Very y ree ryppseese Puy SPIRES A ISISE CIT SESTeeSS OLY ICEL YS sEsee ery PEEEDESSI OPH Kee PIED TTDI Eyes ae Ween T Saal Corer isn) Sep eS sae tT hase PPDec eevee Pe ested Veta tes PereST TIS EL IIEES) ad a 7 VUPREMAD dee TPN ees sdaapeee ss90) Serpeaar iy fev esayy aya ‘34 merrerini ry bye Debaters peLtpeh esa. rEeEeYYISUTE LISI SOSETESOEEST 107) PSPOEREEPP EEE GA RP LES eee dee PSI BE EE END ae eo ee port Dred betel ves “* ShSPPLy EN bE bane sees PNTD ET EEDEN SSeS eee dD! : cae ree PERTRDT OS PE PIM bere ED EPPA Mere BERET PPO SESE Vecrepiged POePRTOPTRESINOR SUSE LES IO E ES e x re erp eas Peer tad veep iyay rercyur rr vie) Po Une endow a seey ere re sae vyePeyettereiipovergeey eed SOSTs Lady se snol pres saies VEPESUSDS ORE EL EST OeP bree : ones : Vent Lhett PHD EDP avee re tienaeets 7 . rpiyess iseree® : SVe rs teed eeeeeeD teers bre re ry t Pry SReVe sere re eee Li epee t tare Peay ee PPre Derere nays eee ree e errr byes ’ POUR M aap reese Brat : eyi¥ED br ey: VO>DEPD Re LEDIDPEND Her Pee ee wD cyyeeseneogeny + : : Lat PUPP PESSRS CUED TUTE SPEDE Gee eb erty PERS Ogee’ ’ ADDS EES ee ye tn ese eel oney yee Sesh epg) Sr eaney sbspapetryeye TEST cen oer yePareree? ape Pry ese rere iyenaeee sitter beers VePoaerreeeeerraepeettboP et verse? fhoseetpert PPOIESDRDDEO Pore Hever ssaveree gree eT ry ete PrareRPPrr reve sasy ee yy “CSosr\Pensbearesfooevrreperveargatyaey HSPs aebe eter er ey t terry rerere oy reseene : PUNT ver eee pees CPEPSPP ELLEN Fe ey eee es RU SMANY SYR EPCOS SERS OSES SEAS IS ESATO SEE LUAU UDELL NEL CEE ARE CORY ytereessreeets besgypen ee iy Seve yyy pees agar nage tt as Psy) ThUARARS : i ony Ri}. sy eae RAAT Lye eed are Av eyy sees yey seer ey 2. 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Saye yeeg ys nyt i i f ye ia} oH Ute vaped tres : TAI) PEP eee VE TY Vvyes Fhe yy Y Dory Vays . ; Han aaern } > Ay dre 1 y tyre yes? ; vee ay vey yet 4 ete atti Cece tt ah Ye Yereiy ss ; res : - } Ore Dea ’ scene sg fttapsrepoe { {eat 14 t b t 4 +h Mfpey Virssonr trey ry : PRP ANO STD Pants aE NE Bresontati ‘dns . sf ,) CO y SSP CT RT : RANDY. Peeves ty erentaa Veabereass PANES YIRI ELI EARS yyy) Yes vesagy > SOUUISSEADTAEVENUSESEOSER EL IUERY COREY SOND) Seta ve esate ives st 8 Ssaae sassy ys Beas WasyOays S i" RALLY , ROU OER ME RYT ARERR (hy rh WIRTTES TT : sO Vive Serer ae asd pay ye PRE ieee eos SEIT YNVTNL IRONS ELERE peReragaoen yes REE) SUERTE ELINA) : ois SVPLES{TAESISESSEEIVINYEY 5 pray asaoes Pe ee Hida rates Sighs 4 were PaaS 3 ViVe ees ‘ PENN fone laepbidean perresssas z Peavery dear aa ages sf ave a baal RE SSRE TEL EE i f NERDY ayer wuwer ages daaneiyeerel NS) RE UONSEES) oval gous Veer ave LUN a aa revere baa nit TS mare y teal pleabhetan vals yeh UPR ESERER IIMA TIERS ONES] i Weve Payer dasenys i ‘ PUA OPER ESE SREY CERES © ad 4 2} TO TIee SERRE SROSER SELES i r 1 \ WYLEREAISRED ETEUN) TIRE SEOOE | : ‘ ; : ; bs AritsSh Eset. S8 v7) eevee ee bia na : STE RITER shales ts ptatiter kt Haye Mboesge 14 eabeibae rity ; ; ' aces vg TAY) be deaet versa Vhanthraee aad states Sreihere eke s eared yeaa FAAS deb os hes cokes 634 PURINUSECEEAS LISD 1) SVS adder dee bebe nhs shadnet fdas sya, adanr tay Vabbetberttbesrives i tie Phagare PEVEpaehadger deesvetaael pebteare WEEN TESTES ES RP en barra veene peer ete eeeepibtaes) abba eaernvs PPR RES Pee DeLeCCD LARS) deae PtP eee b pe? PE ase eae Eb PED PERCCIE EH ALAMEDA CAPPED bee E Che Cael PEaaee ee reaver ey ESI SARARIRAR ATOR URE IS AEC RSET o tee a) ‘ ‘ $ PEGE Seales be . : Ta vida tien > ’ vay 1€ Vis ate vedevarsisey eV yaee Gave Hoye b VAY sente Pah e dene : cen eath hae Thee theres seyaedy eybbseee ee bp areyGebetitces shes phe CHOPPER OR Ete are d dee Gad feretbecettteriberediders i ly SPE ead abed Ler spent dtes Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson pares 4 alan pare ¥) {NM a SP y Ue: THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC . MAGAZINE AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY EDITOR GILBERT H. GROSVENOR ASSOCIATE EDITORS MAJOR GENERAL A. W. GREELY U.S. Army Cc. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Bureau of the Biological Survey U. 8. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau. U.S. Department of Agriculture O.H. TITTMANN .- Superintendent of the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey O. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor DAVID FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the Department of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY U.S. Geological Survey R. D. SALISBURY University of Chicago G. K. GILBERT U.S. Geological] Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, U. 8. Weather Bureau San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON President St. Lawrence University ROBERT HOLLISTER CHAPMAN U.S. Geological Survey VOL. XIX—YEAR 1908 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D. C. “Sin HSON ay NOV 9 1981 LIBRARIES CONTENTS Page inethe Savace South: Seas sy bys SRATRICE. GRIMSEAW 2 aecanr7.. 4 ile seal sey oh or eran nie eae I Studies on the Rate of Evaporation at Reno, Nevada, and in the Salton Sink; by Prof. PVA Lal IRAD OK, UB Se AW Gedne: IBM leas os mun boon deonmoecddeo sds sooo sUGdo Ano S 20 Methodsvom@btamnimosoaltsiny CostagRicag ssi se oe) uci tek tavern enymayecejo ikea Tenement 28 [De REGS IM bein] bahga baler Ghee oie anni neo miGinG anoint cinco NEEM EO RLAn ainlninrs BuTmpmenrmNinE nis hdc 35 Mores Changes. or the: ColonadodRivierd. sag scerciiae soit ts ci erie ols eats ieie tae eee 52 [8 oyaKoNRe) aWOhe vaVanbolalolain ny ra Nanos Rao aU Ae OU Oona Moe oOmanicG Au ces bockooogvoascos 55 Recession of the Glaciers of Glacier Bay, Alaska; by Fremont Morse, U. S. Coast and CEOd CHETS tty ery soi sae ea eras Pari, Rene US SATE Sees as ES Nea GS com Ne By een 76 hes NationalaGeosraphic SOclehy arc tine ce ec oe heat ae ee ee Selec as 78 Policemen of the Air; an account of the Biological Survey of the Department of Agricul- GUT e las yar EP RINIRV a VVER SG HDAWir ipso Seer ine rahe meena GEN Sgt EGG) Arete voeuRU nna hanes 79 A Few Thoughts Concerning Eugenics; by ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL...........+.--005- 119 shies Ganie aie nishitutlOmin iter sense ee ee Seo eee te Sy Or EO gigas param ara eC 124 JAN: 4] foam pybavee= Se bug Lope segsonis cela RUN p ee ea RU ARUP SIN Ua Ri OR ata or SGT RN min CRS EnI GNC GE URS 124 Chuldrengost sthemWiorl Geos Mays eerie gs here eo on Hag ate SCO at cata es Eee haies 126 AcnseViears-inctheBhilippines ar. aes oes eee eee eee ee iy Neen ar eeu anaes IAI A Bear Hunt in Montana; by ArtHur Atvorp Stites, Topographer, U. S. Geological SYS SRST aesv ec Ge S Deics eS RTs Bo PPE A Pet ear IGE ne ee cen gE Rees RULE ARS eo Ga ab ueeiem 149 A Journey Through the Eastern Portion of the Congo State; by Major P. H. G. Powe 1- (CUA NOIN SS Ry aetna Sh Een peepee Ret) tor RN ROA Gti GR AU LX ny Palco SOR i Mira a repre Pe anatase 155 hnethemVialleyotsthes Niger once ies cee eu ya ess Secon ee eee Hi nue ine ea lee eee reece aa 164 Markimguthes Alaskan sBormdaty.cccs cs alsa ee ccaied. ays limite mae ante ari eens a a 176 AL Drowned Empire. cby, (ROBERT El CHAPNEAN A vc. eet ee iis avs een ies ae 190 Haiti: A Degenerating Island: the Story of its Past Grandeur and Present Decay; by ears Ndmiuital: COUBYeMia CHESTER We Su NAV yrs sti ae ne oe ieee si cis ieee arena 200 The Madura Temples; by J. S. CHANDLER........ AWG ess eer auth ein Pop Ag Ne SER Cae 218 sWhe sear lirinte 5. sesso eee he he eae ats NDE UN east cs fet En een SLE et Re 222 Among Honest People: Straw sandals for sale by the roadside near Arita, Japan; by EVEIZ AR ROCID MORE Per ee Oh one nna Weds enn ynanag ae Greig nt onc een Aa eae MaNae Bae 223 The Native Oysters of the West Coast; by Ropert FE. C. Stearns, Honorary Associate in Zoology sa srormNational MVintseiiniec sors tee rw eats ee en Re ance ee 224 Topographic Maps Issued by the Geological Survey in 1907.............. 0.00 cee e ee ees 227 NationaluiGeorraphiceSoctetyacrs oa hae Ao een eS eae 230 Along the Old Inca Highway; by Harriet CHALMERS ADAMS............0000cc eee ceees 231 Home-Making by the Government; by C. J. BLANCHARD, Statistician, U. S. Reclamation SSC LVL CO ae cera re oe tLe eae Me ols Coy I tn a ALE MIRAE aes Ls 20 3 ak Ven teh SE Gee 250 Medieval Tales of the Lop Basin in Central Asia; by E1nswortH HUuN‘TINGTON........... 289 athe Key to the Pacific apy selon GEOREIWC EERIKTING Wat Heo 2 ew ec gt ne ae 205 Hawantrorllomes:abyabliaes NOOR ante ee eee Sra REN em eS I Var 298 Wiiy Nik-kovis Beautitaleiiby yori: IDE SMORRES Tra acy. aie on Ps ley vroe dees es ane UR ete 300 Wihere East-Meets Wests bysliARIAIN- Ce COBFIN: ci sin ie soe oe oe eee ae 309 An American Fable; by Girrorp Pincuot, Chief of the United States Forest Service.... 345 Persia ithe Awakenins, Wast:eby,, Web. CRESSON,<.). ence hare ste talcioseaiel ae tafeleretcteteta ieucueracle 356 Conservation of Our NatiunaleResommeessecec cas rie ony ee nisi eee cr oe 384 Ahie NomeiGold Pieldseuy eee ced eee a Mirek ns ae ee a a en ae Ie ak ae cae eee 384 Geographical y Cone ress sey. wy eer. ite oe ie hig A eis Vor oe TIER, ANG MES OA LET NEE St GME Se SRO 385 iNewsEopograpliie Whaps. Sa cr. ici ee Sie eee aS a RTP eae TERR tana ei alu cate ee sen cecear eee ecoiol 386 II CoNnrTENTS Ill Page One Season’s Game Bag With the Camera; by Hon. GkorcE SHIRAS, 3RD...........2.00.. 387 Peary’ Ss Tee llake TES neva loko reat ahr Ai ieettet et eae hore en a pede ee a Ur ase 447 Mere re nlen Stlveva Ole Pee AGIIIC statute checicpencisrsiktebcyebertiesouamiinie ets cl ote: soa dene eueietere un en Pa Ne ase 447 Tine Worn Aucacireeiar liravablcia Weis Seeeren nats alae brit ne nn ch uieeb uM meen ery earned RUPMELN a Aleck 448 BOO KSEE C etic Cera turcey ster crater Mes sh ctes ass, ASME ST Mercian vince an erate om Wismae ats wus ay Soma te on anne nia coe pe aR 452 seem Vidor cmv rountaine! bya Ne cb-ATTERGON sc’ cccclecie cfc © cisiatlers sisi ae omen ne eae 457 Notes on a Zoological collecting trip to Dutch New Guinea; by THomAs BARBouR....... 469 Mmoneathey Wahogany iborests of Cuba-) by WALTER Ds WILCOX: ...22..2ss5 5s ocean een 485 INotesmandaScenesmbrom Oneal crscisn tine sti slalacarcusis rahe Shee eee ae or See tealtie cl SR eer en pana eine pee 498 Some lelenmein Ieleloyitarrioms > lox (Commins COBB. soboceoccocnscccccodbussoccbdeuogucucoencat 509 Is Our Noblest Volcano Awakening to New Life; by A. H. SyLvESTER.................. 515 Further Notes on Dutch New Guinea; by THomMAS BARBOUR..............000eeeeeeeeeee 527 The Pacific: the Most Explored and the Least Known Region of the Globe; by Lxororp HESSIAN GIRONA perme eprint) Mla) Staychets years in a ean s ure aL yal date APL opie (cs Lal Pur Dn EU Rt han SRC Me Gd Je ata 546 BiskrastierAiban ©ueen:. by dvirsy GEORGE Ce BOSSON wy Rind acer ceincice dali stra ae eee 563 Wocaionoratie: Sita) ohmeknanic| ine llonunient sae see eee ee ene 506 Some Wonderful Sights of the Andean Highlands; by Harriet CHALMERS ADAMS....... 507 As Seen from a Dutch Window; by Jamrs Howarp Gore, Professor of Mathematics, CeorgemWiashinetom-Winiversitys voces ee acer le ree ea ol esol ea ee eee 619 Reasantelitestm.the) Black Morests by WARE) MREDERICK) GEISEResce esas eo aes cas elon 635 HO NVan te RN VO Gl digt Ga Sia @ Cle trae crater aad Aus snteentity tah a ea ae CAIRO DU aay as cgi tiie. neu ne alLEAY 649 henwVearsiorthe Peany. Arctic Clubs by HERBERT LL, BRIDGMAN 2.4. -)) 55.8 see eae ee 661 Cuzco, America’s Ancient Mecca; by Harrigpt CHALMERS ADAMS..............0...0005. 669 (CO ee ie St A a a AN Ng Eee Ao EAR Ot Pg Denes are ae a CPN CAD), ROMER OH 603 INCEOSSMVVAGESt eurTICa sb y Ar OLE NRVe SAVAGE slo ANIDOR leno minster cee crisis @ araies 604 Conservation League of America; by HENRY GANNETT, Geographer of U. S. Census...... 737 Comparison of Our Unprotected with Our Protected Forests..:....-.......5+.20.+-55 5. 730 The Ruined Cities of Asia Minor; by Ernest L. Harris, American Consul General to SiMABNER) 6’ ao ons PSP SBN Sa Ras Oo ae NAO UN ria eR oy OO ESA ack Pee RY feb arate 7AI Biull oatgiaethiesm yea Sal te, tate esi ues ncen tla ey eu alatesda reed ue at an aneaa Ne cutie diese we den ee ween 760 Servia and Montenegro........ eh JOG TANT ns lL Ol ee Gana Ae cease Rl ph pe Me RSA Set ye 774 IN@ fe Smo tial Vlace clone apie Oe ean inte siete SECU taal fella ac hom nei pW eae cae th ee eR a 790 ‘he @il Treasure of Mexico; by Russrriz, HASTINGS MILEWARD...............-+--..-++- 803 INfaniernoyratell *,(G exo exrerelio) ob tess SOV (2s cree tintn eee ce ante rel a NU A NU eg Rae cP 805 Nie Otani Cimouss Croatia wy by, OME DEX y|eesIMOCH © spun yon ants einle eeeicnicins pee ieee eae 809 Some Ruined Cities of Asia Minor; by Consul General Ernest 1. HARRIS.............. 833 Our Neglected Southern Coast; by ALFRED GoLDSBorouGH MAYER.............-..0-0-- 859 Scenesuarometne, land where everybody, dresses, in white...2-----5:4.s+24+s2000- se sae 871 yamnnive le Cor ten Grllmaameenine cone en Waker aT tiehn icmet Dalhy cig meen Gl ie kaa cance ono ae Nan iv rca 883 AVIA IS DO NINE: “hes a6 ley is Steck oes CCT NE RR ES Oa Ee Re EO RUD cu reo Cue aR a 883 PUMP Niem Cate OOUthm molar My xpe dition. s.r cscs satiate cle, e ccc ecco ea a aGasael ain Ate ae 885 Netioravall (Gacyeire yal hen SOLS (el Ale es ese ae OR ea etc eee ane Rian A Ee 888 Nitrile DUI ng en rately te ie ae Sa aan Melee Se ea a Ee A oes el to Stee Wee eae ere 889 ILLUSTRATIONS Page Wiec villages phates Pigitecyrs ters trae ieee atacates noes. w ce couse crcl cecuasap step tee arcs ie Ott aes a eee 3 A root of Yanggona from which the intoxicating drink of the Fiji Islanders is made.... 3 Monillagplantwandebean enn 510 Rishenm-ansmeamp——omackelkondebankwNOrtiaey Carolina ages ieee oicpesiee ciee eee tena 511 ~. Senninolls Tnehsian Inenie sacere Wiemann, IDoriGlle Sa dn aot sone sched aon eens Shou beB EON ooo en Soe. 512 limaves EOS 2a ty Gra lt me reh tarsal Guyot ctreices seer aiat case paiayore love Suen ee bis ietine ater elowns a aoeNson hers 513 Goataherdensmhonscutap dh exc ceree tsetse tame ony eine eee eaten el OEE EN one 514 Mirtlood: trom Sandyaniver plittss looking east Up oantdy hivetecne: ees ie errno 516 Relictkemapaore Dello Oe Reet gettin seca isnt ces iate yeh Gece Soa Sut eee inten tatince ates Gusmao rane 518 Chiubines7iezac clacier—omidenmsiromt cutting Steps: sees buc sso ene oe eee 522 PNW O LTONe Gem © Daeiererme reat patter g. Slear teste tome ice dnai Nanas ge ERS Rc ISIE OR oe i moeo ng antec 522 EatolacicnpatenortheastsideroreNlt: lOod.. (aga ccletaices Aust acl ae sca eee 523 RTOP ET VAC WROLMEN OPC IACI eter neti Lois, se reuee en eee eee whee pen cen htt tac te gan aaa 524 Bickimombeatiblesmrnonm GodbtiaabmGreenlandeem) =: atte 5h rie ean aa a ee ee 526 An early morning view of the village of Kajo, in Humboldt bay........................ 528. ‘Tine Akarenyarnr”’ or sacred ImOmse, att IDVeNNINE. San doco ccedocous use dosccoouensuchtoconde 530 MananoreD jamtia standinicepyathe Dow? Of hisiCatlOcan- stn +) -.qcisaasm cease ea 531 Mi csiee tel Asmatcels lied eee ne Severs rete vate ta Soa alessio soc ebe cHsle Sak) nan usa Npeoacs Ble seca ees em se 532 Mitiensacredestnicrinesno mylobadmeltumboldtaBavarrm ose wae ee eee 533 The great “Karriwarri” at the village of Tobadi, in Humboldt Bay...................--. 534 S\SSS iii Te leroolnye Woleal Shania rete as mame ces eter el acy earn emieeet Whe Cale aan is aI Set nd RM OT sd 535 Menyorelonadi val lagers ernie sci ese cee Sem eee ee ok en aam Maeno priser aay 530 eracinoawALhetheatatives uelumDOldt «Bayi. seis yee is ees nae eo ee 537 Papuans ferrying the writer from Tobadi Village to Metu Debi Island, in Humboldt Bay. 538 Womenscomoucallinogalongeasvillagestreetvot “Lobadtiae Sst siate cde lo ae ee ee 538 eyilarerstrect iso padimetlumboldt: Bayaiius. vs vs wets seca eee i ee et eee 539 Ra puatinemidese sy -mor eet vateyer cis oot enen teh bralen aid aden SE aoe Lae en 540: An archer at Humboldt Bay, using a fish arrow............... “A ROR Tar, et acer MULT are 541 Se evVeLYy Ane wELOPeMIGHA TOI ero Ayin oO ant-Catek an mins yamine Cpe yrs ae mnt Say eee 542 A Papuan tree kangaroo climbing: found only in forests of New Guinea................. 543 AY CASSOW ALY EAL ORONO IN EWG Ite al ave nes ie esti ceNee eu toes tae oe ee RE Dita ee a i a 544 HEB AvA tire e wis GAME auy ees fe tae ents ree gece estes, eran shes Siete Ug Ste pede tice “ais ee SD ERIE ween a 545 Skecchmnaproimibemba cite, slat se: ccan serait coc coach ee Beak ae eee ee er ctecae oer 547 Nativesassem lyaholnse ab Oras OOCletyalslandsemmian eerie a eee ee et wa 548 Mabiuea villacenunnther tai islatids 1c bie cchara tos ees rece ia ista ds Se CeO eT Me ag nate a 550 (Osi Ay silane tery I ie 763 9 SS) lope Nea ee ee RENE eae abe eS RE A Pan fa cet AON us es Sa in 552 Nativestishitmcamane. Moen island, (Caroline Islands asm. eee cee eee eee eee 553 Old king of Mual district and two of his wives, Caroline Islands..................0..-0. 550 Mentot Ponapi island; Caroline Islands.2.7e5:witoeecee ee aeee eer AUP Ne one ae, 557 ILLUSTRATIONS XIII Page Native wvomenand childrens loneutaliyvillage ellis eroupy 4-22 ae ee oe eee ee eee 559: louse Of onmnie. Logay Vay lsland, «longa croup.) eres tees cl ee eee 560: INatigesprimcess a Weles— Niue lislandyWonga ‘srotipe. 22ers ese cere ees ois eee 501 Nierteneceme inulin tle Owns Atcha go © UG Ceri) cee veces yee aee zee USAT (cs ces to ectava ree cua aeey eRe cay tas ake no scien 562 SIRE ECiNgrIDMONN CAN CEL Tse fei A tate a te renee aie ns,laers) BES tees coals tans phate gee eenes Mic se ae alae oe aera 564. TSHIRTS BRE SELES Hee AN Nee ete ISIS rt a on ca ert eae Horee ease a mane emer aA 505 SHimowodertivend CSE besste. te niaeer aeons: cave escatel es ora wencenms nor etera baitiapanos Sa tee Sunaina car Seat Ne eee 566. @iatselem @ arabs betale ae aw mea UR ake SNe SAI cell alt ani auras vata ie pate i TIE een 507 Wookiiomaciossetnerdesert, Onutite LOUter TOMD IS kittdhr. a ireees ere eetenrere rer ee i ec ener ne ee ee 578: AM CAT ON Ie CKEL OLUESURLSE Ol SIS Lotiater (nana aeuene oheaeTarcteter aetentarevst ett teres easel atte ane eae 571 lsmpermewpalnimed rd eiMSye DISK Tass (6s cAsstors wilctsedie tie ofccs ciate sbepeiare ooo ae aes vemncsie aroha es eee eR 572 Coscipimesonuaystreek COLNE: BIS kate lesa io cid 4 we ooh ore alk etage hed tise) te og erese epee ac aseiie eet 573 TTS sTovopessl Sis a) @ybIed cies eat a cal a BOM ce ER ire nL nea aie erate A UR ua ml acti ML oa: Sun 574. Mie roaGs alooume Bishi, Ihenve 2) lolloilieeill gneamoninlneire. oonckcocoscoucucesoncsccosunocssces 575 (ONBMESIIGLE 1s CONTI BNISI ice lals Maret eG oi Goan ait eC etic aun Tn ce aeons maaiinlnrcny okratimrn Mee aintn ictal a 576: INS SESE. BVRTO NAS tel NNEC LETCI gies] CLO DOK Aye mimeo dee ciainic © Gah Ou Gimeno cickd cio aoe cigicao mt aruGuls smidiaccc 576 JAN (BADICAll DADE SOD eS WAS Ope Sirsa ncvaskoceoavoccoushponoavucdoecdoodeedosuucneoes 577 Street cele sim bUSketaya uss sry saeey cist Calne ralGnni 8 ice clea a ctren RUT cut, De Ra U DOL ClLte aU MR 578: pNvrae @ alle Les Nieves beat Slicers ales secs a ice eh tra Nee NUN sar AO Agee Fee I RA ae a te eR 578 NES clilem os Diea lye eyy etmrasi rite an caesar cas ictal tone seta Mae ran eI NI te CTI ar ci emia so eID mA aR eae 579: gNeratet@ all cL east PN shel ST re Ren YT EN GRE St Ca 9 vo aaa OR Nr ee eR 570 JAN: Viney obi eet ays de osc reel ea Srcnhe ih aah ae oe cm ro uta ty anh Mie Le mM i Gastininy pela Sic ta ee oh 580: DNC on Ot Sem 1S katach yeep sieve sieaceaeecess eyes sae ees here eee) ene eto 0: IS Ara A SO er osc 580 AS WiakalonduOts bliek@eSenhs olen yun a eles ton bs Aca ysl eatin Wel oath Polar) Mae eae ae PY, HAN aay 581 NapidetTansiesenots esSembuialy ims 1Slialeyaqcctyareen eral cues ae esse licrat svete musa eaeint eae: Male eyed nia uee is 581 MES (TREC MCLO Wide pmiGker ar Se seyte eli ec. cpene che tice nr ae cite au ebe Hae aisle vitacaa haan: SES Heel aay ben Yee 582 BUH Tie noe ee Sea pee ooo Deceit SEM eR OMe ki ho Dn een ealll uoni ee sola Poe Moca oe 583, Playing marbles: Biskra .. Ia a bea aN flee LE eluPeC a nS GI LS Me areata a AREA ds lc IR eta A 584 A teacher administering discipline to a pupil by rapping his hands: Biskra............... 585 Gare hremmiimenthnet Cartes ert een Veen sete leian ate aati taro crec way Myce icy Attar Hooch are A te one Ie ea a 586 A rivulet of muddy water which flows through the main street of Sidi-okba............. 588 Bedouin encampments passed on the road from Biskra to Sidi-Okba.................... oni PiteHOUrth postunelon theadevout Mussulimantab phayehowy. ese kee ee 592 He bows to the ground three times cae cone AEC cr at aR a,c MON ka ae ete cia 503 Dhestrunt thay looks like a watermelon is im neality a lemon... 45...).. 5-0 eee 504 @alnaitilcalwiaiteten one aie cass Ses CEE ae HR alec ak CRT APSE cay UIE pL Ee gr 505 He alitemballeswehichinioy machine. Ae ly ANSI se 7| SL araoiey apc. eos aaa ge ge eareg al 506 A dorway carved out of a single block of stone in the pre-Incasic temple at Tiahuanaco, er tieenentes shee dans de seas an leray nami tas eee nclatt ote Creme a eee Ue LA LS cae ec et em 508 lnethepneinssom Hickoldest cityinstie mewnworldyhiahwanaco. 2. he nee eae nee 509 LEMMSROteneR temple sd iahwamacoh es. yo ujmeomiecs sa cia co ote aan Ee ee ee ee 600: Nome nmoretinevialla tirana Occ laiee ara ul 2 aud hous coos cle Ou) xan aan Ln ree anal ph a 600 Wromnem @ik tne IMelaeenneecy Oi HOG, 5 hose sod socdusoce Sbdnccodcu been ccc coc ka eweeedue 601 iitemvallace, handy Mialitiamacowe 2%, . 9 Ape atc cisusie cg (ey she aatacen a seat nea Rte gece ee 602 CancyvaharsawmOnd pyatie men Oniliahwanaco at meStass ch. ii epee ee oe ene ei 603 Sailing on the lake of the clouds Sketch map showing location of Lake Titicaca and Andean Highlands é Constructing a balsa of reeds on an islet of Lake Titicaca Hegnvinesmmttle spam ithe need. boats 2.055 acters) dise Saja OMe cP ate 607 Bia altakattnesada cra allSave ns hyale oe ceil Race oa dn sat cea eae a penn eaten ash a a 608 SOREN See er Ae Resi eatin, Namie e dhe Wer Mt pla 7 608 Meni Doar matting toriastare, wake Titicaca: iit esc Cie Ge akties tice zener ale ngter 609 On the trail to the valley of Yucay, bordered by Spanish breom...-.../....0....22. 508 O11 XIV ILLUSTRATIONS Page she valley cok. Vues tees artes tae erence ree nee aan oe Nicene MR Re aes NE ese eke NR oleate 612 Ruins of the fortress of Ollentayrambo, in the valley of Yucay.....................0.-> 614 Ruins of the fortress of Pisac. Astronomical stone, Pisac. In the valley of Yucay...... 615 ‘Py PESSeenmniatheuvalley sors Vl CA yea bzen Ul mm tyes carer sicis arse ee arenas Saad uct tected SIDS me Rega? 616 AGHOCKOfalpacas ssce tails baer vallleyaon sVauiCaiyiys seller eek tok ees eee oie eee 617 Quaint costumes of village girls on the wharf beside the fishing boats, Zuyder Zee....... 623 iINeishbors.sbicvandslittiesinuastidy streeteotea sutche towns, sacs aa cee eee 626 Picturesque and thrifty Dutch country women with milk pails balanced on wooden yokes. 631 Aghamletinethe eb lack Ores tere secs rata AE HE. Coe SRE a DELP R ER nae eae eae 636 NG Ey pical abla ckeshOnresteyval Gaitle) Tl emer pe ots hiss artes tector ee eae tae are eee 637 Aw Maiitonesteroaduan deroad amend etemmena tae. wanes © Seales cic cena an aerate ono emo 639 A wayside hut in the forest for the protection of forest workmen and travelers.......... 640 (ASntrsenyaimuthes Black tHOnesty sam aspen ee Thiet ei Sem lm iene ime uasie th amceeaae Gane 641 AGiypi calls lack OTestelt@11l Clsiccees ye eerie Sree Oo tg ee set oe Wea eae Sto ee 642 ithe village smiths wites withwive ofher founteen-children: 4-4 .24-5 ase ces qe noe 643 A corner in the living room. The curtains enclose the bed..................00.0.00 sees 644 MomenkonstheltnwayatOswOlrkeaittatientOnestemnsr wcrc es vir cet: eee eee en eee 645 @Onetherroadstorthesiaryetiel dena ncrccgaicusiecsi ei cente SGC Fas OnE Eee EE 645 ashevmaine street-Ob baiersbronn.in- the SlackeHOnest «aa. seer cas eee ae ee 647 the celebration at Mitteltal’..222......:.. FSG P ie Smaak ap SMO Mae faba tC SI pa asi: Madey) 648 PlicimleathenrsbOOrs wOnieimy RUSSiaycs years tenn sranie moran oho see Bieta cue ee ope 650 Atisolt=-doorsshoestactotys imebnance wdc ionne 42 So oh We tela rake eae ano ee ge Be Cre 651 Ne Me dievalestylexorishoes still simmai's G2 sacs crete asstern nccdnoscasss Wika egos cee een ne ae Pe ee ae 652 Red leather shoes with huge pompons, emphasizing the up-turned toes worn by the OueemssoviardSeimeAthensrep cde cs acces eerie ele oss meee ost eee ales aoe aa 653 INESERCCHLOLeSHOERSTONes All BA TMEMS Ec wc its oor e cache eune ee eee AS ene 654 AaChinesesshoesscalll tinkaycitysmanketesc sateen ee ee ee ae 655 Tiny shoes of fine kid and silk embroidery worn by Chinese ladies of the upper classes in Waitt meee ae ea ater ere ae laxs oe aN Gre Tony A Tn uanloe gs unit cuter Aisin ouch ees arn Mine eG NT earn 656 Eropably the oddestsshoes:insthe worlds 252 aca. ce ar ine ae 657 Bareain saleiot japanese clogs and sandals ata shopmnmhokyose ney =aseh ee oy cee ae 658 Departments of one of the largest high-grade shoe manufactories in the United States.... 659 Pootgear, of ancient clift-dwellers. toundeineArizonas saa to ei oe a 660 Commanders eeatyaseslipes ti ew NOOSE Vie liters stricter eer ee ie oe 662 The President bidding “God Speed” to the intrepid crew of the “Roosevelt”............. 665 Commander Peary and Herbert L. Bridgman, saying farewell aboard the “Roosevelt”.... 667 Siatueror Manco Capac mthe emperor who founded Cuzcoms ee 670 ixeniaitis Of the palace.orF the first, Inca Manco); Capac.crs sc ak. ose ee Decay 671 AMOUNT AiMetLalsovenlOokinoatuevalley wae sein Alea ie Sora ade pe eee 792 EOL GIShiAtis WOIMetIEO feo all OMillsclle area ee ae ease votre a Ce acane ol trae cong nen ee aah eet a 793 Wallacesscenemiin MACed Omar ere etiet canis cin wot ate Iaisaie cn aeebaue sas aiuene oie Rene cep hee eer: 793 Greek: Orthodox priests of Monastir, Wacedoniay a2 vnc. 6 see: le ieee hanes 704 the: asinkishe Dutchenee Sal oti kere hye Orem eden: cate aie iae ee Oe ee ec erie 705 “Ab EYcae WNW Kavexexu aya FEW lion pegeeee as hp eens Ae a noe rg ke aI es eC eee OH ee es OS C 706 AMipanianececniuits monsters ilbansmbodyellandeunr a eee ec ea er ernie errr 707 Mohammedan women of Buropean ~litnkey,ehei 4200 02 2s cms aslo ct ea eric enaeee 708 NEpOE splitheastenier inOpemrie eerie ie rat torticre ste. Nine haya ott Pio lonscoptnatoui fe oes len one 799 Wei aired itis eo iecopt aca apo eso men onan yon oT Aneto aadunncasbad duped amoo Pa aN ne: 800 JEG teal cad is elon ap rane in Rl Ae re Sn A ae ane aren OBO ris Ota koR dao Oem abo aS 801 ILLUSTRATIONS XVII Page AGI AieEsolcdicnsy olathe dsuckish Army im Wiacedomian ay eae cess eee hae aoe alae 802 Mani otieoipetiSheroneine ataoat Geronimo Mextconcms seca aac eee ence ae 804 A single chrysanthemum plant with 96 blossoms: Japan.................e0eeeeeeeeeee 806 Figures of men with chrysanthemum plants trained to grow as clothing for their persons.. 807 BouncdmotathemmarketraeNoratmy CrOAatia spiisccrs ec iowa ata cinco oar este ean eee 810 PAEstallinathiemmearketloreNeraniy CrOabidm atic hoe ccc sic ohne Sea enOE ne een een 810 Seomes win tne, maeelkaeron /earehany (Oneal no ouincas cosmRUoe mando ano ob dub boooedocucgsccd 810 EAS ATMS IEA NO raTTIw CO ROATA Ge wee) ck rasa gi Leia aries aisle alee sce ACL eC CLR Tee 812 Petiticoakisusecentat tienmanxet ore Nera CLOatia q.qemeoe noe ae ac aetna eens 813 PNAC CIA @ Ey AV OTA TIM a cco ea etseie teach ave eaters Waite aye os'aht,oeacaivereti Renerchtaacle a acon oa bore eee teen cc Bae 814 NGC A SATICIS i lI OMT Extn © HO ALTA se vcncesyievane esa reas losses sas Tesiovatta cin a ST SPS SVS TCG UO MT ee oe 815 AN, [Devic sto) (CimOieoe pon sbeebs blo Te epee raat tach Ronin a tyes ta vied: Raates Steno OONEME Ca a 815 Sine Ollmoniethe ACrlartl Cx, An oe ee cies se yetn wine a wliece esacsiai care lane ait need ete et ate Ned oan tae 816 Dig imewcandimessaneat ek timie. Cro atiay sey. 4.5 ae ocean «i ces erekeus vaveis tie steuoneh sy nena ro eran crer teach arars eyaee 817 Maraschino leaves: Zara, Dalmatia, where the famous Maraschino cordial is made.... 818 @netheamanker-s Nora. Croatiatenscn ssc sogee ine susie etonioe & are Meas sie tousloy atetelems clones aan 818 In the Austro-Hungarian province of Dalmatia. ...........0....00.-eceeecseesteseeeeee 819 Perhaps the smallest cap on earth. Often a mere disc of red cloth the size of a dollar: ate IB) easter ests eso ena Worst les Sosutowe bey calcula ees raueurr oan eiosseCMoT TG oR S racic fom nc aS Scende NOE Eppa 820 Mae waclor tmoalese ital, Sownierem IDENbmMeNsey, ocd ooceosdneneveccensocobocsoucct cooesnsbouc 821 S Cen em UMMt Mean Aca TO Mie kA CEO Ry ya wrayer eae ac cea Take! Gite es sacs lake ae ocak eRe 822 A church parade for rain in a drougth: Zara, Dalmatia.............. 0.00.02 eee eee eee 822 The hazel gatherers of Rovigno. These nuts are world-renowned.................... 823 A shop at Spalato. Inside Diocletian’s palace of 305 A. D.................0+---+-0s: 823 Nop Sy, SwMlntte amide, Pasmailliyaicey eyecare o ayasee aeetetete HO atavenet tia ae eset eu oneaele eo ie ee ta ee ak CRU ROR 824 Herat Gl cette arty Siyrolla Ute eaimer rat sen sat hve cate oon Meaoce. teesueae Mee aac rouge RS etal mre et acaea a oe (ou nalr ne gan ae teed 825 Gp Siysutin ete arena ENN ale RAL RM Sees nage a sa Maesteg NUE Oca mpi aA ay Save Alc Gilad ea Welly nat ease See ao 25 Mae NGliMocutine awicis miu C roa tia ar ens Aa sg aseea els shcteoe See ey ate cael alithara a aie teac uc: stcicecealtteeed ee sc cncars 826 Slovaks Peasants iis Choa tiara scene usta eden Wssacancr2e revaliatevmnanetascesh ae Greece cee Ne Mersey tae tnt RANE 826 Wraslinme sim tae Iola se (GRO. ccoocnoocdnobeocoedsonoucKoucnE dann eoDoHOOdaODDDOGDOODD 827 IPSs rrale I BYONVG) Sh ek CIRO ENE Hr aie Em ReD HORS Oise ole tera cE RUIN ts Rhine Roc ceo con MR aE cC rin eval oear Higtann A micr olntc Oot 828 Onkthetmankets He ola Croattan ns Aoik oe perecarh mes arcs se cote OR een eSus SL SNE ouee one Hes eh meee 829 Attar ©) outa rae Gere ab cler ae ht eases niet raaeenccicaotous cate Cree ence ueaneb a trance cee arate eae oaks vn Sich neal SHR Ur Ree UE 830 INE GOs wa WHS Geile clos (Ceynochisuriels boceosogcdsceovogendogoccbboconeouacocoauauosage 831 Salting it down between the lagoons: Capodistria, Austria...............--eee eee ee eees 831 GOO CV PE Sp MT CTA bl aerenyei las sesees at tik oak) NNR a aN SUT elas RC LES 2 cari raya ec aa te Spa a 832 Pimicnantishat Mrame Teadys to) leave Loritme |Umiteds States vie sels soni aes enters 832 Bird’s-eye view of southern part of Priene, showing the winding meander in the plain.... 835 PCr IGhEtOWwAN Oh OOliase ted ta Sinlyatla aaa eetnrcer os eke okie teen eyecare eee ena eee 836 Camel drivers unloading cargo at a station, near Smyrna, Asia Minor.................. 837 WMitylenermbnencastlenasiuicweartronl the: sottherm dando. senso eee eererone 838 Mitylene: Castle Mole at the entrance of the harbor..................ee cece eee eeeee 839 Minvlene a weublichroadsthnotehy an olives orchards. 1.4480 see eet eerie er 840 ScCenevonuthenGgiuay Or lVintylEMmes casts sco rcrcc hele os tee ei kcus Susan bicho eccaeley ale euiitsyioite ie epee eteepetrreweune 841 SEC SOONG Siey Rhee goles uesieon coal Pie w tn etn eke hom readme wine Smee Soin titan foc 842 Wieishinomtore ie oldies GAtstal Nt O isis ai os cy a avs ecsuesic a0 358, Sula tehe ch oimyeees apes Suen eee Rene tiauet Eee at ne 843 Eypliesuswelxcavated street) leading, tothe library. 22.0252 sn seer sel) ie eee 844 Bpteststeh wexdoublenchunch, western SeCtlOMy 1: = 2 .o sonia eae hcen eee ee aie eee 845 Siiceminm VAonesia si NOmanhbathacksnonmeitheriside.tane sneretee ere ater 848 Memo edtmthnea theta te etUS ss cit. ccig ae exevocacs suc suat ava sURA atuca| gc goN sere ee Raa ete eo eee Nea ae 850 BOnewendvot-the theatre: at Miletus wei amc. «sok aoe Le ue ee ee See 851 Colophan: Well-preserved tomb in the Necropolis. Type of Zaptieh or Turkish mounted [DOUNSSs on ecb a ad pith RRC SER CR MN a ae ea ee rR MER AN ANU mic Ha nA ornia Ay ae 07 do 852 supenonnGheekashepmerd: meat: COlOphOm sc \cdsec.s dete si «1a nkqcases ots fe 4 alee esac cpa cote nae 853. XVIII ILLUSTRATIONS Page ierdlomeoatsnoneamanimencanancrentn COlOpiOnmna wearer etre enn erent eee 854 The way licorice root is brought to a station in the Meander valley..................... 855 Greek school children and their teachers in Aidin, interior of Asia Minor............... 856: Young loggerhead turtles just after hatching:Loggerhead Key, Florida................ 860 The most northerly grove of palmettoes, Smith Island, Cape Fear, North Carolina...... 861 BivesoakwateSoltnport.s Norenia Carolina aos sta «ccc a eicen ne Pama een ohana ts Sars A 862 ieherseasdestioyucathemonese sy COAS Ore lOrida gece snc see ae ee Re 863 The old Spanish fort, Matanzas Inlet, Florida............... Be Ui ea! Sacchi ante oe 864 SandadunesoverwihelnineatOLnesbycasw ce oes Sac ea a ace ae Sa aS ae ena 865, Sandeshanes sculptured aby: thes wind sshernandina,, Mlonida:. .9.6.4. 0066 oe ae eee 866: Wedcesvois Conumasrocks aleAmastastasls anid il Oil Gamer oe wes See ci nai ee ee 867 NGO rhe raconetineml | ORIG a nCOASt Ae ais leis Skee hs on STS le ah ote oe aS RL ee Nc Rete car Re 870. - MIMO deseasna pexoOnslliotieSalmeyre FlOTidas ccms to. aia ccs sic aisek oasis eevee it Ce a 871 Mary picaluchurch=ormtnertiatched roomuype au ovo Got Morea. aecceme sos 2 oe eee 872: ANGI TS ora Tal Sot Tales ON Calee eae newer ce tte OAS aan eo Ska Urata a satel ca leet enue ama eae a cles rae eee 872 Pieplowinemsadoneawithe bullconinwlWoneas. sete se ayes eee Serre aes ate ee eee 873 aL yauUCATES IT IN @ Teale ce, see ee we cc ee re chee ope tease ce ec Seach nea ae er § NE Se eee 873 Wo rit aTieaw Ea vill Sesme@ he am ear ee tecue serene tira Carne vena AKL SIR Weeds Tur cs Uae ig tila ee 874. Delivctryge wae OleitaCo he ae cece aay toate oe Beebe en eyes eucae fais. 3 sic een: Meena eae at ae 874. Womansunwandinesthineddstonpiutil sl Oom:sWoreare ane sco e oe ate ener ee 875, Womantstarching thread-and: preparing it for loom: Koreal...+)s- acess 0058 on ee 876: PRS CATING VAD OV ere MO TEA SON aye oa Vase ee Pa ST Sela rece iccl oe Taba en MAE Rep a ee Ne tA et 877 Two christian grandfathers, aged 78 and 80: Korea............. SR eet en BURA rae OREN ED fc 877 Bundles of whalebone as received at the factory........ Sus AE 2 feat Mpc ONT GALI pe are CS eae 878: Scene at the whaling station, Sechar, on the west coast of Vancouver Island............ 879. ee Nticca Seen Onkthelslopes om Mount aWalsony Calitonniasss.se ageeueee cee aes cosas 880 sires atee Daniel ;Coit Gultmatic spires es os eee I ee ee Ro ace 881 Aap i Scanianeunide and ser OOilses sas see Moai coe ee Ce Ne eR ne ler eae esr 882 Malay Sonim hiviencOSstliil ea Sila POR. ce wn mie mere cio er eee ic ere ee Ieee eee 884. eater de Kander OOM a, SIN SA POEL Seals. etait Ae Car IO as I ee 885. Chinese coolie women who work in the tin mines of the Malay peninsula................ 886. Chineseapeppessplantation =. Mialayepenitistlass ceri hoses ik le oot eae 887 WASHINGTON, D. C. PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC, 1908 Sie NATIONAL GEOGRAPH | Vol. XIX JANUARY, 1908 : CONTENTS In the Savage South Seas. By Beatrice Grimshaw. Illustrated. Studies on the Rate of Evaporation at Reno, Nevada, and in the Salton Sink. By Prof. Frank H. Bigelow, U. S. Weather Bureau. Illustrated. Methods of Obtaining Salt in Costa Rica. _ Illustrated. Dr Bell’s Man-lifting Kite. _ Illustrated. More Changes of the Colorado River. Honors for Amundsen. _ Illustrated. The Recession of the Glaciers of Glacier Bay, Alaska. By Fremont Morse, U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. The National Geographic Society. Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. €., as Second-Class Mail Matter Copyright, 1907, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Copyright, 1907, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved IttustratED Montuty, published by the NationaL Geocrapuic Society. All editorial communications should be addressed to GitBEeRT H. Grosvenor, Editor the Nationa GzocraPHIC Macazine. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; SUBSCRIPTION $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors MAJ. GEN. A. W. GREELY DAVID G. FAIRCHILD U.S. Army Agricultural Explorer of the De- partment of Agriculture C. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY WILLIS L. MOORE 5 U. S. Geological Survey Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture R. D. SALISBURY 0. H. TITTMANN University of Chicago Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey G. K. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey O. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, ALEXANDER McADIE Department of Commerce and Labor ROB'T HOLLISTER CHAPMAN U. S. Geological Survey Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON President St Lawrence University Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. 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XIX, No. 1 a IN THE SAVAGE WASHINGTON JANUARY, 1908 GEOGIRAIPENIC MAGAZIINIE, SOUTH SEAS By BreaTricE GRIMSHAW Miss Grimshaw is an enterprising young English woman who recently passed several years in Fiji and the New Hebrides on a search for good opportunities for investment. She explored many unknown sections of these islands and has written a delightful narrative of her travels and experiences, “Fiji and Its Pos- sibilities.” The following article is abstracted from this book, and 1s printed here through the courtesy of the publishers, Messrs Doubleday, Page & Com- pany of New Vork, by whom all the extracts and illustrations are copyrighted. IJI is a British colony, situated in k the southwest Pacific, lying be- tween the 15th and 22d parallels of south latitude and between 157 east and 177 west longitude. It consists of 155 islands, with a total area of 7,400 square miles. Most of the land is con- tained in the two great islands of Viti Levu (Great Fiji) and Vanua Levu (Great Land), which account for 4,112 and 2,432 square miles respectively. These two islands are exceptionally well wooded and watered, and could, it is said, support three times the population of the whole group. Viti Levu is in every way the most important island in the archi- pelago. It contains the seat of govern- ment, the principal harbors, all the roads, and much the greater part of the colony’s trade. There is one town in the group besides Suva—Levuka, the capital of former days, on the small island of Ovalau. The climate is certainly hot, though the thermometer does not rise to any ex- traordinary heights. During the three hottest months—January, February, and March—the highest shade temperature ranges between 90° and 94° Fahr., and the lowest between 67° and 72°, roughly speaking. In the cooler months of June, July, and August, 59° and &9° are the usual extremes. The air is moist, as a rule, and in Suva, at all events, one may safely say that a day without any rain is almost unknown. On the northern side of Viti Levu the climate is a good deal drier and in consequence less relaxing. Dysentery is fairly common, but there is no fever to speak of, and the climate, on the whole, is considered healthful. Mos- quitoes are so troublesome that most of the better class of private houses have at least one mosquito-proof room, with doors and windows protected by wire gauze. As we pass down the main street of the capital, the curious mixture of the population is very noticeable—whites, half-castes, Samoans, Indians, Chinese, 2 THe NaTIoNaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and, more conspicuous than any, the Fijians themselves—tall, magnificently built people of a color between coffee and bronze, with stiff, brush-like hair, trained into a high “pompadour,” clean shirts and smart short cotton kilts, and a general aspect of well-groomed neatness. They do not look at all like “savages” and, again, they have not the keen, intellectual expression of the Indians or the easy amiability of the Samoan type of coun- tenance. They are partly Melanesian, partly Polynesian in type, and they form, it is quite evident, the connecting link be- tween Eastern and Western Pacific. East of Fiji, life is one long, lotus- eating dream, stirred only by occasional parties of pleasure, feasting, love-making, dancing, and a very little gardening work. Music is the soul of the people, beauty of face and movement is more the rule than the exception, and friendliness to strangers is carried almost to excess. Westward of the Fijis lie the dark, wicked, cannibal groups of the Solo- mons, Banks, and New Hebrides, where life is more like a nightmare than a dream; murder stalks openly in broad daylight, people are nearer to monkeys than human beings in aspect, and music and dancing are little practiced and in the rudest possible state. In Fiji itself the nameless, dreamy charm of the eastern islands is not; but the gloom, the fevers, the repulsive people of the west are absent also. Life is rather a serious matter for the Fijian, on the whole; he is kept in order by his chiefs and by the British government, and has to get through enough work in a year to pay his taxes; also, if the sup- ply of volunteers runs short, he is liable to be forcibly recruited for the armed native constabulary, and this is a fate that oppresses him a good deal—until he has accustomed himself to the discipline of the force, when he generally makes an excellent soldier. But, all in all, he has a pleasant time, in a pleasant, productive climate, and is a very pleasant person himself, hospitable in the highest degree, honest, good-natured, and clever witn his hands, though of a less highly intel- lectual type than the Tongan or the Samoan. A MARVELLOUS TRANSFORMATION The whole penal apparatus is one gigantic jest, and is regarded as such by most of the whites and not a few of the natives. To begin with, there is hardly any real crime, what there is being furnished chiefly by the Indian laborers employed on the estates of the Colonial Sugar Re- fining Company. The Fijians them- selves, though less than two generations removed from the wild and wicked days. of the Thakombau reign, are an ex- tremely peaceable and good-natured people. In the fifties and sixties, and even later, murder, torture, and cannibal- ism were the chief diversions of a Fijian’s life, and the power of working one’s self into a more violent and unrestrained fit of rage than any one else of one’s acquaintance was an elegant and much-sought-after accomplishment. This change, effected largely by the work of the missionaries, but also by the civiliz- ing influences of the British government and of planters and traders innumerable, is most notable. Nothing can be more amiable and good-natured than the Fijian of today; no colored citizen in all the circle of the British colonies is less in- clined to crime. Yanggona (the “kava” of the eastern Pacific) is the universal drink of Fiji. It is the hard, woody root of a handsome bush (the Piper methysticum) which grows freely in the mountains. The Fijians prepare the root by grating or pounding, pour water over the pounded mass, and strain it through a wisp of bark fiber. The resulting drink looks like muddy water and tastes much the same, with a flavor of pepper and salt added. One soon gets to like it, however, and drunk in moderation it is extremely refreshing and thirst-quenching. The Fijians do not drink moderately, I re- gret to say; they often sit up all night over their yanggona, drinking until they THe SavaGE SoutH Skas A ROOT OF YANGGONA FROM WHICH THE INTOXICATING DRINK OF THE FIJIAN ISLANDERS IS MADE ‘These and following illustrations are from photographs by Beatrice Grim- shaw, and are copyrighted by Doubleday, Page & Co., 1907 4 Tue NatTionaL GrocrarpHic MAGAZINE VANILLA PLANT AND BEAN are stupefied and sleepy and quite unable to walk, for yangegona taken in excess paralyses the legs for an hour or two, even though the head may be quite clear. The British government has forbidden the ancient method of preparing the root, in which it was chewed and spat out into the bowl, instead of being pounded. For all that, yanggona is very frequently chewed at the present day, when no white people are about. There are no woods in the world more beautiful and valuable than the woods of Fiji, although want of capital and, to some extent, want of enterprise has pre- vented their becoming widely known. “Bua-bua,”’ the boxwood of the Pacific, is very common and grows to an immense size. It weighs 80 pounds to the cubic foot, is very hard, and most durable. The ‘“cevua,’ or bastard sandalwood, a strong-scented, very durable wood, grows freely in logs one foot and two feet in diameter ; and the real sandalwood is also found, though not plentifully. Another useful wood is “vesi,’ which grows two and three feet in diameter. It is much like teak—hard, heavy, and extremely lasting in the ground or out of doors; it is also rich-colored and very easily polished. The “dakua” is one of the most valuable woods; it much resembles the New Zealand kauri pine and grows to a large size, sometimes six and seven feet in diameter. It contains a great deal of gum, and quantities of this can be taken out of the ground wherever a tree DRYING VANILLA, FIJI THE SavaGE SoutuH SEAS A FIJIAN IN SUNDAY DRESS, FIJI A FIJIAN IN FESTIVAL DRESS THe Nationa, GeocrapHic MAGAZINE (ZI XOvd WHS) SIAIMAIH MAN “IVOINOD dVaH AHL AMVIN OL DNIGNIF-GVAH [NVINI VfL dibiie THe SAVAGE has been. The timber is useful for almost any purpose. The “yaka’”’ might be called the rosewood of the Pacific, if it did not also, in some degree, resemble mahogany. It is a wood of the greatest beauty, being exquisitely marked and _ veined and taking a high polish. This is a wood that certainly should be known to cabinet-makers, and no doubt will be later on. The ‘“savairabunidamu,’ a curious dark-red wood, is extraordinarily tough, and can be steamed and bent to almost any shape—a valuable quality. The “bau vundi” is a kind of cedar, very workable and most lasting. A singularly beautiful timber is the “bau ndina,”’ which is deep rose-red in color, tough and firm, and suitable for engravers use. Besides these, there are more than sixty varieties of other woods, all useful or beautiful and most to be found in great profusion. The quantities available are very large. UNCANNY INSECTS The wonderful stick insects of Fiji, familiar in all home museums, are found on nearly every cocoanut tree. They are very ill-smelling, and squirt a fetid fluid at one’s eyes, if handled. Leaf insects I never saw, except when the natives caught and brought them to me, but all the guava bushes have them, although a white man’s eye can seldom distinguish them from their shelter. They are most miraculous and uncanny creatures, ab- solutely leaves endowed with the power of motion, so far as the most scrutinizing eye can see, for even their legs and heads are a precise copy of stalks and small leaflets. A certain enterprising man and _ his wife, who were getting rich very slowly indeed keeping a country store, resolved to try whether the magic bean might not do for them what it had done for others in South America and the West Indies. So, in the face of some actual Opposition and continual ridicule, they ex- pended their little capital of 250 pounds on the leasing of eight acres of warm, sheltered valley land and the planting of 9,000 cuttings of good Mexican vanilla. SouTH SEAs 7 For three years, with the assistance of one Fijian and occasionally a couple of Indians, the industrious couple kept their plants weeded and tended, and latterly looked to the fertilizing of the flowers—a rather tedious business, done every day by hand, in the earliest hours of the morning; and at the end of the three years the reward came, for the plants were yielding splendidly and were ex- pected to give about 9,000 pounds of dried beans, bringing an average price of to shillings a pound. The fruits of the first season were just coming in when I visited the plantation, and the lucky young couple were counting up their gains, present and future, with joyful hearts. SULLEN NEW HEBRIDES The New Hebrides are not very far from Australia—only about 1,500 miles northeast of Sydney—and they are by no means an insignificant group, since they extend over seven hundred miles of sea, and some of the islands are sixty and seventy miles long. The native population. is variously estimated at 60,000 to 100,000, and there are about three hundred French settlers and less than two hundred British and colonials, most of whom are missionaries. The islands are extremely beautiful and remarkably fertile. Three crops of maize a year can be raised with little trouble. Coffee is largely grown, and there is none better in the Pacific. Mil- let, for broom-making, grows readily and pays well. Copra can be produced in the New Hebrides to better advantage than in any of the British Pacific colonies, the Solomons only excepted. Eighty nuts a tree is considered a very good average over the greater part of the South Seas. In the New Hebrides the figures I re- ceived seemed almost beyond belief, but, even allowing for much exaggeration, it seems certain that the average yearly crop of nuts must be quite twice as large as in Fiji, the Cook Islands, or Tonga. I saw more than one tree that had three hun- dred nuts at once upon it (as I was in- THe Nationa, GeocrRaPpHic MAGAZINE MALEKULA WARRIOR, NEW HEBRIDES THE SAVAGE SouTH Szkas THE WOMEN’S DANCE DANCING AND SINGING SCENES IN NEW HEBRIDES me THe NatrionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE BRINGING OUT THE MUMMY FROM THE “HAMAL,’ (SEE PAGE 17) 1f THe SavaGeE SouTtTuH SEAs (QI NOVd AHS) AOW TIA SHCIIGHH MAN V NI S'TOGI TVOIdAL THe NarionaL GEoGRAPHIC MaGA4ZINE i2 SMOUXVY GANOSIOd SUqIUGAH MAN tg IVEIINNVO SNOTHOLON V THe SAVAGE SouTH SEAS IN THE YAM FIELDS, NEW HEBRIDES nS 14 Tue Nationa, SHOOTING FISH, formed; I did not count them, since that would have involved going up the tree with a paint-pot and a brush to mark them off), and I heard of one or two that had four and even five hundred. This is a more important matter than might appear at first, for the copra trade is the true gold-mine of the Pacific. The oil that is expressed from the dried nut kernels is used in many different de- partments of commerce, especially in soap-making, and the demand constantly exceeds the available supply—so much so that the well-known firm of Iever Brothers have been buying up large tracts of land in the British Solomons to keep their factories supplied. The popular idea of the New Hebri- dean, for a wonder, comes very near the truth. He is supposed to be, and is, treacherous, murderous, and vindictive. He is to the full as sensual and indolent as the Eastern Islander and lacks almost every virtue possessed by the latter. He is almost inconceivably clumsy and stupid in a house or on a plantation; almost de- void of gratitude, almost bare of natural affection; ready to avenge the smallest GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NEW HEBRIDES slight by a bloody murder, but too cowardly to meet an enemy face to face. Yet there are a few things to say in his favor. He is wonderfully honest—so much so that in the bush districts a coin or a lump of tobacco found by the way- side will never be appropriated by the finder, but will be placed in a cleft stick at the edge of the track, for the real owner to take the next time he may chance to pass that way; and if the pos- sessor never returns, the “find” will re- main where it has been placed until some white man or some “civilized” native from a plantation passes by ged appro- priates it. One of the strange things seen in one village was the collections of boars’ tusks belonging to the chiefs. ‘These were dis- played on a long stand that exactly re- sembled eight or ten bazaar stalls joined together. There were some hundreds of them placed in long rows—how many exactly I had not time to count, as I heard that the canoes were just coming home from the mainland and I wanted to be on the shore to meet them. Many of the tusks were curved into a complete Tue SavaGeE SouTtH SEAS TANNESE SCAR-TATTOOING, NEW HEBRIDES us THe Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 16 SpdeI WOAOMIDJUT JO apew sopeyso}s Aq poepuNosIns 31 sasey[IA NI ININOOD SHITIV AHL eae : HTANOUL YOA LNO INIMOOT THe SAVAGE SoutH SEAS double circle. These are greatly prized, but are only obtained at the cost of much suffering to the unlucky pig that fur- nishes them. He is tied up in a house and never allowed to wander forth, for fear of destroying his tusks. From each side of the jaw the teeth that oppose the tusk and prevent its going too far are re- moved, so that in time it grows right round through the unlucky animal’s flesh and provides a splendid double arm- let for the native who owns the pig. In Malekula, one of the larger islands of the New Hebrides, many a married woman was distinguished by a dark gap in the ivory-white teeth of her upper jaw, where the two middle incisors had been knocked out with a stone. This extremely unpleasant substitute for the wedding mes found in various parts of Malekula. he operation is performed by the old women of the tribe, who greatly enjoy the revenge they are thus enabled to take on the younger genera- tion for the injury once inflicted by their elders upon them. By a good deal of worrying and a little tobacco, I persuaded the villagers to show me a mummy from one of. their “hamals,” or sacred houses. It appeared to be the stuffed skin of a man fastened on poles that ran through the legs and out at the shoulders. The fingers of the hands dangled loose like empty gloves. The hair was still on the head, and the face was represented by a rather cleverly modeled mask made of vegetable fiber, glued together with bread-fruit juice. In the eye-sockets the artist had placed neat little circular coils of cocoanut leaf, and imitation bracelets were painted on the arms. The face and a good part of the body were colored bright red. The ends of the stretcher- poles were carved into a curious likeness of turtle heads. Standing up there in the _ dancing light and shade of the trees, against the high brown wall of the hamal, the creature looked extraordinarily weird and goblin-like. It had a phantom grin on its face, and its loose skinny fingers moved in the current of the strong trade Mh wind—it certainly looked more than half alive. MAKING A CONICAL HEAD It was while I was staying with the kindly and hospitable B s that I had the chance of photographing what I be- lieve has never been photographed be- fore—the making of a conical head. A good many years ago certain men of science who had procured skulls from all parts of the world were struck with the extraordinary egg-like shape of some that came from Malekula. No one knew much about the people who owned these remarkable heads, and science forthwith erected rather a pretty theory on the basis furnished by the skulls, placing the owners on the lowest rung of the human ladder and inferring that they were nearer to the ape than any other type at that time known. Later on some one happened to dis- cover how it was that the skulls came to show this peculiar shape, and the marvel vanished when it was known that com- pression in infancy was the cause. It is still, however, a thing curious enough. Several other nations compress their in- fants’ heads, but none seems to attain quite such a striking result as the Male- kulan, in those districts where the custom is systematically practiced. A conical head, when really well done, rises up to a most extraordinary point, and at the same time retreats from the forehead in such a manner that one is amazed to know the owner of this remarkable pro- file preserves his or her proper senses, such as they are. I could not hear, how- ever, that the custom was supposed to affect the intellect in any way. “Tt would be hard to affect what they haven’t got,’ a trader observed on this subject. The conical shape is produced by winding strong sinnet cord spirally about the heads of young babies, and tightening the coils from time to time. A piece of plaited mat is first put on the head, and the cord is coiled over this, so as to give it a good purchase. The crown of the 18 head is left to develop in the upward and backward fashion that 1s so much ad- mired. One fears the poor babies suffer very much from the process. The child I saw was fretful and crving and looked as if it were constantly in pain; but the mother, forgetting for the moment her fear of the strange white woman, showed it to me quite proudly, pointing out the cords with a smile. She had a normally shaped head _her- self, and it seemed that she had suffered by her parents’ neglect of this important matter, for she was married to a man who was of no particular account. A young girl who was standing beside her when I took the photograph had evidently had a more careful mother, for her head was almost sugar-loaf-shaped. It is in- teresting to know that this well-brought- up young woman had married a chief. STRANGE WOODEN IMAGES OF ANCESTORS A visitor to the island of Malekula, New Hebrides, is greatly impressed by the huge images in the amils, or village squares; they are rudely .carvéd; bar- barously painted, and are called “temes,” or images of the dead. These images differ greatly from each other. Some are made of wood, others Of the butt of a fern tree; Some are painted in scrolls or stripes, others in rings; some display only a head, others are rude effigies of the whole human body; in some the eyes are round, i others oval-shaped. The colors employed in olden times were coral lime, yellow ocher, a mineral green, and charcial. Civilization, through the trader, has supplanted the green and yellow with the laundry blue. and red lead. They are more brilliant, no doubt, but less in keeping with their surround- ings. A remarkable fact is, that although the images are rude in design and out “of all proportion, they are real attempts at por- traying the human figure. Every part is carefully put in; yet, with the exception of the boar’s tusks on one, there is an entire absence of the combination of the Tue NatTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE human and animal, as, e. g., in the Hindu pantheon. This is possibly due to imperfect and rudimentary notions of divinity, if these are at all gods. There are no figures, like the Ephesian Diana, denoting the nourishment of man and beast from many-breasted Nature. There are no many-headed or many-eyed em- blems of the omnipotence or omniscience of the gods. We are still among the lowest and rudest forms of religion. The people of Tanna, another island of New Hebrides, are a remarkable race and, in spite of their murderous tendencies, have a great deal more char- acter than the Malekulans. Queenland- ers know them well, for thousands of Tannese have been emploved in the Queensland sugar country from time to time. Whatener they may have gathered of civilization in Australia stays with them but a little while after they leave. On landing they generally take off all their clothes, go back to their villages, paint their faces, and take a hand in the latest tribal row, only too glad to be back to savagery again. Like the Fijians, who were at one time the fiercest and most brutal cannibals of the Pacific, and who are now a peace- ful and respecting nation, worthy of the crown that owns them, the Tannese will in all probability “train on” into a really fine race, as soon as they can be re- strained from continuously murdering each other on the slightest provocation, and induced to clean their houses and themselves and live decently and quietly. The yam gardens were weariful pict- ures. In one that we passed nearly all the women had blackened faces, the Tannese sign of mourning. The yam garden was a waste of parched and powdery earth; the bush around was burned yellow and brown; the pale-blue sky above quivered with the fierce mid- day heat. Stolid, ugly, and streaming with sweat, the women worked dully on, breaking off for a few minutes to stare and wonder at the visitor, and then con- tinued their heavy task. THe Savace Soutru Sz£as FASHIONS IN ERROMANGA, NEW HEBRIDES IQ STUDIES ON THE RATE OF EVAPORATION AT RENO, NEVADA, AND IN PED SNEAROIN SIONIK By Proressor Frank H. BIGELow U. S. WEATHER BUREAU HE southwestern United States, from southern Utah and Colo- rado, including Arizona and New Mexico, to southern California, is the wonderland of North America. Here are found several hundred square miles of petrified forests, the surface of the ground being covered with agate tree trunks and chips; the largest natural bridge in the world, 500 feet span, 200 feet high, and 600 feet wide; the greatest examples of volcanic action, with 50 miles of lava in sheets 1,500 feet thick; the most impressive villages of cave- dwellings in the world; the many-storied cliff-houses of aboriginal architecture; the communes or town republics and the pueblos of the Acoma and Moki Indians ; the most notable tribes of nomad Indians, the Navajos and Apaches, who are the best fighters of the savage world; and the remarkable ruins of the great stone and adobe churches of the Franciscan mis- sionaries. The greatest wonder of all is the work of erosion performed by the Colorado River in its course from Utah to the Gulf of California, a distance of 2,000 miles. At present it flows through the Grand Canyon in a narrow gorge about 1,300 feet deep below the first level of the valley; but this valley itself is sur- rounded by cliffs and pinnacles rising 5,000 to 6,000 feet above the water of the river; also, passing from the rim of the canyon along the open prairie to the mesas, or tables, still marking the ancient levels of the plateau, yet another thousand feet must be added. The geo- logical evidence shows that more than 30,000 feet of rock have been carried away in some places, and that over a region covering 200,000 square miles at least 6,000 feet have been transferred to the ocean. The cutting of the gorge through 800 feet of black gneiss, 800 feet of quartz, 500 feet of sandstone, 3,600 feet of lime- stones of various kinds, and 1,000 feet of gypsum mixed with limestone is a manifestation of water power hard to appreciate. The Colorado River drains the snow water of the Rocky Mountains and the plateau southwestward, and has gradually transported this immense mass of material into the Gulf of California. In ancient days this gulf extended about 150 miles farther north, between the San Jacinto and the San Bernardino Mountain ranges, and the beach lines of this old sea can be readily traced upon the sides of the mountains 15 feet above sea-level. The river entered the old Gulf of California at Yuma, Arizona, and it has gradually built a delta of silt and débris directly across the gulf, so that the northern end of the ancient depression has been en- tirely cut off from the Pacific Ocean and its waters. ‘This sink is now about 285 feet below sea-level in the Salton Sea, while the delta floor is 20 to 40 feet above sea-level. The waters of the Colorado River pass through a narrow channel at the heads above Yuma and flow along the top of the delta in channels which are readily shifted to the north or the south, this. being the natural way to spread more soil over an ever-widening delta back. The gradient of flow is steeper northward to the Salton Sink than it is southward to the Gulf of California, and hence any flowing of the river to the deep sink is THe SALTON SINK a 21 Photo by F._.}I. Bigelow THE SALTON SEA AND THE SALT CREEK TRESTLE Of the Southern Pacific Railroad, about 800 feet long. The water is too rough on calm days to float pans; the waves are from 8 to 12 feet high in heavy weather accompanied by a series of rapids, in con- sequence of which the soluble soil of the delta is peculiarly subjected to rapid cut- ting and erosion and the soil is trans- ported northward in great masses. This alternate flowing of the river to the north and south has occurred many times in geological history, the Salton Sea form- ing suddenly and drying out more gradu- ally by the slower process of evaporation, though this is unusually rapid in that hot and arid climate. The desert regions east of the Coast Range of southern California are caused by the fact that the mountains cut off the moist west winds from the Pacific Ocean, while the entire region is too far west of the Gulf of Mexico to receive any moist- ure from its southerly winds. TEN CROPS OF ALFALFA A YEAR The latest overflow of the Colorado River into the Salton Sink occurred in 1905-1906, as the result of certain irriga- tion projects. The soil of the delta, being the product of the mountains of Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona, is particularly fertile, when supplied with irrigated water, on account of the continuous high temperature, which ranges from 120° in July and August down to about 20° to 30° in January and February. This is shown by the fact that about ten crops of alfalfa can be cut annually from the same ground without fertilization, and that crops of canteloupes are ready for market as much as 30 days earlier than any other region of the United States, all other vegetable crops flourishing in the same abundant ratio. The Department of Agriculture finds that its new date farms at Indio and Mecca, just north of the Salton Sea, are producing dates and figs of a very supe- rior quality, and it is supposed that in less than 20 years that region will pro- vide all the dates consumed in the United States, as much as 20,000,000 pounds an- nually. 