~ oc See ace SS Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson rea) ‘ hy sed ee hey m= e THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY Editor GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Associate Editor JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE Assistant Editor WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER Contributing Editors A. W. GREELY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’l U. S. Army C. HART MERRIAM : DAVID FAIRCHILD In Charge of Agricultural Explorations, Member.National Academy of Sciences DeptohiAgricaltare O. H. TITTMANN Former Superintendent of U. S. Coast HUGH M. SMITH and Geodetic Survey Commissioner, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries ROBERT HOLLISTER CHAPMAN U. S. Geological Survey WALTER T. SWINGLE FRANK M. CHAPMAN N. H. DARTON Vol. XXIX—January-June, 1916 al WIHSOWN/A) V “GN COPYRIGHT 1916 BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC eee NOV 5 1981 HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D. C. CONTENTS America’s Surpassing Fisheries: Their Present Condition and Future Prospects and How the Federal Government Fosters Them, by Hucu M. SmiruH................. Citizen Army of Holland. The, by HENpRIK WILLEM VAN LOON..................00- CommoneAmericanuWild)PlGwWers.c\.i1)e\snie lore sree slotline ce elie) tect eC ete retreive Cradle of Civilization, The: The Historic Lands Along the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers Where Briton is Fighting Turk, by JAMES BAIKIE..............000eeeeeee Further Explorations in the Land of the Incas: The Peruvian Expedition of 1915 of the National Geographic: Society and Yale University, by Hiram Bincuam, Di- (ARO Gop 0 dCUEREOO OD NOT OD DOODODU CODON DOO DODO ODOUODORUSDD AO GGUdoadG UGS KDDO00NGE Great Britain’s Bread upon the Waters: Canada and Her Other Daughters, by W1- LIAM Howarp Tart........ Gack oar, alevacciland ole vouovees isssia puslorarchers evelave ove ehbet Lolerestetstar stan atone How @ld is Mani? by THEODORE ROOSEVELT: ©; 0. since ccs peel aeoeenie seen eee seas How the World is Fed, by WILLIAM JoSERH SHOWALTER.............+- PARA OED Land of the Best, The: A Tribute to the Scenic Grandeur and Unsurpassed Natural Resources of Our Own Country, by GILBERT H. GROSVENOR........eececccceceres Our Hirst) National Park East’ of the Mississippi... ccces acess cone eee Pushing Back History’s Horizon: How the Pick and the Shovel are Revealing Civiliza- tions That Were Ancient When Israel Was Young, by AtBert T. CLAY.......... Staircase Farms of the Ancients: Astounding Farming Skil of Ancient Peruvians, Who Were Among the Most Industrious and ey Organized People in History, 1oS'2 (O00) Dar ( 00°) gana ae ee RP Oienet ni Caribe Run A an mS Hee Mg ODaE Voice Voyages by the National Aen Societe A Tribute to the Geographical Achievements: of: thes Telephone ...).)csccercakie taiiesa cia eianveniovea le steele Oromia ieee Wild Blueberry Tamed, The: The New Industry of the Pine Barrens of New Jersey, DYE REDERICK a) Viz7 COVILER So as cisise seis sewers cn eeiemieractortoesior | drolefcbareatapn i oeeteencarorapeiote World’s Strangest Capital, The, by JoHN CLAUDE WHITE........cecceees sin datocteeerre Page 546 WOE xX MIX Now! WASHINGTON THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINIE JANUARY, 1916 HOW THE WORLD IS FED By WILLiAM JosEPH SHOWALTER T THE present juncture, while A great issues of world politics hang critically upon the effort of the Entente Powers in the European war to force the Central Powers into submission by drawing around them the steel ring of war and the cold ring of hunger, it is more than interesting to take an inven- tory of the world’s market basket, and to pause for a passing moment to see what effect war has had on the world’s food supply in the past, what effect it is having today, and, if possible, to forecast its ef- fect upon the future food problems of the earth. If we go back one hundred years it will be discovered that France was facing al- most the same problems then that Ger- many is facing today. England’s fleet blockaded France’s ports then just as they blockade Germany’s today, and over-sea foodstuffs had little chance to reach the French. How far this went, and how great an effect it had on conditions in Napoleon’s Empire, is revealed by the fact that sugar sold for two dollars a pound. And that the world is not sugar-hungry today is due to the steps taken by Napoleon to overcome the effect of the blockade on sugar. Years before, some Prussian scientists had been trying to get sugar from the beet, and, under the patronage of the King of Prussia, Frederick Wil- liam ITI, succeeded in their task. Napoleon borrowed their ideas, set up beet-sugar factories around Lille, and gave to the beet-sugar industry that im- petus which has resulted in its develop- ment to a point where it yields half of the world’s supply of sugar (see page 80). WAR AND CANNED GOODS The Little Corporal saw himself seri- ously embarrassed in the matter of food supplies for his army. He wanted some- thing for his men besides things that were dried or smoked—a desire that was enhanced by his knowledge that millions of dollars in valuable but perishable foods were wasted because of the lack of ade- quate means of preserving them. He therefore offered a prize of twelve thousand francs to any one who would devise a practicable method of preserv- ing such foodstuffs. Such a method was quickly evolved, and out of it has grown the world’s canning industry—one of the important steps that civilization has taken in the direction of insuring mankind against famine (see also page 66). It is not improbable that the present war will bring to mankind new methods in the feeding of the race that will prove as important as those brought out by the Napoleonic wars. It has been announced lately that the Germans have devised a new synthetic method of producing pro- tein. It is said that they feed yeast with a combination of sugar and nitrogen from the air, and thus secure that most im- portant of all of the elements that enter into the world’s diet—protein. Examples of protein are the whites of eggs, the ‘suoljeu jsour JO Jey} ueY} vdeo s9d sa]T;eWIs st ‘raAoMoY ‘ -duimsuod ysy Imo 40 dspnyuseur oy} Jo vap! dwWos oA18 “soy tvodde punorsyoeq o[PPIU oyy UT UST ay} SYBU YOM ‘osmoyasea Siy} UL sued JO spurs -noy} FO Sud} dYT, “SatOY UMO JOY} UL SOATM SJOUIVE yo suoryi oy} Aq pouues sa[quiesaa pur SHINAF yO Ay Aneta) JSBA 4LU} TO MUTLOnoG ou SOP} sty} puy ‘A1VUNODS oy} ul pityy pue ‘uruIOM ‘uPU AIOAO JofF Ysy[eys pue yYsy pouuro Jo spunod JAY pue Soi qeiese® POE JINAF FO Sree Ue St jnoqu oonpoid MOU’ JUO[L SI}JLIS poywuy) oUt fo SOILOUULS [Ul tOULUIOD OUT, “OS Op 0} of[qe OM QO} JOU Sv Bele geet Os oftTMosh Y [Vint ev JOU ST Itol]} APPO} ‘pooy JO uvo e& ,dn ynd,, pynoo Asoyesoqey siy Ul }stUOTDS oY} UdAd Jou AvP SIT o1Ofoe (Gr osed 99S) Spooy Suruuvs 4 HIB IYI FO yuo wuidopaaep ay} Moge zySnoiq AJuN0q s,uosjodeN “se Jo yYNset oy} Useq oAvYy Apddns poo} sty Ul opel sey ULUT sooUvApL jUPJIOTUT JSOU oY} JO VIUOG NOILAGIULSIG WOT AGVAN ASNOHAUVM WHHL NI Y y yor ‘u0T} NOW IVS GaNNVO JOIN Y sang Aq ydessojoyg ‘ ane e Aaa a Hh a sme a4 * awe: nil call = we shhh! write Th BS HOW ASN, WYOURILID) ICS) TBE JD) muscles of meats, the casein of milk, the gluten of flour, and the nitrogenous fats. It may also happen that as a result of the war will come the utilization of other plant products than those now entering into direct use as human food. ‘There are approximately half a million species of plants in the world, and yet only a few thousand of them are used at all for food, while only a few hundred of these are used to any important extent. Some of the plants which we now grow are ex- pensive food - producers, some produce food that is difficult to digest, and some give a small yield per acre. DEVELOPING NEW FOODS We are constantly developing new foods. It is only little more than half a century since the tomato was a curiosity of the South, known as the “love apple,” and used to scare the slaves, who thought it poisonous. Corn came to us from the Indians, and has become one of the lead- ing cereal crops of the world. It is less than a century ago that the lima bean came to us from South America, and the © potato was unknown to civilization be- fore the white man went to Peru and Colombia (see page 42). Today representatives of all of the leading nations are scouring the remote places of the earth for crops which prom- ise to increase the world’s total yield of food, as well as its per-acre production. In our own Department of Agriculture we have a division which has brought perhaps 40,000 different kinds of plants into the United States, many of them to be placed on trial as food-producers. The Mission Fathers of our Southwest who brought the olive and the date from the Mediterranean region, gave to Cali- fornia some of the richest olive and date orchards in the world, while a woman missionary, traveling in Brazil, sent us cuttings from which the great orange- growing industry of our country has been developed (see page 71). FRUITS AND VEGETABLES HAVE BEEN WONDERFULLY IMPROVED Not only is mankind gradually increas- ing the possible acreage for the growing of foodstuffs—and statistics indicate that Oo only the most fertile third of the world’s potential food-producing acreage is under cultivation today—but the crops themselves are being constantly improved and their natural per-acre yield increased. [GMS arttar (chy, tronmethem little veld knotted and gnarled apples of a few cen- turies ago to the magnificent Stayman winesaps, York imperials, and Albemarle pippins of today; and it is also a far cry from the unimproved, small and hard peach of the olden days to the big, lus- cious Alberta of the present; nor is the change that has come over the potato since Burbank begun his experiments any less noted. Both in the animal and in the vegetable world a marked improvement is constantly taking place. Whether there will be further improvements as a result of the war in Europe remains to be seen. WHAT OF THE FUTURE? | Many men are inclined to sound a pes- simistic note as to the adequacy of the world’s food supply for future genera- tions, and, like Malthus a hundred years ago, are inclined to predict that the day has at last come when the human race must cease to expand its numbers, or else face inevitable hunger. And when we consider how many mouths there are in this world to feed, and how much food it takes to satisfy them, little room is there to wonder at this note of pessimism. The earth’s population today reaches a grand total of about 1,700,000,000 souls. If they were all set down at a banquet it would require sixteen tables reaching around the globe to seat them. For every ounce of food they ate, the dinner-giver would have to provide 53,000 tons of pro- visions, and if the dinner were no more than a democratic dollar-a-plate affair, it would cost, in the aggregate, as much as it costs to run the United States govern- ment a year and a half. Expressed in terms of annual con- sumption, the world’s market basket is one that defies portrayal in weight and size. One is forced to cast around for new units of measurement to give a proper idea of its proportions. Assum- ing that the average inhabitant of the earth uses two pounds of provisions a *‘SUO[IUTIOJVM\ FO Joonpoid & se uorssa01d 9y} Suipes] Aq swe} Sulonposd-o[qejasaA OF Piq s}t Saye SeXdT, puL ‘9}e]G JOYJO Auv ULY} sUOToLIYySNU puY sodnoyeyULd a1OUL SoInpoid eruIOFIeD !o9o9n}jo] pue yuryd sso ‘stoquinond ‘sues Usets JO UOJNpoOId oy} Ur doRId JsIy Spjoy eplIOPy {UO JooOMS pue ‘suUOTUO ‘aseqqes Ul Spva] YIOX MON f0}e]G Suronpoid snseiedse pue O}eWIO} SUIPVo| ANO st Adstof MoN ‘Ayddns v[qejJoSoA uoyopy oy} FO yAvd o[qusuod “SIPUL jsOWU[e Ue Se II PIVoot aJdood Jo suUOTT[IW APO} JOA PUB “UOTLZIIAID AQ po}dIIV JstY SLM O}FLUIO} JY} DUIS UONVIoUNS V A[UO st }] SUSTTIAML ANIML NO GANIVYL SINWId OLVINOL dIN}[NIIBW Jo JuoWAZAedaq “Ss *q Wory Ydvisojoyg MER ~ D — } 4 A DAY'S RATIONS FOR bread, 32 pounds; curd (in wicker ladle) ; cabbage. day, the total for the year would amount to a billion and a quarter tons. It would require a string of cars, carrying thirty tons to the car and reaching eight times around the earth, to haul this material. THE AVERAGE RATION The fact, however, is that the average inhabitant of the earth probably uses more than two pounds of provisions a day. The steerage passengers on lish ships are allowed 2% pounds each a day. Even the prisoner in the average jail gets more than 2 pounds; the Rus- sian conscript 4 pounds; and the Aus- trian common soldier 2% pounds a day. Still another way to get an idea of the size of the world’s food problem is to as- sume that the average individual con- sumes ten cents’ worth of food daily. On this basis it would require the entire national wealth of the United States, the richest nation of aJl history, to pay the world’s food bill for twenty-six months. For every cent per day per capita that the cost of living increases, more than Ng little basket of sea salt; large stone bowl of rice, 33 pounds, and several heads of Chinese The bundle of dried grass at the right is the fuel for preparing it. bottle of sesame seed oil; Photograph from Rev. B. H. Johns 43 BOYS: TIENTSIN, NORTH CHINA The food for one day (two meals) is, beginning at the left: bag of wheat flour for two pounds of bean $6,000,000,000 is added to the world’s annual market-basket expense. STARVATION STILL REMOTE But when one considers the possibili- ties of future food production, it is diffi- cult to have much faith in the prophecies of pessimism of these twentieth-century successors of Malthus (see also page 91). For instance, in the United States we have 935,000,000 acres of arable land, only 400,000,000 of which are under cul- tivation. Yet, with less than half of our available land utilized, the United States produces one-sixth of the world’s wheat, four-ninths of its corn, one-fourth of its oats, one-eighth of its cattle, one-third of its hogs, and one-twelfth of its sheep. Even with the land now under cultiva- tion, 1f we produced as much wheat per acre as England and Germany, we could supply the world with two-thirds of its flour. If we produced as much corn to the acre as they do, we could double the world’s supply of that product. Today the United States has a total é *(z1 ased 4x0} gas) spunod 221 seolromy it poivduros sv ‘eydeo tad spunod 6h Jnoqe st Yor (leak B yeolu JO spunod o00‘000‘000"Zh Jo pooysoqystou oy} UL Sesh asiv] ye puryueul yey} Suodde jr ‘Saqe1S PoHUL) 2} FO-9soy} YIM posvdiuos se aqoys sYy}-JO. sjivd JOJO UO SUISIeI-yDOJs JO SpoyyoW poaosdunt ssa] JoF soouLMoyyL jodoid Suryet pue ‘ssoy pue ‘oyjjvo ‘doays yo Ajddns spyiom oy} SUL|LY,,, ALVLS NOLONIHSVM > LOIMLSIG NOILVOTNUL NV NI days JIN BY sting Aq yderso0j0yg HOW THE WORLD IS FED cereal crop of 5,000,000,000_ bushels. Were all of our arable land under culti- vation and producing only according to our present standard, which is less than half as high as that of western Europe, we could add enough cereals to take care of an additional population the size of that of Europe (see also page 9r). LITTLE ROOM FOR PESSIMISM When one has lived on land, as the writer has done, which, at the end of the Civil War, did not produce more than eight bushels of wheat and twenty bushels of corn to the acre, and has seen this land produce as high as forty-five bushels of wheat and a hundred bushels of corn, it is difficult to take any other than an opti- mistic view of the possibilities of Ameri- can agriculture. Not only are there infinite possibilities yet untouched in our own country, but also in most of the other countries of the earth as well. For instance, Russia, that land for which nature has done so much, endowing it with food-producing possi- bilities such as few other countries pos- sess, has a wheat yield of only ten bushels to the acre. When the day comes, as come it cer- tainly will, that Russia produces as much per acre as Germany and England, and when the untold millions of acres of un- developed land are opened up and settled, as they are destined to be, alone she can supply the world’s present needs in cereals except rice and corn (see pages 24 and 25). TROPICAL POSSIBILITIES Nor is that all. Any one who has trav- eled through the tropics, studying the pro- duction of foodstuffs there at first hand, cannot fail to understand that vast po- tential food sources still lie untouched. The wonderful discoveries of Ross and Reed and their coadjutors, of the meth- ods of preventing malaria and yellow fever, followed by the mastery of the secrets of the bubonic plague and beri- beri, and the application of these lessons in Cuba, at Panama, and elsewhere in the tropical world, have made it possible for civilized man to open up gardens of plenty of which he never before dreamed. Untold millions of acres of densest ~ jungles are, so far as man is concerned, nothing more than lands of infinite rich- ness wasting their sweetness upon the desert air of unutilized opportunities. Not long ago I visited the ruins of Quirigua, in Guatemala. The United Fruit Company had set apart several hun- dred acres as a reservation for the pro- tection of the ruins. The jungle forest of the reservation, bordering the banana clearings, towered like a green wall a hundred feet high, and the undergrowth was so dense that no man could penetrate it save by cutting his way through with a machete. There I saw the contrast between the past and the future of the tropical world. The banana plantations, stretching for miles and miles up and down the Motaga River valley, were producing millions of bunches of bananas, where but a few years before had existed the same sort of jungle as that at Quirigua. NEW PRODUCTS AVAILABLE Not only are there vast millions of acres of potentially rich agricultural lands still awaiting development, and not only is it certain that the production per acre of those lands now under cultivation will be vastly increased, but new products are an inevitable prospect of the future. When one travels in tropical countries he finds that banana flour makes an excel- lent substitute for wheat flour; and if the day ever comes when the wheat and the rye and the barley crops do not yield sufficient bread, there are hundreds of millions of acres of potential banana land which will produce many-fold as much banana flour to the acre as we are able to get today of wheat flour from our wheat lands. One might go on at length showing the wonderful possibilities of agriculture that lie in the future. Even if there should be no other developments than those which, by experience alone, we are able to fore- cast, there is no question but that the prospect of the world’s starvation is to all practical purposes as remote as it was in the days of the pessimistic Malthus. But just as the forecasts of Malthus failed to consider the possibilities of the age of agricultural machinery, the age C2 ‘s Q 0 O y 6 ‘ sosioy be pure ‘9]}3¥9 9S ‘ssoy og ‘ojdood poipuny AtoAa 10f¥ dooys O§ sey sojye}G poeyuy ey, ‘s 9S.10Y Q pur pjzom oy} ur ejdoed pospuny Asada 10¥ daays I1€ ase atayy, “oAvYy am sv vjideo tod speumue o1jsowlop Aueut se QTOJGTHHS AVOINYO HLILNUML V ‘aqqyyeo dABY SUOT}L u J dY}JO MOT "(12 osed ‘}x9} 908) UOZLIoy AtaA0 uodn dYoUIs JO souUT, aay} d9RIy Sdlys 10}v19911f91 JO sjouuny yy Avpo} ynq “poddiys sum sor Aq JO pvojysur Arouryovur Aq polftyd Jaoq JO OF1vo Jsiy oy} doUuIs sopvoop Moy UvY} ssoq St 7] ‘OSVIIOUL POOF OF spueUt “op oy} puv Aq os savot oy} sv Ayddns pooy S,pjiom oy} Fo Surpury oy} ul yard juezodut A[Sursvosour uv Avjd 0} poulysop st oS5v10}s pjoo,, «lIO09,, YO ‘WOOU ONITIIHD NI ONIONVEH SHSSVOUVO dawHS BININISY JO Juswyredaq *S "| wos ydesrSojoyg * ‘C161 ul SioyIeNb oo0'f60'F 0} 1061 Ur s1aj1enb ooo'FoS wo.rFz QsO1 sJ1odxd Seurjussiy ‘puery soy}0 xy} UG ‘spunod o00'zoZ AJUO a1aM C161 Ut syOdxo IMO ‘TOOI UT Jeow Yso1f FO spunod oo0'RhZ‘1SE poj10dxe IM d1dY AA ‘SSOUISNG Sut}IOdxa-Jooq oY} FO JNO S9}e}G PoWUL] PY} USATIP Ajpeonjovid Suraey ‘Aayunos s9y}O Aue uvy} food stout sysodxo Osye zJ “ZT aay OM IIo M ‘ofIUL otvNDs dy} 0} dooys Of sey i] ‘poonposd uoynuL FO jUnOWR oY} UL BIeAsMY 0} AYO puod—aS SI dyqndsy sunussi1y oy], S1TaAdwY ANILNAOUV AHL NI daXHS FO SANVSAOHL WO MOOT V Jauqiios-uosure’y] “yy Aq ydeisoj0yg Io SSeS AWA Photograph by Frank H. Bothell A FARMER LASSIE FEEDING HER COSSET There are many little Marys and their lambs on American farms, and the lambs become as attached to their little mistresses as dogs do to their masters of commercial fertilizer, and the age of preventive medicine as applied to live stock, so it is probable that the prophets who predict.a hungry world in the not- distant future are failing to reckon with the possibilities of further extension and improvement of agricultural conditions. Furthermore, they also entirely neglect the fact that synthetic chemistry is delv- ing deeper into the mysteries of nature’s laboratories in the roots and stalks of the plant world, and is gradually coming to the point where it can take the raw ma- terials that the plant itself takes from the soil, and make foods in factories perhaps as well as nature makes them on the farm. CONTINENTAL CHARACTERISTICS In any study of how the world is fed, one discovers very soon that the various II continents are characterized by widely varied forms of diet. Australia, smallest of continents, is the largest meat eater of them all. Asia, the largest continent, is the smallest meat eater among them. Africa and South America lean toward vegetarianism, while North America and Europe are large consumers of meat and other animal products. Although Asia has fifty-three out of every hundred of the world’s inhabitants living within its boundaries, it has, out- side of India, comparatively few cattle, only a negligible number of hogs, and not a great many sheep. Fish, rice, and vege- tables form the principal articles in the Asiatic market basket. The average meal of the laboring class of China consists mainly of rice, a little cabbage boiled in a lot of water, and 12 Photograph by A. W. Cutler A SHEPHERD ON THE PLAINS OF HORTOBAGY: HUNGARY a small piece of turnip, pickled sink brinessasmea: relish. From our stand- point, the Asiatic is a greatly underfed being, and yet wherever men are employed tribute is paid to the physical en- durance of the Chinese coolie (see page 5). The food of the 180,- 000,000 people who live in Africa is almost as simple as that of the Asiatics. It is largely vegetable, although roasted elephant foot is still one of the favorite dishes of the jungle din- ner. South Atnmica eats largely as Europe eats, while the make-up of the North African market basket is almost identi- cal with that of south- western Asia. It is probable that less than one-third of the earth’s population gets what an American would call three square meals a day. Adding to the na- tive population of Asia and Africa the Indians and half-breeds of South America, the aborigines of the islands of the sea and of Australia, and to them adding the under- fed population of east- ern Europe, we find that approximately 1,250,- 000,000 of the earth’s population sit down to a scanty menu. THE WORLD'S MEAT Taking the world’s supply of cattle, hogs, and sheep, and making proper allowance for the less improved methods of stock-raising on other parts of the globe as compared with those of the United States, it ap- pears that mankind at Photograph by Miller Photo Co. ELIGIBLE FOR MEMBERSHIP/IN THE ROUGH-RIDER REGIMENT Bull-riding in Oregon is less brutal than bull-fighting in Mexico, but it is better sport, and the cowboy who herds our future beef supply is nothing if not a lover of good sport large uses in the neighborhood of 47,000,- 000,000 pounds of meat a vear. This would be an average of about 39 pounds per capita throughout the world. ‘The people of the United States a few years ago were eating 172 pounds per capita, which is more than four times as much as the average for the race (see pages ro and 15). Next to the Australians, the Ameri- can people are the largest of all meat eaters. In butchers’ meat, the latest sta- tistics showed the American to be eating 172 pounds, the Englishman 119 pounds, the German 113 pounds, the Frenchman and the Belgian 80 pounds, the Austro- Hungarian 64 pounds, the Russian 50 pounds, and the Spaniard 49 pounds. The average American eats 80% pounds of beef, 714 pounds of veal, 78 pounds of pork and lard, and 61% pounds of mut- ton and lamb a year. Where we eat 80 pounds of beef, the Englishman eats 56 pounds, the French- man 37 pounds, and the German 36 pounds. Where we eat 78 pounds of pork, including lard, the Englishman eats 33 pounds, the German 67 pounds, and the Frenchman 26 pounds. We eat 7% pounds of veal where the Englishman eats 4 pounds, the German 7%4 pounds, and the Frenchman 8 pounds; and we eat 61%4 pounds of mut- ton and lamb where the Englishman eats 26 pounds, the Germian 2% pounds, and the Frenchman 9 pounds. From these figures it will be seen that the Frenchman eats less than half the beef we do. He eats as much beef as the _ German, but less than half as much pork. 13 MEAT SUPPLY OF CENTRAL EUROPE It is interesting to study the per capita production of meats in the countries of the Central Powers at the present time. The statistics of the United States De- partment of Agriculture reveal the fact that Germany, Austria- Hungary, Bul- garia, and Turkey had a total of approxi- mately 50,000,000 cattle before the war began. The Department of Agriculture says that about one-fifth of the total number of cattle in Germany are slaughtered an- ‘ure[d Surpunoqd dy} FO SsaulfoUO] 9Y} 1OF¥ 9}0pt nue SoyIURI dy} FO 9]}}V9 9Y} oyeU IMA coe) oY, 19][PV Aq ydesso0j0yg que sAoqMos ay} ase o1njzoId oy} Ul UMOYS BuO dy} SAI] S}USploUT “PYyoueq IMO 1OF USoy OUT PH 9INJORY ‘kxoid Aq Wi yea Op aM yn ‘SaATaSINO ssvIs jeo 0} 9AeY ‘plo JO JoZzZoupeYyNqoN Il] JOU OP oA TIod ONIMONGA V AP NMOUHL 14 ‘000‘219'9 sdoy Jo pur ‘oo00'gZe‘G dooys Jo O00'109'% d41OM PIGI AOF od] JO sy}drooat oT, “Avp Suppiom AjoAd ssoy oorve pue ‘daays ooo'Z1 ‘9]}4V9 O0O0'L yoqu Jo asvsVAV UL DATIIOI SpleX YOOIS uorup) sy, ‘oinjord oy} Jo vore oy} UL puvsnoy} [V1AVS Ajqeqoid pue punoiso1of oy} UL ued 4sty oY} UT 9]97v9 COZ ynoqr o1e aay, OOVOIHO ‘SGNVA MOOLS NOIND AHL NI ANWOS IVOICAL ‘uoljdumsuos ueluny JO} YUN se youl Soy spaeSo1 [JS pjzom oy} Fyey ueyy crop “poydooow AToprar ysvoy OU ST Soy oy} s[euUUe SYsawOp [Je JO asnvooq St SIT, “J94}980} P[IOM oy} FO Jopureuios oy} JO Tv uey} soy JOU osIvs odoiny pue soyeyS powuy) IL, ALVLS NOIONIHSVM : NOVO WHIAGNA VATVITV NO NMOY)D SOOH JIU Y Sang Aq ydevisojoyg eae 16 X Photograph from U. S. Denartment of Agriculture STUFFING SAUSAGE IN A -MODERN PACKING-HOUSE The operatives in the sausage department have their nails manicured and their hands sterilized every time they come into the packing rooms. the United States is worth $60,000,000 annually. nually. Assuming that the net weight of those of Germany and Austria-Hungary corresponds with the net weight of our own cattle, and that the net weight of those of Bulgaria and Turkey is only 300 pounds where ours is 543, it would ap- pear that there is a 34 pound per capita production of beef in the Central Powers. There are 37,000,000 hogs in the coun- tries of the Teutonic Alliance. The De- partment of Agriculture’s statistics show that the annual slaughter in Germany is 110.4 per cent of the total number of hogs on hand at a given time; therefore 17 The factory output of sausage in it would appear that there is a per capita production of pork amounting to 45 pounds in the Central Powers. Based on the German ratio of the sheep killed to those found on the farms of the country at a given time, the annual slaughter of sheep in the region controlled by the Cen- tral Powers is 31,000,000. Assuming that the average dressed weight per sheep is only 30 pounds, as compared with 41 pounds in the United States, there would be a production of 941,000,000 pounds of mutton, or 6.7 pounds per capita. This gives a total ‘vyded 1od yes yo spunod %6 sonposd om “1oyoyn [ejJot oy} FO Jey} pure judsoidot Jeol eS II AA ApoAereduroo v ATUO Ss tod your opts jo spunod %Z pue ‘repjnoys jo spunod %€ ‘uy yO spunod g JOYSURS WALF oY} SUIO[ SoU Yak ‘soyeyG popup) 9y} fo uoonposd yeour oy} FO oseys [[eUIS aSNOH-ON VS ONILOAdS NI uawyiedoq *S “A wor yderso0j0yg , IMO0Vd DIG V NI LVAW LI oy} 2 Vid DINI[NILIS VY F te Sn earn 8 BLOW, IUSOE WKOIRIEID) US 132, 1D 18) production of meat, omitting horse and goat meat, of 85.7 pounds per capita among the Central Powers. The Depart- ment of Agriculture gives the average German consumption as 113 pounds, and the average Austria- Hungarian consump- tion as 64 pounds. It is probable that Bulgarian and Turkish consumption ap- proximates that of the Russian, which is 50 pounds. WE ARE EATING LESS MEAT In the past few years the United States has shown a tendency to reduce the vol- ume of meat it consumes per capita. The high cost of butchers’ meats has forced Americans to find substitutes, and it is not improbable that in the course of an- other generation meat eating in this coun- try will fall far below the mark it has hitherto held. Not only has our home consumption of meat fallen off, but our exports of ani- mal products have declined immensely in ten years. If it were not for our enor- mous exports of lard, we would be in danger of having our foreign meat trade become a negligible quantity. But in spite of the slowing up of per capita home consumption and of our de- clining meat export trade, the meat-pack- ing industry today still takes first rank among all the manufacturing industries of the United States in the value of its products. Under the 1910 census the products of the meat-packing industry were valued at $1,370,000,000, as com- pared with $1,228,000,000 for foundry and machine-shop products, their closest rival (see pages 18 and 20). More than 100,000 people are engaged in the slaughtering and meat-packing in- dustry. During a recent year the on-the- hoof production of meats on the Ameri- can farm was: 8,265,000,000 pounds of beef, 409,000,000 pounds of veal, 987,- 000,000 pounds of mutton and lamb, and 6,856,000,000 pounds of pork. THE IMPORTANCE OF LARD Lard is one of the principal items of animal products exported from the United States today. Our total produc- tion of this commodity annually amounts to approximately 1,500,000,000 pounds, of which more than 500,000,000 pounds go to other countries. Germany hereto- fore has taken the bulk of the lard we have exported, and the cutting off of this supply has been one of the hardships the Central Powers have had to face (see pages 21 and 22). We use more than 10 pounds per capita in the United States, and it is generally believed that the German demand for this product is larger per capita than our own. ~ If the 41,000,000 hogs slaughtered within the confines of the Central Powers an- nually produce as much.lard per animal as ours, the per capita supply of the Cen- tral Powers will approximate a little less than 8 pounds. While many substitutes for lard have been found, among them cotton-seed oil and olive oil, there is no prospect that the world will ever be able to do without a very large supply of this product of the hog. The necessity of some fat or oil in the human diet is borne witness to no less by the experts in dietetics than by the universality of the use of fats and oils in cooking throughout the world. One cannot go far enough afield—even in the remotest corners of the earth—to get beyond the reign of vegetable oils and animal fats in the human dietary. Fats are the) greatest of all of the: heat and energy producers with which nature pro- vides mankind. The man fed on a diet from which all fats and oils are excluded very soon has serious disturbances of his digestive processes. THE EVOLUTION OF THE PACKING-HOUSE The meat-packing business is the de- velopment of the present generation. Where once there were slaughter-houses in every community, and the business of slaughtering live stock for food was widely scattered, today the industry is narrowly concentrated, and a half dozen packing towns do perhaps three-fourths of all of the butchering business of the country. When Gustavus Swift first conceived the idea of doing the butchering near the centers of animal production and _ ship- ping the dressed meat to the centers of consumption, he saved to the American consumer one of the heaviest freight bills INSPECTING the nation was paying. Not only did he save the difference between the live weight of the stock slaughtered and the dressed weight, but he was able to put more tons of dressed beef into a car than he could of cattle. The packing business was first built up on the saving in freight. Later the use of the ordinary wastages of the slaughter- ing business in the manufacture of by- products effected other savings as re- markable as those on freight. PRICE DISPARITIES The question of the disproportion be- tween the prices of cattle on the hoof and those of roasts and steaks is by no means a new one. Away back in 1858 VISCERA OF CATTLE paar erene secomenn: eS ‘) “ad ene | | i 4 4 Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture CARCASSES people were asking how it happened that roasts and steaks were selling at 15% cents when cattle on the hoof were bring- ing less than 7 cents. It seems strange in these days to think of buying best rib roasts and porterhouse steaks at 1544 cents a pound, and yet in that year the American Agriculturist took a heavy steer through the market from the slaughter-house to the retail cus- tomer, tracing the profits derived there- from, and found that it could be done and still leave a profit of more than five dollars per carcass to the butcher. In those days, before the packing-town idea was evolv ed, there was a margin of nearly 5 cents between the price of beef on the hoof and the dressed carcass; RENDERING LARD IN Ask your cook what dishes she would be able to prepare for you if she’ had no lard, nor under the economies that have been ef- fected through the packing-house idea the margin is approximately only half as much. What the prices for our steaks and roasts would be if the margin of price between meat on the hoof and meat in cold storage were as great as it used to be, one can only surmise! THE RISE OF REFRIGERATION How one step in the progress of cater- ing to the world’s food demands makes another possible is nowhere better shown than in the case of the packing industry. When that humble citizen of Florida, John Gorrie, invented the ice - making machine, he not only enabled the w hole world to know the delights of a plentiful supply of cold water, but he also made it possible to exchange its perishable prod- ucts, so that the tropics might give to the temperate zone their fruits, and the tem- perate zone might send to the tropics their excellent corn-fed meats and other cold-storage foods. S. Department of Agriculture Photograph from U. A CHICAGO PACKING-HOUSE butter, oil Once there were entire nations where only the favored few ever knew the re- freshing experience of a cold drink, and it always happened that these nations were situated in those regions where a cold drink means most to humanity. The ice factory, which has meant so much to us in its relation to our own food supply, has brought the delights of ice-cream and soda water to those hundreds of millions of people who live between Capricorn and Cancer, the while it has given them Chicago, Omaha, Kansas City, and St. Joseph meats. Cold storage is destined to play an in- creasingly important part in the handling of the world’s food supply as the years go by and the demands for food increase. It is less than four decades since the first cargo of beef chilled by machinery in- stead of by ice was shipped, but today the funnels of refrigerator ships trace their lines of smoke upon every horizon. Any one who has lived on a farm and has seen the amount of wastage there is ‘aInjoId oy} UI UMOYS sv ‘sqn} OJUI YO UMPIP Udy} pure je JOYJO WOIJ OpvUl o4v sape1S 19y}Q “SAIUPIY PU SoUT}SOJUL OY} SUIpUNOIINS je} 94} FO ape Guv’l AYNd HALIM SuOod ONITII F 4 iH 3 H ‘ re i 3 Ww st pie I je eal D Saree miennineten meaner iz] JO ay wiesjs Aq asvo13 pinbi] & 0} podnps1 Sutoq ‘syv} sopvis JO Joquinu v IIe d1OY YT, in| N HOW THE WORLD IS FED in the vegetable garden and the truck patch by reason of a lack of facilities for taking care of the surplus, will readily understand what a saving there could be if a cold-storage plant were convenient. Gradually these plants are coming closer and closer to the farmer, many of whom already are making use of them to store their perishable products, like fruits, veg- etables, and eggs, until the higher prices of the winter months set in. THE FISH SUPPLY As the world fills up with people, the more humanity is bound to look to the sea for food, and a rich field will there be found. Already the United States has a fisheries industry the value of whose product nearly offsets the value of the product of its wonderful apple orchards. Our fisheries yield a return of $70,000,- 000 a year, which almost exactly dupli- cates the returns the United Kingdom receives from her fishing industry. France’s annual catch reaches a value of $33,000,000, while that of Russia amounts to $50,000,000. Germany together have a total catch of only $12,000,000 value (see pages 20-27). It has been conservatively estimated that the world’s fish supply exceeds twenty billion pounds. Japan’s fisheries produce about six billion pounds a year. What our western grazing lands have been to our meat supply, that has the sea been to Japan’s. A census of the sea would reveal more animal life to the square mile, perhaps, than the land itself possesses. There are all sorts and shapes and varieties of aquatic life to be found, and the rich