosteserenseneer ac 397 Dellenbaugh, F. S., Book on breaking the wilder- NESS DY...ere0e Aus ouncGuca ance wes on cceeede csc ten enn ecouneee se aeeeee 200 THe NaTIonAL GeoGraPHic MaGazINE Page Densmore, Frank, referred tOscc.i:scyescsssenesseeeeeee 251 Denton Quadrangle. Maryland, Map of, issued...... 425 Desert, Utilizing the....25-.0..-csanasehee een eee ee 242 Detweiler, Frederick May, Obituary Of eee 52 Dewey, Admiral, referred to:. 2) Li52 ORs 60 Dewey, Melvil, Book on A. L.A. catalogue of 3,000 volumes by ii. eR ie, SR nee meee 136 Dodge, Richard Elwood, Advanced geography by.. 2% == lementary Geography byciascins-sn eee ees Dunstan, W., cited on cotton cultivation in British Emp Eres tesas ssstdesecsss tities Ake A OL ae ea 249 Dutton, ¢ Clarence Edward, Book on earthquakes soseneeee c.cjusceans Ueicicwweeselcisciecnsieceacresn seeeeeeee ee eee ee teeaeeene 136 Duvel, 7. W.T.; ; Report on the vitality of buried seeds sede lone posecssnvicclinae odes seoeesceeseeieeesnieeehh epee ee eaaeaeeeme Dyer, Henry, Book Oll Japan Dy is iie-ee.ceceeaceeereeeee 134 Early Western Travels, Review Of.........00-0csseeeesseeee 253 Earthquakes, Review of... AP adeoen yes +. 360 Earth’s heat, The cause of ‘the... sheshivel \ os ‘ cae bey WOU A ‘ Paes | Aw kyl WO Rs Ce iL y 7 ‘ Fail , y Rr t fi + ¥ ‘ ‘6, : ‘ Ue Kay ve th ; ni Fa ag Ai a, Na a i 7 a ; + ¥ u i A ai | te : 5 \ ie ; 1 ; i { ; Ke co a i, y j ( Pe ede \ f ‘ 8 i f F ‘f - bay § Le \ \ ‘ *. by 2 . bh re) - 7 hp ane y Oya ar ee r t ; } Y ed MRK i, SY a cata kB 1. rt Y) . " cafe Meso hia ix & ri ee a Sh ie The, . } K mh \ meee " \ f it i * A ‘ ite . i taeror 5 . i. me ' i oe ‘io } 4 \ a eG 1. ri u . : Hy " ( 1 i | . 2 ; A * \ SPECIAL MAPS PUBLISHED BY THE > NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY “Tap cf the Region of the Panama Canal (24 x33 inches), in 5 colors Prepared under the direction of the Isthmian Canal Commission Chart of the World on Mercator’s Projecticn (48 x27 inches), in 4 colors Prepared under the direction of the Hydrographic Office Map of Alaska (42 x36 inches), in 3 colors Prepared under the direction of the U. S. Geological Survey Map of the Philippines (23 x 36 inches), in 4 colors Prepared under the direction of the War Department and the Bu- reau of the Census Map of South Africa (46x33 inches) Prepared under the direction of the War Department Map of Northeastern China (36 x28 inches) Prepared under the direction of the War Department A Series of Twelve Maps on the Alaskan Boundary Dispute Prepared under the direction of Hon. John W. Foster, ex-Secretary of State * Map Showing Alaskan Boundary Award (12x 13 inches) Prepared under the direction of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Map of Cuba (18 x7 % inches) Prepared under the direction of Robert T. Hill * Map of Manchuria and Korea (36x42 inches) Prepared under the direction of the War Department A Series of Twenty Full-page Two-colored Charts, showing storm tracks and method of weather forecasting Prepared under the direction of Dr Willis L. Moore, Chief U. S. Weather Bureau * North Atlantic Pilot Chart (22 x 32 inches) Prepared by the U. S. Hydrographic Office Panorama of the Wrangell Mountains, Alaska (7 x 42 inches) A remarkable picture, showing scores of lofty peaks in an area as large as the State of Delaware A Series of 140 Pictures of the Philippines, showing the types of people, their manner of life and industries, their country and resources * Out of print. EACH MAP OR SERIES,- BY MAIL, 25 CENTS NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Hubbard Memorial Hall, 16th and M Sts. . . . Washington, D. C. ee 4 dion tage Se iphones seston rb ccorime sath achasdonien Attar a, 7 4 ve, Rc aay Ye Wane! 2 AM eae : i . ee rg bo Re hh ag a ne 5 a F, ee f “as f at w 9 ‘vt A ¥i g | } WASHINGTON, D.C. : i$ PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER (INC.) _ ; : a auc OS eee i f ’ "y pe | : : «OU EAS Ts yt sae oe ; . He i Nac coke kg i i “h i ; is ; as} Ne botenin ‘ A 4h Pe tae) ' wee ‘ wr » H joy era see wn ' ’ Da Peet) ‘ ” “ ' ‘ re) ' , ’ 5 , ny . A ta aa 4 i ¢ . wt . ‘ SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES Ml 3 9088 01709 9995 ee ¥ ‘ , . UMM ‘ "