22 THe NationaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE Photo by J. FE. Church, Jr. RENO RESERVOIR, TOWER NO. 2 Showing two six-foot evaporating pans and the landings for four two-foot pans THe SALTON SINK This fertile soil has attracted large irrigation projects over the Imperial Val- ley, south of the Sink, where 15,000 to 20,000 people are now engaged in putting 400 square miles of country under irriga- tion by means of canals from the Colo- rado River. It was while this canal system was being constructed, with in- adequate headgates at the river, in the soluble soil, that in 1905 the headings opened by wearing in the banks and let the entire waters of the river flow down the steep gradients to the north. The Imperial Canal, the Alamo and the New rivers became raging torrents and cut away immense masses of country, which was transported into the Salton Sink. At Brawley the Alamo River was cut down from a shallow channel to a gorge 60 feet deep, and it spread out many hundred feet near the sea; also the New River, which at Brawley is 6 miles west of the Alamo River, now has a bed 800 feet wide and 80 feet deep, whereas it was lately only a shallow stream. The entire system of canals constructed by the California Development Company be- came disorganized, many towns were in- jured, and it is estimated that $400,000,- 000 of property was in jeopardy. To meet this emergency the Southern Pacific Railroad Company undertook, in connection with the Development Com- pany and the U. S. engineers of the Reclamation Service, to build suitable levees to control the future course of the Colorado River, and in February, 1907, after several disappointing failures, this was finally accomplished. The new levees withstood the floods of June with a stage of about 30 feet,and there is every reason to believe that the Colorado River will be permanently diverted to the southern slopes of its delta instead of to the north- ern, aS was recently its course. KNOWLEDGE OF THE RATE OF EVAPORATION VERY NECESSARY The result of this temporary flow of the river to the Salton Sink was to make a lake of fresh water about 45 miles long, Io to 15 miles wide, containing 440 =3 square miles of water surface, having a depth of 80 feet in the middle. In May, 1907, the surface of the sea was 205 feet below sea-level, and in Octo- ber it had fallen to about 207.5 feet. This loss is due to evaporation, but the actual evaporation should be made to include the amount that has been added through the flow of the Alamo and New rivers, which has been quite considerable. Dur- ing the past year, while the canals were only partially repaired, more water flowed to the sea than will be the case after the beginning of 1908, when opera- tions for irrigation will be fully resumed for that season. It has been supposed quite generally that as much as 8 feet of the Salton Sea would evaporate annually, though we now have reasons to think it may not be more than 4 or 5 feet, as will be shown from the results of the Reno work. It is evident that, as the sea evaporates, in the course of a few years we shall have a series of lakes of different sizes, and that in general this sea gives us an un- usually good opportunity to study the subject of evaporation on a large scale and under favorable conditions. Mr G. K. Gilbert, of the Geological Survey, pro- posed that the government should take up this subject, because the theory of evaporation in application to bodies of water in the open is very unsatisfactorily understood, as shown by the discordant results of several researches along this line. The engineers of the irrigation projects require to know how much a given area of water surface will evaporate in a given climate, in order that the dams may be built at an economic height, and that they may know how much water will be avail- able for distribution to farmers. The engineers of water-works systems for large cities, especially in the arid West, need such information in a reliable form as a factor in their estimate of resources. The meteorologists also require the same knowledge to supplement their observa- tions on precipitation. For example, in the United States, east of the Mississippi 2 4 River, the precipitation and the evapora- tion are about equal to each other— 4o inches per year; on the Rocky Mountain plateau the precipitation is about 20 inches and the evaporation 60 inches, and _ in the southwestern states the precipita- tion is only Io inches and the evaporation 80 inches. The available water is there- fore derived from the melting snows of the mountains, brought under control by the rivers and the canals to the fertile soils of the arid regions, and this means the construction of storage basins, which are subjected to intense evaporation. Mr Gilbert’s suggestion resulted in a conference board from the U. S. Geolog- ical Survey, the U. S. Reclamation Service, and the U. S. Weather Bureau visiting the Salton Sea and reporting that the project of studying the laws of evap- oration at the sea should be undertaken, and that the work should be under the immediate control of the U. S. Weather Bureau. There have been several important and careful researches made regarding the probable law of evaporation from small pans, with the view of connecting the amount of water delivered by a pan to that given off by a lake or large body of water in the same climatic conditions. It is much to be desired that the law shall so be expressed that from the given me- teorological data of a locality the corre- sponding amount of the loss of water in a basin of any size can be computed. Unfortunately the results of these re- searches are by no means in agreement. In view of the fact that an expensive campaign is being planned at the Salton Sea, to extend over several years, it seemed prudent to attempt to gain some better ideas regarding the physical prob- lems involved before beginning the work in the desert. THE STATION AT RENO, NEVADA After consideration it was decided to set up at Reno, Nevada, a temporary ex- periment station, planned to bring out the causes of the disagreements. In summer the dryness of the climate at THe NaTIoNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Reno is about the same as at the Salton Sea, and the amount of evaporation from a small pan is nearly the same in amount, nearly 8 feet per year; but the discomfort of working in the open is not nearly so great, on account of its elevation, 4,500 feet above sea-level. Our experience - showed us that Reno possesses an un- usually agreeable summer climate, with cool nights, not very hot days, and plenty of wind from the mountains to keep up a very pleasant circulation of the air, espe- cially in the afternoons. We set up five towers, 40 feet high, by August I, 1907, and continued regular observations till September 15, by which time we had secured all the records needed for our preliminary studies, some 35,000 observations, including 100,000 readings of our instruments. There were 29 evaporating pans placed in position, five 6-foot pans in the water or on the ground near the base of the towers, and twenty-four 2-foot pans on the stagings above the surface. The records were taken every 3 hours during the day, from 5 a.m. to8 p. m., and readings were made at I o'clock, just after midnight. These included the temperatures of the water surface, of the air at half an inch above the water, and of the air at two feet above the water of each pan. The vapor ten- sions, dew-points, and the amount of water evaporated were also on the program. The wind velocity at different heights, from the bottom to the top of the towers, was observed, and some new Pische evaporimeters were employed, with the purpose of ultimately substi- tuting them for the large evaporation pans. The serious trouble with all this class of meteorological work is that there is no suitable self-registering apparatus for re- cording the wet-bulb thermometers or of getting the vapor contents of the air con- tinuously. The consequence is that we must read the instruments many times daily, in order to obtain any correct knowledge of the variations of all these elements with the heating and cooling of the atmosphere in the course of the day, Va) a THe SALTON SINK ‘Play eF[eF[e Oy} UL S “ON TOMO} Je PUNOIS 9Y} JO Joo} OI UIYIIM snosJOSIA se A[IeoU pu pley AIp ke ur I ON JoMo} FO wWO}Cq 9Y} 3B pides se ysnf sem ynq ‘oxe] 9Y} UL S1OMO} OY} JO do} oy} Je seM UONeIOdeAD UMIUIXeW ay “play ezLeFTe Ue UL pejenyis “Iamo} jsoteou oY} S “ON PUR JOMO} JURISIP 94} SII ‘ON ‘}YSII dy} UO 1oMO} oY} UI poutaodsIpP aq AevU sued ouL MIOAMASAY ONY ‘SLNAWINHdXA NOILVYOdVAN AHL NI G4SN SYAMOL AAIG AHL + ; 3 So, TE Sr beeeeieehan ' ‘ ~ 26 and at present there is no way to avoid this labor and expense. The physical ex- ertion of climbing towers, carrying a bas- ket of instruments along, making read- ings all day, was not inconsiderable, as it took from forty minutes to one hour to do the work on a single tower. There were five towers to attend to, and this had to be repeated seven times every day. We had the good fortune to incur no ac- cidents of a personal nature, though sev- eral thermometers were broken in the operations. The wind during the afternoon and evening often reached 4o miles an hour, and even 50 miles per hour, and on the top of the towers it was no little task to guard the delicate instruments against injury in the violent gusts. The Sierra Nevada mountains, 10,000 to 12,000 feet high, poured down into the Reno Valley a powerful current of cool air every day with wonderful regularity, and_ this caused the strong winds to prevail. INTERESTING RESULTS We succeeded in keeping up the cur- rent reductions of the observations to an advanced stage, and so gained an idea of our results before leaving Reno, the 18th of September. They were such as to show clearly enough the source of the discrepancies that have been mentioned. For example, it was soon seen that the evaporation from the pans on the top of the towers was from two to three times as much as at the foot of the towers, in or near the water, and that there is a regular progression from pan to pan. On the other hand, in the dry field where tower No. 1 was located there is no such important difference, the evaporation being practically the same all the way up the tower. At tower No. 5, in the alfalfa field, where the ground was wet from irrigation, we found that the retardation of evaporation was confined to 10 or I5 feet from the ground. Jt became clear enough that the reser- voir, which is about 1,000 feet long, covers itself with a sheet of invisible vapor about 30 feet thick, and that this Tue NaTIoNaAL GrEocRaPpHic MAGAZINE vapor acts like a blanket upon the fresh evaporation rising from the water. Dur- ing the process of evaporation there are two principal stages: First, the water must turn into vapor, and the amount differs according to the temperature. Thus, for 0° centigrade 1 cubic centi- meter becomes 211,000 cubic centimeters of vapor; at 100° centigrade it becomes 1,658 cubic centimeters of vapor. Second, these columns of fresh vapor must stream off into the air by diffusion and mixture, and the capacity of the air to receive it depends upon its own temperature and dew-point, which determine its vapor con- tents. If the air is dry and the difference between the dry-air temperature and dew-point is great, there will be rapid evaporation, but if small the evaporation will be slow. The wind is an important factor, because it brings new masses of air, not so much saturated, over the water surface, and thus keeps the super- posed air more ready to receive the newly evaporated vapor. There are at least five factors to take into the account: 1. The diffusion factor—a function of the height above the surface of the water. 2. The temperature of the water and its capacity to deliver vapor—a function of its vapor pressure. 3. The capacity of the air to receive vapor—a function of the difference be- tween the dry air temperature and the dew-point. 4. The velocity of the wind, the func- tion being the square of the velocity. 5. The wind coefficient, being a func- tion of the height above the ground. A small pan in the open air, away from a sheet of water, evaporates faster than the same pan in like conditions located within the blanket of vapor lying over a lake, because these factors operate to- gether differently. Hence it is evident that the location of the experimental pan relative to the water surface of a lake must be fully taken into the account. The many pans at Reno gave differing re- sults, grading up and down the towers, and from the center of the reservoir to the distant dry fields, in such a way as ™ N Tue SALTON SINK ‘af ‘yoinyg “qf Aq sojoyg ‘uoresodeas Aq ssoy prdex 00} wosyz si9jeM SI SOAJISUOD SInJeU ARAL SIY} UT “1o}VM OY} JvoU Ie Fo sIokeT ay Ul UOTeIOdeAD OY} SpjvieI YIIYM YY} Joof OF Jnoqe todea jo jayuR[q B 0} ep SP sty, “oPziNs JoyeM oy} Je se sued toddn oy} ye prides se oormy ueY} o1OW seM UONvIOdeAS oY, “WOAIESEI o|qnOp ot], ‘SUIPJUNOW BPPAIN BIIIS oY} Ul “IOYeR], Ye] pur AOATY SoYNAT, 9} WOT, SUMO J9}eM dy} ‘Spfoy po VSi1It WIZ sys ALY {1 “ON JOMO} edu ‘QOURISIP 9} UI syivds JO UMO} oY} PUL ‘a[pprlU oY} UL PPRAON JO 2}k4G oy} FO APISIOATUA OY} $34 SII OY} UO ATOAIOSOI dU} WO1f U9IS ST OUDY FO ARID YT SUIMOL IVINANIGd Xa HHL GNV ‘ONAN YVAN SAUNAS 28 to leave no question of these facts. Pre- vious researches have not taken sufficient account of the locality of the small pans in deriving their formulas, and they have been discordant as a consequence. The preliminary discussions of the data, made since our return to Wash- ington, show that we must depart from the common Dalton Law in at least four important particulars, and we shall pro- ceed to test the new formula as fully as possible within the next few years. It is our purpose to erect two or three towers at the Salton Sea, one high tower on a small island about four miles from the southern edge of the sea, to get some idea of the behavior of the great vapor blanket lying over that large water area. We must know its depth and how it acts over a large body of water, as compared with the small Reno reservoir. There will be two smaller towers in the sea, one about one mile from the Salt Creek tres- tle and projecting 20 feet from the sur- face, and another in 50 feet of water and flush with the surface. As the waters recede under evaporation, in a few years these sea towers will gradually become land towers, and this will enable us to study the working of the blanket from the middle of the sea into the country— THe Nationa, GeocrapHic MAGAZINE that is, for large and for small lakes—in the course of a few years. It is purposed to invent, if possible, suitable apparatus for self-registering the evaporation and for recording the vapor contents of the atmosphere. There. are, however, numerous and serious difficulties to be overcome in the carrying on the work at the Salton Sea, and not the least is the hardship of en- during the high temperatures of the sum- mer as well as the loneliness of the iso- lated life that must be experienced by the observers. The officials of the Southern Pacific Railroad—Mr R. H. Ingram, the general superintendent of the Southern California division, and Mr A. D’Heur, the chief engineer—have courteously agreed to cooperate with the U. 5. Weather Bureau in the construction and maintenance of the piers, towers, and houses needed for the investigations. I was assisted at Reno, Nevada, by Mr H. L. Heiskell of Washington, D. C., Mr Geren, Mr Robeson of Reno, Professors Minor and Church of the University, by Messrs Pearson, Steffin, Beebe, Potthoff, students, and by many citizens of the city of Reno, to all of whom the Weather Bureau is greatly indebted. METHODS OF OBTAINING SALT IN GOsiX RIGA HE, following series of illustra- tions, showing the methods of obtaining salt on the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, were taken by Pro- fessor Y. Fid Tristan of San José. Pro- fessor Tristan is a member of the Na- tional Geographic Society who lives in Central America, and sends the pictures to its Magazine that all the members of the Society may see this quaint method of getting salt. There are only a few miles of railway in Costa Rica. ‘Transportation is there- fore expensive, but labor is cheap. While the salt obtained in this primitive manner is coarse, it answers most of the require- ments of the people. Costa Rica is one of the most interesting sections of the Americas. The proportion of its white population is large for a Latin American country. Public instruction is free and compulsory and the Costa Ricans are among the most cultured of the American peoples. oO nN OBTAINING SALT IN Costa Rica ‘URISITT, PLT “A “FOIq Aq sojoyq “pury jo yoyed a]OYM 3} JOAO posseip st Uaxo Aq UMBIP QUIOD UIPOOM SHOUIIOUS UP d¥I] SHOOT YOIYM JUoUa;dut Joanb e ‘AIp jay St [los ay} UsyM ‘J9}VM IY} JO [EMEIPYIIM Joy ‘ep YSsIYy }e Pepooy oie YOIYM spur] ey pue MOT 1k ape si yes YOIYM ur saoe[d ayy Vola VSO ‘V4HCIVO LV LIVS ININIVIGO PROVIDED WITH WOODEN SPADES THE PEONES GATHER THE SALTED EARTH INT LONG, NARROW HEAPS THE HEAPS MADE AND THE LOW WATER AT THE DISTANCE 31 OBTAINING SALT IN Costa Rica deoy a[3uls & ayeW 0} se OS papeoyuN OIB S}IVD [[@ FO S}U9}UOD YT, “Yea poyes oY} s}red 94} OJUI peo], A[pider sauoad ay} Suisssis801d A[MoO]S I1e UdXO 9} IIY AM Hava GaLIVS AHL INILOWTTIOO 22 THe NatTIonaL GEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE FILTERING OUT THE SALT The salted earth is unloaded into two wooden tanks, in the bottom of which a layer of straw and sand has been placed. Salt water is poured over the earth and filters through the straw and sand. The saturated water is collected into another tank buried under those which are in sight. To ascertain the density of the solution a new laid egg is introduced into it. The operation is concluded when the primitive areometer is nearly but not completely sub- merged. 33 OBTAINING SALT IN Costa RIcaA deoy oy} 0} ued oy} Wor YES oY} ATIvd OJ pasn de SeYsIp uspooAA —‘Wsodap a81K] & OWT podvoy st siyy, ‘Wes ommdur yo ssvur pros v OUT pe}1oAUOd si 41 atoyM sued Suyesodea ay} 0} JYSno1G st UOTHIOS payesnyes IL, NOILN IOS VIVS AHL ONIZINOdVA Tue NaTIonaL GeocrapHic MAGAZINE 34 UeISIL], Pl “A ‘Jorg Aq sojoyg ‘oindurt sureulat shemye yes oy], ‘dvay oy} Wor, WedI}s B UI JNO UNI Pue PdAOSSIP d1e ‘19]}BM BIS UT JS 9[Ge} YIM Ioy}es0} punoy aie YSryM ‘s}]eVs JUsSsenburjep SNolsea oy} Ie Jo ssoudwiep sy} 0} SuUIMG ‘UoTeIodo OY} UI aTeYS e soye} oJeUUI[D [eoIdoI} oY} 410F7 VIVS HHL ONIWHHLVAM DR BELL’S MAN-LIFTING KITE HROUGH the courtesy of Dr Alexander Graham Bell, the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Maca- ZINE is enabled to print the following series of illustrations of his experiments with his gigantic man-lifting kite, the Cygnet. This kite was sent up in De- cember, 1907, both with and without a man. ‘The pictures on pages 42-44 show it aloft, carrying no weight, while those on pages 49-52 illustrate the flight when Lieutenant Selfridge, of the United States Army, ascended to a height of 168 feet and remained in the air for over seven minutes. While Dr Bell’s ultimate object is to secure a flying machine that will support itself in the air at a moderate rate of speed,* the experiments with the Cygnet * See “Aérial Locomotion, with a few notes of progress in the construction of the Aéro- drome.” By Dr Alexander Graham Bell, Na- TIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, January, 1907. have been mainly studies in stability. The wonderful steadiness of this form of structure is shown by the pictures and especially by the fact that the Cygnet de- scended from 168 feet to the water so slowly and evenly that the man aboard did not realize he was dropping until he found the kite in the water. The kite flew as easily with Lieutenant Selfridge aboard as it had on the previous trial with no load, and could undoubtedly have borne a weight several times as great as that of one man. Owing to the severity of the winter in Baddeck, Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, where these experiments are being conducted, it has been neces- sary to postpone further flights until the spring, when the work will be resumed. Dr Bell’s next step will be to put a powerful light motor on a modified form of the Cygnet. The photographs were taken by Mr J. A. Douglas McCurdy. PRACTICE DRILL WITH A SMALL KITE The water shield in the bow keeps the men comparatively dry 36 THe NaTIonaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE VIEWS OF THE AERODROME SHED IN WHICH THE GIANT MAN-LIFTING KITE, THE CYGNET, IS HOUSED Dr Bewi’s Man-.irrine KITE 27 VIEW OF THE AERODROME SHED Showing the raft with its long tilting arms backed up against the building to receive the giant kite. The Cygnet placed on board the raft Tue Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE 7 38 jueusjnor’y é I ‘a ‘0 ‘Apanpo “Cd ‘Vv uyof pue “y “Ss ‘A ‘e8pryeg sewoyy, Jog Weyein Jopuexsyy Iq ‘o}UOIOT, Jo “yD ‘UIMpleg “M “yf ‘Wodspuowueyzy jo ‘sstjind “ NOILVIOOSSV JNYWISHd Xa IVINAV AHL JO SYMAWAN i) é J9] 94} UO Suruurseq Ov oe) * Dr BeELL’s Man-.LirTING KITE \ sIojou € ‘U10}}0q 94} }e 4Je 0} VIO0J Woy ydop fssajam € 4ySiey enbiygo {w0}30q ey} UO sioj}OW OI pu ‘do} 94} UO apIs 0} apis WOIZ SIoJOW EI :91e 9}Iy SY} JO SUOISUOUIP oy], WILNAO AHL NI HIOHNVW FHL ONIMOHS ‘IHNOAO AHL JO MAIA TNO om? ss NATIONAL GRroGRAPHIC MAGAZINE me 1 HE 40 (Sb a8ed v09) ‘pura dy} 0} poprdy Oj1y oy} sdooy ‘10yeM oY} Soxey SIFY OY} LOY ‘YOIYM foyoUe vos dy} st JoyUD UT Seq YM oy, ‘onbiyqo ssozyour Sgt 0} JUs[BAINds sev PatapIsuod sdeFINs IJOYM oY} pue ‘peo] peep se pajuNOd oq Av s}eoy oy} Wey} DAOGB S][[9d FO S191} JSOMOT OY} poxoyUL]q ATpa}qnopun s}eoy oy} se ynq ‘stoJoW Q FO sdvFINS [eJWOZTIOY eV 9AVS S}eOY OY} JO SUIO}}0q OY} SIY} 0} UOTIPpe UL “JoJOU IT 0} JUOTBAINba s[joo oy} Se s[sUR [eIPSYIP oles sy} SuTJUISoId “HIS YIM MOTOd PI1OAOD seM MOG aI, ‘Stojout orenbs 1ghg'€gi FO sdejins vB SUIALY ‘S[[oo PoesuUIM LOE'E Jo pasodurod st sy oy, “(onbiyqo) tojyour o1vnbs sod suivss O15 qystom Burs, “(spunod goz) sweisojry ceVy'v6 ‘[e}0} :stweIsojIy OOO syeoy oY} pure ‘suTReIsO]IY cEO'Sg poystom 1odoid 9yry OUT, WHINDAO,, INVIO SHY JO MUA YAHLONV Dr Beti’s Man-LirTING KITE 41 SS TS TOWING THE GIANT KITE, PREPARATORY TO SENDING IT ALOFT When everything is ready for the release, the tilting arms of the raft (see picture, p. 37) are raised, and the kite let go 42 THe Nationa, GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE VIEWS OF THE KITE IN THE AIR Flying in a 30-mile wind. The remarkable stability of the tetrahedral structure in illustrated by the pictures. For flying weight see p. 40 air is Dr Betis Man-uirTinc KIre 43 et 4 ANOTHER VIEW OF THE KITE ALOFT The pull on the flying line was greater than could be measured, but considerably exceeded 210 pounds Tue NaTIONAL GerocraPHic MAGAZINE 44 / IOYUL VIS 9} SI 9}HY 94} UO UVES JOp oWYM yy, “YRS oul] Surdy ‘yys17 ourpMod :uMOp oy 9t} Suisulig “€ "jY48 oul, SuIAY “yxpeys our;Moq + dn 2}1y oy} SuIpuss ‘@ pue I WIV NI JTHNOAD FO SMHIA ‘yeoq MOI & Aq pondsos [YUN ‘purM oy} SuroRy ‘uonrsod ut LY BY} PlPY pur [jam 10}VM oy} Yoo} (oF -d vas) JoYyoue vas OYJ, “TEJVM oY} JO sdvFINS oY} WO poser ays [HUN A}jUIs pue ATMOTS wn Ai9A UMOP SuIwod Fey vB pue oJnuTU e ULY} 91OW IOF ABM SITY] UL Po}flp oy oJ, “1}VM oY} VAOKL JooF OF JNOGe JO UOTVATO ath ue 4e SUIAG o41Y OY} doy J9}VM OY} UL SOUT] OY} JO SLIP 9} VSVIJoI JoIFY “F[es}! FO 91vI oY} O} POMOT[L oY oY} pue OS 2] JOM dUI|MOG pue oul] Susy YJog ‘pepUsdsep TE USYAM JeI oY} UO J PUL] OF “zy SITY} FO JYSIP ISTY OY} UO “opeU seM 4IOYO ON dn GaMoIld AT OL DNILIVM AALIVM AHL NO ONILVOTA—INAOSAG AHL WLLV Der Betts Man-LIFTING KITE 46 Tue Nationa GrocrapHic MaGaZINne PICKING UP THE CYGNET THE CYGNET SAFELY LIFTED ON TO ITS RAFT AND READY TO BE TOWED HOME 47 Dr Beti’s Man-LIFTING KITE ZIOHNVW FHL TANDAD HHT JO MAIA CNG Tue NatTIoNnaL GrEoGRAPHIC MaGaZINEe 48 WIOHNVIN Coan ONIMOHS “LANODAO HL JO MAIA YHHLONV a Dr Betu’s Man-tirtTine KItreE ainjoid 99S S¢ a8ed uo ‘A[pIdet pIMo} St }feI 9y} USYM 19}eM Aq Pasnjop Sulsq WOIT MID 9} S}d0}0I1d qyRI ALlIM GNV LAVY AHL JO MAIA TNO ay} JO Mog dy} 72 PlStYs Ys oy, a "“*~+**4244a "*A*£4a THe NaTIionaL GrEocGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 50 GuvOdV HOCINATYS INVNALOATI HIM LIS HU, “ONIMOL | | Ww Dr Betw’s Man-LirTING KITE $}00q JNOYIIM SBUI4IO}SIOAO U2TOOM ‘BuO, PUL SUTYS-[I0 Ut PRI ATIYSI] sem oy Joz ‘WIeM WIYy deoy 0} s8n1 YUM dn p219A09 ‘popraosd useq pey 3eY} JOOY Joppe] 94} UO 9deJ SITY UO AR] 9F{ ‘a[OYUeUW oy} Ul UMOP SBUIA] Uses 9q UD BSpIIf[Eg JUeUAINOI'T LNAOSV AHL YOd ACVAYIV § d g i Gee a SS iS SG: oe i SE ext vir eet re 2 % y pir ELBE Ste a a 3 x = 5 SS | 52 JUST BEFORE THE ASCENT The kite remained in the air for about seven minutes, account of a decrease in the velocity of the wind. KITE WITH MAN Tue NationaL GeocraPHic MaGaZINng ABOARD, FLYING AT A HEIGHT OF 168 FEET and then began to come down on Its descent was so gentle and even that Lieutenant Selfridge, whose view of the water in front was intercepted, ‘did not know it was dropping until it actually touched the water. MORE CHANGES OF THE COLORADO RIVER HE completion of the works at the intake below Yuma early in Feb- ruary, 1g07, sent the main current of the Colorado River down the old channel, which it had left empty during the greater part of the previous year. This channel lies near the eastern margin of the delta, and actually cuts into the gravel bluffs of the Sonoran mesa at three places below the international boundary. The lowest point at which the river finally left this mesa, at about 32° 11’ North, is the center of interest of the Photos by Mr John Davidson. present note, for it marks the head of tidal action, and also the location of a depression in the eastern bank from which a shallow trough extended south- eastwardly to the shores of the Gulf east of Montague Island. Ordinarily a series of salt pools extend from within two miles of the river down the depression to: the Gulf, being known as the Santa Clara Slough. During a visit to this region in March, 1905, a great volume of flood water was seen to be leaving the main channel and making its wav to the Gulf through the Santa Clara Slough, and the prediction was hazarded that a shift of the cutting More CHANGES OF THE CoLoRADO RIVER action of the water might send the prin- cipal current to the sea in this way.* Shortly after that observation was made the entire stream was diverted into the Salton basin for a time, leaving the bed of the river bare for more than a hundred miles. With the restoration of recent conditions the Colorado resumed its way to the Gulf, but in the mean time such erosion and formation of bars had taken place in the section affected by the tides below the “Colony” mesa that the main current flowed through the Santa Clara Slough, if reports from three dif- ferent sources are to be credited. The consequences of this change are somewhat momentous. The main mouth of the river was formerly 20 or 30 miles farther northwest of the new debouchure, and with the converging shores of the Gulf gave conditions which, with the spring tides at from 30 to 40 feet, pro- duced a marked bore, being felt many miles upstream, both in the Colorado and the Hardy. The new channel reaches sealevel by a much more gradual descent and without the strong current and con- verging shores favorable to developing the bore. The new mouth will become the center of a new series of mud flats, which fringe the shores already for a distance of 50 miles. The deposition of silt will operate to close the eastern channel between Montague Island and the mainland, which has long since ceased to be navig- able and will soon afford material which will be piled by the tides in the deeper channel to the westward, with the final result of filling it more or less com- pletely, thus forming a brackish or saline * Bull. Amer. Geog. Society. January, 1906. 5.3 lake comprising Sargents reach and the Great Horseshoe Curve 50 or 60 miles in length, into which the seepage waters of the Hardy will flow, charged with the salts picked up from the mud volcanoes to the northward. Before the channel is closed, however, the action of the tides will carry salt water far up the channels of both the Hardy and. the old estuary, with a pertinent effect on the vegetation on the extensive tide-washed flats. The new eastern channel is one prob- ably not previously occupied by the river in its present condition, and the change adds to the delta the triangular area enclosed by the old channel below the “Colony mesa” to the Gulf, and the new channel, inclusive of great expanses of mud flats, and a range of gravel dunes or hillocks which find their culmination at the extreme northern end of the triangle immediately below where the new channel takes off from the old one. In addition to increasing the area of the delta, serious disturbance of the plants and animals over an area of several hun- dred square miles may ensue. Ina large part of it the composition of the flora will be totally altered. It is needless to say that the meager agricultural operations of the few Cocopah Indians who frequent the region will be seriously disturbed. So far as might be inferred from the recon- naisance already made of the conditions of flowage into the Laguna Maqutata, in the extreme western portion of the delta, no serious effect will be apparent in its irregular filling and shrinking by evap- oration. D. T. MacDoucat, Director of Botanical Research, Carnegie Institution. o 32-20 ° 32-10 32° Ope 31-50 Wn, %, WG iv VS dap NGallar Wa, cL. Ne el eS cy Pritcaiulnae an r¢ SE yhoo tye hy we Tue NaTIonNaL GEeoGRAPHIc MAGAZINE Wt \\ Ww 54: 114.30 HONORS FOR AMUNDSEN HE principal feature of the an- ; nual banquet of the National Geographic Society, December 14, was the presentation of the Hubbard Gold Medal of the Society to Captain Roald Amundsen by the Vice-President, Hon. Charles W. Fairbanks. Several hundred guests and members attended the dinner, including representatives from Argentine, Belgium, Bolivia, Denmark, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, and Switzer- land, and from all parts of the United States. Toasts were responded to by Hon. J. J. Jusserand, the French Am- bassador; Hon. James Bryce, the British Ambassador; Representative ‘Theodore Buntcons) or Ohiog) Lon, Harvey, D: Goulder, of Cleveland, and Representa- tive J. Hampton Moore, of Pennsylvania. The President of the National Geo- graphic Society, Dr. Willis L. Moore, acted as toastmaster. The speeches fol- low. INTRODUCTION BY THE TOASTMASTER, THE PRESIDENT OF THE NATIONAL GEO- GRAPHIC SOCIETY. On January 13,1908, the National Geo- graphic Society will be twenty years old. This organization, which is of such comparatively recent inauguration, today numbers a membership of over thirty thousand thinking, educated, working people. Its income is spent entirely in the collection and the dissemination of knowledge that we believe will work for the betterment of humanity. We en- deavor to treat of the earth, the waters that cover it, the air that is above it, the configuration of the earth, the bound- aries of land and water; and then to teach of the peoples that inhabit the earth—their economic, their political, and their social conditions. From our ros- trum speak men who are masters of their subjects. Through our Magazine we dis- seminate their views throughout the large membership of the Society. Our object is to aid research and diffuse knowledge. As in warfare “it is the man behind the gun,” likewise in every peaceful en- deavor it is still the man behind the gun; and, apropos of that, our Society takes pleasure in the fact that among those who direct the operations of this institution there are found such names as Alexander Graham Bell, Robert E. Peary, General Greely, Admiral Chester, of the Navy, Gen. John M. Wilson, of the Army, the former Chief of Engineers. But the list is long. I only refer to a few, so that you may know who are your hosts tonight. We, the members of the Board of Man- agers and the members of the Society, greet you and extend to you our hos- pitality. The first condition requisite to great success 1n a man is a clear mind and a strong body. Such a condition produces as nearly as may be the perfect com- posite of the man. We are here tonight first to do honor to one who possesses the strong body and the clear mind, and an acute intellect. We wish to confer the honor of this Society upon him. By unanimous vote its Board of Managers has directed that a medal shall be pre- sented to Captain Roald Amundsen for achieving the Northwest Passage and de- finitely locating the Magnetic North Pole; and to still further do him honor we are favored with the presence of one who also represents the clear mind in the strong body; for no man could rise to the dignity of Vice-President of these United States who does not possess those qualities. Therefore our Society feels honored by the presence of the Vice- President, and I will introduce him to present the medal to Captain Amundsen. THE VICE-PRESIDENT, HON. CHARLES W. FAIRBANKS Mr President, Members of the Na- tional Geographic Society, Ladies and Gentlemen: I want to congratulate this great Society upon what it has so splendidly accomplished, upon the work it is doing with such high intelligence and such devotion. The field of its en- 56 THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE CAPTAIN ROALD AMUNDSEN IN THE CABIN OF THE GJOA deavor is as wide as human nature and as all-embracing as the world itself. Captain Roald Amundsen, the pleasant duty devolves upon me to present to you on behalf of the National Geographic Society this gold medal. It is presented to you because of what you have so splendidly accomplished. It is in recog- nition of your arduous and _ intelligent service in the great North. It is because of your scientific investigation with re- sard to the Magnetic North Pole, Soysi have removed many of the doubts, much of the theoretical assumption with respect to the Magnetic North Pole and have established “well- authenticated fact with regard to it—an achievement that is yours and only yours since the history of the world began. This medal is presented to you further because of the fact that you are the first one to sail through the Northwest Pas- sage in your own vessel. Many intrepid and resourceful explorers have for more than three centuries ineffectually at- tempted what you in God’s providence have accomplished. There are many names associated with the attempt to ac- complish what you have achieved. Their efforts were not crowned with the same success which have crowned yours; yet they each and all served to reduce greatly the zone of the unknown, and each and all have in a measure contributed to the triumph which finally is yours. I was gratified to read in your modest account of your own achievement the liberal praise you gave to all who have devoted their service to the accomplishment of the Northwest Passage. You are honored here in an especial degree. It is a happy circumstance that there are assembled at this hospitable board tonight not only men distinguished in Honors ror AMUNDSEN igtyé science, in art; in literature, and in states- manship in the United States, but here are gathered the representatives of the greatest countries upon this globe. The representatives of the chief nations of the earth are met here to do you honor. It has seemed to me always, as I have read the familiar story of the efforts and sacrifice of the explorers of all coun- tries in the Arctic regions, that there is something in it of the heroic, when we contemplate the countless money that has been spent and the scores and scores of lives that have been sacrificed in extend- ing the boundaries of our knowledge in that inhospitable quarter of the earth. [ have believed that those who have laid down their lives there are entitled to the same honor the soldier wins when he lays his life down upon the battlefield of his country. It is a felicitous fact that a Norseman should have first sailed through the Northwest Passage in his own vessel. We have a hospitality for him in this country. Many of our countrymen who dignify and honor American. citizenship are fellow-countrymen of yours. As I said before, this medal is given to you by this great Society because of what you have accomplished in science and in the extension of the domain of geo- graphic knowledge. It is also presented to you because of the esteem of the So- ciety for you personally. I have the very great honor, my dear sir, to present to you this mark of the respect of the Na- tional Geographic Society of America. RESPONSE BY CAPT. ROALD AMUNDSEN Mr Vice-President, Mr President, and Members of the National Geographic Society, Ladies and Gentlemen: I am highly honored and justly proud of the very high distinction which the National Geographic Society so gra- ciously has bestowed upon me in pre- senting me with the Society’s gold medal. This I have had the honor to receive from the hands of the Vice-Presi- dent of this great Republic. I am no less grateful for the Society’s demonstration of honor by electing me an honorary member of this the largest geographic society in the world. For this splendid token of distinction I have the great: honor to express my very sincere grati- tude to the members of the Society, among whom there are so many brilliant. gentlemen, famous for achievement in scientific research. I see here tonight one whom I think I can say is the most ex- cellent of the scientific explorers in the United States—in fact the most experi- enced! scientine Arctic traveler or ethe day—Commander Robert EF. Peary. I thank you from the bottom of my heart and wish the National Geographic So- ciety all success. THE TOASTMASTER In the development of geographic knowledge on this continent there was one nation that was preeminent in ex- ploring the vast interior of what was a great wilds only a hundred years ago. The interior of our country has pre- served the names of many of those who: first explored it, and given them to its cities. Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle will always be famous as the names of French explorers who entered at the mouth of the Saint Lawrence and passed through the Great Lakes and down the long stretches of the Father of Waters. Now it is appropriate that the ambassa- dor from that nation which had so much to do with carrying a Christian civiliza- tion into the interior of this continent should be here to honor us with his pres- ence. He will speak to the toast of the: “Northmen’s Travelings.” THE AMBASSADOR FROM FRANCE, HON. J. J. JUSSERAND Once more a deed of valor, of pluck,. and endurance has been performed by a Norseman. Valor, pluck, and endurance are highly appreciated in America, where so many connoisseurs and practicers of the same exist. It is in the nature and fitness of things that a Norseman be here tonight and be applauded and recom- pensed, as he has been, not only by the 58 medal, but by the eloquent words pro- nounced by the Vice-President of the United States and by the President of this Society. Captain Amundsen followed the ex- ample of his ancestors. His ancestors may be proud of him,-and he in turn may truly, when he goes back in thought to- wards the origins of his nation, be proud of his ancestors—those ancestors who started from the distant north and went to nearly all parts of the world. And as in those days all the parts of the world were equally unknown, as there was no National Geographic So- ciety—we have just heard that it has ex- isted only twenty years and I speak of twelve centuries ago—in those days when the whole world was unknown, a Norse- man when he started would throw a feather in the air, and in the direction which the wind impressed on that feather, there he would go and discover. Starting thus, the Norsemen went in every direction, as the wind and their pluck told them. They went to Russia; they founded the Kingdom of Novgorod; they were settled along the tributaries of the Black Sea. They took service under the Byzantine emperors, and some of them stationed in Greece inscribed their names on antique marble lions, as a sentry would nowadays (though forbid- den) inscribe his name on his box. Those lions still exist, and many of you may have seen them in Venice, where they were transferred by Morosini in the sev- enteenth century, and where, sentries in their turn, they keep watch in front of the Arsenal main gate. They still bear on their marble skins the names in runic characters of the Scandinavian de- fenders of Byzantium. The same sea rovers, following, as they said, the “swans’ path,” the “whales’ road,’ went north and went west, settling in France, in England, in Iceland, and Greenland, and visiting America. I do not think there is any doubt that the first European settlers were men from the north, sailing in those long wooden iboats, of which several are preserved in Norway, having been found in tumult. THe Nationa, GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE For some time it was doubted that such a feat was a possible one; but the experi- ment has been tried in our days and has proven successful. At the time of the Chicago Exposition Norsemen again ‘crossed the Atlantic in the same sort of boat as their forefathers. An accurate copy of one of the viking ships dug from the Norway mounds, manned by the same number of men, with the same number of oars, having the same single mast, and no deck, started from Bergen, crossed the Atlantic, where it met some very rough weather, was for some time considered as lost, but it was not lost at all and it arrived in New York quite safely, the men having never had a moment’s anxiety. That ship still ex- ists. It is to be seen in Chicago, and in that big city, where there are so many interesting objects to be seen, none is more interesting than this Norsemen’s boat. It is a great honor for me to have been invited to address you and invited in the words your President used. He recalled in touching words my compatriots’ con- tribution to a better knowledge of this country. To this there is no doubt they contributed, and the memory of such men as Laudoniére, Joliet, La Salle, Mar- quette, Bienville, and several others certainly deserves to be cherished, as it is by the National Geographic Society. Some of the earliest maps of the North- ern portion of this continent are French maps, drawn by hand, and they are pre- served at our Ministry of Foreign Af- fairs, in Paris. ‘There was, however, a period in French history when the French had a kind of fame that now, I dare say, they have no more. At the time of my youth Frenchmen were fa- mous for their ignorance of geography. This fame we have lost, but I hope we have some other kinds of fame to console us for the loss of that one. For we too have since then emulated, not without some share of success, the deeds of our ancestors. We have begun again to dis- cover countries. The North has not been our special department; it has rather been that of Norsemen, of Americans and Honors FoR AMUNDSEN 59 Cooking vessel of the Eskimo at King Williams Land made from copper sheeting of one of Sir John Franklin’s vessels; about 15 inches long. Eskimo toys; these are all in miniature, the snow shovel being about 8 inches long. To the left of it are seen 4 dolls made from wood and bone; then an imitation Krag-Jorgen- sen rifle, a spinning top, and a tambourine. Lying at the base is a toy with which the children amuse themselves by slinging the stick upward and catching it on one of the holes of the larger pieces. Photos by Captain Amundsen. Tue Nationa, GreocrapHic MAGAZINE HO Axuli ONIMVW AO SNVAW OWIMSH ‘ssoul AIP UI JYSned st yOIyM Yy1eds e& soonpoid zt I9y}0 ay} Jsulese uotorsy Aq [UN Unds st sydIjs UspOOM ay} JO UG ‘SUITS YIM MO JO9pUlel Puv ‘oUOg JoI9pUloI eB “‘poom jo sace1d OM} FO SuTysIsuod ‘styesiedde SULyPUI-o11y] Honors ror AMUNDSEN 61 ESKIMO ENCAMPMENT, Englishmen; and let us not forget that young, elegant and plucky Duke of the Abruzzi, a worthy compatriot of Colum- bus and Vespucci, and who was recently in your midst. Some new expedition led through air or through water, by some, maybe, among the men present here to- night, will certainly in the near future gain the first sight of the long-sought North Pole’ We traveled mainly in other lands; and many parts of Asia, Africa, .and South America, owing to French travelers, are no longer a blank on the ‘map, and “Timbuctu, the mys- terious,” has no longer any mystery. Considering so many expeditions un- dertaken for the sake of mankind at large by men from every land, undeterred by any danger, one goes back in thought to the time when mythical Saint Brandan, MeonCeme Samim nstanted tm. lis leather boat across the great ocean-sea to dis- cover, and actually did discover, the island of Paradise. Captain Amundsen and his peers. make, in their way, somewhat similar KING WILLIAMS LAND journeys. The Geographic Society's guest tonight will not, | am sure, con- tradict me when I say that, amid the ice, while enduring hard privations and suf- ferings, he too has discovered the island of Paradise; for to men of heart Para- dise is nothing else than duty fulfilled. THE TOASTM ASTER Some years ago there appeared in public print a book on American institu- tions written by a foreigner. Other for- cigners, especially English, had been to this country. They had remained the length of time necessary for the arrival and departure of a ship, and then had written works on America and American customs ; so when this publication on the political conditions of America first ap- peared it was thought to be a work of the same superficial character as those that hadw preceded at but ac itawas Geaduat awakened interest; as it was studied it commanded admiration, and in course of time Bryce’s “American Commonwealth” became the standard text-book on the po- litical institutions of this country. It was 62 a leaven that was distributed at the right time and it is now bearing a splendid fruition. Millions of young patriotic Americans have received their greatest inspiration from that work. They have learned not only of the strength of the American Republic, but, what is better, they have learned from that great work . fore-* its weaknesses. Forewarned is armed, and today I venture to say there is many a man in the national halls of legislation who is a wiser legislator ; there is many a man casting his ballot who today will cast it on the side of righteous- ness and good government because he read that work written by a fair, im- partial, analytical mind; and the National Geographic Society is glad to recognize in that author tonight the Ambassador from Great Britain, who will speak to us on the subject of geography. THE BRITISH AMBASSADOR, HON. JAMES BRYCE Mr Vice-President, Mr President, Members of the National Geographic So- ciety, Ladies and Gentlemen: I thank you, Mr President, for your very friendly and cordial reference to myself, for which I am most grateful. Perhaps, however, you will allow me to enter a very mild and deferential protest against one term which you applied to me. No English- man, I hope, considers himself when in the United States to be a foreigner. This, ladies and gentlemen, is a very interesting and a very cheerful occasion. It must be a cheerful occasion to you who have just been informed that your So- ciety now has reached more than thirty thousand members, which I think must be equal to all the geographic societies of Europe put together. You have an abundant revenue which you well spend on the purposes of geography. The oc- casion is to many of us particularly en- joyable on account of the presence of a distinguished explorer from a nation which has great claims upon the recogni- tion of geographers. He is of the nation whence came the Icelander Eric the Red, who was the first discoverer of America, Tur Nationa, GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE and who was none the less the discoverer of America because he did not know he had discovered it. And Commander Amundsen is also the fellow-countryman of, I think, the man who performed the most extraordinary feat of daring and endurance in the pursuit of geographical knowledge that the history of the world records, Dr-Fridtjof Nansen: Nevertheless, I always feel a little touch of sadness when I am in a com- pany of people devoted to geography, be- cause geography is to me by far the most attractive and enjoyable of all pursuits, and I have a misgiving that I mistook my vocation when I took to history and poli- tics and did not become a traveler and a geographer. Is there any study or pur- suit which has so many sources of enjoy- ment and is altogether so attractive as the study of geography. Geography, to begin with, is one of those things which everybody can follow. In many branches of science now the amateur has a hard time. Science has reached such a point of specialistic de- velopment that an amateur has practically no chance of making discoveries. But in geography we can all do something. Everybody can do a little bit of explora- tion, and) make it thorough) -kedont doubt you all have even done so in the case of some part of the country which was within your reach, and that you have succeeded in knowing a bit of the sur- face of this earth better than anybody else knew it before. That is something to say in an age like this. In the next place geography has the great attraction and the immense interest of being the meeting point of all the natural sciences. Geology, botany, min- eralogy, zoology, meteorology, some branches of physics, such as electricity and magnetism, and of course astronomy also, all touch and flow into geography. It is their meeting point; it takes some- thing from each of them and gather together into one center for its investiga- tions knowledge drawn from these dif- ferent scientific lines of inquiry which bear upon the constitution of our planet. Honors ror AMUNDSEN GEOGRAPHY IS THE TELEPHONE EXCHANGE OF THE SCIENCES And, lastly, geography has the unique interest of being the meeting point of the sciences of nature and the sciences of man. What is it, indeed, except a record of all those forms of natural environment which have made man what he is; which have guided his development ; which have caused the differences of races; which at every point have influenced his march in one direction or another; which have given him the various forms of institu- tions; which have developed certain fac- ulties in certain races along certain lines, and which have impressed upon the divers stocks of mankind as they stand now that variety in which the interest of the study of human nature so largely con- sists. It is this which makes geography the center to which the sciences of nature on the one hand and the sciences of man on the other converge. Perhaps the greatest progress that has been made of late years in the study of history has consisted in bringing to bear upon it all the data which geography sup- plies, and in showing how much every na- tion has owed and must continue to owe to the geographical conditions under which it lives. The relations of geog- raphy to history make a fascinating sub- ject, and if we had not many speeches looming up before us tonight I could will- ingly have followed it out. There is just one drawback or defect which it has seemed to me attaches to this our favorite science. Its range is limited and is being narrowed. The field open to the geographer is no longer, as it might have been called five hundred years ago, practically infinite and inexhaustible. On the contrary, we are using up the world very fast. I suppose some of the mem- bers present remember what the maps of the world were like sixty years ago. I recollect when the whole center of Africa was practically a blank. In the middle of it there were marked upon the map a number of little hillocks, meant to indi- cate the mountains of the Moon, with figures of lions and elephants scattered 63 here and there. Now the Ruwenzori has actually been climbed. | I remember \ an” ancient terrestrial globe, twirling which and poring over it as it twirled I spent many happy hours, which showed for northwestern America scarcely anything except lines marking the voyages of Cook and Vancouver, and for northeastern Asia very little except the lines which traced the voyages of your illustrious countryman, Mr Am- bassador from France, the famous navi- gator La Perouse. But things have been greatly altered. Now there is no part of the earth’s sur- face about which we do not know a great deal. Hardly anything is leit for the imagination. Moreover, in those days the literary traveler was able to tell any traveler's tale he pleased. ‘Those of you who have written books of travel, and I have no doubt there are some present, well know what is the temptation to the author to improve upon and amplify what he has seen in a little-known country. Wher I think of what that temptation is and of how often one has to abstain from exaggerating and giving a better turn to something one has seen, I feel like Lord Clive when, in describing the enormous opportunities he had had of increasing his wealth at the expense of the people he was conquering in India, he said, “I stand amazed at my own moderation.” The travelers of the future will have no such chance as some of us have had and some of us have used, let us hope, with moderation in embellishing the narra- tives of our explorations. I am afraid that the poets and all those who need im- agination, who use imagination in literature, must suffer where there is nothing unknown left in the world. But we must make the best of it. We must recognize that our planet after all is limited. What you must begin to do is what has to be done in those parts of the West when the good lands have all been taken up and when it is impossible any longer to get virgin soil for cultiva- tion. You must begin to apply intensive methods of cultivation. You must ex-. amine all your territory more thoroughly, 64 applying all the knowledge you can draw from sciences like geology, botany, and meteorology. Your National Geographic Society has fortunately a very great and wide field open to it on this continent of North America. You and the Republic of Mexico, whose representative, my friend, Mr Creel, I am glad to see present to- night, have on this vast continent of North America, as we have also up in Canada, an enormous field open in which to conduct a minute scientific study, and the National Geographic Society may look forward to many, many years or cen- turies of useful activity in tracing down the geographical conditions, the natural history, and the resources and the rain- fall and other climatic conditions of this enormous territory. GEOGRAPHICAL SURGERY You have also a new field open which seems to be one of peculiar, and indeed novel, interest. I do not quite know what to call it, whether to call it “Remedial Geography” or “Geographical Surgery.” It is the taking of the surface of our earth and executing upon it various sur- gical operations intended to improve it and make it more useful for the serv- ice of man. You have embarked in some enormous works on this continent of that nature. You have dealt with the lower course of the great River Colorado, and have contemplated the making of an in- land sea in a region which lies a little below the level of the ocean near that stream. You are meditating an enormous enterprise in the improvement of your in- ternal navigation, proposing to construct a great canal and to improve that gigantic river which intersects the middle of your continent—endeavoring to turn it into a more complete and deeper channel for navigation than it has heretofore been. If you accomplish that work, you will have done a thing of which earlier ages might indeed have dreamed, but which nothing but your wealth and the resourses of modern science could have rendered possible. And, lastly, you have embarked on that splendid enterprise in the Isthmus of Tue Nationat Grocrapuic MaGcazIne Panama. One may say that all these proj- ects come under the head of what may be called “Creative Geography.” In at- tempting this creative policy you are making the world more habitable and profitable for all men. The world is no doubt using up its capital at a very rapid rate. Everywhere minerals and forests are being exploited, perhaps too fast and too recklessly. Here the forests are dis- appearing swiftly, and the same holds true of Norway. So both you here and we in Britain are using up our metals and our coals very fast. It is quite time that scientific geographers should come in and take stock of these resources and warn the nation, as I am happy to see that the President has already done in very em- phatic, but not too emphatic, language, of the necessity of conserving all your nat- ural resources and replacing those which, like the forests, can be replaced. These are great functions for the Na- tional Geographic Society. It has a wide and useful field before it which it has shown that it knows how to work for the benefit of science and of the nation. I appreciate the honor of having been called to address you and I thank you on behalf of your guests of tonight. I will venture to wish all prosperity and success to the National Geographic Society. THE TOASTMASTER The American forests are under the charge of the Agricultural Department. The American forests include areas that in themselves alone are sufficient to sup- port a mighty empire. The Department of Agriculture controls this vast domain, conserves it and protects it, and also has many other important functions: It fights the ravages of insect pests that I do not hesitate to say would be more destructive than the ravages of the army of almost any invading foe. It guards the purity of our food supply. It studies the dis- eases of plants and animals and checks them. It sends its explorers into the far reaches of the earth to gather plants and animals that may be made economical and profitable to the American people. It develops and it teaches improved methods of husbandry that add hundreds of mil- Honors ror AMUNDSEN lions of dollars to the wealth of the American people. It carries on many lines of research. It distributes knowl- edge very much as our own Geographic Society does. It forecasts, as you know, the coming of the wind and the storms; and it may be interesting tonight for me to say that only yesterday, as the result. of one of the lines of experimentation carried on under the department, an ob- servation made at an altitude of four thousand feet at the experimental ob- servatory at Mount Weather showed the curious anomaly of 38 degrees tempera- ture, while the surface temperature in Washington showed only 24 degrees—14 degrees warmer in the upper layers of the air. The forecast without that upper air observation would have been snow to- day. But it was apparent to the fore- caster that snow could not come from or oun that extremely warm stratum of air. This is one of the lines of experi- mentation that is adding new knowledge to us in a geographic sense. Now the responsibility for that govern- ment department, so beneficent to the American people in all of its purposes, lies in the foresight, the wisdom, and the statesmanship of the Senators and Repre- sentatives of the Federal Congress. ‘They have never yet failed to give their cordial support to scientific researches when it meant something to benefit the American people; hence the United States Con- gress appropriates money—many times the amount of any other country—for the development and the diffusion of knowl- edge. Now just a word, if I may, because the Secretary of that department is not here; and that is that that institution is presided over by the greatest practical as well as theoretical agriculturist, I believe, that the world has yet produced. Unfortunately Senator Beveridge is in- disposed and is unable to respond to the toast of the American forests. I look over these faces and I hardly find one that I would call upon without preparation to respond to that toast. Briefly, it is certain that the welfare of posterity depends upon the protecting and conserving of these vast forest do- 65 mains. They certainly do much to aid in restraining the floods. ‘They may not change or alter the amount of precipita- tion, but without any question they do conserve that precipitation. They do re- strain the rainfall on the various water- sheds. They do render less destructive the floods that come from a given precipi- tation. ‘The meteorologists are not cer- tain but what the forests actually have an effect upon the thermal conditions, and therefore upon the rainfall itself. Some recent experiments we have had made of the temperature over the surface of the earth as modified by the earth’s covering have shown some very startling results. As an illustration, with con- tiguous surfaces that were precisely at the same level, thermometers exposed two feet above the surface and not a hundred yards apart would show over vegetation seven degrees lower temperature than over a sandy surface. Many times ther- mometers exposed over thickly covered vegetation at night would fall far below the freezing-point, while the temperature over the denuded surface would be much above the freezing-point. Hence it may be that the forests themselves, or the de- nuding of the forests, have really had an effect on the climate itself. The impor- tance of conserving these great areas is conceded by nearly every one. I believe the nation has begun amply early by its wise legislation to protect these great areas for the benefit of the American peo- ple. I remember hearing at one time of a banquet at which speeches were made with relation to the conserving of the waters of the Clyde. At the table there was a young American midshipman, who had partaken probably a little more of his cups than he should have done, so that he was not probably as politic in his remarks at a foreign table as he might have been. He arose and said: “Gentlemen, the Clyde would not form a gargle in the mouth of the Mississippi.” Now the Father of Waters will be responded to by one prob- ably who is better qualified to respond to that toast than any other man in the United States, the Honorable Theodore Burton. 