treasures of food which the rivers of the earth carry down to the oceans defy measure. Gradually new fishing grounds are be- ing opened up and new varieties of fish introduced to the public. Just now the efforts of the United States Bureau of Fisheries to restore the tile-fish to the American dinner table, and its plans for a campaign of education in favor of the edibility of the dogfish, are straws which show the direction of the wind in the utilization of the vast food treasures of the sea. Austria - Hungary and . bo Ww CHINESE GREAT FISH EATERS The Chinese are among the greatest fish eaters of the world, and they have accepted so many varieties in their list of edible fishes that they can have a dif- ferent kind for breakfast every morning in the year. Not only are their seas filled with fish, but their rivers as well, and while no other nation has gone as far as the United States in scientific fish propa- gation in fresh waters, the Chinese have cared for their fish supply through a hun- dred generations. All sorts of methods for catching fish have been developed by the nations of the earth. It is a far cry from the big steam trawler of the North Sea to the hook and line of the small boy on a coun- try creek bank. But most picturesque of all the ways of fishing in the world is that resorted to by the Chinese—fishing with cormorants. ‘The cormorants are hatched under chicken hens, and when about three months old are taught to fish. The trainer ties a string to one of the bird’s legs and drives it into the water. He then throws out some small fish which the bird promptly catches. It is taught to dive and come back at the call of a whistle. When trained, collars are put about the bird’s neck, so that it cannot swallow the fish it catches. A fisherman goes out with the rail of his boat lined with string-hitched cormorants. At a given signal they dive, and the fish that can outswim them under water is as rare as a small fish in an angler’s description of his catch. THE CEREAL CROPS That the vegetable kingdom has more to offer the world’s market basket than the animal world is revealed by a com- parison of the animal products and the vegetable products of the food factories of the United States—the greatest ani- mal-food producing country on the globe. Although a smaller portion of the vegetable products of the country passed through factory processes than of the meat products, the vegetable manufactur- ing processes employed, at the last cen- sus, 292,000 people and turned out a product valued at $2,237,000,000, while 24 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the animal product factories employed 119,000 people and yielded an output valued at $1,700,000,000. The total products of the farms of the United States that year amounted to more than all the gold mines of the world have yielded in six centuries (see page B2)e BUMPER CROPS AND PRICES The world’s normal yield of the six great cereal crops—oats, wheat, corn, rye, barley, and rice—ranges between sixteen billion and nineteen billion bushels, and statistics show that the farmer gets less ordinarily for his big crop than he re- ceives for his small one. Excluding rice, we find that the 1911 cereal crop amounted to 13,786,000,000 bushels. The average value per bushel, based on the average farm price for the United States on December I, was 72.9 cents, giving a total crop value of $1o,- 030,000,000. The crop of 1912 was the bumper crop of the world’s history, reaching a total of 16,115,000,000 bush- els. The average farm price on Decem- ber I, 1912, in the United States, was 54.7 cents per bushel, showing a world crop value of $9,814,000,000. In other words, the farmers of the world handled 2,329,000,000 bushels more of grain in 1912 than in 1911, and yet they got $1,216,000,000 less for the big crop than for the small one. The same condition is shown in a com- parison of the statistics for 1906 and 1907. Although the world’s farmers pro- duced three-quarters of a billion bushels of grain less in the latter year than in the former, they received nearly two billion dollars less for the large crop of 1906 than for the small one of 1907. THE WORLD'S WHEAT CROP Though man shall not live by bread alone, western civilization would find it very difficult to get along without wheat and its products. Although the wheat plant is not of western origin, it has be- come mainly a western product, march- . ing hand in hand with western civiliza- tion. The world’s total production of wheat approximates 4,000,000,000 bush- els a year. It would take 4,000,000 of the largest freight cars, making a train reaching more than one and one-half times around the earth, to move this great annual yield. Moving at twenty miles an hour, this train would take thirty-odd days to pass a given point. The wheat crop of the United States is approximately one-fifth of that of the entire world. It would seem that with the development of the northwestern part of this country, wheat had at last reached its limit of cultivation on American soil; but those who have studied the question most closely tell us that the wheat-grow- ing industry has heretofore simply fol- lowed the lines of least resistance, pick- ing out here and there the lands. best suited for wheat growing; and that since all the choicest land has been opened up, the wheat growers will gradually drift back and take up the less available lands that they passed over in looking for the best (see page 34). Not only will the trend of the wheat field be east and south, but it is certain to reach farther and farther into what is now the semi-arid regions of the West. Between its extension into the desert through irrigation and its advance into the semi-desert through the introduction of hardy, drought - resisting varieties, America is afar off from the time when the potential acreage and yield of her wheat fields is reached. It is estimated that it will be easily pos- sible for the United States to double its wheat-growing area. That would give us an average which, when we approxi- mate western European standards in wheat growing, will yield very nearly as much wheat as the whole world produces today. It has been strikingly said that he who can add a grain of wheat to each head in the world’s wheat fields can give bread to millions of people, and when the United States extends her acreage to its maximum and develops the yield to its limit, nations yet unborn can rise up and secure bread from her flour bins. RUSSIA’S WHEAT FIELDS But as full of possibilities as the wheat- growing industry of the United States may be, they are few in comparison with A FAIR “FISHERMAN a. Photograph by Curtis & Miller WASHINGTON STATE “As the world fills up with people, the more it is bound to look to the sea for food, and a rich field will there be found” (see text, page 23) those of Russia. That wonderful country, possessing more latent agricultural re- sources, perhaps, than any like area in the world, has 288,000,000 acres of ex- cellent wheat land. Even at our present standard of production, which is less than half of that of western Europe, Russia alone could produce more wheat than is raised on the entire globe today. As matters now stand, the Russian crop is only about ten bushels per acre. That her lands are as fertile and her cli- mate as well suited to the growing of 25 wheat as those of England and Germany are facts well known to all those who have considered her relation to the world’s future food problems. Even to- day, in spite of her small per-acre pro- duction of every principal crop, Russia is the greatest exporter of grain in the world. We ordinarily think of the exportation and importation of food products as be- ing one of the most important consider- ations in relation to production. The world’s prices for these commodities are ‘Ajddns yeaut dy} IOF vas ay} 0} YOO] 0} aUIO0d savy AT[eNWIIA osouvdef oy, “quiey puv “uo ynUT ‘ead ‘Jaoq INO []v JO JYSIoM possoip oy} UeY} JySiam JoyeoiS ev syueseido1 yoryM ‘spunod woryyiq XIS Je poet ST YoO}vo Yysy jenuue sj] ‘Ajddns you ssoyoynq [jews AJoA eB Y}IM Suoe joB3 0} a[qissod si Wf MOY pyjsoM dy} SsurMoys st uvdel ILVLS NOLONIHSVM : LO@IIVH NAZOW JOY Y sang Aq ydeisojoyg : 4 ay ahi GS it NVO OL AGVAY NOWIVS JO TINA ASNOHAIVA 27 Photograph by Curtis & Miller CUTTING SALMON FOR THE CANS The salmon are fed into the “iron chink, ” which automatically removes the head, fins, and viscera; after that it goes to the cutting machine, which prepares it for the can fixed by the prices received for that por- tion of the product moving in interna- tional trade. And yet it is quite a good bit a case of the tail wagging the dog, as will be seen from the figures in relation to wheat. Out of 4,000,000,000 bushels of wheat raised in the world, only 600,000,- 000 get out into the channels of interna- tional trade. THE ORIGIN OF WHEAT The growing of wheat has so long been a principal occupation with man that its geographical origin is unknown. The Egyptians claim it originated with Isis, while the Chinese claim to have received the seed direct as a gift from heaven. The belief that it originated in the valleys of the Euphrates and the Tigris is more generally accepted than any other. The most ancient languages mention wheat, and it has been found by the archeolo- to (ve) gists in the kitchens of the prehistoric in- habitants of the Swiss Lake region. It is generally agreed that at the lowest esti- mate, wheat has been a faithful servant of mankind for six thousand years. A glance at the statistics of bread con- sumption shows that as meat consump- tion goes down that of bread rises up. The people of the United States consume 295 pounds per capita of wheat and rye per year, those of England 356 pounds, those of Germany 525 pounds, and those of France 550 pounds, which is in every case in inverse ratio to their consumption of meat. According to available statistics, the Central Powers of Europe produced 501,- 000,000 bushels of wheat in 1913. This would give them a per capita production of 215 pounds. Their total production of rye amounted in the same year to 654,- 000,000 bushels, or 261 pounds per capita. FILLING CANS BY Fs Photograph by Curtis & Miller ae MACHINERY Twenty million cases of canned salmon are filled annually in Alaska Tt will be seen from this that the per capita production of wheat and rye in the Central Powers is about 467 pounds, while Germany’s consumption 1s placed at 525 pounds in normal times. It is probable that the per capita consumption is even greater in Austria-Hungary, Bul- garia, and Turkey than in Germany. CORN AS HUMAN FOOD While a thorough appreciation of hoe- cake and corn-pone is largely limited to our own Dixie, and while corn is mainly a stock food, still it occupies no incon- spicuous place in the world’s market bas- ket, as any one who takes the time to ex- amine consumption figures will find. The grist mills of the United States in 1909 produced 27,000,000 bushels of cornmeal and corn flour, and 837,000,000 pounds of hominy and grits, while the canning factories canned 168,000,000 cans of corn. It is said that Mexico’s production of 29 corn is worth more, in normal times, than her production of gold, and although the Mexican mines are world famous for the prodigality of their yield, any one who has seen at first-hand the universal sway of the tortilla can well believe that the Mexican cornfield outranks the Mexican gold mine. Today the United States produces two- thirds of the world’s supply of corn. It devotes a little more than twice as much acreage to that crop as it does to wheat. Our average yield is 23.1 bushels to the acre (see page 32). There is no place better suited to dem- onstrate the possibilities of scientific agri- culture than in the handling of the na- tion’s corn crop. If we were to take the average yields of all the boys’ corn-grow- ing clubs of the United States, we would probably find them ranging around eighty busheis to the acre. This would give a total yield, on the basis of the present ay Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture BEEF BALED LIKE HAY OR COTTON All edible scrap meat in the packing-house is baled together and packed away in a freezing room to await conversion into potted beef and other similar products. ice on the pipes. acreage under cultivation in the United States, two and one-third times as large as that of the entire world today (see pages 101 and 105). It is certainly not unreasonable to be- lieve that the average farmer of the United States in future years will do as well as the average boy of the corn club today. When we remember that the youthful enthusiasts of the corn clubs of today will be the farmers of tomorrow, it probably is not too much to hope that the time is less than a generation distant when the United States can add billions of bushels of corn to the needs of a growing race. It is fitting that the Americas should produce approximately three-fourths of 30 Note the the world’s corn, for corn is a true Amer- ican. It was here when Columbus came to the New World, and the early col- onists left a record of the fact that they learned the lesson of its use from the red men. BARLEY AND RYE We who have spent all of our lives in the United States have little realization of the important part barley and rye play in the market baskets of many countries, for beyond a little barley broth and an occasional loaf of rve bread, the Ameri- can does not often meet these cereals at meal time. Yet in Russia, in southeast- ern Europe, and in parts of Asia barley and rye meal are the raw material of the bread of the masses. The bar- ley and rye crops of the earth together would fill more than two million freight cars, enough to more than belt the earth at the Equator. In Japan, when the people get too poor to eat rice they resort to barley, and it is said that there is a social distinc- tion drawn between the rice- eating and the barley-eating natives. Barley formerly was more frequently used in west- ern Europe than it is today; it was the cereal from which the goose pie was made in the early days of England. In bulk, oats is the greatest of all the cereal crops of the world, though in weight it is surpassed by several others. It was Doctor Johnson, I be- lieve, who said that they fed oats to horses in England and to men in Scotland. The re- tort was that Scotland was famous for its men and Eng- Jand for its horses. Though oats figure mainly in the world’s diet as a breakfast food, still the total used as human food is an important one. ASIA THE HOME OF RICE _ Although the United States produces more than 700,000,- coo pounds of rice, this is but a drop in the bucket as compared with the production of Asia. That continent, although making a remarkably poor showing in its production of live stock and those cereals which we most exten- sively grow, has almost a monopoly of the production of rice. Out of the total world’s production of 162,000,000,000 pounds, it grows 159,000,000,000. Per- haps nine-tenths of all the rice eaten in the world is eaten by the Asiatics.. To the great masses of Asia’s unnumbered millions it is largely both bread and meat (see page 38). The rice crop must be grown in water, the fields being kept flooded the greater part of the time until it matures. This necessitates a system of canals or other means of irrigation. In many parts of 31 Photograph by A. W. Cutler “tWwO'S COMPANY’: INCIDENTALLY A WHEAT-FIELD COURTSHIP China and Japan the coolie laborers are always kept busy pumping water for the rice fields. In some cases they raise the water by hand from one level to another by buckets; in others, primitive water- wheels are equipped with treading-boards, so that the men can turn the wheels with their feet; still other wheels are turned by animal power (see page 39). In the Philippines, Java, and parts of southern Asia thousands of water buf- faloes are used to drag the plows and harrows through the mud in preparing the seed bed for the crop. In the chief rice-raising countries the harvest time is an important event. At the beginning the natives often have picnics; in Java, they erect little temples, about the size of a pigeon-house, containing an offering of "(6z o8ed 4x0} 008) APO} PJJOM 911}U9 dy} FO Jey} se asIe] se SoU} P4yj-su0 pue om} ‘s9}¥1G PoUUA 94} UE UOTVeATNS Jopun a8voioe Juasoid oy} JO siseq oy} UO ‘pjsIA [e}O} & DATS P[NOM siIyy, “atv 9Y} OF S[oysNq Aqeqoid pjnom aM ‘Sa}e}G Peis) 24} JO sqnyo SUIMOIS-UIOD SAOG dU} [[B JO PaIA Vsv1BAe JY} IB} OF} OTOM OM Ayysto punoie sSulsuel jt puy J] ‘dora usod suoyeU 9Yy} JO suljpuey oy} Ur UeY} JINJNISe IYiUIos JO saiqypiqissod oy} o}eIsuOWp 0} PojINS Jo}oq sovjd OU St o1OYY,,, ©. @THIAINYOO AUNINAD HIAMNAML V dinqpNousy Jo Juswyredaq *S “fy wosz ydesZ0j}04q : S : _—S Photograph from A. W. Thompson CORN RAISED BY A FARMER OF PRESTON, MINNESOTA With such agriculture as this the United States and Russia alone could feed the whole world as it is populated today 33 pue dn asiz ues usoqun yo suoeU ‘PWT OY} JO SUOTT]IU 0} peetq JAIB UPD SPJIy JeoyM Ss, SUdAd}S W 19}sqa AA Aq ydessojoyd ‘(ve a8ed 4x0} 908) ,SUIG INOY Joy WorF Proiq 91Nnd9S 01 ppatA oy} sdopaaosp pue WMUTXeLUT Sit O} a8voI0e oY SpU9}xX9 S9}kIG Po}U) 9Y} USM pue ‘g{dood P[som oy} UL peoy Yoto 0} JeoyM JO UIvIS & Pp ULI OYA oY }eY} pies A[SuPyi4js useq sey 4],, NOLONIHSVM NYALSVA NI GHIA TVIHM V 34 This machine cuts, threshes, bags, and weighs the wheat in a single operation. Co. Photograph and copyright by Keystone View BONANZA FARMING IN THE NORTHWEST The teamster who can handle the fifteen to thirty horses required to operate it commands good wages. an egg, some fruit, a bit of sugar-cane, and some cooked rice. The husks of rice stick so tightly to the grain that the latter is left rough when the husk is removed. The grains are thrown upon rollers covered with sheep- skin and polished just as we might pol- ish silver or gold. Medical science has learned that the absence of the elements contained in the rice husk produces the disease known as beriber1 when an ex- clusive rice diet is eaten, just as a too exclusive diet of corn produces pellagra. These two discoveries open up an en- tirely new field in the investigation of the causation of little understood diseases. They rank with the discovery of the method of transmitting malaria, yellow fever, bubonic plague, and sleeping sick- ness by mosquitoes, fleas, and tsetse flies, respectively. THE PLACE OF THE POTATO It has been the honor of America to contribute to the world its greatest crop in point of yield — the white potato. Making its bow to civilization from the land of the Incas, in Peru, the potato has girdled the globe, winning the esteem of every land and every people. No other plant in the entire range of ios) OV the vegetable kingdom has ever gone so far or met with such universal favor in so short a time as this apple of the earth. Today North America produces more than half a billion bushels, while Europe produces approximately ten times as much as our own continent, and has prac- tically a monopoly of the potato-growing industry, producing nine out of every ten bushels grown in the world (see p. 106). A NEW BEAST OF BURDEN Figuring to such a large extent in the diet of the race, the potato offers a solu- tion of one of the important problems that the farmers of the earth are facing. There are more than one hundred million horses in the world, most of them being found on the farm. ‘To provide these horses with grain and hay and pasturage requires several hundred million acres of the world’s best land. It so happens that the potato is an ad- mirable material out of which to make alcohol for motive power. Under mod- ern methods of distillation, a few acres of potatoes can be made to yield enough alcohol to drive the farm-tractors of an ordinary farm. The average farmer has held to the horse as a means of transpor- tation because he could use him without . AJIULIYSVU YIM BUIWIeE JO qUdAPe oY} oouIs souiy AueUT AyOedeD datjonpoid siy poldiyyni sey uewr Moy smoys ZE pure S€ sa8Sed uo dsoy} YIM oanzoId sty} JO UOstIedWI0D VY dxOULI TT “HT pessty Aq ydessoyoyg VISUAd NI J[VAHM DONIMONNIM SST Saka * *(Sz o8vd 4x0} 99s) ,d4ov aod sfoysnq Us} ynoqe st dos9 uvISsNyY oY} ‘purys Mou sio}TUI SY ‘ALpo} 9qO]s d.4A1jUD OY} UO posivs St UY} JoyM o.1OUT 9ONp -o1d pynoo ouo]e vissny ‘odoiny Uso}soM FO FEY} FO J[LY ULY} ssol st YOM ‘uonoupoid yo pavpurys IMO WV UOAST ‘pur, JwoyM JUdTJOoxXo Fo sosoV OOO‘OOO'RT SLY ‘PJIOM oY} UL voIV ON] AUB UL} ‘sdvysod ‘soommosot [VAN{NIWI1S6e JUoJe] oFOWW sSuIssossod ‘(vISsNY) At}UNOD [NJsopuoMm yeyy,, oO . . . . VIG LVIHM SH NI ANIL ONIHSAYYH Si ‘(For asvd 4x9} 90s) ,saqqe} JouUIp m0 0} ApJIaIpP 9WI0D Ady} MOU “WOY OF poy SpkOr [[e 99U0 dI9yYM ‘pure ‘svas dy} [[@ pue s}UaUTJUOD ayy [Je uOodn oynqi4} AAV] MOU Ud JO soaqyodde OT, © }vo JYSIU OM YY} SUTYIOM UOUOM puUe Us JO AUIL JIS B 99S P[NOD 9M ‘UIP 9M se ADULF INO dSOOT UN} ‘Juessvdnvyy IYI] ‘OM pynod,, VISV NI HOI ONILVAILING . eee am ee x DATSHJIXO UL uoyM T1oq T1oq St E.G QC i E.G << WK > viSv]Jod soonposd usOD JO JoOIP AISHPOXS 00} v sv ysnf ‘Ud}vd ST JaIp 9d14 Poystjod UMOUY OSVISIP dy} SoMposd sysny it oy} UL PousvJUOS sJUOUaJo oY} JO 9UOSYe oY} JY} Pourvo] sey oQUdIOS [voIpoT WVIS : USVOGVOUE WOM ONIMOS Yh Yi Le Vij JY, Yi Yj 7 7 39 ‘DOLL Sp[IOM dy} JO Spunod oot A1oAd JO NO 66 soonpoid visy “dos A9yY}0 Aue JOF PojINS [JOM JOU U9}JO SI [IOS DdII Jsoq SY “syooM 99IY} IO OAM} J0}¥R pozU[dsuL.44 SI S}OLIJSIp owwos ur pue (OF a6ed 99S) JseOPVOIG UMOS SI jE SJOIIJSIP 9WOS UT “SUOT}EPUNUT ]eUOTSeIIO 0} JOo!qus spUL[MO] UT Jsoq SpPjorA ony NVdvVf :110S GHLVGNONI NV NI HOM ONILNVIdSNVUL 40 Photograph and copyright by the International Press Photo Co. CHINESE EGGS WELL RIPENED The ancient egg in China has as much standing in good society as wine of rare old vintage in Europe, there being no accounting for taste Photograph and copyright by the International Press Photo Co. CHINESE EDIBLE BIRDS’ NESTS ARE WORTH THIRTY DOLLARS A POUND *(S€ ased 4x0} 908) Ujres oy} Jo ojdde siy} sv owt} & JOYS OS UL IOAVF YINS YIM JOU IO AVF OS 9U0S JIAO SPY WOpPSuUrIy 9[qGej}OS0A 2Y} FO ssuv1 ditjUo oy} Ul JUL] 1oy}jO ON ‘a[dood A19Ad pure pu] AJIAI FO Wdd}S9 dy} SUIUUIM ‘o9qo[s 9Y} Po[psJIS sey O}e}od oy} ‘Ni9g ul ‘seouy dy} JO pur, ayy WOsf UOLEZIIALO 0} MOG SH Suryepy ‘oyjod opYyM oy}—pyatA Jo Jurod ur dots yso}Voss 9} PJJOM OY} O} O4NqII}JUOD 0} VoIsoUrW JO JOUOY ay} Uaodq sty {i,) ; VOIUIV ISVH “IMOWIVN UVAN :dOWD OLVLOd AHT NI ONIONIVG yoosy ‘f ‘yy wor} ydessojoyg = NA apes - ae oy sod suoyye JOT Y SY Qa Re) aay JO p ing Aq yde. 190}0Y ‘Ayenuue 1033nq FO spuMod udozoAVs JMoqe syeo UvoTOUTY asvioav oy, ‘eydeo sod yjuour ieMdn osn 9M ‘Sp1OM d Joyo UT ‘AeaA B Y[IW JO SUOTTVS UOL][Iq UoADS PUL XIS UoIMJoC dAIS $0210 I I I! I a ; I S) WUVA AVIVA NUIGOW Vv NO SNVISMTRVI-N IMLS ION RON poyup, oy} JO SMOD OUT, 43 ofl] Wiey JO pulls pue Aiaspnip au} wos} UOoTedI Q) ueWd IdyY p1eMmo} days STTSr1P x a > JayjOUR Sure, st os Sulop ur pure ‘10yeredos WeII9 UJOPOU! v JO} d[PL] SULWUNYS oWT-pjo dy} SuBuvyoxo st oyrmasnoy qe AMHWN VANS AALLVAAIOOD V NI WALLAIT ONINYNHO dIn}NoIsVy jo Juow edad °S “~y Woy ydesso0joYyg Ind Ainjuosd yy} orqU OM} OU, 44 Photograph and copyright by Underwood & Underwood PACKING BUTTER IN TUBS FOR CITY MARKETS There is probably no other commodity in the American market basket that needs regu- lation today more than butter. The butterfat furnished to creameries comes from nearly half a million farms, and a given pound of butter may contain butterfat from a score or more of farmers’ dairies. The tuberculosis germ finds butter a fine vehicle in which to travel long distances in quest of some run-down system to attack. Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor MILKMAID IN STOCKHOLM, SWEDEN The “milkman” comes afoot in Sweden, in a dog-cart in Belgium, on the hoof in parts of Spain and South America, with a spick and span team and in a uniform in Washington THE Photograph by Alix Bodenheimer LEADING COW, WITH ANTIQUE BELL, LEAVING FOR THE ALPS IN SPRING The cowbells, which are worn by all cattle while pasturing in the Alps, assist the-cow- These cowherds form a distinct class, who do not own the cattle they tend. The milk given each day is entered in a book, and then made into butter or cheese, the cowherds and the cheesemaker having a right to a certain propor- herds in preventing the cattle from straying. tion of the milk for their own use. At the end of the season the proceeds from each cow is turned over to the owner, and the herder receives a share, together with a small sum for each cow tended. making any actual outlay of cash for his keep. A very much smaller acreage and a very much smaller investment of labor would provide the necessary alcohol for a tractor-operated farm than would be required to feed the horses the tractors would substitute. Many advanced far- mers in various parts of the world have substituted the horse with potato-alcohol- driven motors, and with remarkably suc- cessful results. It would be one of the most revolutionary developments of hu- man history if the humble potato should become at once both team and food. The world’s present potato crop is approxi- mately large enough to fill two-thirds of the Panama Canal. MILK A UNIVERSAL COMMODITY In any discussion of the world’s mar- ket basket the importance of milk cannot 47 be overlooked. In the United States alone we produce more than six billion gallons a year. This is an average of nearly one gallon per cow a day. Ex- clusive of the milk and cream consumed on the farms of the country (which, by the way, represents the bulk of our pro- duction), our dairy products are worth $600,000,000 a year (see page 44). In other words, they are worth enough to build a Panama Canal and pay for the maintenance of the American army and navy every year. Only one-third of all of the milk pro- duced in the United States is sold from the farm. Much of that which remains is used for domestic purposes there, al- though a billion pounds of butter is proudly exhibited by the American farm as one of its by-products. The total production of butter in the United States is around 1,700,000,000 TEE pounds. While ten out of every seven- teen pounds of our butter is produced on the farm, nearly all of our cheese is made in factories (see page 67). MILK FROM MANY ANIMALS USED Milk is used everywhere that man lives, and it is secured from many differ- ent kinds of animals. Around the Arctic Ocean the Laplander milks his reindeer and freezes the milk into blocks to keep until needed; in the desert regions of Asia and Africa the natives drink the milk of camels and donkeys; in western Asia there are wandering Tatar tribes who live largely on mare’s milk. In many countries the goat is the poor man’s cow, while sheep milk is widely used in the manufacture of cheese in Europe. In recent years Russia has built up a large dairy industry in Siberia, and be- fore the war great express trains, sweep- ing across two continents, carrying noth- ing but dairy products, were a striking object-lesson of the world’s craving for butter and cheese. The Chinese, Ko- reans, and Japanese use comparatively little milk, their countries being too popu- MILK PEDDLER: CARACAS, VENEZUELA lous to admit of the keeping of many cows. BUTTER AND CHEESE TRADE Little Denmark leads all the countries of the world in the exportation of dairy products, and Danish butter is known wherever good living is enjoyed. Danish dairymen have been imported to all parts of the temperate world to teach the secrets of high-class dairying (see page 45)- The volume of butter which in normal times reaches the channels of interna- tional trade amounts to 728,000,000 pounds, which is less than half of the butter production of the United States alone. The per capita consumption of butter in the United States is about 17 pounds. On the same basis, Germany would consume I,139,000,000 pounds. In 1913 that country imported 122,000,000 pounds more than it exported. It will be seen from this that if she normally uses as much butter as we do, her shortage would be 10.7 per cent. However, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Holland have about 326,000,000 ‘ 4 ; oN Eee Ere cee es Photograph from U. S. Dept. of Agriculture THE FATHER OF A GOOD FARMER As the child is father to the man, so the youthful member of a boys’ corn club is the father of a er who will help to solve the food problems of future generations. ‘uoredioueulq Mou ay} Jo JsIjasueAa ue S¥ UIeS BJDU_] Jo [Jo1Aed ay} UO AEpo} st Ys pue YIOM UIey SUOUIOM UT sdiysuordureys 3327S OA} ULM 0} SB Jasioy peysInsunjsip os gassouuay, WoIy ueWIOM ZuNOA sIyy, “sed ay} JO SUSpIng oy} UIOIS AprUre; S,JoULIey UeOLOUTY ayy Sunedourws jsey st sues AinzuV0 YJoUEM T CIVASTIN NXAGOW V amjnousy jo 4daq “S “"Q Woy yde1s0}04g “a]qey ” ay} ye vovjd yeioads UMO sty sey yoea sAep Maj Ysry ay} JOWe ynq _,,‘sdid st s3rg,, NOHHONNT dN-ANVLS V LV SLSHND GHLIANTATAS aa “Urey IY} UO IO SJaqIjNq [feqer Aq pasozYysneLIs Jey. JO IO ‘UISIIO JO 9}¥}S JY} UIYIIM PotNsuoD Jeour Jo UOT}OadsuUT JUDUTUIBAOY OU SI aIByY J, "*woo1dYy} PeAosdde $,JUSWIUIBAOY) 94} jo [evs IY} VAPTY JOU SVOpP }CY} BDIDUTIWIOD 9}e}SIOJUT UT Jesu Aue drys 0} ‘Ajyeuod Aatay Japun ‘uappiqioy o1e Speolrer 9} UIA “jfaS}T Jeow 9a} jo Se [Jom se ‘B1QOSIA HOY jo Joyjoue pure ‘sjeUTUe dAT] aU} Jo woroedsur UB SI Oto, +=“SUOTJIPUOD aadoid Jopun pesszysneyjs sjeurue Ay yeoy jo qoOnpoid ay} SI yea Asay} Jeu 9Y} JO SYIJG-901} YJsva] ye Jey AryUNOD 9y} Jo ajdoad ay} painsur WW ‘QNGT UI peJeUD seM AMP] uoroedsur }eaur ay} UsYy A, TVAOUddV AO TIVES S.LNAWNYAAOD AHL einqynousy jo 4yeq ‘Ss “Q Wor ydeis0j}04g j . <=; i 3, ‘uv AQ po}VoNjsowop [LUWTUR-poo}y Jsry ay} SeM AJqeqoid doays ay} VEY? JOR} 9YI 07 SyUIOd YoAeaSaI [eo1do[oayo1y AAMHSAY LSAYOA TVNOILVN V NI SHAUL AHL HLVANAD ONILSHA MOOTA NUALSHM V DIAIOS JSOIOY "S “Y WoIp-ydeisojoyg “daays ay} SeziieyoeIeYyS YoY yids 19peay -InoA-MO]JoOy pue Aypruny yemjzeu jo uorjeulquIoD aBuPI3s yey} Jo yNO sastre yey} AdUaZIeWIa AIDAD JooU! 0} AJPAIQOUTJSUL puke ‘sasreYyD Jay} JO spur ay} pear 0} wiaas Ady], ‘psoydeys & 0} Jwe}RsIsse joryo se SuTjoe UaYM ULY} VdEJULApL J9}}0q 07 1eadde Sop Be jo QUIST{[O}IUI By} Seop alayMoN e MOOTA SIH GNV GUYdHdHHS AMALNAD HLAILNAML ABL QdIAIBG 3SA1I04 “S “, WIOIy yYderdoOj}0y x ee ay re: ‘apes QOO‘OOO'FEP UA poseduros se doays QOO'OOO'TED 248 s404,, “sdoy Auew s¥ yJpoy-auo pure ‘sossoy Atrew se yIxIs-ou0 AyUO oe a1OY], “podnapenb paj}eoijsowop jo pury Joyjo Aue ueyy pyiom ay} ur doays o10ur 18 104 [, HTIOH YALVM AHL OL NMOd ONIWOO DTAIIS ISOIOT “S *( MlOIZ YAesTOjOy — 'SISOIOJ [PUCHEN 94? 0} poyeoIpap SpuL] ay} UO SMOIS YOY sseIs JUaTNONS ay} UO poinjsed aiom daays 0go'zea' 2 qeok yseJ “peoy sed yonur os ye urewop oiqnd ayy uo aze13 07 no pauin} aq 0} SP Jey} Yoo & Surjunoo AyjuIof s9suey yso10,7 pure uwNdAAdS “XIS “AAI, DWIAIVS JSoIOY “S “ Wo1y ydeis0j04g . 06 *"ysod pure jooq paotid-ysry s0j oynyWYWSqGns e se Yysy poo1id-moy YIM popuodsa. 1 pue Bos oY} OF PpourNg 94S ‘suorjeu jo Ayruey oY) OFUr utoqg SPM BOLIOWUIV 3 JOJ aq aSv}IOYS VLIW & 90k TOVH HTEVLIAOUd V JQTUN ZW sang Aq ydeisozoyg 2s Foe ae | J 0} Joy pso10j uorzejndod Bsurpuedxa s adoingy 57 “W109 [EUOTZLUIIZUT JO SapoTjIe years OM] ay} ‘aSUIOUT pur } 4] “YUnoj-ouo Ajseou saonpoid evovaury jo soyeyg powuy ayy yorys jo ‘spunod uorjiq Azyi sojeunxoidde ye sujusyeA 22 WeuINg Aq ydeisojoyg “P]ZOM JUOoTOUe ay} UT ddI10UN [es Jo uonviiodsuer 94} 10J paysyqeysa asoM pj1o.M ayy Jo soqno. S$ JO uoljonpo.id yenuur s,pjioa oy]. Sdad LIVS VINYOATTVS ma pHotsershn by Curtis & Miller . A PEACH AMONG PEACHES—WASHINGTON STATE esyidap sy aspiiq Jou arep aor Suryovosgua 94)? Fey} Bas 9Y} 0} YsNI psremuO szt ut Asnq Os 394 pure ‘yULIG Ss} 07 pauT]-Mous ‘urea1}s SuTpyseds ‘SurySne] e ueY} [nylynesq s1oW! Sury}Aue o19yy sy] YALNIM HAO HOVAENA AHL NI ‘solg UMOIg Aq yd¥Is0j0Y4g te aie 60 Photograph by Brown Bros. OVERS’ LANE -BOUND L OW J L AGS 61 “UCUIOM pUe URUF OJUT IdUeINpUS Jo euTUTe}s 943 3nd pjoo svajo Addeus ay} pue pulm 7saM YsTIq aUL AUVANV! NI SAdWVD ALISYAAINA V ‘so1g umoIg Aq ydeIs0}0Ng et an Le eo «| 4 2 en OR i ee & & Oy a ei 2 eats SSG: > ~ «) . % f VW, oS +p o> 62 a a eS j ‘ mae 8 ee = Nans* ee ee mere Sen Pt tam : -_ 8 ay — i & + 3 pit é SN Se Ss ‘%% e 63 Photograph by Brown Bros. OFF TO A WINTER MORNING'S WORK times of a winter morning when Nature slumbers beneath a blanket of snow, and an overcoat would be he fares forth to his labors. New England farmer is up be The hardy useless baggage to him as a pee Sma" aan 7a) | Mare - « RUBE EF * se saree ee RTI we Photograph by Brown Bros. THE LITTLE RED SCHOOLHOUSE Although the little red schoolhouse and the three R’s that were tau giving place to the consolidated rural school in the hearts of many millions ‘ht within its walls are largely g rriculum, it is still enshrined sturdy Americans who received their early education there. and the redirected rural cu of HOW THE WORLD ls) ED 65 pounds to export annually, while Austria- Hungary has a surplus of 4,000,000 pounds. In normal times England takes three-fifths of the world’s surplus of butter in, TOl2. Out Vol. 728, 0001000 pounds moving in international com- merce, the United Kingdom took 435,- 000,000 pounds. There are no world statistics of the production of cheese, except of that part moving in international trade. The United States annually produces about four pounds per capita. The total amount imported by all the countries of the world is 531,000,000 pounds, of which the United Kingdom takes 250,000,000, Ger- many 47,000,000, and Austria-Hungary 13,000,000 pounds. Bulgaria exports 7,500,000 pounds, and Holland and Swit- zerland have 190,000,000 pounds to give a cheese-hungry world. VEGETABLES AND FRUITS The Department of Agriculture esti- mates that one-fourth of our country’s diet consists of vegetables—products of the truck garden. If this is true of the United States, which, next to Australia, is the world’s largest per capita meat- eater, it is more true of other countries. Our census returns show that we pro- duce, exclusive of potatoes and sweet po- tatoes, vegetables to a value of $216,- 000,000. The tomato takes first rank, with a $14,000,000 production to its credit; the onion contributes exactly one-half as much to the total as the tomato, while sweet corn makes a successful bid for third place ; watermelons get fourth place, with a production valued at $5,000,000, and cantaloupes add $4,000,000 more to the total. Green beans and green peas are $3,000,000 crops. These figures deal almost entirely with the production that gets to the city market and not with the vegetables raised for consumption on the farm (see pages 4 and 107). THE KITCHEN GARDEN There is probably no farm-house in all the land so poor as to be without its vege- table garden and its truck patch, and be- bWweet tne dried) beans: Com, peasy etc. and the canned cucumbers, beets, to- matoes, ketchup, and what not, the rural housewife takes her family into the win- ter with the assurance that, high cost of living or no high cost of living, there will be no dearth of vegetables on her table. If the products of the vegetable garden figure extensively in the world’s diet, they play no greater role than the products of the orchard, vineyard, and berry patch. The total yield of the latter, according to the last census, is worth $222,000,000 a year. Orchard fruits are produced to an an- nual value of $140,000,000. We produce a bushel and a half of apples per capita, a third of a bushel of peaches, two quarts and a half of strawberries, and other things in proportion. Grape-vines and citrous trees each yield $22,000,000 worth of fruit a year, while our berry crop is valued at $29,000,000 (see page 73). While most of our fruits and vege- tables come to us in their natural state or canned, the country annually produces millions of dollars’ worth of dried fruits— a production which figures more largely in other parts of the world than in our own. THE ART OF CANNING It is only a little more than a century since the fruit-jar came into use. Before that the only way of keeping the fruits and vegetables that are now canned was to dry them or put them away in sugar or salt. The invention of the modern process of canning is credited to Nicholas Appert, a Frenchman. His method was to put the food to be preserved in glass jars, set them in boiling water, and, when the contents were thoroughly heated, seal the jar (see also page 1). Although Napoleon gave Appert twelve thousand francs for his work, he simply had built on foundations well laid by Spallanzani nearly a half century before. The apparatus used by Appert in his can- ning processes was very crude, but his discoveries laid the foundation for one of the important industries of modern times, and have proved a boon to the urban pop- ulation of the earth. While Napoleon Bonaparte paid for the discovery of the canning process, his 66 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE enemy, England, was quick to take up the discovery and to utilize it for her own purposes. About 1815 Ezra Daggert brought to the United States a process for canning salmon, lobsters, and oysters. This process was gradually extended to pickles, jellies, and sauces. HOUSEWIVES ADOPT SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES It is rather striking to pause and reflect that in a single century humanity has pro- gressed to such an extent that the most ignorant housewife in America can now do work that formerly defied the best scientists of the world (see page 107). Only the first centennial has passed of William Underwood’s invention of a process of canning tomatoes, and it is only seventy-eight years since Isaac Winslow learned how to can corn at Portland, Maine. ‘Today the glass jars of Appert have been succeeded, except in the household canning art, by the tin can, and many wonderful machines have been devised to save labor in the canning industry. There are hulling machines which will take green peas out of the pods at the rate of a thousand bushels a day; there are separators which will grade the peas according to size; there are corn-cutters which remove the grain from the cob at the rate of four thousand ears an hour, and silking machines which work at equal speed ; and there are automatic machines which will fill twelve thousand cans a day. If Nicholas Appert could come to life and go through a modern cannery, with its wonderful equipment, he would doubtless marvel at the mighty oak that grew from the tiny acorn of his discovery. THE PLACE OF POULTRY There are no statistics showing the number of domesticated fowls the world possesses, but if the United States’ ratio of three per capita were the rule, there would be some five billion of them. It is probable, however, that there are not half that many. The annual product of the American chicken yard is estimated at $509,000,000. During the last census year the American hen produced nearly twenty billion eggs, of which eleven billion were sold. It will be seen from this that the American farmer keeps a liberal supply of eggs for his own table and for hatching purposes. His receipts from the sale of eggs totaled $202,000,000 (see pages 80 and 81). We annually raise nearly a half billion chickens in the United States. Out of 488,000,000 raised in the last census year, the farmer kept all but 153,000,000 for his own purposes, which again shows that the farmer’s table is not skimped in order that his urban neighbor may eat well. THE INDUSTRIOUS BEE Nowhere else in the world is the maj- esty of small things more strikingly re- vealed than in the story of the produc- tion of honey in the United States. That great decennial interrogation mark which marches every ten years through the homes of the American people and asks them a thousand and one questions, has ascertained for us that the bees of the country annually produce twenty-seven thousand tons of honey. That means fifty-four million pounds. Truly the busy little bee must improve each shining hour to give to the Amer- ican people fifty-four million pounds of honey, in addition to providing for its own needs. The number of trips from hive to flower and from flower to hive with their tiny loads of honey-making materials that the bees must have taken to bring us these fifty-four million pounds of honey defies estimate, but they afford us an inspiring lesson of what the faith- ful doing of small things may accomplish. THE SUGAR INDUSTRY When one writes of honey his mind turns to sugar—a crop which occupies a very important place in the world’s mar- ket basket. Humanity always has had a sweet tooth, and the day when sugar was first made from cane is so remote that history is not certain that it can fix the date. And yet in one generation the world has increased its sugar production more than nine-fold. Forty years ago it took only 2,200,000 tons to satisfy the world’s sweet tooth; today it takes more than 20,300,000 tons. And still the worid is hungry for sugar (see page 87). Photograph by Underwood & Underwood HUNDREDS OF CHEESES CURING IN THE RACKS OF AN UP-TO-DATE FACTORY The people of the United States eat a little more than three pounds of cheese a year. The cheese-making industry has almost entirely passed from the farm to the factory. 67 Photograph by A. W. Cutler ARAB WOMAN AND HER GOATSKIN CHURN All people must have oil or fat in some form. The Eskimo likes seal blubber, the Span- il 71 iard wants his liberal allowance of olive oil. Butter from mare’s milk, camel’s milk, or sheep’s milk is in demand among various peopl oO we) 68 BION, SIBLE, WWOIRIEID) ILS) TEND) 69 The American people have increased their annual per capita consumption in that time from eighteen pounds to eighty- nine pounds. The Australian Common- wealth has the sweetest tooth of all the countries of the world, its per capita con- sumption being 109 pounds. Denmark has second place and Canada third; the United States comes fourth. The sugar industry is a profitable one to the grower; it was recently estimated that the value of the sugar crop to the grower is $815,000,000, while the price paid therefor by the consumer approxi- mated $2,000,000,000. A TRADE WITH UPS AND DOWNS The sugar consumed in any country fluctuates quite appreciably with financial conditions. During every financial de- pression the per capita consumption de- clines, and whenever prosperity reaches high tide, sugar consumption approaches its climax. One might write the financial ups and downs of the world in terms of sugar. The world’s production of sugar is divided half and half between sugar-cane and the sugar-beet. Sugar-cane is a very ancient crop, and in many parts of the world one of the most profitable grown. The cane has a preference for the trcp- ics, although it is able to wander as far north as the southern part of the United States. The sugar-beet, on the other hand, loves a cooler climate, and consequently adds immensely to the world’s possible sugar-producing area. While Magegraf discovered that sugar could be made from the beet many years before the Na- poleonic wars, it was not until that time that his discovery was put to any large commercial use. There is no difference between the sugar derived from cane and that extracted from beets (see page 86). A TASTE FOR CANDY The taste of the American citizen for sweet things is emphasized by his re- markable consumption of candy. We eat a half billion dollars’ worth every year, which is said to be more than half the world’s total production. The candy habit is one that is not easily changed, and people are inclined to do without sweets unless they can secure their fa- vorite kinds. The candy importers of New York find it necessary to purchase candy from the most remote regions of the world in order to satisfy the demands of immigrants who come from those re- gions. The Chinese appear to have first estab- lished the art of candy making. Most interesting of their candy products are the candy oranges and the candy eggs, the former the peel of an orange filled with native candy, and the latter the shell of an egg filled in the same way. ‘These have been manipulated in such a way that the purchaser cannot find the opening through which the original contents were ejected and the sweets inserted. To reach the contents of the orange, it is necessary to peel it, and one has to break the egg to get the candy out. A noted physician has declared that sweetness is to the taste what beauty is to the eye and music to the ear. He says that more than one-half of all the foods in the world have a sweet or sweetish taste, while only one-third possess a salty taste and one-tenth a bitter or sour taste. He also points out that man is not the only creature with a sweet tooth. One can win the affection of a horse quicker by feeding him sugar than in any other way, while the bear and the fox, in their ravages on the wild honey of the forest and field, probably experience a satisfac- tion resembling that of a hungry child who surreptitiously gets sweets from mother’s cupboard. Sugar is manufactured from raisins in practically all of the countries of south- ern Europe and western Asia. There are two forms of raisin sugar imported into New York, one principally from Asia Minor and the other mainly from Spain. The Turks add to the delicacy of grape sugar by the use of small quantities of rosewater. CIVILIZATIONS COFFEE CUP The people of the world annually con- sume more than two and one-half billion pounds of coffee—enough to load a train of cars reaching from Philadelphia to Sa1OYs INO 0} 9WOD IACY YIYM WOPSUIY aqeJeS9A oy} JO SjuvistuUT s[qe}dad9e 9Y} JO UO SI puUe UO!VoI}saWOp yuadeI FO juRd & st Asap NVOIHOIN NI WUVA AYATHO V uosulqoy *q “J, Aq yderZ0j,04g 7O Photograph by N. H. Darton PICKING ORANGES IN CALIFORNIA Because of the great freeze of two decades ago and the competition of the spirited Western growers, Florida has been forced to yield first place in the orange industry to California Pittsburgh. Three-fourths of this is grown in Brazil, a country that has be- come rich from its coffee industry alone. Europe and North America bear approxi- mately the same relation to the consump- tion of coffee that Brazil does to its pro- duction, these two continents using nearly four-fifths of all the coffee the world produces. Holland is the greatest Cotes: drinking nation on the globe. It uses 15% pounds per capita annually, while we use 9% pounds, Germany sf pounds, Austria- Hungary 27/; pounds, and the United Kingdom 2%, of a pound. On the other hand, we use less than one pound of tea per capita, where the United Kingdom uses nearly seven pounds. Canada is about two-thirds English and one-third 71 American in its use of coffee and tea; it shows a decided preference for the tea, but drinks less of it than the mother country, making up the difference with coffee. .The Germans and the Austro- Hungarians use only a negligible quantity of tea. The coffee plant is a shrub which, under cultivation, grows from 4 to 6 feet high. In its wild state it grows three or four times as high as in-its cultivated state. The dwarfing of the plant in- creases the crop and facilitates picking. The leaves are of a fresh green color; the flowers are white and have an odor strongly resembling jasmine. The green coffee berry of commerce is nothing more nor less than the seeds of the coffee “cherry.” These “cherries” Photograph by Curtis & Miller A BRANCH OF JONATHANS: YAKIMA VALLEY, WASHINGION From the days when Andrew Stevenson, American minister to the court of St. James, presented a lot of Albemarle pippins to the Queen of England, America has always produced apples fit for any queen. Our apple crop is worth several times as much as the banana crop of both the Americas. 72 ee re. ees Photograph by Curtis & Miller TLOKAY ‘GRAPES? PACIFIC COAST FRUIT BELT “California’s supremacy as a grower of the newer crops is shown all along the line. Out of the nation’s 6,793,000 pounds of almonds, that State grows 6,692,000 pounds; out of 4,150,000 bushels of apricots, it shows a production of 4,066,000 bushels; out of 35,000,000 pounds of figs for the entire country, 23,000,000 belong to her credit; out of the country’s total of 2,571,000,000 pounds of grapes, California is credited with 1,970,000,000 pounds” (see text, page 79). turn crimson on ripening. ‘They are then picked, the pulp is taken off by machin- ery, and the two husks which lie between the pulp and the seeds themselves are re- moved. The coffee has to be thoroughly dried before the husks can be taken off, and on many plantations there are whole acres of concrete floors for this drying process. When run through the machinery for the removal of the husks, these latter are blown away like chaff, and the coffee grains are run over sieves so arranged as to grade them and bag them according to size, ready to be shipped to the world’s markets. PRODUCTION OF TEA The growing of tea is largely an Asi- atic industry. The tea plant is a hardy 73 evergreen shrub, growing from feet high in its wild state, but under cultivation. It prefers a subtrop- ical climate where the rainfall approxi- mates 50 inches a year. After the leaves are picked the tea reaches its commercial state by two routes—one producing the black variety of the tea and the other the green. The leaves are first dried in the sun in the case of black tea, and in pans over hte ib MS CGS Our Cacsan wee, Jha loon processes the leaves are next rolled until soft. Black tea is next fermented, then fired, and finally sorted. Green tea is withered again following the rolling pro- cess, sorted into bags, and then slowly roasted. In China most of the tea gardens are 12 to 15 dwarfed 74 small, each farmer producing enough for the consumption of his own family, and a little surplus which he sends to the market. The Department of Agriculture has interested itself in the production of tea in this country, and has issued a bulle- tin which reveals the fact that in South Carolina and elsewhere on the southern Atlantic seaboard America has proved a successful grower of this plant. THE BANANA INDUSTRY It is not so many years ago that the banana was a tropical crop, grown only for home consumption by residents of the river valleys of the tropical countries. It was sold mainly by street venders in the villages and towns, and only in ex- ceptional cases did any reach American and European markets ; but today we are importing more than 40,000,000 bunches of bananas into the United States every year, and the value of these importations ranges around $14,000,000. The first bananas ever imported came in 1860, and in many parts of the country it was twenty years later before they came to stay. It has been only in recent years that the banana reached Europe. Eng- land now buys about 7,000,000 bunches a year (see page &Q). A visit to a banana plantation is an in- teresting experience. The banana tree wants a rich soil; but, given that, no other tree known can grow faster. In prepar- ing a banana plantation, the jungle is first cut down, and sprouts are planted in rows about six feet apart. By the time the tree is ready to bear, every bit of the jungle debris has disappeared, except that here and there an occasional hardwood tree still lies prone upon the ground. One can scarcely believe his eyes when he sees how quickly the processes of decay so nearly obliterate the last vestige of the felled tropical jungle. Each tree grows one bunch of bananas. When they have reached maturity, but are still green, the tree is cut about half Way up its trunk, and the upper part falls gently into the hands of the banana gath- erers. The bunches of green bananas are put on hand-cars and hauled to central places, where the banana trains come along and pick them up. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SINGING AS THEY WORK I have seen 35,000 bunches of bananas loaded into the hold of a ship in a single night, the West Indian negroes singing after the fashion of the hand-drill gangs on railroad and other construction work in the United States. The people who handle bananas on the big plantations of Central America and the West Indies so lose their taste for this fruit that they seldom keep them on their tables at all. Once I was on one of the biggest plan- tations in the world, in Guatemala, and, although there must have been several hundred thousand bunches on the trees that were in sight, there was not one ripe banana around the entire settlement of the plantation headquarters. The banana and its cousin, the plan- tain, are found in most tropical countries. To the native of Central Africa they yield not only a part of his food and some of his drink, but he gets from them his string, his soap, and his clothing. He cooks the green fruit of the plan- tain as a vegetable, and serves the ripe fruit as a dessert. With the banana he makes his flour and sometimes his coffee. He uses the leaves to thatch his house, and also makes them serve him for paper, table-cloths, and napkins. He often uses the stems for fences, the pith as a sponge, and the fiber as a string. THE PINEAPPLE Another native of America that has won favor in every part of the world where it is known is the pineapple. Jack Frost is its deadly enemy; therefore it grows only in tropical and subtropical communities; but the refrigerator ship has enabled it to wander to every point of the compass where men and women who love good things to eat are to be found. Hawaii leads the world in the produc- tion of pineapples. It has brought to its fields every variety of this luscious fruit that might add, by cross-breeding, to the size and flavor of its product, so that to- day canned Hawaiian pineapple and raw Hawaiian sugar serve largely to keep the American flag on the high seas in Pacific waters (see page 88). jer a S| oo Photograph by T. P. Robinson A BUNCH OF GRAPEFRUIT Some one has pronounced a grapefruit a lemon that has had a chance. However that may be, Florida finds that they have given her a chance to add $2,000,000 a year to her income. 75 GATHERING DATES IN ARIZONA The date was one of the earliest arrivals of all of our plant immigrants, having been brought to America by the Mission Fathers and given a foothold in Arizona and California. While these two States produce a considerable crop of this luscious fruit, still we import the major portion of our supply. Photograph and copyright by Underwood & Underwood STRAWBERRIES RIPEN EVERY DAY OF THE YEAR IN SOME PARTS OF CALIFORNIA AND MEXICO Irrigation, peace, and good farmers would make Mexico a granary of plenty. A touch of water to its thirsty highland soil transforms desert into garden. 77 FORBIDDEN FRUIT: we 2 seid Photograph by A. W. Cutler ENGLAND Adam and Eve and the apple. When Adam got the apple back, there was not much left but the core. Some plantations are found in Florida, but the frosts frequently nip them there, so they are often grown under sheds to guard them from the cold. The pine- apple contains vegetable pepsin, and there are many cases of derangements of the stomach in which it is a valuable aid to the physician. The orange, the lemon, and the grape- fruit are grown where the pineapple thrives, and sugar-cane grows there, too. Traveling through our busy little island, Porto Rico, orange and lemon groves alternate with sugar plantations and pine- apple fields. When one comes to the up- land region, the coffee “finca” takes the place of the pineapple field, for coffee is the most fastidious of all plants; it will not thrive in the lowlands, and it refuses to grow well at points having too much elevation. THE OLIVE’S POSITION If one should draw a ring around the Mediterranean Sea back a hundred miles or so from the shore, and another around southern California, he would circum- scribe the two great olive-producing re- gions of the earth. Although the olive is said to have come originally from Asia Minor, Italy now grows more of them than any other country, while Algiers, mH HOW THE WORLD IS FED 19 Tunis, France, Spain, Greece, and Asia Minor still give important contributions to the world’s crop. The olive tree has been imported to America, and has thrived well in our southern Pacific regions. There are trees in California which were planted before we signed our Declaration of Independ- ence, and they are still bearing well. Cali- fornia’s contribution to the world’s olive crop is about 56,000,000 pounds a year. In southern Europe there is a saying that the man who plants olive trees lays up riches for his grandchildren, and many of the people claim that olive trees often live a thousand years. The trees are planted from cuttings, sprouts, or the gnarled wooden bulbs at the base of the trunk. They are set about 4o feet apart and begin to bear at two or three years of age, although it requires seven years for them to become commer- cially profitable. They do not reach their maximum bearing qualities until about thirty years old. A ten-year-old tree may have six or seven gallons of olives on it, while one thirty years old may produce as many as fifty gallons. In southern Europe and in other lands around the Mediterranean Sea, olive oil to a large extent takes the place of butter. It is used not only in salads, but upon bread and for cooking vegetables. In some localities ripe olives and green oil take the place of both bread and meat. Many a Spaniard, when upon a long jour- ney, ties a wicker basket of olives to his saddlehorn and eats his meals as he travels. CALIFORNIA'S PREEMINENCE The systematic growing of nuts is a comparatively new industry in the United States, yet it is one that promises to de- velop into an important source of food in the future. At the last census there were five million nut trees in bearing in the United States and more than three million more approaching a bearing age. They produced a total of 62,000,000 pounds of nuts, having a value of nearly five million dollars—approximately a dol- lair @) tree, English walnuts took the lead in weight produced, giving nearly one-third of the total weight and one-half of the total value. The pecan led in the number of trees, with nearly one-third of the total in bearing and more than one-half of the total too young to bear; but they con- tributed only one-sixth of the total pro- duction in weight and one-fifth in value. California’s supremacy as a grower of the newer crops is shown all along the line. Out of 6,793,000 pounds of al- monds grown in the entire country, that State grows 6,692,000 pounds; out of 4,150,000 bushels of apricots, it shows a production of 4,066,000 bushels; out of 35,000,000 pounds of figs for the entire country, 23,000,000 belong to her credit ; out of the country’s total of 2,571,000,000 pounds of grapes, California is credited with 1,979,000,000 pounds. Practically all of the country’s lemons come to us from that State, as does nearly half of the total nut production; nearly all of the country’s 16,405,000- pound olive crop; more than two-thirds of the total crop of oranges, amounting to 19,405,000 boxes; a fourth of the peaches and nectarines, and 9,317,000 bushels of plums and prunes out of the country’s total yield of 15,480,000 bushels. SUNFLOWER-SEED OIL In Russia the people have found the seeds of sunflowers a_ substitute for olives in the making of oil. The native Russian eats sunflower seeds as we eat peanuts, keeping a handful or so in his pocket and nibbling away at them from time to time. Each sunflower has from eight hundred to one thousand seeds and about forty million pounds of them are raised every year. An acre of sunflowers yields about sixty bushels of seeds, and these, when pressed, produce about fifty gallons of oil. The Russians use sunflower-seed oil almost exactly as we use cotton-seed oil only they make a greater use of it as a substitute for olive oil than we do. Much of the oil is used for lighting and making candles and soaps. The date is largely an around-the- Mediterranean crop. It is grown by irri- gation in the oases of the Sahara Desert, in the valley of the Nile, in the fertile mM CENE IN A The American hen could finance the digging of a Panama Canal every year. Photosraah and copyright by Keystone View Co. MODERN HENNERY She presents the country with twenty billion eggs and nearly half a billion young chickens annually. spots of the desert of Arabia, and espe- cially along the Shat-el-arab River, at the head of the Persian Gulf. This river is formed by the union of the Tigris and Euphrates, and it flows from their junc- tion for a distance. of 70 miles to the Gulf of Persia through some of the rich- est soil and one of the hottest climates in the world. Here the date palm thrives as nowhere else, and practically the whole land is given up to its cultivation. The date has been in America for generations, having been carried to our southwestern country by the Mission Fathers along with the olive. When grown systemat- ically, it has rewarded those who have cultivated it with fair returns (see page FAO) SPICES AND FLAVORS The orchid family not only yields some of the most beautiful flowers of which we know, but it also produces one of the most used of all the flavoring agents that figure in the art of cooking. V anilla is made from the fruit of a ican orchid, a native of tropical America, but now grown in Java, Ceylon, and other parts Photograph and copyright by Underwood & Underwood THE HOME OF THE COLD-STORAGE EGG O& the~@Orient. )Dhe Asiatics use it. to flavor their chocolate. The fruit is a pod. This pod is dried and cured with great care in order to ob- tain the desired flavor. ‘The character- istic odor is developed during the process of fermentation, which takes place while the pods are drying. The aroma and flavor are due to the vanillin that grad- ually crystallizes from the pod. The well-cured pods, either whole or pow- dered, may be found on the market as the vanilla bean or powder ; but the more common form is the fluid extract, which is the active principle of the bean drawn out by the use of alcohol. The American people are the largest users of pepper in the world. In 1913 we bought 27,000,000 pounds of this commodity. It said that pepper was worth its weight in gold during the days of the Roman Empire, and that the first vessel which sailed around the Cape of Good Hope went to procure this favorite spice. The black variety is prepared 81 from the dried unripe berry of a vine which was grown first in southern India, the East Indies, Siam, and China, and in the later ages in the West Indies. For a long time the Dutch nation controlled the trade and tried to confine pepper cul- tivation to Dutch possessions. White pepper is generally supposed to be produced from a different spice, but it is, in reality, the. same fruit prepared by a different method. It is generally considered better, but, as a matter of fact, it has not as good a flavor as the black variety and is more expensive, the only advantage being in the matter of appear- anee: CINNAMON AND CLOVE GROWING Cinnamon is the inner bark of young shoots of a certain species of cinnamon tree. The shoots are cut carefully from the tree, and the bark is split longitudi- nally and removed. It is then piled in heaps and allowed to ferment. The bark shrinks on drying, and is then put into bundles ready for exportation. peywsied pue uojrisi soy} JO Shep oy} UL PUIYEq ,posse],, Woy} JO SUOS UOYM OUI} OY} PUlU OF YP SULBULIG ‘9SO08 _5P],, IY} pol[eo edoimey UI [JS st ey] peyeoysawop useq Ajaqe]T OS sey }ey} pPliq & si yy “Bolsoury ul uey} odoimy Ul paiver APUoNbosy oO YONU st 9s008 oy, AUVONNH :VZSI dH. dO SHNV& AHL NO GaaHsoo tAjopr4y Aq ydeisojoyg 82 Photograph by A. W. Cutler PEASANT WOMEN READY TO START TO MARKET: MEZOKOVESD, HUNGARY Cloves are the unopened flower buds of a beautiful evergreen tree which grows mainly in the Spice Islands. After pick- ing, the buds are thrown on grass mats on the ground and allowed to dry in the sun, care being taken to shelter them from the dew at night. In about one week they are ready to be packed for ex- portation. They contain about 16 per cent of a volatile oil which is used largely in the manufacture of perfumery, soaps, and candles. The nutmeg is the dried kernel of the 83 seed of the fruit of a tropical tree some- what resembling the orange tree. It is a native of the Malay Archipelago, but is also grown largely in Asia, Africa, South America, and the West Indies. The fruit is gathered when fully ripe, and, as in the case of coffee, the pulp is discarded. ‘The seeds are then dried in the sun or by artificial means. Later the outer coating is broken and the nutmeg or kernel taken out. The outer coating is also used commercially, being exported under the name of mace. =a *yora OL1¢ YIIOM d19M SAOYANY SIY YY} OLOI UL 1OJeIOUINUD SNsudd dy} PO} AWAIT ULIIOUY I], “PUOSES SuUIyUeI TInOssIp] YIM ‘9}e}G ADYIN} JSOWIIOF oY} ST SVXOT, “SOLIG POPUL) BJOYAM oY} UL OAT[L UOT] ANOF uLYy} sso] spuy Sulids JO Ssuiusdo ay} jy} yOeF ay} Aq UMOYS SI A1}UNOD 9Y} FO SYIOH AaxHAN} OY} UO SOYPUL SRLUYSLIY PUL SUTALSSYULYT, JY} Iyeip Aavoy oy, SAHMUOL SVSNVM AO AAOUC V 84 Photograph from Henry Ruschin BUSY BIDDY AND HER BROOD Sago is made from the pith of the sago palm. This pith is ground into a meal, and the extracted flour, when dried and roasted, becomes the pearl sago of com- merce. In many tropical countries the bamboo takes the place of asparagus. The tender shoots of the bamboo are boiled, stewed, or pickled in vinegar. OTHER TROPICAI, PRODUCTS Tapioca is prepared from the starch of the cassava, a plant grown largely in Brazil and other tropical countries. The starch is extracted, put into shallow pans, and subjected to a low heat. As the moisture is driven off, the heat is grad- ually raised until the mass forms into irregularly shaped kernels. The cassava plant is closely akin to our own milk- weed. Cocoa is grown on trees which reach an average height of from 20 to 30 feet. The fruit is a pod possessing a thick, tough rind inclosed in a mass of tissue. Embedded in this tissue are some forty or more cocoa beans covered with thin 85 shells. The pods are picked when fully ripe and the seeds extracted and sent to market. SOME OF THE FARTH’S FREAK FOODS There is no accounting for the freaks of human appetites. The Roosevelt story of how he got the best work out of the men with sharp-filed teeth by promising them the choicest bits of raw hippopota- mus and rhinoceros steak for speed in skinning, will be recalled by many who read the article in the magazines at the time of his African expedition. Capt. Robert H. Bartlett, commander of the Karluk, which carried Stefansson to Arc- tic waters, says that on his return from Herald Island to northern Siberia, he found raw Polar bear meat tasting better than any piece de resistance he had ever eaten in the home country. The Frenchman likes his snails and wonders how any one who accepts oysters can refuse them. In Canton, China, rats sell for fifty cents a dozen, and a dog steak brings more per pound than a leg do19 a4} JO SuyssAiey pue wOyeATYNd oy} Ur AJOUTYOLW [eInyNoIIse Aavoy JO puly AJaAa JO asn dy} spuad YIYM "YIOS Joao] “YoII wv spuvulop jooq eBns oy L WUVdA LHHd-YVONS V NO NOLLOVUL WVALS sIn}NoUIsYy JO Juowy1edaq ‘Ss “Aq wos; ydesB0j,0Yg Photograph by A. Nielen A HAWAIIAN SUGAR PLANTATION Hawaiian sugar was largely responsible for the building of the Tehuantepec Railroad across Mexico, and it practically keeps the American flag on the Pacific today. | The Hawaiian sugar traffic through the Panama Canal takes high rank among the commodities handled. ‘(PZ ased 90s) yn4y sno~wyap SIy} FO Jasn ATIAD JsOUe FO aUIOY oY} OJU APM s}t puNo} ‘ooUaT[I9xa s}t JO asneoaq ‘sey sjddeourd pauuvs uvNeEMELTT yey} SI INse4 eyy, “dors 19y JO IOAVY pue 9zIS 9Y} JO JUAWIAOIdUIT JY} IO} Parq-sso1d aq pynoo yoYyM sajddeauid FO sotja1ieA 10} ppIOM [eordo1} ay} payoesuvs sey 1eMeyT IIVMVH “QHVO : (THI WIddVANId V - Bie io) ion) “(PZ pue Z sased vas) pud usIo1oy & SuIAeY ssouIsnq 19y}0 Aue uvYy} Sey urostomy oy} surdy sdiys ‘YIAOM OOO‘COO'PIg J1oduL AT[eNUUL IAA ‘P[JOM oY} UL atv sad saaonpoid poo} jso}VI18 ay JO ouO st vuLULY o"U"L DIOL SISVSUD OpPVI? vULULG YT, PPHA ON “ET wor ydeasojoyg VOIN VLSOO >SVNVNV@ ONIAGVOT &9 CITY TERMINAL OF of mutton. The Chinese mandarin pays thirty dollars a pound for the birds’ nests from which his Soup, 1s) concocted: » yin parts of the West Indies the palm worm is stewed in fat, while certain African tribes are as fond of caterpillars as an American is of reed birds on toast. The Turk is as disgusted with the oysters we eat as we are with the fish the Corsican relishes. Eating earth, or geophagy, is a common thing in many parts of the world. In some parts of Europe a butter is made of fine clay, and in other regions various kinds of earths are sold in the open mar- ket. The Persians use some varieties of soil in making their sw eetmeats, w hile in Mexico the eggs of certain species of flies are used by the Indians in making a food paste which is regarded as a great deli- cacy (see page 41). FOOD IMPORTS AND EXPORTS It is interesting, in view of war con- ditions in Europe, to study the figures of international trade as applied to the prin- cipal foodstuffs moving across the bound- aries of the various nations. Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture WHERE MILLIONS OF BUSHELS OF AMERICAN CEREALS COME FOR EXPORT: JERSEY A GRAIN-CARRYING RAILROAD According to the Department of Agri- culture statistics, Austria-Hungary im- ported 29,000,000 bushels of corn in 1912, as compared with 8,000,000 bushels in 1911 and 3,000,000 bushels in 1910. Ger- many’s importations of corn during the same years were as follows: 1912, 45,- 000,000 bushels; I911, 29,000,000 bush- els, and 1910, 23,000,000 bushels. In 1912 Germany and Austria-Hungary had a total importation of 74,000,000 bushels. During the same year Bulgaria and Rou- mania had a_ surplus of 75,000,000 bushels. In 1912 Germany imported 85,000,000 bushels of wheat and flour, being the only one of the Central Powers to import such commodities. She exported 20,000,- ooo bushels of the same products. Bul- garia had a surplus of 14,500,000 bushels and Austria-Hungary a surplus of 1,000,- 000 bushels. Their neighbor, Roumania, had a surplus of 57,000,000 bushels that year. If the Central Powers get Rou- mania’s wheat crop, they still have a wheat shortage of more than 12,000,000 bushels. If they do not get it, their shortage is 69,000,000 bushels. CG: = Photograph and copyright by Keystone View Co. MOUTH OF ERIE CANAL: BUFFALO “Truly the man who dines well ought to be a deep student of geography, for all races, all nationalities, all types of people, all points of the compass, all latitudes—continent, island, river, and sea—all must come to him as he looks over the bill of fare and tries to find those things that delight his palate” (see text, page 107). According to the Statesman’s Year Book, Germany in 1912 had a surplus of rye, the net exports of that crop being valued at $22,000,000.’ On-the other hand, she imported barley to the value of $100,000,000, corn to the value of $26,- 000,000, butter worth $40,000,000, and $28,000,000 worth of lard. WORLD STARVATION AVERTED The economists of a hundred years ago did not foresee the revolutionizing discoveries that were to come in the cen- tury ahead of them. They had no hint that it would go down in history as one of the most momentous of all the ages, from the standpoint of the world’s food OI supply ; for three discoveries in the field of food production, any one of which well might stand for a whole millennium of progress, were made by a single gen- eration of men. When Cyrus McCormick gave to the world the first reaper, he ushered in the age of agricultural machinery, enabling one man to do the work that required five before, and making him able to care for any crop the earth might give him. The world’s production will never get too large for the machine-aided farmer to handle. It was only a little while later that the great chemist Leibig worked out the prin- ciples of plant nutrition and introduced a Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture THE “BADENIA” TAKING ON A CARGO OF WHEAT FROM A BALTIMORE ELEVATOR The long pipes extending from the elevator to the ship carry the wheat by gravity from its bins to the hold of the ship. driven endless belts of buckets. 92,000,000 bushels of wheat, 12,000,000 bushels breadstuffs in proportion. the era of commercial fertilizer. Before his discoveries were made, man had only an empiric control over the productivity of his land. He could only sow the seed and then trust to Providence for his har- vest. And he knew that every harvest saw his land less productive, for each crop drew its draft upon the bank of the soil and cut down the account of fertility just that much. It was a case of always draw- ing out and never putting in, and even nature’s deposits must ultimately be ex- hausted under such a procedure. The result was that it began to appear that the agricultural machine would outlive its day, since soil exhaustion appeared in- evitable and world hunger an unavertible calamity. In unloading, the grain is carried out of the ship by steam- In 1913 the United States supplied the outside world with of flour, 17,000,000 bushels of barley, and other 92 EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL NEEDLESS But when Liebig discovered that nitro- gen, phosphorus, and potash are the only three indispensible articles in the menu of the plant, and that if it is given these it can thrive year after year and generation after generation on the same soil without impoverishing it, he laid the foundation of the new science of soil fertility—a science that permits man, through the use of proper fertilizers, to go on and on in developing and improving his ground. Who that is a student of farming has not seen a run-down farm on one side of a line fence and a highly productive one on the other. I have known land to have its per-acre production of wheat in- creased threefold and its production of AN Photograph and copyright by Keystone View Co. A NATIVE BAKER AT WORK: ALEXANDRIA, EGYPT The Egyptian baker’s aim is to get the biggest possible loaf out of the smallest possible amount of flour, with the result that the bread of the Nile Valley is largely a hole wrapped in a crust. Heat puffs it up into a balloon of bread. corn fourfold in less than five years, when it passed out of the hands of Peter Tumbledown and into the hands of his prosperous neighbor on the other side of the old line fence. And for a quarter of a century that land has been growing bet- ter with every crop rotation. It was the application of Liebig’s discoveries that accomplished this result. What, then, becomes of the argument of that school of thought which says that soil exhaustion is the lesson of all agri- culture and all history? 