66 THE FATHER OF WATERS. BY HON. THEO- DORE: BURTON The name “Father of Waters,’ or “Father of Running Waters,’ was first given by the Chippewa Indians, located south and west of Lake Superior, because they regarded the river as the greatest in the world. The French explorers ac- cepted this name, May-see-see-bee, and since that day this appellation has been regarded not as a local exaggeration of the aborigines, but as a correct desig- nation for this mighty river. It is not only customary but appropri- ate to speak of the Mississippi in super- latives. True, it is surpassed in some ESKIMO COOKING POT MADE FROM STONE, AT KING WILLIAMS LAND particulars by other streams. Its drain- age area is not so large as that of the Amazon or the Nile, and is equaled if not excelled by those of the Obi, the Congo, and the Rio de la Plata. There are perhaps ten or twelve rivers that carry to the sea a greater volume of water than does the Mississippi. In the population of the area tributary to it it is exceeded by the Ganges and by at least one river of China. The traffic that is borne upon its waters is far exceeded by that of the Rhine, the Volga, and by other minor rivers of Europe and of the United States. But in all the essential qualities which belong to a great river and a great river valley, as well as in THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE those which make for modern progress, the Mississippi far excels them all. The most notable characteristic of the Mississippi is its infinite variety, mani- fested alike in products, climate, soil and population. This is partially due to the fact that, unlike most of the other leading rivers of the earth, it flows from north to south, and nearly in a direct line. This same variety is exhibited in the motives and great events which are chronicled in the history of its discovery and the early settlement of the valley. It has been sometimes said that Vespucius, in the year 1498, passed by the mouth of the Mississippi, but the records of his voyages are of such uncertain au- thenticity that we cannot rely upon them. Other Spanish ex- plorers—Pineda in 1519, Nar- vaez and De Vaca in 1528—saw the mouth of the Mississippi, but did not enter the promised land. The first expedition to cross the river or travel extensively upon its waters was that of De Soto; his included the flower of the Castilian youth, and was actuated by cupidity, the discovery of the Mississippi in early May, 1541, being a mere incident. Entirely different in nature were the French explorations of 132 years later. Father Marquette, in 1673, was moved by religious —zeal, and when ordered to proceed toward the river wrote of “the happy neces- sity of exposing his life for the sal- vation of those nations, and particu- larly for the Illinois.” He passed down from the mouth of the Wisconsin to the mouth of the Arkansas, starting out with the supposition that the great northerly portion of the river flowed to the Gulf of California or the (Pacihe Oceans His) Jexpedi= tion may be termed a discovery, be- cause it established the identity between the northerly and _ southerly Honors ror AMUNDSEN MONUMENT IN MEMORY FRANKLIN Erected on King Williams Land, where the relics of his party were found OF SIR JOHN portions of the Mississippi. Finally, Hoole wenhavic tie: voyave or Wa) Salle; the most untiring and enthusiastic of all the explorers of the West, prompted by desire for adventure, by love of trade, and the wish to add to the domains and in- crease the glory of France. He passed from the mouth of the Illinois to the very delta of the Mississippi. Time would fail me if I were to speak of the various influences of different na- tionalities on the Mississippi River. The Spanish, French, and English all have joined in giving its magnificent valley that cosmopolitan population which is typical of strength and progress the world over. It was inevitable that this splendid empire should belong to one nation. It was made to be both a geographical and a political unit. In the early days of the Republic this ultimate unity was con- stantly kept in mind. When, later in our history, an effort was made for the sev- ESKIMO AT HERSCHEL ISLAND erance of the states bordering upon its waters, those who made that attempt stood athwart the pathway of destiny. Their embattled legions could not suc- ceed, for it was fate that the valley of the Mississippi should be part of a united whole, and that the Mississippi River should flow on to the sea through one great country. Its valley is now,and must in greater degree in the future, assume a preeminent position as the heart of the nation, the source of its great political movements, and the most progressive portion of the globe. Approximately two-fifths of the area of the United States and half of its population belong to this valley. NO LONGER A HIGHWAY OF COMMERCE Among the great problems of common interest to all the inhabitants of the val- ley, the foremost is that of navigation. In the ante-bellum days, the Mississippi was one of the world’s great waterways. But for thirty years navigation there has been in its decadence, a condition which has been very correctly depicted by our 68 foremost American humorist in his book, “Life on the Mississippi,” written twenty- five years ago. Models of boats have not been improved; towns have been shut off from connections by railway tracks ; facil- ities for loading and unloading are scarcely better than in De Soto's day; but with the increase of transportation and the recognition of the inadequacy of present agencies and facilities there is no doubt that the time has come when an effort must be made to restore this river to the position it once occupied as a great artery of commerce. And it is perhaps not too bold a conjecture to foretell that the question whether transportation shall be more and more conducted by rail, or whether the rivers of the country shall bear an increasingly important part, will be worked out by trial upon the Missis- sippi River and its chief tributary, the Ohio. PREVENTION OF FLOODS BY RESERVOIRS Another subject which will arouse attention with reference to the Missis- Sippi is the prevention of the enormous floods which create such devastation year by year. Great progress has been made in this regard. The method most relied upon has been that of building levees. In this connection I may say that of late a claim has been made that by the im- pounding of the waters in the upper por- tion of the Mississippi and in its tribu- taries the force of these inundations may be broken. This plan was dismissed as chimerical by the engineers of fifty years ago, but it is again worthy of careful consideration at this time, since topo- graphical surveys now give a_ better knowledge of the subject. That which seemed entirely impossible in the nine- teenth century may be very easy of achievement in the twentieth. Again, while it may be in part a dream at present, effort should be made for the clarification of the waters of the Mis- sissippi. The chief contributor that makes it a muddy stream is the Missouri, and it has been estimated that each year four hundred million tons of silt are car- Tue NaTIoNaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ried along the bed of the river toward the sea—a quantity comparable with and per- haps even greater than the amount of excavation required for the construction of the Panama Canal. Not in a day, nor yet in a year, but in the generations to come, we may hope that this river will be so bettered by the protection of banks and by treatment of soil in the adjacent lands as to remove its present quality of muddiness. Another problem is the preservation of forests, not only for the sake of the tim- ber supply, but for the moderation of the discharge of waters into the river. Still another, pertaining to many portions of the basin, will be the conservation of waters so that the lands where rainfall does not now exist may be so supplied by irrigation as to open up hundreds of mil- lions of acres for settlement. With great rapidity the resources of this country have been exhausted. It is now time to encourage the practice of economy and conservation. ‘The marvelous wealth of this valley should be preserved for future generations, and provision should be made with great care for the maintenance of that equal opportunity which ought to be the birthright of every citizen of the Republic, but which monopolization at present threatens. I congratulate this Society for the in- terest displayed this evening in the con- servation and utilization of our resources. I am glad to hear a note of warning sounded, and I hope that by your actiy- ities you may exert a beneficent influence in this direction equal to that which you have exerted in other branches of en- deavor. THE TOASTMASTER In creating the Inland Water Ways Commission for the purpose of studying this great project for the improvement of the Mississippi, the President honored this Society by selecting for the Secretary of that organization one who for years has been one of the most active workers in this institution. I will introduce Dr W J McGee to say a few words. Honors For AMUNDSEN Dr McGee outlined the objects of the Commission, and referred to the fact that the present agitation to make our rivers more useful to the country is the third waterway movement in our history; the second, directed by Albert Gallatin and encouraged by Thomas Jefferson (then Secretary of State and President, respec- tively) 99 years ago, unhappily came to naught ; but the first agitation, started by George Washington on the Potomac River, led directly to the Annapolis Con- ference of 1786, and thence to the Con- stitutional Convention of 120 years ago, in which the Nation found being. The toastmaster then introduced Mr Goulder as follows: Some years ago a young man living in the Lake region conceived the idea that he would like to study for the profession of the law. Did he enter a law school? No. He shipped before the mast. He sailed for two years on a sailing vessel, learning every rope and part of its mech- anism. From stoker to captain he learned all the various duties of navigating a great steamship, and then he began the study of law, and in course of time be- came the great admiralty lawyer of the Lake region. He knows all the sailing courses ; he knows every port and harbor in the Great Lake region, no matter how small, and is himself interested in vessel properties. I shall ask the Hon. Harvey Goulder, of Cleveland, to respond to the toast of the “Five Inland Seas.” THE FIVE INLAND SEAS. GOULDER BY HON. HARVEY You have given me a topic, fit subject for a volume, embracing as it does the grandest industrial help to a nation and to the world which history presents. No man may contemplate the use of the Great Lakes, the five inland seas, and their far- reaching effect, without being inspired with greater courage for the future of his own environment. Geographically speaking, these five great inland seas, with their river con- THE HEAD OF AN ESKIMO FISHING SPEAR The fisherman thrusts the weapon across the fish’s body, which is held by the three prongs. nections and outlet, constitute the St. Lawrence system. With the exception of Lake Michigan they mark or line the boundary between us and our friendly and vigorous neighbor for some 1,800 miles. In 1836 the state of Ohio and the ter- ritory of Michigan nearly came to blows about the dividing line between them and in the proposed compromise Michigan re- jected the upper peninsula as worthless, but she afterwards accepted it. In 1840, when on application of Michigan a bill was before Congress for a land grant to aid the building of a lock to overcome the 19 foot drop in water level at Sault Ste. Marie, Henry Clay said in a speech, which defeated the particular bill, “it is a work quite beyond the remotest settle- ment of the United States, if not in the moon.” It was in 1871, when application was made for a land grant to aid a railroad from the twin cities at the head of the Mississippi, to the head of Lake Superior, 50 ESKIMO HUNTER, KING that Proctor Knott ridiculed Duluth, the future great and Zenith City of the un- salted seas. Last week, a steel freight steamer with every modern convenience for economic transportation, brought down from Du- luth through the Sault canal and deliv- ered at Buffalo the largest cargo of wheat ever carried by any ship in the world, 422,000 bushels; enough to make 84,000 barrels of flour, and at 14 bushels to the WILLIAMS LAND Tue NartrionaL GEoGRAaPpHIc MAGAZINE acre, representing the product of 30,000 acres, approximately 50 square miles; and I have it from of- ficial sources that we may take this average. In 1907, in about 232 days of navigation, Duluth shipped in the single item of ore over 13,000,000 long tons, and her sister city across the “bay over 7,000,000 tons more. One-third of all the tonnage under the American flag is employed on the Great Lakes. “As an example of the progress of transportation a comparison may be illustrative. In the last fiscal year, of ships of over 1,000 tons custom-house measure- ment, there were built in other parts of the United States, 18 steel and wooden steamers, ferry boats and schooners, with a tonnage of 41,355 tons. In the same period on the lakes there were built 4o steel steamers, each upward of 1,000 tons, and of aggregate custom- house tonnage of 232,366 tons. It may not be out of place to say that more than 30 of these exceeded 5,000 tons custom-house measure- ments. The custom-house meas- urement, it must be borne in mind, represents only something more than one-half the actual dead weight carrying capacity of our lake ships at the draft which they can carry through the shallower connecting waters between the lakes themselves. Therefore, it is that a steel steamer of the prevailing type, say from 556 to over 600 feet length, 54 to 60 feet beam and 32 feet depth carries 10,- 000, or more, long tons of iron ore on a draft of a little over 18 feet to which connecting waters consign her, and 12,- 000 to 14,000 tons in such a trade as be- tween Escanaba and the great steel works at the head of Lake Michigan, in which trade the steamer is not required to en- counter the restricted draft compelled in the connection betwen Lake Superior and Lake Huron and Lake Erie, by reason of natural conditions which I have not the time to explain. Honors FOR Concurrently have come in- ventions for the rapid handling of cargo, so that one of these great cargoes of iron ore or grain can be, and some times is, loaded in a couple of hours and unloaded within five hours. Covering a voyage between Lake Erie ports and the head of Lake Superior such a vessel makes a round trip in from 7 to 12 days according as she goes without cargo one way or is loaded each way and sub- ject to congestion at either ter- minal. Such has been the progress and demand for transportation that the railroads are so choked, especially at their terminals, that they are, and have been, exhaust- ing every device that ingenuity, involving concurrence of action between railroads and shippers, can suggest to prevent mileage service of the average freight car being reduced below the already alarming point, said to be within past ten years from 30 miles to 20 miles per day. The Great Lakes system is fur- nishing in its cheap water trans- portation about one-third as much ton-mile service in its eight months season as the combined service of all the railroads of the United States in the year. The average ton-mile cost by our rail- roads, which is, generally speaking, half or less than the cost in Europe, runs over 8 mills. The favorably located and best equipped may come down to one-half of this but not lower unless we regard a very few exceptional cases to which a general rule could not be applied. ‘The ton-mile cost in the Great Lakes haul is about one- tenth the average of the rail haul and say one-fifth that of the most favored rail routes with the exceptions stated. While Henry Clay protested, strong, helpful men of business forced a pass- age between the east and the magnificent northwest of the United States and Can- ada which we see today. The state of fll AMUNDSEN ESKIMO AT KING WILLIAMS LAND Michigan was induced to take upon her- self the building of a lock at the Sault. To accomplish the cherished idea it is said that some of these men traveled 50 miles on snow-shoes through a winter wilderness to attend a meeting, lest the project fail or falter. It did not fail because it was the des- tiny of the great American and Canadian Northwest to become the chief grainery of the world. It was the destiny of the United States to become the imperial factor in iron and steel and in industrial pursuits; and the destiny of the United States has never yet halted for lack of human instruments. So the Indian legend that Gargantua, the great chief and demi-god, when he found the waters of Lake Superior rising, put on his great boots and walked around 7 2 the lake until he found at the Sault that the great white beaver had built a dam, and that he kicked away the dam and opened up the intercourse between the lower lakes and the great northwest is not true. It was those sturdy men of Michigan and the East who, foreseeing the almost boundless possibilities of the Northwest, broke the barrier with the prosaic lock and canal which ever since their grateful successors have improved and enlarged till now through this gate- way in the two-thirds of the year allotted to our northern navigation there will have passed in this season of 1907 almost, if not quite, 60,000,000 tons of cargo— nearly four times that through the Suez and nearly six times the estimate for the Panama in its tenth year of operation. The actual saving in freight has in the past single year exceeded all the cost of all the improvements beginning with the first lock in 1855 and throughout the en- tire chain of lakes. No man, woman, or child in this country but has felt and en- joyed its beneficent influence: and results, while people in far-off lands have been distinctly benefited. From Lake Superior comes this year more than 40,000,000 of iron ore so rich in the metal that it will produce more than 80 per cent. of the output of pig iron for the year in this country, which in turn will equal or exceed the combined output of Great Britain, Germany, and France; and the blessing to humanity, the good hope, and the good cheer of it all is that all the output of all the countries will be needed to meet the advancing require- ments of the world. This marvelous de- velopment, so in its infancy, is due defi- nitely and directly to the five inland seas. THE TOASTMASTER The next toast will be responded to by Hon. J. Hampton Meere, who is a little bit handicapped in name,_but. what he knows about the water arterres on the Atlantic Coast is not.a.gift. It was ac- ‘quired by long and patient sttidy. THe NaTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE ARTERIES TO THE ATLANTIC. J. HAMPTON MOORE BY HON. In the boundaries of the fifteen states along the Atlantic Seaboard the East re- tains a population of thirty millions of people. We have started in the East along the Atlantic coast what promises to be a great campaign, hand in hand with our brother of the middle and extreme West, for the development of the waterways of this country. We do not yet quite under- stand their enormous extent. We have passed beyond the important question of forestry because we have very few forests left. They have been denuded for the purposes of the West, and we have not yet quite come to understand the impor- tance of developing the waterways in the Fast as some of you have been developing them in the West. But recently, by reason of the congestion of freight traffic, by reason of the incapacity of the rail- roads of the country to carry the product of the mechanics of the country and of the manufacturers of the country, not- withstanding that they are pushing for- ward with giant strides, and in my own city of Philadelphia are turning out eight and nine locomotives a day from one of the great works alone; notwithstanding this great development in manufactures, the hand of the artisan and of the laborer and the mechanic, combined with the energy and the capital of the manufac- turer, is exceeding the carrying capacity of the railroads and has brought us to a realization of. the importance of the waterways as a means of carrying freight, on competitive, or, if you please, - on relief lines. We have talked recently of the development of an inland chain. It is not altogether a new idea, but the movement to work for it systematically is of recent origin. We believe that for the purposes of commerce, as well as for the purposes of war, it would be important not alone to great manufacturing and industrial in- terests, not alone for the purpose of car- rying commodities of heavy, bulky Honors ror AMUNDSEN COAL FLOATED DOWN THE OHIO RIVER TO CINCINNATI It cost one-third of a mill per ton per mile. of barges containing 60,000 tons of coal. freight, but for the purpose of carrying passengers too. We should have an inland chain of waterways complete from Boston, on the north, to Beaufort, North Carolina, on the south, a distance of something over a thousand miles, with opportunities to go inland at least 150 miles; these waterways to be serviceable for.canal barges, for ships of commerce, and, if you please, for ships of war. We have been think- ing, as this question has arisen, of the iso- lated long seaboard, of the property im- periled, and the lives lost; we have been thinking, too, of those silent vigils of the day and night who constitute the life guard of this country, and who patrol every foot of the Atlantic seaboard, and of our other seaboards while we are snug at home through the wintry season. On The illustration shows a part of a single fleet Photo from Will L. Finch, Cincinnati the shores of Cape Cod alone, as statis- tics recently handed to me show, there were, during a period of twenty years fol- lowing 1881, as many as one thousand wrecks of vessels carrying precious car- goes of human beings and of freight. The development of inland waterways gives courage against the dangers of the Capes, of the shoals of Barnegat, and of the terrors of Cape Hatteras, now almost a graveyard of the seamen of the cen- turies. We are hoping the happy time will come when the North and the South will be united upon the proposition to make available for commerce and to make available, if necessary, for purposes of war, though there will be no war with foreign powers while we are represented by foreign ambassadors such as sit about ya this board tonight—in fact, to make it available for any emergency. The con- struction of this great inland waterway, we believe, will be productive not alone of increased manufactures, but will afford an opportunity to the cotton planter of the South to send his goods north at a cheaper and better rate of freight, and will open up the farm lands that have barely been considered in the general waterway agitation up to this time. Tf you will take your maps when you return to vour homes and draw your finger down the line from Boston to Beaufort, you will see a water-course a thousand miles long, through which you could pass in a small boat from the southern side of Cape Cod, but through which no large boat could pass uninter- ruptedly, because there is not sufficient depth to make it available for purposes of commerce. ‘There are several strips of land in the way. Cape Cod itself has not been cut through. but one canal is now being cut through by the government of the state of Massachusetts, and another is on the plans for construction. There would be a saving of seventy miles around the perilous shoals of Cape Cod. Following the course down Long Island Sound you would come from the harbor of New York through the Raritan Canal, a distance of 34 miles, across New Jer- sey to the Delaware River. That canal is entirely too shallow for commerce or war. It should be made deeper and broader to meet the necessities of the on- coming generations. Pass on down the Delaware to the city of Philadelphia. Pass Trenton and Wilmington and come to the state of Delaware, and there you strike the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal. Only thirteen miles of open water-course would carry any vessel not exceeding 9 feet in draft, out into the Chesapeake Bay, and on down the Ches- a peake Bay to Norfolk, and then through the Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds out through the sand dunes of North Caro- lina again into the Atlantic Ocean. You speak of those things that are attractive to you in your geographic studies, those THe NationaL GEoGraPpHic MAGAZINE things that are pleasant to you in your scientific research; think of this as a problem of the future; think of this as something that will help to develop this country and unite the sections in bonds of commercial and industrial intercourse ; in those bonds which make for the peace and prosperity of the land. MEMBERS AND GUESTS PRESENT Mr C. E. Adams. Mrs Harriet Chalmers Adams. Capt. Roald Amundsen. Senator and Mrs Ankeny, of Washington. Hon. ©. P. Austin. Miss Austin. Miss Bagley. Mr Reid S. Baker. Mr and Mrs W. H. Baldwin. Miss Baldwin. Mr and Mrs O. W. Barrett. Representative Bartholdt, of Missouri. © Mrs FE. J. Bates. Dr and Mrs L. A. Bauer. Mr George Herbert Beaman. Mr and Mrs Charles J. Bell. Mr Sydney Bieber. Mr F. C. Billard. Mr Frederic de Billiets. General John S. Black, President Civil Service Commission. Mr and Mrs John S. Blair. Dr Wm R. Blair. Col. and Mrs Henry F. Blount. Mr and Mrs Scott C. Bone. Mrs Linnie M. Bourne. Mr Randolph Bourne. Representative and Mrs Boutell, of Illinois. Representative and Mrs Sidney J. Bowie, of Alabama. Mr. C. S. Bradley. Mr J. A. Breckons. Mr Robert Brott. Miss Anna B. D. Brown. Mr William Wallace Brown. Mrs. Brown. Hon. C. Brun, The Danish: Minister. Dr Joseph H. Bryan. Hon. James Bryce, The British Ambassador. Mrs Bryce. Captain Buckle, British Royal Artillery. Mrs Buckle. Rey. Dr S. J. Buel, President of Georgetown University. Representative and Mrs A. S. Burleson, of Texas. Representative H. R. Burton, of Delaware. Representative Theodore Burton, of Ohio. Hon. Y. Calderon, Bolivian Minister. Madame Calderon. Mr Frank G. Carpenter. Honors ror AMUNDSEN Mrs Carpenter. Cols thos: l:.Casey, U, Ss. Army: Mrs Casey. Mr W. L. Chamberlin. Mr and Mrs Robert Hollister Chapman. Mr and Mrs Melville Church. Miss Catherine E. Cook. Mr and Mrs F. V. Coville. Col. and Mrs Medorem Crawford. Hon. E. C. Creel, The Mexican Ambassador. Madame Creel. Mr H. McC. Crist. Mr and Mrs Sumner Curtis. Hon. Josephus Daniels. Mr and Mrs O. E. Darnall. Mr William A. De Caindry. Mr and Mrs. H. F. Dodge. Miss Doyle. Mrs Arthur W. Dunn. Mr and Mrs John Joy Edson. Mr Edwin Ehret. Mr and Mrs F. B. Ejichelberger. Mr Fred A. Emery. Miss Emery. Hon. Charles W. Fairbanks, The Vice-Presi- dent. Mr and Mrs David Fairchild. Mr and Mrs R. L. Fearn. Representative H. D. Flood, of Virginia. Mr E. W. Foster. Hon. John W. Foster, formerly Secretary of State. Mr H. K. Fulton. Prof. and Mrs B. T. Galloway. Senator Gamble, of South Dakota. Mr and Mrs. Henry Goldmark. Col. Green Clay Goodloe. Mr and Mrs Gilbert H. Grosvenor. Mr and Mrs Harvey D. Goulder, of Cleveland. Judge A. B. Hagner. Dr Arnold Hague. Dr Albert Hale. Count Hanihara, of the Japanese Embassy. Miss Gena Russell Harding. Representative and Mrs Kittredge Haskins, of Vermont. Mr Phelan FE. Haron. Miss C. L. Harrold. Mr A. G. Heaton. Hon. Hilary A. Herbert, formerly Secretary of the Navy. Mr W. H. Hesse. Hon. David Jayne Hill, American Ambassador to Germany. Mr Joseph A. Hill. Mr and Mrs Frank J. Hogan. Mr E. F. Holbrook. Mr W. R. Hollister. Senator and Mrs A. J. Hopkins, of Illinois. _ Prof. W. J. Humphreys. Mr Frank Huntington. Mr George W. Hutchison. Miss Jessie E.. Hutchison. Mr and Mrs Thos. B. Hutchinson. 75 Miss Emma James. Prof. J. Franklin Jameson. Mr and Mrs Hennen Jennings. Mr and Mrs Sidney Jennings. Mr Alba B. Johnson, President Geographical Society of Philadelphia. Mrs Johnson. Mr George H. Judd. Hon. J. J. Jusserand, The French Ambassador. Madame Jusserand. Mr Cyrus Kehr. Mr and Mrs Chas. E. Kern. Miss Alice Kern. Mr and Mrs Geo. A. King. Mr John Oliver La Gorce. Wile Jo C, Ibalke. Representative John Lamb, of Virginia. Miss Lamb. Mr and Mrs John B. Larner. Abram Lisner. Representative Littlefield, of Maine. Senator Long, of Kansas. Dr and Mrs Theodore Le Boutillier, of Phila- delphia. Mr Israel Ludlow. Mr Otto Luebkert. Mr Nicholas Luquer. Representative S. W. McCall, of Massachusetts. Mr H. D. McCaskey. Mr F. R. McCoy. Mr Arthur W. McCurdy. Dr W J McGee. Representative W. B. McKinley, of Illinois. Mr and Mrs Geo. X. McLanahan. Mr Alex. McNeil. Mr John Holmes Magruder. Mr and Mrs Fred FE. Mann. Representative and Mrs James R. Mann, of Illinois. Miss Manning. Mr M. Henri Martin. Miss Mattis. Mr Harold May. Baron Mayor des Planches, The Italian Am- bassador. Baroness des Planches. Mr and Mrs J. Walter Mitchell. T. B. Moenniche. Mr David Molitor. Baron Moncheur, Belgian Minister. Baroness Moncheur. Representative and Mrs J. Hampton Moore, of Pennsylvania. President and Mrs Willis L. Moore. Prof. Simon Newcomb. Mr Crosby S. Noyes. Mr and Mrs Theodore Noyes. Mr Isaac P. Noyes. Monsignor D. J. O’Connell, President Catholic University of America. Commander and Mrs Robert E. Peary. Mr James H. Penniman. Mr J. W. Pilling. Mr James W. Pinchot. 76 Hon. Epifanis de Minister. Madame de Portela. Mr Raymond W. Pullman. Mr George R. Putnam. Mr Blanchard Randall. Miss Janet Richards. Mr F. A. Richardson. Mr and Mrs George Robinson. Miss Rodgers. Capt. and Mrs Worthington G. Ross. Mr Cuno Rudolph. Mr Edward T. Sanford. Mr and Mrs Marvin E. Scaife. Miss Eliza R. Scidmore. Representative Charles F. Scott, of Kansas. Mr John S. Scully. Miss M. Isobel Sedgley. Miss Nellie Sedgley. Mr and Mrs Edgar D. Shaw. Mr C. von Schubert, of the German Embassy. Mr Theo. F. Shuey. Senator and Mrs F. M. Simmons, of North Carolina. Hon. O. Skybak, Norwegian Chargé d’ Affaires. Mr W. A. Slater. Mr Brockholst M. Smith. Rey. Dr and Mrs C. Ernest Smith. Mr and Mrs F. Carl Smith. Dr George Otis Smith, Director U. S. Geo- logical Survey. Mr and Mrs Odell S. Smith. Senator and Mrs Smoot, of Utah. Mr and Mrs Edgar C. Snyder. Major George O. Squier, U. S. Army. Portela, The Argentine THe NatTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Mr and Mrs H. Steenerson. Dr Geo. M. Sternberg, formerly Surgeon Gen- eral U. S. Navy. Hon. Charles A. Stillings, Public Printer. Dr and Mrs Chas. G. Stone. Miss Mary Suermondt. Mr John Sutcliffe. Senator and Mrs Utah. Mr Frank Sutton. Miss Florence M. Taylor. Mr Henry W. Taylor. Miss Mary E. Taylor. Mr John Adams Thayer. Mr W. B. Thompson. Mr Theodore H. Tiller. Hon. O. H. Tittmann, Superintendent U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. Hon. Leo Vogel, The Swiss Minister. Mr and Mrs F. B. Vrooman. Mr and Mrs Ernest G. Walker. Mr and Mrs M. I. Weller. Mr Walter Wellman. Mr C. T. Werntag. Mr and Mrs Max Weyl. Mr Odell L. Whipple. Mr and Mrs. Wm. Perrine Van Wickle. Mr Walter D. Wilcox. Mr H. E. Williams. Miss Antoinette EK. Willner. Miss Allison Wilson. Mr and Mrs Jesse EF. Wilson. Mr and Mrs. J. F. Wilson. Col. and Mrs A. S. Worthington. Miss Hallie L. Wright. George Sutherland, of THE RECESSION OF THE GLACIERS OF GLACIER BAY, ALASKA By Fremont Morse, U.S. Coast anpD GEODETIC SURVEY NE of the most interesting points brought out in our past season’s work in Glacier Bay is the re- markable retreat of the glaciers discharg- ing into that body of water. The sur- veys made by the Canadian parties in 1894 located the fronts of the glaciers at that time and give us data for an accurate determination of the amount of the re- cession, when taken in connection with our work this year (1907). The primary cause of the changes which have taken place can without doubt be traced to the great Yakutat earthquake of September, 1899. At that time an earthquake occurred which was apparently central in Disenchantment Bay, or the upper end of Yakutat Bay, and which upheaved the rocks in that vicinity, by actual measurement, some 30 or 40 feet. In one place it was measured and found to be 47 feet. This great dis- turbance of the earth’s crust profoundly affected the glaciers in Glacier Bay. Previous to that time for many years the excursion steamers of the Pacific Coast *From a report to Hon. O. H. Tittmann, U. S. Boundary Commissioner. Tue ReEcEssION OF THE GLACIERS OF GLACIER Bawa, ’ 136/00 oe 2 = > £4 al > ‘i 4 EN 4 eS 3 - Ss 8 eas: Sm svi.» [Sak SO SERS i SS te g Sires Se es Sea £53 48 Sa eS Seg a ee o.3 8 3 © es Sao N = f 2 oN : =: ‘ S : 2 5 < > X 2 S : Steamship Company had regularly run up into the bay, and had experienced little or no difficulty in approaching within a few hundred yards, or as close as it was deemed safe, to the face of the 189) 2/0 Fremont Morse Chief of Party AO. loo" 13; Muir glacier. all that. The glaciers seem to have been completely shattered by the shock. Vast masses of ice were discharged, which so choked the bay that it was impossible for The earthquake changed 78 steamers to enter. So also the breaking up of the ice masses seems to have been so thorough that great quantities have continued to be discharged every year since then, and it was not until this sum- mer that the excursion boats were able to approach to within less than from 10 to 20 miles of the front of the Muir. The steamer Spokane, commanded by the veteran Capt. James Carroll, succeeded in getting up to within about a mile of the face of that glacier on one of her trips this year. Formerly the Muir presented a per- pendicular front at least 200 feet in height, from which huge bergs were de- tached at frequent intervals. The sight and sound of one of these vast masses falling from the cliff, or suddenly ap- pearing from the submarine ice-foot, was something which once witnessed was not to be forgotten. It was grand and im- pressive beyond description. Unfortunately the recent changes in the Muir have not increased its impres- siveness from a scenic standpoint. In- stead of the imposing cliff of ice, the front is sloping, and seems to be far less active than formerly. Its shape is en- tirely changed. It is now divided into two branches, the two branches being Ture NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE caused by what were formerly two “nunataks” in the body of the glacier. The eastern arm discharges but little, and appears to be nearly dead. The front of the western arm is in shape of an elon- gated basin, and, as above stated, slopes gently. It is badly crevassed; a point of rock juts out at the water’s edge on the west side of the basin. This is apparently the prolongation of a ridge which out- crops through the ice-field further back, and which will soon, if the glacier con- tinues to retreat at its present rate, make two arms of the present western one. It is from this western arm that the bulk of the ice is now discharged. That the changes now going on will continue in the same direction is by no means certain. All around Glacier Bay from Bartlett Bay up into Hugh Miller Inlet, and including the Muir Inlet, there are evidences that there was once before a retreat of the glaciers followed by an advance. Stumps of large trees, im situ, along the shore line, testify unmistakably that for a long period the country was free from ice, that forests grew, that the ice advanced and overwhelmed them, and has again retreated. Who can _ predict what will come next? THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Friday, January 31, 1908—“The Conserva- tion of Our Natural Resources.” Mr Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the U. S. Forest Service. Friday, February 7, t908—‘“South Africa: The Natives and the Mines.” Mr Gardiner F. Williams, author of “The Diamond Mines of South Africa” and for many years General Manager of the De Beers Diamond Mines, Kimberley. Illustrated. Friday, February 14, 1908—““The Deep-water Route from Chicago to the Gulf and its Con- nections.” Hon. Joseph E. Ransdell, Member of Congress from Louisiana and President of the Rivers and Harbors Congress. Friday, February 21, 1t908—Hon. George Shiras, 3rd, of Pittsburg, has accepted the in- vitation of the National Geographic Society to address the Society on some of his experiences in hunting wild game with the camera. TIllus- trated. Friday, February 28, 1908—“Holland’s War with the Sea.” Prof. J. Howard Gore. Illus- trated. Friday, March 6, 1908—“The Missions of California.” Hon. Joseph R. Knowland, Mem- ber of Congress from California. Friday, March 13, 1908—“Arizona—The Egypt of the New World.” Mr Frederick Monsen. Mr Monsen describes not only the ancient ruins, but the country as it is today, with its Indian tribes, Spanish-Mexican settle- ments, and American towns. ‘The wonderful Snake Dance of the Hopis will be shown. Friday, March 20, 1908—‘‘Persia—Past and Present.” Dr A. V. Williams-Jackson, of Co- lumbia University. Illustrated with unusual pictures taken by Professor Jackson on exten- sive journeys through the ancient kingdom. Friday, March 27, 1908—“The Geography of the Sea.” Rear Admiral Colby M-: Chester, U. S. Navy. Friday, April 3, 1908—“Cathedrals, Mosques, and Temples of the World.’ Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief U. S. Bureau of Statistics. Il- lustrated. = Sorsiweess AS ~ sR wl UL EE) FOR INFORMATION ABOUT HAWAII, ITS UNEQUALED CLIMATE, BEAUTIFUL SCENERY, AND ATTRACTIVE AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES . . . WRITE TO BUREAU OF INFORMATION HAWAII PROMOTION COMMITTEE HONOLULU, HAWAII ILLUSTRATED PAMPHLET SENT FREE Please mention this Magazine when writing ICTOR HUGO said Napoleon made the boundaries of Empires to oscillate on the map. We keep track of the oscillations, political changes and all artificial transformations in the way of cities, railroads, and canals. We have a complete record of all geographical discoveries, and have made many discoveries ourselves in map making. Any one giving us a commission will be assured of receiving the best and most advanced work in : map making. THE MATTHEWS-NORTHRUP WORKS BUFFALO, N. Y. Cleveland Office, 517 Citizens Building. New York Office, Madison Square Garden Tower. A Land of Sunshine and Flowers of babies and bull fights; where matchesare held up instead of down; where outside doors are locked at ten o’clock ; where the weather forgets to change and the people use their housetops as gardens. This is Mexico-—-the Egypt of America, a country so odd, so different, that a trip there is one of the delights of a life- time. Now is the season to see Mexico at its best. “Sights and Scenes in Old Mexico,”’ a dainty little book, is replete with interesting facts about the Egypt of the New World. It’s free. Write for a copy today. How to Go to Mexico The principal highway to Mexico lies through St. Louis. Most roads run through trains to St. Louis, and the M.K.& T. Ry. runs through sleepers from St. Louis to the City of Mexico without change. The route lies through Ft. 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Up to that time subscriptions will be received at the rate of $1.00 a year, to extend for any number of years. NEW YORK, N. Y. ee | Please mention this Magazine when writing THE HOME OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY An Association organized for “the increase and diffusion of knowledge,’ with headquarters at Washington, D. C. AMERICAN WOODS A Publication Illustrated by Actual Specimens, with Full Text “With this valuable book as a guide any person can indentify any tree east of the Rockies in winter, spring, summer, or autumn. Years were required to obtain this invaluable photo-descriptive record owing to the many difficulties met. Review in NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for Dec. ’07. “I thoroughly endorse your work in the cause of true American forestry. Nothing has in its way contributed more to the cause. CHAS. L. PACK. It meets a real want.’’— HANDBOOK OF THE TREES Photo-descriptive. learn much about them. Enables one unfamiliar with botany to identify the trees and “Indispensable for public and school libraries, for all students of trees and for botanical laboratories. Everything that has been attempted seems to have been well planned and well executed. We cannot think of an item which would contribute to greater completeness.’’ BOTANICAL GAZETTE. “An extraordinarily thorough and attractive hand- book of the trees, furnished with realistic illustrations of tree sections, barks, leaves, and fruits that almost carry the scent and touch of the original.’””—NEW YORK TIMES. “ ee teen ee he ke Have been examining it page by page and | find it a perfectly delightful book. Your illustrations of the leaves, fruits, etc., are very fine indeed, while the illustrations of the trunks are works of art. To every lover of trees this book will be a source of inspira- tion.”’—Dr. J. N. ROSE. “It exactly fills my needs as a summer resident among trees and with a son interested in what is grow- ing about him.”—E. B. MITCHELL. “Altogether the most interesting and valuable book on trees I have ever seen. A fine example of an ex- cellent plan thoroughly carried out. Itis worth fully double the amount you charge for it. Send me six more copies.’”’—W. H. BOARDMAN. “Am greatly impressed with the very thorough manner in which each tree is illustrated. I am glad to have acopy.””—GIFFORD PINCHOT. “We would like to congratulate you upon the plan, the thoroughness of the concise descriptions, and the beauty of the pictures.’—-HARPER & BROTHERS. “We are impressed with the comprehensiyeness of the information presented and the beauty and pre- cision of the illustrations.’’—G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS. “ Unique and a joy to all lovers of forestry.’’—F. W. RANE. We also have a large line of preparations of Woods for Stereopticon and Microscope, Stere- opticon views of Trees, etc. Write for particulars, stating which subject interests you most. ROMEYN B. HOUGH, Author and Publisher, Lowville, New York Please mention this Magazine when writing Office Hours, 9 A. M. to 4.30 P. M. Telephone, North 306 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Hubbard Memorial Hall Sixteenth and M Streets, Washington, D. C. WILLIS L. MOORE FE : ; : President F. B. EICHELBERGER : Asst. Treasurer JOHN JOY, EDSON j : : . Treasurer HENRY GANNETT $ ; . Vice-President GILBERT H. GROSVENOR....___... Editor O. P. AUSTIN » . 2.) Seeretary JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE.__— Asst. Secretary BOARD OF MANAGERS 1906-1908 1907-1909 1908-1910 Q. P. AUSTIN HENRY F. BLOUNT ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL CHARLES J. BELL Cc. M. CHESTER HENRY GANNETT T. C. CHAMBERLIN F. V. COVILLE J. HOWARD GORE GEORGE DAVIDSON D. C. GILMAN A. W. GREELY JOHN JOY EDSON RUDOLPH KAUFFMANN GILBERT H. GROSVENOR DAVID G. FAIRCHILD T. L. MACDONALD GEORGE OTIS SMITH A. J. HENRY WILLIS L. MOORE 0. H. TITTMANN C. HART MERRIAM S. N. D. NORTH JOHN M. WILSON Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary Recommendation for Membership in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The membership fee includes subscription to the National Geographic Magazine DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membership abroad and in Canada, $2.50; life membership, $50. Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft, postal or express order, Go the Secretary, National Geographic Society, W ashington, D. C. VE OTIC Leen eee LN SS (Write your address.) Papago Indian Obtaining Drinking Water from a Barrel Cactus (Echinocactus emoryi), West of Torres, Mexico INCE the publication of ““SCENES FROM EVERY LAND”’ there have been received hundreds of letters from all over the country, in fact from all over the world, congratulating the Society on the volume. One member was so pleased with his copy that he telegraphed for sixteen additional copies to present to his friends. ““SCENES FROM EVERY LAND’’ will afford your boy or girl a great deal of the education and pleasure of travel. It will give them fascinat- ing pictures of many distant lands about which they read at school. The book will add zest and enthusiasm to their study of geography. The volume is 7 by 10% inches, contains 250 unique and interest- ing pictures with descriptive matter, is printed on fine paper in brown duo-tint ink, well bound in green buckram, and has appended a list of a thousand books of travel, together with a chart of the world. The price is $1.00, postpaid, in the U. S.; abroad, $1.25. Copies bound in red leather with gilt tops may be had for $2.50, postpaid. SECRETARY, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C.: Please send me copies of ‘‘ SCENES FROM EVERY LAND,’’ at $1.00 each, for which I enclose herewith dollars. 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LETTERS OF CREDIT AND FOREIGN EXCHANGE JOHN JOY EDSON, President WOODWARD & LOTHROP Importers and Retailers INVITE ATTENTION TO THEIR SELECTIONS AND IMPORTA- TIONS IN DESIRABLE MERCHANDISE, COMPRISING IN PART Paris and London Millinery, Silks, Velvets, High-class Dress Goods, Ready- to- Wear Outer and Under Garments for Men, Women, Girls, and Boys, Hand-made Paris Lingerie, Bridal Trousseaux, Corsets, Infants’ Outfittings, Hosiery, Laces, Ribbons, Handkerchiefs, Embroideries, Linens, Upholstery Goods, Books, Stationery, Card Engraving; also Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Novelties in Leather and Fancy Goods; Sterling Silver Articles, Lamps, Clocks, Bronzes, Cut Glass, China, etc., for Wedding, Birthday, and Anniversary Gifts Mail Orders Receive Prompt Attention Correspondence Solicited 10TH, 11TH, F, anp G Streets N. W. WaAsHINGTON, D. C. PRESA OF JUDD & DETWHILER, INC, WASHINGTON, D. C. } Sie NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE FEBRUARY, 1908 CONTENTS The Policemen of the Air. By Henry Wetherbee Henshaw. Illustrated. A Few Thoughts Concerning Eugenics. By Alexander Graham Bell. The Carnegie Institution. A Jumping Salmon. _ Illustrated. Children of the World. _ Illustrated. Ten Years in the Philippines. A Bear Hunt in Montana. By Arthur Alvord Stiles. _ Illustrated. Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. _ $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mall Matter Copyright, 1907, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Copyright, 1907, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved N- IntustrateD Monrtuty, published by the NationaL Geocrapuic Society. All editorial communications should be addressed to GirBEeRT H. Grosvenor, Editor the Natrona GeoGRAPHIC Macazine. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; SUBSCRIPTION $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors MAJ. GEN. A. W. GREELY U. S. Army C. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U.S. ~ Department of Agriculture O. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U- S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Oo. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor ROB’T HOLLISTER CHAPMAN U. S. Geological Survey DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the De- - partment of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY U. S. Geological Survey R. D. SALISBURY University of Chicago G. K. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIH Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON President St Lawrence University Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C. How would you like to travel all through J apan Japan with a world-famous traveler as your boon companion and guide? Visiting the chief cities and the interior provinces. Contrasting the new life that is springing up in her beautiful metropolitan centers with the old life that the Japanese still cling to out in the country. Tokyo, with its famous Avenue of Cherry Trees, Tea Gardens and Geisha Girls. Then by jinrikisha, out into the country of this land of flowers, past famous potter- ies, the Temple of the 33,000 Gods and hundreds of other interesting places; and become intimately acquainted with Japanese home life ? 4 addition to visiting the Paris that _ France everybody knows, how would you like : to become acquainted with quaint corners > of the French capital? Mingle with the gay Parisians on the boulevards. Visit their famous cafes, such as The Four Arts, Café of Death, Black Cat or Heaven and that Other Place. Experience the life in the Latin Quarter, or go under _ Paris,—through its sewers and into the Catacombs. Attend ' the National Fete of France on July 14, when all Paris is an open-air ball-room. Outside of Paris, visit such noted places as Pierrefonds, Fontainebleau, etc. How would you like to go Morocco back a thousand years in the space of a few short hours? The first glimpse of Fez, in the heart of the Moorish Empire, will be an event in your life. You can here stop to listen to the dramatic tale of some famous story-teller, watch the curb market, see the slave market in full swing, or visit the hospital for ’ sick storks. You dine with a government official— the host does the carving, using nothing sharper than his finger nails, and then rose-water is sprayed down your back and into your ears. will notonly enable you to become acquainted Burton HoLME with the thousands of scenes and things of interest in the countries mentioned AVE above, but they will enable you to ss LOGUES experience all the entertainment yy and education of travel in thirty GG ee of the most important and interesting cities and countries in the Phe eo world. Ten splendid volumes—10x7}x1} inches. Upwards of 4,000 pages of vivid descriptive text, 4,000 half-tone etchings, McClure’s | 30 full-page color plates. Cut off the coupon. Tourists’ Agency | 44 East 23d Street WR TE us to-day for a descriptive booklet containing specimen pages New York City and beautiful color plate. You can only make sure of securing a set of the first edition of the Travelogues by writing us at once.— This means : cut off the coupon and mail to-day. Dear Sirs: Please present without expense to me speci- men pages, color plate and full | ; description of the Burton Holmes McClure’s Tourists’ Agency i Travelogues. “Fireside Travel ” oe 44 to 60 East 23d Street NEW YORK CITY Please mention this Magazine when writing Furs, Rugs, Uniforms, Clothing, Etc. Stored in DRY, MOTH-PROOF COLD STORAGE HE luster and beauty of furs and the colors of all fabrics are pre- © served by our Dry, Cold Storage, and protection from moth, theft, and fire, dust and wrinkle is provided. $1.50 FOR SIX MONTHS FOR FUR SETS, JACKETS, Etc., VALUED AT $50.00 OR LESS. Additional valuation, $1.00 per $100. ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE BOOKLET AND PRICE LIST WILL BE MAILED ON REQUEST. REFERENCES, ANY BANK OR BUSINESS HOUSE IN WASHINGTON Security Storape Gompanp Successors to Storage Department, American Security and Trust Co. 1140 15th St. N.W., Washington, D. C. 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STEAMSHIP BOWLING GREEN STORAGE & VAN COMP’Y 18 BROADWAY, NEW YORK Cable Address: Bowlingvan, New York Codes: A BC, Fifth Edition, Lieber’s Code HOISTING LIFT-VAN ON BOARD Please mention this Magazine when writing Vor XIX, No. 2 a THE POLICEMEN OF THE AIR WASHINGTON GEOGIRAIPISOIC MAGAZIINIE, FEBRUARY, iis, 1908 An Account of the Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture By Henry WETHERBEE HENSHAW HE, pursuit of science solely for its own sake, however commend- ; able it may be, is not the spirit that animates our government in its support of scientific research. In its aims and ambitions this is a practical age. Thousands of men are experimenting, in- venting, and prying into the secrets of nature for the avowed purpose of utiliz- ing their discoveries for the practical benefit of mankind. Applied science has come to occupy a very important place in our government institutions, and in none is it more important than in the Depart- ment of Agriculture. From small beginnings, the department in little less than half a century has ex- panded in every direction, and in the last — decade, under the able management of Secretary Wilson, has grown to huge pro- portions. Its work is divided among numerous bureaus, each with a distinct line of research, and a small army of as- sistants is employed, many of whom are engaged in various fields of scientific in- vestigation for the benefit of the Ameri- can farmer. It is the work of one of its bureaus, the Biological Survey, that concerns us here. The Survey had its beginning in 1885, whem its, present lead Docton Cs dlant Merriam, with one assistant, began to in- vestigate the economic relations of birds to agriculture. ‘The scope of the field was soon enlarged to include the kindred sub- ject of economic mammalogy. In addi- tion to these important subjects, its duties now include the study of the geographic distribution of animals and plants with special reference to the determination of life and crop zones, and the supervision of matters relating to game protection and the importation of foreign birds and animals. RELATION OF BIRDS TO AGRICULTURE When the Survey began its work very few accurate observations on the food of birds had been recorded. Most of the published information bearing on the sub- ject rested on field observation only, and, besides the liability to error from faulty or insufficient observations, the data gathered in this way were entirely inade- quate. It is not enough to be told that birds feed on insects; we must know the particular kinds they eat. The fact that the crow sometimes eats corn is not suffi- cient evidence upon which to condemn 80 Tue Nationat GeocraeHic MAGAZINE rere aeee LEE From the Biological Survey FOUR COMMON SEED-EATING BIRDS 1, Junco; 2, White-throated Sparrow; 3, Fox Sparrow; 4, Tree Sparrow Tue PoLnicEMEN the bird. We must learn the nature of its food at all times of year, and then strike a fair bal- ance between its good and its bad deeds; hence the absolute neces- sity for the examination of the contents of birds’ stomachs, by which means may be accurately determined not only the kinds of food eaten but their relative quantities. This method is ex- ceedingly slow and laborious, re- quqires a high order of expert ability, and moreover is open to the very serious objection that it necessitates the taking of use- ful lives. So far as possible, the latter objection has been min- imized by utilizing the stomachs of birds killed by naturalists for scientific purposes. ‘This mate- rial, which otherwise would be lost to economic science, renders it unnecessary, except in special cases to destroy birds for the purpose of food examinations. In the above connection it must not be forgotten that when a thorough examination of the food of a given species is once made and the results published, the work is done for all time. The food habits of a species having been once de- termined by this method, no possible ex- cuse exists, so far as food investigations go, for further destruction of bird life; and the more so because the contents of all stomachs examined are preserved as vouchers for further verification, should that be deemed necessary. Passing to a consideration of some of the practical problems presented, it might seem that the relation of birds to agricul- ture were simple, since the question is chiefly one of food. Do birds destroy crops? then of course they are injurious. Do they eat insects? then of a certainty they must be beneficial. But the problems are not to be settled in this off-hand fash- ion. In reality they are extremely com- plex and are to be understood only after much painstaking study. It has been 81. Oa Awe VSOR From the Biological Survey SPARROW HAWK Which helps the farmer by eating grasshoppers, crickets, and beetles (see page 85.) found, for instance, that a bird may be in- jurious at one time and not another. In one region it may be a pest and in another an unmixed blessing. Some birds—un- fortunately not many—are always bene- ficial. Others—fortunately not many— are always and everywhere injurious. But the great bulk of birds are both harm- ful and beneficial by turns, according to age, season of the year, the presence or absence of their natural food, and a va- riety of circumstances. THE TREE SPARROWS VERY BENEFICIAL For present purposes we may roughly group the bulk of our small birds into two classes — seed-eaters and _ insect-eaters. The seed-eaters, mostly of the sparrow family, have stout bodies and strong coni- cal bills, expressly designed for crushing seeds. Their name is legion and the From the Biological Survey A USEFUL BIRD OF PREY Swainson hawk. ‘This bird saves the western farmer $100,000 a year (see page 85) family contains more species than any other group of birds. It is well that this is so, for the destruction of weed seed is of tremendous importance to the farmer, whose trouble to keep ahead of the weeds, great as it is now, would be vastly in- creased were it not for the soberly clad and unobstrusive little sparrows. We may get an idea of the value of the serv- ice these birds render by noting what is done for the farmer by the tree-sparrow, one of the most confirmed seed-eaters of the group. A quarter of an ounce of seed per day is a safe estimate of the food of an adult tree-sparrow. On this reckon- ing, in a state like lowa, where agricul- ture is relatively very important, tree- sparrows annually eat about 875 tons of weed seed: The total value of the principal field crops of the United States for the year 1906 was about $3,500,000,000. If we estimate that the combined consumption THe NaTIonaL GEeoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of weed seed by the sparrow family results in an annual saving of only 1 per cent of the value of the crops, the sum total saved to the farmer in 1906 was $35,- 000,000. Though seeds form the chief part of the subsistence of spar- rows, the destruction of seeds is by no means all we have to thank these birds for. They eat many insects also, and seem to know instinctively that while seeds are excellent food for adult birds, they are not necessarily good for nestlings, and hence feed the lat- ter almost exclusively on insects. Sparrows, however, are not the only birds that consume the seeds of weeds. ‘The eastern quail or bobwhite is a confirmed eater of weed seeds. Highly exteemed as bobwhite is by the epicure for food and by the sportsman as an object of pursuit, he is probably worth so much more as a weed- destroyer that the farmer can ill afford to have him shot, even though the privilege is roundly paid for. A bevy or two of quail on a farm is an asset the value of which no thrifty farmer should overlook. Doves also are seed eaters, especially the turtle-dove, whose crop often is so packed with the seeds of weeds that it can hold no more. The farmer has no quarrel with birds that confine their attention to grass and weed seeds, and welcomes their presence always and everywhere. There are birds, however, which eat such seeds as corn, wheat, and barley, and whose place in the farmer’s esteem is by no means so well assured—the crow and the blackbirds for instance. There are several kinds of blackbirds which at times attack crops as also does the crow. ‘The destruction by the crow of meadow mice, and of cut- worms and other insect pests and the de- struction of many kinds of insects by the blackbirds, however, are considered in most localities to offset all damage done in other ways and even to leave a balance in favor of the birds. Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR Nad From the Biological Survey CACTUS WREN A common desert bird of the southwestern United States 84 THe Nationa, GeocrapHic Macazine From the Biological Survey GOLDEN EAGLE The most widely distributed.of the eagles. It ranges over most of North America and a large part of the old world. In sections of California the Golden Eagle feeds on ground squirrels and is wholly beneficial, while in some other parts of it, range it feeds on lambs and wild game and is a noxious species. Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE BIRDS THAT EAT INSECTS Many birds, as_ flycatchers, warblers, swallows, and chimney- switts, live exclusively, or almost so, On insects, and very many more, as blackbirds, orioles, and some hawks, depend on them for a considerable part of their liveli- hood. The little sparrow-hawk lives_very largely upon grasshop- pers, crickets, and beetles, and even one of the larger hawks— the Swainson hawk of the west- ern plains—at certain seasons de- stroys enough of these injurious insects, together with small ro- dents, to save the western farmer upwards of a hundred thousand dollars a year. If all insects preyed upon vege- tation, our inquiry into the value of insect-eating birds need go no further, since all of them might be set down as beneficial; but by no means all insects are destruc- tive of vegetation, and their relations to each other and to birds are very complex and puzzling. The insects that feed on vegetation at some stage or other of their existence probably outnumber all others, both in number of species and of indi- viduals; but there are two other classes of insects which deserve attention here, the predaceous and the parasitic. The predaceous insects, either in the adult or larval state, feed upon other insects and hence in the main are beneficial. It would seem, therefore, that in so far as birds destroy predaceous insects they do harm. That birds do destroy a greater or less number cannot be denied, but as many species of this group secrete nauseous fluids, which serve, in a measure at least, to protect them, and as many are of retiring habits and not readily found, the number de- stroyed by birds is relatively not large. Moreover, some of the predaceous in- sects, when insect food is not available, become vegetarians, and hence assume the role of enemies of the farmer ; so that when birds destroy predaceous insects AIR | | ] | 4 Piatt fa From the Biological Survey A BARRED OWL, they may be doing the farmer either a good turn or an ill turn, according to cir- cumstances. The relation of birds to the so-called parasitic insects is still more intricate and puzzling. Parasitic insects fill a very im- portant place in the economy of nature; it is even claimed by entomologists that they do more effective service in aiding to keep true the balance in the insect world than any other agency. They at- tack insects in every stage of existence -and insure their destruction by depositing eggs on, or in, the bodies of adults, their larve (the worm or caterpillar stage), their pup, or their eggs. Now, birds recognize no fine distinctions in the insect world. All is grist that comes to the avian mill, and parasitic insects are snapped up by birds without the slightest regard to the fact that they are useful to man. Hence we have a complicated problem to unravel in respect to the inter- relation of insect pests, of insect parasites that destroy them, and of birds that de- stroy both pests and their parasites. As Swift phrases it: 86 THe NaTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo from the Biological Survey A MONUMENT TO THE INDUSTRY OF BARN OWLS Field Mouse skulls found under owl roost in Smithsonian tower, Washington (see page 87) So, naturalists observe, a flea Has smaller fleas that on him prey; And these have smaller still to bite ’em, And so proceed ad infinitum. After due recognition of the part in- sect parasites play in the economy of nature, it is evident that, unassisted, they are unequal to the task of keeping insect life in a proper state of equilibrium. In this work birds play an important, though it may be relatively a somewhat sub- ordinate part. Had parasitic and pre- daceous insects been equal to the task of holding in check insect pests, there would be no place in the world for insect-eating birds. In the progress of evolution, how- ever, long after insects and insect para- sites appeared, birds found a place va- cant, which even their reptilian ancestors had not been able to occupy, and pro- ceeded to fill it. Having once gained a place in the world, birds entered into a competitive struggle with each other and with other insect-eaters. In the course of time they developed into a great number of families, each distinguished by pecul- iarities of form, plumage, and habits, and each endowed with methods of its own in the pursuit of food. That so many birds are insect-eaters is an index alike of the enormous reproductive capacity of insects and the inadequacy of the forces that warred on insects before the advent of birds. HAWKS AND OWLS ARE NOT MARAUDERS BUT MOST BENEFICIAL The popular idea regarding hawks and owls is that they are nothing but robbers and bold marauders. Their real charac- ter and the nature of their services to man are generally overlooked. The fact is that the great majority of our hawks and owls are beneficial, and spend the greater part of their lives in killing small rodents, most of which are always and everywhere noxious. Hawks and owls are long-lived birds, as birds go, and this fact gives a hint of their importance in the eyes of nature and of their value as servants of man. The work of hawks and owls is com- plementary. All hawks are diurnal, and hunt their prey between the hours of day- light and dark. Owls, on the contrary, are chiefly nocturnal, but do much of their hunting in the early evening and morning hours, or by moonlight, and when pressed by hunger or when feeding young, they sometimes hunt by day. Hence, between them, hawks and owls THe PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR are on duty throughout the 24 hours, and thus are enabled to prey on all kinds of rodents, large and small, those which are abroad by night as well as those active by day. The bulk of the depredations on birds and chickens due to hawks is committed by three species—the Cooper and sharp- shinned hawks and the goshawk; and the - sportsman and farmer’s boy should learn to know these daring robbers by sight, so as to kill them whenever possible. The so-called “hen-hawks,” usually either the red-shouldered or red-tail hawk, are too often made victims of a bad name; for while both species occasionally snatch a chicken, the habit is far too uncommon to justify the name “hen-hawk.” The good these two big hawks do in the long run by destroying rats and mice far more than compensates the farmer for the in- significant damage he suffers at their talons. Photo from the Biological Survey PELLETS THROWN UP BY OWLS, CONTAINING BONES AND HAIR OF MICE, NATURAL SIZE. CURIOUS METHODS OF DIGESTION Both hawks and owls often swallow their prey entire or in large fragments, together with the bones, hair, and even some of the feathers. Avian digestion is both good and rapid, but it is unequal to the task of assimilating such substances, and accordingly both hawks and owls throw up these rejecta in the form of neatly rolled pellets. In studying the food habits of birds of prey much use is made of these pellets, and the vicinity of a nest of a pair of horned owls, for in- stance, often contains an unmistakable record of the birds’ food, and perhaps that of the young, for months or even years. From the foregoing it will at once ap- pear that the practice of offering bounties indiscriminately for the heads of hawks and owls, as has been done by some states, is a mistake, and results not only 88 in the wasting of public funds, but in the destruction of valuable lives, which can be replaced, if at all, only with great diff- culty and after the lapse of a term of years. In no one particular does the public, especially the sportsman and farmer, need to be educated more than in the value of hawks. The temptation to shoot a hawk or owl, perching or flying, is well nigh irresistible, and the bad habit is having the natural result of so reducing the numbers of these birds as to make it impossible for the survivors to do the work nature intended them to do. The notable increase of noxious, rodents in the last decade in certain parts of the United States and the resulting damage to crops without doubt are due in no small part to the destruction of their natural enemies, chief of which are the birds of prey. When the public is fully informed as to the value of hawks and owls and an en- : q : 2 3 es From the Biological Survey THREE-TOED WOODPECKER A conservator of the northern forests Tue Nationa, GeEoGRaPpHic MAGAZINE lightened sentiment is exerted in their behalf, they will increase in numbers and the damage to crops from noxious mam- mals will correspondingly diminish. THE POLICEMEN OF THE AIR Differing widely as they do in struc- ture and habits, birds collectively are able in man’s interests to police earth, air, and water. ‘The thrushes and other ground feeders scour the ‘surface of — the earth and hunt under leaves for hid- den insects. The warblers, titmice, nut- hatches, creepers, and others search among the foliage and in the crevices of bark for all manner of creeping things. The woodpeckers, a highly specialized group, perform a service no other birds are equal to, since with their specially designed chisels they dig into wood and drag forth the hidden larve that prey on our forest monarchs. The flycatchers from their perches dash out for their prey as it flies from bush to bush or tree to tree, while the swallows and swifts skim the air, and with intricate evolutions snap up such insects as have escaped the active search of their breth- ren nearer earth. The waters too and their shores have their feathered denizens which exact special tribute of the insect world. So that, quite aside from ques- tions of sentiment, birds must be adjudged to play an active and important part in keeping na- ture’s balance true. Their role is all the more important, since no other creatures are fitted for their special duties. Moreover, if we may judge the future by the past, the services of birds must become increasingly valuable as time goes on. Agriculture, always im- portant in the United States, is constantly assuming greater im- portance. The stream of immi- gration from the Old World and the steady increase of our own millions mean an ever-augment- ing consumption of food at home, while the demand from abroad THe PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR for American foodstuffs never ceases for a moment. To sup- ply this triple demand, better methods of tillage must be de- vised and more and more acre- age must be devoted to agri- culture. In part this need of creased acreage is to be mét by irrigation projects, which when they materialize will make available for farms and homes millions of acres of sterile desert. WITHOUT BIRDS SUCCESSFUL AGRICULTURE WOULD BE IM- POSSIBLE. But increased acreage and larger crops mean a vast in- crease of insect life as the re- sult of a more constant and abundant supply of food. Even now, despite the inces- sant warfare waged against them, insects are not diminish- ing in numbers. On the con- trary, in many localities they are increasing. Especially are new pests finding their way into the country, and as these usually are unaccompanied by the enemies which keep them in check at home, they frequently run riot in the new- these usually are unaccompanied by the enemies which keep them in check at home, they frequently run riot in the new- found Paradise. Well-known instances are the cotton boll weevil and the gypsy and brown-tailed moths. It is estimated by entomologists that the annual loss of agricultural products from insect ravages in the United States is not less than $500,000,000. To birds, then, we must look for allies in the continuous warfare against insect pests, and if they are to play even the same relative part in the future as they have in the past, they should not only be protected, but de- termined efforts should be made to in- crease their numbers and make their work more effective. What would happen were birds ex- terminated no one can foretell with abso- ow eries n From the Biological Survey CLARK CROW A bird of the high pine forests in the Rocky mountains lute certainty, but it is more than likely— nay, it is almost certain—that within a limited time not only would successful agriculture become impossible, but the de- struction of the greater part of vegeta- tion would follow. It is believed that a permanent reduction in the numbers of our birds, even if no species are actually exterminated, will inevitably be followed by disastrous consequences. The strict enforcement of bird-protec- tion laws is the more important, since of recent years thousands of immigrants from the south of Europe have reached our shores who appear to be wholly ignorant of the value of birds to man ex- cept for food, and who exhibit a total dis- regard