93 The material is rolled out like pie crust and the edges are joined all around. The age of soil fertilization has con- firmed to mankind the benefits of the age of agricultural machinery, and will enable the race to transmit them to his children and children’s children for generations to come. SAVING OUR MEAT SUPPLY If McCormick taught the world how to sow and reap, so that unborn millions of people might have plenty, and if Lie- big showed mankind how to insure them- selves against the momentous evil of run- ee ns Photograph and copyright by Keystone View Co. MAKING THE “FLAT BREAD” OF THE NORWEGIAN PEASANT This Norwegian woman, now past her threescore years, is baking the well-known flat bread under a little shelter of dried branches. dish in front and to the left of the old lady and is made of coarse barley meal and water. After being rolled thin, it is removed to the round, flat baking-stone in the foreground, under which a fire of faggots is kept burning. down farms, Pasteur signalized that same generation with the lesson of how to save our domestic animals from the ravages of infectious diseases, and through that magnificent discovery gave man a weapon against human as well as animal infec- tions. In the middle period of the nineteenth century an epidemic of anthrax fever broke out in Europe and ravaged the cat- tle regions of the Old World. Not only 94 The dough for this bread is in the shallow It is then stored in a dry place for the winter, when it forms one of the chief foods of the peasants. was it one of the most dreaded of dis- eases because of its great fatality rate, but it is also a most loathsome disease, producing sores and abscesses in its vic- tims, and it attacks animals and men alike. By the middle of the century sheep and cattle raising in some parts of Europe was practically abandoned; in many places the dairying industry was wiped out, and it seemed that nothing could Photograph and copyright by Keystone View Co. ANOTHER VIEW OF THE NORWEGIAN FLAT-BREAD BAKERY The pile of sheets of bread to the left of the old woman shows that in spite of her old age she is a faithful worker stop the constantly extending sweep of the malady. At that time the world did not know that infectious diseases were caused by germs. A little later the science of bac- teriology began to develop, and the great French savant Pasteur finally succeeded in demonstrating that anthrax fever is caused by a definite germ. After deter- mining the cause of the disease, he un- dertook to work out the problem of com- batting it. He found that the germ of anthrax fever, when cultivated in chicken broth 95 for several generations, loses its ability to produce the disease. Not only this— he proved that when this bacillus loses its ability to produce disease, it gains a new quality, that of rendering animals immune from the attacks of uncultivated bacilli. With these facts in hand he announced that he could render sheep and cattle im- mune against anthrax by inoculation. ONE OF THE MOST DRAMATIC SPECTACLES OF HISTORY When he made this announcement he was greeted by a storm of derision on Photograph by A. H. Blackiston MAKING TORTILLAS: MEXICO The tortilla is a sort of flapjack rolled out on a primitive “dough board” of stone, with a rolling-pin which Nature manufactured by centuries of water-attrition. The oil-can in the foreground is the water bucket of the peons of Mexico. A GERMAN the part of the uninformed and by a wave of skepticism at the hands of the scien- tific world. The president of an agricul- tural society offered to furnish him a drove of 50 sheep, half of which were first to be inoculated with the cultivated virus, and later the whole flock was to be inoculated with the uncultivated variety. They were then to be kept together in one pen under precisely the same condi- tions. If the vaccinated sheep remained healthy and the unvaccinated ones died of anthrax, it was to be accepted that Pasteur had proved his case. The chatlenge was accepted, two goats being substituted for two of the sheep, and ten cattle being added. On May 5, 1881, the preventive inoculation of half of the sheep was undertaken, and was repeated on May 17. On May 31 all sixty of the animals were inoculated with un- cultivated germs. Two days later a vast crowd, com- posed of veterinary surgeons, newspaper correspondents, farmers, and _ scientific men, gathered to witness the closing scene of this remarkable test. And they saw one of the most dramatic spectacles 97 Photograph by Henry Ruschin ARMY FIELD BAKERY in the history of peaceful science. Every animal that had not been vaccinated with the anthrax-preventing virus was either dead, dying, or in the last stages of the disease, while not a single one of those which had been vaccinated had con- tracted the malady. In the course of a few hours every infected animal in the compound was dead, while every one that had been vaccinated was in perfect health.. This discovery soon released Europe from the thraldom of the epidemic of anthrax, and it laid the foundation for preventive medicine as applied to domes- tic animals so firmly as to insure man- kind against the conquest of his animal food supply by the microscopic creature that cause such epidemics as anthrax cholera, and the foot-and-mouth disease. TEACHING PROPLE HOW TO FARM The great need of the world in the future is not so much more acreage to cultivate as a better handling of the acre- age already under cultivation. While it is estimated that the total area now actu- ally used in growing crops amounts to d19Y} INOY Ssuros} -1e9 OSI sosn 4] Auedwog Aqsorg-urnqyse AA oy} wor ydess0}0 *sassao0i1d 991T}-AJUIMy 91 no 0} JeoyM Surmosur wWo1y “peosq Ajrep IY} YIM ajdoad o00‘000'6 ysiuiny 0} Ysnous Inoy yO sun} pure Ajrep }eoyM FO sproy “sep @ INOP jo sjoisreq ooo‘oh Jo Ayoedes e sey jury g[sUIs YW “BOW JO JLI4sIp Suronpoid-inoy 9} JO Jo}W9I Ol} St STUY, WAAIM IddISSISSIN AHL WOW NYXS SV LOMLSId INITUN STIOdVUNNIW FHL Ud RE sev YOM pure ‘soid ‘sorg Aq ‘ ore sponpo.ad STOICA ‘pe TO wo Ty ydvas AOL dIQ JO 0V0Ud INQ ‘sje}0Y YJIOM 000000 ‘IVIdVO ‘ S NOLLVN HHL Jou Iwok B OOS$ ULY} Sso] JO SSouIsh| B Op YoIYM osoy} apnjour you Op saan3y assoyy ‘avak v . “ Vy oorg sutonpoid pue sjdoad 000 Be iBBEE inate ‘ “JOYJIGO} SalIoUURS 9[GeJSIA puv SolIaUIvaID IMO JO asoyy O01 Surkojdusa ‘sayeygG payuE, oy} Ur satsayeq OoO'PZ aie 9 NI AVAMVA NYAGOW V JO SMOVA AVANA WHT, << e er MC se yonur Soyeo JOY 99 Photograph by A. H. Blackiston SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE HOUSTON PRESENTING WALTER LEE DUNSON A DIPLOMA AS THE CHAMPION BOY CORN only about 15 per cent of the total landed area of the world, it has been demon- strated that with scientific agriculture this area itself might suffice to feed a pop- ulation vastly greater than that now living. With all of her teeming millions, only 18 per cent of Asia’s land, 12 per cent of that of the Americas and Africa, 27 per cent of that of Europe, and 5 per cent of that of Australia have ever felt the touch of the plow. Without encroaching at all upon the world’s forests, but using only the steppes, pampas, savannas, and prairie lands, there might be added to the earth's farming lands an area twice as great as that now under active agricultural op- erations. The United States has been working along lines looking more to the extension of scientific methods to the present culti- vated acreage, than to the extension of GROWER OF THE UNITED STATES farm operations to new acreage. The bulk of the $30,000,000 it now spends an- nually, through its Department of Agri- culture, is for the improvement of farm- ing methods. In latter years a program for the taking of the gospel of good farm- ing to the farmer himself, and demon- strating it in practice, instead of writing it down upon paper, has been productive of very wonderful results. In the club work of the last fiscal year hundreds of county agents of the Depart- ment of Agriculture, working in thirty- three States, went out upon the farm and showed the farmers themselves how to increase their yields. The thousands of farmers who accepted the offer to farm under the direction of the Department of Agriculture increased their yield of corn nine bushels per acre, their wheat seven bushels per acre, and their oats ten bush- els per acre. {00 as Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture JERRY MOORE, OF FLORENCE COUNTY, SOUTH CAROLINA Jerry is a twentieth century farmer. South Catolina soil returned him 22834 bushels of corn to the acre. TEACHING THE YOUNG IDEA HOW TO “SHOOT” GOOD CROPS But probably more significant even than the work among the farmers them- selves, has been the work among the boys and girls. Sixty thousand boys and fifty thousand girls were enrolled in club work in the Southern States last year. Many of the boys were organized into clubs to raise pigs and poultry, others into clubs for demonstrating the advan- tage of four-crop rotation in southern’ farming, and still others into clubs for the growing of winter legumes for soil improvement. Girls were taught to make house gardens and to preserve for home use the garden products as well as the waste fruits and vegetables of the entire farm. In the north and northwestern States 150,000 boys and girls were enrolled, the leading club projects being the growing of corn and potatoes and garden and canning work. The success that has followed these activities has been wonderful, demon- 10] strating to the farmers that their children can accomplish marvels of which they never dreamed. Ten girls in Mississippi produced 27,850 pounds of tomatoes on ten one-tenth-of-an-acre plots. They were working as a team for a prize given by Kentucky business men. The value of their tomatoes was $1,179, and the profits on their joint plots—together only one acre 1n extent—amounted to $868. Ten boys in Alabama averaged 171 bushels of corn to the acre. The people in their several communities no longer have a contempt for the farming experts of the Department of Agriculture. Here- tofore they have always urged that with the money of Uncle Sam to spend it was but natural that large yields could be gotten, but that the average farmer could not afford to duplicate these methods. The boys and girls who have taken part in these contests have given such an ef- fective answer to these contentions that even the inertia of the indifferent farmer has been overcome. Many other kinds of club work is being done. CLUB MEMBERS SELECTING THEIR SEED IN THE Phorcereeh from U. $. Department of Agriculture FIELD BEFORE FROST The farmer who sees that every grain he puts into the ground is one able to produce a hardy sprout lays the foundation for a big crop In Oregon a packing-house distributed a carload of brood sows among the chil- dren of the Hood River region of ee State and of Washington. They were sold on credit to these boy s and girls, w ie agreed to raise them according to the Department of Agriculture specifications. The buyers were charged 6 per cent interest on the purchase price, to be paid out of the profits from the pigs raised. The school officials of the Hood River region have charge of the experiments, and those boys and girls doing the best work and making the best re ports are to be awarded schola arships to the State University, and other prizes. THE STORY OF A LOAN A farmer in Macon, Georgia, who car- ries a large bank account, went to his bank with his twelve-year-old son and endorsed the latter’s dete for ten dollars. The cashier inquired of him why he was having his boy borrow ten dollars when he himself had so much money in the bank. The farmer replied that his son was going to enter a boys’ pig club, and that he wanted him to acquire a banking experience as he went along. He said that it was worth ten dollars to him to see how his boy handled the loan. An Alabama philanthropist hit upon another idea for increasing pig-raising in his community. He bought twenty pigs and sold them to as many boys, the bar- gain being that when the boys brought him two pigs to take the place of the one thus sold, the debt should be considered discharged. The philanthropist then took these two pigs and gave them to two 102 ae er a = Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture THE GERMINATION OF SEED CORN Six grains of corn are taken from each ear and wrapped in rags, which are then mois- tened and set away for germination. After the grains have had time to sprout, the rags are opened and the seeds examined. Some ears yield no sprouting grains; others yield grains that sprout weakly; still others yield grains with a “batting average of 1,000 per cent.’ These are the ones which produce good corn crops. EXPLAINING THE RAG-BABY TEST IN Photograph by Frank H. Bothell CHILDREN BRINGING SAMPLES OF MILK TO BE TESTED FOR BUTTERFAT: BOUNTIFUL, UTAH 103 POLKTON POULTRY CLUB: ANSON COUNTY, Photograph from U. S. pene of Apne NORTH CAROLINA “Tf the rural housewife will not come to the school of domestic science, we will take that school to her.” Smith-Lever Law, the U. S. Department of Such is the latest idea in agricultural extension work. Under the new Agriculture will, besides organizing dairying, poultry, textile, and food study clubs, giving lectures, and conducting correspondence courses, send its agents directly labor-saving devices, other boys under similar terms. In this way he has planned an endless chain of pigs and an ever-increasing circle of boy club members. It seems certain that the wonderful re- sults achieved through the boys’ and girls’ clubs in the United States will eventually lead to their adoption by every progressive government. Probably no other work can be as influential in pro- moting the world-wide adoption of mod- ern methods of farming as the work among the children That habit of mind of the grown-up which makes a man ashamed to be out- done by a child, serves to stimulate the adult farmer when the children of his to 104 into the homes and show the housewives how to make all sorts of from a fireless cooker costing twenty-five cents to a roller table to carry the family meal from the kitchen stove » the dinner table (see text, page Io1). community are engaged in club work. The enthusiasm of ‘youth is thus capital- ized, and lite nearly 300,000 boys and girls who are now engaged in this work in America, will form a future army of food producers, who will not only be good farmers and farmers’ wives, but who will inspire hundreds of thousands of others to profit by their examples. ALL ROADS LEAD TO THE DINNER TABLE Could we, like the great French writer, Maupassant, turn lose our fancy as we dine, we could see a great army of men and women working that we might eat. The appetites of men now levy tribute upon all the continents and all the seas, we are Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture EARL HOPPING AND HIS GOAT If every American farmer raised as much corn to the acre as this Arkansas boy, with a one-goat team, the United States alone would grow as much corn as the whole world pro- duces, with a billion bushels to spare (see text, page 29). and where once all roads led to Rome, now they come directly to our dinner tables. Let us sit down to dinner and go over the menu and try to list those who have assisted in the preparation of our meal. At the top of the list come olives and salted nuts. The olives mayhap are from Spain, the almonds from California, and the pecans from Texas. The salt on the nuts was prepared in New York State. Also we have celery that came from Michigan. Then comes the soup. Without a cook- book at hand, this writer will not pose as an authority on the ingredients of soup, but it may be Chesapeake Bay clam chow- der, which certainly has some pepper from Africa in it and other ingredients from far and wide. Our fish is salmon from Alaska, and our prime ribs of beef came to our table through the Kansas City “‘packing- town.” Our potatoes came from Maine, 105 our boiled rice from China, our string beans from Florida, and our tomatoes from Maryland. Next comes our salad, and it con- tains—if a man may guess at the contents of salads and dressings—Mexican pep- pers, Hawaiian pineapple, Sicilian cher- ries, Pennsylvania lettuce, Iowa eggs. Spanish olive oil, Ohio vinegar, Califor- nia mustard, and Guiana red pepper. When we get down to the ice-cream, we eat Virginia cream, Cuban sugar, Ecuadorean vanilla, and Mexican choco- late. The cake that goes with it is made of butter from Illinois, flour from Min- neapolis, made from wheat grown in North Dakota; baking powder from Pennsylvania, and other ingredients. When it comes to coffee, if we are fas- tidious we will have issued a draft on both Turkish Arabia and Dutch Java, or if we are only folk of every-day taste we — Sn TE x Se Photograph from U. S. Department of Agriculture A CHAMPION UTAH GARDENER CONVERTING HER POTATOES INTO STARCH The total value of the product of boys’ and girls’ clubs and those for women in Utah for 1915 amounted to $63.843, secured: at a cost of $3,358 for the extension work. It is the ultimate purpose of the United States Department of Agriculture to spend $5,000,000 a year in teaching the farmers’ wives and daughters the art of home economics. 106 Photograph by Frank H. Bothell BOY CLUB MEMBERS LEARN HOW TO MAKE BIG PORKERS OUT OF LITTLE PIGS An Alabama philanthropist has applied the endless chain idea to pigs. He bought twenty little sows and sold them to as many boys. Each boy undertook to raise his pig and to give the philanthropist two little ones from the first litter farrowed as payment. These in turn are to be delivered to other boys on the same terms, the philanthropist assuming all risks (see text, page 102). 107 ‘vor snpoid pooy urumy Oo} Pate siyy aseapol [JIM estoy sy} JO Suissed oy, “Avpo} soonpoid yyive ajOyM 94} UPY} 9IOUI ST YOTYM ‘sfaysnq O000‘000‘0RF'g POA pyNoM JL ‘UOTNpoOAd Jo 974 juasaid ino }® UdAd ‘so0zyeJOd MOIS ©} pasn STY} 219M ‘sdoio o8e10f J9yIO pure Avy OF purF] JO Sate OOD'OODD'ZZ SAJOAIP SayeJG Payuy, 2, WA MOd-HSYOHM AGM AVIL ONIMOVWAS OD OJOY, JILIN Aq ydesrsozvoyq S ‘pRoiq oy} soyeq yo1Iq oY} JO yeoy ayy, “oovyd syr ur ynd ySnop poyequn oy} puv ‘UMerpYyPA sr osy oy JOY ATYSnoLOY} St YW JW “oy suliwor v Aq pojwoy ySIY St UXAO oY,y, “IOAVF AVJNdod soy [ALI [edyouLId sp st susAO OOP MO UL payeq pwotq “WOHNJOAII OU JO WONNOADT ‘OSIXO UL SUSlot PI[I40} dy} Ysnoyyy AYVAMVA YOOGLNO NVOIXHW V 2 109 Photograph by Frank H. Bothell RUTH BYBEES EXHIBIT AT THE STATE FAIR, UTAH This little girl made every article in the exhibit and dressed the doll for good measure. Her Battenburg lace, her hand-painted china, no less than her jellies, jams, and pickles, show how good training may make a girl independent (see text, page IOI). will content ourselves with the Brazilian product. THE WORLD OUR SERVANT And so, when we come to reckon up those who have helped produce the raw materials of which our foods are made, we find the clouted African savage and the American stock grower; the South American Indian .and the California truck farmer; the Javanese coffee picker and the Virginia dairyman; the turbaned Arabian and the New York orchardist ; the Chinese coolie and the Dakota wheat farmer ; the Mexican peon and the Ches- apeake Bay fisherman; the Porto Rican planter and the Hawaiian sugar grower ; the Spanish olive packer and the Alaskan Eskimo fisherman. Yet all these neglect the mattermon transportation. Cur food comes to us on the heads of Indians, on the backs of donkeys, drawn in carts by huge water buffaloes, aboard the “ship of the desert,” on wheelbarrows propelled by Chinese coolies. Steamships, railroad trains, auto trucks, and delivery cars have all played their part in the great work of catering to discriminating appetites. Truly the man who dines well ought to be a deep student of geography, for all races, all nationalities, all types of peo- ple, all points of the compass, all lati- tudes—continent, island, river, and sea— all must come to him as he looks over the bill of fare and tries to find those things that delight his palate. Vor XX No: 2 WASHINGTON FEBRUARY, 1916 THE NATIONAL es |GEOGRAPHIG! & = | | ||, MAGAZINE HOW OLD IS MAN? By THEODORE RoosEvELT F RECENT years scientific writ- () ers have for convenience sake distinguished as prehistory that part of man’s long history on this earth which precedes the period for which we possess written records, or at least rec- ords that may be treated as in some sort their equivalent. This prehistory of man is, of course, immensely longer than what can, by any stretch of language, be called his true his- tory. At present our historical records begin in Egypt and Mesopotamia, using the latter word to include the entire coun- try adjacent to the Tigris and Euphrates ; and the first dim indications of anything that can properly be called history do not go back seven thousand years, while it is not until some five thousand years ago that we begin to be on continuously firm historical ground. At that time Europe was still in the prehistoric stage, and its inhabitants knew practically nothing of either metals or writing, being in the neolithic or polished stone cultural stage. In America history cannot be said to have begun much before the advent of the white man, although there are extraordinary architectural re- mains of old and strange civilizations in Mexico, Central America, and Peru. -Oldi, however. 1s) a “relative (term: The earliest monuments beside the lower Nile and lower Euphrates, like the ear- liest monuments on the high plateaus or in the dense tropical forests of the new world, are purely modern—are things of yesterday—when measured by the hoary antiquity into which we grope when we attempt to retrace the prehistory of man, the history of his development from an apelike creature struggling with his fel- low-brutes, to the being with at least longings and hopes that are half divine. All our knowledge of man’s slow prog- ress during the immense stretch of time covering this development has been ob- tained during the last two generations; it is still of a sketchy and fragmentary kind, and we cannot hope that it will ever be complete; but already we know enough to indicate the rough outlines of some of the most important of the devel- opmental stages, and as regards certain of the later stages to fill in various details. THE REPTILES DISAPPEAR AND MAMMALS RULE THE EARTH In geological or paleontological par- lance, the Age of Mammals is known as the Tertiary period. At the beginning of this period the gigantic creatures with which the Age of Reptiles, the secondary period of the earth’s history, culminated, had all died out. The mammals, which for ages had ex- isted as small, warm-blooded beasts of low type, now had the field much to them- selves. ‘They developed along many dif- ferent lines, including that of the pri- mates, from which came the monkeys, the anthropoid apes, and finally the half- human predecessors of man himself. At about the time when these last appeared Photogr ae rom Osborn’s A PREHUMAN CREATURE (SEE THE APE MAN OF JAVA, YEARS AGO the Tertiary, or so-called Age of Mam- mals, came to a close with what is known as the Pliocene period. The earth then already bore substantial resemblance to what it is today, although with a warmer climate, and the mammal- ian life, although infinitely richer than at present, included creatures substantially kin to most of those now existing. Lay- men must remember that these different ages or periods merged gradually into one another, and that the names we give them are merely terms of conve- nience. The Pleistocene Age followed the Plio- cene. It is sometimes called the Quater- nary. Throughout its duration the world went through many physical changes. Continents rose and fell, became con- nected and again disconnected ; mountain chains were worn down and others thrust necessary IIi2 “Men of TY 1e Old Stone Age’”’ W HO T20 ) LIVED PROBABLY 500,000 PAGE upward; lakes filled and vanished; pe- riods of great cold were followed by periods of warmth. Because of these changes the waves of life flowed hither and thither. During its early stages this age could appropriately be called the Age of the Horse, the Lion, and the Elephant, for these three beasts in many forms abounded on every conti- nent of the globe except Australia. But man was slowly developing from the half-human to the wholly human throughout this immense period of time, and at its close the Age of Man may fairly be said to have begun. THE RECORDS SHOW THAT MAN HAS LIVED IN FRANCE FOR AT LEAST 100,000 YEARS It is in France that the most complete records of prehistoric man are found— —— E E Scale of Miles / AH BUMSTEAD 0° AN OUTLINE MAP OF EUROPE AT A PERIOD WHEN THE BRITISH ISLES AND SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA WERE A PART OF THE MAINLAND Europe was then in the period of maximum continental elevation, in which the coast-lines were widely extended, connecting Africa and Europe in a single vast peninsula and affording free migration routes for animal and human races north and south, as well as east and west. records which show a continuous human occupation of the region for at least a hundred thousand years; and French archeologists have taken the lead in deciphering these records. The coun- tries of Europe immediately surrounding France also yield invaluable records; and in consequence our knowledge of the pre- history of man is almost, but not quite, confined to his development in Europe. All the earlier divisions of this prehis- tory, stretching over an immeasurable period of time, are included in the cul- ture stage known as paleolithic, so called because during these many hundreds of centuries the successive races of men used only chipped stone tools and imple- ments. Following this immensely long Old Stone Age came in quick succession 113 the relatively short ages known as those of New Stone, or polished stone, of Bronze, and of Iron. THE MOST IMPORTANT BOOK ON THE EVO- LUTION OF MAN SINCE DARWIN'S ‘DESCENT OF MAN” The best book dealing in concise form with the hoary antiquity of man as he was up to the end of paleolithic times has just appeared and is by one of our fellow- countrymen. The author is Henry Fair- field Osborn, of the American Museum of Natural History. Dr. Osborn’s book covers in masterly manner the Old Stone Age of Europe. It therefore covers substantially all that we now know of the development of hu- From a drawing by Charles R. Knight THE IRISH ELK OF PLEISTOCENE EUROPE This magnificent deer (found fossil in the Irish peat-bogs) was not a true elk, but an enormous fallow deer (recent examples of which still exist in Europe). antlers was very great, as much as Io feet in some cases. The spread of the The animal: stood 7 feet at the shoulder, and the head and feet were small in proportion to the general bulk. The females had no antlers. before the advent of man in western Europe. manity* from the days of the ape-man of Java, through the hundreds of thou- sands of years during which the chinless pre-men dwelt.in Europe, to the time when men of ‘substantially the present type hunted the mammoth and the bison north and south of the Pyrenees, and drew and painted the great beasts on the walls of their home caverns. This is the crucial period in the evolu- tion of man from a strong and cunning brute into a being having dominion over all brutes and kinship with worlds lying outside and beyond our own. In Mr. Osborn’s book this period is for the first time covered as a whole and treated as fully as our present knowledge permits. It is the most important work on the *“Men of the Old Stone Age: Their En- vironment, Life, and Art,” by Henry Fairfield Osborn. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. This deer first appeared in western Europe during the first inter-Glacial age, evolution of our own species that has appeared since Darwin’s “Descent of Man.” Many works of high merit have dealt with phases of what is here covered, and some suggestive books of larger scope have been written. The whole subject has now been covered by a writer whose exhaustive and many-sided knowledge, whose long scientific training, whose nat- ural insight, and whose singularly just and fair temper enable him to give us the first full, clear, and critical presentation and interpretation of all that has been discovered and soundly determined since Darwin wrote that one of his master- pieces which especially dealt with man. This is a strong statement. Yet it is verified by an examination of the multi tudinous works treating of the matter. There are books of the highest value II4 500 —— Scale of Miles —f | AH BUMSTEAD MAP OF EUROPE, SHOWING THE GREAT SHEET OF ICE THAT COVERED THE BRITISH ISLES, SCANDINAVIA, GERMANY, AND HALF OF RUSSIA DURING j THE SECOND GLACIAL AGE The ice fields and glaciers, shown in white on this map, then reached their greatest extension, and eastern Europe was depressed to such an extent that the Black and Caspian and Aral seas formed one continuous body of water. After the ice retreated the Heidelberg man appeared, an immigrant from Asia, probably 250,000 years ago (see page IIQ). dealing with the archeological side, such as that of Dechelette, recently killed in battle (for, incidentally, the French ar- chzeologists do not permit their studies of the dead to shrivel their patriotic devo- tion to living duty), and the magnificent volumes of Cartaillac, Brenil, and Ober- maier, which we owe to the generous scientific enthusiasm of the Prince of Monaco. There are other books on the geologi- cal side of the period, such as the notable volumes of Chamberlin and Geikie, which could have been written only by special- ized experts. There are many studies of human remains and of the remains of the accompanying beast faunas by 115 French, English, and German writers. All of these are indispensable to the scholar; but each covers only one facet of the crystal. Finally, there are books dealing with the general subject—excellent books— but none of them possessing all the quali- ties which are essential to the full under- standing of the problem. Lord Avebury’s “Prehistoric Times” was written when it was still necessary to argue with those who disbelieved in the antiquity of man, their reasons being substantially similar to those of the other conservatives who a couple of centuries earlier treated as impious the statement that the earth went round the sun. From a drawing by Charles R. Knight A CONTEMPORARY OF THE HEIDELBERG MAN, LONG SINCE EXTINCT: THE WOOLLY RHINOCEROS TICHORHINUS, PLEISTOCENE The woolly rhinoceros (Pleistocene), a European form found frozen in Siberian ice fields. This singular creature, like the mammoth, was covered with long reddish wool, which served as an effective protection against the bitter cold of its native home (see page IIQ). In Osborn’s book for the first time everything is put together — geology, paleography, the known climatic changes, the plant hfe, including the succession and migrations of the various floras; the animal life, including the succession and migration of the various great mammal- ian faunas; and finally what is known of ancient man himself in these surround- ings. WHEN THE BRITISH ISLES WERE PART OF PRANCE AND THE BALTIC A FRESH- WATER LAKE During the immense period of time when the Old Stone man dwelt in west- ern Europe it was, as now, a peninsula of the huge Eurasiatic landmass. Again and again it was partially covered by ice-sheets from different centers of dis- persal, chiefly the Alps and the region that includes what is now the Baltic Peninsula. Slowly the land rose and fell. It was connected and disconnected by narrow land bridges with Africa. When the land encroached on the sea the British Islands became part of France and Flanders, and the Rhine and the Seine were huge rivers, compared to which the present-day Rhine and Seine look like brooks. The Baltic became a fresh-water lake. Then, again, the ocean recovered its own and extended far beyond its present limits. These changes were not cataclysms; probably changes as great are at this moment going on in the world. But to human percep- tions such earth movements are so grad- ual as to be impossible of notice by any individual or generation. UNLIKE ASIA AND THE AMERICAS, EUROPE DID NOT ORIGINATE BEASTS OR MEN These climatic and geographic oscilla- tions perhaps explain the apparent fact that Europe was not a center of origin 116 THE SABER-TOOTHED TIGER, ANOTHER CONTEMPORARY From a drawing by Charles R. Knight OF THE HEIDELBERG MAN Remains of this great feline are found in many portions of the globe, the particular specimen from which the picture was made being of South American origin. In many ways the creature was not a true cat, the high shoulders and short tail being Fanner bearlike than otherwise. The feet, however, were truly feline and were armed with many powerful claws The long, saber-like canine teeth must have been very effective weapons, and could, no doubt, inflict terrible wounds upon an adversary. These teeth projected on either side of the lower jaw when the mouth was closed (see pages 119 and 123) for either beasts or men. Both the hu- man and the brute inhabitants migrated thither in great waves from Asia and from Africa, in the latter case it being probable that the source of the migratory wave was also in Asia, north Africa be- ing merely the route of passage for the majority of the forms. Very few mammalian forms trace their origin to Europe in the sense that others, such as horses, camels, anthropoid apes, hippopotamuses, ant-eaters, elephants, kangaroos, trace their several origins to Nonthe eaAmenricay =< \siae tidlea, “South America, and Australia. But a number of the phyle received their special de- velopment in Europe, and this has been notably the case with certain forms of man. The view held by some writers, that northern (including especially north- western and north central) Europe was the special center of dispersal for vig- orous and dominant life types which overran the world, is without foundation 117 in fact. Again and again within com- paratively recent geologic times northern Europe has been almost denuded of life. Only for short periods has it been a cen- ter of dispersal, and even during these periods it has merely dispersed types, perhaps developed types, of creatures which in the normal course of events it has been receiving as dominant migrants and invaders from other regions. dihis Hissasy trues on the se Nordica Viana who overran southern Europe fifteen hundred years ago as of his mixed-blood successors who during the last five cen- turies have on a larger scale overrun most of the earth, and of the parasitic companions of these mixed-blood suc- cessors, such as the rat, the rabbit, the house sparrow, and various weeds. The great cultures and great cultive races of Europe in prehistoric times came from elsewhere, doubtless Asia. The men who used metals, who owned flocks and herds, and who grew crops—that is, the men out of whom it was possible to wo = Nee XQ Cy 8 ee Ca Ss S) A | = | ts W \ / 3 & WESTERN EUROPE DURING THE THIRD INTER-GLACIAL STAGE sles, and Iceland were connected with the mainland and d the Piltdown man (see page 119) In which Africa, the British I the river channels were much extended. During this perio was living in England and France. 118 develop modern civiliza- tion—were all immigrants in Europe, who had origin- ated and started upward elsewhere. THE ONLY RECORDS OF EARLY MAN YET DISCOVERED ARE IN EUROPE But while we could doubt- less learn far more of the paleo-historyand prehistory of man if we knew what had happened to him in Asia during the two or three hundred thousand years before history dawn- ed in Mesopotamia and on the Nile, we do not, as a matter of fact, possess such knowledge. ©The . records are European, as already said, and necessarily in our studies we must deal chiefly with Europe. The climatic changes in both temperature and mois- ture produced extraordi- nary oscillations in the giant mammalian fauna of the time. At the close of Pliocene times Europe possessed a warmer climate than at present, and in the forests flourished many trees now only known in America the sequoia, sabal, sassafras, locust, sweet-gum, and tulip tree. There is no evidence that any an- cestor of man then existed in Europe; but elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, saber-tooth tigers, wild oxen, and horses abounded. The period of glaciation which ushered in the Pleistocene drove these animals southward, or into restricted areas in middle Europe, and brought in many northern forms, such as the musk-ox. In the long succeeding period of mild climate elephants and hippopotamus lived beside or near by moose and lions and Trish elk, and the saber-tooth was the chief beast of prey (see page I17). Then came the second and_ severest period of glaciation. During the mild inter-Glacial period which followed new IIG Photograph from Osborn’s ‘‘Men of The Old Stone Age”’ A HEAD RECONSTRUCTED ON THE PILTDOWN SKULL, FOUND IN SUSSEX, ENGLAND: EOANTHROPUS DAWSONI The race is believed to have lived in England and France 100,000 to 300,000 years ago (see page 123) species of elephants and rhinos appeared, and also the lon and hyena, together with various species of horses, deer, and cattle. Most important of all, the Heidel- berg man appeared —the earliest true man, clearly human, but, equally clearly, closer kin to his remote anthropoid kin- folk than is any existing savage. Again the glaciers advanced, and the mammoth and woolly rhinos (see page 116) appeared, but disappeared as the third inter-Glacial period of mild climate set in. During this third period primi- tive types of men existed side by side with the great southern faunas. Once more the ice closed down ; mam- moth, woolly rhinoceros, musk-ox, and reindeer advanced southward from the Photograph from Osborn’s ‘‘Men of The Old Stone Age”’ THE NEANDERTHAL MAN, A RACE WHICH LIVED IN CAVES OF CENTRAL FRANCE 50,000 YEARS AGO (SEE PAGES 123-125) Modeled on skull from cave of La-Chapelle-aux-Saints: Correze, France Arctic tundra, and sometimes mingled with lion and aurochs, horse and giant deer ; and the low-browed, almost chinless human hunters of the period dwelt in grottos or at the mouths of caverns, the possession of which they disputed with the cave bear, cave lion, and cave hyena. As this ice age passed there came a period of cold, dry climate, and with it an invasion of animal life from the east- ern steppes—the kiang, the saiga, the jerboa, and the steppe horse. Then by degrees the climatic and geographical conditions changed to those that still ob- tain—the beasts of the steppes retreated eastward and those of the tundra north- ward, and the giant forms vanished from the earth. THE APE-MAN OF JAVA It is the people who were the companions of these successive faunas whom Mr. Osborn describes. He begins by a brief summary of the probable ancestral tree of man in his prehu- man days, showing that his stem probably branched off from that of the anthropoid apes at the beginning of the Miocene, having split from the monkey stem at or be- fore the beginning of the Oligocene. Then he dis- cusses the famous ape-man of Java, the pithecanthro- pus, the prehuman crea- ture — probably, however, only collaterally in our line of ancestry—who appeared at the dawn of the Pleisto- cene (See picturespasi2))e This being was already half way upward from the beast, half way between true man and those Mio- cene ancestors of his, who were still on the psychic and intellectual level of their diverging kinsfolk, the anthropoid apes. He, or some creature like him, was in our own line of ascent during theseuncounted ages when our ancestors were already different from all other brutes and yet had not grown to be really men. He prob- ably used a club or stone at need; and about this time he may have begun very rudely to chip or otherwise fashion stones to his use. His progress was very, very slow; the marked feature in the progress of man has been its great acceleration of rapidity in each successive stage, accompanied continually by an inexplicable halt or dying out in race after race and culture after culture. 250,000 YEARS LATER—THE HEIDELBERG MAN After the ape-man of Java we skip a quarter of a million years or so—accord- ing to Mr. Osborn’s conservative figur- 120 Photograph from American Museum of Natural History IN THE CAVES OF THESE AND SIMILAR CLIFFS IN CENTRAL FRANCE THE NEANDER- THAL, RACE OF MEN LIVED FOR 50,000 YEARS: VALLEY OF THE VEZERE, FRANCE (SEE PAGE 125) 121 ‘(Sz ased 4x0} 998) _suaidps Owlofzy—oOp 9M jey} UP JO sotoads owes oY} OJ PasuOojaq OYA pur ‘sajdoad UIOPOW Jsould10F AIDA dY} J TV YM posrdwoo sv YSIy payxues ATJUaPIAs QUGSTTJOJUL UL OYM ‘SJoJUNY FO 9oVI UOUSLPY-O1) JMG Apouy YR} oy} Aq ‘addy uewmy Suystxo Aue uvy} JoMoy] ‘sasvars asoy} Jo surjuejddns [e}o} puke Uappns oy} SeAr odoinsy, UtoJSoOM JO ALOJSIY ([LANIPNO Jou) [eIovs JJOYM oy} UL 9SuRYO puNojJoid ysowW oY, “WNTUeID oY} SSOtOR Jey} UPYY Ja}yea1B aq 0} Usss SI SouUOd YoIoYD dy} SsO1ovV pvoy oy} JO JdJoWIRIP oy ‘IOSdIIN IW “H ‘{ Aq sjopou oy} [je ur poydope sasmmyeoy oy} FO UOIeIOJSOI JO POYJout 9} SUIMOYS ‘Y}92} OY} JO UOIZVAO}SO1 OYJ Aq poyeudAnfoy «NONOVWN-OUD)D 20 NVW d’10O,, HHL, sO avi <@8V 20S PIO OY, JO Va]N,, SUtogsO wo.ry sydvisojoyg % % 4 ' 4 Photograph from Osborn’s ‘‘“Men of The Old Stone Age” UNDER THE SHELTER OF THESE ROCKS WAS FOUND A SKELETON OF THE CRO-MAGNON RACE OF HUNTER-ARTISTS WHO ENTERED EUROPE 13,000 YEARS AGO ing—before we get our next glimpse of a near-human predecessor of ours. ‘This is the Heidelberg man, who lived in the warm second interglacial period referred to above, surrounded by a fauna of huge or fearsome beasts, which included the saber-tooth and the hippopotamus, and also rhinoceroses and elephants of south- ern type. He was a chinless being, whose jaw was still so primitive that it must have made his speech imperfect; and he was so much lower than any existing savage as to be at least specifically distinct— that is, he can be called “human” only if the word is used with a certain largeness. Again we make a long skip—this time of somewhat over a hundred thousand years—and come to the Piltdown man, or near-man—a being seemingly little far- ther advanced than the man of Heidel- berg, and in some ways less so, for he possessed se ikewcanine teeth: | AS sTe= gards all of these very early near-human remains, there is room for considerable difference of opinion not only as to their exact relationships and their standing on the man-phylum, but as to their age, both absolutely, and relatively to other human remains and to the remains of the great Pleistocene faunas (see picture, p. 119). TO LIVE IN FIFTY THOUSAND YEARS A RACE THAT WAS CONTENT CAVES FOR The next race was that of the Nean- derthal men, much more modern and *(Sz1 osed 4x9} 998) ,podojaaap Aysood 19M SJUIWILILI}L [BNJOTPOIUL AIYSty 94} JUasoidat YOM suoysod ay} - b fs “ TIVM WH. NO SNOSI€ HH WO UNO AO nq ‘9zis pooS FO d1aM SUIRIG Joy, “ssaTuIyO ysowe sel pur Quaq SHNITLOAO AHL ONIMVUd JO LOV AH, NI GUyOLSHY SINDOd A]jusuvulsiod saouy ‘sada snOUTIARD QAO Surjoafoid sMOAq YIM ‘sasvars -MOd “LIN OV9-*1d-\1, NOW HO NYAVO WAHT, NI NVI NON9DVIW-ONOD Poet y{s—-yoryy ‘papeoy-siq ‘AT ING enbs o.19M Udut [BU}topueoNy ISI T,, € OOV SUVA OOO‘OS FO NVI MHL, fO NOLLVALSOTIE NV <23V 9018 P[O UF, FO ua,, S,U10qsO Wor sydvisojoyg 124 HOW OLD Is MAN? 125 more advanced, but lower than any ex- isting savage, and specifically distinct from modern man. ‘This race dwelt in Europe, without other human rivals, for an immense period of time; probably at least fifty thousand years; certainly an age several times as long as the period included in the interval between the ear- liest polished stone men and ourselves— in other words, several times as long as the ages of polished stone, bronze, and iron and the total of historic times all put together (see picture, page 120). These Neanderthal men were squat, burly, big-headed, thick-skulled savages, with brows projecting over cavernous eyes, knees permanently bent, and jaws almost chinless. Their brains were of good size, but the portions which repre- sent the higher intellectual attainments were poorly developed. The type skull of the race was discoy- ered sixty years ago; but its wide diver- gence from existing type, combined with its large brain capacity, caused students to doubt its exact place in the human scale. Darwin practically ignored it, al- though it was exactly the “missing link” he hoped to find: The perverse ingenuity of the great anatomist Virchow, who, vith wrong-headed insistence, declared its peculiarities to be pathologic, delayed for a generation the full understanding of its importance. Other skulls and skeletons were found, however, and there is now no more doubt of the racial existence of the Neander- thals than of the racial existence of the ancient Egyptians. They were a low race of men, distinctly human, but far nearer the beast than any existing race. They were widely distributed, began to live in caves when the Glacial epoch really opened, and assiduously practiced the in- dustry of making tools, implements, and weapons of flint. They lived by the chase of the great game with which they were surrounded. Some of their favorite hunting grounds were frequented by them for untold gen- erations, and the skeletal remains of thousands of bison and reindeer and tens of thousands of wild horses, mingled with the bones of mammoth and rhinoc- eros, show how the game abounded. Some of their favorite caverns were lived in by them and by their successors for fifty thousand years. They were widely, although thinly, spread over Europe, and the development of their flint tools and implements is everywhere so uniform as to show that the various stages in the evolution of their culture in different places were es- sentially contemporary. During the im- mense period of time when they were the only human beings in Europe the climate changed from warm-temperate to glacial, and the fauna changed in like fashion, one set of beasts supplanting another. They hunted all these creatures, but es- pecially the horses, oxen, and reindeer. Yet how small a factor man then was as regards the extermination of the big game may be gathered from the fact that the changes in the faunas were evidently due purely to climatic alterations. When the climate changed, so as to favor the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, musk-ox, reindeer, and steppe horse, they all swarmed into the land, where hitherto they had not been found, and flourished and increased greatly. It is evident that the presence of the Neanderthal hunter had no effect upon them. He could not even prevent their increase when climatic conditions favored such increase. OUR ANCESTORS, A RACE OF TALL HUNTER- ARTISTS, ENTER EUROPE At last the life term of these primitive hunter folk drew to a close. ‘They were not our ancestors. With our present knowledge, it seems probable that they were exterminated as completely from Europe as in our own day the Tasma- nians were exterminated from Tasmania. The most profound change in the whole racial (not cultural) history of western Europe was the sudden and total supplanting of these savages, lower than any existing human type, by the tall, finely built Cr6-Magnon race of hunters, who in intelligence evidently ranked high as compared with all but the very fore- most modern peoples, and who belonged to the same species of man that we do— Homo sapiens (see picture, page 122 Geologically, these were modern im- migrants into western Europe; for there 126 is reasonably good ground to believe that they entered that region only twenty-five or thirty thousand years ago. They pos- sessed really noteworthy artistic ability, and their carvings, drawings, and paint- ings of the mammoth, bison, aurochs, rhi- noceros, horse, reindeer, cave bear, and cave lion are of high merit. THE WHITE MAN HAS NOT BEEN AN IM- PORTANT ELEMENT IN HISTORY FOR MUCH MORE THAN 3,000 YEARS One or more. Asiatic races reached central Europe somewhere about this time and may have influenced their cul- ture. For a time there was another race associated with them in southern Europe, and, very curiously, this was a race akin to the negro pygmies of present-day Africa. But these small negroids soon van- ished, and the tall hunter-artists re- mained the sole masters of western Eu- rope for what, judged by all historic standards, was an immense period of time—perhaps ten thousand years—cer- tainly much longer than the period which covers the entire known history of the white race which now dominates the world—for the European white man has not been a ponderable element in civili- zation or history for much more than three thousand years. Then the Cro-Magnons in their turn succumbed. There are indications that they had already begun to fall off some- what, both phy sically and culturally, in accordance with that strange law which seems to apply to every social and politi- cal organism, just as it does to every in- dividual, and which ordains that growth shall be followed by decay and death. 3e this as it may, this fine race disap- peared, almost or quite completely, and in its place there came, seemingly from Asia, four or five different types of hu- manity, all of which can today be dis- cerned in Europe’s ethnically very mixed population. The extreme difficulty of determining in prehistoric times the extent of corre- lation between racial invasion and cul- tural change and the effect upon one race of conquest or infiltration by another may be measured by comparing it with what THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE we know of these matters in connection with the comparatively modern and his-~ toric case of the Normans. These were Scandinavian sea-thieves, who conquered and settled in a province’ of France to which they gave their name, the name _ being merely the romance- speaking peoples’ effort to pronounce Northmen, as both Norwegians and Danes were often called. In its early stages the conquest was precisely like those which other Norsemen made in England, Scotland, and Ireland. In these countries the invaders were ulti- mately assimilated with the original in- habitants and became Englishmen, Irish- men, and Scotchmen without producing any new racial type. But the conquerors of the province in northwestern France so influenced and were so influenced by their surroundings, including especially the people they con- quered, that an entirely new and extraor- dinary race sprang up—a race that for a century or two was, on the whole, the leading force in the development of west- ern Europe. This race lost almost every particle of its Scandinavian culture— speech, religion, art, weapons, industry, law. It became completely French in all these matters, and doubtless mainly French even in blood. But it produced a totally new and ex- ceedingly able and formidable type of Frenchman. Normans conquered Sicily, England, and Ireland, putting rulers on the thrones of the two former, and estab- lished earldoms or principalities in places as far apart as Scotland and Syria. Everywhere they merged in the mass of the people whom they had conquered and dominated. Everywhere their advent produced a profound and lasting effect on the culture of the conquered people, and yet nowhere did they leave a trace of the culture of their own forefathers, and they left only a trace of their blood. If we had not the written records we would be utterly unable to make a guess at the causes of the revolutions and to- tally new types of evolutionary develop- ment in civilization which they brought about. The merest glance at their his- tory explains why we find so many pre- historic problems insoluble. HOW OLD IS MAN? 12 EUROPE DID NOT. GIVE RISE TO A SINGLE SPECIES OF MAN Mr. Osborn’s conclusions are stated tentatively —that is, scientifically — as strong probabilities, not certainties. They are as follows, and they represent the conclusions which are in accord with our present knowledge. From the earliest Paleolithic to Neo- lithic times western Europe was never a center of human evolution. It did not give rise to a single species of man, nor did there occur therein any marked evo- lution or transformation of human types. The main racial evolution took place to the eastward, whence at first primitive and afterward modern types of men found their way westward. @iall the) races» of Paleolithic’ man “I which appeared in Europe, no one was ancestral to any other; they all succes- sively arrived fully formed. ‘Therefore the family trees or lines of descent of the races of the Old Stone Age consist of a number of entirely separate branches, which had been completely developed in the eastern mass of the great Eurasiatic continent. The sudden appearance in Europe, some 25,000 years ago, of a human race with a high order of brain was not a local leap forward, but the result of a long process of evolution elsewhere. Through- out the whole period there was a long, siow process of checkered progress, marked by the rise and fall of races, of cultures, and of industries. It is a fasci- nating subject, and no one has dealt with it as ably as Mr. Osborn. THE GRADLE OF CIVILIZATION The Historic Lands Along the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers Where Briton Is Fighting Turk By James Balkire AutTHor oF “SEA KINGS OF CRETE” AND “THE RESURRECTION OF ANCIENT Ecypr?” IN THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MaGaZINE great continent of Asia, between the Persian Gulf and the border of that great elbow known as Asia Minor, which the continent thrusts out westward, there lies a land whose influence upon the his- tory of the human race it would scarcely be possible to overestimate. © This is the place which is generally recognized to have been the original home of the human race, where, in dim and misty ages before history began, men first attempted to form themselves into organ- ized communities, where the Hebrew race found its origin, and whence their first leader, Abraham, went out in search of the land which he should afterward re- ceive for an inheritance. It is a long and comparatively narrow stretch of country, running up from the Persian Gulf toward the Taurus Moun- tains and that lofty tableland which we now know as Armenia. On its northern | THE southwestern corner of the and northeastern side it is bordered by a fringe of mountains, gradually sloping up toward the great northern ranges. On the southern and southwestern side it fades away into the great Arabian desert (See map; page 216). SOURCE OF MESOPOTAMIA’S FERTILITY Far up in the tableland of Armenia, about 800 miles in a straight line from the gulf, rise two great rivers—the Ti- gris and the Euphrates. The former breaks through the mountain wall of the tableland on its eastern flank and flows in a southeasterly direction throughout almost its entire course. The latter breaks through on the west- ern flank and flows at first westward, as though making for the Mediterranean. It then turns south and flows directly southward for awhile; then sweeps around in a great bend to the southeast © Underwood & Underwood THE GARDEN OF EDEN “The Garden of Eden is described in a way that leaves the actual situation which the writer was aiming to indicate very vague, but certainly it is in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, which is definitely named as one of the rivers which water it; and the word ‘Eden’ itself is the ordinary term for a plain in the Sumerian speech, the oldest language existing in this region. So that the Garden of Eden simply meant the Garden of the Plain, and the first forefathers of our race were believed to have had their home in this most fertile spot” (see page 132). PAE CRADLE .OM CIVILIZATION and follows a course gradually converg- ing upon that of its sister stream, [1- nally, near the sea, the two unite and issue as one river into the Persian Gulf. The land traversed by these two rivers has, like the sister river-land of Egypt, been from time immemorial one of the great historic centers of human develop- ment. It divides into two portions of fairly equal length. For the first 400 miles the country gradually descends ina gentle slope from the mountains, forming an irregular triangle between the two rivers, within which the land becomes less and less hilly, as it sinks southward, till, as it nears the Euphrates, it becomes a broad steppe, which, beyond the river, rolls off into the desert. This portion is strictly the land called by the Greeks “Mesopotamia.” THE GREAT ALLUVIAL PLAIN The second division is totally different in character. It is simply a great delta, like that of the Nile—a flat, alluvial plain, which has been entirely formed of the silt brought down from the mountains by the two great rivers. The process of land-making is. still going on, and the waters of the Persian Gulf are being pushed back at the rate of about 72 feet per annum. What this slow process may achieve in many cen- turies is evidenced by the fact that we know that the ancient town of Eridu was still, at about 3000 B. C., an important seaport on the Persian Gulf. It is now 125 miles from the sea. Both lands were entirely dependent for their habitability and fertility on the rivers which traversed them. In Meso- potamia the Tigris and the Euphrates have for long stretches channeled deep into the soil and flow below the level of the land. In the lower district—Baby- lonia—the ordinary level of the rivers is frequently above that of the surrounding plain ; so that inundations are of frequent occurrence, and large tracts of the coun- try are now unhealthy marshland. In both cases, therefore, though for opposite reasons, the hand of man was needed to make the rivers helpful. In Mesopotamia the water was controlled by dikes and dams, which held it up until it was raised to the level of the land, over 129 which it was then distributed by canals. In Babylonia the surplus water was drawn off directly by a great canal sys- tem, the banks of whose ancient arteries still stretch in formidable ridges across the plain. FLOWING WITH MILK AND HONEY Under the system of irrigation both lands were astonishingly fertile. Even today it can be seen that only well-di- rected work is needed to bring back the ancient fertility. After the spring rains the Mesopotamian slopes are clothed with rich verdure and are gay with flowers. But of old these lands were the wonder of the world for their richness. Of Babylonia the Greek historian Herodotus wrote 2,350 years ago: “This territory is of all that we know the best by far for producing grain; as to trees, it does not even attempt to bear them, either fig or vine or olive; but for pro- ducing grain it is so good that it returns as much as two hundred fold for the average, and when it bears at its best, it produces three hundred fold.” You had, then, a land which, in con- stant human occupation and with con- stant and organized attention to the de- tails of irrigation, was capable of almost anything; but at the same time it was a land which, left to itself, went back quickly to wilderness. The parching heat of summer withered everything on the Mesopotamian uplands ; the low levels of Babylonia very speediiy became marsh if the waters were not regulated. So, the hand of man being withdrawn or checked, both Mesopotamia and Baby- lonia went back to the state in which they were originally and in which we see them now. They became great barren wastes, the Mesopotamian slopes clad in spring with a brief beauty, then parched and desolate for the rest of the season; the Babylonian plains covered with swamp and jungle, where fever and malaria breed continually. DESOLATION SUCCEEDS LUXURIANCE The desolation is only accentuated by the melancholy remains of human activ- ity—canals choked and silted up till they have become fever beds instead of arter- ies; huge mounds of rubbish which once 130 were great historic cities, towering up above the plain, shapeless and unsightly. Before man came the land was waste. When he had learned to bridle its rivers and to develop its capabilities, it became “as the garden of the Lord.” Now that he has lost the grip of his first inherit- ance it has gone back to waste again. Yet there can be no doubt that here 1s a country of almost infinite possibilities, and that in the future, possibly not a very distant future, the first home of the race will again be one of the most fertile and perhaps one of the busiest spots in the world. BIBLE WRITERS AS EYE-WITNESSES There are few things more remarkable than the way in which this land which had once been supreme in the history of the world, and which for centuries was one of the great molding forces of human story, passed almost entirely out of the thought and memory of civilized man. We know it, of course, from our Bibles. The name of Nineveh, “that great city,” and the story of Nebuchadnezzar’s pride, as he looked round upon palace and tem- ple and tower, and said: “Is not this great Babylon, which I have built?” These things are part of our earliest and unfor- gettable impressions of history. The men who wrote the history and the prophecy of the Old Testament did so when these lands were living and at the height of their glory. They witnessed Assyria trampling down the nations and gathering their treasure “‘as one gathereth eggs that are forsaken,” and they saw her fall, exulting over the overthrow of Nin- eveh, whose cruelty had passed upon all nations. They saw the second rise of Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar, and lived in the midst of its splendors and beheld them all pass away. “THEN CAME MIDNIGHT” Then came down midnight. So utterly had the local habitation and the name of these great cities vanished from the mem- ory of man that 400 years before Christ, when Xenophon and the Ten Thousand marched through the land after the battle of Cunaxa, they passed the ruins of Nineveh and never knew of them, and encamped beside the ruins of Kalah, an- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ae other of the mighty cities of Assyria, and spoke of them as “‘an ancient city named Larissa.” Wonderful stories and legends, of course, still found their place in the minds of men about these ancient cities and monarchies—legends of Nimrod, of Ninus and Semiramis, and of the won- derful palaces and hanging gardens of Babylon. But where these cities stood and what had become of their glories, these were things utterly forgotten for close on 2,000 years. “Babylon,” said Isaiah, long before (Isaiah x11: 19-22), “the glory of king- doms, the beauty of the Chaldee’s excel- lency, shall be as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah. It shall never be inhabited, neither shall it be dwelt in from generation to generation, neither shall the Arabian pitch tent there. . But the wild beasts of the desert shall lie there, and their houses shall be full of doleful creatures; and owls shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there.” THE WORDS OF A PROPHET And Zephaniah (ii: 14) writes thus of the sister city, whose fall was earlier: “He will make Nineveh a desolation, and dry like the wilderness. The cormorant and the bittern shall lodge in the upper lintels of it. This is the rejoicing city that dwelt carelessly, that said in her heart, | am, and there is none beside me; how is she become a desolation, a place for beasts to lie down in; every one that passeth by her shall hiss and wag his hand.” Layard thus describes the emotions ex- cited by the first contemplation of the desolate heaps which now represent the cities of Mesopotamia. After speaking f “the stern shapeless mound rising like a hill from the scorched plain, the frag- ments of pottery, and the stupendous mass of brickwork occasionally laid bare by the winter rains,” he goes on: “He is now at a loss to give any form to the rude heaps on which he is gazing. Those of whose works they are the re- mains, unlike the Roman and the Greek, have left no visible traces of their civili- zation or their arts; their influence has long since passed away. The scene around is worthy of the ruin he is con- A PICTURESQUE SCENE ON THE EUPHRATES BELOW BABYLON Babylonia is a great delta like that of the Nile—a flat alluvial plain which has been entirely formed by the silt brought down by the great Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The process of land-making is still going on, and the waters of the Persian Gulf are being pushed back at the rate of about 72 feet per annum. What this slow process may achieve in many centuries is evidenced by the fact that we know that the ancient town of Eridu was still, at about 3000 B. C., an important seaport on the Persian Gulf. It is now 125 miles from the sea (see page 129). 131 132 templating; desolation meets desolation; a feeling of awe succeeds to wonder ; for there is nothing to relieve the mind, to lead to hope, or to tell of what has gone by. These huge mounds of Assyria made a deeper impression upon me, gave rise to more serious thoughts and more ear- nest reflection than the temples of Baal- bec, and the theaters of Ionia.” DARKNESS OF CENTURIES BROKEN The darkness of centuries has since been broken, and broken mainly, in the first instance, by the man who wrote these sentences. Let us therefore seek to out- line what we have gradually come to know of the earliest story of the human trace in these lands, which seems, as far as can be judged, to be possibly the ear- liest story of the human race in the world—that is to say, as civilized and organized beings. Scripture, of course, places the first be- ginnings of human story in this land. The Garden of Eden is described in a way that leaves the actual situation which the writer was aiming to indicate very vague; but certainly it is in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, which is definitely named as one of the rivers which water it; and the word “Eden” it- self is the ordinary term for a plain in the Sumerian speech, the oldest language existing in this region. THE GARDEN OF THE PLAIN So the Garden of Eden simply meant the Garden of the Plain, and the first forefathers of our race were believed to have had their home in this most fertile spot. The story of the Deluge moves in the same region, and the Babylonian rec- ords preserve a tradition which corre- sponds almost detail for detail with that of Noah and the Ark. In Genesis xi we have the Hebrew tra- dition of the beginnings of organized civilization, with the rise of the first city, and the origin of the strifes and jealous- ies which have separated the various na- tions from one another. It is, of course, poetically described, but the place where these beginnings occurred and the meth- ods adopted by these earliest organizers of the race are stated with perfect clear- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ness, and they correspond exactly with the conditions existing in Babylonia. “It came to pass, as they journeyed from the east, that they found a plain in the land of Shinar; and they dwelt there. And they said one to another, “Go to, let us make brick, and burn them thor- oughly.” And they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar. And they said, ‘Go to, let us build a city and a tower whose top may reach unto heaven; and let us make us a name, lest we be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.’ ” Here we have the terse and vivid state- ment of what must necessarily have hap- pened when men first began to realize their powers and to organize themselves in such a land. The writer of Genesis puts in two sentences, as if it were a single act, what no doubt, in actual fact, took hundreds or perhaps thousands of years to attain. But there and in that fashion there is no doubt that cities took their rise and civilization began to develop. The fertile plain invited habitation. Men felt the need of gathering for mutual protection against their human enemies or the wild beasts which abounded; and when they cast about as to how to build they found themselves faced by the fact that Baby- lonia produces no building stone. Their buildings had to be reared of the mud of which their land was composed ; and, from the dawn of history to its close, buildings in Babylonia were of brick, huge masses of crude sun-dried mud, cased on the outside only with the harder kiln-burned bricks. A CITY FOR PROTECTION AND A TOWER FOR WORSHIP “A city and a tower,” says the writer, and again he is true to the facts. The city for protection and the tower for worship. For the characteristic feature of Babylonian temple architecture, dis- tinguishing it sharply from the Egyptian temples, with their succession of cham- bers on the ground level, is the “Zig- gurat,’ or temple tower, rising in suc- cessive stages, each stage a little less in area than the one beneath it, until the shrine on the summit is reached. iif 2 rs OU: © Underwood & Underwood IRRIGATION ON THE EUPHRATES, WHERE MEN HAVE TOILED SINCE ADAM LEFT EDEN The science of irrigation was developed on the banks of this river many thousands of years ago. Babylonia was then one vast network of canals. Around the whole country spread a Chinese wall inverted, a great moat, water-filled, at once to keep out the alien stranger and to fill up the network of canals. At the same time these larger canals furnished natural highways of commerce, and thousands of boats plied their waters. One of them left the Euphrates from the right bank near Hit and skirted the plain all the way to the Persian Gulf. The work was so well done that even the debris of thirty centuries has not been able to obliterate it. No one can say how long ago it was built, but we do know that it was ancient in the days of Nebuchadnezzar—so ancient that he “pointed with pride” to the fact that he had cleaned it out once more and restored it. Not a hundredth part of what is still left visible of the ruined irrigation works is in use today. Where once as fine crops as ever grew flourished in luxuriance, there is desert and marsh and the silent mounds of entombed cities. 133 “te ¥ & © Underwood & Underwood THE MOUND COVERING THE REMAINS OF UR OF THE CHALDEES Ur of the Chaldees is best known as the place out of which came the patriarch Abraham. When we first meet the Babylonians, some four thousand years before Christ, they were already a civilized, metal-using people, living in great cities, possessed of a complicated system of writing, and governed under firmly established civil and religious dynasties and hierarchies (see page 135). When, then, did this first gathering of human beings into organized communities take place, and what was the race which took this momentous step? As to the question of when, we are hopelessly ig- norant. Berosus, the old historian of Babylonia, tells us of kings before the Deluge who reigned for incredible pe- riods — 36,000 years in one instance — while some of his kings after the Deluge come down to comparatively modest spans, such as 2,400 and 2,700 years. It is easy to ridicule such wild fancies, but not so easy to put facts in their place. Pretty much all that can be said is that somewhere about 4000 B. C. we do seem to get into touch with actual and unmis- takable historic facts. That date is at least 1,500 years before the date at which Abraham is believed to have gone forth from the land in search of his inheritance. But the pioneers had been at work long 134 Ay 4 i ee ANTE (CAVAID ILS, Old CIN ANIONS 13 before that; for the people whom we meet at 4000 B. C. are already a highly civilized and organized race. Already they had towns of considerable size and importance, each with its own great tem- ple tower rising high above the houses and dedicated to the town god. LIFE 6,000 YEARS AGO They had a system of government whose unit was not the kingdom, but the city-state—the city, that 1s, ‘with as much territory around it as it could conve- niently lay hands on and protect from its nearest neighbor, the adjoining city. At the head of each community was an official who called himself, in his inscrip- tions, the “‘patesi,’ of his own particular state, and who seems to have been, like Melchizedek, a combination of priest and king. The inhabitants of the city were skilled in various trades and professions; their social fabric was already sharply divided into a considerable variety of classes ; and their pottery and the fragments of their sculpture which have survived show us that they were by no means unskilled in the fine arts. Most important of all, they had already evolved a very complete and highly de- veloped system of writing, which in itself must have taken centuries to reach the stage at which it is first found. It began, no doubt, with pure picture-writing, as the Egyptian hieroglyphic system began ; but while the Egyptians maintained the pictorial element of their system to the end, developing alongside of it the hie- ratic and demotic systems of writing for ordinary purposes, the race in question had already, when we first meet with their writing, got away from any trace of the picture stage. Their writing is al- ready the arrow-headed or cuneiform script which persisted right down to the fall of the great empires of the ancient East (see article by Professor Clay in this number). WHENCE CAME THE SUMERIANS The wonderful people who had accom- plished all this we call now by the name of Sumerians, from their own name for one of the divisions of their land. Whence they came is unknown. O1 It has been suggested that they drifted across the mountains from India, and, after settling for awhile in Persia, finally found their resting-place -in the Baby- lonian plain; and that the form which they gave their temples, towering up like mountains into the sky, may have been due to a remembrance of early days among the hills of India and Persia; but that 1s scarcely more than guesswork. In fact, we only see this people through the mists for a short time at the very be- ginning of things, and then they disap- pear, driv en out of their land, or brought into subjection by a stronger and more warlike race—that Semitic people from whom Abraham and the Hebrews sprang. You are to imagine the land, then, as dotted all over at pretty frequent inter- vals with fairly important towns. Round each town rises a high wall of brick, very thick and strong, faced on the outside with the harder kiln-burnt bricks. In the center of the town rises the Ziggurat, or temple-tower. It may have any number of stages, from three to seven, according to the wealth of the town or the devout- ness of its priest-king. Beside it is the palace of the latter, and under the shadow of these two great buildings crouch the smaller houses. WANT OF STONE MAKES NARROW ROOMS Even in the palace the rooms are long and narrow, for the want of stone and timber limits their breadth to the length of such roof-beams as can conveniently be procured; and although the Babylo- nians had already learned the principle of the arch, they did not vault their build- ings save on a small scale. In the town you would find business thoroughly well organized. Business documents were written in cuneiform script on clay tablets, and when they had been read over, the parties to the contract each signed by pressing his thumb-nail into the wet clay, which was then dried and preserved. Later engraved seals came into use for the purpose of authen- ticating documents. Outside the walls lay a ring of fields, some of them private property, some of them common land, but all alike paying tithes to the city-god. Beyond the culti- ‘SLISIT, OY} UO ‘pepSeq pur vuloOy UdeMzoq ARM J[eY Joe st qNyT JO UMO} OYJ, “vIV-[9-7eYS oY} WaAofZ pue JoYy}oS0} MOY Ady} TOYM ‘sozesydnyy oy} Pur SItoLy, oy} JO VOLUN dy} ABOU Sol] VAZy_ JO GWOT, OY, SMALL VWIAEVUAINONNI JO IUVAH AHL OF UVAd ANINHS V ‘VUZT WO AWOT, CHW, pooMioapuy) NY poomM.sapuy, O 130 TPIEUS, (CIRAIDIE IS, Ole (CAW INE IZZIE IKON » Ma}// vated fields lay the pasture land, which was all held in common. The fields were covered with a network of canals, which distributed the precious river-water, and the whole system of irrigation was care- fully regulated and supervised. KINS-PEOPLE OF THE JEWS Not much later than 4000 B. C. we find the whole land in the power of the representatives of the same Semitic race which has given us Abraham, Moses, and David, and also Mahomet and Islam. The Semitic rule makes its appearance in the person of an impressive and romantic figure, one of the first of the great found- ers of world-empires, Shargani-shar-ali, better known as Sargon, King of Akkad. Fortunately we know, with a fair amount of certainty, when he reigned, for the last king of Babylon, Nabuna’id, states that when he laid bare the founda- tion-inscription of Naram-Sin, son of Sargon, in the temple of Shamash, at Sippara, he was informed that Naram- Sin had reigned 3,200 years before his time. This fixes Naram-Sin at about 3750 B. C. and Sargon about 3800 B. C., so that he belongs to about the time of the rise of settled government in Egypt. A GARDENER BECOMES KING Apparently, like many of the great men of history, he was of humble and obscure birth. The Chronicle of Kish states that “at Akkad, Sharrukin, the gardener, warder of the temple of Zamama, be- came king.” But, whatever his origin, the impression which he made on follow- ing ages was great and lasting. When men looked back to the beginnings, they saw the figure of Sargon standing, great and vague, the first. man who really counted in their history; and they hon- ored him accordingly. One of the greatest of Assyrian con- querors called himself Sargon also, after this early king, and around the name of the first unifier of the land there grew up a legend which presents a curious paral- lel to the story of the infancy of Moses. The Assyrian scribes of the eighth cen- tury B. C. make him relate the. story of his early days, as follows: “Sargon, the powerful king, King of Akkad, aml My mother was of low degree, my father I did not know. The brother of my father dwelt in fie moun- tain. My city was Azupirani, situate on the bank of the Euphrates. My humble mother conceived me; she brought me forth. She placed me in a basket-boat of rushes; with pitch she closed my door. She gave me over to the river, which did not rise over me. The river bore me along; gator, it carried me. Akki, the irrigator, land. Akki, the irrigator, reared me as his own son. Akki, the irrigator, appointed me his gardener. While I was gardener, Ishtar looked on me with love. (Forty ?)