for the spirit of bird laws, and little for the letter, except in so far as in- fraction brings sure and swift punish- ment. In the eyes of many of these re- cent comers, no bird is too small to serve as food; no bird too valuable to serve as a mark for the gun. Birds’ songs have Tue NaTionaAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE gO S2}¥1G PoUA, Uls}saMm oy} Jo sured YSsniq o9Bes ay} UO YWoptsel {asno18 jses1e] INO NaH ADVS ADVAING [eorZojorg 24} wor, THE PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR no purpose in their ears but to indicate the whereabouts of their victims. Hunt- ing small birds with them is a passion. Unless speedy cognizance is taken of the tendencies of this rapidly increasing class of immigrants, some of our most valua- ble song and insect-eating birds will be in danger of extermination. It should arouse a feeling of pride in Americans that our Republic has taken a foremost place among the nations that care for and protect birds. Much has already been accomplished in this country in the cause of bird protection, but much still remains to be done. So long as dead birds for hat gear are valued at a higher rate than living birds, and so long as game birds count for more in the way of sport and food than as active working friends of the farmer, so long will there be missionary work to do for such organizations as the Biological Survey and Andubon Societies. MANY OF THE SMALL MAMMALS BECOME PESTS The relations of mammals to agricult- ure are very different from those of birds. Most birds, as has been shown, are beneficial, even those with injurious hab- its, as a rule, compensating in whole or in part for the damage they do. Such is by no means the case with mammals. As a result of the investigations of the Biological Survey, some of our common mammals indeed have been found to perform valuable service to man. To this class belong the bats, moles, and shrews, which are insectivorous ; the bad- ger, which is an indefatigable mouser when it cannot find larger game in the shape of prairie dogs and similar rodents ; and the skunks and weasels, which de- stroy vast numbers of insects as well as mice. The fox, wild-cat, ring-tailed civet, and opossum also are believed to be useful in the main, as they eat many in- sects and small rodents and by no means destroy as much game as is popularly supposed. Reynard’s raids on the poultry yard are not common, and they are so easily guarded against that they should count but little in the scale against him. OI Even coyotes when they follow their natural bent perform an important ser- vice—they keep down the number of rabbits, which constitute their natural prey. Unfortunately, however, the coy- ote early contracted a taste for mutton, and in some regions successful sheep- raising is practically impossible because of its destructive raids. Experiments are being’ made by the Biological Survey and Forest Service to discover a cheap method of fencing by means of which dep- redations on sheep may be prevented. Effective fencing of sheep against coy- otes will compel these animals once more to rely for food chiefly on rabbits, prairie dogs, and other destructive rodents. When all has been said, however, the list of our wild mammals that are of essential service to man is comparatively small, even if we include in it a number which are harmful and beneficial by turns, like minks, coyotes, foxes, and others, compared to the army that are always and everywhere injurious. WOLVES CAUSE MILLIONS OF DOLLARS OF LOSS YEARLY It was predicted that the extermina- tion of the buffalo would be followed by that of the big wolf, so intimately asso- ciated were the two in the days when the wolf used to prey on ‘the young, the aged, and the crippled buffalo; and for a time after our largest native mammal succumbed to the robe-hunter it seemed as if the prediction was likely to be ful- filled, so scarce did wolves become. But the old buffalo ranges soon filled with cattle, and the wolf took on a new lease of life, and in some _ localities now threatens to become as numerous as in former times. The value of the cattle destroyed annually by wolves amounts to millions of dollars, and this despite the payment of large sums as bounty for wolf scalps. After investigation the Biological Survey has recommended measures which it is believed will pre- vent the greater part of the damage. The most important of these are the sys- tematic use of poison and the destruc- tion of the wolf pups in the breeding 92 THe NationaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE From the Biological Survey THE RING-TAILED CIVET CAT OF THE SOUTHWESTERN UNITED STATES A first-class mouser dens. Wolves breed early in the year, and when snow is on the ground may be tracked to their dens with absolute cer- tainty. Even when the ground is bare, a skillful tracker, familiar with the country and with the habits of the animal, can usually locate the dens. By destroying the increase and by the judicious use of poison to insure the death of the old ones, several millions of dollars may be saved to the stockmen annually even now, while the measures recommended, if energet- ically and persistently followed up, are likely to result in the practical extermina- tion of these savage pests. RATS AND MICK ARE OUR MOST DREADED ENEMIES But the damage by wolves, panthers, coyotes, and all the carnivores put to- gether does not begin to equal the de- struction wrought by the army of small rodents, individually insignificant but collectively a mighty pest. Rats alone do an almost incalculable amount of harm in the United States, and everywhere they are deservedly dreaded, all the more since by long contact and constant con- flict with man they have become ex- tremely sagacious and wary, and thus far have been able to defy his utmost efforts Tue PoLticEMEN OF THE AIR 93 From the Biological Survey TEXAS WII,D CAT An active foe of noxious rodents to exterminate them, or even to seriously reduce their numbers, and as if the meas- ure of their iniquity were not filled by the wholesale destruction of merchandise, household goods and foodstuffs, they are now known to serve as carriers and dis- seminators of that dread disease, the plague; so that measures to exterminate them, wherever that is possible, are doubly important. When is added to the total damage done by rats the results of depredations by meadow and house mice, by prairie dogs, rabbits, gophers, ground squirrels, and other small gnawing animals, the re- sulting total, could it be ascertained, would stagger belief. Unfortunately ac- curate statistics of such damages are for the most part wanting, but a single item is suggestive. One of the small ground Ture NaTIoNnAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by Viola McColm NOT DEAD, BUT PLAYING POSSUM squirrels of Washington injures the wheat crop in a single county of that State to the extent of half a million dol- lars annually. While the loss to this country by rodents by no means equals that caused by insects, the total reaches far into the millions and is a serious drain on the national resources. To devise methods of combating these pests, of reducing their numbers, and, if possible, of accomplishing their exter- mination is one of the important problems dealt with by the Biological Survey. By the use of traps, of poisoned foods, and of gases to kill the animals in their bur- rows, much has been accomplished. Failure to secure the utmost results aimed at by these methods is due chiefly to the difficulty of securing the coopera- tion of all the farmers in an infested re- gion. It is evident that if a number of landholders withhold their aid, their farms become nurseries from which to re- populate adjoining districts. Moreover, in most regions there are sterile and un- productive areas which receive no atten- tion, and these again are harbors of ref- uge for the pests which later emerge to restock farming lands. Hence the con- test appears to be a never-ending one, and is a constant source of loss and an- noyance to the farmer. The difficulties of warfare against ro- dents are in inverse proportion to the set- tlement of the country. Where farms are large and there is much waste land, the difficulties are very great; but when farms are comparatively small and there is little unoccupied land, cooperation be- tween landholders is easier to secure and results are more encouraging. In parts of Kansas, for instance, where formerly farming population was scarce and prairie dogs numerous and destructive, the animals have been practically ex- terminated as the result of the continued effort of numerous ranchers working to- gether for a common end and aided by the state. In attempting to devise more effective means of abating rodent pests the atten- tion of the Survey has been turned to a THE PoLICcEMEN OF THE AIR \O ni Photo by Viola McColm COMMON SKUNK WADING THROUGH SLUSH—KANSAS THe Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by Bailey, Biological Survey GRAY FOX—NEW MEXICO study of the use of epidemic diseases— nature’s own method of destroying sur- plus population. It has long been known that at irregular intervals, when mam- mals, especially rodents, that live in crowded communities increase till they are very numerous, they are suddenly smitten with an epidemic which almost Wipes out the species over a considerable area. In the case of such epidemics a certain number of individuals either are immune to the disease or recover from it; for while nature is prodigal with the lives of individuals and wastes them with ap- parent recklessness, she cherishes the species and is chary of exposing one to the risk of elimination. After a few years the animal that has paid the price of too great prosperity again multiplies beyond limits, to be again reduced. Efforts are now being made to obtain cultures of the diseases which prevail among the more destructive of our ro- dents, so that they may be employed in other regions where the animals are pests. . Since the cultures may be renewed from time to time, they can be kept indefinitely and be ready for use as required. If they prove as effective as when employed by nature, the problem of a cheap and re- liable method of dealing with destructive rodents will have been solved. FOX FARMING Time was when it might almost have been said that America furnished furs for the world, and even now no inconsider- able part of the fur harvest comes from America. Year by year, however, the harvest is diminishing, while the price of furs is steadily advancing, till the finer and rarer kinds are within the reach of only the very wealthy. Foxes of the more valuable kinds, for instance, once so nu- merous in this country, are now compara- tively scarce. Their fur is so valuable and so much sought for that, instead of trying to discover means to compass their destruction, the Survey is now studying the best methods of fox farming, with a view to making the breeding of the VHe PoLticEMEN OF THE AIR 97 Photos by Bailey, Biological Survey- COYOTE PUPS AT MOUTH OF BREEDING DEN IN WYOMING A family of coyote pups was found in the hole near cross on extreme right Tre NATIONAL 98 GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by Bailey, Biological Survey A MUTE WITNESS TO THE DESTRUCTIVENESS OF MICHIGAN WOLVES—BODY OF DEER LYING ON THE SNOW animal in confinement not only possible but remunerative. When silver fox skins are worth from $300 to $600 a skin it does not need a Colonel Sellers to see golden possibilities in the business. The raising of mink and beaver, and perhaps otter, for their fur is also thought to be entirely feasible. The beaver is being protected in Canada and in some of our own states. It should be protected in all, for apparently pro- tection is all that is required to enable the animal to reestablish itself in many of its old haunts. After being safeguarded for a term of years, judicious trapping might then be allowed, and thus this remarkable and valuable fur-bearer be preserved in- definitely, to be a source of both interest and profit to future generations. Even the despised skunk, which is easily cared for and is wonderfully prolific, can, it is believed, be raised in confinement with profit. The idea of raising furs for the market is by no means new. Many attempts have been made to breed foxes for profit, especially in certain islands of Alaska, where the conditions would seem to be ideal. Some of the ventures appear to have proved remunerative, but many fail- ures have resulted, chiefly as the result of inexperience and lack of knowledge, especially of the proper feeding and care of the animals. It is thought that the dif- ficulties are by no means insuperable and that they can be overcome by study and carefully conducted experiments. Thus the ends sought by the Biological Survey in its investigations of mammals differ considerably from those aimed at in its study of birds. The more carefully birds’ habits are studied and their food investigated, the more apparent is it that man cannot do without them. Such is by no means true of many of our indig- enous mammals. Some are valuable be- cause they destroy noxious insects and noxious mammals; others because they furnish skins for use and comfort; but many are wholly noxious, or so nearly so that they can be safely classed as such, and their destruction compassed in every possible way, though always with the en- tailment of as little suffering as possible. Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR Photos from the Biological Survey APPLE TREE KILLED BY FIELD MICE oY | Oxo) THe NaTrionaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo from the Biological Survey PRAIRIE DOGS AT MOUTH OF BURROW LIFE AND CROP ZONES It has long been recognized that plants and animals are not distributed fortui- tously over the earth, but in their distribu- tion are governed by well-defined laws. Certain species and groups of species are restricted to certain regions because of peculiarities of climate, temperature, and soil, summed up under ‘the word environ- ment, essential to their well being. Cultivated plants are wild plants tamed—wild plants modified to some ex- tent by care and cultivation—but in their nature and all essentials akin to their un- cultivated ancestors. To a great extent, then, the laws of distribution that apply to wild plants and animals apply equally well to cultivated varieties... The ready application of these facts will appear from an example. If on a certain mountain side a particular crop is found to thrive, and the observer happens to know the particular plants, birds, and mammals natural to the locality, when he visits a different region where the same plants and animals find a congenial home he may be sure that the crop in question will thrive there also. Such being the case, it was early per- ceived that a study of the distribution of wild plants and animals and the mapping of the natural areas of distribution could be made to serve a practical use, whereby the farmer would be saved enormous ex- pense in experiments to ascertain the par- ticular crops adapted to new localities. Accordingly, in the summer of 1889 Mer- riam selected the San Francisco mountain region of Arizona for an experimental survey, and it is not too much to say that the results of the work there revolution- ized prevailing conceptions of the princi- ples of geographic distribution. In ascending the mountain a succession of climatic belts were traversed, similar to the ones to be noted in traveling from our southern boundaries to the Arctic, each zone or belt being characterized by a distinct set of animals and plants. THe PoLmicEMEN OF THE AIR IO}! Photo by Viola McColm VERY YOUNG COTTONTAIL RABBITS IN NEST Among other results it was demonstrated that the laws governing the distribution of mammals, birds, reptiles, insects, and plants are essentially the same. Hence a map showing the boundaries of an area inhabited by an association of species of one group serves equally well for the other groups. Comparison of the facts of distribution as noted on this mountain with corresponding facts over the country at large disclosed three important truths: (a) That the several life zones of the mountain could be correlated with cor- responding zones long recognized in the eastern United States; (b) that these same zones are really of transcontinental extent, though never before recognized in the West; and (c) that the faunas and floras of North America as a whole, and, for that matter, of the Northern Hemi- sphere north of the tropical region, are properly divisible into but two primary life regions—a northern, or Boreal, and a southern, or Austral (then termed Sonoran), both stretching across the con- tinent from ocean to ocean. Subsequently a careful study of the geographic distribution of plants and. animals was undertaken, to include the whole of the United States and, where necessary, the region contiguous.* The practical use of zone maps is easily understood. If, for instance, it is ascertained that a certain crop thrives in one part of a particular zone, it is to be expected that elsewhere within the zone, where similar local conditions prevail, the same or a closely allied crop will do: well. As each zone includes thousands of square miles, the value of such informa- tion is obvious. The final step toward making such * The first announcement of the laws of tem- perature control of the geographical distribu- tion of terrestrial animals and plants was made in this Magazine, vol. vi, 1894. 102 Tur Nationa, GreocrapHic MAGAZINE Photo by E. R. Warren FIELD MOUSE When numerous field mice do enormous damage to crops (see page 92) zone maps of the utmost practical use— and a very important one—is to accom- pany the maps with a list of the fruits, grains, and vegetables best suited to each zone. ‘Thus the necessary experimenta- tion on the part of the farmer is reduced to a minimum. The farmer who wishes to find land where a certain crop may be planted with success, or the emigrant in search of conditions similar to those he is familiar with at home, has only to refer to the zone maps and to the lists connected therewith. A small scale zone map of the United States has been completed, with lists of the farm products most likely to thrive in the several belts. While for general pur- poses this map is very useful, it is by no means detailed enough to give all the in- formation the farmer or emigrant in search of a new location desires. It is the present purpose to survey each im- portant agricultural state with sufficient detail to enable life and crop zone maps to be published, with lists of the crops specially adapted to the several parts of the respective states. Such crop and zone maps are useful in still another field. At the present time the whole world is being searched by specialists for fruits and plants, suited to the conditions that prevail in our own country. The usefulness of such maps as a guide to the most favorable localities in which to test the value of these foreign importations can hardly be overestimated. Noxious insects also in their dispersal over the country follow the same faunal belts, as do also many of the dis- eases of domestic stock and even of man. Yellow fever, the germs of which are now known to be distributed by a mos- quito, has been shown to be limited to a transcontinental belt the boundaries of which were laid down by the Survey nearly twenty years ago. Curiously enough the regions formerly occupied by particular tribes of Indians correspond in a general way with these same life zones, as was pointed out by 103 Tue. PoLICEMEN OF THE AIR S}e[y IeW0}JOg UO MOTING WOIY AlddAS GOO YALNIM YOA ASNOW ATHIA AA GAYOLS SLOOU AYOTO ININYOW WO SNOILOYS AZAING [eIBolorg 24} wlorz oOJOGg SHELTER-HOUSE ON Merriam. The Indian was largely de- pendent for his livelihood upon the natural fruits of the earth and upon game, in the same way, though not to the same extent, as were wild animals. Thus the distribution of acorns, camas, pine seeds, wild oats, and the thousand other wild crops, as well as that of the birds and animals which furnished them food and raiment, to a great extent determined the favorite haunts of the aborigines of this continent. GAME PROTECTION AND KINDRED SUBJECTS What a glorious heritage of game, both bird and beast, was bequeathed by the Indians to our forebears, and with what prodigality has it been wasted by them and by ourselves! Neither motives of humanity nor far-sighted prescience de- terred the Indian from wanton slaughter of game. He killed animals and birds, however, not for sport, but for food, shelter, and raiment, and the very abun- THe NaTIonaL GeoGRAPHIcC MAGAZINE a Photo by Osgood, Biological Survey FOX FARM IN MAINE dance of game and his imperfect weapons made game laws restrictive measures in his time as unnecessary as they were un- dreamed of. Very different are present-day condi- tions. Of the almost infinite number of game birds and animals that once filled our mountains and valleys only a small remnant is left. The buffalo, that ranged | from the Atlantic to beyond the Rocky Mountains and blackened the plains with its countless numbers, is practically ex- tinct in its wild state; the antelope, bands of which everywhere dotted the plains, is rapidly approaching the same fate ; moose and caribou, though still occurring over much of their former range, are being greatly reduced in numbers; while elk, deer, and mountain sheep are quite un- known over much of the territory they formerly inhabited. Our game birds are facing the same fate. . The present gen- eration knows not the wild pigeon, flocks of which used to darken the sun as they swept across country. The various Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR Photo by Bailey, Eeological Survey ASPEN BEING FELLED BY BEAVER-——NOTE SIZE OF CHIPS Photo by Bailey, Biological Survey BEAVER DAM FROM BELOW—NOTE STORAGE POND ABOVE DAM The beaver is a natural ally of the reclamation engineer NaTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo from Mrs Charles Shaffer HUDSON -BAY SABLE One of the most valuable American fur bearers species of grouse and quail have been decimated in many regions till only a beggarly remnant remains, and even ducks and geese, that with the changing seasons once thronged our tidal waters and waterways, have been so mercilessly slaughtered that the future prospects of more than one species looks dark. All of our waders have been reduced in num- bers and many are almost unknown where formerly they used to cover the sand and mud flats. Such facts suf- ficiently empasize the need of game pro- tection, and the study of ways and means of preserving such of our game birds and animals as still survive is regarded as one of the pressing duties of the Biological Survey. We Americans did not at first welcome the idea of close seasons, license systems, game refuges, game wardens, and the other measures necessary for the protec- tion of wild life. To our forefathers of not long ago the privilege of killing game when needed was an absolute necessity, and we have been so long accustomed to the idea that game is public property, to be appropriated by the first comer, that we do not take kindly to restrictions of any sort. Nevertheless both the theory and practice of game and bird protection are now firmly rooted in this country, POLICEMEN OF THE AIR Oz, By courtesy of the Pacific Monthly ORANGE GROVES OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA In climbing the mountains in the background one traverses in succession all the life zones from the orange belt (Lower Sonoran zone) to the frigid treeless summit (Alpine zone) simply because of the self-evident fact that without at least a measure of pro- tection there will soon be no game left. No duty can be plainer than to so care for our game animals that the species may be perpetuated for the pleasure and use of future generations. We cannot indeed pass on in full measure the heir- loom we received, but many of our finest game birds and animals still survive, to insure a future supply, provided we re- frain from wanton slaughter and protect both wisely and well. The theory that wild game is not and cannot be made the property of the individual, but that it be- longs to the state, which has the power to regulate its use and preservation, is now recognized almost everywhere, and the recognition of this principle has greatly aided the cause of game protec- tion. As the supply of native game birds di- minishes, there appears to be a growing tendency among sportsmen to import birds from foreign countries for restock- ing covers, and the Survey is constantly in receipt of requests for information on this subject. European partridges, caper- cailzie, black game, willow and _ hazel grouse, and several kinds of pheasants have already been experimented with. It is yet too soon to decide as to the ultimate outcome of most of these efforts, but in the West, especially in Oregon and Washington, the introduction of pheas- ants has been successful, and in certain localities two species of these superb game birds are very numerous. In parts of the Atlantic States also they have been successfully acclimatized. Should it prove, as now appears prob- able, that along with pheasants and other 108 foreign game birds diseases have been introduced which threaten the safety of our own native game birds, sportsmen may conclude that by the importation of foreign species they have lost more than they have gained. As most birds, including ducks and geese, are migratory and do not breed in the states through which they pass in spring and fall, many now advocate measures placing all migratory birds under federal control. The present di- versity of state laws and the wide differ- ences in the dates of their open and close seasons are the chief arguments for dele- gating the care of migrants to central au- thority. . That the effect of such a meas- ure would be to improve existing condi- tions and extend the lease of life to many species of ducks and shore birds now fast approaching extinction can hardly be doubted. BIG-GAME REFUGES The use of government reservations for the preservation of wild animals in dan- ger of extinction is a practical form of protection which cannot be too highly commended. The experiment on a large scale was first tried in Yellowstone Park, and the results there have been most encouraging. Despite some poaching, elk, antelope, and mountain sheep have steadily increased in numbers, while buf- falo also have thriven wonderfully. The high price paid for elks’ teeth is a constant temptation to lawless hunters to kill these superb animals. It is to be hoped that the organization chiefly re- sponsible for this demand will by official action repudiate elks’ teeth as a necessary emblem of the order, and thus lend material assistance in the effort to pre- serve this, the noblest of our game animals. It is a pleasure to note that the co- operation of private parties with the gov- ernment authorities in efforts to per- petuate our game animals are not want- ing. An instance in point is Miller and Lux’s generous offer to the government of their herd of elk on the Button Wil- THe NatrionaL GreocrapHic MAGAZINE low Ranch, California. In 1905, under the direction of the Biological Survey, some 20 of these animals were success- fully transferred to the Sequoia Na- tional Park, in Tulare County, where they promise to form the nucleus of a large herd of this fine species. The New York Zodlogical Society is also actively interested in the preserva- tion of our big game. Through its gen- erous cooperation, the Wichita Game Preserve in Oklahoma has become the permanent home of a herd of buffalo. The animals are confined to a suitable area by means of a strong fence, and, as the preserve is in the midst of their former range, the success of the experi- ment would seem to be assured. Under what appear to be ideal conditions, the herd is likely to increase notably, so that in time it will be possible, if desired, to stock other reserves from the surplus. 13 BIRD RESERVATIONS The theory of the bird reservation is nearly akin to that of the game refuge. Formerly our coast teemed with bird life, which consisted not only of migrants from the far north, but of summer resi- dents, which found the rocky and sandy islets of our shores a very birds’ paradise. The rage for hat birds changed all this and converted most of the former bird resorts into solitudes, so far as bird life is concerned. By setting aside here and there an island of no particular use for other purposes, the government has established nurseries and winter resorts where sea birds undisturbed may rear their young and find shelter. The plan has the energetic cooperation of the Na- tional Audubon Society, which has estab- lished island reserves of its own, and whose good work in this and other fields cannot be too highly extolled. The re- sults attained are exceedingly satis- factory, and thousands of gulls, terns, pelicans, and other sea birds are reared each vear in these bird resorts. Pelican Island is likely to become one of the sights of Florida. and already many tourists have sought permission to visit Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR Photo by F. J. Haynes ELK IN DEEP SNOW, YELLOWSTONE PARK THe NatTionaL GreocraPpHic MAGAZINE I1o souteyy ‘{ ‘7 Aq oj0yg in HE Speedos jj MuUVd ANOISMOTIAZA NI OTVIANG iit THe PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR soudeyL if a Aq oj04g MuVd ANOLISMOTIAA—S4N)D UVaAd MOW Id NIML THe NaTIonaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE NOLLVAMASHY NOPNAGAV—VNVISINOT JO LSVOO “AGNVISI ANOGHILIVA NO ONIGIANE Z06r ‘Ainf ‘19q]1 YUerA Aq ooyg : SNUYAL TvAOU 113 Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR uemdey) ‘i “a Aq oot VdINOTA ‘NOILVAMASHY GNV'ISI NVOIIHd “ANO'IOD NVOITad NMOUT V Tue Nationat GeocrapHic MAGAZINE S[MOF Bos JO SpUNO1S Surpecssq sy} J9}01d 0} JUapIsaig 9Y} Jo Jop1o Aq epeUl A[JUIde1 sUOTJeAIOSaI dy} JO BUM LSVOO NOO#AO AHL AIO “SMOOW HOUV AXUHL NO SHYANW VINAOTIIVO uewllyog pue Asjurq Aq ojoyg 1 Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR NODAUMO AO LSVOO ‘NOILVANASAY GIG SMOOU uevwyyog pue Asjurq Aq oJoyd HOUV ASYHL NO ONILSAN SINVYON OO 116 Tue NationaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by D. Lange E, NORTH DAKOTA YOUNG CORMORANTS, DEVIL'S LAK Tue PoLicEMEN OF THE AIR _it to view the ungainly but interesting birds attending to their domestic duties. As a final result of the establishment of bird refuges, there is every reason to believe not only that these island bird colonies will be maintained intact, but that in time the birds will so multiply as to restock other islands not under the control of specially appointed wardens. Thus far 13 reservations have been set apart by the Government: Breton Island, Louisiana; Pelican Island, Passage Key, and Indian Key, Florida; Stump Lake, North Dakota; Huron Islands, off the south shore of Lake Superior, Michigan ; Siskiwit Islands, south of Isle Royale, Lake Superior; and a series of islands off the coast of Oregon and Washington. PROTECTION OF GAME IN ALASKA The big game of the world is fast be- ing killed off. Nowadays no region is too wild or remote to attract the sports- man and the trophy hunter. Those who read the accounts of the African ex- plorers of scarcely more than a genera- tion ago never dreamed that in a short time the vast herds of wild game over the greater part of that continent would be a thing of the past. Alaska has now become the Mecca toward which the eyes of sportsmen are longingly turned, and were all restrictions on the export of trophies from that territory removed, a very short period would suffice to see the end of several notable game animals. The Kenai Peninsula contains the largest of the deer tribe in the world, the big Kenai moose, and horns of one of these animals, which sometimes spread 74 inches or more, command fabulous prices. Other Alaska game animals are greatly prized by sportsmen for trophies. In a territory so remote from supplies as Alaska, game possesses more than ordinary value to its inhabitants, and the primary purpose of the Alaska game law was to preserve the game for the use of the people, both natives and white. To provide for emergencies, a special clause in the present law allows Indians, Eski- mos, miners, and explorers, when in need 117 of food or clothing, to kill game for their immediate use. Prior to the passage of the law, so many deer were killed for their hides as to threaten the extinction of these animals within accessible territory. The law has been thought by many too drastic, and has caused much dissatis- faction. A bill was introduced in the 59th Congress, and passed the House, which materially modifies the present law and is very liberal with regard to the shipment of trophies. It provides, among other things, for the issuing of licenses to hunt and to export a limited number of tro- phies and for the employment of game wardens and guides. Should this bill be- come a law, many of the present causes of complaint on the part of sportsmen and residents of Alaska will be removed. THE LACEY ACT The so-called Lacey act, approved May 25, 1900, marked a long and important step forward in the cause of bird and game protection. Prior to its passage the several states attempted in vain to pro- hibit the shipment of game beyond their boundaries. Game was forwarded to other states and sold in distant markets, without respect to season, under the plea that by such shipment it had become an article of interstate commerce and hence was beyond the jurisdiction of the state where offered for sale. All this was changed by the Lacey act, which struck at the root of the evil by prohibiting the shipment from any state of birds killed in violation of local laws, and placed im- ported game on the same footing as birds or animals produced within the state where the game was sold. This act confers upon the Department of Agriculture important powers also in relation to the importation of foreign birds and animals, which prior to its pas- sage was without check. It specifically prohibits the introduction of certain species, such as the English sparrow, starling, flying-fox, mongoose, and such others as may be declared injurious to agriculture; for with the growth of our 118 commerce the danger of the introduction’ of noxious birds, mammals, and insects 1s ever present. To prevent the introduc- tion of birds and mammals likely to be- come pests is one of the special duties of the Biological Survey. GUARDING AGAINST DANGEROUS IMPORTA- TIONS The English sparrow serves as an ever-ready example of the disastrous consequences of the unwise introduction of a species into a new home. Under the present law and system of inspection, this pest could never have obtained a foothold in America, since so well known were the bird’s habits in its native land that its disastrous career on this con- tinent would have been foreseen and its entry prohibited. Under the mistaken idea that the mongoose would prove beneficial by de- voting itself to the destruction of small rodents, and ignorant of the fact that the animal is omnivorous and one of the most destructive creatures in existence, more than one attempt has been made to im- port it into the United States, where its successful introduction would prove noth- ing less than a national calamity. Attempts to bring in numerous noxious birds and beasts have been frustrated only by the vigilance of the inspectors. It is, however, necessary to guard not only against intentional importation of noxious species from mistaken philan- thropic motives, but unintentional ones; and when it is understood that under the 433 permits issued last year for the entry of foreign birds and animals were in- cluded 274,914 canaries, 47,383 miscel- laneous birds, and 654 mammals, it will be seen that mistakes of identity by im- porters might easily be made, and that under the guise of innocent species nox- ious ones might find entrance. Every shipment of birds or beasts, therefore, is carefully scanned by expert agents, who seize upon noxious species and prevent their entry into the country by compelling THe NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE their destruction or their return to the port of shipment. The Lacey act is not intended to restrict legitimate trade or work undue hardship on importers. In the great majority of cases it can be enforced so as to cause only slight delay and yet prevent the entry of species which may become pests. As will appear from this short sketch, the work of the Biological Survey is em- inently practical in its nature and intent. Beginning with investigations of the food habits of a few of our most important birds, the scope of its work has widened until it involves the study of all our birds and mammals in their manifold relations to man. ‘The essential objects of this branch of the work are to show from a basis of ascertained fact the particular species that are beneficial and those that are injurious, and to indicate the best methods of preserving the one class and of destroying the other. Incidental to its main object, it endeavors to collect and to supply to those interested all available information relative to the dis- tribution and abundance of our game and of our birds and mammals. Its list of publications is already a long one. Many of its reports are purely practical, in- tended for the information and guidance of the farmer; others are more strictly scientific and are designed to serve ed- ucational purposes. Strange as it may seem, the United States, one of the youngest of the world’s powers, is a pioneer in the kind of eco- nomic work outlined in the present paper. European countries, however, are now recognizing the immense importance to agriculture of such investigations and their absolute necessity as the basis for national and international laws. As the world’s population increases and as vast regions of land now wild and uncultivated are brought under the plow, so must investigations of the kind entrusted by Congress to the Biological Survey ever assume more and more im- portance. A FEW THOUGHTS CONCERNING EUGENICS By ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL The following paper is an address by Dr Bell to the American Breeders’ As- sociation at the recent convention of the Association in Washington, January, 1908. This Association was formed several years ago to encourage those per- sons of the United States working to improve our plants and animals. The President of the Association is Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary, Hon. Willett M. Hayes, Assistant Secretary of Agriculture. Every person who 1s interested in the scientific work of the Government and of individuals of the United States to create stronger and more productive varieties of animals or plants is eligible for membership. The Association is doing splen- did work im collecting and distributing the results of the many workers along these lines. One branch of the Association includes efforts to improve the human race, and it was as a member of the Committee on this subject of eugenics that Dr Bell presented this address. HE subject you have entrusted to your Committee on Eugenics i is of transcendent importance to mankind. It is no less a question than the consideration of whether it is possible to apply the principles of selective breeding to man for the benefit of the human race. If it is true that “the proper study of man is man,” no higher or nobler subject of research can be found. I esteem it an honor to have been se- lected by you to serve on the committee having this matter in charge, and to be associated with the eminent men who compose the committee, under the lead- ership of Dr David Starr Jordan, Presi- dent of Leland Stanford University. President Jordan, as chairman, has already presented a preliminary report for the committee, which has met with the ready acceptance of all the members. As the Committee on Eugenics has not yet held a meeting for conference and discussion, it will of course be understood that anything I may say upon the sub- ject today expresses merely my own in- dividual views, for which the committee is in no way responsible. The improvement of the human race depends largely upon two great factors, heredity and environment; and we deal chiefly with the question of heredity. It is a breeder’s problem with which we are mainly concerned and not a question of education or environment. We have learned to apply the laws of heredity so as to modify and improve our breeds of domestic animals. Can the knowledge and experience so gained be made available to man, so as to enable him to improve the species to which he himself belongs? Can we formulate practical plans that might lead to the breeding of better men and better women? ‘This is the great question we are called upon to consider. The problem is one of great difficulty and perplexity, for its solution depends upon the possibility of controlling the production of offspring from human beings. By no process of compulsion can this be done. The controlling power, if it is possible to evoke it in the interests of the race, resides exclusively with the individuals most immediately concerned. This fact, I think, should be recognized as fundamental, so that our processes should be persuasive rather than manda- tory. The great hope lies in the fact that human beings possess intelligence, and a desire that their offspring may be fully up to the average of the race in every particular, if not superior. It is cer- tainly the case that no man desires that his children shall be weak, sickly, defec- tive, or in any way inferior in physical or mental endowments. A condition of sentiment therefore prevails that is emi- nently favorable to voluntary compliance 120 with plans that appeal to reason and sound judgment. The mere dissemina- tion of information concerning those con- ditions that result in superior or inferior offspring would of itself tend to promote the production of the superior and to lessen the production of the inferior ele- ments. : Knowledge is what is wanted, and the dissemination of that knowledge among the people. There is a wide field here for your Committee on Eugenics, or for some great national organization or so- ciety devoted to the increase and dif- fusion of knowledge concerning eugenics. CONSANGUINEOUS MARRIAGES. If it should be clearly shown that certain classes of marriages are hurtful to the offspring and others beneficial, the mere dissemination of that knowledge would of itself tend to promote desirable and prevent undesirable unions of the sexes. Would any reasonable person, for instance, think of marrying his first cousin, any more than he would dream of marrying his sister, if he really believed that any harm would result to the off- spring; and if you could find one such person could you find two—for it takes two to make a marriage. The fact that such marriages are con- tracted in spite of legislative prohibition in several of our states, and in spite of a considerable public feeling against such unions, simply shows that there is a difference of opinion upon the subject. The only justification for legislative interference lies in the belief that con- sanguineous marriages are harmful to the offspring. The only justification for mar- riage under such circumstances lies in the belief that they are not harmful—at least, in particular cases. A question of fact is here involved, not mere opinion. Are they harmful or are they not Or if they are harmful in some cases and not in others, what are the conditions under which they are harmful? These are ques- tions that might well be considered by your Committee on Eugenics. The experience of breeders of animals would be especially helpful in this con- THe NatTionaAL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE nection. It is extremely difficult to collect statistics upon a large scale regarding consanguineous unions among human beings, but a breeders’ association could surely supply statistics concerning ani- mals. We all know that the laws of heredity that apply to animals also apply to man; and statistics of in-breeding would be of great value if they could be so arranged as to throw light upon the effect of consanguineous unions in hu- man beings. I understand that while breeders recognize an element of danger in consanguineous unions, and especially in continuous in-breeding for a number of successive generations, they constantly resort to in-breeding to perpetuate and intensify desirable characteristics. In fact, it is usually through in-breeding that thoroughbreds are produced; and it is chiefly through the prepotency of thor- oughbreds that races of domestic animals are improved. If there are any condi- tions under which consanguineous unions would be of benefit to man they should be made known, so as to enable us to un- derstand, certainly, what conditions are beneficial and what harmful, to the end that public opinion may be rightly guided in its treatment of this important subject. We have statistics which indicate very clearly that consanguineous unions should not be contracted by defective persons, and the results obtained by Dr FE. A. Fay* are specially significant in this con- nection. He shows that there is con- siderable liability to the production of deaf offspring where a deaf-mute marries a blood relative, even in cases where the original deafness was not congenital. ‘The statistics of the twelfth censust of the United States show that at least 4.5 per cent of the deaf of the country, and 4.5 per cent of the blind are the offspring of consanguineous marriages, but we do not know conclusively whether consanguinity in the parents produces the defective con- * Marriages of the Deaf in America, by Ed- ward Allen Fay. Published by the Volta Bureau, Washington, D. C., 1808. ¥ Special Report on the Blind and the Deaf in 1900. U, S. Census publication, Washington, D. C., 1906. A Frew THoucuHts ConcerRNnING EUGENICS dition, or whether it simply intensifies a preéxisting tendency in the family.* The largest percentages of children of cousin marriages are found among the deaf who have deaf relatives (8.8 per cent), and among the blind who have blind relatives (9.5 per cent) ; whereas in sporadic cases the percentage falls to little more than 3 per cent—that is, about 3 per cent of the deaf who have no deaf relatives (3.3 per cent) and about 3 per cent of the blind who have no blind rela- tives (3.2 per cent) are the offspring of cousin marriages. This may mean a great deal or it may mean nothing at all. Should we find, for example, that 3 per cent of the population of the United States are the offspring of consangui- neous unions there would be no proof that the consanguinity of the parents had anything to do with the production of the defect in these cases. Statistics showing the proportion of the whole population who are the offspring of consanguineous marriages are much needed, and the whole subject, I think, might very prop- erly be investigated through the medium of the United States Census Bureau. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INFERIOR IS OVERRATED In any large aggregate of individuals 121 the vast majority will be of the average type of the race. Some few will be markedly superior and some few inferior. An increase in the superior element seems to be a more important factor in producing improvement than a decrease in the inferior element. Even were we to go to the extreme length of cutting off entirely the reproduction of the inferior, this would not lead to an increase in the numbers of the superior, but on the con- trary to a decrease; for some of the su- perior are the offspring of inferior par- ents, just as some of the inferior are the offspring of superior. In the case of superior, average, and inferior persons all three classes would be reproduced in the offspring, but in different proportions. There would be a larger proportion of superior children among the offspring of the superior than of the average or in- ferior, and a larger proportion of inferior among the offspring of the inferior. The cutting off of the inferior would simply prevent deterioration by lessening the production of inferior offspring. It would not operate to cause an improve- ment by an increase of the superior ele- ment. I am much struck by the thought that neither the quantity nor quality of the * The Deaf of the United States in 1900 from Census Table XLVII, omitting “not stated” cases relating to consanguinity of parents and Deaf Relatives. Numbers. Percentage. The deaf. Parents Parents Total. Ree not ere not Ore COuSsinss * | cousins. A Galea es Pes aie cna med cious bose 77,550 3,911 73,639 5.0 95.0 Deaf relatives (a or 6): Weaterelativespec meee ste aus taeac: 24,723 2,171 22,552 8.8 91.2 INoideat trelatives... S20. 5 oo ee 52,827 1,740 51,087 3-3 96.7 The Blind of the United States in 1900 from Census Table XVIII, omitting “not stated” cases relating to consanguinity of parents and Blind Relatives. Numbers. Percentage. The blind. Parents Parents Total. SEGHNS not te not eer Cousins: * | cousins. ___ JRO Dad oti Bis leecher ene aeereet Bea 55,307 2,449 52,858 4.4 95.6 Blind relatives (a, 0, or c) : Blind relatives................c.0eeee 10,483 993 9,490 9.5 90.5 WWosblaid relatives: acscidsacc us sa. sho 44,824 1,456 43,368 3.2 96.8 122 superior element would be increased by cutting off the inferior element from re- production, and I begin to suspect that students of eugenics have overrated the importance of legislative interference with the marriages of the inferior. CELIBATE FELLOWSHIPS A similar process of reasoning leads to the conclusion that the cutting off of the superior element from reproduction would retard the improvement of the race by lessening the production of superior offspring without injuring the community by increasing the production of the in- ferior elements. The establishment of celibate fellow- ships in some of the oldest of the British universities is a case in point. The an- nual grants are sufficiently large to sup- port the recipients in comfort, so as to enable them to devote their whole lives to some branch of literature, science, or art undisturbed by the necessity of earn- ing a livelihood. Of course there is great competition to secure such prizes, and the finest and brightest young men are selected by competitive examinations to receive the fellowships. ‘Thus young men of the most brilliant intellectual at- tainments are enabled to secure a support for life—but only on the condition of celibacy. ‘The moment they marry they lose their fellowships. If there are many of these fellowships, and if the plan has been in operation for any considerable period of time, it might be well for students of eugenics to inquire whether the establishment of celibate fellowships in the past has had anything to do with the scarcity of young men of the highest intellectual caliber that is so much de- plored in England today. Whether it has or has not, it would certainly seem more advisable in the interests of the commu- nity that such fellowships should be granted upon the condition of marriage rather than celibacy. PREPOTENCY—THE KEY TO THE PROBLEM Superior individuals on the whole have a larger proportion of superior offspring than the average of the race. Of course in cases where both parents were superior individually highest. THe NatTionaL GgEoGRaPHiIc MAGAZINE this prepotency is increased. It would be still further increased if all the four grandparents were superior, and if three or four generations of ancestors were all superior a thoroughbred would be produced. We are all familiar with the prepotency of the thoroughbred among animals. Indeed, as I have said before, it is mainly through the use of thoroughbreds that we improve our stocks of domestic animals. In the case of men and women who are thorough- bred in respect to the points of superi- ority, it is obvious that their descend- ants, spreading out among the population and marrying into average or inferior families, would prove prepotent over their partners in marriage in affecting the off- spring, thus leading to an increase in the proportion of superior offspring produced from the average or inferior with whom they have mated. Thus not only would the proportion of superior offspring pro- duced by the community as a whole be increased, but the level of superiority in the superior class would also be raised. There would thus be a general advance in the possession of desirable qualities all along the line from the lowest to the Is not this what we mean by improvement of the species? LEGISLATIVE RESTRICTIONS UPON MAR- RIAGE UNWISE This result, 1 anv inclined to believe; would follow from the simple process of promoting the marriage of the superior with the superior without resort to legis- lative restrictions upon marriage to re- duce the production of the inferior. - Of course, such restrictions should be considered, but the moment we propose to interfere with the liberty of marriage we tread upon dangerous ground. The institution of marriage not only provides for the production of offspring, but for the production of morality in the com- munity at large. This is a powerful reason why we should not interfere with it any more than can possibly be helped. There are other reasons, however, arising from a consideration of the rights possessed by individuals in a free community. Among the inalienable rights recog- A Few THouGHTsS: CONCERNING EUGENICS nized by the Declaration of Independence are “‘life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- piness.” The community has no right fOmeiieriere with the lkberty of the individual and his pursuit of happiness in marriage unless the interests of the com- munity are demonstrably endangered. The happiness of individuals is often pro- moted by marriage even in cases where the offspring may not be desirable. ‘The production of undesirable children is, of course, an injury to the community, and there may perhaps be cases where legal checks may be justified; but it should not be lost sight of that there are other checks that are equally if not more efficient that can be brought into play. If the condi- tions that produce undesirable offspring could be authoritatively stated, pruden- tial restraints are apt to arise in cases where defective offspring are likely to be produced. Where the general intelli- gence of the individuals concerned is at fault, or their duty to the community is not fully understood or realized, another check comes into play far more efficient than any legal restriction. Public opinion is a great compelling force and few there are who can resist it. Legal prohibition of marriage should only be resorted to 1n cases where there could be no manner of doubt that the community would suffer as the result of the marriage. Where doubt exists the community has no right to interfere with this most sacred and personal of all-re- lations; and morality in the community would certainly be more promoted by affording the widest possible liberty of MidmiaCemtialn Dy hesthictihne it After all, the interests of the community are affected not so much by the fact of a mar- riage as by the production of undesirable offspring. The only reason whyv legis- lation against marriage should be con- sidered: at all lies in the fact that we cannot well legislate against the produc- tion of offspring. Unfortunately prohi- bition of marriage does not necessarily prevent the production of offspring. It is surely advisable that the children born in a community should have legal fathers and mothers as much as possible. Public opinion, and the desire of all persons to have healthy offspring, would, in my 162g judgment, be a more powerful deterrent to the production of undesirable offspring than a compulsory process of law. Throw wide the gates of marriage, and where children are produced close tight the doors of divorce. Every child is entitled by nature to a father and mother; and no people should produce children who are not prepared to give them parental care for life. Without going to extremes, I would say that the interests of the com- munity demand that we should make marriage easy and divorce difficult. NEW BLOOD The problem of improving a race of human beings is a most perplexing one to handle. The process of improvement must be slow where the forces concerned act from within and are not amenable to control from without. Under the best conditions it would require several gener- ations to produce sensible results; but in the United States we have, in the new blood introduced from abroad, an im- portant means of improvement that will act more quickly and that is eminently susceptible to control. All the nations of the world are today contributing elements to our population; and we have now, and now only, the opportunity of studying the process of absorption before it 1s com- plete. Why should not Congress provide for an ethnical survey of the people of the United States. We should have definite and reliable information concerning those foreign elements which are beneficial to our people and those which are harmful. The grand spectacle is presented to our eyes of a new people being gradually evolved in the United States by the ming- ling together of the different races of the world in varying proportions. It is of the greatest consequence to us that the final result should be the evolution of a higher and nobler type of man in Amer- ica, and not deterioration of the nation. To this end the process of evolution should be carefully studied, and then con- trolled by suitable immigration laws tend- ing to eliminate undesirable ethnical ele- ments, and to stimulate the admission of elements assimilated readily by our popu- lation and that tend to raise the standard of manhood here. 124 THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION HE Yearbook of the Carnegie Instt- tution for 1907 just issued contains a summary by President Woodward of the five years’ work of the institution, and an outline of its future plans. Many im- portant investigations, too expensive. or extraordinary for other institutions, and requiring years of consecutive work, have been begun. The benefits thus guaran- teed to mankind cannot be measured. The institution expended $702,534.39 in 1907 out of its endowment income for its projects of research and for publica- tion and administration. The aggregate receipts thus far from interest on endow- ment, etc., have been $2,891,370.66, and of this sum in six years there has been disbursed $2,683,073.16. President Woodward gives the follow- ing list of the larger projects, or depart- ments of work, and of the directors conducting the researches in the depart- ments, or laboratories: Botanical Research: D. T. MacDougal Economics and Sociology: Carroll D. Wright Experimental Evolution: Chas. B. Davenport Geophysical Laboratory: Arthur L. Day Historical Research: J. F. Jameson Marine Biology: Alfred G. Mayer Meridian Astrometry: Lewis Boss Nutrition Laboratory: Francis G. Benedict Solar Observatory: George E. Hale Terrestrial Magnetism: L. A. Bauer. To this list may be added the work in horticulture carried on in the main by Mr Luther Burbank, but in a supplementary way also under the auspices of a com- mittee consisting of the President and the heads of the three departments of bio- logical research. The minor projects and labors of re- search have been along the lines of: Anthropology History Archeology Literature Astronomy Mathematics Bibliography Meteorology Botany Paleontology Chemistry Philology Economics Phonetics Engineering Physics Exploration Physiology Geology Psychology Geophysics Zoology THe CarRNEGIE INSTITUTION Among the notable publications of the year is No. 81, in which Director Mac- Dougal gives an account of the produc- tion of a new species of plant by an appli- cation of chemical fluids to the parent plant seeds during the period of germina- tion. This remarkable achievement must be regarded as one of the noteworthy ad- vances in modern biology. In its magnetic survey of the Pacific Ocean upto Septenberw i, slOO7z bale Galilee has traversed nearly 50,000 miles in the Pacific Ocean along courses where few magnetic observations have been made hitherto. Complete measurements of magnetic declination, dip, and inten- sity were secured at intervals of 200 to 250 miles along these courses, as well as at numerous points on islands and at prominent ports. All of the results of this extensive survey available in March of the past vear were furnished to the U.S. Navy Department and incorporated in a magnetic chart issued in May last by that department for the benefit of mariners. Important errors in previous charts, amounting in cases to as much as 5° in magnetic declination along some main routes of transportation, were thus corrected. The Department of Economies is mak- ing a study of our immigrant population. A JUMPING SALMON HE picture on the following page is an enlargement of a “snapshot” taken by Dr Richard D. Harlan, of The George Washington University, in Sep- tember, 1907, of a salmon trying to leap up the falls of the River Shinn, on Mr Andrew Carnegie’s estate at Skibo, Scot- land. The fish were about 2% feet long. On that particular day some of them made the effort at frequent intervals, of a minute or two, to get up the falls, which were about 12 feet high. None of them were successful on that occasion because of the great volume of water. ‘The fish in this picture struck fully 6 feet above the level of the lower stream, only to be hurled back. ‘The picture has been en- larged without any retouching. A JumPinG SALMON 1255 2 SALMON CAUGHT IN THE ACT OF TRYING TO LEAP UP THE FALLS OF THE SHINN THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 126 wey} Aq peyystiddod oie pue‘yIOoR MIN Jo ‘poomsspuyr) ® pooMsopuy, Aq sydesiSoo10}s WOT, o1e JOAO P]IOM 9} VoIPTIYD JOOYSs Jo (OVI MUVNNAG ‘NHOVEHNUOO “SHWINV WILSO “ANNOWDIOOHSS ALINOAVA YIAH —QZI sased) suoljetjsny]! FO Satses siyy, NI S1MID GNV SAOM THL NOT Nog L297 CHILDREN OF THE WorLpD Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood BOYS AND GIRLS OF AVE MARIA CHARITY SCHOOL, GRANADA, SPAIN Tue NatrrionaL GeocrapHic MAGAZINE 128 poomispup poomispug, Aq ‘go061 ‘y811Ad0D .WNIHO NI SHITIOOD INVANI Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood A 4 ee = isa ae = oy e) Z ea pe fas e rm O PUPILS OF A MISSIONARY SCHOOL IN CHINA THe Nationa, GeocrarpHic MAGAZINE 130 UVM TO DAL ATHAIT V NI GHOVONA SAOG-IOOHOS ASHNVdVE WILL pooMiepup, ® pooMsspu_, Aq ‘g061 ‘yy8t1AdoD CHILDREN OF THE WorLD 131 Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood GIRLS UNDER THE TREES, TOKIO, JAPAN Tue Nationa, GrocraPHic MAGAZINE ie Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood A GROUP OF BURMESE CHILDREN CHILDREN OF THE WorLD 133 i @ @ 4 eas vA a) ts Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood INDIA OF TOMORROW Handsome school boys of Amritsar at the Golden Temple beside the Holy Tank 134 Tue Nationa, GgeocrapHic MaGazine Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood A GROUP OF SCHOOL-GIRLS IN KAPIOLANI PARK, HONOLULU, HAWAII CHILDREN OF THE WorLp P25 SCHOOL IN CEYLON, SHOWING PUPILS, Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood TEACHER, AND SCHOOI-HOUSKE THe NaTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 136 NAYGIIHO GNV NAWOM ASANVAV([—LaO0OuV) LV ASHNVAVL PooMispuy_) FW pooMispug, Aq ‘*go6r1 4yst1Adod oe CHILDREN OF THE WorRLpD VOIVNVE NI ASNOH-IOOHOS V AYOAAA U PpooMiepuy), ® poomMiapuy_, Aq ‘go6r yystrAdoD AHOVAL GNV ‘S UVIOHOS ‘SHI N N I NVMO I d VIGNI SUM Tue NatTionaL GrocraApHic MAGAZINE 138 AMLNAOD IMON AHL FO VSHIN GNOOHS HHL LV NOLLVAMESHN NVIGNI NO 'IOOHDS SHLVIS Gatinn pooMrapuy) N pooMtepuy Aq “*goor “yysrtado) CHILDREN OF THE WorLpD 139 Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood MEETING AT MISSION SCHOOL AT NIBUNZA BOBUNA VILLAGE, CONGO 140 Tue Natrona, GeocrapHic MaGaZzINne Copyright, 1908, by Underwood & Underwood BOYS STUDYING ON THE HOUSETOP AT ASSIOUT, EGYPT TEN YEARS IN THE PHILIPPINES The following article has been abstracted from the report of the Secretary of War, Hon. Wilham H. Taft, on his recent trip to the Philippines and the opening of the Philippine National Assembly. The report contains a review of what the United States have done in the Philippine Islands since our acquisition of them nearly ten years ago. The Americans are driving Asiatic cholera, bubonic plague, and smallpox, which formerly caused thousands and thousands of deaths annually, out of the Philippine Islands as thoroughly as they have freed Panama from yellow fever. President Roosevelt, in transmutting the report to Congress, could rightly say: “No great civilized power has ever managed with such wisdom and disinter- estedness the affairs of a people commnutted by Save only our attitude toward Cuba, I question whether there hands. the accident of war to its is a brighter page in the annals of international dealing between the strong and the weak than the page which tells of our doings in the Philip pines.” EACE prevails throughout the Philippines today in a_ greater degree than ever in the history of the islands, either under Spanish or American rule, and agriculture is no- where now impeded by the fear on the part of the farmer of the incursion of predatory bands. A community con- sisting of 7,000,000 people, inhabiting 300 different islands, many of whom were in open rebellion against the government of the United States for four years, with all the disturbances following from rob- ber and predatory bands which broke out from time to time, due to local causes, has been brought to a state of profound peace and tranquillity in which the people as a whole are loyally supporting the government in the maintenance of order. This is the first and possibly the most im- portant accomplishment of the United States in the Philippines. Our national policy is to govern the Philippine Islands for the benefit and welfare and uplifting of the people of the islands and gradually to extend to them, as they shall show themselves fit to exer- cise it, a greater and greater measure of popular self-government. One of the corollaries to this proposition is that the United States in its government of the islands will use every effort to increase the capacity of the Filipinos to exercise political power, both by general education of the densely ignorant masses and by actual practice, in partial self-govern- ment, of those whose political capacity is such that practice can benefit it with- out too great injury to the efficiency of government. What should be empha- sized in the statement of our national pol- icy is that we wish to prepare the Fili- pinos for popular self-government. THE NATIONAL ASSEMBLY IS DEVISED TO TRAIN THE EDUCATED CLASSES IN SELF- GOVERNMENT WHILE THE IGNORANT MASSES ARE BEING EDUCATED The organization of the National As- sembly is one of the great steps in the education of the Filipino people for com- plete self-government. I do not for a moment guarantee that there will not at times be radical action by the Assembly, which cannot meet the approval of those who understand the legislative needs of the islands, but all I wish to say is that the organization and beginning of the life of the Assembly have disappointed its would-be critics and have given great encouragement to those who were responsible for’its exten- sion of political power. The Assembly has shown a_ most earnest desire, and its leaders have ex- pressed with the utmost emphasis their intention, to labor for the material pros- perity of the Philippines and to encour- age the coming of capital and the de- velopment of the various plans for the improvement of the agriculture and busi- ness of the islands which have com- mended themselves to those in the past responsible for the government there. In other words, thus far the Assembly has not manifested in any way that ob- structive character which those who have prophesied its failure expected to see. In arguing that the Philippines are en- tirely fit for self-government now, a com- 142 mittee of educated Filipinos once filed with the civil governor a written brief in which it was set forth that the number of “ilustrados” in the islands was double that of the offices—central, provincial, and municipal—and therefore the coun- try afforded two “shifts” of persons com- petent to run the government. ‘This, it was said, made clear the possibility of a good government if independence was granted. The ignorance of the remainder of the people, admitted to be dense, made no difference. I cite this to show of how little importance an intelligent public opinion or an educated constituency is regarded in the community and govern- ment which many of the ‘educated Fili- pinos look forward to asa result of in- dependence. THE FILIPINO IS THE ONLY MALAY RACE THAT 1S CHRISTIAN ; No one denies that 80 per cent of the Filipino people are densely ignorant. They are in a state of Christian tutelage. They are childlike and simple, with no language but a local Malay dialect spoken in a few provinces; they are separate from the world’s progress. The whole tendency under the Spaniards was to keep them ignorant and innocent. ‘The Spanish public-school system was chiefly on paper. They were for a long time subject completely to the control of the Spanish friar, who was parish priest and who generally did not encourage the learning of Spanish or great acquaint- ance with the world at large. The world owes to the Spanish friar the Christianization of the Filipino race. It is the only Malay or oriental race that is Christian. The friars beat back the wave of Mohammedanism and_ spread their religion through all the islands. They taught the people the arts of agri- culture, but they believed it best to keep them in a state of innocent ignorance. They feared the influence of world knowl- edge. They controlled the people and preached to them in their own dialects. They lived and died among them. The friars left the people a Christian people—that is, a people with western Ture NatTIionaL GEocRAPHIC MAGAZINE ideals. They looked toward Rome, and Europe, and America. They were not like the Mohammedan or the Buddhist, who despise western civilization as in- ferior. They were in a state of tutelage, ripe to receive modern western concep- tions as they should be educated to un- derstand them. This is the reason why I believe that the whole Christian Filipino people are capable by training and ex- perience of becoming a self-governing people. But for the present they are ignorant and in the condition of children. THE PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED BY EDUCATION OF ONE GENERATION THE There is no real difference between the educated and ignorant Filipinos that can- not be overcome by the education of one generation. ‘They are a capable people in the sense that they can be given a normal intellectual development by the same kind of education that is given in our own common-school system. Now they have not intelligence enough to exer- cise the political franchise with safety to themselves or their country ; but I do not see why a common- school education in English, with industrial teaching added, may not make the children of these people capable of forming an intelligent public opinion needed to sustain a popular goy- ernment if, at the same time that the on- coming generations are being educated in schools, primary and industrial, those who are intelligent are being given a political education by actually exercising the power of the franchise and actually taking part in the government. The Philippine government, however, has not funds enough to educate in pri- mary and industrial schools all the pres- ent generation of school age, and unless some other source of funds than govern- mental revenues is found it will take longer than a generation to complete the primary and industrial education of the common people. Until that is done, we ought not to lift our guiding hand from the helm of the ship of state of the Phil- ippine Islands. The language selected for the schools is English. It is selected because it is the Ten YEARS IN THE PHILIPPINES language of business in the Orient, be- cause it is the language of free institu- tions, and because it is the language which the Filipino children who do not know Spanish are able more easily to learn than they are to learn Span- isteeand) it) 1s) the language of the present sovereign of the islands. ‘The education in English began with the sol- diers of the American Army, one of whom was detailed from each company to teach schools in the villages which had become peaceful. When the Commis- sion assumed authority it sent to the United States for 1,000 American teach- ers, and after the arrival of these pioneers in the islands a system of primary schools was inaugurated together with normal schools. There are engaged in the teaching of these schools at present 717 permanent American teachers and 109 temporary appointees, and all of these are paid out of the central treasury. 