-four years I ruled the kingdom.” This gardener-king was evidently a man of genius and force. Not only did he unite Babylonia under his rule, but he carried his conquests westward to the Mediterranean, north and east to Ar- menia and Elam, and south to Arabia and the islands of the Persian Gulf. His do- ings were held up as the model for all subsequent kings, and 1f the omens in any reign were the same as those under which the great Sargon of Akkad had gone Contti: to victory, any king of Baby lon or Assyria would march out, confident that success was certain. About 2300 B. C. there rises another great figure, one of the men who mold human history and keep the world mov- ing onward—a man also who, if some scholars are right, came into close con- tact with Abraham, and, great as he was, found the contact not at all to his ad- vantage. In Genesis xiv we read how “Amra- phel, King of Shinar; Arioch, King of Ellasar ; Chedorlaomer, King of Elam,and Tidal, King of Gotim,” made war on the kings of Sodom and Gomorrah, who had rebelled against their overlord Chedor- laomer ; how Abraham’s nephew, Lot,was captured by them, and how the Patriarch rescued Lot and defeated the invaders. Now these kings may possibly be identi- fied with actual kings of the time. Tidal, King of Goiim, may be Thargal of Gu- tium; Arioch of Ellasar may be Rim-Sin in secret to Akki, the irri- brought me to © Underwood & Underwood UNEARTHING ANCIENT BABYLON FROM BENEATH THE DEBRIS OF CENTURIES Babylonia is covered with cities hidden by the accumulations of thousands of years. And yet never was debris kinder, for it acted as a safe in which treasures of millenniums before Christ could be held in trust for the coming of a generation that would appreciate their value, and that could correctly interpret their meanings. But for the burial from human sight which time gave to the structures and relics of the ancient civilization of the Euphrates and Tigris River country they would have been destroyed, even as the priceless marbles of Rome were destroyed in the manufacture of lime and the magnificent structures of that great city torn down to secure the iron with which the marble blocks were jointed together. 138 © Underwood & Underwood EXCAVATORS UNEARTHING THE REMAINS OF ANCIENT BABYLON The citizen of a modern city would probably feel more at home in the Babylon of 5,000 years ago than in medieval Europe. The average Babylonian was no wild savage, but a law-abiding citizen, a faithful husband, good father, kind son, firm friend, industrious trader, or careful man of business. The story of how man came again to know these ancient civilizations, of how we have a more intimate knowledge of the ways of people who lived thousands of years before the Christian era than we have of some who lived so recently as medieval times, constitutes one of the most fascinating passages in the history of exploration. 1390 © Underwood & Underwood A VIEW OF THE RUINS OF BABYLON “To us the time of Abraham seems almost incredibly distant, and we can scarcely bring ourselves to believe that civilized life was actually nossible then; but the Code of Hammurabi is sufficient to assure us that in Babylonia, at all events, life in Abraham’s days was practically as thoroughly organized and as carefully regulated as it is in our own” (see page I4I). 140 AE CADE ETOM Civ IZ AT TON of Larsam, whose name may also be read Eri-aku; Chedorlaomer is simply Kudur Lagamar, a good Elamite name. THE FIRST GREAT LAW-GIVER There remains Amraphel, King of Shinar, who is the most interesting fig- ure of all, if, as seems not unlikely, he is to be identified with Hammurabi, King of Babylon, the first great law-giver of the world whose laws have come down to us. At the time of the invasion of Palestine it seems as though he and the others were vassals of the Elamite Chedorlaomer. Perhaps the defeat sus- tained at Abraham’s hands weakened the Ilamite King’s authority. At all events we find Hammurabi firmly seated on the throne of Babylon by about 2297 B. C. Notwithstanding the unfortunate inci- dent with Abraham, he was a great con- queror, subduing the Elamites, and as- serting his dominion over the whole of Babylonia and Mesopotamia; but he was far more. He was one of the first of all kings to understand that a king’s glory is to be the father of his people. And so in his inscriptions, while we read of successful wars, we hear far more of canals dug, and temples restored and city walls built, while his favorite titles are “Builder of the Land,” and “King of Righteousness.” His great memorial is the famous Code of Laws, of which a copy, engraved on stone, was found by M. de Morgan at Susa and is now in the Louvre. Ham- murabi begins his Code with a little bit of self-glorification, perhaps not unwar- ranted. “T am the pastor, the saviour, whose sceptre is a right one, the good protect- ing shadow over my city; in my breast I cherish the inhabitants of Sumer and Akkad. By my genius in peace I have led them, by my wisdom I have directed them, that the strong might not injure the weak, to protect the widow and or- phan. By the command of Shamash (the Sun god), the great Judge of Heaven and Earth, let righteousness go forth in the land. Wetathe oppressed who has a case at law come and stand before my image as King of Righteousness, let him read the inscrip- 141 tion, and understand my precious words. The inscribed stone will explain his case to him, and make clear the law to him, and his heart, well pleased, will say, ‘Hammurabi is a master, who is as the father who begat his people!’ ” LAWS OF HAMMURABI Then follow 282 sections regulating al- most every conceivable incident and rela- tionship of life. Not only are the great crimes dealt with and penalized; life is regulated down to its most minute details. There are marriage laws and breach of promise laws, laws for the guardianship of the widow and the orphan, irrigation laws, anticipations of modern land legis- lation, providing that if land is not culti- vated the holder must give account and pay compensation, and licensing laws which would rather surprise ‘the trade” at the present day. “If a wine merchant has allowed riotous characters to assem- ble in her house, and those riotous char- acters she has not seized and driven to the palace, that wine merchant shall be put to death.” No such complete regulation of the af- fairs of human life was known elsewhere in ancient days; nor, indeed, it may be said, till Roman law asserted its power over the world. Of course, it does not follow that the glory of all this legisla- tion belongs to Hammurabi, who, in all probability, was merely the codifier of laws already existing. Still, his honor, even on that footing, is not small, and the revelation which his Code gives us of a well-ordered and highly disciplined community is simply amazing. To us the time of Abraham seems al- most incredibly distant, and we can scarcely bring ourselves to believe that civilized life was actually possible then; but the Code of Hammurabi is sufficient to assure us that in Babylonia, at all events, life in Abraham’s days was prac- tically as thoroughly organized and as carefully regulated as it is in our own (see article by Professor Clay in this number). The great law-giver of Babylonia, Hammurabi, founded an empire which endured through five subsequent reigns, and closed about 200 years after the ad- Ben Nek Eee © Underwood & Underwood THE CHIEF TEMPLE OF BABYLON, SACRED TO THE NATIONAL GOD, MARDUK There were hundreds of rooms in this temple. It was known as “the lofty house.” A ‘sacred way” built above the street connected it with the King’s palace. Along this the images of the gods and goddesses which constituted the court of Marduk were carried on festive occasions. ‘ ANSE, CIVAIDIEIS, (OM CHUN IUEIZZN INU 143 vent of its first founder. The steady average length of the reigns, speaks of the permanence and stability of the work which had been done by the great and wise man who had united all the wrang- ling ee of Babylonia into a single strong Stat But no human ee can endure for- ever, and the first empire of Babylonia was no exception to the rule. It suf- fered the fate common to most early em- pires. The more highly cultured and ad- vanced and more peaceful people were overwhelmed by the descent of a ruder and more warlike race, who had envied the wealth and prosperity of their neigh- bors. The conquering race, in this instance, was one of those wild mountain peoples who occupied the hill country between the Caspian Sea and the Persian Gulf. Find- ing a footing on the Babylonian plain near the mouth of the rivers, they grad- ually advanced, until their chief ascended the throne of Babylon and set up a new dynasty. They were called the Kassites, and for over 570 years they ruled over Babylonia, but a Babylonia that was no longer as it had once been, the one great ~ power in the world of the ancient Orient. A new power, Assyria, had begun to rise above the horizon, and from now on- ward, with occasional intervals of weak- ness and decline, this power strides like a Colossus over the whole of the ancient world, terrifying the nations by its re- morseless cruelty, and crushing down all opposition and all national aspirations by the ruthless force of one of the most tremendous implements of warfare ever forged by the hand of man. | ASSYRIAN RUTHLESSNESS With the possible exception of the Huns, or the wild hordes of Tamerlane, there has probably never existed in the history of the world a power so purely and solely destructive, so utterly devoid of the slightest desire to make any real contribution to the welfare of the human race, as Assyria. But the Huns and the hordes of Tamerlane were untaught sav- ages. In the case of Assyria you have a highly organized and civilized people, skilled to an astounding degree in the arts, with all the power to do great things for humanity, but absolutely de- ficient in the will. If you can imagine a man with no small amount of learning, with all the externals of civilization, with a fine taste in certain aspects of art, and a tremendous aptitude for organization and discipline, and then imagine such a man imbued with the ruthless spirit of a Red Indian brave and an absolute delight in witnessing the most ghastly forms of human suffering, you will have a fairly accurate conception of the ordinary Assyrian, king or com- moner; the outside, a splendid specimen of highly developed humanity—the inside a mere ravening tiger. There have been other great conquer- ing races which could be cruel enough on occasion, but at least they contributed something to the sum of human knowl- edge or achievement. The Roman Em. pire, for instance, ruthless as were its methods often, was actually a great boon to the world. ASSYRIA AN IMITATOR Assyria. made no such contribution to human life. Totally lacking in original- ity, she took her art, her language, her literature, and her science from the elder . Babylonian race upon which she waged such constant war. She created nothing ; she existed sim- ply to destroy; and when she ceased to destroy, she was destroyed. In a word, she was the scourge of God, or, as Isaiah put it, with his vivid insight, her function in the world was just to be God’s ax and saw to do the rough hewing that Provi- dence needed for the shaping of the race. Farly in their history the Babylonians seem to have sent a colony northwest- ward up the rivers into the land of Mesopotamia. There the colonists founded a city which they called Assur, after their god Ashur (see map, page 216). Inthe time of Hammurabi, Assur was still merely a colony of Babylonia and subject to the empire. In the less luxurious uplands of Meso- potamia the race had no temptation to degeneracy. Warfare with their wild neighbors from the hills, and warfare © Underwood & Underwood RELIEFS OF SACRED BULL AND DRAGON ON WALL OF ISHTAR GATE: BABYLON King Sargon, the gardener king, nearly 6,000 years ago, reviewed his reign much as a President of the United States does his administration in his farewell message. He calls attention to the fact that he restored and colonized ruined cities, that he made tracts of barren lands fertile, that he gave his nation a splendid system of irrigation works, that he protected: the needy from want and the weak from oppression, filling the nation’s granaries with corn, bringing down the high cost of living, and finding new markets (see page 137). 144 © Underwood & Underwood THE PROCESSIONAL ROAD TO NEBUCHADNEZZAR’S THRONE HALL: BABYLON Nebuchadnezzar was the last great warrior that this land produced (see page 157). He lived much nearer to our time than to the time of the gardener-king, Sargon, who is the first Babylonian king of whom we have definite knowledge (see page 137) and who preceded Nebuchadnezzar by 3,200 years. 145 — eS ‘ ST AAAS SA SR Bo “AAA. re. al ne Lk. Y ' . ™~_\ ~;, Bom ipo Ma mh a iat Ay BS. 3:3: mV A\aca) Albert T. Clay 1 from Prof. c yf otogra] FOU nt P OL R F Seo sCTION N TWO SI I RY, YN AT De Dic TK OL a X Q-YEAI , VY s ~ A plained; the third, ent to the Sumerian in character to be ex qui the abyloni ond, the B r that the schc sec the e fourth, umerian; st contains the $ he fir The the name o 1 girl o were a wonder s ago ( la e€ an, h ably and t character, Tent The reader will prob a much harder time of it than tod ooo years ago had 3D) f 1 boy or 00 infe irst. eae g th , who were Sumerians = The ay. history be ful people ee page 135). Ss gins, 6,000 year already civilized when present 146 WISUE, CRVAIDICIS, OU CW UOIZANI0 KORN even more constant with the wild beasts, the lions and elephants, which abounded in the district, kept them hardy and bold, and welded them together into a people capable of and ready for great achieve- ments should the opportunity arise. This opportunity came with the Kas- site conquest of Babylonia. The familiar rule of their mother-city was broken, and they owed no allegiance, but rather the reverse, to the conquerors. The patesis of Assur threw off the yoke of Babylon, called themselves kings, and established a kingdom (Assyria) which speedily be- came a formidable rival to the more an- cient southern State. FIVE HUNDRED YEARS OF STRIFE Five centuries or so ensued, filled with more or less constant strife and bicker- ing between the two States. In the mean- time Egypt, under the great soldier Pha- raohs of the XVIIIth dynasty, took ad- vantage of the divisions of the only two powers that could have resisted her con- quest of all Palestine and Syria, and pushed her empire as far as to the banks of the Euphrates. In the letters of the time which have been preserved (the Tell-el-Amarna tab- lets) it is interesting and amusing to see the eagerness with which the kings of Assyria, Babylonia, and Mitanni plead for recognition by the Egyptian Pharaoh, each striving to impress upon the great king the value of his own friendship and the worthlessness of his neighbor’s. Pharaoh of Egypt is the dominating figure of the whole world at this stage, and the kings of the East, whatever their private pride, are, in their public corre- spondence, his very humble and obedient servants. The balance of power, how- ever, was to be readjusted before long. There is no need to wade through the dreary story of Assyrian conquest, save where we find it touching upon the Scrip- ture records. King after king repeats, with monotonous reiteration, the story of endless campaigns, all marked bythe same ruthless slaughter, the same ghastly cru- elty, and the same lack of permanent results. Apparently it was quite impos- sible for an Assyrian king to be a peace- ful sovereign. His State lived by and 147 for the army alone, and if he did not give the army successful employment he was quickly murdered to make way for some one who would lead the troops to conquest and plunder. A KING REVIEWS HIS REIGN Take, as a single specimen of an As- syrian conqueror, Ashur-natsir-pal III, whose magnificent palace at Kalah, with its alabaster slabs exquisitely carved in relief, was excavated by Layard in the forties of last century. The slabs are now one of the glories of the British Museum, where also the statue of the great conqueror stands. We have the record of eighteen years of his reign: there is scarcely a year in which he was not at war; and this is the kind of war he made: “Yo the city of Tela I approached. The city was very strong ; three fortress- walls surrounded it. The inhabitants trusted to their strong walls and their numerous army; they did not come down or embrace my feet. With battle and slaughter I attacked the city and cap- tured it. Three thousand of their fight- ing men I slew with the sword; their spoil, their goods, their oxen, and their sheep I carried away; many captives I burned with fire. lL ‘captured, many, of their Ysoldiers alive; I cut off the hands and feet of some; of others I cut off the noses, the ears, and the fingers; I put out the eyes of many soldiers. I built up a pyramid of the living and a pyramid of heads. On high I hung up their heads on trees in the neighborhood of their city. Their young men and their maidens I burned with fire. The city I overthrew, dug it up, and burned it with fire; I annihi- lated it-22 A STAGGERING CRUELTY The imagination is staggered at the very thought of that pyramid of the liv- ing—human beings piled one upon an- other, suffocating, strangling, perishing slowly and miserably before that other pyramid of their more fortunate friends to whom death had come swiftly, and at the thought of the monster who not only did this, but gloried in it, and caused the - ~ : + ST ri; Rey aes Nee ' wal S| ewe SONS eS © Underwood & Underwood RUINS OF THE GORGEOUS PALACE OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR: BABYLON, MESOPOTAMIA The civilization of Italy is young compared to the duration of civilization in the Euphrates Valley, if we calculate that the culture of modern Rome is approximately 2,800 years old. Assuming that the civilization of the Euphrates perished with the destruction of Babylon in 535 B. C. (see page 161), we know that it was already 3,300 years old, for back in 3800 B. C. there were already in existence on the banks of the Euphrates cities with culture and society and literature almost as complex as that of today. 148 THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION story of his brutality to be written indel- ibly upon the walls of his house. But this is not the whole of the pic- ture. Side by side with the ruthlessness of this monster you have to place the other aspect of his nature, where you see him, a great and lordly gentleman, with a notable taste for the fine arts, planning and executing some of the most magnifi- cent of buildings. His great palace of Kalah stood 350 feet square on a high platform facing the temple which he had built to the god Ninib. In its center was a court meas- uring 125 feet by 100. Round this court were grouped the innumerable rooms and galleries of the great palace, chief among them the throne room, which measured 154 feet by 33. The curious narrowness of the chambers is very noticeable, show- ing the continued prevalence of the old Babylonian tradition, which was due to lack of good building stone and scarcity of timber. Round each room ran a range of sculp- tured alabaster slabs, showing the king at war, at the hunt, fording the river, or marching through the mountains; while all the cruel details of his merciless war- fare were represented to the life. In- scriptions ran along the slabs, giving practically a history of the king’s reign from year to year. The narrow galleries were roofed with cedar beams, decorated with gold, silver, and bronze, and gay with color. At the doorways stood monstrous figures of winged man-headed bulls or lions, head and shoulders carefully wrought out as though the creatures were leaping out of the walls, the rest left only suggested in outline. These were the divine spirits which guarded the entrance to the king’s house. DESCRIBES HIS PALACE Ashur-natsir-pal thus describes his own palace: “A palace for my royal dwelling- place, for the glorious seat of my royalty, I founded for ever, and_ splendidly planned it; I surrounded it with a cor- nice of copper. Sculptures of the crea- tures of land and sea carved in alabaster I made, and placed them at the doors. Lofty door-posts of cedar wood I made, 149 and sheathed them with copper, and set them upon the gates. Thrones of costly woods, dishes of ivory containing silver, gold, lead, copper, and iron, the spoil of my hand, taken from conquered lands, I deposited therein.” Such was a great Assyrian monarch on the evidence of his own records, which there is no reason to doubt; surely the strangest combination of absolute brute savagery and luxurious and artistic taste that has ever walked this earth. Multi- ply Ashur-natsir-pal by the dozen, and you have some idea of the misery and the slaughter for which the great Assyrian Empire was responsible during a period of at least 500 years. SENNACHERIB RAVAGES PALESTINE Ashur-natsir-pal was succeeded by Shalmaneser II (860-825 B. C.), first of the Assyrian kings who make mention of Israel in their inscriptions. He reigned for thirty-five years, and during that time he commanded in thirty-two campaigns, which gives an idea of how much spare time for peaceful industry was left to the Assyrian State. As a matter of fact, Assyria lived upon spoil. She was simply the greatest of all robber communities, and her staple industry was plundering the unlucky peoples who were rich enough to excite her envy and too weak to resist her violence. Sennacherib was perhaps the most widely famous of all Assyrian monarchs. For us, of course, Sennacherib is the Assyrian who “came down like a wolf on the fold,” and we think of him chiefly as the assailant of Judah, whose pride was so mysteriously brought low by the great disaster recorded in II Kings xix: 35: “The angel of the Lord went out, and smote in “the camp of the Assyrians an hundred four score and five thousand ; and when they arose early in the morn- ing, behold they were all dead corpses. As a matter of fact, however, Sen- nacherib’s dealings with Hezekiah of Judah were but a small portion of a vast campaign, and the disaster which hap- pened to his army, perfectly accurately recorded in Scripture, took place not near Jerusalem, but down on the frontier of Egypt. 150 What actually happened seems, so far as can be judged, to have been somewhat as follows: With the accession of the new Assyrian king came, as always, re- bellion among the subject States. Egypt was busy in ‘the background with prom- ises of help, never to ‘be realized, and all the Syrian States, including Judah, re- volted. Sennacherib marched into Pales- tine, ravaging and Gees laid siege to Ekron, and when the Egyptian army advanced to its relief, utterly defeated it at the battle of Altaku. HEZEKIAH MAKES READY FOR WAR Meanwhile Hezekiah had been making feverish preparations for defense against the storm which was about to burst upon him. He repaired the walls of Jeru- salem, and in order to make certain that the waters of the spring Gihon should be secured for the city and not left for the besiegers, he dug the tunnel on the side of the southeast hill of Jerusalem, re ferred to in the Siloam inscription. Sennacherib, fresh from his victory over the Egyptians, sat down before Lachish, and ‘besieged and took it. While he was thus engaged, Hezekiah’s heart failed him, and he sent his Syren to the Assyrian king, as recorded in II Kings XVili: 13-16, paying a heavy tribute as the price of safety. Sennacherib, how- ever, evidently doubted Hezekiah’s faith- fulness, and sent a division of his army under a political officer, the Rab-Shakeh, with a demand for surrender. But on this occasion Hezekiah, encour- aged by Isaiah, refused to yield any far- ther than he had already done, and Isaiah bade the king return a scornful and de- flant answer, giving Hezekiah the assur- ance that the Assyrian should never even succeed in investing the city. AN OUTBREAK OF BUBONIC PLAGUE? So it came to pass. The conqueror had more important things to think of than the immediate destruction of a small and obscure city like Jerusalem. Jeru- salem’s turn would come in due time; meanwhile it could wait. So he marched with the main army straight on Egypt, leaving a division to mask Jerusalem. He encamped at Pelusium, on the Egyp- tian frontier, and everything was ready THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC- MAGAZINE for a great battle which would have de- cided the fate of the ancient world. And then some terrible obscure dis- aster—the legend that links it with mice suggests that it may have been an out- break of the bubonic plague—overtook the Assyrian army. Sennacherib had to retreat with the broken remnants of his force, to call in his column from before Jerusalem, and to return discomfited to Nineveh. So Jerusalem was saved, as Isaiah had foreseen. Sennacherib’s own account of the cam- paign against Judah is as follows: “But Hezekiah of Jerusalem, who had not submitted to me, 46 of his walled towns, numberless forts and small places in their neighborhood I invested and took by means of battering-rams and the as- sault of scaling-ladders, the attack of foot-soldiers, mines, and breaches. Two hundred thousand, one hundred and fifty, great and small, men and women, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep without number I carried off from them and counted as spoil. “Hezekiah himself I shut up like a bird in a cage in Jerusalem, his royal city. I raised forts about him, and the exits of the chief gate of this city I barred. Himself the fear of my august Lordship overpowered. The Arabians and his faithful ones, whom he had brought in for the defense of Jerusalem, his royal city, fell away. vhs with 30 talents of gold and 800 of silver, precious stones, carbuncles, kassu stones, great pieces of lapis lazuli, ivory thrones, elephant hides and tusks, ushu wood, boxwood, all sorts of things, a huge treasure, and his own daughters, the womenfolk of his palace, men and women singers he brought after me to Nineveh, the city of my Lordship; and for the payment of the tribute and to do homage he dispatched his envoy” (Tay- lor cylinder inscriptions). HEZEKIAH’S TRIBUTE This inscription bears out perfectly the account given in II Kings xviii: 13-16: “Now in the fourteenth year of King Hezekiah did Sennacherib, King of As- Syria, come up against all the fenced cities of Judah, and took them. And Hezekiah King of Judah sent to the King > © Underwood & Underwood THE BRICK FLOOR OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR’S THRONE HALL, LOOKING TOWARD THE EUPHRATES: BABYLON The outer wall of the palace was made of bricks stamped with the name of Nebuchad- nezzar and was some 23% feet thick, the inner wall, also made of brick, being over 44 feet thick, while the space between the two walls, nearly 70 feet, was filled in with sand and other material, the total thickness thus being nearly 136% feet. The burnt bricks of which the retaining walls were composed were laid in asphalt and are so compactly joined that it is impossible to separate them into their layers. HOW BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA WAGED WAR One might reconstruct the entire system of military tactics of Babylonian and Assyrian kings from the records in bas relief left by them on slabs of stone. the method of attacking a city with battering rams and archers. the background show that Sherman’s epigrammatic description of war fitted as well in B. G. as it does in’ 1916 A. D. of Assyria to Lachish, saying, I have of- fended: return from me; that which thou puttest upon me I will bear. And the King of Assyria appointed unto Heze- kiah King of Judah three hundred tal- ents of silver and thirty talents of gold. And Hezekiah gave him all the silver that was found in the house of the Lord, and in the treasures of the king’s house. At that time did Hezekiah cut off the gold from the doors of the temple of the Lord, and from the pillars which Hezekiah King of Judah had overlaid, and gave it to the King of Assyria.” Lor In this picture we see The impaled prisoners in ~ 725 But while both records are at one as to the straits to which Hezekiah was re- duced, the Assyrian inscription makes no claim with regard to the capture of Jeru- salem ; and its silence is quite as eloquent as a direct statement that Jerusalem was not captured would have been. The Book of Kings records the death of the great enemy of Judah in these terms (II Kings xix: 36-37): “So Sen- nacherib King of Assyria departed, and went and returned, and dwelt at Nine- veh. And it came to pass as he was worshipping in the house of Nisroch, his FUGITIVES SWIMMING TO A FORTRESS ON INFLATED SKINS god, that Adrammelech and Sharezer his sons smote him with the sword; and they escaped into the land of Armenia. And Esar-haddon, his son, reigned in his stead.” Placed as it is immediately after the story of his disaster, this would lead us to suppose that the assassination took place immediately after his return from Palestine. “By THE RIVERS OF BABYLON” As a matter of fact, however, some- thing like twenty years elapsed between the one event and the other; and in the interval Sennacherib had fought many battles and made many conquests. Once more, like Sargon, he had conquered Babylon, and had utterly destroyed that ancient city, turning the waters of a canal across its site; while it was he who really made Nineveh the focus of Assyrian power, and so identified it with the for- tunes of the nation that to name Assyria is to bring up the thought of Nineveh. Me Wei Nineveh indeed. that reat city.’ The circuit of its massive walls was about seven miles, while outside the walls of the fortress-town itself the city suburbs stretched far into the country. The walls themselves were 100 feet high and averaged 50 feet in thickness, while at the gates this was doubled. Ejighteen mountain streams poured their waters into the town, insuring a constant supply. Even today the palace of Nineveh has only been partially explored; but the 71 rooms which have been excavated show that Sennacherib’s splendid home was the greatest of all Assyrian palaces, while the artistic excellence of the wall sculptures is remarkable. All this greatness came, however, to a disastrous end in 681 B.C., when, like so many Assyrian monarchs, Sennacherib fell before the sword of the assassin. King Ashurbanipal twenty years later made an end of Egypt's pretensions to rivalry with Assyria. Even Thebes, the great sacred city of the land, never be- fore violated by the tread of foreign foes, fell before the irresistible Assyrian army, and Ashurbanipal and his troops returned in triumph “with full hands,” as he says, to Nineveh. THE FALL OF THEBES The fall of Thebes made a profound impression upon the ancient world. Egypt’s ancient fame had cast a glamour upon men’s minds, which stil! obsessed them ‘long after her real power had passed away. Nobody believed that she could ever be actually conquered, and when the impossible happened, and Thebes fell before the Assyrians, the whole world was amazed. You catch the reflection of the general astonishment in the words of the prophet Nahum (11:8). Prophesying the fall of Nineveh, he compares her with Thebes, which had so lately fallen. “Art thou better,’ he says, “than No-Amon (The- bes), that was situate among the rivers, that had the waters round about it, whose rampart was the sea, and her wall was from the sea? Ethiopia and Egypt were 153 ASHURBANIPAL ON HORSEBACK SPEARING A LION WHILE ANOTHER LION ATTACKS THE HORSE WHICH THE KING LEADS BEE a ASHURBANIPAL AND HIS QUEEN ENJOYING A CUP OF WINE Ashurbanipal was a sort of a Napoleon of the ancient world—a warrior who took pride in his service to literature and art (see page 155 TRIBUTE AND CAPTIVES her strength and it was infinite. Put and Lubim were thy helpers. Yet was she carried away, she went into captivity; her young children also were dashed in mileces ateche top of all the streets; and they cast lots for her honorable men, and all her great men were bound in chains.” Such was the miserable fate of the greatest of ancient capitals in those cruel days. Such before long was to be the fate of Nineveh herself. FROM WAR TO WAR From slaughter in Egypt Ashurbanipal turned cheerfully to slaughter in Baby- lonia. A great war arose with the old enemy Elam, and, in a fierce battle at Tulliz, the Elamite King Teumman was beaten and slain. The famous reliefs representing the principal events of the battle give us the clearest possible pictures of Assyrian warfare, with all its ghastly cruelty. We see the stress of the conflict—the Elamite King making his final despairing stand and shooting his last arrow against his triumphant foes. Then follows all the brutal savagery of victory. The King’s head is hacked off with a dagger and borne in triumph be- fore his conquerors. And then we have a picture of Ashurbanipal feasting with his wife and attendants in the garden of his palace, while from a tree before him hangs the ghastly head of the dead Elam- ite King, blackening in the sun. Such was an Assyrian conqueror and such were his pleasures. Yet withal Ashurbanipal was one of the most enlightened of Assyrian mon- archs. He had a great taste for litera- ture, and in this respect we owe him an infinite debt. His scribes were com- manded by him to make copies of the an- _nals of Babylonia and Assyria from the libraries of all the most important cities in the land, and it is from these copies, made on clay tablets and preserved in the library of the king’s palace, that the bulk of what is known of Assyrian and Baby- lonian history and religion has been learned. By the year 640 B. C. his cam- paigns were over. Henceforth he de- voted himself to a life of literature, hunt- ing, and luxury. A MANY-SIDED MONARCH Of all Assyrian monarchs he was by far the most splendid. His triumphs in the chase are recorded in magnificent re- liefs, which remain for all time among the artistic treasures of the human race (see pages 154 and 202) ; his library was the greatest of ancient days, and its very wrecks are beyond comparison precious to us (see page 167). It was his luxury, however, that chiefly impressed the world of his time. The fame of it crystallized at last into the well-known Greek tradition of how Sar- danapalus, last of the kings of Assyria, lived a life of incredible luxury and sake indulgence, and how, at last, when be- sieged in his palace and hopeless of relief, he closed his career by erecting a vast and priceless funeral pyre, on which he 155 Photograph from Prof. Albert T. Clay PAY-ROLL OF WOMEN WIIO WERE CONNECTED WITH THE TEMPLE SERVICE FOR TWO MONTHS The first two columns record the monthly payments, in grain; the third contains the total, and the fourth the name. The holes in the second and third columns are check marks. Only what is checked off was paid, as the sum total shows (see Professor Clay’s article, pages 162-216). burned himself to death with all his harem and his personal attendants. Sardanapalus is certainly meant for Ashurbanipal, seen through Greek spec- tacles; but he met with no such end. So far as we know, he did what few Assy- rian kings managed to do—he died peace- fully in his own palace. The Greek tra- dition has merely confused his fate with that of his second son, Sin-shar-ishkun, the last king of Assyria, who did burn himself in his palace after defeat. All the same the reign of Ashurbanipal closes the glories of Nineveh. The great bully who had bestridden the ancient world for five centuries, slaughtering, torturing, robbing, and boasting, was now to fall, and to fall irremediably. For generations the Assyrian had_ boasted himself master of the world. un These tablets are in the University of Pennsylvania Collection. ISAIAH’S INDICTMENT Isaiah has summed up his bluster and braggart spirit in a couple of verses (Isaiah x: 13; 14))> “For he’ sarthiaian, the strength of my hand I have done it; and by my wisdom; for I am prudent; and I have removed the bounds of the people, and have robbed their treasures, and I have put down the inhabitants like a valiant man; and my hand hath found as a nest the riches of the people; and as one gathereth eggs that are forsaken, have I gathered all the earth; and there was none that moved the wing or opened the mouth, or chirped.” “Shall the axe,” cries the prophet, “boast itself against him that heweth therewith?’ The time had come for the axe to be broken and cast aside. A WOMAN This tablet gives the temple pay-roll for seven months, was found written two years later. century B. C. Another, almost identical, Photograph from Prof. Albert T. Clay TAKING A MAN’S PLACE 3,200 YEARS AGO RECEIVED A MAN’S SALARY belonging to the fourteenth Three changes had taken place—one man’s salary was raised, that of another was reduced, and a woman had taken a man’s position, receiving the same salary that he had enjoyed. Babylon, once the greatest city of the East, now for long trodden under the heel of Assyria, was stirring for her brief renaissance under a new dynasty. Her king, Nabopolassar, allied himself with Cyaxares, king of the Median highland- ers, who were now descending from their mountains eager for conquest. Sin-shar- ishkun and his Assyrians were hopelessly defeated in the field, and after a des- perate defense of Nineveh, lasting two years, the last Assyrian king shut himself up in his palace, with his wives and chil- dren, and perished in its blazing ruins. The whole world held its breath for awhile. The news seemed too good to be true; and then everywhere one universal pean of joy went up from the nations. BABYLON’S TRIUMPH OVER EGYPT Then Nabopolassar sent against the Egyptians his son Nebuchadrezzar, better known to us as Nebuchadnezzar, the last outstanding specimen of the great race of fierce and ruthless soldiers that this land produced. Jeremiah has left a most vivid picture of the beaten Egyptian army streaming down in rout through Palestine. “Go up,” he cries (xlvi: 11, 12), “into Gilead and take balm, O virgin daughter of Egypt; in vain shalt thou use many medi- cines; for thou shalt not be cured. The nations have heard of thy shame, and thy cry hath filled the land; for the mighty man hath stumbled against the mighty, and they are fallen both together.” JERUSALEM S SURRENDER Shortly after his great victory Nebu- chadnezzar succeeded his father as king in Babylon. Jehoiakim of Judah became his vassal, but rebelled after three years. He died before the punishment of his folly had come upon the land, and when Nebuchadnezzar appeared before Jerusa- lem, his successor Jehoiachin surrendered himself to save his people. Nebuchadnezzar deported him and 10,000 of the chief people of the land Finally, the last king of Judah, Zedekiah, after almost nine years of his reign had passed, tempted, as of old, by the vain promises of the Egyptian Pharaoh Haa- ab-ra (Hophra) ; did the most insane act he eave by breaking faith with the great King of Babylon. Of course it was sheer madness, and 158 could have but one end. The Babylonian army surrounded Jerusalem, and after a desperate defense of 18 months the Holy City was taken (586 B.C.) (Il ne soxy, ll Ooromigles ssoail, Jeremiah XXxix). Nebuchadnezzar was not quite so cruel as an Assyrian conqueror would have been, but he was cruel enough. He slew Zedekiah’s sons before their father’s eyes, and then blinded the vanquished king, that so his last earthly sight might be one of horror; then he swept him and the majority of the important people still remaining in the land into captivity. Thus miserably ended the rule of the House of David, having endured for about 414 years (1000-586 B. C.). Nebuchadnezzar is always associated in our minds with the splendor of his great city, Babylon. “Is not this great Babylon which I have built?” And indeed he de- serves such an association; and if ever a man had cause for pride as he surveyed the work of his hands, Nebuchadnezzar was that man as he looked abroad on Babylon. Great she had always been, reverenced as the mother city, ‘and the source of learning and law even by her Assyrian conquerors in the day of her humiliation. But Nebuchadnezzar and his father had found her as the Assyrians had left. her—powerless, humiliated, and sunk. He raised her, within a generation, to far more than her ancient splendor—to a magnificence indeed which beggared description ; so that even Rome, wonder- ful as its spell has been, has never been able to oust Babylon from the mind and imagination of the human race as the typical world-city, the emblem of all that is magnificent and luxurious and central. Ancient historians can find no words to describe the grandeur of the palaces, the temples, the hanging gardens of the great city by the Euphrates. NEBUCHADNEZZAR A MAN OF PEACE Great soldier as Nebuchadnezzar was, he was really by nature and instinct a man of peace, not of the merciless and unprofitable Assyrian type at all. “He was, in truth, a son of Babylonia, not of Assyria; a man of peace, not of war; a devotee of religion and culture, not of THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE organization and administration,” so says Goodspeed (“History of the Babylonians and Assyrians’’). The same high authority remarks that “the picture of him in the Book of Daniel is, in not a few respects, strikingly accu- rate. His inscriptions reveal a loftiness of religious sentiment unequaled in the royal literature of the Oriental world.” There can be no question of the dignity and reverence of some of the prayers used, or sanctioned for use, by the great king. O eternal prince! Lord of all being! As for the king whom thou lovest, and Whose name thou has proclaimed As was pleasing to thee, Do thou lead aright his life, Guide him in a straight path. I am the prince obedient to thee, The creature of thy hand; Thou hast created me, and With dominion over all people Thou hast intrusted me. According to thy grace, O Lord, Which thou dost bestow on all people, Cause me to love thy supreme dominion, And create in my heart The worship of thy godhead, And grant whatever is pleasing to thee Because thou hast fashioned my life. Such a prayer is worthy to have come from the lips of him whom the Book of Daniel represents as saying: “Now I Nebuchadnezzar praise and extol and honour the King of Heaven; for all His works are truth, and His w ays righteous- ness; and those that walk in pride lal is able to abase” (iv: 37). A SHORT-LIVED RENAISSANCE Wonderful as was this renaissance of ancient Babylon under Nebuchadnezzar, it was destined to be a short-lived splen- dor. The great king was succeeded by weaklings, and a great new power, that of the Persians under Cyrus, was rising in the north. Nabuna’id, the last King of Babylon, was the most pious of mon- archs, serving his gods with unexampled devotion. In this respect we owe him no small debt ; for it is his inscriptions on his res- torations of ancient temples that have enabled modern scholars to arrive at ap- proximate dates for the earlier Babylon- ian kings. What was wanted for Baby- lon them, however, was not a pious dilet- © Underwood & Underwood A PART OF THE CITY OF BABYLON WHICH HAS BEEN EXCAVATED CONTRASTED WITH A PART OF THE CITY THAT IS STILL COVERED WITH A GREAT ACCUMULATION OF DEBRIS The deep, steep sides of the excavation show the immense amount of earth that was removed before these old dwellings were uncovered. (Contrast with the picture on page 195.) 159 . a © Underwood & Underwood EXCAVATED HOMES OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR AND NEBOPALASSER IN BABYLON The sphynx and the palm trees tell something of the story of the beauties of Babylon in ancient days—the one of magnificent sculpture and architecture and the other of landscape gardening at its best (see page 158). 160 THE CRADITE OK CIVILIZATION tante, but a great soldier, and such a man she could not show. When Cyrus with his Persians and Medes invaded Babylonia, Nabuna‘id sent against them his son Belshar-utsur— the Belshazzar of the Book of Daniel. There is still extant a cylinder of Nabu- na‘id inscribed with a prayer to the gods on behalf of the young prince. The prayer was not heard. Belshazzar was totally defeated. Nabuna’id shut himself up in Babylon, whose mighty walls and storehouses should have with-. , stood siege for years, probably until the strength of the army of Cyrus was bro- ken; but there was treachery within the gates. We are all familiar with the old story of how Cyrus diverted the Eu- phrates, marched his troops up the dry river-bed into the town and took it by surprise on a night of feasting. ‘That is all pure romance. CYRUS “A MAN WITH A MISSION” We have the actual account of Cyrus’s triumph, written by the hands of the men who in all probability were responsible for it—the treacherous priests of Mar- duk, the great god of Babylon. The rela- tive part of the Cylinder of Cyrus runs thus: “Cyrus, King of Anshan, he ( Mar- duk), called by name; to sovereignty over the whole world he appointed him. Marduk, the great lord, guardian of his people, looked with joy on his pious works and his upright heart; he com- manded him to go to his city Babylon, and he caused him to take the road to Babylon, going by his side as a friend and companion. Without skirmish or battle he permitted him to enter Baby- forme. In other words, the priests of Marduk intrigued with Cyrus, inviting him to ad- vance against Babylon at first, and on his arrival delivering the city into his hands. Gubaru (Gobryas), general of Cyrus, marched in unopposed. Nabuna’id was taken prisoner and kindly treated. But Belshazzar was of different metal. He, with the remainder of his forces, made a last desperate stand, and was slain in the 161 hopeless defense of a city already con- quered. It is to this last despairing effort of the Babylonian crown prince that we must probably refer the scene of Belshazzar’s feast (Daniel v). Such an ending—the last wild revel before the slaughter— would be perfectly in accordance with Mesopotamian and: Babylonian traditions for the fall of royalty. d “BABYLON IS FALLEN” . So ended the Neo-Babylonian empire after a brief but splendid existence. The whole period of its endurance from the fall of Nineveh to that of Babylon was only 90 years (626-536 B. C.) ; but if we want to realize something of how the great city of the Euphrates and its mon- archs had impressed the imagination of the subject peoples, we have only to turn to the fourteenth chapter of Isaiah, where, in one of the most wonderful pieces of taunting poetry in the literature of any land, Isaiah, himself in all probability a spectator of the fall of Babylon, records his thoughts and emotions at the ruin of the queen of cities and her king: “Hell from beneath is moved for thee, to meet thee at thy coming; it stirreth up the dead for thee, even all the chief ones of the earth; it hath raised up from their thrones all the kings of the nations. All they shall speak and say unto thee: ‘Art thou also become weak as we? Art thou become like unto us?’ “Thy pomp is brought down to the grave, and the noise of thy viols; the worm is spread under thee, and the worms cover thee. How art thou fallen from heaven, O Lucifer, son of the morn- ing! How art thou cut down to the ground which didst weaken the nations. For thou hast said in thine heart: ‘I will ascend into heaven; I will exalt my throne above the stars of God; I will also sit upon the mount of the congregation in the sides of the north; I will ascend above the heights of the clouds; -I will be like the” Most) High: > Yet thout-shall@be brought down to hell, to the sides of the ites Photograph from Frederick Simpich A THRONG OF PILGRIMS ON THE DESERT OUTSIDE OF BAGDAD PREPARING TO JOIN THE CARAVAN OF PILGRIMS FOR KERBELA AND NEDJEF Before man came the land was waste. develop its capabilities, it became “as the garden of the Lord.” grip of his first inheritance, it has gone back to waste again. When he had learned to bridle its rivers and to Now that he has lost the Yet there can be no doubt that here is a country of almost infinite possibilities, and that in the future, possibly not a very distant future, the first home of the race will again be one of the most fertile and perhaps one of the busiest spots in the world. PUSHING BACK HISTORY’S HORIZON How the Pick and Shovel Are Revealing Civilizations That Were Ancient When Israel Was Young loy2 Neer Ibs (Cinna? PROFESSOR OF ASSYRIOLOGY AND BABYLONIAN LITERATURE, YALE UNIVERSITY NE of the romances of the last 75 years has been the unearth- ing of the remains of forgotten empires and the decipherment of their ancient records. A little over a half a century ago what was known concerning the ancient peoples of the nearer East, besides that which is contained in the Old Testament, could be written in a very brief form. Israel was then regarded as one of the great nations of antiquity. Abraham be- longed to the dawn of civilization. The references to other peoples in the Old Testament had little meaning, for few appreciated the fact that the history of many pre-Israelitish nations had practi- cally faded from the knowledge of man. The pick and spade of the explorer, however, and the patient toil of the de- 162 © Underwood & Underwood THE PONTOON BRIDGE ACROSS THE TIGRIS RIVER AT BAGDAD The circular boats, tied to the bridge, are like those which, 2,000 years ago, Herodotus described as being used on the river. “The boats which come down the river to Babylon are circular and made of skins. The frames, which are of willow, are cut in the country of the Armenians above Assyria, and on these, eee serve for hulls, a covering of skins is stretched outside, and thus the boats are made, without either stem or stern, quite round, like a shield. They are then entirely filled with straw, and their cargo is put on board, after which they are suffered to float down the stream. Their chief freight is wine, stored in casks made of the wood of the palm tree. They are managed by two men, who stand upright in them, each plying an oar, one pulling and the other pushing. The boats are of various sizes, some larger, some smaller; the biggest reach as high as 5,000 tale ents’ burthen. Each vessel has a fie ass on board; those of larger size have more than one 163 A GONDOLA POLED THROUGH THE GARDE cipherer have thrown a flood of light upon the situation; ruin-hills of the past have been opened up to the light of day, out of which emerge marvelous revelations in the form of written records and other remains. ASTOUNDING REVELATIONS These, although written in languages and scripts the very existence of which was unknown to man for two thousand years and more, are now forced to reveal their story of the religion, politics, sci- ence, and life of not a few of the ancient and forgotten peoples These researches have resulted in as- tounding revelations. Israel, instead of being one of the foremost nations of an- tiquity, now found to have been a small power which had thrived in the late pre-Christian centuries, and had occu- pied a comparatively insignificant posi- tion among the great nations of its age. Instead of the patriarch Abraham _ be- longing to the beginning of time, it is now found that he occupies a middle chapter in the history of mankind. But, above all else, one of the greatest 1S SHALLOW C NS!s Photograph from Frederick Simpich ANALS THAT WATER BAGDAD THE GREAT DATE surprises is that the earliest peoples, in- stead of being barbarous or uncultured, were civilized and possessed a culture of a high order. In fact, the greatest crea- tions of the Babylonians in literature and art belong to the third and fourth, and perhaps earlier, millenniums before Christ. Pohtical and religious institutions were already ancient in the days of the patri- archs. What may be regarded as primi- tive found, but it points to a still greater antiquity than the earliest periods now known. iS IMPERISHABLE RECORDS Not only did the builders use brick 1n- stead of stone at Babel, but they also used clay for their writing material. An- nual inundations deposited sand and clay of a fine quality in the valley, which was used for this purpose. The well-kneaded, but unbaked, inscription, lying perchance beneath the disintegrated abodes of the ruined building, though yearly and for millenniums saturated! thoroughly by the winter rains or inundations, when care- fully extracted from its resting place of 164 cee A ie gph te © Underwood & Underwood JEWISH FAMILIES OF THE WELL-TO-DO AT THE WHARF: BAGDAD This city, which was the scene of the Arabian Nights, is only 100 miles from ancient Babylon. There has been a considerable town here for 4,000 years; compared to it London is as of yesterday. 165 166 from two to six thousand years and al- lowed to dry, often appears as if it had been written yesterday. The original plasticity or adhesiveness of the sun- dried tablet returns, and if properly pre- served will last indefinitely. The baked tablets, as would be naturally expected, on the whole are better preserved. The well-kneaded clay, which had been washed to free it from grit and sand, while in a plastic condition was shaped into the form and size desired. As the style of paper used at the present time is frequently an indication of the character of the writing, the same is true, in a gen- eral way, of an ancient Babylonian clay tablet or cylinder. In most instances the trained Assyriologist at a glance can de- termine the character, in a general way, of an inscription by its shape or appear- ance. The stylus, which was made of metal or wood, was a very simple affair. In the early periods it was triangular and in the later quadrangular. By holding it beneath the hand between the thumb ‘and second finger, with the index finger on top, and pressing the corner of it into the soft clay, the impression made will be that of a wedge; hence the term cunei- form (from the Latin cunues) writing. The cuneiform script, written upon clay, was employed by many different peoples of western Asia. EARLIEST KNOWN RECORDS The date of the earliest known inscrip- tion is still undetermined. ‘The chronol- ogy prior to 2400 B. C. is still in a chaotic state, and yet the recent discovery of a tablet giving several new dynasties, be- sides many other facts which have been ascertained, offer sufficient indications of a much greater antiquity for the earliest known inscriptions than have been cred- ited them. The illustration of the Hoffman tablet (on page 167), in the General Theolog- ical Seminary, New York city, shows one of the few known archaic inscriptions. To assign it the date 5000 B. C. would be a modest reckoning. And yet the char- acters are so far removed from the origi- nal pictures that in most instances it is only by the help of the values they pos- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE sess that the original pictures can be sur- mised, ‘This tablet, tentatively translated by Professor Barton, of Bryn - Mawr, reads as follows: “3005 Bur of a field of clay in Ushu, of the land of the setting sun, belonging to the priest Sallaltur ; 36050 cubits on its Akkadward side, the lower. from the beginning; 36050 cubits running along the breadth of the ziggurrat of Shamash, the brilliant lady; 36000 cubits to the temple of Shamash, the messenger of Ab, the brilliant ; 36050 cubits on the side of the moun- tain, the abode of Shukura, the pa-asag. May he give strength; may he bless.” BRONZE AND STONE INSCRIPTIONS While in all known periods clay was the writing material, important royal documents, votive and historical inscrip- tions, etc., are found on stone, and in some instances on bronze. In cutting such inscriptions the scribe imitated the characters made in clay with the stylus. Not unlike other scripts, the cuneiform was originally pictorial; but, as in Egypt, the hierogly phs became more and more simplified and conventionalized. But, unlike the Egyptians, the Baby- lonian or Sumerian became convention- alized at a time prior to the known his- tory of the land; and the hieroglyphs were not continued 1n use even for monu- mental purposes, but were practically lost sight of. There are known over six hundred Each of these has syllabic and ideographic values from one to more than a hundred. Combination of two and three signs have ideographic values, so that there are known at present twenty thousand values for the six hundred signs. Besides the characters are differ- ent in every age, due chiefly to the process of simplification that went on continually. Practically every man of any standing in ancient Babylonia had a seal cylinder or seal, the impression of which upon the document or letter served the purpose of his signature. Thousands of these have been found, cut out of all kinds of hard stone, which had been imported from dis- tant lands, for Babylonia is an alluvial piain. As a substitute for a seal the individual could make his thumb-nail mark upon the soft clay, or impress upon it a portion of signs. his giziktu, which was a cord attached to an under- garment. This, in all prob- ability, is to be identified with the sizith mentioned in the Old Testament ENunee 152 38, 36), .and even at the present time worn by orthodox He- brews BABYLONIAN “STENOGRA- PHERS”’ In all periods scribes are very numerous. ‘This is inferred from the fact that in some periods almost every document is found to have been written by a dmterent scribe. ~In the Assyrian period women are known to have be- longed to this profession. The scribes wrote the legal documents, as well as, the private letters of individuals. They even placed the seal impression upon the legal document, in- proximity to which they wrote the name of the person to whom it belonged, usually the obligor or the witness. In the time of Hammurabi (about 2000 B. C.) there was at hand an officer called the. Burgul, who was prepared to cut temporary seals upon a soft material for those who did not possess them. ‘This is the custom in Oriental lands in the pres- ent day. In Constantinople, for. instance, the curbs of certain streets are lined with scribes prepared to write for the illiter- ate. An occasional man among them is provided with little blank stamps in soft brass, and with an engraving tool is pre- pared to cut the signature or initials of the man upon one of them while he waits. The impression of the stamp is affixed to his letter in place of his signature. nary, “CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY OF NINEVEH AVIBEIS: The cuneiform inscriptions in clay, stone, and metal that now repose in mu- seums and in private collections number hundreds of thousands. A WRITTEN RECORD AT LE human writings. a modest reckoning (see text, page 166). Photograph from Prof. Albert T. Clay AST 7,000 YEARS OLD This is the Hoffman Tablet, in the General Theological Sem- New York City. This is one of the most ancient of all To assign it the date of 5000 B. C. would be Several ancient libraries and immense archives have been found. Years ago the literary library of Ashurbanipal *(668- 626 B. C.) was discovered at Nineveh. It appeared to the excavators that the library had been deposited in the upper chambers of the palace, and that when the building was destroyed they fell through to the lower floors, where they were found in masses. The inscriptions showed that they had been arranged according to their subject in different positions in the library. Each series had a title, being composed gener- ally of the first words of the first tablet. Usually at the end of each tablet its num- ber in the series was given. In the library were found epics re- ligious, astrological and magical texts, chronicles, paradigms, syllabaries, etc. This is the only library that has been found in Babylonia or Assyria which can be regarded as a literary library, where efforts had been made to assemble lit- erary and other works produced at times not necessarily connected with the era to which the library belonged. THE EX TATED SITE OF ASSUR, A COLONY Oe Underwood & Underwood OF BABYLON Parts of the city’s walls, quays, streets, palaces, and temples have been laid bare The scribes of Ashurbanipal searched the temples and schools of Babylonia and Assyria for these productions and re- wrote them in what was then modern Assyrian (see page 155) There are many indications of the tran- scription of older texts, or the handing down of them from one period to an- other. Not a few tablets in the Ashur- banipal library have subscriptions or colophons stating that they are copies written according to originals found in such and such a city. Several instances of earlier versions have been found. For example, there is a version of the Gilgamesh represented in the Yale collection by a tablet, and in the Berlin Museum by a fragment which belong to a time fifteen hundred years earlier than the library of Ashurbanipal. The same is true of the deluge story, which is represented by more ancient versions. Moreover, the one in the li- brary of J. Pierpont Morgan, dated about 2000 B. C., clearly shows that it is a copy of a still older version. Not only is the 168 © Underwood & Underwood ROUND-ROOFED TOMBS OF OLD ASSUR Assur was the earliest capital of Assyria. It is therefore one of the most ancient of cities. It stood for more than 2,000 years, although long superseded as capital and trading center. 169 170 name of the scribe who made the copy given, but where the original was defect- ive he wrote “broken.” In more recent years temple and school libraries have been found at Nippur, Sip- par, Larsa, Babylon, and Erech. The libraries of the first three sites belong chiefly to the third millennium B. C.; those of the last two belong to later periods. They are primarily temple school l- braries, and contain also the tablets used by the different priests in the temple service, as hymns, prayers or liturgies, omen or divination texts ; also syllabaries or dictionaries, grammatical exercises, mathematical texts, etc. At Nippur school library material belonging to the second millennium was also found. Besides these libraries immense ar- chives of temple administrative docu- ments belonging to all periods have been found in practically all sites where ex- cavations have been conducted by the Occidental or by the illicit diggings of the Oriental. GOVERNMENT ACCOUNTS CAREFULLY KEPT But especially large archives of these documents, numbering several hundred thousand and belonging to the third and fourth millenniums B. C., have been found at Tello, Nippur, Drehem, Jokha, and recently at Ur. These tablets record the payment into the temple stores of tithes or offerings of drink, vegetables, or animals, of taxes, rents, loans, and also the disbursement of this property. The temple stood in rela- tion to the people as the State does in modern times, and these are the records of administration. Exhaustive accounts were kept of what disbursed. was received and what was Great storehouses held the income. There were immense cattle yards, in which the property of the temple in live stock was cared for, as, for example, the one at Drehem, close by the city of Nippur. The cattle not disposed of were’ in- trusted to herdsmen, with whom con- tracts were made, setting forth their re- sponsibilities and regulating their profits ; documents referring to granaries, freight boats, messengers ; to payments of temple - officials ; THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE in fact, records similar to the business transactions such as are ordi- narily found in the administrative offices of our present-day institutions. Next to the temple documents, in point of numbers, come the legal and business documents of the Assyrians and Baby- lonians. One hundred thousand tablets of this character would be a reasonable estimate of this class of literature in the different museums and private collec- tions, belonging to all the periods. ‘These documents are one of the most fruitful sources of light thrown upon the every- day life of the people, not to mention the valuable historical and chronological data gathered from them. AN ANCIENT MARRIAGE CONTRACT There are dowry and marriage con- tracts, partnership agreements, records of debts, promissory notes, leases of lands, houses, or slaves, deeds of trans- fer of all kinds of property, mortgages, documents granting the power of attor- ney, tablets dealing with the adoption of children, divorce, bankruptcy, inherit- ance; in fact, almost every imaginable kind of deed or contract is found among them. Following is an example of a marriage contract : “Nabt-nadin-akhi, son of Beél-akbé-iddin, grandson of Ardi-Nergal, spoke thus to Shum- ukina, son of Mushallimu: ‘Give me thy Ina- Esagila-banat, the virgin, to wife to Uballitsu- Gula, ‘my son.’ Shum-ukina hearkened unto him, and gave Ina-Esagila-banat, his virgin daughter, to Uballitsu-Gula, his son. One mina of silver, three female slaves, Latubashinnu, Ina- silli-esabat and Taslimu, besides house furni- ture, with Ina-Esagila-banat, his daughter, as a marriage-portion he gave to Nabt-nadin-akhi. Nana-Gishirst, the slave of Shum-ukina, in lieu of two-thirds of a mina of silver, her full price Shum-ukina gave to Nabut-nadin-akhi out of the one mina of silver for her marriage-por- tion. One-third of a mina, the balance of the one mina, Shum-ukina will give Nabt-nadin- akhi, and her marriage-portion is paid. Each took a writing (or contract).” This is followed by the names of six witnesses, that of the scribe, and the date. It is from the contract literature that we become familiar with the life which pulsated in the streets and the homes of the ancients who lived in Babylonia and Assyria so long ago. Through it we learn to know the personalities of the Photograph from Prof. Albert T. Clay A TABLET CONTAINING THE EARLIEST-KNOWN LAWS: BABYLON (SEE PAGE 175 These laws were written in Sumerian about 4,200 years ago. It is believed that they formed the basis of the Hammurabi Code, issued in 2000 B. C., just as British laws furnished the basis of our own in our early history. This tablet is in the Yale Collection. 171 hgZ people, their plans, their needs, and the things against which they guarded, which, it might be said, are the same as those familiar to us in the present day. A TRIBUTE TO THE BABYLONIANS Again and again are we forced to ex- claim as we become acquainted with the doings of the ancients from these sources that our boasted civilization has devel- oped very little in the essentials of life. These documents are so numerous that we will know individuals of certain pe- riods more intimately than we know of some of the centuries of our Christian era. When the tablets, for example, of the first dynasty of Babylon, about 2000 B. C., have been published, the history and geneaologies of many families cover- ing several generations will be known. In the late period several old families of Babylon and Erech can be traced for centuries, notably the Egibi of Babylon and such families as Ekur-Zakur, Ak- hutu, etc., of Erech. SAFEGUARDS AGAINST FORGERY Not a few of the contracts, especially of the early period, were encased in a thin layer of clay, which served the pur- pose of an envelope. The contents of the document are usually duplicated on the case, which also contains the seal of the obligor. It was less difficult to alter amounts on a clay tablet than it 1s at pres- ent upon paper; when the document was encased and the envelope bore the seals of the obligor, and in many instances of the witnesses, the obligee, who held the document, could alter the envelope, but he could not change the tablet ; for if he peeled off the case which contained the impressions of the obligor’s seal he could not replace (see page 179). The number of official and personal letters of most periods that have been found is also quite large. From the royal letters, such as those of Hammurabi to one of his governors, or those found in the library of Ashurbanipal, considerable information is gained dealing with the civil affairs in the land and with foreign affairs of other lands, especially Armenia and Elam. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The letters of Hammurabi that have been found were addressed to one of his governors, stationed at Larsa. They had been encased, and the envelope contained something like “To Sin-idinnam.” On the receipt of the letter the case was peeled off. It began: “Unto Sin-idin- ° nam, thus says Hammurabi.” His letters show that he gave personal oversight to the minor affairs of his king- dom. Special attention is devoted to the construction and dredging of canals. He superintended the collection of revenues and exercised control over the priesthood. Te punished money lenders for extortion or for failing to cancel mortgages after they had been satisfied. REGULATING THE CALENDAR One of his letters shows how the cal- endar was regulated. As the Babylonians observed the lunar month, it became nec- essary to insert an intercalary month every third year. Ina letter to Sin-idin- nam, after calling attention to the fact that the year was deficient, he ordered that the month upon which they were en- tering should be called “Second Flul” instead of Tishri, the month that fol- lowed Elul. But he added: “Instead of the tribute arriving in Babylon on the 25th day of Tishri, let it arrive in Babylon on the 25th day of Second Elul.” ‘That is, he pushed forward the calendar ; but he was unwilling to wait a month for his reve- nues. The letters of a private character throw light upon personal affairs. These deal with all the different phases of life. The father is reminded of a broken promise ; his son writes him that “thdu, my father, didst say that when I went to Dur-Ammi- Zaduga ‘I will send a sheep and five minas of silver, in a little while, to thee A tenant desires a good cow and a creditor compels his debtor to meet his obligations. A prisoner pleads with his master for deliverance, calling the jail a starvation house, and asserting that he is not a robber, but the victim of the Sutu, who fell upon him and took away the oil he was carrying across the river. © Underwood & Underwood “THE WATERS ASSUAGED”: GREAT PLAINS LEFT AFTER FLOODS IN MESOPOTAMIA Both the Babylonians and the Assyrians preserved accounts of a great deluge. The Assyrian hero of that world calamity was Gilgamesh, who corresponded to Noah in the Hebraic account of a great catastrophe which destroyed al! mankind (see pages 168 and 212). 173 © Underwood & Underwood ONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY” OF E PAGE 167) THE BURIED CITY OF NINEVEH, WHERE THE C ASHURBANIPAL WAS FOUND (SE Conditions that favor quick rise of a civilization also hasten its decay. Nebuchadnezzar informs us that half a century served to reduce a temple to a state of decay if it were left uncared for. That explains why the weathering processes have left so many cities nothing more than big mounds of crumbled clay. 174 Photograph from Prof. Albert T. Clay AN ASPHALT SPRING IN MESOPOTAMIA It is probable that it was this bitumen to which Genesis refers where it says “they had brick for stone, and slime had they for mortar” A LOVE LETTER OF LONG AGO A young man sends his endearing in- quiry concerning the health of his be- loved, saying: “To Bibea, thus says Gimil Marduk: may the gods Shamash and Marduk permit thee to live forever for my sake. I write to inquire concerning thy health. Tell me how thou art. I went to Babylon, but did not see thee. I was greatly disappointed. Send the rea- son for thy leaving, that I may be happy. Do come in the month Marchesvan. Keep well always for my sake.” The letters, besides being extremely valuable for rewriting the political his- tory and the life and customs of the peo- ple, offer most important philological and lexicographical material. Many of these also were encased, but only the address, with the seals of the sender, appear on the outside. Nota few letters have been found encased in their original envelopes—1. e., they are un- opened. They can only be explained as being duplicate copies retained by the sender. The Code of Hammurabi, written about 2000 B. C., upon a large and somewhat irregular stele, is perhaps the most im- portant monument of antiquity that has 75 been found for a century. It is the prod- uct of a civilization of a high order. In codifying his laws, Hammurabi arranged them in a definite and logical order, based upon accepted judicial decisions (p. 141). It is now definitely ascertained, as had been inferred, that the code is based on other codes that preceded it. In the Yale Babylonian collection there is a_ tablet written in Sumerian, which seems to be a prototype of the code. Although it is not dated, the script indicates that it is older than the Hammurabi Code (p. 171). ALL CONTINGENCIES COVERED A number of its laws bear upon sub- jects covered in what are known as the Sumerian family laws, but which are, nevertheless, quite distinct. Others deal with the leasing of boats and animals, even making provision, as does the Ham- murabi Code, when a lion kills a hired animal. But especially interesting is the fact that there are two laws dealing with the injury of pregnant women, which have been contracted into one law that is found in the code. It is not impossible that the code was extensively influenced from sources dis- tinctly Semitic; perhaps Aramean. This AN is suggested by ae episodes as the story of Hazar in the Old Testament, which is not in accord oa the Mosaic Code, which was doubtless extensively influ- enced by the Amorite culture, but is sim- ilar to the Babylonian. Abraham may have become acquainted with Babylonian law while sojourning in southern Ba bylonia, if the theory that Ur of the Chaldees is to be located in that region; but it is more probable that he earned it in Aram, his ancestral home. On some subjects but one law is given, while upon others as many as thirty. The following brief outline will afford an idea of the subject-matter treated: Witchcraft, witnesses, judges; concern- ing offenses involving the purity of jus- tice, as tampering with witnesses, jury, or judge; crimes of various sorts, as theft, receiving stolen goods, kidnaping, fugitive slaves, burglary; duties of pub- ©. Undone ood & Uae ARAB HOME IN BABYLONIA lic officers in their administration; laws relating to landlords, tenants, creditors, debtors ; canal and water rights, licenses, messengers, herdsmen, gardeners, slan- der, family relationship, marriage, di- vorce, desertion, breach of promise, adultery, unchastity, concubinage ; rights of women, purchase- money of brides, in- heritance, adoption, responsibility for all kinds of assaults; fees of surgeons; branding of slaves, fees and responsibili- ties of builders and boatmen; hiring of boats ; agricultural life, the purchase and punishment of slaves who repudiate their master, etc. GRADES OF SOCIETY In no better way is it possible to be- come acquainted with the every-day life of the ancient Babylonian than by a care- ful study of the Hammurabi Code. The code recognizes three grades of society—the aristocrat, or gentleman, the 176 AN \ a SOO aes ore © Underwood & Underwood LOOKING FROM THE SITE OF SEN NACHERIB’S PALACE ACROSS THE TIGRIS TO MOSUL “Sennacherib was perhaps the most widely famous of all Assyrian monarchs. For us, of course, Sennacherib is the Assyrian who ‘came down like a wolf on the fold” and we think of him chiefly as the assailant of Judah, whose pride was so mysteriously brought low by the great disaster recorded in II Kings xix: 35: ‘The angel of the Lord went out, and smote in the camp of the Assvrians an hundred four score and five thousand; and when they arose early in the morning, behold they were all dead corpses’”’ (see page 149). 