6,000 FILIPINOS TEACHING ENGLISH The 6,000 Filipino teachers who are now teaching English have received their English education from our normal schools or our American teachers. Their number is growing, and they represent and are the most valuable educational asset we have acquired in working out our school system. The Filipino insular teachers are drawn from graduates of normal schools and also from the students sent by the government and at the ex- pense of the government to the United States to be educated there. Forty-six of these students have recently returned from the United States and have been appointed as insular teachers at salaries ranging from 840 to 960 pesos per an- num. We are not able to educate as they should be educated more than a half of the youth of school age in the islands. The government, while contrib- uting to the maintenance of high schools in each province, is devoting its chief at- tention to the spread of primary educa- tion, and in connection with primary edu- cation, and, at its close in the interme- diate schools, to industrial education. Primary and industrial education carried 143 on until the child is 14 or 15 years old is thought to be the best means of develop- ing the Filipino people into a self-sustain- ing and self-governing people, and the present government has done all that it has been possible to do in developing and maintaining a proper system for this purpose. ALREADY MORE FILIPINOS SPEAK ENGLISH THAN SPEAK SPANISH The influence of the primary instruc- tion in English is shown throughout the islands by the fact that today more people throughout the islands, outside of Manila and the large cities, speak Eng- lish than speak Spanish. At times, as already intimated, a discordant note is _heard in the suggestion that the American government is seeking to deprive the Filipino of his native language. As his native language is really 15 or 16 differ- ent dialects, this does not seem a great deprivation. Should Congress be anxious to facili- tate and hurry on the work of redeeming the Philippine Islands and making the Filipino people a self-governing commu- nity, it could take no more effective step than a permanent appropriation of two or three millions of dollars for ten or fifteen years to the primary and industrial edu- cation of the Filipino people, making it conditional on the continued appropria- tion by the Philippine government of the same amount to educational purposes which it has devoted and is now devoting annually to that purpose. The influence of the educational system introduced has not only been direct in the spread of edu- cation among the younger of the present generation, but it has also been an indi- rect means of convincing the Filipiro people at large of the beneficent purpose of the American government in its re- maining in the Philippine Islands and cf the sincerity of its efforts in the interest of their people. FILIPINO CADETS AT WEST POINT Section 36 of the act of Congress ap- proved February 2, 1901, referring to Philippine Scouts, provides that— “When, in the opinion of the President, 144 natives of the Philippine Islands shall, by their services and character, show fit- ness for command, the President is au- thorized to make provisional appoint- ments to the grades of second and first lieutenants from such natives, who, when so appointed, shall have the pay and allowances to be fixed by the Secretary of War, not exceeding those of corre- sponding grades of the regular army.” As it is thought that better results will be obtained if a few young Filipinos, especially selected, be appointed to the United States Military Academy with a view to their being commissioned officers of scouts upon graduation, I strongly recommend that Congress, by appropri- ate legislation, authorize the appointment of seven young Filipinos, or one for about every million of inhabitants of those islands, as cadets at the Military Acad- emy at West Point. This action on the part of Congress would, in my judgment, tend to further increase the zeal and effi- ciency of a body of troops which has always rendered faithful and satisfactory services. THE DEATH RATE OF AMERICANS IN THE PHILIPPINES NO GREATER THAN IN OUR SOUTHERN CITIES There is always present in every pic- ture of Philippine progress as painted by those who have not carefully investigated the facts a somber background of a bane- ful climate, making it impossible for the American or European to live in health and strength in the islands for any length of time. It is true that the islands are in the tropics, and that the variations in temperature are only about a third as much in extent as in the temperate zone; but, for a tropical climate, that of the Philippines is exceptionally comfortable and healthful. The monsoons blow six months from southwest across the islands and six months from the northeast, so that they are constantly windswept. ‘This makes a radical difference between the climate of the islands and that of the low- lands of India, for instance. The last two decades, especially the latter, have taught us much in respect to tropical diseases, Tue Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE their causes, their proper treatment, and the best method of avoiding them. This was one of the most valuable results of the Spanish war. In his address as president of the Phil- ippine Medical Association, in March, 1905, Dr John R. McDill, who came first to the islands as a leading army surgeon and who left the army to carry on a most successful practice in Manila, said: “We have come to esteem to the utmost the climate which so effectually guards many of you against the too strenuous life and which is almost ideal eight months in the year, even in Manila. Our professional experience has proven that, excepting some intestinal disorders which we are rapidly preventing and cur- ing and a limited amount of epidemic infectious diseases, there is nothing un- usual about the kind or amount of disease encountered here, or its successful treat- ment when hospital care is available. The surgeon's work has fully demonstrated that ideal wound healing and convales- cence after operation is as much the rule here aS-anywhere in the world. We physicians also know that and appreci- ate that the dread diseases of childhood so prevalent at home are rare here, anc that of all the ills, particularly among women, from real bodily ailments to a poor complexion, for which the climate is usually blamed, the great majority are hereditary or acquired, were brought here by the patient, and often aggravated by careless and unhygienic living. For old people and children the climate is an earthly Elysium. With the im- proved and constantly improving condi- tions of living, we believe that almost ali will agree that by observing the normal and moral life healthy Americans can live about as long here and enjoy as good health and do as much good and hard work, more than three-fourths of the year, as we could in the home land.” The death rate among American soi- diers in the Philippines for the last year was 8.5 per thousand, and the previous year 8.65. General Wood reports that the size of the sick report cannot be prop- erly charged to the climate; that, taken Tren YEARS IN THE PHILIPPINES as a whole, the reports for the years in- dicate a decided improvement in health conditions, and that the men leaving the islands after a regular tour of more than two years present a far better appearance than those of the incoming. The death rate among American civil- ians in Manila for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1907, was 5.59 per thousand, a reduction from the previous year. ‘Tire death rate among Filipinos this year 1 Manila was 36.9 per thousand and aniong Spaniards 15.84, both reductions from the previous year. During the decade of our stay in the islands the conditions of life for Anieri- cans have steadily bettered. We have be- come acquainted with hygienic methods of living, and the death rate of Americans of the same social condition in the Phil- ippines is certainly not greater than in the cities of the Southern States, and is, as we have seen, very much less than that among: Filipinos. WE HOPE TO MAKE THE FILIPINOS LARGER AND STRONGER PHYSICALLY If the United States is to continue ‘ts governmental relations with the Philip- pines for more than a generation and tts business and social relations indefinitely, the fact that Americans can live healthful lives in the Philippines is important of itself; but I have cited these statistics and this expert opinion to show more than this—I believe that it has an impor- tant bearing upon another kind of pro- eress possible among the Filipino people, and that it opens another important field of education for the American govern- ment to cultivate in the. islands. No one can be in the Philippines long without realizing that as a race the Fili- pinos are small of stature, slight of frame and flesh, and with small powers of re- sistance to epidemic diseases. It has been supposed that because of their nativity the Filipinos were not subject to the ma- larial, intestinal, and dysenteric troubles that afflict Americans and Europeans, and that measures taken to avoid or cure such troubles in the case of the foreigner were unnecessary and superfluous with the Fili- 145 pinos. Recent investigations of a system- atic kind, carried on by keeping com- parative statistics of all the official au- topsies made in the islands, seem to show that the assumption that the Filipinos are immune from the forms of disease I have mentioned is without foundation. The autopsies of 100 cases showed in a great majority the germs of malaria, of amoebic dysentery, and that microbe of the so-called “lazy” disease of Porto Rico known as the “hookworm.” It is true that the diseases were not active or acute, but their presence in the system of course weakened the constitution of the subject and could easily explain his anzemic con- dition, his smallness of stature, and small powers of resistance. Malaria, of course, is produced or at least transmitted by the mosquito, while amoebic dysentery and the “lazy” disease are water-borne and proceed directly from the miserable sources of water supply in most Filipino towns. Proper precautions can avoid all these, or at least can greatly reduce the number of victims. In Manila, 60 per cent of all infants born die during the first year of their lives, and there is no reason to believe that infant mortality in other parts of the islands is less. This frightful percentage is brought about by ignorance and neglect of the mothers in feeding their babies. There are very few, if any, milch cows in the islands, and the little ones are fed with all sorts of impossible things. They die generally of a lack of nourishment. There is no reason why, if the mothers were correctly taught and proper infant food were brought within the reach of the poor, this awful rate of infant mortality might not be reduced. Not only is there an actual loss of life which might be avoided, but the babies which live through such treatment and nourishment are not apt to make strong men and women, but are likely to become victims. of anemia and other diseases mentioned, as shown in the autopsies I have re- ferred to. I do not think it is unjust to the Span- ish régime in the Philippines to say that very little, if any, attention was paid to 146 sanitation according to modern methods. In the city of Manila and in the other large towns of the islands the American military medical authorities, who were the first to assume responsibility for the health of the islands, found the same utter disregard of the proper rules for the disposition of house sewage that was found in Habana. ‘Thousands, yes, tens of thousands, of Filipinos were carried off year after year by a peculiarly viru- lent type of smallpox. In Manila, in Cebu, and in Nueva Caceres, respectively, were leper hospit- als, but in each the management was inefhcient and the care of the inmates poor. More than this, no supervision was exercised to isolate lepers not in hospitals. Sometimes the poor creatures were driven out of villages by popular riots and herded together with no proper food and no shelter. The contact of lepers with the people of course only in- creased the number of cases of the dread disease. In 1885 or 1886 the islands were visited by an epidemic of cholera, and the pros- tration of the people of Manila and the Philippines, due to the rapid spread of the scourge, beggared description. In Manila the deaths were 1,000 or more a day from that cause alone for a number of weeks. The trade proximity of Ma- nila, [loilo, and Cebu to China, India, Java, Burma, and the Straits Settlements makes the danger of transmitting tropical and other infectious diseases very much greater. Quarantine in Spanish times was lax. The American Army medical authorities took hold of the matter of sanitation in their usual vigorous way and made much progress in the matter of quarantine and in correcting the glaringly unsanitary conditions in Manila. But it remained for the civil government to effect a thor- ough organization of a health department which could do permanent good. The introduction of sanitary methods by law among the people has given rise to more dissatisfaction and greater criti- cism of the government than any other Tue Nationa, GEocraPpHic MaGAZINE one cause. The truth is that the people have to be educated in the effectiveness of such methods before they can become reconciled to them, and the work of the health department since the beginning of the civil government, in 1901, has been obstructed, first, by the inertia and indif- ference of the people in respect to the matter, and, second, by their active re- sistance to affirmative restraints upon them necessary to prevent disease. SMALLPOX AND ASIATIC CHOLERA STAMPED OUT The fight against smallpox has been so successful that in the past vear not a single death from it occurred in Manila, and in the provinces of Cavite, Batangas, Cebu, Rizal, Bataan, La Laguna, and La Union, where heretofore there have been approximately 6,0co deaths per year, not one was reported. In the few places in other provinces where smallpox appeared it made little headway. More than 2,000,000 vaccinations against smallpox were performed last year, and vaccination is being carried on so that it will reach every inhabitant of the islands. In 1902 Asiatic cholera appeared. The loss the first year by reason of the meth- ods introduced was much less than it had been fifteen or sixteen years before, but great difficulty was encountered in put- ting into force the health regulations, and a futile attempt was made to establish quarantine between localities in the islands. Since that time a better system of isolation and stamping out the dis- ease in the locality where it appeared has been followed, and it is gratifying to note that, although the dread disease ap- peared each year, it was finally brought to an end on November 27, 1906, and the authorities now feel that the people have been so thoroughly roused to the best methods of treating the disease that any local reappearance of it can be readily suppressed. In 1902 or 1903 the bubonic plague appeared in the islands. This has been suppressed by the isolation of all persons suffering from the disease and the de- Ten YEARS IN THE PHILIPPINES struction of plague-infected rats, so that during the last year there were no cases of bubonic plague whatever. LEPROSY ALSO BEING ERADICATED When the Americans first began gov- ernment in the Philippines it was re- ported that leprosy was so widely ex- tended in the islands that there were probably from 25,000 to 50,000 lepers to be cared for. After many unsuccessful efforts a leper colony has finally been established at Culion, a healthful and at- tractive island between Panay and Pala- wan, to which all the lepers of the islands are now being gradually removed. The number probably does not exceed 3,000. The course pursued is to take each proy- ince separately and by thorough investi- gation of the reported cases of lepers de- termine those of true leprosy and to re- move them thence to the colony of Cu- lion. The experiment at first was a doubtful one because of the objection of the lepers to being taken so far away from their homes, and some of the friends of lepers made vigorous objections to this course. After the removal of the first 500, however, and when they found how comfortable and agreeable life at Culion was, the objections ceased. Lep- rosy as a disease usually does not directly kill its victims, but it so weakens the powers of their resistance that the rate of mortality from other causes among lepers is very high. The system of iso- lation and withdrawing lepers from the thickly populated communities has been at once justified by the reduction in the number of new cases. The number of known lepers in the archipelago on Sep- tember I, 1905, was 3,580; on June 30, 1907, it was 2,826, a decrease of 654, due to the death of the known lepers without any spread of the disease, as had been the case in previous years and under different conditions. The policy of removal of lepers is one which can only be carried out gradually and has been applied only to a part of the provinces, but it will probably be completed in three or four years, when all the leners will be removed to Culion, and the effect of this isolation 147 will certainly be to reduce the infection of healthful persons with the awful dis- ease to a minimum. RAILROADS IN THE PHILIPPINES In my last annual report I set forth in detail the concessions granted for the construction of railroads in Luzon, Panay, Cebu, and Negros, and showed that within five years we might expect that, instead of a single line of railway 120 miles in length, which was all that we found when we occupied the islands, we would have a system with a mileage of 1,000 miles. Work has gone on in full compliance with the terms of the conces- sions of the two companies. Only one of these companies took ad- vantage of the provision for the guaranty of bonds, and they have built about 40 miles of road and have earned, under the terms of the concession, the guaranty of $973,000 of bonds, which has already been signed and delivered by the Philip- pine eovermment, ©f course; Vin) this financial panic these companies are likely to have difficulty in securing investors in their securities. The roads as constructed have been well constructed, and are admirably adapted to resist the climatic conditions in the islands. There is no reason in my judgment why these roads, when con- structed, should not pay a reasonable percentage upon the investment. It is of the utmost difficulty to secure the coming of capital to the islands, and it would greatly aid us if the dividends earned by these roads were very large. In the Orient two-thirds of the income of rail- ways comes from passenger earnings and one-third from freight. Of course, the railroads are very essential to the agricultural interests of the country and will directly affect the amount of exports of agricultural products, so we may count on a steady increase in the freight receipts from the moment of their be- ginning operation. As I say, however, the chief hope for profit in the railways is in the passenger traffic. In the three Visayas, in which the rail- roads are to be constructed, the density of 148 population is about 160 per square mile, whereas the average population per square mile in the United States in 1900 was but 26. ‘The Island of Cebu has a population of 336 per square mile, or a greater density than Japan, France, Ger- many, or British India. It is, therefore, reasonable to suppose that the passenger earnings on these railroads will be very large. THE FILIPINO LABORER IMPROVING It was anticipated that the labor prob- lem would be a difficult one to solve in the construction of these roads. This has not proved to be true. The Philippine labor has shown itself capable of in- struction, and by proper treatment of being made constant in its application. Of course, the prices of labor have largely increased, but the companies con- structing the roads have found it wise to increase wages, and thereby secure greater efficiency. Even with increased wages the cost of unit of result is less in the Philippines in the construction of railways than it is in the United States. I do not hesitate to prophesy that dur- ing the next twenty-five years a develop- ment will take place in the agricultural and other business of the Philippine Islands which will be as remarkable in its benefits to the United States and the Philippine Islands as was the develop- ment of Alaska during the last ten or fif- teen years. Hope of this is not what has actuated the government in pursuing the policy that it has pursued in the develop- ment of the islands, but this is as inevi- table a result as if it had been directly sought, and perhaps the absence of sel- fishness in the development of the islands is a greater assurance of profitable return than if business exploitation by the United States had been the chief and sole motive. The growth in the production: Tue NaTIonaL GEeoGRaAPHIc MAGAZINE of hemp and other fiber products, in cocoanuts, in rubber and many other tropical crops, and in peculiar manufac- tures of the islands may be looked for- ward to with certainty. The city of Manila has not been given autonomous government. It is under the control of a municipal board of five per- sons appointed by the central government, andis governed, therefore, as Washington or the City of Mexico is governed. In the proper improvement of Manila some six or eight millions of dollars had to be expended, and much business experience and foresight were required to build the new water works and the new sewer sys- tem, to repave the streets, to canalize the esteros, or creeks, to organize an effective police force and a new fire department. It was thought that it would not be safe to intrust the conduct of such important business matters to a body selected by the electorate of Manila for the first time. The city of Manila has been well: gov- erned. Very large sums of money have been expended in most extensive im- provements, and not the slightest scandal or dishonesty has been charged in any of the city administration. It has offered a most useful model for other municipal- ities in the islands to follow and has lent engineers, policemen, and firemen to other towns to help the latter to better organization. There is no city in the world better governed than Manila. The streets are well cleaned, are well policed, there is a most excellent fire department, the parks are being enlarged and improved, the street-car system is as good as anywhere, and with the improvements in the water supply the sewerage system and esteros or canals, which are now under foot and part of which are quite near accom- plished, the face which the Filipinos turn toward the world in the city of Manila will be a most pleasing one. <<) A BEAR HUNT IN MONTANA By ARTHUR ALVOoRD STILES TOPOGRAPHER, U. 5. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY ITH the end of the hunting season in the Far West there comes to light a true and ex- citing bear story—one that well might have made the bravest hunter look to his safety, or even have thrilled the sports- man spirit of President Roosevelt himself. The incident occurred last September in the forest of northwestern Montana. The party consisted of Dr Charles B. Penrose, a well-known physician of Phil- adelphia, the victim of bruin’s ferocious attack, and his two brothers, Spencer Penrose, of Colorado Springs, and Sen- ator Bois Penrose, of Pennsylvania, now in Washington. The party had spent the early part of the season exploring a sec- tion of the Lewis and Clark Forest Re- serve, where trails were to be found and where travel with the pack-horses was comparatively ‘easy. "Toward the end of the summer, however, | ‘Senator. Penrose desired to see a part of the country hith- erto unsurveyed and without trails or passways of any kind. It is a section of high and rugged mountain peaks, snow- fields, and living glaciers, wholly unin- habited except by the wild animals, and wellnigh inaccessible save in the dead of winter, when some adventurous soul of doubtful judgment might make ‘his way. thither on snowshoes. As it happened, a small party of topo- graphical surveyors of the U. S. Geo- logical Survey was. then penetrating into this God-forsaken region, carrying with them their pack-train of mules, This was the first pack outht of any kind to enter into the territory. Senator Pen- rose and his brothers joined the govern- ment party, and by them were: conducted well up among the snow -capped peaks of the range. the work of the surveyors and “made all mapping impossible, the writer, who was chief of the government party, offered to camp - equipment, and map-making instruments: take Senator Penrose out for a hunt. The Senator and his younger brother, however, were tired out with the long and difficult journey to the government camp, so Dr Penrose, who had endured the hard climb better than his brothers, volun- teered to accompany me to a distant gla- cier basin, where they expected ‘to find big game. The saddle horses were left at the head of this basin, and, little know- ing of the fate that awaited them, the two men separated. I had just sighted a fine buck deer and was on the point of creeping away from it so that Dr Penrose might come and kill it, when I heard three shots in rapid succession. I gave no special heed to the reports, which came from the other side of the ridge, and was about turning to shoot the deer myself, when I heard two more shots; a moment more and another report rang out. Immediately becoming alarmed, I ran back in the. direction from whence the shots came: ~ I suppose I reached the doctor in: about five or ten minutes. As I came*around a mass of breken boulders-*I’ saw Dr _ Penrose wandering aimlessly around in the canyon bed. “He ‘had no gun. His hat was gone, his coat..torn off, and his trousers rent. Blood poured from his head and neck, and he gripped his left arm in his crim- son right hand. When I reached him he murmured piteously, “Water, water.” I ran and brought water in. my big som- brero from the other side of the rocks. He drank it like a thirsty horse, and I thought I saw part of it run out through a gash in his cheek. Then: he said: potiles, lama in ) have Radway felt cyiclvalcaivaen. ; With signal cloth I hurriedly began to tie. up the worst of his wounds, and as-I did so the picture and the bleeding man Continued bad weather having stoppee told me the story. A few*tods donna the gulch lay a grizzly cub, so large as to ap- pear full-grown, except to the careful observer. Near by was the huge carcass Tue Nationat GeocrapHic MAGAZINE 50 UIMpleg T H pur uewudeys) yeog ojsideq jo inds jsom Wo YJNOS SUIYOO] 9sueI UBMG VNVINOW NYYISAMALYON NI ANHOS OLLSINYLOVAV HO / IT Heqoy Aq C0Nq A Bear Hunt in Montana of a mother grizzly, and near her the doctor’s Mauser rifle, cast aside and empty. All was plain now. In his ex- citement Dr Penrose had not noted that the bear which his first three shots had so promptly slain was yet a young cub, whose grief-stricken and enraged mother might then be making her way from the rocks and brush to avenge the death of her offspring. Going down to examine his prize, he placed his rifle on a rock, fortunately not far away. He was stooping over the dead cub when there came from behind him a rush and an awful cry. He turned and saw the mother bear coming upon him, then not sixty feet away. With almost super- human presence of mind Dr Penrose caught up his Mauser again and fired two shots into the enraged beast. Instantly he took from his pocket his last remaining cartridge, worked it into the rifle,and sent a third steel-jacketed bullet into the on- rushing bear. Swift and sure as were the little bullets, the bear’s fury was not checked in time. With one stroke of her paw she sent him into the gulch, eight feet below. She sprang down after him and caught him in her mouth and shook him as a cat might shake a mouse. She dropped him. Again she caught him up, his face between her glistening tusks. She tore his scalp; his eves narrowly es- caped. A tusk penetrated into his mouth from the side of his cheek; another tore open his throat. There were five gaping wounds in his chest. His thigh bore an awful, irregular tear, and the flesh hung in ragged pieces from the wound, half as wide as your hand. His left wrist was twisted and broken, and the bones stuck out through the quivering flesh. The bear tried once more to shake her half-dead victim, but she sickened with her own awful wounds, and, staggering, fell dead at his feet. The little Mauser bullets, fired a mo- ment before, had finally had their deadly effect, and by his steady nerve and ac- curate aim Dr Penrose had saved his own life. Had the beast lasted another half minute the doctor would have been with his fathers, and the little cub’s death would have been avenged. But the heroic 151 mother had fought to the last, and now, with her dead baby, lay quiet and still forever. Recovering sufficiently, the bleeding man sat up and began to take stock. As he meditated thus, there came a new ad- versary. In actual fact, or in the suffer- ing man’s delirous fancy—I have never known which—a third bear bounded out of the brush from another direction. The doctor’s heart sank; he could make no resistance now; he hoped that death might come quickly. The new enemy approached to close quarters, and, walk- ing around, snarled and growled sav- agely, yet was evidently undecided what to do. Then, with a cry of mingled rage and fright, it dashed off down the gulch and was lost in the forest. The journey back to camp was diffi- cult and dangerous, but the suffering doc- tor, who now began to realize his fright- ful condition, was bearing up bravely. Wrapping my big cow-boy slicker around him, I managed to get him on my horse, and we turned back to the camp, where we had left the Penrose party. My faith- ful horse did his duty nobly, as we climbed and stumbled along for two hours without a trail, at last reaching the teepees at nightfall. The unexpected sight of the wounded and bleeding doctor somewhat demoralized the group of wait- ing men, and after some delay a pine- knot camp-fire was made for light, and with the patient lying at full length on the ground I began my surgical operations, assisted by such much-needed instruction as the doctor, in his awful pain, could give me while the work progressed. I applied antiseptics and placed bandages, all of which happily he had with him in a small emergency case. Finally the broken wrist was reached. It was agreed that I should remove the protruding bones, the nervy patient thinking he could endure the pain of the operation without anes- thetics. I disinfected the little knives and appliances and the last operation began. The pain was awful. With one agonized groan the man gave up for the first time. We held a hurried conference. The wrist would have to be left as it was, and we bound it up once more in signal cloth. It 152 THe NaTioNAL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photos by Robert H. Chapman and H. Ll. Baldwin TYPICAL VIEWS IN NORTHWESTERN MONTANA Showing barren and rugged peaks and heavily-forested valleys on A Bear Hunt in MonrTana Photos by Robert H. Chapman and H. PACK-TRAIN CROSSING THE RANGE View from Kootenai Mountain, looking south L,. Baldwin 154 was one o'clock in the morning when I finished my amateur surgery. Thoroughly distracted by the sight of-their brother’s suffering, Senator Penrose and Spencer withdrew to-another tent, and I lay down near Dr Penrose to wait for dawn. My life on the frontier has been full of trying episodes, but oh, that night! How would we get Dr Penrose out of the mountains? I dare not guess how many times I asked myself that question. As the gloomy hours dragged by I listened to the heavy breathing of the man whose nerve and fortitude I had already come to admire, now asleep and groggy with the morphine injected to stop his unbearable suffering. To go back the way we came up would mean two days and a 600-foot climb on foot. He could not last. By the second day we would be packing out a dead body. Yet there was no other route. The situation was desperate. In the lonely flickering of that camp-fire I medi- tated, and my sympathies went out to that wounded man. As the case presented itself at that moment success in guiding the party to the railroad meant the doc- tor’s life, if not his comfort ; failure meant death, simply. Before that welcome dawn had come I decided to run a haz- ard. We would take Dr Penrose to the railroad by an unheard of route. dence might point the way. At dawn the little caravan started. Again the big black horse carried the Provi- Tue NationaL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE almost helpless doctor, Senator Penrose and Spencer walking on either side to steady their brother through the tight places. The faithful guide, Bill Hague. lead the extra “packs,” and two young men from the Survey party, Malcolm Force, of Montclair, New. Jersey, and Billy Kemeys, of Washington, D. C., worked as axemen. ‘Thus, for eleven hours, we climbed down, down, down, five miles through the forest and jungle, cutting our way as we went. At dark we dropped through to the railroad, com- pletely exhausted, but safe. Our route had proved successful. I could not have cut another tree or broken another brush, and my two Survey boys had stood by me like men. Quickly we conducted Dr Penrose to a lonely section-house two miles down the track, where the Great Northern Limited was flagged, and he was taken away to Minnesota, where, three days later, he was operated upon by the surgeons at the Mayo Hospital. Sincé then he has retired to his country home near Phila- delphia. Though his recovery is not yet complete, his progress has been very re- markable. As a memento of the encounter with the bear, Dr Penrose has presented the writer with a beautiful Mauser rifle, im- ported from the Krupp works at Essen, Germany. In the stock of the rifle is set a little silver nameplate which bears the simple inscription: “Arthur Stiles, from (C, 15. Penrose,” FOR INFORMATION ABOUT HAWAII, ITS UNEQUALED CLIMATE, BEAUTIFUL SCENERY, AND ATTRACTIVE AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES . . . WRITE TO BUREAU OF INFORMATION HAWAII PROMOTION COMMITTEE ILLUSTRATED PAMPHLET SENT FREE HONOLULU, HAWAII Please mention this Magazine when writing t “4 ae Z- 7 } YY, Be my WH iy # A a UG 4 “7 { Ls “ r Ab, oe 5 49 | yeas am \ THE OZARKS Whose picturesque beauty is enjoyed alike by Tourist, Hunter, Fisherman, and Camper, are traversed by the Frisco Lines from ST. LOUIS TO TEXAS AND OKLAHOMA. Three through trains daily. Pullman Sleeping Cars, Dining and Observation Cars. 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Box 1150, New York Please mention this Magazine when writing THE MOST IMPORTANT BIOGRAPHY of the NEW YEAR THOMAS ALVA EDISON SIXTY YEARS OF AN INVENTOR’S LIFE BY FRANCIS ARTHUR JONES HIS volume will at once commend itself as one of the few zecessary books to librarians and readers alike. Edison’s nameand fame are known around the world. His life story reads like a ro- mance, from the time he published a newspaper on board a train at fourteen, and later was an out-at-the-elbows ‘‘tramp’’ telegraph operator, till his electrical inventions caused the formation of a fifteen million dollar stock company. No recent life of Edison is in print, a fact which From Stereograph, Copyright, 1906, by Underwood makes this book doubly valuable. It is the re- ee Unc irood New ivor sult of close acquaintance with, and study of, the inventor, and is at once complete, authoritative, and intensely interesting. It isa romance of truth which far exceeds fiction. 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GROSVENOR DAVID G. FAIRCHILD T. L. MACDONALD GEORGE OTIS SMITH A. J. HENRY WILLIS L. MOORE O. H. TITTMANN C. HART MERRIAM S. N. D. NORTH JOHN M. WILSON Please detach and fill in blanks and send to the Secretary Recommendation for Membership in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY The membership fee includes subscription to the National Geographic Magazine DUES: Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membership abroad and in Canada, $2.50; life membership, $50. Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft, postal or express order, Go the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. WGnominate. NGS ees (Write your address.) fit ak AMMEDANS ON A PILGRIMAGE TO BERBELA A GROUP OF MOH An Appreciation of “‘Scenes from Every Land’’ TO THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C. GENTLEMEN: ‘““Scenes from Every Land’’ is one of the most beautiful books of its kind that has ever come to my attention. 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TIONS IN DESIRABLE MERCHANDISE, COMPRISING IN PART Paris and London Millinery, Silks, Velvets, High-class Dress Goods, Ready- to-Wear Outer and Under Garments for Men, Women, Girls, and Boys, Hand-made Paris Lingerie, Bridal ‘Trousseaux, Corsets, Infants’ Outhittings, Hosiery, Laces, Ribbons, Handkerchiefs, Embroideries, Linens, Upholstery Goods, Books, Stationery, Card Engraving; also Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Novelties in Leather and Fancy Goods; Sterling Silver Articles, Lamps, Clocks, Bronzes, Cut Glass, China, etc., for Wedding, Birthday, and Anniversary Gifts Mail Orders Receive Prompt Aitention Correspondence Solicited 10TH, 11TH, F, anp G Streets N. W. WasuinctTon, D. C. PRESS OF JUDD & DET WHILER, INC, WASHINGTON, D. CG — Ser ee eh ae ee Ghe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA ZINE Voli XIX MARCH, 1908 CONTENTS A Journey Through the Eastern Portion of the Congo State. By Major P. H. G. Powell-Cotton. _ Illustrated. In the Valley of the Niger. _ Illustrated. Making Bread in Different Parts of the World. _ Illustrated. Marking the Alaskan Boundary. _ Illustrated. A Drowned Empire. By Robert H. Chapman. _ Illustrated. Haiti: A Degenerating Island. By Rear Admiral Colby M. Chester, U.S. Navy. _ Illustrated. The Madura Temples. By J. S. Chandler. Whisiated: The Native Oysters of the West Coast. By Robert E. C. Stearns, U. S. National Museum. Topographic Maps Issued by the Geological aerey | in 1907. National Geographic Society. Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter ; Copyright, 1907, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved } NA GEOGRAPHIC Conve, 1907, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved N ILttustrateD Monruty, published by the NationaL Grocrapuic Society. All editorial communications should be addressed to GiLBeRT H. Grosvenor, Editor the Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC Macazinge. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. 25 CENTS A NUMBER; SUBSCRIPTION $2.50 A YEAR Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors MAJ. GEN. A. W. GREELY U.S. Army C. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U.S. _Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture Oo. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Oo. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor ROB’T HOLLISTER CHAPMAN U. S. Geological Survey DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the De- partment of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D. C. DAVID T. DAY U. S. Geological Survey R. D. SALISBURY University of Chicago G. K. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER .McADIB | Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON President St Lawrence University Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C. Q§ comme fff § 8 ecco fff jf coma ff ff] comme ff ff] emcee fff] eee fff ff] eee fff] ee fff] ee | ff] Ge J? ff ee ft J] SII] HAMILTON WATCH The National Timekeeper of America Designed by the Best Watch Talent in the Country Built of the Very Finest Material Made by Workmen of the Highest Skill Produced in a Factory of Perfect Equipment Scientifically and Exhaustively Tested Perfectly and Accurately Adjusted Isochronally to Temperature and to Positions Distinguised for Supreme Time-keeping Qualities Phenomenally Durable Every Hamilton Watch Carries the Personal Qf cee fff] come ff ff eee ff ff] comes ff fj omen fff) ee fff] eee ff] [fe 9 Sm ef em ee I le Guarantee of the Company OUR 940 18-Size Open-face Watch is the wonderful rail- road watch. Used in overwhelming numbers on all the main railroad lines in the United States. OUR 960 16-Size Bride Watch is beautiful and accurate. We shall soon issue a perfect Watch O Size. Any one wishing more information, address The HAMILTON WATCH CO. LANCASTER, PA. Bef cemmmmmes fff ccmmmemrms 99 ff commer ff ff comme ff ff ce ff ff ee ff ff] ee ff (9 ecm $9 FN ce 9 ff mre ff ff comma ff | f ccm ff ff cme ff ff ccm ff fff comme ff ff commer fff ff come ff ff co [ff |] ee fi} , of ff eee § § 2 comer ff §] ec fff] oe ff] ome ft 9 ecommerce f | ff ecco f | ff cmc ff) cee ff §§ ce fj ff ee fff) cece f | ff coef} ff cee f 3 G5 cece ff ff comme ff 5 ccm fj fj ec ff J § comme ff of Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Investment of Idle Money S a serious problem at the present time, when the increased accumulations in banks are compelling a reduction of the interest rate. Carefully selected bonds will yield a return higher than rightly conducted banks can afford to pay on deposits, while the guaranty of safety is equal to that which banks can offer. We are equipped with every facility for determining with certainty the character and merit of any security. If you contemplate investing surplus money, we shall be glad to give you the benefit of our facilities and expert knowledge. FISK & ROBINSON Bankers 28 State St., Boston 35 Cedar St., New York 135 Adams St., Chicago ~~, O not leave too much to the imagination when publishing Wa a book of travels and explorations when a map will make everything so plain. By our process we are able to make draft from rough data and submit proof of plate for author’s correction before printing. j Besides the making of maps, we print and bind books, prepare business literature and trade catalogs, and have complete equipment for designing, process engraving, and color work by our Prisma- print process. THE MATTHEWS-NORTHRUP WORKS BUFFALO, N. Y. Cleveland Office, 517 Citizens Building. New York Office, Madison Square Garden Tower. Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Furs, Rugs, Uniforms, Clothing, Etc. Stored in DRY, MOTH-PROOF COLD STORAGE HE luster and beauty of furs and the colors of all fabrics are pre- served by our Dry, Cold Storage, and protection from moth, theft, and fire, dust and wrinkle is provided. $1.50 FOR SIX MONTHS FOR FUR SETS, JACKETS, Etc. VALUED AT $50.00 OR LESS. Additional valuation, $1.00 per $100. ILLUSTRATED DESCRIPTIVE BOOKLET AND PRICE LIST WILL BE MAILED ON REQUEST. REFERENCES, ANY BANK OR BUSINESS HOUSE IN WASHINGTON Security Storape Company Successors to Storage Department, American Security and Trust Co. 1140 15th St. N.W., Washington, D.C. CAPITAL AND SURPLUS . . $415,000 Furniture Warehousemen, Packers & Forwarding Agents Lowest Insurance Rate in the United States Burglar-Proof Vaults for Silverware IFT-VANS can be 1 provided for 1m- mediate loading in any city in United States or Europe. Their use insures a minimum of handling, security for small pack- ages, and least possible risk of damage. BOXING NOT REQUIRED IN WASHINGTON, APPLY TO Security Storage Co. 1140 Fifteenth Street N.W. HOISTING LIFT-VAN ON BOARD STEAMSHIP BOWLING GREEN STORAGE & VAN COMP’Y 18 BROADWAY, NEW YORK Cable Address: Bowlingvan, New York Codes: A BC, Fifth Edition, Lieber’s Code Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Voi. XIX, No. 3 a WASHINGTON GEOGIRAIPISOIC MAGATZZIINIE, Marcu, 1908 Be A. JOUOTRINGE YS Je eheONG inh Ie late vs Ja 1) ROR ION OF tHE CONGO SPATE: By Major P. H. G. Poweii-CoTTon Y principal quest in my recent M journey to the Congo State was the northern white rhino, known only by a single specimen, shot by its dis- coverer, Major Gibbons, and eventually sent to America. My search for the ani- mal, and for a couple of elephants stand- ing as near 12 feet in height as possible, occupied five and a half months. During this time I made the Congo stations along the Nile my headquarters for short expe- ditions westward into the plain. All these posts are malarious and swarm with mosquitoes—Kiro, the most pic- turesque of them all, being literally in- fested. In fact, the Enclave generally must rank among the most unhealthy dis- tricts of Central Africa; in one year the death-rate among the Europeans rose LOVOVEL 20) MeL Cent: On my arrival at Lado, the chief sta- tion on the White Nile, in the latter part of December, and throughout the first fortnight of January (the dry season), the heat was intense, the thermometer standing as high as 104° in my tent at 2p. Once! away trom the Nile, the scarcity of water proved a great diffi- culty. Stagnant pools in the river beds, fouled by man and beast, and these only at rare intervals, formed the sole supply. In the rainy season so much of the coun- try lies under water that traveling is almost impossible. Owing to the flatness of the thorn-dotted plain, Lado Hill forms a conspicuous landmark for many miles. This district is peopled by the Bari, a peculiar feature of whose huts is the floor, sunk 18 inches below the sur- face of the ground—a method of con- struction which appears particularly curious in view of the heavy rainy season. As my caravan moved farther south- ward I was struck by the numerous ruins of villages and almost continuous stretches of what had once been culti- vated ground. It was evident that at no very distant date, probably before the dervish raids had devastated the coun- try, it must have supported a considerable population. Much of the ground had been terraced and cleared of stones. The village sites were marked by numerous circles, some 6 yards in diameter, formed of wide, thin stones set upright and standing some 18 inches to 2 feet above the surface. The top of each of these stones was nicked to receive the end of a *An address to the Royal Geographical Society, and published in this Magazine through the courtesy of the Geographical Journal (London). 156 roof-pole. Here and there a double cir- cle of stones denoted a hut built after the form of the modern Abyssinian tucal, with a passage round it. Judging from a few higher stones still standing, these villages had evidently been surrounded by a palisade. At the present time the population is scanty, so that considerable difficulty is found in provisioning the stations. The greater part of the grain for my men had to be drawn from a dis- trict several days east of the Nile, on the Uganda side. PRIMITIVE BLACKSMITHS Working southward from Rejaf, I struck up the valley of the Kaya, where scattered settlements of nomad Bari plied the double trade of fishermen and black- smiths. The women generally took their part in the work as well as the men. In little hollows on the flat surface of a rock, they would pound the filbert-like nuts of iron ore to powder. This was then car- ried to the smelting pits near by, grass- roofed constructions shaped like the let- ter V and encircled in heaps of dross and charcoal. Here and there couples of men were hard at work forging hoes, one of them beating the mass of glowing metal into shape with two stones, to serve the purpose of hammer and anvil, while his companion plied the bellows. One of the blacksmiths told me that the iron ore is collected from the surface of the ground at a place ten days distant. When the hoes are completed they are taken over to the great chief of the Bari tribe, on the Uganda side, who buys them for flour. As the caravan drew nearer Wadelai, I found a stretch of country which proved to be the favorite haunt, at that time of year, of not only white rhino, but bull elephants. Here I was able to re- alize the two chief objects of my visit to the Enclave, by securing a complete skin and skeleton of a white rhino bull and the hides of two elephants nearly 12 feet in height. One of these latter was destined for the British Natural History Museum, whose director had been trying to procure such a specimen for the last THe NatTIonaAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE three years. The other I proposed pre- senting to the Tervueren Museum near Brussels. ‘The preservation of these skins gave great trouble, but they were eventually sent off in good condition to Kampala, which place, thanks to the courtesy of the late Mr Fowler, sub-com- missioner Nile provinces and collector at Hoima, they reached in excellent time. But unfortunately, for some reason yet to be explained, the skins were after- wards detained so long that the lake- shore climate completely ruined them, to the loss of the museums and to my dis- gust, for there was a heavy bill of car- riage to pay. When two years previ- ously, in 1903, I traversed the country between Wadelai and Mahagi Bay, at the northwestern corner of Lake Albert, it was practically depopulated, for the vil- lagers had moved over to the Uganda side. Now, to my surprise, I found new villages being established all along the route, the natives having returned to escape the Uganda hut-tax. From Mahagi Bay station we pushed our way up the hills to Mahagi proper, lving 434 hours from the lake and 1,180 feet above it. Here, as in all other sta- tions I had visited, great improvements were to be seen. New brick houses had been constructed and stretches of bush had been cleared to give place to vege- table gardens and cultivation. My route now led over the Nile-Congo watershed, a series of rolling grass hills intersected by running streams fringed with belts of timber. My highest camp was at Mon- golula, at an elevation of 5,950 feet. This ReSiOmy 1S 10m Mth oeater an paiimaveIny sparsely inhabited and gives promise of one day becoming a valuable grazing ground for white settlers. Through Irumu bands of natives were passing on their way to the Kilo gold mines, where work on the alluvial deposits has been successfully commenced, some 35 ounces of gold being washed per day. The Ituri River, a day’s journey from Irumu, forms the dividing line between the grass land and the great forest. When my canoe had almost crossed the clear, rapid waters, 150 yards wide, I BN JourNgEy ‘THROUGH THE Conco STATE Lod MAJOR POWELL-COTTON WITH TWO OF HIS PYGMY TRACKERS noticed on the opposite bank two minia- ture houses built close to the edge and resembling in every feature the huts of the villagers. The old chief was loth to explain the object of these houses, but at length I was told that they were erected for the shade of his predecessor, who was told that he must recompense them for their labors by guarding the passage of those crossing the river. From that time, whenever a caravan was seen to approach the bank a little food would be carried down to the ghost-houses as a warning that the shade’s protection was needed for the caravan about to cross. THE GREAT FOREST The great Ituri forest, rendered fa- mous by Stanley’s remarkable journey across it, differed greatly from the dismal miasmic place of my imagination, where unhealthy mists and perpetual twilight reigned supreme. Far from shutting out the sunshine, the lofty dome of interlaced branches above our heads only served to soften the pitiless heat of the equatorial sun. Myriads of little sunbeams filtered through the leaves, to settle on the under- growth in bright patches of light, where the butterflies and birds loved to flit to and fro. In the morning, it is true, the foliage would often be heavy with dew- drops and gossamer, but before eight the sunbeams had lifted the mists from the dense undergrowth, the giant trees, and the graceful creepers that flung their fan- tastic coils and festoons from branch to branch and from tree to tree. It was in the early morning that one felt the hush of the great forest, whose impressive stillness was only broken by the crackling of the sticks under the feet of our cara- van. Here and there in the forest are little natural glades, called by the natives “eddos,” some watered by sluggish marshy streams that almost lose them- selves in the rich grass, while in others the waters rush and tumble over the clear quartz sand-beds and among moss-grown boulders. Dark tunnels, worn through the undergrowth by generations of beasts. on their way to water, lead down to these rifts in the dense vegetation; for it is here that the beasts of the forest, from ibe NatTIioNaL GEeoGRAPHiIc MAGAZINE A GROUP OF PYGMIES elephant to the timid little dik-dik, come down to drink, bathe, and crop the fine grass at the water’s edge. The seasons in the forest are very ill- defined. Generally rain falls on four or five days of every week, while seven days without a thunderstorm was the longest dry period I experienced. In any big clearing it was curious to hear a storm coming up, for the sound of the drops pattering on the leaves of the trees reached us long before the rain. The roar of a hurricane through the forest was an experience never to be forgotten. Our camp was nearly wrecked on one occasion, and a passage several hundred yards wide was cleared through the trees for a distance of some miles. In 1905 I was in the forest from the last few days of June to the first half of August, while in the following year I spent from the last week of January to the first days of August in practically the same dis- tricts. July of 1905, passed between Irumu and Mawambi, was by far the wettest month of the ten. The following July, however, spent between Makala, Mawambi, and towards Beni, was one af the driest. While the forest is damp, ! came across but vety few boggy places and no large marshes. Mosquitoes are almost unknown. THE DENIZENS OF THE FOREST The population of the forest is numer- ous, from the pygmies, considered to be the most savage and primitive, to the Mongwana, the followers and descend- ants of the Arab ivory and slave dealers, to whom a certain amount of Moslem civilization and handicraft have been handed down; and dotted about at wide intervals, the neat, well-ordered stations of the Congo government gave evidence of a European civilization that has crushed Mongwana power and effectually abolished the slave trade. The climate of the forest seems to have no detrimental influence on the physical development of any of the tribes who find their home under its shelter. The Mong- wana are a tall, well-proportioned race of A JourNEy THROUGH THE CONGO STATE 7 A FOREST GIANT, WITH TENT BETWEEN TWO EMBEDDED ROOTS men, and many of the women seem to have inherited a certain Arab grace of form. The Babila, another tribe with which I came in contact, although short of stature, are a sturdy, healthy-looking race, while the pygmies certainly show no signs of physical degeneration. But the native from the plain, or the white man, usually suffers severely after a few months’ residence in the damp atm)s- phere of the forest, rheumatism, dysen- tery, and bilious fevers being the most common complaints. The soil of the forest is so rich in leaf mold that it produces two to three crops a year. Like the natives, the villagers are in the habit of continually changing their cultivation from one spot to another, although here it necessitates a great deal of labor. The underwood and saplings are first all cut down, and then attention is turned to the smaller trees, which are felled some 8 feet from the base, an] left to cumber the ground where they fall. By this time the underwood is suf- ficiently dry to help in the destruction of the larger trees that are alone left stand- ayer, = Isbin! ie ieowbimel Ae ineOIAS., Bae natives set it alight in order to burn the bark, and thus kill the trees, which eventually stretch out their gaunt arms over crops of banana, millet, rice, maize, sweet potatoes, and manioc. Grass in the forest can only be found in the eddos, and in the clearings made by the natives for their gardens. For this reason there are no cows, and the few imported sheep and goats that man- age to withstand the hardships of the march through the forest to the villages are cherished by the owners as their most precious possessions. Among the little flock that followed us on our journey, the death-rate in the forest was over 50 per cent, and this” ini spite of severy. care: Night after night, a platform strewn with leaves was built for them, with a roof as shelter, and during the march each animal had a nose-bag with a few potatoes in the bottom, to prevent them getting hungry or eating poisonous leaves from the undergrowth. 160 THe Nationa GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE FLOATING VILLAGE OF KATANGA, AS SEEN FROM THE SHORE On the site of an abandoned garden vegetation rapidly springs up, to form a favorite haunt of elephant, buffalo, wild pig, bush-buck, bongo—an animal even rarer in the Ituri forest than the okapi— and leopards, which latter are, curiously enough, never to be found far from a native settlement. In coloration the ani- mals of the forest have a tendency to become darker in shade than those of the plains. A notable example of this is the ratel (Mellivora cotton), which is en- tirely black, while in the south and west of Africa the whole upper surface of the body, head, and tail are an ashy gray. Mica abounds in the neighborhood of Mawambi, and the whitewash used for the houses in the post is so full of minute fragments that the walls sparkle in the sunshine. THE PYGMIES This station is a great center of the pygmies. They live in small communi- ties of six to eighteen men, with their wives and families. Each group is gov- erned by an elder, but there does not ap- pear to be any recognized supreme chief, and the communities are often at war with one another. ‘They have no perma- nent villages; their low primitive huts, thatched with the large leaf of Sarcophry- nium arnoldianum, are built in a little clearing in the forest, and are moved, not only for their customary biannual migration, or when hunting in that dis- trict is becoming difficult, but also on the death of any member of the group, or also when they have killed some large animal. It is easier, in the latter case, to move the village to the animal than it is to move the animal to the village. Their time is passed in hunting and col- lecting honey, wild fruits, and _ roots. While they kill the larger animals, even elephants at times, with a short-shafted, broad-bladed spear, by far the greater quantity of their game is taken by driving it into nets. The pygmy is a most expert climber, and no matter how high the wild bees. may have their nest, he will scale up and cut it out in an incredibly short space of time. Each group of pygmies attaches itself to the chief of one of the other for- est tribes, whom they supply with meat, A JourRNEyY THROUGH THE CONGO STATE 161 THREE HUTS OF THE FLOATING VILLAGE, KATANGA honey, creepers as ropes, and leaves for thatching in exchange for vegetable produce. ‘Tilling the ground is an occu- pation regarded with scorn by the true pygmy. Bows and arrows are _ his weapons of war. With these he is a skilled marksman, for he is constantly practicing on monkeys and other small beasts. All the ironwork used by a pygmy is traded from other tribes. Bark cloth dyed terra-cotta or a soft gray is his principal manufacture, but he also makes wooden honey-pots, pipestems, bows and arrows, together with personal ornaments of fur and feather, and sleep- ing mats of skin. The dances of the pygmies are the most interesting of any I have seen, and are carried on with great energy and enthusiasm for hours at a stretch. Nearly all of them portray some feature of a hunt, and end up with the feast that follows its success. A FLOATING ISLAND Katanga was the most southerly point we touched. This village was one of the most curious I have ever visited. The main group of thirty huts was built on one huge floating platform some little distance out on the waters of a sheltered bay. The platform rises and falls with the surface of the lake, being moored by poles driven into the mud. The villagers are a robust, well-built race, in spite of constant intermarriage, for the men never choose their wives from among. the women of the plains. They subsist by hippo hunting and fishing, carrying on a lucrative trade by the purchase of salt from Katwi to exchange for sheep at the- southern end of the lake. 162 THe Natronat GeoGRAapHic MAGAZINE WAL! OF BURNT CLAY SURROUNDING A VILLAGE NEAR TIMBUKTU, AFRICA NATIVES NEAR TIMBUKTU, IN THE VALLEY OF THE NIGER A Journsy THRouGH THB Conco STATE 163 4 { ba A NATIVE HUT SHOWING BURNT CLAY WALL—SCENES IN FRENCH TERRITORY IN THE VALLEY OF THE NIGER 164 THe NaATrionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GRANARY IN THE VALLEY OF THE NIGER For this and the preceding four illustrations this Magazine is indebted to “La Société d’Etudes Coloniales de Belgique,” IN THE VALLEY OF THE NIGER HE French during recent years have been sending many expedi- tions across the Sahara Desert and have thoroughly explored Timbuktu, formerly the mysterious city of Africa, and all the country round about it. They have found there queer types of archi- tecture and relics of a civilization which centuries ago was very great. They have also discovered in caves exceedingly ancient human relics, showing that this part of the world was inhabited during the Stone Age by a people not unlike the prehistoric Cl liff-dwellers of this country. Brussels. But perhaps the most interesting re- sult of these expeditions is the apparent proof that the Desert of Sahara is con- stantly growing larger by pressing south- ward. The region along the upper Niger and east to Lake Tchad is becoming dryer each year, with the result that the arid belt across Africa is widening. ‘This gradual desiccation resembles that occur- ring in central Asia, and is the prin- cipal reason for the degeneracy of the peoples along the Niger. The NaTionat GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE has in prepara- tion a large map of Africa, which will be sent to the members of the Society in about two months. Maxine Breapb 165 MAKING CASSAVA BREAD, SAINT VINCENT, WEST INDIES Cassava is a native plant of tropical America, but has been extensively introduced into Africa and other tropical countries. It grows in bush form, usually six or eight feet high, and its roots, which grow in clusters, vary in size from a few inches to three feet long, and sometimes weigh as much as twenty-five pounds. Cassava roots form the principal food of the common people in tropical America. It is generally handled commercially in the form of meal, somewhat resembling oatmeal, but is made into thin, round cakes by the natives, known as cassava bread. The meal is exported from some parts of the West Indies to Europe, where it is used in manufactories as starch, and is also formed into tapioca. ‘The series of illustra- tions of making bread, pages 165-179, are from photographs by the Keystone View Co., and are copyrighted by them. 166 Tue Nationa, GreocrapHic MAGAZINE MAKING TORTILLAS, SALVADOR, CENTRAL AMERICA Tortillas are prepared from Indian corn, which is first parboiled to make it clean and soft. The meal is then crushed into a paste with a stone rolling pin on a small stone table, as in this picture, after which it is baked on a plate of iron or earthenware, but not enough to brown the tortilla, which is served hot. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. SELLING TortiLLas, Mexico 167 a Lane se ante fe ee TORTILLA MARKET, GUADALUPE, MEXICO One of the strange customs noticed by Americans in Mexico is that the natives are almost constantly eating from morning until night. Wherever a train stops there are men, women, and children selling boiled eggs, fried chicken, and many dishes distinctly Mexican, all gen- erally seasoned with Chile and other acrid spices; native cakes (tortillas), perhaps prepared and cooked at the train side, are also to be had, and there, too, may always be found the senorita with her bottle of pulgue. At the market a large portion of the purchases are for immediate consumption; hence, as shown in this view, women are always present with a handful of dough and portable charcoal stoves, supplying hot tamales and tortillas. This view shows the tortilla-makers as they appear on Sundays and feast days in front of the Cathedral Guadalupe. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. 168 THe NatrionaL GeocrapHic MAGAZINE A BREAD “WALLAH,’ JEYPORE, INDIA These round, flat cakes of unleavened bread are more like pancakes than any other article of food in common use among us. The cakes are called chapatties. ‘The cook shapes them between his hands and bakes them on a griddle or on the coals. They are made of wheat flour, and are a common article of diet among the well-to-do classes in central and northern India. The poorer people eat cake made of corn meal, millet, and a coarse, hard grain called raggy. In western India barley cakes are eaten to some extent. In the south boiled rice is made into cakes known as hoppers, which is the Anglo-Indian rendering of the Tamil appa. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. A JAPANESE BAKERY 169 A BAKERY IN JAPAN Old Japan had no bread or biscuits. Rice, beans, fish, eggs, and millet were and are the chief articles of food. ‘The Japanese knowledge of bread dates from their acquaintance with the Portuguese, who first entered Japan in 1542. In 1890 there was a rage for foreign bread in Tokyo, even among Jinrikisha men and cooliés. Piles of loaves were seen at every little cook-stall; but the fashion subsided like a fever and ordinary Japanese victuals resumed their wonted place. Biscuits such as we see in this view are a compromise between oriental and occidental cookery. ‘They are of various kinds, made of rice or of wheat flour and baked over a charcoal fire. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. 170 Tue NaTIonaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE asa sap LRH HNN NNRR EN eae RRHAANIRR TWO WOMEN GRINDING AT THE MILL—PALESTINE Wheat is sown, reaped, and ground in Palestine and Syria by the same primitive methods used 2,000 years ago. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. wm Maxinc Breap IN SyRiA 171 BAKING BREAD IN SYRIA The hearth is simply two stones raised on end, over which an iron plate is laid, on which the bread is baked. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. 172 Tue National GeocraPHic MaGaZINeE BREAD OF THE ORIENT, EGYPT, AND TURKEY These loaves are not of such generous size as the reader may infer. Notice a loaf to the right, purposely crushed for this occasion. The material is first rolled out or pounded flat like pie dough and two layers successfully united at the edges. These are then placed in a hot oven, where they puff up and are baked in a remarkably short time. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. A CanapIAN BAKERY 173 AN OLD-FASHIONED BAKERY STILL USED IN SECTIONS OF CANADA AND THE UNITED STATES This bakery resembles the New England oven of two generations ago. A week’s supply of bread for a large farm household can be baked at one heating. Copyrighted by the Key- stone View Co. ra. Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGaZzINnE MAKING THE “FLAT BREAD” OF THE NORWEGIAN PEASANT This Norwegian woman is baking the well-known flat bread under a little shelter of dried branches. The dough for this bread is in the shallow dish in front and to the left of the woman, and is made of coarse barley meal and water. After being rolled thin, it is removed to the round flat stone in the foreground, under which a fire of faggots is kept burning. Here it is baked, then laid on the pile on the opposite side of the picture. Copy- righted by the Keystone View Co. Breap IN Norway ea & MAKING THE “FLAT BREAD’ OF THE NORWEGIAN PEASANT This barley bread is stored in a dry place for the winter, when it forms one of the chief foods of the peasants. Though made in the most primitive fashion, it is usually clean and palatable. Copyrighted by the Keystone View Co. Photo from Corby Bros., Washington, D. Cc. THE LABORATORY OF AN AMERICAN BAKERY, WHERE ALL THE INGREDIENTS ARE CAREFULLY TESTED MARKING THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY NUSUAL difficulties are being met and overcome in marking the Alaskan boundary as determined by the Boundary Tribunal at London in 1903. The shortness of the season in which the work can be done, the absence of all trails, the necessity of climbing almost in- accessible peaks, and the severe cold practically all the time have made the surveying of the boundary a very hard problem. The work is, however, being pushed vigorously by both the United States and Canadian governments. The illustrations on pages 180-189 will give the reader an excellent idea of the region in which the work is being done. These illustrations are from photographs by Messrs Radcliffe Hordern and E. R. Martin, of the Alaskan Boundary Sur- vey, and have been sent to this Magazine through the courtesy of Hon. O. H. Titt- mann, Alaskan Boundary Commissioner for the United States. Kate’s Needle, whose peculiar profile is shown on page 180, is about 10,000 feet high, and is the highest mountain in southeastern Alaska outside of the Saint Elias and Mount Fairweather ranges. It is one of the boundary mountains se- lected by the Tribunal of London. Whichever of the pinnacles projecting above its summit ridge is chosen as the exact turning point in the boundary will be a grander and more enduring monu- ment than any which can be built by human agency. The reader will note the remarkable profile of a female face with a striking head-dress. The mountain is the source of great glaciers lying on its slopes, and from one of these in a most inaccessible region this photograph was taken by Mr Rad- cliffe Hordern, of the Alaskan Boundary Survey. The mountain is 8 miles west of the Stikine River and about 34 miles from Point Roberts at the mouth of the river. The views on pages 181-189 were all taken by Mr Martin in the vicinity of Glacier Bay, Alaska. aor TWENTIETH CENTURY BAKING 0 a - + yr [ dO'T y= , ¥. TANG SI HONOd AHL FO NOILVINAIVe q ‘uoysuIyseAA “‘sotg AqioD UlorF OJON I 1 a Z L I L Cesicest M Au , ct MV a N V = ey asic I v V NV #0 NOON HONOd AHL Tue NatTIionaL GeocrRAPHic MAGAZINE ye) AVIMVA NVOIWANVY NV NI GVauNd AO SHAVOT WHT ONIGINOW ‘) “q ‘uowuryseM “sorg Aqiop Wor1y oJoY La TWENTIETH CENTURY BAKING Iv WAN AT GH’IOOD at DD CG ‘uo VsuUTYysSeEM “‘so1g Aq1oD WorF OJOY UV S AAVOT LO SadNV S NOM, oT WH HM ‘ AWIMNVA NVOIMANV NV JO INO Ou ONIT’IOOD uOISsIUWOD Alepunog ueysey ‘UW1ep10 Fy aytppey Aq ojoyg *(941 o8ed 208) urezunour oy} Jo a[Yord ay} Aq pautyjno sey s,ueWIOM oY} a}0N VISVIV “IGAIN SALVM ica é NX xq O 2 2 an) AY x 4 O (eo) je! Se 4 < Z e) es ty Z isa a0) H 181 MARKING THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY ‘AVAING Alepunog ueysepy ‘Unie, “YA Aq OlOY_, “padtosqo se ivy se s[qessedui 91nd sr yt yey} dn usyxo1q pue Ysnor os st DOPJINS S}I PUB WAS SEM UOISSIIII FO UOILSIPUL ON “ABM YORI IUILUNS S}I WOT SuIdojs 4sevod sy} 0} YSnory} suNI JoR[S sip, “Are -punoqd [BUOeUIO}UT ay} WOrF sayttu OZ ynoqe pue ‘Avg Jotor[y Jo pua soddn oy} ur asoe[y Aperg oY} JO Ivf IY} SMOYS MoIA SITY NYHIOVIO AGVUA AHL MARKING THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY Some of the difficulties of triangulation. Climbing an almost vertical cliff by a rope. This cliff is almost 100 feet high, and affords the only means to reach the summit. The man on the rope has a theodolite on his back. ‘This ascent had to be made five times before the necessary observations were completed. Photo by E. R. Martin, Alaskan Boundary Survey- MarkInG THE ALAskaAN BouNDARY 183 _THE SURFACE OF THE “HUGH MILLER” GLACIER No difficulty was found in traveling at will over this glacier TRIANGULATION PARTY RETURNING FROM A TRIP TO A STATION NEAR THE MUIR GLACIER This outfit spent fourteen successive hours working the boat through the floating ice. In eight of the fourteen hours no land was visible, and part of that time the bow of the boat was almost invisible from the stern. A dense fog covered everything, and the boat was navigated by a pocket compass. Some of the bergs were very large, and the fact that they break up and roll over without any apparent reason and without any warning, made this trip extremely dangerous. Photos by E. R. Martin, Alaskan Boundary Survey. 184 Tue Natronat GeocrapHic MaGAzine VIEW UP QUEEN INLET TOWARD THE BOUNDARY LINE—THE “CARROLL” GLACIER SHOWS IN THE BACKGROUND The field of floating ice in front of the Muir Glacier and small bergs left on the beach by falling tides. The Muir Glacier formerly faced about where the group of men are seen, and had solid frontage clear across the inlet about roo feet high. Now it is back several miles and slopes gradually down to the water. The earthquake of 1899 probably caused the ice to break off more rapidly than it usually did. Its former great beauty is now lost. Photos by E. R. Martin, Alaskan Boundary Survey. 185 MARKING THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY AdaAing Alvpunog ueyseyy ‘ute “YA Aq sojoyg ‘pide pue Asvo oqtnb yusose sty} ape SurjOO} Pljos poor) NOILVLS NOILVINONVINL V OL FTdO'IS DUALS ANAA V ONIGWITO AINVd ONIAMISHO NV ADI NO Od OL ONITHAVUL HOOW SVH OI[IM GOHS Wa GINOHS YOAMAYAS V MOTI ONIMOIIS MIA V 186 THe NationaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE SILK SLEEPING TENT, WEIGHT ABOUT 8 POUNDS, 9 X 10, SHOWING COTS AND SLEEPING BAGS A TRIANGULATION PARTY EATING LUNCH ON A MOUNTAIN TOP Not much style, but plenty of tea and substantials. Photos by E. R. Martin, Alaskan Bound- ary Survey MarKING THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY wO7 AN OBSERVING PARTY RETURNING TO CAMP FROM A TRIANGULATION STATION ON A SNOW FIELD WHICH IS A LITTLE SOFT FROM THE ACTION OF THE SUN “CAMP DIVERSION The chief of parties feeding the pet of the outfit. A triangulation station signal and cairn, with the cook tent in the background. Photos by E. R. Martin, Alaskan Boundary Survey 188 THe NatrionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SUNSET VIEWS IN JULY These views were taken between 9.30 and 10.30 P.M. Photos by E. R. Martin, Alaskan Boundary Survey o> ioe) = dOL NIVINQOW JHL NO 100d V NI WIMS V ONINVI ‘ Adaing Aiepunog ueysely unteW “Y “a Aq oj04d MarRKING THE ALASKAN BouNDARY A DROWNED EMPIRE By Rospert H. CHAPMAN HE swamp issue has recently appeared upon the legislative horizon as a new and rather at- tractive proposition. Until very recently, federal reclamation of American mo- rasses had not been considered seriously. The Nationa, GrocrRaPHIC MaGAZINE last year published a general résumé of the drainage question by Mr H. M. Wilson ;* but since then the subject has taken shape with great rapidity, until now it looks as though we might have within the very near future a second reclamation act, this time for the purpose of removing the excess water from, rather than supplying it to, agricultural lands. In response to a Senate resolution, Sec- retary Garfield has recently transmitted to Congress an instructive report? on the work which the bureaus of his depart- ment have already done in connection with swamp and drainage matters. While the country generally has supposed that drainage, so far as it is related to the work of the federal government, is a new question, and that any information that Congress might want with respect to swamp lands would be forthcoming only after much investigation, 1t seems these bureaus have not only been for years making detailed surveys and studies of swamp lands of the United States, but the Department of the Interior has in several cases entered into actual drainage con- struction of large tracts in connection with irrigation projects. Over twenty years ago the Geolog- ical Survey started a special investigation of the swamp areas of the country in the work of the late Professor Nathaniel S. Shaler, and his estimate of approximately 78,000,000 acres of wet lands east of the 100th meridian stands today as accurate, * NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for May, 1907. + Senate Document No. I51. probably, as any figures yet produced. The fact, as stated in Mr Garfield’s re- port, that between seven and eight mil- lion acres of swamps have been inciden- tally surveyed by the Geological Survey in connection with the general topo- graphic survey of the United States di- rects attention to the great value of this class of work. One-third of the area of the country has already been covered topographically, and in this area where swamps occur these maps, taken in con- nection with the hydrographic and geo- logic investigations of the Survey, afford all the preliminary information required for determining the feasibility of drain- age projects and for planning the broad features of construction. The reason that greater swamp areas have not been mapped is indicated by the fact that since the primary purpose of the topographic work of the Survey is to secure a base for the geologic map of the United States, the specific localities chosen for topographic surveys have naturally been those of greatest geolog- ical and mineral importance and have not included any great swampy regions. Several special drainage surveys, how- ever, are described, as, for instance, the work in the Sacramento Valley of Cali- fornia, where a cooperative survey is being conducted by the state and the gov- ernment, the Geological Survey doing the work. In this case special maps, designed for reclamation purposes, are being made of the million acres of rich tule swamps, about two-thirds of the work having been completed. In this valley is located the greatest combined drainage and irriga- tion project in the United States, com- prising a million acres of swamp and two million acres of reclaimable arid lands. A special drainage survey is also being made in the upper Yazoo delta, Missis- sippi, under cooperative arrangement be- tween the Geological Survey and the A Drownep Empire SCENE IN DISMAL SWAMP—SOUTHERN MARGIN, NEAR ELIZABETH CMI, IN, C, Tue Nationa GEOGRAPHIC MaGAZINE 192 NOISOMG GN OINIAVO SUNHAdMd dO ¢dIS—-HOLIG HOVNIVUd GALOIANLSNOD THM V EOS A Drownep EmprRE qdudouwa anv GHYAVO SHGIS——-HOLIG YOVNIVUG GALONALSNOD ATYOOd V 194 Tue NationaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ROAD-MAKING ACROSS NEWLY RECLAIMED TRACT OF SWAMP LAND IN SACRAMENTO VALLEY State of Mississippi. It is probable that construction work in this area will be un- dertaken by the formation of a drainage district, the fund necessary for this pur- pose to be raised by assessment of the land improved. IMPORTANT PROJECT IN MINNESOTA In northern Minnesota a very interest- ing problem is presented. Here the United States owns about 2,500,000 acres of land which the Chippewa Indians have ceded to the government, to be held in trust and disposed of for their own bene- fit. Without some improvement of the lands, however, there is little likelihood of the Indians realizing much of any- thing from them, since they constitute a vast swamp, with only here and there small patches of arable land. ‘The set- tlers on these isolated tracts are as com- pletely marooned during long periods as though located upon islets in the ocean. So Congress has authorized the survey of these lands with a view to determining the feasibility of their reclamation by drainage, and the Geological Survey has - completed the major portion of the work and has even drawn detailed plans for the reclamation, by draining, of one portion of the swamp, known as the Mud Lake district. An amendment to the Indian ap- propriation bill has been proposed by Representative Steenerson of Minnesota allotting $1,000,000 for the drainage of this district, to be expended under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior. Mr Garfield also directs attention to the very considerable drainage work that is being done by the Reclamation Service in connection with its irrigation problems in the West. In one instance, in the Kla- math, Oregon-California, project, some 50,000 acres of swamp land will be re- claimed by drainage, and under an exten- sion of this great project there will be at DrRowNED EmpPIRE desis SR ieee TYPE OF CONVEYOR DREDGE USED IN CHANNEL-DEEPENING least an additional 100,000 acres drained. The Secretary points out with commend- able pride that in the event that Congress should require additional surveys or drainage construction work performed, his department has already two fully equipped bureaus, the Geological Survey and the Reclamation Service, ready at any day to extend the drainage work they are in reality already doing, and at the same time he calls attention to the fact that, considered in its entirety, the drain- age problem is not as simple a one as many suppose. It involves the handling of one of the most powerful forces with which man has to cope and is a matter of the broadest practical engineering. The various phases of the problem may be classified as follows: Farm drainage. 2. Drainage and flood control. 3. Drainage, flood control, and naviga- tion. 4. Tidal-flat drainage. The first is the simplest form of the problem—the draining of a farm or group of farms into the nearest natural run-off channel. The second and third are closely re- lated and more complex, especially i in the determination of engineering measures whereby disastrous floods may be pre- vented and the water uniformly distrib- uted over low-water seasons, so that navigable stages in the rivers may be maintained. The fourth comprises such lands as may require protection from both streams and the sea. The preliminary engineering require- ments in every case are in nowise dif- ferent from those governing the irriga- tion of arid lands, the construction of inland waterways, the prevention of floods, the conservation of water, or any other important water-supply develop- ment. Such problems all involve engi- neering and physical factors the control of which may extend beyond the area immediately under consideration. There- 196 Tue NationaL GeocraPpHic MaGAZINE RECLAIMED SHIOCTON SWAMP, WISCONSIN fore any great project of wet land rec- lamation is far above the plane of mere local ditching. If such work is to be prosecuted intelligently and purposefully, the actual construction must be preceded by topographic surveys, measurement of stream flow, consideration of necessary capacity of channels, and other physical studies. The actual development itself can be carried out only by a corps of com- petent engineers. In this connection Mr Garfield points out the danger of ex- tensive drainage undertakings without a full consideration of all the factors. Swamps are in a way natural storage reservoirs, and they give off their waters slowly, and if large areas are drained it means that there will result a quicker run-off from the drainage basin, and the question must be considered whether the channel capacity of the natural arteries is sufficient to carry the increased flow, else the improvement of one reach of a basin may result in the overflow and de- struction of another reach lower down. A CROP SAID TO BE 20 TONS PER ACRE The gauging of the streams in an area considered for draining and the determi- nation of their maximum carrying capac- ity is therefore an essential part of the preliminary investigation. The value of figures of stream flow are much greater when they have been continued over long periods, and the work and records of the Water Resources Branch of the Geological Survey, which cover many years past, are invaluable. One of the preeminent factors is the determination of the value of the re- claimed land. The crop it will best raise will give actual figures upon which to base estimates, and the careful attention which the experts of the Department of Agriculture are giving to soil surveys has a most valuable application to the subject. An item for primary consideration is the maintenance and extension of the navigable waterways, which are directly under the control of the engineers of the U2 Ss: Army: The amount of work to be done is A DrRownNeEpD EMPIRE DIFFICULTIES ENCOUNTERED IN SURVEY OF SACRAMENTO VALLEY (U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PARTY ) sufficient to keep the several branches of the government each hard at work on the particular problem it is best fitted to do, and calls for the most earnest and hearty cooperation of all. PUBLIC DEMAND FOR NATIONAL DRAINAGE The apparent popularity of the national drainage issue is evidenced by the large number of bills that have been introduced in Congress at this session, while very substantial progress has been made in the way of proposed legislation. The Senate Committee on Public Lands has consid- ered and digested the various bills and has unanimously reported to the Senate, with favorable recommendations, a com- prehensive measure. It is predicted by the author of the bill, Senator Flint, of California, that it will undoubtedly pass the Senate in the near future. What its fate will be in the House remains to be seen. It is believed that the majority of the members of that busy body favor national drainage enactment, but it is a question whether the bill will be allowed to come to a vote. The provisions of the bill are in the main as follows: The proceeds from the sale of public lands in the non-arid public-land states (those not contributing to the national irrigation fund) are appropriated as a “drainage’ fund, dating back to June 30, 1901, in order to give drainage an even start with irrigation. The work of drainage reclamation is to be carried out by the Secretary of the Interior, who is given wide discretion in the premises; among other features, he is empowered to Tue Nationat GeocraPHic MaGaZINe 198 WEST Bae be. nm MINNESOTA SWAMP SURVEY (U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PARTY EN ROUTE) HAND-DITCHING BY CONTRACT LA ’ BOR, HOLBECK S SWAMP, NEAR CHARLESTON, S. C. A Drownep Empire subdivide the reclaimed tracts into farm units of from 5 to 160 acres. It is now recognized that the mini- mum unit of 40 acres, under the irrigation act, is, under certain conditions of great fertility and productivity of soil, far in excess of what constitutes an adequate area for a farm home, where a man may make a comfortable liv- ing for himself and family. ‘The cost of the drainage construction is to be charged against the land re- claimed, as under the irrigation act, and is to be repaid into the drainage fund in not to exceed ten annual installments. To secure this repayment the government is to have a first and paramount lien on the land. Where other than public lands are reclaimed the loan of the money from the drainage fund is to be upon the bonds of the state, the municipality, or drainage district and secured by lien on the lands. There is to be no commutation of homesteads in case of the reclamation of public lands. The bill is thus seen to closely follow the general principles un- derlying the irrigation act—the money is obtained from the sale of government lands, so that the ap- propriation is automatic; the fund, through the return to it of the cost of construction by the land-own- ers, becomes a revolving one, and most of the details of execution are left to the Secretary of the In- terior. Under this measure national drainage would begin existence with not less than six million dollars, the receipts from the sales of lands in the states included under it having been from I901 to June 30 1907, $5,813,258. Since the Secretary of the Interior is not restricted in making requirements for the repayment of the cost of construction, it is probable that in such cheap reclamation work as is esti- mated for in the Mud Lake district, where the cost will be less than $3 per _acre, he will provide for the repayment to the fund in a shorter period than the MENTO VALLEY, CALIFORNIA maximum 10 years. In this event the money would be available for a second use in possibly five years from the com- pletion of the project and settlement of the land. To save a person from drowning calls for more or less heroism in every case. To win from the realm of the powerful Water King a flooded and perishing em- pire as large as that of Great Britain and Ireland, and so furnish homes for men, women, and children, requires careful study, intelligent direction, and unceasing labor. TOPOGRAPHER AT WORK IN TULE SWAMP OF SACRA- HAITI: A DEGENERATING ISLAND* The Story of its Past Grandeur and Present Decay By Rear ApmiRAL Cotspy M. Cuesrer, U.S. Navy EKOGRAPHICALLY, the Island (5 of Haiti, including within its ~ ; limits the two republics of Santo Domingo and Haiti, is in the class of the most favored of nations. Situated on the Western Continent about midway between its two grand divisions of North and South America and abounding in natural resources, it might be an em- porium for each, if its inhabitants were of as high an order as the country itself. The general sailing directions for ships bound from New York to almost any part of the Greater Antilles, or to the north coast of South America, require a course to be steered due south on the seventy- fourth meridian of longitude, which passes Watlings Island, the San Sal- vador of Columbus, close aboard, and ‘leads into the Caribbean Sea between the islands of Cuba and Haiti; thence ‘a slight change of course to the westward ‘takes the ship to the future entrance of the Pacific Ocean—the Panama Canal. ‘Thus, ships from our own metropolis visiting the neighboring ports, in which we are most interested, will pass close to the “Gem of the Antilles.” The name Haiti, or “High Island,” is significant of the character of its topog- raphy. “Sire,” once said a British ad- miral to his king, George the Third, when asked about the island, “Haiti looks like that,” and he crumpled up a piece of paper and placed it upon the table. A brief description though this may be, it well fitted the case. The island is about 400 miles long, 150 miles wide, and is about the size of the State of New York. It is irregular in shape and is intersected by three chains of mountains. Haiti has a climate peculiar to itself. While it is dominated by the usual hot and dry seasons of the tropics, some of its: high peaks, which extend nearly up into the snow limits of the atmosphere, seem. to draw from the trade winds which sweep across their summits the moisture, which is precipitated almost dailv for a short time, and thus the dry season is robbed of its drought-affect- ing proclivities. | THE ORIGINAL SEAT OF PARADISE Only one opinion seems to exist in the minds of historians concerning the general salubrity of the climate, the productiveness of the soil, and the beauty of the scenery of this remark- able island. “In the delightful vales,” says Raynal, “all the sweets of spring are enjoyed without winter or summer. There are but two seasons of the year and they are equally fine. The ground, always laden with fruit and covered with flowers, realizes the delights and riches of poetical description. Wher- ever we turn our eyes we are enchanted with a variety of objects colored and re- flected by the clearest light. The air is temperate in the daytime and the nights are constantly cool.” Naturally this ac- count refers particularly to places on the island where foreigners are wont to congregate, but it also accords well with my own experience there. The memory of a night spent in the hills above Port-au-Prince, where this description strictly applies, is fre- quently in my mind. Here, after a night of rest, the new day began with a swim in a beautiful pool of mountain water which ran through the lower part of our host’s house; and this, accompanied by gentle breezes wafting sweet odors and mingling with the song of birds, * An address to the National Geographic Society. Haiti: made the place enchanting. As I gazed upon the beauty of the picture pre- sented to me, I could well understand Columbus’ enthusiasm and boast that he had discovered the original seat of Paradise. Historically, Haiti, or Santo Domingo, is the senior of our own country, if we leave out of consideration the legend- ary reports concerning the visits of the Norsemen to our northern coasts 800 years ago, and we are somewhat in- debted to this beautiful island for our own development. It appears providential that Colum- bus should have been led to this Eldo- rado of his day to make his first settle- ment, when so many other localities seemed to be the pole to which his com- pass pointed, for here he met a less warlike people than he would have found in the north, and the latter might have blotted out of existence the spark of exploration which was started by this first expedition to the New World. We know that the dread of cold weather was primarily responsible for his abrupt change of course to the southward, although the _ glittering prospect of gold which the aborigines led him to believe might exist in the larger islands to the southward had its marked influence on his selection of a route to follow. But Columbus’ own brief account of his voyage, as given in his letter to his friend and patron, Luis de Santangel, dated February 15, 1493, explains so well his reasons for his abrupt change of course from the west to the eastward again, and also gives such a fine description of the land he found, that I shall quote a portion of it here: COLUMBUS SPANISH LETTER TO LUIS DE SANTANGEL “Sir: As I know you will have pleas- ure of the great victory which our Lord hath given me in my voyage, I write you this, by which you shall know that in thirty-three days I passed over to the Indies with the fleet which the most illus- A DEGENERATING ISLAND 201 trious King and Queen, our Lords, gave me, where I found very many islands peopled with inhabitants without num- ber. And, on them all, I have taken pos- session for their Highnesses, with procla- mation and the royal standard displayed; and I was not gainsaid. On the first which I found I put the name of Saint Salvador, in commemoration of His High Majesty ‘who marvelously hath given al this; the Indians call it Guanahani. The second I named the Island of Santa Maria de Conception, the third Ferrandina, the fourth Isabela, the fifth Isla Juana; and so for each one a new name. When I reached Juana (Cuba) I followed its coast westwardly and found it so large that I thought it might be the mainland province of Cathay. At the end of many leagues, seeing that there was no change, and ‘that the coast was bearing me northwards, whereunto my desire was contrary, since the winter was also con- fronting us, I formed the purpose of making from thence to the south, and as the wind was also against me, I deter- mined not to wait for other weather and turned back as far as a port agreed upon (probably Gibara). . . “T understood sufficiently from other Indians whom I had already taken that this land, in its continuousness was an island ; from its headland I saw another island to the east eighteen leagues distant from this, to which I at once gave the name La Spafiola. And I proceeded thither and followed the north coast, as with La Juana, eastwardly for a hundred and seventy-eight great leagues in a direct easterly course, as with La Juana. The which, and all the others, are most strong to an excessive degree and this extremely so.” HAITI AS COLUMBUS SAW IT The route as described by Columbus seems then to have led him away from the western course, and he thus stumbles almost on the finest island of the group into which he had entered. His letter, continuing, tells of his first impression of the beautiful island; and as he found it, ZO2 sO may we see it today, if we shut out the black picture which is the product of his countrymen’s avarice. “lhe ne (Uae yta). las Gals, “wae: eune many havens on the seacoast, incompar- able with any others I know in Christen- dom, and plenty of rivers so good and great that itis a marvel. The lands there are high, and in it are very many ranges of hills and most lofty mountains incom- parably beyond the Island of Centrefrei (or Teneriffe) ; all most beautiful in a thousand shapes and all accessible, and full of trees of a thousand kinds, so lofty that they seem to reach the sky. And I am assured that they never lose their foliage, as may be imagined, since I saw them as green and as beautiful as they are in Spain in May and some of them were in flower, some in fruit, some in another stage, according to their kind. And the nightingale was singing, and other birds of a thousand sorts, in the month of November, round about the way I was going. There are palm trees of six or eight species, wondrous to see for their beautiful variety ; but so are the other trees and fruits and plants therein. There are wonderful pine groves and very large plains of verdure, and there is honey and many kinds of birds, and many mines in the earth; and there is a popula- tion of incalculable number. Espafiola is a marvel; the mountains and hills, and plains, and fields, and the soil, so beauti- ful and rich for planting and sowing, for breeding cattle of all sorts, for building of towns and villages. ‘There could be no believing, without seeing, such har- bors as are here, as well as the many and great rivers and excellent waters, most of which contain gold. In the trees and fruits and plants, there are greater diver- sities from those of Juana (Cuba). In this there are many spiceries and great mines of gold and other metals. The people of this island and all others that I have seen, or not seen, all go naked, men and women, just as their mothers bring them forth.” Ture NatTionaL GEocraPHic MaGAZINE THE LAUGHING NATIVES LONG SINCE EXTERMINATED The tribute which Columbus pays to the natives in continuing his narrative would satisfy even Bellamy’s ideals as ex- pressed in his “Looking Backward.” I should like to quote all of his letter for the benefit of those who have not been so fortunate as to read it, but space does not permit. A paragraph or two will give the gist of his ideas. “Tt seems to me,” he says, “that in all those islands the men are content with a single wife. . Nor have [ been able to learn whether they hold personal property, for it seemed to me that what- ever one had, they all took share of, espe- cially of eatable things. I have not found any monstrous men, but, on the contrary, all the people are very comely ; nor are they black like those in Guinea, but have flowing hair; and they are not begotten where there is an ex- cessive violence of the sun. Of anything they have, if it be asked, they never say no, but do rather invite the person to accept it, and show as much lovingness as though they would give their hearts. And they know no sect or idolatry, save that they all believe that power and good- ness are in the sky, and they believe very firmly that these ships and crews come from the sky; and this comes not because they are ignorant; on the contrary, they are men of very subtle wit, who navigate all these seas and who give a marvelously good account of every thing. S We do not wonder when reading his full description that he called this spot the Garden of Eden. Would that we could look on the inhabitants of this beau- tiful island now as Columbus depicted it; but, alas! since his time a sad change has gradually crept over the island, so that now foreigners shun it as they do a pesti- lence. In reading the history of its people since the extinction of the aborigines our hearts sicken and we are appalled by the revelations there disclosed. Its pages are black with the marks of HaltTr: blood shed and crime committed, not alone by the ignorant and superstitious, but more: especially by those of intelli- gence and education, and even our own race is not altogether blameless or want- ing in responsibility for this condition of things. On Saint Nicholas Day (December 6), 1492, Columbus entered a port at the ex- treme west end of the Island of Santo Domingo or, as the whole island was then called by the aborigines, Haiti. The natives themselves called the port Bohio, but Columbus christened it,"in honor of the day he was celebrating, Port Saint Nicholas, the name still existing as Saint Nicholas Mole. ‘This date will ever be memorable in the annals of the Haitiens as marking the beginning of the history of the island. Columbus now called the island His- paniola in honor of the country which had sent him forth to discover it, and it is to be regretted that this name given by the immortal discoverer has been lost, for its present two names are conflicting and confusing. The small squadron which formed Columbus’ expedition to the New World had come the whole distance across the ocean “intact, but off the coast of Cuba the captain of the ship Pinta deserted with his ship and left him only the flag- ship Santa Maria and the small Nina to continue the voyage. Speeding on as rapidly as the difficult navigation would permit, the two ships came to anchor off a small village now known as Port de Paix, which was so beautiful a spot that he called it the Vale of Paradise. Here Columbus opened communication with the Indian King or Cacique Guacanagari, who ruled one of the five principal divisions of the island and who sent him presents of gold and assured him that more could be found farther to the east- ward. Columbus had no doubt at this time that he had reached the Asiatic con- tinent, and he was anxious to return and report his good fortune to his king and queen. But unfortunately soon after leaving Port de Paix his flag-ship, the A DEGENERATING ISLAND 203 Santa Maria, drifted upon a shoal and be- came a total wreck. s THE FIRST SETTLEMENT IN THE NEW WORLD As the better part of his force was em- barked on board this ship, his position was most precarious, and he was forced to at once build a fort on shore and leave in it a large portion of his men for a garrison. The wreck occurred near the present port of Cape Haitien, on Christmas eve, 1492. The hospitable natives lent willing hands, and Columbus soon had the fort constructed from the salvage of his ship near a village then called Guarico. This he named the Fortress of Navidad; and this was the first structure built in Amer- ica. Soon after the fort was completed he left it with a garrison of 30 men and, proceeding to the eastward, he was for- tunate to again fall in with the Pinta, which vessel had deserted him in Cuba, and in company with that ship he re- turned to Spain to make his report. His grateful sovereigns soon fitted him out again with a force of 17 ships and several hundred men to carry on his ex- plorations from Fort Navidad, and among those who enlisted for the voyage were a large number of his wealthy countrymen, who cast in their lot and their fortunes with him in order to gain a share of the golden prize which the Admiral assured them was within their grasp. But, as is usual where avarice is the ruling spirit, troubles grew faster than riches. His first great misfortune after his return was to find that all of the garrison he had left at Navidad had been slain by the natives of the interior, notwithstanding his good friend Gua- canagari had defended them with such gallantry as to produce the almost entire destruction of his own people. Columbus then determined to build a permanent settlement, and after recon- noitering he selected for this purpose a site on an elevated plain near a spacious bay on the north coast of the island. Here was established the first town in 204 the New World, which was dignified by the name of his queen and _ patron, Tsabella. The position of the town had the only advantage of being contiguous to the gold country, which was the real objective of the party; consequently the center of ac- tivities was soon transferred to other parts of the island, and Isabella became only a name with a few ruins to show from whence the first expedition into the interior had started. Leaving a small force at Isabella, Columbus set out for the gold fields in the interior which he had been led to be- lieve existed there. Passing up the banks of the river Bijo-Bonico, he crossed the mountains through a pass which he called El Puerto de los Hidal- gos, or “Gentlemen’s Pass,” in honor of the gentlemen who composed his party. Here opened out the beautiful Yaqui Valley, through which flows the river to which he gave the name of the Rio del Oro, or River of Gold. The valley he called Vega Real, or Royal Valley, as it was the most beautiful he had ever seen. The natives, resenting the intrusion of the foreigners, swarmed in great num- bers to contest their passage into the gold fields ; but the unarmed hosts of the island were no match for the disciplined troops of Spain, and they were overcome and slaughtered in great numbers. A fort- ress was established on the Janico River, called Saint Tomas, which the natives at- tempted to take with such disastrous re- sults that they gave up for a time all further resistance to the conquerors. Columbus was now fully satisfied that he had reached the Cipango of the East Indies, for which place he had originally set out. AN UNHAPPY MARRIAGE But the course of empire was still south, and soon Santo Domingo City be- came the center of the colonial activities. A little love affair connected with the growth of this city is interesting in this connection. One of the Spanish party, Miguel Dias, having gotten into difficulty THe NaTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE with an officer, severely wounding him in combat, fled to escape punishment. Find- ing shelter in an Indian village and being received with much cordiality and hospi- tality, he in return gave his heart to the young Caguisas, who was then govern- ing the tribe. His protestations met with favor, and the young Spaniard soon found himself the consort of a queen of no mean accomplishments. But he soon wearied of his environment and sighed for his old companions. The queen, seeing his discontent and fearing to lose him, gave him the secret of her vast wealth and, loading him with the precious metal, sent him back to the Spaniards to induce them to return with him and settle in her country. Dias delivered this mes- sage to Columbus, who immediately ordered an exploration of that part of the island to ascertain the truth of the Spaniard’s report. The sequel to this little love affair is also interesting, but most pathetic. Zam- caca, after giving her all to her lover, who was thereby promoted to high honors in the colony, being the first alcalde of the new city, was so disheartened by the cruel treatment accorded her people that she fled from civilization and affluence to the wilds of the forests, leaving her two children and still faithful husband to mourn her loss, and was never heard from again. From this origin, so casual and domes- tic, arose the first permanent city of the New World. Thus the Spaniards were drawn to the south of the island, where they built a fort called New Isabella, and Columbus, who was about to return to Spain, was so impressed by the glowing accounts of the section given him by his men that he ordered his brother, Don Bartholomew, to select a site and build a town. A place was chosen on the banks of the Ozamas River, and here arose the first permanent city of the New World, which was named Santo Domingo, after Columbus’ father. Soon after the Great Admiral took his departure for Spain, discord became rife among his subjects, and, this eventually Hatt: developing into open mutiny, there was inaugurated a rebellion against the pow- ers that be which, repeated from time to time, has made up the principal history of the island to this day. THE OLD SPLENDOR OF SANTO DOMINGO In a short time the city of Santo Do- mingo became one of great importance, and is described as not inferior to any in Spain. When at last Don Diego Colum- bus, to whom the great discoverer, now dead, bequeathed his rights as -well as his perplexities, became the ruler of the province, he set up a court which vied in splendor and magnificence with that of the king himself. Diego’s ambition was to build such a capital here as would cor- respond in greatness to the New World his father had discovered and to the fame and dignity of his family. The court of his young and beautiful queen was thronged by a circle of attendants from her own class in Spain which professed to be the best blood of Castile. Magnificent public buildings were erected, the cathedral was © highly endowed and built with artistic taste, while the monasteries were made monuments to the Christian sentiment of the foreigners. The richness and abundance of gold found in the rivers of the island at first brought great wealth to the Spaniards; but it was soon recognized that cultiva- tion of the soil was of more value than the mines, which could only be profitably worked with the means then extant as long as the gold was found on the sur- face, and hence agriculture became the principal industry of the islanders. But the gentlemen from Spain were too proud to labor themselves, and being anxious to gain fortunes in a short time, they drove the Indians beyond their strength, and they died in rapidly increasing numbers. Thus was killed the goose which laid the golden egg, for without the laborers the masters became land poor. The old feel- ing of sedition and discontent still exist- ing in the hearts of the colonists, together with the loss of labor, soon produced a condition of things that was most un- A DEGENERATING ISEAND 205 promising for the future welfare of the colony. : King Ferdinana, at first jealous of the Columbian dynasty and the rising im- portance of Hispaniola, now began to realize but little on his investment, and he soon lost interest in the administration of the colony and devoted his attention to the discoveries in other parts of the New World. The most redeeming feature in the Spanish control of Hispaniola was the struggle of Las Casas, the celebrated bishop of Chiapa, to save the natives, to whom the island rightfully belonged, from the utter annihilation to which the brutal system of slavery inaugurated by his countrymen was fast driving them. In his vain endeavor to alleviate the suf- ferings of the aborigines he went even so far as to be credited with introducing into the island the inhabitants of Africa, who had become objects of barter between the Portuguese and other European states, and thus was established the slave trade in America—a curse that was quite as injurious to the well being of the island as the one he endeavored to overcome. RIVALRY OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE FOR HAITI The history of Santo Domingo during the 16th century can hardly be given here, even if it were sufficiently important to warrant its repetition. Suffice it to say that the destruction of the aborigines was now complete and the colony rapidly degenerated in wealth, but the power rep- resented in the control of all the colonies belonging to Spain became the envy of her European sisters. In the early part of the 17th century the English and French combined to se- cure a portion of the growing wealth of the New World, and this resulted in es- tablishing in 1630, on the neighboring Island of Tortuga, a band of robbers which carried on piratical operations in its worst form. ‘Then, becoming more powerful, they began depredations on Hispaniola, finding that hunting its vast and verdant fields, which abounded in 206 cattle, to be more remunerative than cut- ting the throats of their victims on the sea. The discord that naturally followed this copartnership eventually resulted in the French buccaneers gaining the mastery over their British allies, forcing the latter to take up their abode .on the Island of Jamaica, and thus leaving the French in possession of the Island ‘of Tobago, and naturally the northern coast of Santo Domingo also came under French juris- diction. AN UNDESIRABLE ELEMENT From now on the French in the west and Spanish people in the east wrestled in almost continuous strife for the mastery of Santo Domingo, thereby checking for a while the progress of the island and disposing the inhabitants to laziness and vice. It should be noted that, unlike the American continental emigrants, the West Indian voyagers went forth to seek gold only ad had no thought of making permanent settlements. They therefore left behind them their sweet- hearts and wives, to whom they expected to return, and in order to increase the value of the French possessions there were introduced into the island at this time a class of women who were but little better than the buccaneers them- selves. The mingling of the blood of this refuse of European civilization gave to their descendants characters as low as can exist in human nature, and to this fact — is largely due the present condition of the people here. In 1776 the line of demarkation be- tween the French and Spanish portions of the island was defined practically as it exists today. After this settlement of the boundary question the different colo- nies became more friendly and business between them increased, until finally, by the treaty of Bole, signed July 22, 1795, France came into possession of the whole island; but the formal abandonment of the Spanish government of its control did not take place until January 27, 1801. Tue Nationa, GeocRAPHic MAGAZINE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HAITI AND SANTO DOMINGO Although the whole island was now under French rule, the two parts, east and west, were irremediably separated by the interests of the different races. In the eastern section the foreigners were in numbers about as one to four of the negroes; in the western section of the island the proportion of the blacks to whites was much larger—at least 15 to 1. This disproportion of numbers in the races accounts for the continued domina- tion of the whites in the east, while the western portion of the island later became the Black Republic. Following the French supremacy, Haiti proper rapidly rose in the scale of pros- perity, becoming the principal colonial gem in the French crown; but its prog- ress was founded upon an insecure base and a fall was inevitable. It is said that fourteen hundred vessels were employed in its trade, which was about two-thirds of the whole external commerce of France. sagt Among the mulattoes, or free men of color, were many of intellect and refine- ment, who had been well educated in France, such as Rigaud, Baurais, Petion, Borgella, and Dumas, the father of the celebrated novelist, and although they were few in number, such men aspired to a legal and civil equality with the whites, and in striving for this they naturally felt little sympathy with the slave population and refused to connect themselves with them until too late. To harmonize all the conflicting interests of this mixture of races was beyond the capacity of the colonial government. When the French Revolution finally broke out in France, throwing the whole of Europe in consternation, it found the French colonists quite ripe for a similar outbreak. About eight hundred of the mulattoes in Haiti had enlisted under the name of the Royal Chasseurs and ac- companied Count d’Estaing in his expe- dition to Savannah during the war of the American Revolution, taking part in our Haiti: A DEGENERATING IsLAND 207 CATHEDRAL AND UNION CLUB, CAPE HAITIEN THe NatTionaL GrocraPpHic MAGAZINE 208 Naidivit ad4VS go SNUZiLIS savaid edea .» (arqoaog) 1oT-Vdva 4A Par LE JOURNAL sectorneeyetatiy BS BARR, acai a, Ha ITI: own struggle for freedom, which strengthened the desire of the Haitiens to secure their own independence. Follow- ing the example thus set by both France and America, there broke out that fierce strife known as “The Horrors o1 the Negro Insurrection in Santo Domingo,” which has so darkened the pages of his- tory. It should not be forgotten, however, that the fearful cruelties practiced during this insurrection were equally shared by both black and white, all parties seeming to vie with each other in the excess of atrocities. Unlike their continental friends, who were generally actuated by a common impulse, the interests of the islanders were hopelessly divided. The population consisted at this time of about 30,000 whites, mostly planters, who had been made wealthy by the labor of the slaves ; but they were separated into irrec- oncilable factions. Second, there were, about the same number of mulattoes, many of them property-owners, whose social, industrial, and legal rights had been restricted to a humiliating degree by the Royalists. ‘Third, there were nearly 500,000 black slaves, who were groaning silently under a cruel form of bondage which they sought to shake off. TOUSSAINT L’OUVERTURE Soon after war broke out there ap- peared upon the scene of activities that wonderful character, Toussaint L’Ouver- ture, who wrested the command of the army from his superiors, Francois and Baisson, and as a French general finally led the troops to victory. At first Toussaint was appointed a surgeon to the army, as he had some knowledge of simple medicines, which had given him great influence on his mas- ter’s estate, and he used this knowledge for the benefit of the insurgent forces to good advantage. This genius, as he may properly be styled, was a slave, at first known as Toussaint Bieda, from the name of his master’s estate, and later as Toussaint L’Ouverture, by which he is known in A DEGENERATING ISLAND 209 history, owing to the fact that he had overturned the government. : He was born about 1746, of negro parents, his father being an imported African and, as stated by tradition, the som or a chier | Delicate as avchild athe nickname of Fatras-Baton, or “Little Lath,” as it has been translated, was given him. Although small and insig- nificant in person when young, he later became possessed of great strength and endurance. He had received in youth some education from a brother slave, and knew how to read and write and speak the French language as well as the creole patois, and it is said had some knowledge of drawing. He was fifty years old at the time of the insurrection. This really remarkable man, who, con- sidering his education and environments, has not been inaptly compared to Wash- ington and Napoleon, was now to find himself the master of the island. Be- loved to the point of enthusiasm by the negroes, who had raised him to the dig- nity he enjoyed, he was honored and re- spected by public representatives of other nations with whom he had dealings. When there was a lull in the strife which gave him relief from military cares, he devoted his whole time to the arts of peace, and the policy of his whole admin- istration was characterized by the same sagacity and prudence which had distin- guished his exploits in the field. He re- stored the planters to their estates and pushed forward the cultivation of the soil, realizing, as does Booker Washing- ton, the negro chieftan in the United States, that the salvation of his people was occupation for mind and body, and that the land was given them as a talent from which they must earn a living. As the ancient colonial government was now at an end and all official inter- course with France cut off, Toussaint promulgated a new constitution, which recognized the equality of the races and as much freedom of trade as possible. A governor was to be named for five years, but on account of the eminent services of Toussaint, he was to occupy the post for 210 life, with the power to name a successor. This proclamation was made in due form in I8ot. He decreed that slavery should be for- ever abolished, and at the same time the planters were by law required to give a fifth part of the crops in payment for the labor of the freed slaves, and at the same time the negroes were compelled to labor for their sustenance. To carry this scheme into practical operation was a no less difficult task for him than for the negroes, but the ex-slaves were, with few exceptions, contented and happy. Though the Spanish colony had been formally ceded to France in 1795, and different posts had in consequence been actually occupied by the Republican troops, yet the city of Santo Domingo, the capital of the eastern part of the island, still remained in the hands of the Spaniards. ‘To obtain possession of the capital and-to establish such regulations as might be required on its change of government, Toussaint made a trip through the whole island for this purpose, which was in reality a triumphal march aiter his,great victories in the field. The end of the year 1801 found every part of Santo Domingo in quiet submission to the negro chief and rapidly improving in wealth and happiness under his wise ad- ministration. With the aid of the whites, whom Toussaint was anxious to befriend, agriculture was beginning to improve; the finances were getting in order, and the government was being wisely and regularly administered. This prosper- ity, however, was soon to be interrupted by calamities as serious as any which had ever visited the ill-fated island. CAPTURE OF TOUSSAINT 1/OUVERTURE BY TREACHERY War having ceased between Great Britain and France in October, 1801, the French navy, which had not for several years been able to leave its ports without fear of capture, was once more free, and Bonaparte determined to recapture Santo Domingo. Although Toussaint had in no way separated the colony from the Tue Nationa. GEOGRAPHIC MaGAZINE mother country, Napoleon became sus- picious of the black general’s ambition and, fearing lest his principal colony should slip away from him, he was in- duced to listen to the strong appeals of the planters whose estates had been ruined by the negro insurrection, who insisted that they could not be restored unless slavery was again resumed. To counteract the growing tendency of the islanders to free themselves from his control, as well as to offset any possi- bilities of his everlasting enemy, England, reaping benefit from an alliance with the new country if left to act for itself, Na- poleon planned and fitted out the famous expedition of 1802 to bring the colony again under subjection. His brother-in- law, General Leclerc, was given an im- posing force of 30,000 men, reinforced, it.is said, from time to time up to 55,000. The general embarked and with his naval convoy proceeded to Cape Haitien, where he arrived on the 12th of February of that year. There can be no doubt that the avowed object of the expedition was to restore slavery, although this object was disguised by kindly and friendly let- ters to Toussaint, such as Napoleon knew so well how to write. It is not intended to go into the history of this fatal attempt on the part of the French government to reénslave its sub- jects—a history that is characterized by unspeakable atrocities on the part of the French, who set an example that was speedily followed in retaliation by the negroes. ‘Toussaint, assisted by his two principal chiefs, Christophe and Dessa- lines, fought with the bravery of desper- ation ; but they were at last overcome, not by battle, but by the artful persuasion and duplicity of his enemy in debauching his own people, who were tired of the strug- gle. Finally a truce was declared and the tricolor again waved over the whole land. RETRIBUTION BY THE BLACKS Probably one of the blackest pages in Napoleon’s record is his treachery to Toussaint in cajoling him into disarma- ment and then having him kidnapped Harit1: A DEGENERATING IsLAND and carried back to France to die in a dungeon. But retribution speedily fol- lowed this perfidity, for the negroes, seeing their beloved chief so basely and cruelly treated, again hoisted the flag of rebellion and, under the leadership of Dessalines and Christophe, assisted by the pestilential yellow fever, they drove the intruders out of the island and into the hands of their implacable enemy, the British, who had again declared war against France. It is said that this expe- dition to reénslave the blacks cost Napo- leon $40,000,000, besides almost all of his troops. On the first of January, 1804, Dessa- lines, who followed Toussaint as general- in-chief of the army, promulgated the declaration of Haitien independence, and the country has remained the Black Re- public ever since. The name of Haiti, as the island was designated by the abo- riginal inhabitants, was now revived and has never been changed. Dessalines, who was soon afterward proclaimed em- peror, started a bloodthirsty policy of exterminating the French subjects who still remained in the country, and his acts ° of cruelty showed how well he had been schooled under the French; but in spite of this many of the planters, who had the alternative of falling into the hands of the English or run the risk of being mur- dered by the negroes, remained on the island, and as Dessalines’ object became later to restore his exhausted male popu- lace, they were gradually allowed to re- sume tilling the soil. Dessalines’ administration was, for- - tunately for the Republic, short-lived, but his cruel nature and implacable hatred of the whites led him into such acts of bloodshed as to shame even his own race. At the time of the insurrection in 1791 he was a slave to a negro whose name was Dessalines, and this surname was added to his own, Jean Jacques. He was short in stature and strongly built, of great activity and undaunted courage. He undoubtedly had great military tal- ents in spite of his want of education, but the respect he commanded was due 21:1 rather more to the terror he inspired-than to his ability as a general. He was at last conspired against by his own army, arrested, and killed in an attempt to escape, October 17, 1806 During the insurrection the Revolu- tionists, who were mainly composed of the negroes, had their headquarters in the north, generally at Cape Francois. While the colored people, many of whom were small property-owners, had estab- lished a colony by themselves in the southern part of the island, and having but little in common with the slaves, there was a gradual separation of the two classes, the blacks predominating in the north and the colored people in the south. Upon Dessalines’ death, Christophe, one of Toussaint’s generals, took his. place, and several years later declared himself king under the title of Henry I,. King of Haiti. Christophe and his wife were crowned as king and queen at Cape Francois, to which place was given the name of Cape Henry. The royal court, copied after the monarchies of Europe, was established here, and a full line of titles was given out, many of them, such as the Count de Lemonade and the Duke de Marmalade, still existing on the island. Christophe, during all his reign of 12 years, put forth his utmost energies to develop the natural prosperity of the island. He introduced the Protestant religion and the English language into the schools, but at the same time he never ceased to prepare to defend his country against the French, which he rightly feared would again attempt to reenslave it. On a lofty mountain top above the beautiful valley of Millot, back of Cape Haitien, he built that remarkable struc- ture known as Sans Souci. He lived in this palace with his suite in a state of regal splendor. The ruins of the palace, now overgrown by tropical plants, are a monument to Christophe’s engineering skill ; but more wonderful still is the stu- pendous castle fortress, built as a refuge in case the French should again appear. Within the walls of this fortress, which 2182 are one hundred feet high and twenty feet thick, many of the three hundred guns which were mounted on its parapets remain to show the skill and endurance which enabled them to be brought up the steep mountain sides. THE EASTERN END OF THE ISLAND ASKED FOR ANNEXATION TO UNITED STATES In 1844 the people of the eastern end of the island again separated themselves from Haiti and established the Republic of Santo Domingo, or the Dominican Re- public, as it is officially designated, and from that date to the present time the two divisions have been maintained. Under the directions of a resolution passed in the United States Congress January 12, 1871, a commission was dis- patched by President Grant to investigate the conditions in Santo Domingo. ‘This country has always, more or less, been a source of solicitude to us lest some Euro- pean power should again attempt aggres- sions against the Monroe Doctrine. The commission was the result of an almost unanimous vote by the inhabitants of the Republic in favor of annexation of their country to the United States. The report of the commission was favorable to its annexation, and being approved by Presi- dent Grant, it was submitted to the Sen- ate, which, however, took no action upon it. On January 10, 1873, the Bay and Peninsula of Samana were ceded to a company formed in the United States, and through the means this company afforded us it was thought a coaling sta- tion might be established here for the use of the navy, but it is probably fortunate for us, at least, that this was not done, and as the contract with the company was withdrawn in March, 1874, the matter was eliminated from our diplomacy. As will always be the case, the offi- cers of the United States Navy have been interested spectators in the progress of this island. The navy is now engaged in an extensive hydrographic survey along its coasts, which is much needed, not only for ourselves, but for the commerce of the world in general. THe NaTrionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Many naval officers who have been sent to guard American interests on the island have frequently been called upon to handle matters of international policy, and the responsibility resting upon them at such times is rarely conveyed by the brief accounts given of such transactions in the daily press. Almost always during the many local disturbances which occur here an American war vessel is present, and sometimes her captain is called upon to settle, upon the spur of the moment, questions that might affect the very peace of the nation, and the officer must stand or fall as his course meets with approval or disapproval by his superiors. A long list of such cases might be made, but I will briefly refer to only one. PRESENT CONDITIONS IN SANTO DOMINGO As stated by the President in his an- nual message to Congress for the year 1905, ‘The conditions in Santo Domingo have, for a number of years, grown from bad to worse, until a year ago all society was on the verge of dissolution. For- tunately just at this time a ruler sprang up in Santo Domingo who, with his col- leagues, saw the dangers threatening the country and appealed to the friendship of the great and powerful neighbor who possessed the power and, as they hoped, also the will to help them. Accordingly the executive department of our gov- ernment negotiated a treaty under which we are to try to help the Dominican peo- ple to straighten out their finances.” For this purpose Commander A. C. Dillingham, owing to his exceptional knowledge of the conditions in the Do- minican Republic, due to an extended tour of duty in that country, was ap- pointed by the President a special com- missioner and sent to the capital city Jan- uary 5, 1905, to prepare, in connection with the minister resident Mr T. C. Dam- son, a memorandum of the treaty. The treaty is still held in abeyance by the Senate, but the principal feat- ures are being carried out by American citizens appointed by the Dominican Goy- ernment with greater marked success SL Aten = A DEGENERATING ISLAND BOYS OF SANTO DOMINGO than was really hoped for. The collection of practically the only revenue of the Re- public which comes from a tax on its exports and imports is thus separated from political manipulation and pecula- tion and the receipts are divided into two parts, 45 per cent of which is allotted for the expenses of the government, while the remainder goes into a sinking fund to cancel the obligations for all claimants who hold its certificates of in- debtedness. The result thus far is to give into the public treasury from the smaller portion of its income a greater amount of money than has ever been received heretofore from the whole revenue of the Republic. We may well consider if this part of our duty as an elder brother, which we owe to our small sister re- publics on the American continent, is not of more benefit to ourselves, to say nothing of our moral obligations, than would be a resort to physical force, which we might be led to use in order to pro- tect the principles of the Monroe Doc- trine, which is the basis of our political power. THE REMAINS OF COLUMBUS SAID TO BE AT SANTO DOMINGO One achievement of which the Domin- ican people are very proud is that of still retaining within their borders all that remains of the illustrious discoverer of America. These remains were sent from Val- ladolid, Spain, after the death of Colum- bus, to the land he discovered, and de- posited in the cathedral at Santo Do- mingo City. When the island passed under French control, in 1795, a frigate was sent from Havana to remove to that city the body of the great Captain. The officials, finding a vault under the pave- ment of the Cathedral, thought a person of no less rank than Columbus could be buried within, but they failed to make such an examination as would insure 214 this fact. In great state the leaden case containing the body there found was transported to Havana and deposited in a niche, made for that purpose, in the cathedral of the capital city of the Span- ish West Indies. In 1877, while repairs were being made to the cathedral in Santo Domingo City, another vault was dis- covered, containing another leaden casket, in which there were not only fragments of bones but a silver plate on which was the name “Don Cristobal Colon, discov- erer of America.” This and other proofs found showed conclusively, to every Do- minican at least, that their worshiped hero was safe in the land he loved. One can imagine the rejoicing that the dis- covery of these precious relics brought to the inhabitants. It is certain that they were in marked contrast with the reception accorded the distinguished Ad- miral in Spain, when he returned in chains from his last voyage to the New World. Of course, the Spanish people would never admit that when they hauled down their flag on the American conti- nent, for the last time, on January 1, 1899, they did not take with them all that remained of the man who had done so much for them and the world at large. HAITI IS DEGENERATING TO A CONDITION OF BARBARISM It is not possible within the limits of this paper to go into details regarding the turbulent history of Haiti. The fact that of its 21 rulers, from Dessalines to the one now holding power, four only have completed their terms of office, the most of them being driven out of the country, will show the general tendency of the people to revolution. History is here constantly repeating itself, summed up in the general statement that the “outs” are always struggling to get into power, while the “ins” are striving to retain possession of the spoils of office. It is said that Haiti is getting blacker and blacker, the white element having been practically exterminated or removed from the island. It is not that the whites are unkindly treated here, but so many THe NatTionaL GrocrapHic MAGAZINE difficulties -surround their holding of property that development is impossible, and the white people are reluctant to invest money in a country where there is such little promise of an income from it. It is the one country in the world where white blood is at a discount. There is, however, quite as much antag- onism existing between the mulattoes and the blacks as is usually found between the blacks and whites in our own coun- try. so the colored question is not elimi- nated from politics even here, and parties are generally lined up according to color, and as a rule the blacks and mulattoes alternate in the control of the executive offices. In all its political history, Haiti, the beautiful, has been torn almost to shreds by its turbulent inhabitants, led on by a few inspiring chiefs, who rarely have had any other object in view than personal gain. The inhabitants themselves are naturally as gentle, except when over- come by the barbarous religious customs handed down from their African ances- tors, as were the aborigines that Colum- bus found here. A traveler: may pass from one end of the island to the other without being molested, unless his visit happens to be coincident with one of its many revolutions, when, owing to the poor shooting of the soldiers he runs more risk of his life than do the partici- pants themselves. The Haitians do not consider it a crime to rob the govern- ment, and hence stealing from it is gen- eral. They rather regard it as a duty for the government to provide sustenance for the people, and if it does not do so, they use their prerogative to enforce their claim. As practically 90 per cent of the popu- lation are descendants from the former slaves, who have no higher ambition than to possess sufficient means. to supply the demands of their appetites, their wants are easily satisfied. The scant clothing required in the Torrid Zone is obtained without much difficulty, and as enlist- ment in the army is sure to gain both of these necessities, the natives naturally Haiti: A DEGENERATING ISLAND ATLANTIC 215 QDEBAMN CARIBBEAN an Santo Domingo < a= [ja SKETCH seek the life of a soldier, and as such they quickly transfer their allegiancé to the highest bidder or, in fact, to any one offering a change. Owing to the general lack of enterprise among the lower classes of the people and the greed of the few who from time to time control the admin- istration of the revenues, the only hope of the country is to have some strong man, such as Diaz of Mexico, revolu- tionize the methods of the government. VOODOOISM STILL, PRACTICED No accurate history of Haiti can be written without a reference to the horri- ble sorcery, called the religion of Voodoo, which was introduced into the country with the slaves from Africa. Its creed is that the God Voodoo has the power usually ascribed to the Christian’s Lord, and that he shows himself to his good friends, the negroes, under the form of a non-venomous snake, and transmits his power through a chief priest or priestess. These are called either king and queen, master or mistress, or generally as papa- lois and mama-lois. The principal act of worship consists of a wild dance, attended by grotesque gesticulations, which leads up to the most disgraceful orgies. MAP OF HAITI A secret oath binds all the voodoos, on the taking of which, the lips of the neo- phyte are usually touched with warm goat’s blood, which is intended to inspire terror. He promises to submit to death should he ever reveal the secrets of the fraternity, and to put to death any traitor to the sect. It is affirmed, and no doubt is true, that on special occasions a sacri- fice is made of a living child, or the “goat without horns,” as it is called, and then cannibalism in its worst form is indulged in. Under the circumstances of taking the oath of allegiance, it should cause no surprise that the Haitiens claim that this is not true and defy any white man to produce evidence of guilt. But, notwithstanding, no one can read the hor- rible tales published by Sir Spencer Saint John, one of the British ministers to Haiti, which describes in detail the re- volting practices of the voodoos, together with the proofs he brings to substantiate the truth of the allegations, without com- ing to the reluctant conclusion that canni- balism is resorted to in these meetings. Of course, no white man could long live on the island after having given testimony leading to the conviction of culprits in such cases, and therefore the negroes’ 216 demand for proof can never be satisfied. Indeed, it is said that even some presi- dents who have openly discouraged the yoodoo practices have come to violent deaths from this cause. TESTIMONY OF AN EYE WITNESS The character of the meetings of the voodoos, which take place in secluded spots in the thick woods, are well known, and I have been given a description of one of them from an eyewitness, who is an officer of our navy, which no one could hear without a shudder. He states in brief that one day while out hunting he abruptly ran into a camp of worship- ers, which was located in a lonely spot in the woods, and the horrors he there saw made an indelible impression upon his mind. When his presence was discovered he was immediately seized by a frenzied crowd of men and women, and for some minutes there did not seem to be a ques- tion but that his life was to be forfeited ; but the papa-lois called a halt and a coun- cil, apparently, to determine what action should be taken, and while this was in session a handful of coin, judicously scat- tered, diverted the thoughts of the ne- groes for the time being from their cap- tive. «The usual sacrifice of a live white rooster was now brought on, seeing which the people were called back to their worship, and the ceremonies went on in his presence. In the horrible struggle which took place for possession, the bird’ was torn literally to pieces, and he had no doubt that its accompaniment, the “goat with- out horns,” would soon follow. While this was in progress his presence seemed to be forgotten, and, watching a good opportunity, he ran for his very life, not stopping until he reached the protection of his ship. This officer has to his credit one of the most gallant deeds enacted during the Civil War, for which he received pro- motion by act of Congress, but his com- rades on board his ship said they never Tue Nationa, GreocGrRaAaPpHic MAGAZINE saw a man more frightened than he was when he returned to them, and he him- self says the memory of the event pro- duces a horrible nightmare which he will never be able to overcome. There is no doubt these voodoo prac- tices keep the negro in touch with that “call of the wild” which perhaps even the white man, if restricted in ctvilizing in- fluences and treated as they have been, might be led to follow; but it is to be hoped that education, which the best of the Haitiens are now acquiring for their own families and are striving to make universal in the land, will in a few years stamp out this horrible practice, with all its evils. It is well for us to consider whether we too may not expect some such acts of savagery to break out in our coun- try. if our own colored people are not, edu- cated for better things. PEST HOLES OF THE WEST INDIES Of the eleven ports of Haiti open to foreign commerce, Cape Haitien and Port-au-Prince are the largest and most progressive. Cape Haitien, or “The Cape,” as it is commonly called, is situated on the north- western coast, at the foot of a hill that slopes back to the sea, with most pictur- esque surroundings. It has a commodi- ous harbor and supports a population of 30,000 or 40,000 people. Under the French, it was the capital of the colony, and its wealth, splendor, and luxury gained for it the name of Little Paris: but now the structures. erected by the French in colonial days are a mass of ruins, the parks overgrown with tropical weeds, the fountains chocked with debris, the gutters filled with filth, all produ- cing pestilential emanations from which foreigners speedily run away, if they are forced into its environments. Port-au-Prince, the present capital of the Republic, as well as its largest and most important city, is likewise most picturesquely located at the foot of hills, where one may escape from its blistering and filthy streets to mountain resorts that Halt: would be popular if located in almost any country of the world. Unlike Cape Haitien, the city is cut off from the trade winds, to which this island owes s0 much for its salubriousness, and therefore it is hot; but still the traveler caught in the town may frequently felicitate himself when he reads that cities in our own country have higher temperatures by 10 to 15 degrees than is usually found here. The city is well supplied with the most delicious mountain water, and if its 60,000 inhabitants used it as freely as do Americans, it might be as clean as nature made it. As it is, it may well hold the palm for being the most filthy, foul smell- ing, and consequently fever-stricken city in the world. The gutters of the streets, which may be said to cover the whole road-beds, are filled with stagnant waters and are used as cesspools by the people. But for the torrential rains, which pour down the mountain sides and carry off all the filth into the beautiful bay, .even a naitien could not live, there, Buty the bay, thus polluted, is quite as much of a menace to health as the city itself. Dur- ing the visits of American men-of-war to the port, most of the time is spent in keeping the people from the pestilential vapors which emanate from the sea itself. The water of the harbor is so bad that it cannot be used even for scrubbing the decks of the ships. I recall a painful incident which oc- curred here during one of my visits many years ago. A French man-of-war was eS RAE YI NY WRYZEES DEAN LINZ, RO EN Eee a Ti i ZA SYOL =a A DEGENERATING ISLAND 9; Viva TaN Se 2 20 - anchored in the Port when our own cruiser entered it, and so rapidly were her people dying from the dreaded yellow fever that her flag remained at half-mast practically all during our stay there. A few weeks later we saw this same vessel in Hampton Roads, Virginia, and learned that all but five of her crew had died from the effects of the fever, after which they got some of the natives to sail the ship to our own ports; but even the natives were so reduced in number that it was neces- sary for the flag-ship of the French North American squadron to tow her consort to Halifax in an effort to freeze out the dreadful disease. It is thus that the people have them- selves made this island of “Little Spain” a veritable pest-hole. But we should not forget, however, that they are our neighbors, and that we owe it to ourselves as a Christian nation to help them over the many pitfalls of popular government, which we by exam- ple led them to establish before they had gone through the preparation necessary for the proper use of universal suffrage, and which even our forefathers were not too well prepared to take up, after hun- dreds of years of enlightenment and study of political science and economy and re- publican principles. Let us, moreover, not make a similar mistake to the one here enacted, lest our own wards go through the horrors which have so darkened the history of the Black and Brown republics. ZATTIZI A Pa kK oe ESRI Se A) THE MADURA TEMPLES By J. S. CHANDLER, AUBURNDALE, MassacHUsETTs HE last Hindu dynasty that reigned in South India was the Nayaka line of rulers; and the greatest of the Nayakars was Tirumala, who reigned from 1623 to 1659. Al- though frequently engaged in wars and expeditions, he found time to erect a vast palace, construct an immense tank or reservoir, and add great buildings to the temple of Siva that was the center of the city. The temple had its shrines for the god and goddess and was especially extended on the god’s side by a porch of a thou- sand pillars, built by one of Tirumala’s ancestors. The worship of the temple combined that of the two gods, Siva and Vishnu, symbolized in the marriage of Vishnu’s sister to Siva. The goddess then was a representative of Vishnu. Now the Nayaka rulers were worshippers of Vishnu, so when Tirumala enlarged the temple he strengthened the Vishnu ele- ment by enlarging the goddess’ side of the temple and making it equal to the god’s portion. Among other buildings, he constructed the “golden lily tank” and surrounded it by pillared colonnades. The walls are covered with paintings of local legends, including the 64 miracles that Siva is said to have worked in the region of Madura. These miracles are represented as sports, all the god’s acts being play to him. Between the tank and the shrine of the goddess stands the Porch of the Parrots, so called from the screeching caged par- rots always kept in it. The pillars of this porch are monolithic statues, of which five represent the five Pandava heroes of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata. These heroes are connected with Vishnu wor- ship, another indication of Tirumala’s connection with it. The great wall surrounding the temple incloses nearly 14 acres. Outside the wall and opposite to the great pagoda of the god's portion, he constructed the choultry, or porch, that bears his name. It is 333 feet long and 105 feet wide, roofed with long slabs of granite, which are supported by four parallel rows of 124 sculptured stone pillars 20 feet high. He also commenced, but left unfinished, a royal pagoda that was intended to be the finest tower in southern India. The door posts of the gateway through the completed story are formed of monoliths over 50 feet high and 3 feet wide, carved with exquisite scrolls of foliage. His second structure was the raft tank, or Teppakulam, a reservoir measuring 1,000 feet on the north and south and 950 on the east and west, faced all round the sides with cut granite and surmounted by a handsome parapet and inside walk of the same material. In the middle of the reservoir is a square island, also faced with cut granite, on which, among green palms and flowering trees and jessamine gardens, is a small white temple with a pagoda tower, flanked at the four corners of the island with graceful miniature pagodas. Every. January the birthday of Tiru- mala is celebrated by a feast of lights, in which the whole tank is illuminated by thousands of little lamps on the inside of the parapet, while the images of the god and goddess are floated around the island on rafts built up like pagodas. The third great work of Tirumala was the vast palace, an arched and domed structure with Saracenic features, in strong contrast to the rectangular forms of the temple buildings. One courtyard indicates the magnifi- cence of the whole. It is 252 feet long and 151 feet wide, round which runs a roofed arcade of great beauty supported on tall stone pillars 40 feet in height, connected by foliated brick arches. Round three sides of this court, at the back of the arcade, runs a very handsome line of lofty cloisters 43 feet wide and Tue Mapura TEMPLES 219 Photo from J. S. Chandler , COLONNADE OF GOLDEN LILY TANK, WITH PAINTINGS OF SIVA S SPORTS 2, sO) THe NaTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo from J. S. Chandler PORCH OF A THOUSAND PILLARS, MADURA 21 2nk THe Mapura LI EmMPLEsS S. Chandler Photo from J. GOLDEN LILY TANK, MADURA THe NaTIioNaAL GEOGRAPHIC MaGAZINE Photo from J. S. Chandler TEPPAKULAM OR RAFT TANK, MADURA upheld by three parallel rows of pillars supporting arches some 26 feet high. On the fourth side of the court the cloister is much deeper and finer, being alto- gether 105 feet wide, supported on five rows of huge pillars and roofed with three great domes. The central and largest dome measures 60 feet in diam- eter and is 73 feet above the ground, and has in front of it a superb portico, the pil- lars of which are 55 feet to the spring of the arches. Originally this domed cloister consti- tuted the public reception hall, and in its center stood a square building of black granite inclosing a chamber made of ivory. Within this chamber, again, there was a jeweled throne, on which the king was accustomed to take his seat at the great nine-nights festival, surrounded by all his banners or ensigns of royalty, and before which all kings were accustomed to do homage. With this cloister as a specimen, we can accept the judgment of Father Pro- enza, a Jesuit who wrote from Madura in 1059, that the colossal proportions and astonishing boldness of the royal palace in Madura recalled the ancient monu- ments of Thebes. THE BEAR HUNT KPLYING to the numerous in- quiries from readers as to the health of Dr Penrose, whose adventure with a erizzly was described in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for February, we have much pleasure in saying that Dr Penrose has now entirely recovered his former strength and vigor and has al- ready made plans for considerable hunt- ing when the season opens. In a letter to this Magazine Dr Pen- rose says that one of the most interesting features of his experience was the ab- sence of pain “when being chewed by a bear. I have read that Livingstone had the same experience when chewed by a lion. Men rarely suffer pain with sud- den traumatism. What pain I had came on some hours after the injury.” STRAW SANDALS OF JAPAN : 222 AMONG HONEST PEOPLE Straw sandals (waraji) for sale by the roadside near Arita, province of Hizen, Japan. Country people weave these straw shoes in their leisure hours, and hang them from stakes by the roadside for sale. The traveler helps himself to a new pair of shoes, and drops the cop- pers in the bamboo cup. An old straw hat protects the shoemaker’s stock from rain. The custom, formerly quite common in old Japan, is dying out, now that the new treaties have gone into effect, and foreigners are free to travel everywhere without passports. Photographed by Eliza R. Scidcore. Copyrighted by Harper Bros. IDEN INAV ® OVS TRS) (Qe Te aids AV aio) IL COAST Bsr JROmRie 18, (Co SImsARNG HONORARY ASSOCIATE IN ZOOLOGY, U. S. NatTronaL MuSEUM N reading Dr Smith’s interesting article, “Our Fish Immigrants,” in a recent number of this Maga- zine, his comments on the native oysters of the west coast attracted my attention. When we consider the fact that our “natives are absolutely unpretentious, it would seem as if criticism should be tempered with mercy. Several species and varieties of oys- ters* inhabit the long stretch of shore between Vancouver Island and San Diego, and doubtless these are found for a considerable distance north and south of the points indicated, as well as in the various bays and inlets connected directly or indirectly with the sea, espe- cially that great body of inland water, Puget Sound. They also occur on the rocky margins of the islands in the Santa Barbara Channel and elsewhere on the islands and islets farther north. In bygone days they furnished food for the Indians, to a limited extent, as they do now to the palefaces. The abundance of abalones and “clams” of many species afforded an ampler supply to the “red men,’ as is proven by the remains of clam bakes in the mounds and _ shell-heaps (Kitchenmiddens) here and there, silent testimony of many old-time festivals. The principal or best-known native oyster is O. lurida, which is the only species of commercial importance. always purchasable in the San Francisco markets and has been to my knowledge for nearly or quite fifty years. At the present time it is quotable on the retail stalls at 40 to 50 cents a hundred, the transplanted Atlantic O. virginica selling at 30 to 40 cents a dozen. * Ostrea lurida, and varieties expansa and laticaudata; O. concaphila, also O. amara; the latter, however, belongs to a more southerly fauna. ike i= The common “natives” of the British Isles and the general seaboard of north- ern Europe, O. edulis, according to com- mon report, have the same “coppery flavor’ as O. lurida; as they usually oc- cur, they are about the same size. In the matter of flavor, it should be borne in mind that oysters of the same species vary considerably according to the locality or station where they occur. In the still, shallow waters of lagoons they are usually much saltier than in the proxi- mate deeper water along the shores, that are more thoroughly washed by the daily tides. This was observed by me when on the Gulf coast of Florida in 1860. Presumably the above, and other factors not so easily perceived, affect the flavor one way or another. The writing of this paper revives the memory of a plate of “natives” eaten at Astoria, in July, 1882, on the invitation of the late Justice Stephen J. Field, of the Supreme Court of the United States. By a happy coincidence we were fellow- travelers on the steamer from Portland, Oregon, to San Francisco. We had known each other for twenty years. Our oyster feast was therefore akin to a love feast, for the Justice was a genial com- panion. He pronounced the oysters good, and they were- good; the best “natives” I had ever tasted. Locality, as before remarked, is to be considered when we discuss flavors. This applies with equal or greater force to clams. Mya arenaria, the com- mon long-necked clam, or “‘mananose,” occurs in clean sandy stations; also in beds that are more or less muddy, in which case the flavor is impaired and the meats, as an epicure would say, have an “off taste.” Our native O. lurida is small; when “shucked,” about the size of a half-dol- OysTEeRS OF THE West Ccast lar piece; those from cultivated beds somewhat larger. : Although California (San Francisco County) is credited in the report of the United States Fish Commissioner for 1904 with producing 300,000 pounds, of the value of $92,000, the principal supply of that city is derived from certain local- ities in Washington, which state, ac- cording to the same report, exhibits a yield of 1,069,461 pounds (equal to 152,780 bushels), valued at $279,312, while the Oregon statistics show only 6,944 pounds, worth $1,488. It will be seen that the value of “natives” for the year, in the three states, makes a total of $372,800—no | insignificant stum—being more than half the value of the annual output of the Atlantic or transplanted oyster. The oyster-beds of Washington are subject to occasional severe climatic con- tingencies. The Puget Sound oyster-beds are at Samish Bay, in Skagget County; Oyster Bay, in Mason County, and Mud Bay, Big Skookum, and North Bay, in Thurs- ton County; on the ocean coast of Wash- ington, Shoalwater or Willapa Bay and Toke Point cove. The Oregon region is pretty much restricted to Yaquina Bay, in Lincoln County. On the night of January 13, 1907, the concurrence of an unusually low tide and a cold snap, the temperature having fallen to 18 degrees below the freezing- mark, was disastrous to the oysters and oyster-beds, both native and _ eastern plants, in many localities in different parts of Puget Sound. The loss was estimated at “several hundred thousand dollars,’ as “new beds will have to be planted, and it will be five years before the so-called ‘Olympia oyster’ will again be on the market.” All along our western coasts the tides range very large in January, running above average height and below average low water. Here (San Francisco) they ranged from 7 to 8 feet in January. At Olympia they must range nearly three times that (17.2 feet). In June there is a good range, but not equal to January. A Of course there are certain conditions that decrease or increase the range. Strong southerly winds would run the low tide much below the average. A strong southerly gale on the coast at San Francisco has run the high water to 9.93 feet, or more than three feet above the average,as stated by Prof. George David- son. The low June tides mentioned by Pro- fessor Davidson, offer exceptional oppor- tunities to the observer and collector of marine life along the shore. So large an area of the sea bed is uncovered that many forms not to be had between or- dinary tides are then obtainable. Then,too,the famous geoduck,* known to science as Panopea generosa, the “Giant clam of Puget Sound,” is ac- cessible. It sometimes reaches the weight of sixteen pounds. From an epicurian point of view, it holds the same relation to other edible mollusks that woodcock and Chesapeake Bay “canvas-backs” do to other birds, and “stewed terrapin” to other dainties. The late Professor Baird would have given a thousand or two dol- lars to have successfully planted this bi- valve on the Atlantic side of the con- tinent. South of the boundary line of the United States and Mexico, on the outer shores of the peninsula of Lower Cali- fornia, as well as in the Gulf of Cali- fornia, 600 to 700 miles long, the two shores making a reach of 1,200 to 1,400: miles, we have a region which we may safely assume includes many localities exceptionally well adapted for oyster culture. The general mollusk-fauna of the Gulf is particularly rich in number of species and abundance of individuals. This fauna includes several species of oysters, of which two more are of good, merchantable size and worthy of men- tion, as sooner or later they will find a place in trade quotations. One of these * Pronounced gwo’-duck; also known as. Glycimeris generosa. See my paper on above, with numerous figures, in Bulletin of the U. S. Fish Commission, vol. 11, No. 23, October 19,. 1883, and Annual Report of the American Fisheries Society, April meeting, 1885; also. Forest and Stream, May 28, 188s. 226 closely resembles the Atlantic O. wir- ginica, and was so referred to as long ago as 1863 by Dr. P. P. Carpenter in his list of west coast shells,* and O. iridescens, of somewhat darker semi-nacre. There are many examples of these in the Na- tional Museum. The first of the above was collected in 1850, or about that time, ag lhe IPaz, Dy Weayjor ican, of wae Os S, Army, and is further credited to Marga- fig IGE, Gm dae Oolice slaors OH iWdae peninsula (Xantus Collection, 1860). As many as forty years ago the im- portation of these Gulf oysters was at- tempted by San Francisco parties. The enterprise failed for some reason—pre- sumably, uncertainty of transportation and other requisite facilities. With quick service by railroad, which is certain to come before many years, and the neces- sary ice plant or refrigerator cars, Ostrea-culture in the Gulf of California will sooner or later be a profitable in- dustry, as the general region is immune from some of the perils that are so dis- couraging to enterprises of this kind in more northerly latitudes, for natwral in- crease could be safely counted upon. For a self-perpetuating stock for the northern waters, as long ago as 1886, at the request of Professor Baird, I an- swered a letter addressed to him by parties in San Francisco, and recom- mended experimenting with some edible species from Japan, as being more likely to propagate than any species from a more southerly source, temperature of waters considered. This very desirable experiment remains to be tried. In writing of the Geologic age of the region about Berkeley, the late Prof. Joseph Le Conte? said: “Oysters, such as would astonish a latter-day California, existed in such numbers that they formed great oyster-banks. Their agglomerated shells, each shell five or six inches long and three to four inches wide form *Report to the British Association, 1863 (pp. 542 and 621), Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, No. 252. Washington, December, 1872. 1“A Berkeley Year,’ &c. Published in Berkeley, California, in 1808. Tue NationaL GkEocGRAPHIC MAGAZINE masses three feet thick and extending for miles. ‘These are found in the Berkeley Hills; but elsewhere in California. Miocene and Pliocene oysters are found thirteen inches long eight inches wide and six inches thick. Alas for the de- generacy of their descendants, the modern California oyster. And yet, upon second thought, there may be nothing to regret. It may be that in the gradual decrease in size the flavor has been cor- respondingly intensified. It may be that what was then diffused through a great mass of flesh, and therefore greatly diluted, was all conserved and concen- trated into the exquisite piquancy char- acteristic of the little California oyster of the present day. If so we are consoled.” TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS ISSUED BY THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY IN 1907. ‘ The new topographic maps published by the United States Geological Survey in 1907 com- prise 104 sheets and cover areas in 32 states and 2 territories, as shown by the following lists. (Address Director U. S. Geological Sur- vey, Washington, D. C.) State. Quadrangle. Avlabamnares ¢astarce tee Bessemer Special IDO ace enema ie erent str mene d Birmingham IDROI Se Tea Mena peers abe erates Actin Cit Leeds At ats aie eee erties ree ae Casadepaga Do vain ne meseraiee amen a ness BS reicine Solomon dW BIA ONY Iai ap sn ar eae Ui ats ne oP Camelsback ID YOM a Mon Gein ennai aie on Fort McDowell DOR er Vee eg eee Ra: Ocoee ee Sacaton TB) OS ern oo ee Vishnu Calltiorniase ns Mice eare eee eee Colusa ID) Seabee ede eee eee a omar Davisville dD pein ele cay eR ei aleen Acer Dunnigan DOS sya ror een SA ae Holtville ID) ORES eps ee eer ee ene Indian Valley IDYos geen eta en ohare oe Mount Whitney ITB) Oa ea erie cha oe al ee Olancha AD ope aise ee pict mann ean nner See Ace Tesla IDO iene oleae Sem wo rence Woodland IDYe eine eases aes hace ata anc Yosemite Valley Coloradomas int nek See Mount Olympus Dose etc ete Meanie eee: San Cristobal Ceorsilaw eccrine Dahlonega Special DONS ey a neeron st re Neat CR ara oe Talbotton idalio=\lontanae ener Cceeur d’Alene Special AUG GaV oy they eres Uae tora nt anu era ras Belleville ID Oe pieces ce oer ee eee Eldorado UD Yaar rrsesatcenteeset\ aay neste nner GeBy reli A ons Mahomet DOM arn Re ato Springfield Illinois-Indiana—Kentucky ........ New Haven TPO Wiel his ametitena bent naen crea ene Decorah ID) OF segs, Ae eens aa a ge ee Des Moines GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Kem tuichkave tern scneeitig eos ae cen es Louisville Kentucky—Indiana-Illinois ........ New Haven VIN mee et ure le eee Sl The Forks Witartavglara clipes crates Bene ress tals S anad Laurel IDO 515 Oo Oe ree eee Ce Se Relay IMIG laskese ling aiars eee sine ete aeae eee Bae Marquette IDG estat shes ace ele a ae ara Marquette Special WNitonitaivaie star seh eerie se ates ten ay! Kintla Lakes Montana-Idaho.......... Coeur d’Alene Special INGLIS) soos eee eee ol eeceoeen Nebraska City IN SV AGLETGe Ae ee ae Pa ee ae rete Ely Special Newey. Islavampslitie® Goocescesoeeboene one Sunapee New Jersey—Pennsylvania ........... Trenton INE nVgeN GO Tekan edhe MER RG) EE ey Ig Eden IDO SSeS ecient Lake Pleasant IDO,” rig ee ee ek eee Massena IDG) sdet ata mentee st eae ee AU er Piseco Lake ID ORS aig esis Wom Set vecchcanre reins Port Leyden IB) OR aes ape ei dire been oe Sangerfield IDYOyasensatencntae MSR RUE Ua yas SAIN Tupper Lake TID YO Weta ta cena i arte ent een es ea at Winfield INonthe Carolinas eee ee Beckford North Carolina—South Carolina...... Charlotte TO sept er ete eek bce On a se Cowee LID YOR Sette Shs war tave eee es al aaa Ont ar Saluda INonthiaDakota ewer nar ot sa eee Bismarck ID) ose yrapeeeiehear n ontene ec nee Ma Wyndmere ©) Fae ae Na i ae eee ote re Arlington 1B) ORI Reni Oe e Blanchester ID) Ore aces etch Nie on noe aaa a Ra Bluffton IDO as ete roel ea NN RL etl send meen AN Ae Bristolville TB sae, ty eae ie aa Mn eS Arie Brookville IDX) cca aie Ae Nie Ai Seed eae a ET Dayton IDYG)Sir essence ant gaan rach ee aR earn eT ed Garrettsville 1D) Oe ery epee atop ent re L - Greenville ID) Oe cca Jefferson TB) Oren er ni mee accveeencar, ts be a ease London IB) Oe prist nars Par aree Maae eed acho Mentor IYO yess ie Ban ala ea South Charleston IDO) Seiichi hase ey Bee Upper Sandusky IDO aes eer race cadena ee West Manchester DD OMA tenets 3 Hens ae e Neal Zaleski Ohio[Pennsylvania sc. ssh Andover Oya Oech Cae eee nee gs i ee Ee Kinsman Olsanomiane wey es a ee ey Chandler Hse raimmiswylvermial et. Mens Kosunee each Claysville IDYG), Gh 3. rie Nore eater nee ee Greensburg IDs ars Bote eee ae ea eC ee ene a a EN Honeybrook IDG be Sea eee ea aE Millerstown IDO Sch aaa MS eee tet Neshannock IDG). leach eee ae eh ane New Bloomfield 1D NOs, 3) sl hace soe ONO cnet enc Ns ee Pittsburg emusylvamia—Ohio. 2.0.06... . soo Andover IDs, ob, oe BRS ee eee Kinsman SOME Carolia. Poet ok pose a esos Sharon ToprocrarHic Maps 2:29 South Carolina—North Carolina...... Charlotte DOr? Be. Sai a BGs e eee Cowee AD oWpene ep arena senate Ma ag ete Nat a, Saluda Sowilin IDAKCtAs sc occeso coo ccc oe Belle Fourche UBIO sreca F oe ae eerste eee ee Elk Point TB) yee ae eee AR A eye Redwater Witaliy Raita eialy ene Cottonwood Special “ADO: Rea a eect eM areas Frisco Special DO SAS ie eee near Iron Springs Special (Uitte WW ronnie? 5 5 co cubs pocunecac Gilbert Peak AVAUECAUIIE Renee aneticin’y. as osiccoimecerase & Hampton ID Yop merece nea hala Ghee cons Norfolk Special IB oR earh ny ah ate ere Goan cee ce is Yorktown NV cicl biker dOrnl acighiia oiedig burtic olon-oih wu obo Blaine DORE aS Sse ne eens reeete Mount Adams WYSE WAnreAMIE, joagon com ooo o€ Arnoldsburg ID Yoaee cea te me rcmsr aon eee iS Inna Belington ID) OA Ae oe As hes Seaman aa e et caaenaay Elizabeth ID Yopeat tourer eons Umea GaSe Harrisville IB KOH Aa er er een re cc rs era arate Holbrook TB) Oia Mehl een eRe Kingwood IB ot tear sere acting meee etc aeRO OTe Nr ee eG Ripley DOr Siri ane sions oe a Re CHR a ce Spencer TB) oR ee art a ite rege ee sen ae Thornton WVTSCOMSIM 5 coccocedoce Evansville (resurvey ) (Oi Wcholtn igenonices rc en oe RtaeS un Prairie IYO eer ree tay at geen ERA Geneva—Racine NAS ornabbanersinrat yrecacsasta i tectatan sustain vaea guts Kirwin SPL TID Ole cigcureentsese toneaunate rhc Bienen ors Younts Peak Lettering and conventional signs. Four of the maps listed above—the Cceur d’Alene Special (Idaho—Mont.), the Geneva- Racine (Wis.), the Vishnu (Ariz.), and the Yosemite Valley (Cal.)—are much larger than the regular atlas sheets of the Survey and are sold at 10 cents each. The other sheets are of standard size—16%4 by 20 inches—and are sold at 5 cents each in lots of less than 100; the wholesale rate for the standard sheets is $3 a hundred. Much of the work represented by these maps was done by cooperation between state surveys and the National Survey. California, Ohio, New York, Pennsylvania, and West Virginia make generous appropriations for work of this kind. Other states codperating are Illinois, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, and Oklahoma. In addition to those listed, maps of Sacramento Valley, Cal., from A to N, on a scale of 1:24000, sold at 40 cents each, were published in coOperation with the state. These are photo- lithographs prepared from the same base from which the regular sheets are made. MaGAZINE Tue NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC 228 preqqn yy ou P) 9.16) IOUIPIB) SAT WO1f OO NMOL SSIMS V NI NAMMIIHO TIOOHOS CrossinGc A Swiss Lake 229 Photo from Mrs Gardiner Greene Hubbard CROSSING A SWISS LAKE 230 THe Nationa, GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photo by H. D. Stolesburg, Royal Geographical Journal, London “PADAUNG WOMAN AND CHILD, SOUTH SHAN STATES, BURMA NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY PROGRAM OF MEETINGS FOR FEBRUARY AND Marcu All meetings will be held at the National Rifles’ Armory Friday, February 21—‘ Persia, Past and Pres- ent,’ by Dr A. V. Williams Jackson, of Co- lumbia University. Illustrated with unusual pictures taken by Professor Jackson on exten- sive journeys through the ancient kingdom. Friday, February 28—“Holland’s War with the Sea,’ by Prof. James Howard Gore, George Washington University. The romantic and picturesque in Holland’s national life will be described by Professor Gore, and illustrated with lantern slides. Friday, March 6—“The Missions of Califor- nia,” by Hon. Joseph R. Knowland, M. C. from California. Illustrated. Friday, March 13—‘Our Immigrants,” by United States Senator Dillingham, of Vermont. Illustrated. Friday, March 20—‘Reclaiming the West,” by Mr C. J. Blanchard, U. S. Reclamation Service. Mr Blanchard will describe the open- ing to settlement of the lands irrigated by the great government works. Illustrated. Friday, March 27—“The Physical Geography of the Sea,” by Rear Admiral Colby M. Ches- ter, U. S. Navy. Illustrated with moving pic- tures and lantern slides. Friday, April 3—‘“Cathedrals, Mosques, and Temples of the World,” by Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief U. S. Bureau of Statistics. Illustrated with moving pictures and lantern slides. (Last lecture of the season.) FOR INFORMATION ABOUT HAWAII, ITS UNEQUALED CLIMATE, BEAUTIFUL SCENERY, AND ATTRACTIVE AGRICULTURAL POSSIBILITIES . . . WRITE TO BUREAU OF INFORMATION HAWAII PROMOTION COMMITTEE ILLUSTRATED PAMPHLET SENT FREE HONOLULU, HAWAII Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Will most certainly inspire “== perfect confidence in our equally superb ‘White Hous , - which are put up in /46/2\b.carelully sealed tins and warranted to ive complete satisfactio AMERICAN WOQNS 4 Publication idasérated by actual specimens, with full text. “ However much you may have observed and admired the familiar trees, you have much to learn of their character and beauty if you have not studied them 1n the light of this remark- able publication.’”—NEW YORK OBSERVER. “1 thoroughly endorse your work in the cause of true Amer- ican forestry. Nothing hasin its way contributed more to the cause. It meets a real want.’’—CHAs. L. PACK. Photo-descriptive. 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BOARDMAN, Editor Railroad Gazette. “An extraordinarily thorough and attractive handbook of the trees, furnished with realistic illustrations of tree sections, barks, leaves, and fruits that almost carry the scent and touch of the original.”,—NEw YORK TIMES. “Have been examining it page by page, and I find ita perfectly delightful book. Your illustrations of the leaves, fruits, etc., are very fine, indeed, while the illus- trations of the trunks of trees are works of art. To every lover of trees this book will be a source of inspiration.””— “Am greatly impressed with the very thorough manner in which each tree 1s illustrated. I am glad to have a copy.’’—GIFFORD PINCHOT, U. S. Forester, Wash., D. C. Dre. J. N. ROSE, ational Herbarium, Wash., D. C. “Tt exactly fills my needs as a summer resident among trees and with a son interested in what is growing about him.”—E. B. MITCHELL. “Unique and a joy to all lovers of forestry.”—F. W. RANE, State Forester of Massachusetts. “ We would like to congratulate you upon the plan, the thoroughness of the concise descriptions, and the beauty of the pictures.””—HARPER & BROTHERS. “We are impressed with the comprehensiveness of the information presented and the beauty and precision of the illustrations.”’—G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS. We also have a large line of Preparations of Woods for Stereopticon and Microscope, Stereopticon Views cf Trees, etc. Write for particulars, stating which subject interests you most. ROMEYN B. HOUGH, Author and Publisher . . . Lowville, New York Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Preserve and Beautify Your Shingles by staining them with Cabot’s Shingle Stains They are made of Creosote [‘‘the best wood preservative known’’], pure linseed oil, and the best pigments, and give soft, velvety eoloring effects (moss-greens, bark-browns, silyer-grays, etc.) that look better and wear better than any others. 50%cheaper than paint. 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Our Tony Pony line of wheeled vehicles and sleighs, all styles, strong, roomy, safe, combine best material, origi- nal designs, expert workmanship—nobby and durable. OUR PONY FARM is the best stocked in the West. Prompt shipments. Illustrated catalogue free. MICHIGAN BUGGY CO., 417 Office Bldg., Kalamazoo, Mich. ENGRAVING COMPANY? FINEST HALF-TONES & LINE ETCHINGS FOR ALL CLASSES OF PUBLICATIONS "COLOR ENGRAVING: | 147-51 N TENTH STREET PHILADELPHIA, PA. He ISBIPINIESIEINGES (QHIENCIVUILIL YA | United Confederate Veterans, Daughters of the Confederacy, Sons of Confederate Veterans, Confederated Memorial Ass’n, Also approved by Union Veter- ans. Most noted monthly in the South; nowin 16th year. Price, fl a year. Samples free. Address S. A. Cunningham, a Proprietor, Nashville, Tenn. Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Office Hours, 9 A. M. to 4.30 P. M. Telephone, North 306 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY Hubbard Memorial Hall Sixteenth and M Streets, Washington, D. 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Please make remittances payable to National Geographic Society, and if at a distance remit by N. Y. draft, postal or express order, “Go the Secretary, National Geographic Society, W ashington, D. C.: Ul sqeayeattaal cS Sie ee Ra IE Tih Pe mh LS Dee Ry, arte Ia ae ayy ear NS a cat Address ¢-—----.------ SIC IOSRE Meus CF atl De DIE Ne a epee Men Ne Ne Pos TR yey 2 9) NO Cig a a for membership in the Society. (Write your address. ) a a nee i ee mr | THE EDITION OF SCENES FROM EVERY LAND THE WORLD-WIDE TRA VEL OGUES is nearly exhausted, there remaining but three hundred copies. We should receive your order at once if you desire to secure one of these valuable books. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY WASHINGTON, D. C. THE HOME OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY An Association organized for “* the increase and diffusion of knowledge,” with headquarters at Washington, D.C. The New Deutsch Airship “Ville de Paris,” a Strange-looking Dirigible Balloon **To Travel Is To Possess The World’’ To THE EDITOR, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, WASHINGTON, D. C. ° DEAR SiR: Permit me to congratulate the Society and yourself on the success of your interesting and valuable volume, ‘‘Scenes from Every Land.’’ I know of no other book from which such a fund of travel knowledge can be odtained, and the wonderful pictures of scenes and types the world over grant an instant conception which is not always gathered from mere descriptive text. Sincerely yours, W. BARTLETT WHIPPLE. Since the publication of ‘‘Scenes from Every Land’’ there have been received hundreds of such letters from all over the country—in fact, from all over the world—congratulating the Society on the volume. “‘Scenes from Every Land’’ will afford your boy or girl a great deal of education and pleasure of travel. It will give them fascinating pictures of many ’ distant lands: about which they read. The book will add zest and enthusiasm to their study of Geography. The volume is 7 by 10% inches, contains 250 unique and interesting pictures with desciptive matter, is printed on fine paper in brown duo-tint ink, well bound in green buckram, and has appended a list of a thousand books of travel, together with a chart of the world. The price is $1.00, postpaid, in the U. S.; abroad, $1.25. An edition de luxe, bound in red leather with gilt tops, may be had for $2.50, postpaid. SECRETARY, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. C.: Please send me copies of ‘‘ SCENES FROM EVERY LAND,”’’ at $1.00 each, for which | enclose herewith dollars. PLEASE SPECIFY WHEN COPIES OF THE DE LUXE EDITION ARE REQUIRED bi tae PHOTOGRAPHS ILLUSTRATING THE ARTICLE “MARKING THE MIA SIAN: | BOUIN DARN = PAGES 13 © 39 Wa Ren MADE WITH A $20 KODAK TAKE A KODAK WITH YOU ogee LR, oe NK : ANY RENE oe Es Oo EASTMAN KODAK CO. 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LETTERS OF CREDIT AND FOREIGN EXCHANGE JOHN JOY EDSON, President WOODWARD & LOTHROP Importers and Retailers INVITE ATTENTION TO THEIR SELECTIONS AND IMPORTATIONS IN _ DESIRABLE MERCHANDISE, COMPRISING IN PART Paris and London Millinery, Silks, Velvets, High-class Dress Goods, Ready-to-Wear Outer and Under Garments for Men, Women, Girls, and Boys, Hand-made Paris Lingerie, Bridal Trousseaux, Corsets, Infants’ Outfittings, Hosiery, Laces, Ribbons, Handkerchiefs, Embroideries, Linens, Upholstery Goods, Books, Stationery, Card Engraving; also Paris, Vienna, and Berlin Novelties in Leather and Fancy Goods; Ster- ling Silver Articles, Lamps, Clocks, Bronzes, Cut Glass, China, etc., for Wedding, Birthday, and Anniversary Gifts. Mail Orders Receive Prompt Attention Correspondence Solicited 10TH, 11TH, F, AND G STREETS N. W. WASHINGTON, D. C. : PRESS OF JUDD & DRTWRILER, INC., WASHINGTON, D. C. Vo XIX APRIL, 1908 No. 4 CONTENTS Along the Old Inca Highway. By Harriet Chalmers Adams. Illustrated. Home-making by the Government. By C. J. Blanchard, Statis- tician U. S. Reclamation Service. _ Illustrated. Medieval Tales of the Lop Basin in Central Asia. By Ellsworth Huntington: _ Illustrated. The Key to the Pacific. By Hon. George C. Perlins, US: ‘Senator from California. Hawaii for Homes. By H. P. Wood. Why Nik-ko is Beautiful. By J. H. DeForest, Sendal, ie | Illustrated. Published by the National Geographic Society Hubbard Memorial Hall - Washington, D. C. $2.50 a Year 25 Cents a Number Entered at the Post-Otfice at Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter ~ Copyright, 1908, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Copyright, 1908, by the National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved N IntustrateD Monruty, published by the Nationa Geocrapuic Society. All editorial communications should be addressed to GinperT H. Grosvenor, Editor the Nationa, GrocraPHIc Macazing. Business communications should be addressed to the National Geographic Society. Editor: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editors . MAJ. GEN, A. W. GREELY U.S. Army : C. HART MERRIAM Chief of the Biological Survey, U. S. Department of Agriculture WILLIS L. MOORE Chief of the Weather Bureau, U. S. Department of Agriculture Oo. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Oo. P. AUSTIN Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Department of Commerce and Labor . ROB’T HOLLISTER CHAPMAN U. S. Geological Survey 25 CENTS A NUMBER; SUBSCRIPTION $2.50 A YEAR | DAVID G. FAIRCHILD Agricultural Explorer of the De- partment of Agriculture ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Washington, D.C. DAVID T. DAY U. S. Geological Survey R. D. SALISBURY University of Chicago G. K. GILBERT U. S. Geological Survey ALEXANDER McADIE Professor of Meteorology, U. S. Weather Bureau, San Francisco ALMON GUNNISON President St Lawrence University Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, DG EE EEE CE EES / 99 ccs fff J] mea ff 5 cc 95 | J Smee fff} cere ff ff cc ff § ff cee ff ff ce ff ff ef | ff] ce} ee | ame} THE HAMILTON WATCH The National Timekeeper of America — Designed by the Best Watch Talent in the Country Built of the Very Finest Material ‘Made by Workmen of the Highest Skiil Produced in a Factory of Perfect Equipment Scientifically and Exhaustively Tested Perfectly and Accurately Adjusted [sochronally to Temperature and to Positions Distinguised for Supreme Time-keeping Qualities .Phenomenally Durable Every Hamilton Watch Carries the Personal Guarantee of the Company OUR 940 18-Size Open-face Watch is the wonderful rail- road watch. Used in overwhelming numbers on all the main railroad lines in the United States. OUR 960 16-Size Bride Watch is beautiful arid accurate. 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HOISTING LIFT-VAN ON BOARD STEAMSHIP BOWLING GREEN STORAGE & VAN COMP’Y 18 BROADWAY, NEW YORK Cable Address: Bowlingvan, New York Codes: A BC, Fifth Edition, Lieber’s Code Please mention the National Geographic Magazine when writing Vo. XIX, No. 4 Pr LONG THE OLD INGA HIGHW Ax WASHINGTON APRIL, 1908 © GEOGRALPIEDIC MAGA ZIINIE By Harrier CHALMERS ADAMS With photographs by the author N a June morning a season or two () ago, we started out from Sicuani, then the terminus of the South- ern Railway of Peru, for Cuzco, ancient capital of the Incas. We had decided not to engage passage on the regular stage coach which connects Sicuani with Cuzco, but to journey instead by private vehicle, that we might loiter by the wayside to study the Quichuas, the remnant of a once mighty people who prospered in this highland country. Remembering the Spanish proverb, “If you can't get what you like, like what you get,” I pretended to be quite enthusiastic over our equi- page, which consisted of a rickety cart holding the two of us and our cholo driver, two slow but well-meaning mules in the lead. The Peruvian cholo is of mixed Indian and Spanish blood and con- siders himself in every way superior to the pure-blooded Quwichua. From Sicuani we traveled over the old Inca highway, worn by the feet of many pilgrims, of many llama- trains, in the days before the Spanish conquest. The home life in these bolsones, the fertile mountain basins which are linked with the valley of Cuzco, is little changed since the long ago. The people are now of Roman Catholic faith and a church tower marks the site of each village, oxen and other domestic animals have been intro- duced ; but the crude huts, the homespun dress, the primitive method of agricul- ture, belong to centuries long past. We were so fortunate as to make this journey at harvesting time, and while farming in the World’s Roof Garden isn’t exactly “up to date,’ it is most inter- esting to the traveler. In threshing the grain the men drive the oxen about in a circle, encouraging the poor animals by yanking their tails; in winnowing, the grain and chaff are blown out through a horn, that the wind may separate them. A crooked stick is used in plowing, but what the Quichua farmer lacks in mod- ern machinery he makes up in the deco- rative head-dress of his oxen. In costume these mountaineers are most picturesque. Throughout the An- dean highlands the headcovering changes with the locality, and on the road to Cuzco it consists of a large, flat hat, usually of homespun, dyed bright blue or red, bedecked with tinsel (a modern in- novation). Both men and women wear this headgear. The men are attired in knee-breeches, short jackets, and pon- chos; the women in short skirts and low- cut blouses. They are bare-legged and seem scantily clad at an altitude of 11,000 feet above the sea. In the villages through which we passed the huts were built of mud and thatch, Tue Nationa GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 232 YHATNd OTOH) FHL GNV SWVvdV SYW—OOZN)D OL GVOU AHL NO 49vain O8 UNO See: ALONG THE OLp Inca HiGHway OOZNO OL Avoud AHL NO ‘VLONVOTIA WHATY YAAO MO TIM NHAOM AO AOCINA-LOOd Tue Nationa, GreocrapHic MAGAZINE FOOT TRAVELERS INCA BURIAL TOMB AND ANDEAN HUT OF MUD AND THATCH ALONG THE OLp Inca HiGuway 4 ey - a % S tye Plt inn, ae A sip citi Madd OL a ee, of QUICHUA FARMERS b) PLOWING AT AN ELEVATION OF I1,000 FEET * THe NatTionaL GeocraPHic MAGAZINE 20 -GVaH AAV YOOUd AHL NI dQ SUV WN _| N&xo stn wo ssid HH AWINIHOVW NYYGOW NI SMO v'l WAN AVL VAHOINO THE Lv SST ALONG THE OLp Inca HicuHway « GINOM AHL JO JOON AHL NO ONILSHAUVH ** THe NaTIionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GATHERING FUEL FOR THE HOME and untanned hides covered the door- ways; within there were no furnishings save the few crude cooking utensils. The head of the household evidently “slept on the mat with the dog and the cat, the rest of the family close by,’ no better cared for than his llamas in the nearby corral. The graceful llamas, little cousins to the camel, are closely associated with my remembrance of the Andean highlanders. Domesticated long ago, they are the best friends of the mountaineers, furnishing wool for clothing, fuel, bearing burdens patiently, calling for little or no care, as they graze by the wayside and re- quire little water. As in the days of Ata- hulpa, so today a train of laden llamas slowly journeys toward Cuzco; in the rear a Quichua boy and girl, both spin- ning as they walk, using primitive imple- ments, a baby strapped to the young mother’s back. The llamas turn their heads quickly to right aid left, their curious eyes ever shifting; the young man and woman constantly chew the dried coca leaf, which deadens hunger, cold, and fatigue, and watch for the flag which cheers, which waves triumphant on this ancient highway—the little, white flag which marks a hut where chicha is sold. Chicha is the Peruvian drink made from fermented corn. It is highly intox- icating and its victims are legion on fiesta days. ‘There are, as I remember, about seventy feast days of the Church celebrated annually in Peru, and the cholos and Quichuas mark these days less by religious fervor than by an all con- suming passion for chicha. We decided that chicha was an acquired taste; it is as bitter as the Mexican pulque. Another Peruvian drink is aguadiente, a strong native brandy. The fare of the highlanders is meager, ALONG THE Otp Inca HicHway 239 REAR GUARD OF A LLAMA TRAIN BEGGARS THe Natronat GreocrapHic MAGAZINE 240 SSVIN WOM ONINYOLAY STAID VO HOING A FULL-BLOODED QUICHUA, DESCENDANT OF A PEOPLE WHO LAID THESE GREAT STONES THe Nationa, GreocraPHic MAGAZINE GNVIHSIH NVACNV AHL NAGUAE 40 SUISVAd TNANMLVd FHL ALONG THE OLD Inca HIGHWay LOW YAISAVM V LV ONILSHY Tue Natrona, GeocraeHic MAGAZINE “AS IN THE DAYS OF ATAHUALPA”’ ALONG THE Otp INca HiIGHWaAy NIVUYL VNVTI AHL JO YACVAT GALVYOOUG AHL Tue NaTIonaL GreocraPHic MAGAZINE 246 NAS FHL JO ALIO GaMOVS *OOZND CGYAO VAT MATL ONDE (OOV ONO'T ULL NI SV “GOOLS AMILL GaagtAOON A UNV diMo d SdGVel 11 DP PANY . 247 ALONG THE OLtp Inca HiGHway auNSOdXA ATANOG V AO LINSAY AHL “AOVUIN V SI GINVYAd AHL “ALAC AIO SVWV'I1T 10 GYHtH V THe NatrionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE FARMING IN THE WORLD'S ROOF GARDEN consisting of maize, chuio, the frozen potato, cholona, dried goat or mutton. and quinua, a cereal which thrives at high altitudes. We passed many little fields brightened by the reddening quinua, its tall stalks waving like corn. The valleys through which we journeyed were nar- row, bordered on either side by steep mountain walls. High up on the hill- sides were cultivated patches, little farms which seemed in danger of falling over into the swiftly flowing river below. This river is the Vilcanota (we had seen its birth back in the snows at the Pass of La Raya) ; beyond Cuzco it is called the Yucay; farther on, the Ucayali, and it is the longest formative branch of the Ama- zon. Our road followed the river’s wind- ings and crossed bridges laid by the Colo- nial Spaniards on old Inca foundations. Our first view of these massive stones was at the ruins of the Temple of Vira- cocha, about half a mile from the high- way. One great wall alone remains of this once splendid edifice, said to have been erected by the eighth Inca ruler. We saw many lesser ruins of the ancients before reaching Cuzco—forts, evidently, guarding the approach to the capital. We managed to pick up a few words of the Quichua language, which we had need of later on trips beyond Cuzco, where little or no Spanish is spoken. On this main highway Spanish is now the universal tongue, although the Quwichuas cling to their own expressive language, and their sullen demeanor shows their hatred for the white man and the half- breed. They speak Spanish when they must, but most ungraciously. My pleasantest recollection of this drive of two days is of the early evening, when we heard the shepherds playing on their pipes. From the hillsides where the flocks grazed came the clear notes, monot- onous but sweet, and the music carried me back to Peru’s olden days. As we drove through these Andean _ valleys, past villages and haciendas, each church tower, each touch of a more modern civil- ization, reminded me of one of the saddest histories ever told, of the downfall and slavery of a once contented and prosper- ous people, now broken in spirit, degen- erated; yet in their hearts there remains a love for their lost idols, a reverence for their old religion. When we at last reached the heights overlooking Cuzco ALONG THE Op Inca HicHway 249 RUINS OF THE TEMPLE OF VIROCOCHA, ABOUT HALF A MILE FROM THE HIGHWAY 250 the sunset glow was gilding its many towers, and near us on a worn spot on the highway stood a group of poorly clothed Quichuas, with sad, unenlight- ened faces, forgetting their cruel Span- THe NatrionaL GeocraPpHic MAGAZINE ish masters, forgetting their Church and their Cross. With heads bowed and un- covered, they stood as in the long ago, greeting their beloved capital—Cuzco, Sacred City, of the: sum HOME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT An Account of the Eleven Immense Irrigating Erojects to be Opened im iioes By C. J. BiancHarp STATISTICIAN, U. S. RECLAMATION SERVICE FE have come upon a time in our national life when the ques- tion of providing homes for our people bulks larger than ever before. The time is not far distant when it will become acute. The rapid narrowing of the limits of our unoccupied public do- main and the tremendous increase in land values in all the settled sections of the United States render it yearly more diffi- cult for the man of smail means to get a foothold on the land. There is congestiun today in many of our cities, and the men- ace of a great population underfed and poorly housed looms more darkly each year. So great is the land hunger that already a quarter of a million families, comprising some of the best blood of the nation, have expatriated themselves and taken up new homes under a foreign flag. What is the use of preaching love of home and country when we offer nothing but crowded tenements to the toiler who seeks to earn a roof over his family? Our nation’s greatness has its founda- tions in the home of the man whose feet are firmly planted upon his own land. There is no national stability in a citizen- ship born and reared in tenements. Pa- triotism, lovalty, and civic pride are not bred and fostered in the crowded cen- ters of population. The destiny of the nation is foreshadowed in the provisions made for the prosperity and contentment of its citizens. An assurance that the great mass of our people shall reside in homes of their own is an insurance that our future will be one of stability and progress. The home-making instinct is a well- developed trait in American character. Our forefathers who landed on the bleak and inhospitable shores of New Englani!, their descendants, the pioneers who con- quered the middle West, and the Argo- nauts of this generation who crossed the trackless plains were impelled by this in- stinct more than by the love of adventure or the lure of gold to wander forth into strange lands. From the very inception of our Re- public our legislators have recognized that it was a national duty to render the acquirement of homes as easy as pos- sible. This recognition was shown in liberal grants to the defenders of the country in Revolutionary times, and later in the beneficent homestead law which opened to settlement the Mississippi Val- ley. It has been recognized since by the enactment of other statutes making easy the acquirement of public domain. Areas greater in extent than many of the original states have been donated for the purpose of making habitable the unutil- ized lands of the people. At one time the * An address to the National Geographic Society, March 13, 1908. HoME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT Ps PUMPING BARGE OF THE U. S. RECLAMATION SERVICE: WILLISTON PROJECT, NORTH DAKOTA (SEE PAGE 252) property of the nation embraced 1,800,- 000,000 acres; today it has been reduced to less than 500,000,000 acres. Much of it was squandered by the government, it is true, but out of that public domain twenty vigorous commonwealths have arisen, and an agricultural empire has come into being that is today the marvel of the world. The remaining public lands occupy two distinct agricultural regions, differing materially in climate, soil, and crops. West of the Missouri River lies a vast region extending westward to the foot- hills of the Rocky Mountains and from the Panhandle of Texas northward into Canada. It is known as the Great Plains. For many years the vast region has been utilized as a public common. Countless cattle and sheep have had free access to it and have overgrazed it. Its adminis- tration is still one of the most vexing problems before Congress. The pioneer of the Great Plains was the cattleman. He farmed but little, and from the nature of his business and the methods of oper- ation, as a rule, wanted no neighbors. The real home-builder, who undertook to subdue the plains to agriculture, en- countered many difficulties. In many sections there was no timber and he was forced to build his house of sod or adobe. He found the streams were not depend- able; they were dry in summer, when water was most needed. Nature, how- ever, provided an inexhaustible supply of underground water, which the farmer pumped into small reservoirs and then led to his garden and orchard and sup- plied his live stock. He harnessed the wind, which blows almost constantly on the prairies, and made it a cheap and useful servant for his work. Within the past 15 years there has been an awakening to the opportunity which lies in the Plains area, and settlements have moved westward with such remark- able rapidity that the day of the broad, 2152 free range, with the old, careless, and often inhuman methods of stock-raising, is about over. The day of smaller flocks and herds, winter fed and fattened on home-grown forage, is at hand. PROJECTS IN NORTH DAKOTA In the Great Plains area the Reclama- tion Service has in process of construc- tion II projects involving an expenditure of $18,740,000 and the reclamation of 500,000 acres. Several of these projects are unique, and in their engineering fea- tures are deserving of extended descrip- tion. All have reached a stage of con- struction where water will be available this season, and the hundreds of new homes which dot the prairies show that the settlers are preparing to put it to use. Three of these projects are located in North Dakota, in the valley of the Mis- souri River, and in the vicinity of the town of Williston. ‘The Missouri River at this point is a whimsical stream, habit- ually cutting its banks and changing its channel, so that the engineers find it 1m- practicable to locate any permanent struc- ture for the diversion of water by gravity. Fortunately great beds of lignite were discovered in the vicinity on public land, and the engineers proposed that the gov- ernment should turn coal miner, mining its own coal and developing power there- from. A large power-house was erected at the mine and power is now conveyed electrically to the river. An exceedingly unique plan was devised to overcome the eccentricities of the Missouri. The pumps are placed on floating barges, which will accommodate themselves to changes in the river channel and in the water level. The water is delivered through pipes with flexible joints into reservoirs, and from these basins is pumped into the canals. These reser- voirs serve to settle the silt, large quan- tities of which are carried in solution by the Missouri River. The central plant, near Williston, supplies power to two of these projects. A heavy influx of settlers is anticipated this spring to take up the lands to be irri- gated. Diversified and intensive farm- Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MAGAZINE ing by irrigation will bring about a great change in the agricultural methods now in vogue in this section.. The cultivation of alfalfa, sugar-beets, vegetables, and such fruits as apples, cherries, grapes, melons, and berries of all kinds, for which this region is adapted, will doubtless cre- ate a prosperous community here in a few years. This project is on the Great Northern Railway. LOWER YELLOWSTONE PROJECT Not far from here, in the Lower Yel- lowstone Valley, and embracing 66,000: acres of land in Montana and North Dakota, is the Lower Yellowstone pro- ject. The settlement of this large area has been progressing rapidly, and aside from a few thousand acres of railroad lands, which will be sold this spring, about all the land is filed upon.’ The works include a_ timber-covered, rock- filled dam 700 feet long, headworks of concrete, and a huge canal 67 miles long and several hundred miles of laterals and small ditches. HUNTLEY PROJECT, MONTANA Up the Yellowstone about 200 miles is the Huntley project, which was completed last June. It is located 12 miles east of Billings, Montana, and embraces 30,000 acres of land, having a general elevation of 3,000 feet above sea level. The irri- gable area has been divided into 5890: farms of 40 acres each, and about half of these have already been filed upon. The project offers unusual advantages for the practical farmer of small means to secure a good home, whereon by his own in- dustry he can secure a comfortable living. The climate here is delightful and the soil of exceptional fertility, producing boun- tiful crops when watered. Cereals and alfalfa are the principal crops, although apples, small fruits, and garden vege- tables do well. On account of the fine range country surrounding the project, alfalfa will always be a staple product. It produces about five tons to the acre at present and is worth $5 a ton in the stack. A sugar-beet factory is now in operation at Billings and the farmers are increasing™ HoME-MAKING BY their acreage in this crop, as it is very profitable. Unusual facilities for trans- porting crops to the large markets are afforded by two lines of transcontinental railroads, the Northern Pacific and the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy, which traverse this tract. No farm is more than three miles from a shipping point. There are eight new towns on this project at intervals of about 5 miles along the two lines of railroad, and town lots are now offered for sale by the government at reasonable prices. SUN RIVER PROJECT, MONTANA Not far from the thriving city of Great Falls, Montana, the first unit of the Sun River project will be opened to settlers on May 7. This project, when completed, will be one of the largest undertaken by the government, irrigating nearly 256,000 acres, or considerably more than the cul- tivated acreage of Rhode Island. An in- teresting feature in connection with this project is the proposition of the engineers to augment the water supply by taking water from the streams now flowing into the Pacific Ocean through a gap in the continental divide to a watershed which drains into the Atlantic Ocean. The Sun River Valley proper is about 70 miles longeand trom 1 to 5 miles’ wide Ihe unit to be opened in May is the abandoned Fort Shaw Military Reservation, which contains about 200 80-acre farms. On this project the rural settlement plan of the Reclamation Service will be carried out, and theré will be a village about every six miles. The soil is a warm, sandy loam covered with buffalo grass, gramma, and wheat grass. All the crops which can be grown in the northern countries can be raised in this section. The principal crops will be largely alfalfa, sugar-beets, and potatoes. MILK RIVER PROJECT, MONTANA In northern Montana the Milk River project, by reason of the international character of the streams to be diverted, has attracted a great deal of attention. The irrigable area in the valley of Milk River is greater than the water supply, THE GCGVERNMENT = and the engineers propose to store water now flowing into Hudson Bay to aug- ment the insufficient flow of Milk River, a tributary of the Missouri. Nearly 250,000 acres are involved in this project. The valley has a soil of sandy loam well adapted to raising all the products of the north temperate zone. The construction of the necessary dams and canals will require several years. Milk River Val- ley is tributary to the Great Northern Railroad. SHOSHONE PROJECT, WYOMING On the northern border of Wyoming, in a region of exceedingly rough country, the government is building the highest masonry dam in the world. This struc- (urs, ylancla. wail HSE Bio WESE Hloowe its foundation, blocks a very narrow Cone, wits wall be mes tect tick) omy tae bottom and only 175 feet long on top. We-might get a better conception of the enormous height of this dam if we com- pared it with the height of some familiar building. ‘Take, for instance, the Flatiron building, in New York. Placed side by side, the Shoshone dam would rise one story higher. The work here is difficult and dan- gerous. Workmen are lowered into the canyon, the walls of which are hun- dreds of feet high, and, with ropes about their bodies as they work, put in the drill holes for blasting. Before work could be begun on this structure it was neces- sary for the Reclamation Service to build a road 8 miles in length to get into the canyon. ‘This road was cut for the most of the distance from the solid walls of rock. The dam will create behind it the largest lake in the State of Wyoming, with a superficial area of 10 square miles and an average depth of 70 feet. Twelve miles below the Shoshone dam a diversion dam is being built in the river which will turn the stream into a tunnel 3% miles in length, connected at the other end by a large canal which carries the water out upon 100,000 acres of choice land. A portion of this area will be watered next spring, and is opened to settlement at this time to bona fide citi- THe Nationa GeEocrRaPHic MAGAZINE 254 (£$z aHovd HAYS) SVSNVM ‘“LOafoud ALIO NAGUVS :VAIIVI1IV NI daad AHNM WILLVO 255 HoME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT (£92 a9Vd AAS) OHV ‘LOALlONd VMOGINIW :STIVd duVHONVT9 IN GUNNISON CANYON: UNCOMPAHGRE PROJECT, COLORADO (SEE PAGE 263) HoME-MAKING BY zens of the United States. The irrigable lands are reached by the Chicago, Bur- lington and Quincy Railway. NORTE PLATTE PROJECT In southern Wyoming another large work is well under way.. The structure known as the Pathfinder’dam is being erected in a narrow canyon of the North Platte River at the identical point where General John C. Fremont, the noted ex- plorer, nearly lost his life while attempt- ing to get through in a boat. This struc- ture will be 215 feet high and will create an enormous reservoir with a_ storage capacity of 1,025,000 acre-feet, or enough water tO cover 1,025,000 acres a foot deep. To better appreciate the quantity of water in this reservoir it should be un- derstood that it is sufficiently capacious to hold back the greatest flood ever known in this turbulent stream. In con- nection with this dam and reservoir the government has built a large canal 95 miles in length to carry the waters onto lands in Wyoming and _ Nebraska. Owing to the rough country along the canal route, several large concrete via- ducts were constructed and for several miles the canal is lined with cement. The irrigable lands are tributary to the Chi- cago and Northwestern, Chicago, Bur- lington and Quincy, and the Union Pa- cific Railway systems. BELLE FOURCHE PROJECT, SOUTH DAKOTA Northeast of the Black Hills, in South Dakota, lies the beautiful valley of the Belle Fourche, embracing several hun- dred thousand acres of exceedingly fertile land. In this valley the Reclama- tion Service has nearly completed a great work for the irrigation of 100,000 acres. By means of a concrete diversion dam the entire flow of the Belle Fourche River will be diverted into an inlet canal 6% miles in length and large enough to carry the minimum flow of the Potomac River at Point of Rocks. This canal turns the water into a natural depression between two hills. This depression is blocked by one of the largest earthen embankments in the world, a structure more than a THE GOVERNMENT LL mile in length and 115 feet in maximum height. The reservoir thus formed has a storage capacity of 203,770 acre-feet, and fonmms: the! larsest lake vin, the states on South Dakota. Home-seekers have been pouring into this valley for the last two years, and nearly all of the public land is now occu- pied by settlers who are awaiting the completion of the works. The towns in the valleys have more than doubled in population since the work began. ‘There are opportunities for home-seekers to se- cure land from private owners whose holdings are in excess of the requirements of the Reclamation Act. The principal markets for the products of this valley are the mining towns in the Black Hills, the Twin Cities,also Omaha and Chicago, which are reached by the Chicago and Northwestern and Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railways. Back of the irri- gated country is a vast area of public lands which is available for ranging cattle and sheep. The principal products will be alfalfa, cereals, vegetables, and the hardy fruits. GARDEN CITY PROJECT, KANSAS In southwestern Kansas the Garden City Project, although embracing only 8,000 acres, is relatively one of the im- portant government works in the Plains region. Owing to the numerous novel features involved in its construction, the project has attracted much attention. It is believed that the successful initiation of this system will encourage private capital to take up work in other parts of the Arkansas Valley and elsewhere on the Great Plains. As the Arkansas River could not be de- pended upon to supply water to gravity canals, the engineers devised a scheme to utilize the underflow. About 300 wells were sunk, the combined length of which exceeds 4 miles. ‘These wells are in groups of 12 each and vary from 12 to 15 inches in diameter. Each group will be operated by its own pumping plant, and all pumps will be operated by elec- tricity generated in a central power station. The water from the wells will be 2150 lifted into a concrete-lined conduit, which discharges into the main canal. During the irrigation season this leviathan pump- ing plant will lift 30,000 acre-feet, or about 11,000,000,000 gallons. The value of land in this part of Kansas, in its natural condition, . varies from $5 to $15 per acre. When re- claimed by irrigation it is easily worth from $100 to $150 per acre. The prin- cipal crops are sugar-beets and alfalfa, considerable quantities of which are al- ready under cultivation. Apples and melons are especially profitable crops when irrigated. This section is tributary to the Santa Fé system. NEW MEXICO PROJECTS There are three national projects in the Territory of New Mexico, two of which, the Carlsbad and Hondo, are practically completed and will water. 30,000 acres this season. The Hondo Project provides for diver- sion and storage of the flood waters from Hondo River, a tributary of the Pecos, and will reclaim 10,000 acres of land in the vicinity of Roswell. No public land is watered by this project, but lands in private ownership are for sale at reason- able prices. The Carlsbad Project is located on the Pecos River, in southeastern New Mex- ico, on the Santa Fé system. The entire acreage 4s in private ownership, but sev- eral thousand acres are included in ex- cess holdings and must be disposed of to farmers who will purchase water-rights under the government system. The price of land varies from $20 to $60 per acre. The climate is mild. In winter the temperature during the day is seldom be- low freezing. The summer temperature seldom goes above 100 degrees and the nights are always pleasant. The soil is a light, sandy alluvium and very fertile. The chief crops in the val- ley are peaches, pears, apples, cherries, small fruits, alfalfa, cotton, sweet pota- toes, celery, and garden truck. Five crops of alfalfa are grown each year, yielding a total of 5 to 8 tons per acre. Fruits, cotton, and alfalfa are the most THe NatTionaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE profitable crops, and fodder-corn, cane, and milo-maize yield good forage crops. Stock-raising is profitable, owing to ex- tensive range lands to the east and west. There is a good market for horses and mules at Carlsbad, and hay is always in demand here and at other points in the valley. Cotton, after being ginned, is shipped to Houston or Galveston. Kansas City, Wichita, El Paso, Fort Worth, etc., afford markets for all other excess supplies. The Pecos Valley is a good winter feeding center for range stock. Cotton gins, cotton-seed oil and oil- cake factories, and canneries with ad- junct machinery for the manufacure of denatured alcohol are needed in the val- ley. There are at present water-power plants at Carlsbad and at a point five miles below, and there is room for addi- tional plants further down stream. The Rio Grande Project involves the construction of a storage dam 255 feet high, opposite Eagle, New Mexico, across the Rio Grande, which will form a reser- voir 175 feet deep at its lower end and 40 miles long, with a storage capacity of 2,000,000 acre-feet, for the irrigation of 180,000 acres of land in New Mexico. Texas, and Mexico. The Leasburg Diversion, which is a part of the Rio Grande project, consists of a low, 600-foot concrete diversion dam. with pier, embankment, and sluice-gates. head-wier and head-gates. In connection with the diversion dam 6 miles of full- sized canal were constructed to connect with the old Las Cruces Canal. Con- struction was begun November 27, 1906, and water will be supplied to 10,000 acres this summer. The valley has splendid railroad facilities and contains many thriving cities and towns, of which E1 Paso, Texas, is the metropolis. OUR INLAND EMPIRE Beyond the Rocky Mountains lies the true desert, a land of mysterious silence; a land of potential greatness, awaiting the magic kiss of canal-borne water to wake to teeming fecundity. It is often called the inland empire. HOME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT = SVS, RAISING HOGS IN THE KLAMATH VALLEY: KLAMATH PROJECT, OREGON (SEE “PACE 267) In many parts of it Nature has placed in juxtaposition all the natural elements except rainfall required for a fruitful, prosperous country. Its climate is health- ful and salubrious; its valleys and plains possess a soil of inexhaustible fertility, and from the forest-clad mountains, with summits in regions of perpetual snow, countless streams rush downward to both oceans or flow into desert sinks and there evaporate. How to overcome the absence of moisture from the clouds and thus bring the region to its proper state of de- velopment is today a problem of para- mount importance. Its successful solu- tion will provide a safety valve against the impending dangers of congestion in the cities of the East. The future of our desert empire is, in a measure, predicated by the marvelous achievements of the pioneers. With a courage born of conviction and fostered by the hope which dwells perennial in the breast of the Argonaut of the sage- brush country, they have, within the past few vears, wrested from a region long regarded as absolutely worthless a crop- producing, home-supporting area of in- exhaustible fertility, greater in extent than the cultivated lands in Massachu- setts, Connecticut, Delaware, New Hamp- shire, New Jersey, Rhode Island, and Vermont, and capable of supporting a larger rural population. More than $120,000,000 have been expended in ir- rigation works in the West, and 70,000 miles of canals now carry the life-giving waters to 10,000,000 acres, which each year produce crops valued at more than $250,000,000. As good American citizens, we owe it to ourselves to extend our knowledge of this splendid country. There is an in- spiration in the breadth and vastness of this sleeping empire in the West, and a sublimity in the lofty mountains whose summits are clothed in perpetual snow. One breathes optimism and grows in mental breadth and strength in contem- plating scenery which has no counterpart in the world. The economic value of national irri- THe NaTioNaL GEoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 260 NOUVONILISVM UHALY VINIMVA YHA LO AA VIVA MHMO'T AHL NI GNV’I GHULVALLVIONS SONIMOHS MAA 261 HoME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT IVNVO AGISANNOAS WHUNA 'NOLONIHSVM “UHMUVd YVAN YAINMO HO AYN LOId GNV NVNUOF H ‘{ 40 GUVHOUO NI ATUL UVAd Tue NatTionaL GrtoGraPpHic MAGAZINE YAKIMA MAIDEN PICKING HOPS: YAKIMA PROJECT, WASHINGTON HoME-MAKING BY gation cannot be measured in dollars and cents. The desert made habitable offers the boon of. health to him who erects his dwelling upon it. You cannot fix the possibilities of this land of silence and sunshine. We know that the influ- ence of its far-flung horizons and its true perspective are potential in character- molding and building. Instead of the dead level of mediocrity, which prevails in modern city life, the desert offers the uplift of unmeasured distances, the per- petual sunshine, and the individual home, with the broader freedom of action which comes with life in the open. There is a constant inspiration to industry, a stim- ulation to endeavor, in the superabundant life which springs from the bosom of the desert when water is applied. The trans- formation which follows irrigation: is so remarkable that we are prone to believe Aladdin and his lamp have really ap- peared. MINIDOKA PROJECT, IDAHO Three years ago last July I camped for the night on the banks of the Snake River, in southern Idaho. Save for our campfire there was no sign of human habitation within 30 miles, only a vast sage-brush plain, rimmed on every side by the horizon. It was a night to remem- ber. Over us spread a star-gemmed can- opy; around us the embers of a sage- brush fire shed their glow. In the near distance the doleful wailing of the skulk- ing coyote sent a chilly feeling up and duwn the spine. A weather-tanned engineer in faded khaki sitting beside me drew rough plans in the sand, and I listened, interested, but doubting, while he pictured the future of this dusty plain. That engineer’s plans found favor in Washington, and in two months actual work of construction be- gan. An army of men came upon the field and straightway took that river and blocked it with a wonderful dam; then they led it into 130 miles of great canals and 190 miles of ditches, and spread it over 85,000 acres of land. Attracted by the signs of industry, set- tiers poured in and every 40 or 80 acres THE GOVERNMENT 263 of that vast area was taken up. Houses began to dot the plain and a railroad 100 miles long, a branch of the Oregon Short Line, was built through the center of the tract. Three new towns sprang up as if by magic. On the site of our camp a school-house stands which opened last year with 74 pupils. Today 1,400 families are living on farms and a thou- sand people are living in towns where a tinlewoOver thee years, Acontiey een mer nothing but dust and desolation. The Minidoka Project furnishes in- dubitable evidence that a better invest- ment was never made by a government since the world began than national irri- gation. President Roosevelt said, “No part of this nation can be benefited with- out a reflex benefit to the other part.” In this one project we find the proof of this statement, for the 1,400 families who are at work in that desert valley in Idaho today are furnishing a market for end- less quantities of manufactured articles, the bulk of which are Eastern made. PAYETTE-BOISE PROJECT, IDAHO The Payette-Boise Project will reclaim 372,000 acres of land in the fertile val- leys of the Payette, Boise, and Snake rivers, in southwestern Idaho, which are tributary to the Oregon Short Line, the Boise, Nampa and Owyhee, and the Idaho Northern railroads. ‘The lands are in Ada, Canyon, and Owyhee counties, and are generally smooth, with gentle slopes. Construction work is well under way and many settlers have already taken up their homesteads. The valleys are the best populated in the state. The citizens came largely from the middle West and are prosperous and progressive. With superior market and transportation facilities, with soil and climate adapted to diversified and inten- sive farming, this section is destined to become one of the most densely populated agricultural regions in the Northwest. UNCOMPAHGRE PROJECT, COLORADO In southwestern Colorado the most spectacular project of the government is nearing completion. In this region two 264 streams, the Uncompahgre and the Gun- nison, flow in nearly parallel courses about 10 miles apart and separated by a mountain range 2,000 feet high. The Uncompahgre flows through a broad val- ley containing several hundred thousand acres of fertile land. Its volume is suffi- cient for the irrigation of only a small part of the irrigable area. On the other hand, the Gunnison River, a stream of much larger discharge, flows in a pro- found canyon and in its valley there is no considerable area of land to be watered. To augment the insufficient flow of the first stream the greatest underground waterway in the ‘world is being con- structed—a tunnel 6 miles long, “eat a cross-section 10% by 12 feet, under a mountain 2,000 feet. It will bring into the valley a part of the waters of the Gunnison River. The history of this project is replete with danger, daring, and heroism, and the men who initiated this work and those who have carried it forward furnish proof enough that all of Uncle Sam’s heroes do not wear uni- forms. The topographers who followed to complete the original survey encountered almost unheard of trials. Many times it was necessary to lower them by ropes hundreds of feet into the canyon. ‘The location for the tunnel was determined at a point where the canyon was more than a half mile deep. It was necessary then to construct a road into this frightful gorge, a remarkable road, 16 miles long, with grades out of the canvon 23 per cent in places. Heavy machinery was brought in and a power plant installed. The difficulties encountered have tried the heart of those engaged upon the work. Gas, cave-ins, and subterranean springs have all interposed obstacles re- guiring the utmost care in the prosecu- tion of the work. At frequent intervals heavy flows of water have been encoun- tered. This has required the installation of complete pumping facilities. At the present time pumps are discharging about 250,000 gallons per 24-hour dav, and the quantitv pumped has been as high as 750,000 gallons during the same pe- THe NaTIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE riod. More than four miles of the tunnel have been excavated to date. While the tunnel work was going on many miles of canals were dug, some of which were in exceedingly unfavorable country and necessitated cement lining. Irrigation from this project will begin in 1909, and 140,000 acres of land, much of which is adapted to the growing of deciduous fruits, will be ready for settle- ment. The Denver and Rio Grande Railway traverses this section. STRAWBERRY VALLEY PROJECT, UTAH This project provides for the irrigation of about 60,000 acres of land in central Utah, situated from 5 to 15 miles south of Provo, and on the eastern shore of Utah Lake. Water supply will be re- ceived from a storage reservoir to be built on Strawberry River, about 30 miles east of the irrigable area. By means of a tun- nel 3% miles long stored waters will be carried under the divide and emptied into Spanish Fork, from which a canal from 18 to 20 miles long will convey them to the irrigable area. ‘The lands have a mean elevation of 4,500 feet. YAKIMA VALLEY PROJECTS, WASHINGTON On the eastern side of the Cascades, in Washington, are a succession of valleys in the drainage of the Yakima River. Comprehensive plans have been worked out by the Reclamation Service and con- struction is well under way for the re- clamation of the largest project yet un- dertalken, Ine iter rigable area is nearly a half million acres and the cost will prob- ably exceed $15,000,000. The work is being taken up in divisions, each involv- ing the irrigation of specified areas. ‘Storage is provided by erecting dams at the outlets of several mountain lakes, the capacity of which will total 804,000 acre-feet. On the Sunnyside Unit the government purchased a large canal, en- larged it and rebuilt the diversion dam in the Yakima. Last year this system sup- plied 40,000 acres, and a crop census — showed that the yields amounted to $2,000,000 or $50 per acre. No section of the United States gives HoME-MAKING BY more generous returns for the labor em- ployed than the Yakima Valley. I have never dared to tell. Kasterners what I really know to be true about the crop yields. Some of the views will give you an idea of the intensive farming prac- ticed there. Among the wealth producers the apple orchards take a high rank. Full-bearing orchards produce frequently from $300 to $1,200 per acre annually. It can be stated that $300.is less than the average for all well-kept orchards. The fruit grown here is attractive, sound, and ships well. its market is New York and Europe, and the commission men are so eager for the crop that it is often con- tracted for in advance. Orchard lands sell for from $300 to $2,000 per acre, de- pending on location and condition of trees. Ihe pear crop is very profitable, and peaches and grapes do well. A large area is in hops, and the yields here are so generous that I am told Yakima is driving New York out of the hop-growing business. The Yakima Indians find employment in the hop fields during the picking sea- son, and usually camp just outside the fields. Alfalfa is another money-maker, producing from 6 to 8 tons per acre, worth on an average of $5 per ton in the Sacks wyline 1907 (tle (Yakima. Valley shipped fruit to the value of $1,125,000. Its hay crop was worth $2,000,000; po- tatoes, $250,000; onions, $50,000, and hops, $200,000, a total of farm products of $3,625,000. Sixty-five thousand cattle and 20,000 sheep were ranged and fed in this valley in 1907, valued.at about $2,000,000. Ten and 20 acre farms are common in this valley, and this has brought about compact rural settlements along theirriga- tion canals. In turn there has followed a gradual improvement in social conditions, with the elimination of the isolation of farm life, which has in itself proven such an important factor in swinging the pen- dulum of population from the farm to the town. The luxuries of town life are en- joyed in a measure by the farmer, who at the same time lives a life of freedom in the open. THE GOVERNMENT 265 When the works on this section are completed the Yakima Valley will be- come one of the show places of the coun- try. Over a greater portion of the ir- rigable area the farms will not exceed 20 acres in area, and we may look for a pop- ulation of 250,000 in this favored region in the not distant future. Fully devel- oped, the taxable property should have a value of not less than $70,000,000, mak- ing it one of the richest agricultural dis- tricts in the world. The area which can be reclaimed is nearly double that which is now irrigated in Southern California. A splendid part of the life in the Yakima Valley is that one can live out of doors so much of the vear. The same share of clear skies and dry air that makes Southern California so attractive is enjoyed in Washington. The vallev is on the main line of the Northern Pacific and the new line of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul Railway now building. OKANOGAN PROJECT, WASHINGTON The Okanogan country lies about half in British Columbia and half in the United States. Owing to its remarkable climate this valley has been called the California of the Northwest. The Rec- lamation Service has nearly completed an interesting engineering work here to reclaim 8,000 acres. The land is very fertile and, owing to the exceptionally favorable climate, a wide variety of products, many of which are high priced, are produced. Frost has never injured the fruit in the valley in which this work is located, and there has never been a failure with apples, peaches, plums, prunes, apricots, pears, cherries, necta- rines, grapes, and all the varieties of small berries grown in the United States. The nearest railway town is Wenatchee, ou the Great Northern, from which place steamboats ply daily up the Columbia to Brewster, and thence by stage 28 miles to Okanogan, a town of 400 inhabitants. UMATILLA PROJECT, OREGON The Umatilla project, in northeastern Oregon, when compared in area with many others now under construction, THe Nationa, GrEoGRaPHic MaGAZINE 266 HCISANNOAS WIGNN “NOLONIHSVM “Hv’I’l1z VAN IVNVO “ANINOS WV ITIL MM wO a T u VITIUO NI SHd VID GYODNOD. JO AUOV ANO HoME-MAKING BY might be regarded as one of the lesser works, but when studied as to its possible future development it easily takes a prom- inent place among the most favorable and attractive agricultural regions in the West. No expert who has investigated this wonderful land of sunshine has yet dared to place a limit upon its agricultural pos- sibilities. Nature here gives the maxi- mum return for the minimum of labor. The irrigable lands lie in. rolling benches along the Columbia and between it and the Umatilla. The diversity of crops, many of which are high priced, made possible by the exceptionally favor- able conditions of soil and climate, predi- cate small farms intensively cultivated, providing homes for an intelligent and prosperous husbandry. The promise of a compact community of scientific agri- culturists in this valley is certain of ful- fillment in the near future. From the nature of the crops and the character of the people who will grow them it re- ee no particular eit of prophecy to predict the establishment in this valley of a rural settlement which will be likened unto many of those nearly ideal commu- nities which have grown up under meth- ods of intensive irrigation in Southern ‘California. The water supply is the flood flow of the Umatilla, which is stored in a reser- voir created by constructing an earthen embankment nearly 100 feet in height and one-half mile long. Owing to the exceedingly porous character of the soil, many of the canals are lined with cement. The line of the Oregon Railroad and Navigation Company passes through the ‘irrigated area. TRUCKEE-CARSON PROJECT, NEVADA On the western border of the Great Interior Basin in the bed of ancient Lake Lahontan, in Nevada, an important work is now completed to irrigate 160,000 acres. This is the dryest part of the United States except Death Valley, and was called “Forty Mile Desert” by the gold hunters who crossed it en route to California. The old overland trail can THE GOVERNMENT 267 still be traced across the desert, and we come upon many melancholy evidences of desert tragedies, enacted in the early fifties. In excavating canals our great shovels have encountered the bones of men and horses who perished of thirst. We know now that much of their suffer- ing was unnecessary. There is plenty of good water not far below the surface of the sands. In fact, the grave-diggers, if they had gone a few feet deeper, would have been able to satisfy their own thirst. The irrigation works in this valley in a way have changed physical geography. The Truckee River is lifted from its bed by a huge dam 30 feet high, which turns the waters into a broad and deep canal 31 miles long and lined with cement. Truckee River is now flowing into Carson River. Another dam in Carson River diverts the combined flow of both streams upon the desert, which has already begun to blossom. Eight hundred farms are now awaiting settlers here. The terms are easy and the market for farm pro- ducts is the best in the West. You reach this valley on the Southern Pacific Rail- way. KLAMATH PROJECT, OREGON-CALIFORNIA The Klamath Project contemplates the reclamation of about 190,000 acres of land situated in Klamath county, Oregon, and Modoc and Siskiyou counties, Cali- fornia. The plans involve, in addition to the irrigation of the valley lands, the reclamation by drainage and future irri- gation of a portion of the Lower Klamath and ‘Tule lakes, lands which are now either swamp or lake bottoms. Prac- tically all the uplands, which include the greater part of the project, are held in private ownership, mostly in large hold- ings, which, under the terms of the Rec- lamation Act, must be subdivided into tracts of not to exceed 160 acres. The public lands under the project, which in- clude nearly all of the lake and swamp areas, are at present withdrawn from entry. When these lands are restored to entry, homesteaders may file applications for available public lands. Construction work on the first 9 miles 268 of the main canal and the laterals there- under was begun in March, 1906, and completed in 1907. From this canal water will be delivered to from 12,000 to 15,000 acres during the irrigation season of 1908. The lands under the project are of good quality. The prin- cipal crops grown are alfalfa, wheat, oats, barley, rye, vegetables, and some deciduous fruits. A few experiments in sugar-beet culture show that it is prob- able this crop can be successfully grown. The principal town of the valley is Kla- math Falls, located on Link River about one mile below the lower end of Upper Klamath Lake. Other towns in the valley are Merrill, situated near Tule Lake, and Bonanza, situated on Lost River, within the so-called “upper project.” The Cali- fornia and Northeastern Railway is now under construction to Klamath Falls. YUMA PROJECT President Roosevelt is responsible in a measure for the present widespread in- terest in the delta of the Colorado River, having made it the subject of a special message to Congress last session. This region has been likened unto the wonder- ful valley of the Nile, which it so greatly resembles in soil, crops, and climate. The world is familiar with the catastrophe which threatened for a time to destroy a very large area in the lower valley, but few people appreciate the almost super- human engineering feat by which this powerful stream was forced back into its old channel. This was accomplished by the engineers of a great railroad com- pany, which placed at their disposal vast sums of money and almost the entire equipment of the system. Since the river was controlled the government work at Yuma and above has progressed rapidly. The great weir at Laguna is now within 700 feet of closing the river, and during low-water stage this year heroic efforts will be made to complete this structure. The Laguna dam is interesting, as it is the first structure of this kind to be erected in the United States. It is similar to several weirs built by the English engi- neers in Egypt and India. Tue NatrionaL GroGraPpHic MAGAZINE The project contemplates the reclama- tion of about 100,000 acres in Arizona and California. These lands are without question the most valuable in the country when watered. President Roosevelt, in his message to Congress, said: “The most conservative estimate after full develop- ment must place the gross production from this land at not less than $100 per acre per year, every 10 acres of which will support a family when under inten- sive cultivation. Much of the land will be worth from $500 to $1,500 per acre to individual holders.” Yuma, the principal city in this section, is on the Southern Pacific Railway. A VANISHED RACE A peculiar interest attaches to our far Southwest, for the reason principally that long before the first word of our Nation’s history was inscribed a_ semi-civilized people dwelt there and cultivated its fer- tile soil. Impenetrable mystery envelopes the age in which they lived. With four centuries of our own records to scan, sup- plemented by seven centuries of Moki traditions, the veil of the past thus parted throws no ray of light upon this ancient race. Their wonderful dwellings, perched eyrie-like in the deep canyons, and the long lines of their canals, choked with the wind-swept drift of centuries, give mute and pathetic evidence of their archi- tectural and engineering skill. Frowning battlements overlooking the desert, crumbling slowly into dust with the weight of ages, breathe of war and romance in an age forgotten. These monster structures, containing millions of pieces of stone, and the miles of canals which embraced whole valleys, tell of a thrifty home-loving husbandry. In these voiceless and vacant ruins we may almost read the story of Egypt of the scriptures, of another people toiling under the des- ert’s brazen skies, wearily and painfully executing the commands of another Pharaoh. What Fate overtook them we shall never know. Yet among these castled cliffs we know that men have lived and died, and youths and maidens have re- 269 HoME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT + DV ud b + wv 1H S INV AV TO SNIVINA a Tue NAtTIonaL GrocraPHic MAGAZINE 270 NOILVLADAA JO ALAINVA DNIMOIIS ‘VNOZIMNV ‘XIN*DIId “ONIGTING TOLIdVO HHL JO VANYOO LSUIMALNOS FHL WOW SANNOUD TOLIAIVO MTL HoME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT 271 BALED HAY STORAGE BUILDING AT THE CHANDLER RANCH, 6 MILES SOUTH OF MESA, ARIZONA. WATER IS SUPPLIED FOR THE IRRIGATION OF THIS HAY BY PUMPING PLANTS: SALT RIVER PROJECT, ARIZONA peated, o’er and oer, the old, sweet story. We confess to a feeling of sadness as we view these structures erected in an age unknown—structures revealing order and intelligence, craftsmanship and patience, and rivalling in some degree the work of modern engineers. The Cheltro Palace is 449 feet long, 250 feet wide, and 4 stories high. Along three sides of it extends a wall 950 feet long and 40 feet in height. The masonry work in this building and wall contained more than 30,000,000 pieces of stone. All had to be quarried, then carried up steep ladders in baskets on the backs of men before being placed in position. Considering the primitive stone implements used and the magnitude of this structure, the time and labor re- quired to construct this building make it the most famous and stupendous work of our country. SALT RIVER PROJECT, ARIZONA Let us in fancy visit this land of mys- tery, of lost races and hoary ruins, a land whose civilization was old perhaps when Cesar sat upon his throne. Starting from the charming city of Phoenix, in the heart of Salt River Valley, let us take a journey to the wonderful engineering works of this project. Leaving Phoenix by train, the Santa Fé or Southern Pacific railways, it is only a short ride to Tempe, where we may profitably pause a moment or two to get a broad view of the valley from the summit of the high butte just at the edge of the town. We note a peculiarity here as we gaze upon the cultivated fields. There are no farm- houses on the farms. Here we find a return to the communal system of farm life, which was typical in the days of the cliff-dwellers and later in those of the Pueblo Indians. The farmer lives in town and goes to and from his small farm each day. Here at last the farmer’s wife has her innings. She has the society of her neighbors, her children have graded schools; the church and library are at hand. ‘There is no isolation, no Tue NatrionaL GreocraPeHic MAGAZINE PG? (422 “ovd HAS) VNOZIUV ‘Loufoud WHAM VIVS :GVOU VIMAUSOON ‘S'1IM LYaASAd GNV STTAM LNAWNYHAOD NAUMLAG LMAISIG ALL NO SOLOVO WTIOMS =) 3 HomME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT (Llz aovd AAS) LOALOAd MYAIN VIVS : VNOZIUV ‘AHH WLINVAD OL dvOu WAHL ONOTV SOLOVO INVID AML Tue NationaL GgEoGRaPpHic MAGAZINE 27 4 ~ VNOZIYV Loafoud WAIN VIVS iSNMOAWW LNAINNYMAOD HHL JO ONINDTdO FHL AO. OLLVdIOTLLINV NI RONICESGKG! AlL NO SHINOH DONIC TING HomME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT Ls) —N On RT: SALT RIVER PROJECT, ARIZONA (SEE DESK 7 ROAD THROUGIT TIII RS CONSTRUCTING A 7 D APACTIE LARBORE Loon Oran PURI PAGE 279) 276 Tue National GeocraPHic MaGAZzINE THE TOP OF FISH CREEK HILL, ARIZONA, ON THE MESA AND ROOSEVELT STAGE ROAD, WHICH WAS BUILT BY THE GOVERNMENT: SALT RIVER PROJECT, ARIZONA (SEE PAGE 278) HoME-MAKING BY loneliness. We find under these condi- tions also that there is no strong tendency on the part of the young men and women to drift to the crowded cities. From Tempe to Mesa is another short ride by rail through a well-irrigated sec- tion. Leaving Mesa in the early morn- ing, when the air is fresh and sweet with the perfume of countless blossoms, we journey for a distance of 8 miles through a region where nature seems to be ever at work producing varied and wonderful forms of vegetation. Just beside our window we note the magnificent date palm, its broad leaves bending in graceful curves and shading an abundance of lus- cious fruit. We are, indeed, in Egypt, for the date, you remember,- was the bread of the desert. If we doubt, a little further along we come upon an olive orchard, and just beyond the almond trees are in bloom, lending fragrance to an atmosphere already perfumed. We pause to observe a large flock of ostriches wandering over an alfalfa meadow and rub our eyes to be sure we are really in our own country. More familiar to us appear the sleek, fat cattle standing knee deep in the cool alfalfa. This alfalfa is a wonderful crop down here, a veritable farmer’s bank account, frequently yielding 12 tons to an acre per year, worth from five to ten dollars per ton. We linger just a moment to gather a few oranges from the grove beside the road, and as we eat we wonder why such fruit never comes to our tables. There is such a riot of color about this cottage that we want to stop long enough to ask the housewife how she can get roses to bloom in this wonderful way, but we have a long journey and we only learn that most farmers’ wives in this valley, having both time and inclination, delight in beautifying their homes. “THE LAND THAT GOD FORGOT” All too quickly we have driven over this flowery, fruitful vale. With a sud- denness that is startling we come upon a scene of death and desolation, where everything bears mute evidence of a ter- THE GOVERNMENT 277 rible struggle for life. It is the land some one called ‘The Land that God Forgot.” Everything that grows is covered with a thorn; everything that crawls is deadly. It is a topsy-turvy wonderland. We may not drink of the waters of the desert stream, for they are salty. In this strange region they dig for wood and climb for water, for the water is found in cup- shaped pools in the hills and the wood is the big root of the mesquite. For 20 miles our road, a government road, stretches across the desert and we begin to feel some of its compelling and pervasive mystery. There is a beauty and charm about it, too, which cannot be de- scribed. The distant buttes are glowing richly red in the early morning light and the landscape, some one has said, “‘sug- gests a thought of God’s original palette whereon he mixed the colors with which he brought forth the glories of a south- west sunset,’ the opal-tinted morn and the fairest shades of rose and green and yellow. The desert vegetation is interesting. We come upon the Sahaurra, the giant cactus, the sentinel of the desert, clothed from base to top with thorns, yet bearing delicate and waxen yellow blossoms. Singly and in pairs they grow, some at- taining a height of 45 feet. Sometimes we find them in groves. The cliff-dwell- ers used the heart of this plant for floors in their houses. Our first stop in the desert is at Desert Wells. It remained for our generation to discover that underneath these burn- ing sands, and at no great depth, is an inexhaustible supply of water, fresh and sweet. At several points along our way the government has put down these wells to supply the needs of the thousands of “men and teams constantly crossing the desert. Rising straight up from the desert is a distant range of mountains. They seem to float above the edge of the level plain, intangible and unreal, yet transcendently beautiful in coloring and contour. As we enter the mountain country glory after glory of view is presented. Changeful, charming landscape pano- 278 ramas are unfolded before us. The colors illusive and divinely artistic, shift and change and blend as we gaze in. wonder and SmaZeTNeT: THE MOST WONDERFUL, HIGHWAY EVER BUILT BY MAN We are now entering upon what many travelers have described as the most won- derful highway ever made by man. A great thoroughfare built for 40 miles through the heart of a rugged range of mountains and for the most part literally carved from the living rock. As we go along note the coloring on the rocks, and believe me when I tell you the colors shown are not exaggerated, for it would be impossible for human artist to dupli- cate, far less to exaggerate, the colors which the Divine Hand has put upon these stones. I need not tell you that road-building in a country like this was difficult; that fact stares you in the face at every point. When the surveying party reached the top of Fish Creek Hill the engineer called a halt. He wanted time to think; and the problem before him demanded thought. He looked over the cliff into a blind can- yon, into which there was not even a foot trail. A thousand feet sheer below him he could discover faintly a_ tiny stream of water and a few green trees. How was he going to get there with a wagon road over which tons and tons of machinery must be hauled? A hurried reconnaissance disclosed the fact that to go around the canyon meant adding 15 miles to the road. It was not to be thought of. So he decided to blast a road down the face of the steep cliff, and it was done. It would be simply terrifying to go over the road today but for the fact that the government has built it broad and comfortable, with easy grades and many safe turnouts, for standing here at the edge of the road a pebble slinped from the fingers shoots almost straight down a thousand feet without stopping. At one point we get a view of the road almost to the blind end of the canyon, and can also see the line of road as it Tue Nationa, Geocrapuic MAGAZINE turns back on the other side. Just before we make this turn we cross a pretty little bridge 60 feet above Fish Creek. Down in the bottom of the canyon we find Frazier’s Road House, a comfortable little inn, with good beds and a genial landlord. Here we shall spend the night. In this canyon, a miniature grand canyon of the Colorado, we will witness the golden glory of a sunset whose splendor will be impressed forever on our mem- ory. Later we shall sit in the twilight and watch the stars steal forth in skies that seem to touch the walls of the can- yon all around us. The brooding mystery of the scene and the witchery of the hour will sink deeply into our hearts and color our dreams for many nights hereafter. In the 1 morning early we make our start to climb out of the canyon. Another panorama of mountains, uncanny buttes, steep-walled canyons, and narrow val- leys passes before us. Freakishly shaped rocks, grotesque and awe-inspiring, tower above us. What wonder that the Indian viewed the country with superstition and awe! At places we skirt dark chasms. Here the road has been cut from a rock that is milk white. Here the mountain-top was blasted off and the road built from the river up. Here we have a long swing on the edge of a profound forge, and as we pass along we are thankful indeed that our road is wide and safe. Higher and higher we climb, every moment catching glimpses of difficult problems in road building worked out successfully. We pass through great cuts, and here and there the road has been built up from below with masonry. THE ROOSEVELT DAM AND OTHER MARVELS Our road has brought us to the top of the narrow gorge Salt River has cut through the mountains, and we look down upon one of the world’s greatest engi- neering works in process of construction, the Roosevelt dam. This wonderful structure of sandstone and cement will rise 284 feet above the river. It will be 1,080 feet long on top and 170 feet thick HoME-MAKING BY at the base. Its foundation will cover one acre of ground. Placed by the side of a 20-story build- ing, it would rise ten feet above it, while its length on top would be more than two city blocks. Across its top will be a road- way 20 feet wide. By day and by night the dull roar of dynamite breaks the desert stillness, and the canyon walls go crashing down to furnish material for this structure. Great blocks of sandstone weighing ten tons each aie swung out on cranes and set in place. When night comes myriads of electric lights burst forth, weirdly illuminating a busy army of toilers, working gnome- like in a shadowy canyon. It is a wond- rous scene, unreal, awesome, and _ in- spiring. Every stone that is laid in that narrow arch, which is to curb that foaming river, brings nearer and nearer the day when the town of Roosevelt shall vanish be- neath an inland sea. When those massive gates of iron in the big dam, weighing 60,000 pounds, are closed, a rising flood will cover the site of the city 220 feet deep. The people knew it was a doomed city when they built it, but this did not deter them. They built stores and dwellings, a school-house and a church, and brought water from distant mountain springs. This government work is interesting not only to the engineer, but also to the layman. It is located in a valley which has been the abode of three races, one of which lived here when Rome was young. Two of those wonderful cliff-dwellings are almost in sight of the modern struc- ture that is soon to submerge some of the lands which formerly produced their harvests. Owing to the remoteness from trans- portation, the government engineer had to engage in many enterprises. He built roads to get machinery in. He sawed millions of feet of lumber from the na- tional forests nearby. He turned farmer and raised his own produce, his hay, pork, beef, and chickens. In the construction of the dam 240,000 barrels of cement are required and the lowest bid from the THE GOVERNMENT 279 cement manufacturers was prohibitive. This engineer, undaunted, found a lime- stone ledge near the dam and proceeded tO enect a) cement mille) lt has) already, turned out 80,000 barrels of cement at a cost far below the lowest bid. Power was essential, so a dam was built 16 miles upstream, turning a part Of the tiver imto a power canal) Whe canal, having less grade than the river, appears to carry the water uphill. A part of it is lined with cement. It crosses rough country in viaducts that make us think of the works of ancient Rome. Near the dam site it passes through a tunnel and downward into the mountain, a drop of 220 feet. The water falls upon the turbines located in a unique power-house, a niche in the canyon walls, and generates 4,400 horse-power. ‘The power is utilized by the contractor, it operates the cement plant, the electric- light plant, and is used for other pur- poses. THE APACHE LABORERS On the way to the saw-mills we pass a number of salt caves, each of wonderful beauty. The salt is deposited by salt springs. It is from these springs that the river takes its name, for the waters of Salt River are too salty to drink, but for- tunately not salty enough to be injurious when used for irrigation. The most difficult problem for the engi- neer to solve was the labor question. “The common laborer did not like the job, chiefly, it is said, because he could not spend his money fast enough. This is a government reservation; there are no saloons ; no gambling is permitted. There are no towns nearer than 60 miles, so he did not look with favor on the work. The real worth of the engineer came out when he turned missionary and held a pow-wow with the Apache Indians, who have lived in the basin for generations. It seems incredible, yet it is nevertheless true, he succeeded in inducing several hundred of them to go on the pay-roll, and, largely through their labors, the wonderful highway we just crossed over was built. Some of the Apaches developed. Sev- THe Nationa, GreocrapHic MAGAZINE 280 AOA & st AIJSNpUr sty], AdJ@A JIALY HES ay} ul oUO a]qQe}YyYOI1d ‘atone Jad oof¢ ssoi1s pue ‘ooz$ st aiov sod jou a8eiaAe dois SiamO013 UOTPW 9Y} Jey} Pooj}siopuN st 4] VNOZINV ‘AN TVIVA UAAIN LTVS AHL NI SNO'TXHW ONISIVY * 22= HomME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT 281 THE RAISING OF GRAPES IN THE SALT RIVER VALLEY, NEAR MESA, ARIZONA With proper irrigation in this section of the Southwest almost any kind of fruit can be suc- cessfully and profitably raised. Grapes do very well in this valley Tue NatTionaL GrEocraPpHic MAGAZINE 282 SALT RIVER ° . ALMOND ORCHARD IN BLOOM IN THE SALT RIVER VALLEY, ARIZONA PROJECT, ARIZONA HoME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT 283 DATE TREE IN SALT RIVER VALLEY, NEAR MESA, SHOWING THE ENORMOUS CROP OF DATES ON ONE TREE: SALT RIVER VALLEY PROJECT, ARIZONA 284 Tue Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGaZzine THE IVY RANCH, NEAR PHG@NIX, ARIZONA: SALT RIVER PROJECT, ARIZONA The bee industry in the Salt River Valley is a very profitable industry, as the climatic conditions are perfect, and the clover and alfalfa fields, as well as the wild mesquite, affords. good feed for the bees, making this section of the country very well adapted for this business~ HoME-MAKING BY eral, starting as common laborers, showed such industry and ability that they were promoted to responsible positions, as road supervisors in charge of their own tribes- men on difficult road work. There is something like poetic justice in the labor of the Indian with pick and shovel to reclaim a valley he so often watered with the blood of the white man. While the braves are working for the government on the road, in the cement mill, the brick-yard, and elsewhere, the squaws in the teepees weave wonderful baskets, which find ready sale in the camp and in the valley below. Sixty miles below Roosevelt another enormous structure is rapidly nearing completion. It will divert the stored waters into canals on each side of the river which lead it to the fields below. One of these canals was partly excavated by the cliff-dwellers, who cut it through solid rock. Think of the patience and time they must have expended in a work like this, when their only implements were of stone. Settlers are already erecting their homes on the desert, and soon we shall call this the land that God remembered, tor, with water from those distant moun- tains stored in vast reservoirs and led through a thousand miles of canals and ditches, the desert will smile, oases of green will spring forth, and homes of beauty and peace will dot the landscape. TERMS OF SALE OF GOVERNMENT LAND If the thousands of inquiries which are addressed to the Statistician of the Rec- lamation Service, at Washington, D. C., can be accepted as any indication, the West will be the Mecca for hundreds of home-seekers this spring. Many other projects of the government which are ready for irrigation contain large areas of land for sale by private owners who are under agreement with the United States to dispose of their holdings. By the terms of the Reclamation Law no farm will contain more than 160 acres. Every settler must reside upon the land, and must cultivate it for five years before he can secure a patent. The homestead rights of soldiers and sailors are not THE GOVERNMENT 285 abridged by the Reclamation Act. Home- seekers should have money—how much depends, of course, upon the settler and the kind of farming he expects to do. While there are numerous opportunities to secure work, the settler with money and equipment will be able to get his land in condition for irrigation and will thus secure an early income from his farm. A knowledge of irrigation is not ab- solutely essential. The government will have a practical farmer on each project to advise new-comers. On several pro- jects there are demonstration farms on which are grown the crops adapted to that section. During portions of the vear the government will give employment to settlers in constructing canals, laterals, and building roads. SUMMARY OF WORK DONE A summation of the work of the Rec- lamation Service for 1907 shows that it has dug 1,881 miles of canals, or nearly the distance from Washington to Idaho. Some of these canals carry whole rivers, like the Truckee River in Nevada, and the North Platte in Wyoming. The tun- nels excavated are 56 in number, and have an aggregate length of 13% miles. The Service has erected 281 large struc- tures, including the great dams in Ne- vada and the Minidoka Dam in Idaho, 80 feet high and 650 feet long. It has com- pleted 1,000 headworks, flumes, etc. It has built 611 miles of wagon road in mountainous country and into heretofore inaccessible regions. It has erected and in operation 830 miles of telephones. Its own cement mill has manufactured 80,000 barrels of cement, and the purchased amount is 403,000 barrels. Its own saw- mills have cut 3,036,000 feet B. M. of lumber, and 23,685,000 feet have been purchased. The surveying parties of the Service have completed topographic sur- veys covering 10,970 square miles, an area greater than the combined areas of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The transit lines had a length of 18,900 linear miles, while the level lines run amount to 24,218 miles, or nearly sufficient to go around the earth. The diamond drillings for dam sites 286 and canals amount to 66,749 feet, or more than 12 miles. Today the Service owns and has at work 1,500 horses and mules. It operates 9 locomotives, 611 cars, and 23 miles of railroad, 84 gasoline engines and 70 steam engines. It has constructed and is operating 5 electric-light plants. There have been excavated 42,447,000 cubic yards of earth and rock. The equipment now operated by the Service on force account work represents an in- vestment of a million dollars. This work has been carried on with the following force: Classified and regis- tered service, including Washington of- fice, 1,126; laborers employed directly by the government, 4,448; laborers em- ployed by contractors, 10,789, or a total of all forces of 16,363. The expenditures now total nearly $1,000,000 per month. Tue NaTIionaL GreocraepHic MAGAZINE As a result of the operations of the Rec- lamation Service eight new towns have been established, 100 miles of branch railroads have been constructed, and 14,000 people have taken up their resi- dence in the desert. The following is a list of the approved projects on which construction has been commenced. The table shows the ir- rigable area of the projects to the points to which it is expected to carry them during the four years 1908 to 1911; the estimated cost to complete the work to these points; the estimated expenditures to the end of the calendar year 1907, and the percentage of completion December 31, 1907, based upon the ratios of the expenses to that date to the total esti- mated cost: Areas, Cost, Expenditures, etc., on Entire Projects or Such Units as 1t is Expected to Complete by Tort. Estimated Per Teoeati Proieet Area Estimated |expenditure | cent of eal as mes: in acres. cost. to Decem- | com- ber 31, 1907. |pletion. IATIZOMA Sars eee earner | SEINE IRIE 5 boc ba dece cos 210,000 | $6,300,000 | $4,362,100 69.2 Californians sane Orland ae ties case 30,000 1,200,000 16,900 1.4 California—Arizona..... DA b baal ke cualyr amen ace br eeletan Ue 100,000 4,500,000 1,876, 700 AL.7 Woloradoense mee cee Uncompahgre.......... 140,000 5,600,000 2,900,000 51.8 Coloradopeenre ce ser ee Grand Valley.......... 50,000 2,250,000 9,750 4 GAN ORS eerie ore Maniidolcass ss Saree 160,000 4,000,000 1,839,700 46.0 Nd al OMS recess Payette-Boise.......... 100,000 3,000,000 1,381,500 46.5 NAN SAS Renee ceneniem im he CardeniCityaan nee 8,000 350,000 282,000 80.5 WIGIEMAIDE soo oocdocodo0% Euntleyeren cere nia 30,000 900,000 796,400 88.4 WOTEAH Ares ey Milk River, including 30,000 I, 200,000 314,800 26.2 Saint Mary. Montatiannmestcr see Sib IRIVTSE Ga scoceodsace 16,000 500,000 344,100 69.0 Nebraska—Wyoming.. | North Platte........... 110,000 3,850.000 2,797,300 73.0 iINevadameneeeiicne oor Truckee—Carson........ 160,000 4,800,000 3,804,600 79.2 New Mexico........... Carlsbadna eee sane 20,000 640,000 579,400 81.5 News Mexicoisne assess: SEVonid Ou trent che aernee 10,0co 3,70, 000 358,600 97.0 INeweVlexI Colne ener ILEASIOWITS . sc00c0q00 0006 10,000 200,000 167,900 83.9 New Mexico-Texas....) Rio Grande............ 160,000 8,000,000 53,200 6 INortih Dakotansane soe- Pumping, Buford—Tren- 40,000 1,240,000 519,600 41.9 ton, Williston. Montana-North Dakota Lower Yellowstone..... 66,000 2,700,000 751,850 64.9 HOLES OE ierieriuereseseh: | Umno, cocoon bes oscus 18,000 I, 100,000 765,500 69.6 Oregon-—California.....| Klamath.............. 120,000 3,600,000 1,305,080 36.2 SouthsDakotayeerenece Belleshourcheyns nen rr ICO0,000 3,500,000 1,281,900 36.6 Gane aicrereteteven cr steirer neon Strawberry Valley...... 30,000 1,500,000 418,700 27.9 Washington........... Okanlocanven area ne 8,000 500,000 372,180 74.4 Washington........... Sunmysidesee.) ae oe, 40,000 1,600,000 481,180 30.7 Washington........... pLIGtOnee chr crises 24,000 1,500,000 565,420 37.6 Wiashittstonnerrsereere | Wiapatorncine aencsesccercsts 20,000 600,000 5,220 8.7 WiyOnliloaren- eee ce SMOG NOTE, 5500500000006 I00,000 4,500,000 2,313,990 51.5 | 1,910,000 | $70,000,000 | $30,665,570 An average of $36.65 per acre. HoME-MAKING BY THE GOVERNMENT ousa1y jo jsom AUOTOD MOU B SI URUIay “SUlIveq OUI JYSnoIq Sulsq SI Pi¥Yydio s]IYM pUNoIs fo ash s][qe}yo1d Surmoys VINUMOAIIVO ‘ALNNOD ONSHYT ‘NVWNYAM ‘WUVI GYVHOYO HOVAd ONNOA NI SNOTANWYALVM THe NatTionaL GrEocGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photos by Ellsworth Huntington THE SEA OF SAND OF THE TAKLA MAKAN DESERT THE SEA OF SALT OF THE LOP DESERT MEDIEVAL, TALES: OF THE-LOP BASIN IN CENTRAL ASIA" By EL_i_tswortH HuNTINGTON HE modern West discovered the ' Lake of Lop-Nor, in Chinese Turkestan, only thirty years ago, vet in the Middle Ages Chaucer and his predecessors seem to have known as much about that region as the average man knows today. In recounting the vir- tues of the Duchess Blanche, Chaucer speaks. of the sweet reasonableness with which she treated her many lovers. She did not hold them in suspense, nor for the sake of proving them did she: 6c . . . Sende men into Walakye, To Pruyse and into Tartarye, To Alisaundre, ne into Turkye, And bid him faste, anoon that he Go hoodless to the Drye See, And come hoom by the Carrenare.” | Apparently the Dry Sea and the Car- renare were the most inaccessible regions of which Chaucer had ever heard, more inaccessible even than Wallachia, Prussia, Tartary, Turkey, and other erstwhile re- mote places of which he _ knew little. After much discussion by literary critics as to the geography of the places to which the Duchess did not send her lov- ers, Prof. J. L. Lowest has shown that there can be little doubt that the Car- renare is the small salt lake of Kara-Nor, at the eastern end of Chinese Turkestan. It ties in’ the® vast.