177 ‘uoowAIUOY ITaY} UO a1aM AdY} JY} JSa8Sns 07 ayqeuosvos ST yt 4uow ded PeATadat Joy HOU SY OPH STY,, Wo}TIM SE YIM Jojze ‘Ss UeUIOM B Aq PIMOT[OF SI OUIeU S,URUT B ISIOAII OY UG ‘Way} o10F0q Ud}IIM | pvap,, PAO oY} PABY OSIOATO 9Y} UO SOLU 9914} SE] OYJ, “OUSSqe JO DAvoT SUlUvOIN ‘PEO TIYSI]T, WOIY,, Ud}IIM st soweu oy} Surmoljog *s UW XIS 4SIy oY} 10} ATUO opeUr 9IOM sjuOWARd OUT] YIYSIo oy} UT “Pye Saoyjo ay} pue soweuU oy} Aq poMoTjoy st SI], “UlUNOS YJUIe}F;Y JY} UT [e}O} Wins oY} pue 12}0} 94} Aq poMo][oF Osye o1e sjuguAed svos-J[LY PUOIIS dy, “UUIMJOD YJUdAdS oY} UF [eI0} dy} Aq paMoT[oy ore syJuOUL XIS 1OF sjuguAed op, NOMOUTIOD VINVA'TASNNGAd @O ALISUAAINN :S’IVIOIMIO WIdWay FO T1IOu-AVd AED VL Moq ly “Jorg wor ydesr30j04g i ae 55 29 LI iy ‘* SOT if { We Sarin f { ahig : Yel! Z i Alege aN < (puexayy SE se saxproyD 247 $0 42 de vag PVT Hh Sax / wlore iH i Wire 3 ~\ > nih 4 r ~ on 5B pesDT + LD P1067, AG 49AI), \ i eet ° yim mye, volAqog 5) G40 SUIN \“ 2 KEM wa ey, Utes ee ke Ke Se jae ‘ee : \ Fea, NO WAAD Rae iW) VW h=Z RO eke Ne gery Jo say 7 ys 77H d eM VASA : Noupurxa yg : i Sey, Fass | 1 = GR at Sty spuewy s heyy TS CLF ART Deh Co \- ; BV OO nt take, —agquiny 1°23) p OTN A ONS oAnece 1 4 ; CG es AL te ¥ ( tS ye 1e9nig oun) \ 74 Tas Luis a jee Ge ARVIN J! pyoziqas LQG ORNS 216 WiOlis 2OND 6, the natal year of the telephone, to 1879, the year in which the settlement with the West- ern Union was made, and the first big hill in the life journey of the telephone was crossed. At least two of these three years were employed in teaching the telephone itself how to talk intelligently and satisfactorily; for not until 1878 THE NEW WAY IN TELEPHONE LINE CONSTRUCTION Motor trucks are used to haul a derrick from hole to hole, and four men can do the work that formerly required a dozen. The Bell Telephone System has spent twice as much money in the same length of time (1906-1914) for the extension of the telephone service of the United States as the United States government has spent for the construction of the Panama Canal (see page 322). 307 tiki | tells) te) may F Siti) = — Ne) POD EE pe, i Ce Me a {ees Eee) | ee oe ms FA P|, | ad ee ee / oa ae onl 4 rid Photograph by George J. Hare NEW YORK N BUFFALO, NG I ILDI A TELEPHONE BU “union stations” of the telephone P+ od va My n Non ~ a vo taal eu (a9) 3 yn ee) et f — nD =i PE =) a) n So 4 nh w 1S) vu — Tt is in such modern structure Seoiae the whole of France, nearly one-half as many as the German Em Train New York City alone, exclusive of its suburbs as) j=) Tike (o) poles s og ee) Co i rat ts! oe? pe) ~~ nw ESae a 3 Ee 1) on (se He Gb Go D Net FEN OE me) Be 3) Seals Cat Rey f=} 4S) Cad gEu KW Bg a Grey =n ce ate (6) ~~ Ww es or boas oO Switzerland, Italy, Greece, the Balkan States the whole of Spain, Portugal, (see page 321). Russia combined” 308 VOICE VOYAGES BY Try CH OGRARHIC SOCIETY 309 was a practical, commercial, dependable, usable instrument developed. From the settlement with the Western Union the history of the business is well known; its progress is familiar to you all, and this evening you have had a dem- onstration of what can now be done and indications of future possibilities. THE BATTLE OF DAVID AND GOLIATH The most important single event in the history of the telephone business may be of interest. The telephone patents had been offered to the Western Union, but the offer was declined. Through the Gold and Stock Telegraph Company, the Western Union was doing a profitable local private-line business, using printing telegraph instru- ments. The first development of the telephone was for use on private lines, replacing the printing instruments. When the Western Union realized this, to pro- tect its business, it entered the telephone business in competition with the Bell, operating under various patents which it claimed were independent of the Bell patents. The Bell interests were devoting their energies to developing telephone-exchange business. The Western Union, through its prestige and power, had for a little while a seeming advantage. The fight was a David and Goliath affair. The Western Union was the largest and most powerful corporation of the time—rela- tively greater than anything that exists today. Eventually a compromise was pro- posed. The Western Union believed the great future of the telephone to be in private-line use; the Bell believed it to be in the exchange service, which is in fact a system of private lines from the cen- tral office to each subscriber. By means of switchboard and trunk lines any sub- scriber’s private line can be connected with any other subscriber’s private line, constituting a private line from subscriber to subscriber. The negotiations hung on the condition denying to the Bell interests the right to connect their exchanges by means of toll lines. Few had faith in the future of the toll lines or their value as compared with the private lines, but if long-distance con- versation should be developed the West- ern Union feared it might be a menace to the telegraph business. ‘Time has demon- strated that the telephone can never be substituted for the telegraph instrument ; that the long-distance telephone is not competitive with telegraphy, but has a distinct field of its own; that the tele- phone system 1s supplementary to, not competitive with, the telegraph system. The prospects for the future of toll lines or distant speaking—the idea of carrying the voice any great distance— met with little serious consideration, and the idea of speaking across continents met with ridicule. Our engineers, at a considerably later period, thought it might be possible to talk to Chicago, if we had a big enough wire; but the big- ness was prohibitive. The conferees of the Bell were divided about the toll business; some of them tired of the contest, preferred half a loaf in peace and comfort, rather than a strug- gle for a whole loaf; if yielding would bring about a settlement, some were will- ing to yield. ‘To me the idea of yielding the toll-line use meant the curtailment of our future, the absolute interdiction of anything like a “system.” At the end of a nearly all-night session on one of the Sound boats en route for New York, we had a unanimous commit- tee, who determined the Bell should re- tain the exclusive and unlimited right to telephones for exchange service with a 15-mile radius, and for conversational purposes, any distance, but willing to yield to the Western Union the exclusive right to the telegraph business and to private lines. On this the Bell stood, ex- cept that the private-line right was made non-exclusive, and the settlement made on these lines determined the basis for the telephone development. THE REWARD OF RESEARCH The present development of the tele- phone is not due to disunited effort, al- though many and valuable suggestions and inventions have been either concur- rently or independently developed outside the Bell system. It is due to the central- ized, codperative codrdinated work of the 510 departments of operation with the de- partments of engineering, experiment, re- search, and development—of the whole Bell system. Research, investigation, ex- periment, comprehensive and thorough, are now necessary to hold any position in any industrial or utility enterprise, and those on a large, comprehensive scale are enormously expensive. This centralization has produced a high and most completely developed system; beyond every point that has been reached there have always been possibilities of something greater, and these possibilities have been the goal of every one connected with the business. It is a unique coincidence that the two epoch-making inventions which created the art of electrical transmission of in- telligence were made by men absolutely outside the field of electricity. Professor Morse was an artist. From his reading of Professor Henry’s discovery of the magnet and the possibility of controlling its action from a distance, he conceived the idea of transmitting combinations of signals, to be interpreted into figures, let- ters, words, sentences. He had no scien- tific or mechanical education or training and little money. He found in Alfred Vail an assistant, one who had a scientific education, mechanical training, skill, and ingenuity, who had a father with com- mon-sense enough to believe in the idea, money and courage enough to finance it. ONLY ONE RIGHT TRACK There were many working on the mul- tiple telegraph, but from different stand- points and for different purposes—among them Professor Bell. He had in Watson a trained mechanic, and in Hubbard and Sanders believers and capitalists. Bell was not an electrician, but was trained in articulation and the science of speech. His powers of observation, and particu- larly of perception and deduction, were great. In his telegraph studies and ex- periments he observed some phenomena from which he evolved the idea of the telephone, and when he recognized in the vibrations of the reed the peculiar timber of vocal speech he knew he had the solu- tion. There was MAN ON THE no one working on the Iieh8, NUAIMIOINNG, GQIOCIVAMASIIC INLAGAAZIUNTE, speaking telephone, except Professor Bell, who could have invented it. ‘They were approaching the subject from the stand- point of electricity without the knowl- edge of acoustics or the requirements of speech production, or the character of vocal vibrations, of which Bell was the master. This knowledge was the key to the invention. It was so simple that all wondered at it, and so seemingly impossible that all ridi- culed it; but so soon as it became of util- ity many claimed, copied, and pirated it. There was not and never has there been any telephone made which is not based on Bell’s patent, and, with the exception of what Berliner contributed, his invention contained all that is essential in the in- strument in use today; and yet the only time when Bell was the undisputed in- ventor of the telephone and the Bell Com- pany without opposition was during the year 1876, before its commercial value was recognized, although every one ac- knowledged its scientific importance. GEOGRAPHY AND THE HUMAN VOICE The Geographic Society has a symbolic picture with the inscription, ‘““The Geo- graphic brings all the world to you.” It might be said that the telegraph brings all the world into immediate communi- cation, and the telephone fetches your voice and conversation to the world. Geography establishes position and de- termines distances; discovers the poten- tialities of the world and reveals the paths of intercommunication. Geography may be termed the anat- omy, transportation the veinous or arte- rial system, and telephony and telegraphy the nervous system of the world and its economic and social structure. Intercommunication. of which the tele- phone is the latest exponent, binds this world together, draws its interests closer, and will in time create a condition where- in all interests will be common to all people. Common interests, patriotism — the bases of all communities, commonwealths, or nations—can only permanently exist where there is common language. Nat- ural and permanent boundaries of na- tions are so established. Photograph by M. Rosenfeld MANHOLE WITH CABLES READY FOR SPLICING These huge cables are each made up of thousands of insulated wires sheathed in lead and carried into the telephone exchanges. The largest cables used contain 2,400 individual wires. Ais 312 Geographic science is fast revealing the world and its possibilities and poten- tialities ; intercommunication is fast util- izing these discoveries and making nec- essary to all people common language or common understanding of languages, and when that common understanding comes, which is bound to come with free exchange of thought and ideas, then will come a common brotherhood. GEOGRAPHY DISSIPATES SUPERSTITION It will take time to overcome the force of inertia which binds the man to the inherent, inherited, inbred ideas, tradi- tions, prejudices, habits, conventionalities, which endure through generations and are overcome only by new experiences, new knowledge. Some term this con- servatism, but it is nothing but the iner- tia that comes from lack of a new knowl- edge vivified by new experiences. Geography reveals the world and makes it real; it dissipates the haze and fog of superstition and tradition, attracts and encourages the travel which brings expansion. In this vast field there is abundant room for practical, construc- tive imagination to work. The immedi- ate future is only dimly outlined by the light of past experience and present knowledge; the distant future is still in the shadowy haze of uncertainty, specu- lation and doubt; but, though it may be too optimistic and too hopeful, there seems to me no doubt but that progress in the future will be as marked as in the past. There can be but few. great develop- ments in the future of which the begin- nings have not been made or have not been foreshadowed. Each age has be- lieved it had reached the acme of evolu- tion in economical, commercial, and artistic lines, and that but little more was possible. In “transportation” the newly introduced stagecoach of the eighteenth century gave way to the steam railroad expresses of the nineteenth century; and electrical and aérial transportation are dawning in the twentieth. In “intercom- munication” the signal lights of the Mid- dle Ages gave way to the semaphore of the eighteenth century—the electric tele- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE graph of the early, supplemented by the telephone in the late, nineteenth century. And in the twentieth comes the dawn of transcontinental, transoceanic, and cir- cum-mundane electrical intercommunica- tion and conversation ! When Mr. Bell and Mr. Watson first talked in public over the telephone, or Mr. Hubbard first tried to interest con- structive interests in the new “Yankee toy,’ if either had prophesied as possible what actually exists today, he would have been laughed at. Those who laid the foundation of the business could well define the structure, but its magnitude has far surpassed expectation. When my connection with the telephone was announced, one who was then a Repre- sentative and afterward a Senator and a Cabinet Minister, whose name always commands respect, said to me: “Vail, that isn’t a big enough business for you.” Consider that in the light of today! SOME DAY WE WILL BE ABLE TO TELEPHONE TO EVERY PART OF THE WORLD Is it too much to think that in time it will be possible for any one, at any place, to immediately communicate with any one at any. other place in the world by reasonably available methods; that dis- tance will be annihilated and the whole world will be united in common inter- ests, common thought, common tradi- tions, and prejudices? Then and only then can there be a common people. The wonderful work that geograph- ical research did in opening up the un- known world in the late seventeenth, eighteenth, and early nineteenth centu- ries presented a new field to the people of initiative and enterprise, of an Old World already bursting its confines by its overdevelopment. This world development, for which geographic research is largely responsi- ble, is in turn responsible for the magni- tude of present operations, economic and social. This immensity is constructive, not destructive; is something to be wel- comed and encouraged rather than per- secuted and destroyed. It is something THE MAIN LINES OF THE VOICE RAILWAY WORLD (SEE ALSO PAGE 311) which is uplifting all men, raising them up to higher levels and possibilities, and is neither oppressing nor taking away from man any possibility of greater en- joyment or of better things. It is bring- ing to him and within his power of ac- quisition those things which were for- merly for the few. It is making possible all things that can bring the extremes of mankind nearer together. A WORLD-WIDE BENEFIT This economic industrial development of the world is caused by that codpera- tion, that codrdination of effort which assigns to individuals the tasks and du- ties for which each is best fitted, and in this way gets the most out of the efforts of all. It will not, nor can anything ever make any one independent of individual effort or raise any one above his inherent possibilities. This development is so infinitely greater than that of the past, and has come so much faster than the minds of men could possibly become adjusted to it, that there has been no standard familiar to man’s mind by which to measure it. The abuses which always accompany any movement, great or small, are looked upon as inte- gral elements of them, not merely inci- dental. These misunderstandings, the in- clination to introduce repressive and cor- rective measures, where only directive measures are wanted, are caused by the vis mertia of men’s minds and the im- 313 ‘(z1€ a8ed 90s) a[doad uowwos e aq o1ay} ued Udy) AjUO pue usyy, ~gsaodipnfosd pue ‘suorpes} UOUTTOD VYsnoy} UOWUIOD ‘s}S9I9}UT UOWWOD UT payTUN dq [JIM P[JOM aJOYM dy} pue parepryuUe oq J[[M d9uRysIP Jey} Sspoyjour aque “[Ieae ATqeuosvot Aq pj1oM 9y} Ur sov[d Joy}O Aue ye 9UO AUR YIM d}eOTUNUWOD ApoJeIpatUU 0} ‘soe{d AUR Je ‘OUD Aue 1OF d[qrssod oq ][IM yr ow ut yEY} AULYF OF YonUr 00} S],, “[LUIUII} Iq oY} Ysnosy} ssed ATInoy yey} ye} Jo suiesy Jo spuvsnoyy oy} s[puey osay ssoyoyedsip poeipuny vy AIIO MYOA MAN :AONVHOXA ANOHdATAL VASTAHO Plosussoy "WE Aq ydeisojoyg aes ore 3I4 VOICE, VOMAGES BY THE GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 315 possibility of adjustment to the rapidity and immensity of the development. When the true understanding comes, all will unite in directing and guiding and protecting; then and only then shall we reap the full benefits of man’s devel- oping powers and understanding and of man’s initiative and enterprise. ADDRESS OF DR. ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Tam really overwhelmed by the realiza- tion of the greatness of the demonstra- tion that has been given us tonight. Won- derful! Wonderful! It brings back to mind the significance of the first message ever sent by the Morse telegraph, “What hath God wrought !” I am overwhelmed in more ways. than one. I do not see what I have had to do with this thing. Many, many minds have contributed to the development of the telephone of today, an army of workers organized under Mr. Vail and Mr. Carty, and the researches of the telephone and telegraph company have been required in order to bring these marvelous results. When I try to find out what I have done and look back to the long vista of years, I see only this (holding aloft the first telephone instrument which demon- strated the possibilities of transmitting the voice by electricity), the original Bell telephone, Mr. Watson and myself work- ing hard at it to make it speak. It was a most disappointing introduction to this wonderful art. Mr. Watson could always hear a great deal better than I could. He could hear phone speech sounds and occa- sional words, and I tell you it was a great day, on the toth day of March, 1876, when at last there was no doubt about it; complete words and sentences were understood both by Mr. Watson and my- self. I can remember very well talking into the instrument, which was connected with the next room, and said: “Mr. Wat- son, come here, I want to see you.” And he instantly came into the room, and I was delighted to know that he had un- derstood. It was only a short time ago that I was talking from New York to San Fran- cisco—Mr. Watson in San Francisco and I in New York—and I was asked to re- peat the same sentence which was the first to be transmitted over and through this instrument itself, and I put my mouth to this old telephone in New York and called out to Watson in San Francisco: “Mr. Watson, come here, I want you.” He replied: “It would take me a week to get there now” (see page 208). Now I cannot claim very much credit for all this wonderful development. I can see this whole telephone away in the distance and extending from it an army of workers laying wires and extending the influence of the telephone, headed at first by the first President of the Na- tional Geographic Society, Mr. Gardiner Greene Hubbard. Then, as this army of workers extended to this great general, Mr. Vail, who has brought the telephone system in America to completion. DREAMS THAT CAME TRUE Away back in the old days I dreamed of wires extending all over the country and of people in one part of America talking to people in another part of America. It was the dream of a dreamer, but Mr. Vail has made it come true, and today we have been witnesses of the fact that there is no part of this continent that is inaccessible to the human voice. Mr. Vail has brought this instrument into every home. What would business be without it? It has even gone into war- fare and into the trenches in Europe; in fact, Mr. Vail is evidently trying to make the telephone “First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen.” He has covered this continent with a net- work of wires, millions of miles in ex- tent; he has accomplished the dream of my youth of the wires that should cover this land. But our good guest of the evening, Mr. Carty, is going further than this and he is getting out all the wires. It was only a few weeks ago that Mr. Carty and his associates demonstrated the possibility of wireless telephony by talking from Ar- lington here to the Eiffel Tower in France, and a man in Honolulu overheard the conversation. Where are wonders going to cease? Why, that is a distance equal to one-third of the circumference of the globe. Is there any part of the globe that Mr. Carty 316 may not reach by telephone and without wires at all? I am struck to the heart to meet my old friend, Mr. Vail, for we have not met since we were young men, and we are not so very old now. Yet we look for- ward to see what Mr. Carty and his bril- liant associates of the American Tele- phone and Telegraph Company will bring forth in the future. ADDRESS OF MR. JOHN J. CARTY, CHIEF ENGINEER AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY There are many who are yet to speak to us, and as I[ have already spoken so many times this evening and to so many places, I must be brief in what I have to say now. These demonstrations in which you have all taken part tonight are not the result of the work of any one man; they are made possible by a long line of in- vestigators, beginning with Dr. Bell him- self. For my own part, I am fortunate in being the chief of the large staff of engineers and scientists which has put into practical form and placed at the sery- ice of the public these marvelous devel- opments which have been exhibited be- fore us tonight. Some of these men, I am glad to say, anes present with us... Lhere is Mir. Shreeve, who, at the Eiffel Tower, heard the first words spoken across the Atlantic. Mr. Espenschied, who was stationed at Honolulu and heard Arlington talking to Mr. Shreeve at Paris, is on duty tonight at the Arlington Tower, where you all heard his voice speaking to me. Then there are Mr. Gherardi, Mr. Jewett, Mr. Mills, Mr. Drake, Mr. Thompson, Mr. Blackwell, Mr. Robinson, Mr. Arnold, Mr. Colpitts, Mr. Campbell, Mr. Heising, and Mr. England. TELEPHONY IS AN AMERICAN ART These young men all illustrate very well the character and make- up of the staff. They are all from American col- leges and universities; some of them trained under Dr. Pupin, whose classic invention, the loading coil, is employed in the San Francisco line. One of these young men is a graduate of the Univer- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE sity of North Dakota and another is a graduate of the University of South Da- kota, and each has taken his postgraduate studies in another university. Instead of going to Germany, France, or England, which was formerly necessary for such advanced work, they did not have to go any farther east from the Dakotas than to the University of Michigan and the University of Chicago, where they re- ceived postgraduate scientific training equal to what they could get in the best European universities. It is a most interesting and encourag- ing sign of American scientific develop- ment ‘that two of these young men are from universities in North and South Da- kota, States which were inhabited largely by savages at the time when General Scott was on the frontier conducting In- dian warfare. There was a time when it was necessary for us to go abroad to study the arts, but in respect to one art at least the tide has turned, for in order to study the art of telephony it has long been recognized by the nations abroad that their engineers must go to America, the home of the telephone. This splendid recognition which the National Geographic Society has accord- ed to American telephone achievement will be received with feelings of deep ap- preciation by American telephone engi- neers; and, speaking on their behalf, I can assure you that in the future, as we have always done in the past, we will in all things pertaining to the art of tele- phony keep secure for our country the foremost place in the world. ADDRESS OF HON. THOMAS WATSON, OF BOSTON I am very proud and glad that I was chosen by the fates to be the associate of Alexander Graham Bell in all the ex- periments by which the telephone was perfected. To tell you one-half of what Dr. Bell did during the three years I was asso- ciated with him would take me the rest of the night, so I cannot do it. However, I want to describe the one incident which was very important in the history of the telephone, the night when Dr. Bell and I talked over a real outdoor telephone wire THE REAR VIEW OF PART OF THE SWITCHBOARD SHOWN ON PAGE 314 “The two States of New York and Pennsylvania have as many telephones as the whole of Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Serbia, and Russia combined, while Ohio and Illinois have as many as Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey combined” (see page 321). for the first time. I made with my own hands for Dr. Bell, under his direction, the first speaking telephone the world has ever seen, but there were 16 months’ hard work after that before Dr. Bell thought his baby was big enough and _ strong enough to talk outdoors. On the oth day of October, 1876, a very important day in the history of the telephone, Dr. Bell had obtained permis- sion to use a wire running from Boston to Cambridge, about 3 miles long, and on that evening I went out with one of the best telephones that had been devised up to that date, and Dr. Bell proceeded to Boston with its duplicate. I waited out at the Cambridge factory until Dr. Bell signaled on the telegraph instrument that he was ready. I think I was then more excited than I ever was before in my life, 317 or ever have been since, and I connected up the telephone to listen to what Dr. Bell would say, and I could not hear the faint- est sound. I shouted back in the telephone and listened again, and there was nothing but the blackest, dreadful silence. I knew that we were working against the most delicate electrical current that had ever been used for any practical purpose, and as I could not hear his voice I thought that the delicate current must have leaked off of every insulator so that none of it got across the Charles River to where I was. I had almost made up my mind to dis- connect the telephone and telegraph back to Dr. Bell that while his telephone might do very well for speaking tubes, it never would compete with the telegraph. Then REPAIRING THE BY DAMAGE AND SLEET DONE SNOW I happened, to think that there might be another telegraph instrument connected in the circuit in some other part of the factory that I was in. The janitor had been standing there looking at me as if he thought I was crazy, shouting into the end of the wire and expecting somebody in Boston to hear me. I asked him to show me where the wire entered the building and he did so. I traced it through the building and found another telegraph relay in the same circuit. My heart gave another jump, for I realized that there was another chance. I got it out, rushed back to the telephone, and listened. That was the sole cause of the trouble ; far louder and more distinct than I ever oO - until the small hours heard it before, Dr. Bell’s voice was com- ing out of that instrument, and he was saying: “Watson, are you there? Are you listening? What is the matter?” I shouted back, and then ensued the first conversation that ever has been held over a real telegraph wire. Some of Dr. Bell’s pessimistic friends had been objecting and saying that the telephone would never compete with the telegraph business even if he did get it to talk over an outdoor wire; so he made an arrangement with me and 1 went to Cam- bridge, and everything | heard him say through the telephone I wrote down, and what I said to him he would write down at his end of the wire, so that the record could be put side by side to prove to the croakers that the telephone could really transmit intelligence accurately. That was done; so that first conversation was preserved, word for word. After he finished making the record, which perhaps took a couple of hours, we were so fascinated with the joy of talking over a real telegraph line that we kept up our conversation, without recording it, of the morning, and I can assure you, ladies and gentlemen, it was a very happy boy who wended his way back to Boston early the next morn- ing with a telephone under his arm, wrapped up in a newspaper. A LANDLADY WHO COULD NOT APPRECIATE SCIENCE Dr. Bell was not at the laboratory when I got there, for he had gone to the news- paper office to tell them about the won- derful occurrence of the evening; but when he came in, so enthused and jubi- lant, we really danced a war- dance. When Dr. Bell used to celebrate he would do so with a war-dance, and I really got so that I could war-dance nearly as well as he. That night we had a jubilee anda war-dance that lasted for some time, and when our landlady met me the next morning on the stairs she made the re- mark that if we did not stop making so much noise in the rooms of nights we would have to vacate. Our landlady was not at all scientific in her tastes, and I think I remember we were a little behind in our rent. That was the beginning of this stu- pendous thing we call the Bell system to- day, and it almost takes my breath away VOICE VOYAGES BY THE GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 319 to see what it has passed through. I have been out of the telephone service for 30 years, but I say it almost takes my breath to see what has been done in the years that I have been away from it; and when I think of the men in charge of this—Mr. Vail in charge of the business organiza- tion and Mr. Carty and his associates fol- lowing up the technical scientific part of it—I must say that I have found bound- less hopes for the future, and I can only ask in amazement what they will next do. I thank you. ADDRESS OF UNION NOBLE BETHELL, SENIOR VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY While I am in entire accord with Mr. Carty in his characterization of the tele- phone art as an American art, when he was talking | could not but think of something which is said to have hap- pened recently in the capital city of Pennsylvania. A number of citizens of that great Commonwealth were gathered together, and were congratulating them- selves upon the greatness of their State and the number of its sons who had at- tained prominence throughout the nation and throughout the world. At length one of the number said to his brethren: “Gentlemen, I desire to propose a toast to that greatest of Pennsylvanians, Ben- jamin Franklin, of Massachusetts.” A-FITTING TOAST So I think it entirely proper and ntting for us on this occasion to extend our congratulations and felicitations to the foremost figure in the creation of this American art, that distinguished Amer- ican, Dr. Graham Bell, of Scotland. We all know, though, that Dr. Bell is an American as much as any Pilgrim Father ever was. Americans of his type, who could not control the accident of birth, have helped to transform a wilder- hess into sovereign States, and to create great industries, important cities, vast empires, and all that sort of thing. They are proud of America and America is proud of them. In this age of achievement and effi- ciency it is very difficult for us to realize the significance of what we have seen and heard tonight. Wie are so apt to take things as a matter of course. It is only by contrast that we can get a right perspective and form true conceptions. WHERE TELEPHONES WOULD HAVE AVERTED A GREAT BATTLE When Cornwallis surrendered his sword to Washington, a swift ship— mark you, a swift ship—was dispatched to England to carry the news. It was bad news, and we all know that bad news travels fast. Yet 37 days elapsed before George III knew that he had lost some colonies and gained some cousins. At ae close of the succeeding war, that of 1812, the transportation of news was still so slow that the battle of New Orleans, the bloodiest battle of that war or the preceding war, was fought fully two weeks after the treaty of peace was signed at Ghent, and some time later the news of the conclusion of peace and of Jackson’s victory reached the city of Washington about the same time. In 1843, when the Oregon bill was under discussion in the United States Senate, leading Senators declared that we could never have any interest in a country so remote as that with which we have been conversing so easily and fa- miliarly this evening. “Why,” declared one Senator, “it would require ten months for the representative of that far-away land to come to the National Capital and get back home again. We can never have any interest in a country so remote, so difficult to reach, and so difficult to communicate with.” But in the very next year there came across the wires those thrilling words, ““What hath God wrought!” The art of transmitting intelligence by electricity was born—a new era was be- gun. A network of wires soon spread over the land and cables were laid across the Atlantic. Still, only places, not people, joined together. After a time those very practical, com- monplace words, “Mr. Watson, come here; I want you,” faintly came across the electric wires. That great boon— the telephone—was now given to man- kind. Then there began that tremendous development and w ide expansion which culminated in 1915, when the human were 320 voice was thrown across the continent and across the seas. And tonight the strains of the “Star Spangled Banner,” borne on ethereal wings, are on their way to countless havens throughout the uni- verse. FORECASTING THE FUTURE FORTY YEARS AGO I hold in my hand a wonderful docu- ment. It is not a speech, only a prospec- tus. I should like to read it all, but there is time for only a small part of it. It is dated away back 38 years ago. A young man, then at Kensington, England, was asked to say something about the future— the future—of the telephone, and he pre- pared a most remarkable paper. I wish I had time to quote it at length, word for word, but, realizing that the hour is late, I shall give you only a small part of it, and even that not in his exact words. nletsays:) lit is conceivable: that cables of telephone wires could be laid under- ground or suspended overhead, connect- ing up by branch wires private dwellings, country houses, shops, manufacturing establishments, etc., and also connecting cities and towns and various places throughout the country.” He says fur- ther: “I am. aware that such ideas may appear to you Utopian and out of place, but, believing as I do that such a scheme will be the ultimate result of the intro- duction of the telephone to the public, I impress upon you the advisability of keeping this end in view that all present arrangements may be ultimately realized in this grand system.’ ‘Then he goes on with further details, and finally says: “Although there is a great field for the telephone in the immediate present, I be- lieve there is still greater in the future. By bearing in mind the great object to be ultimately achieved, I believe that the telephone company cannot only build up a remunerative business, but also benefit the public in a way that has never previ- ously been attempted.” A document like this, if written in ear- lier years, dealing with subsequent events of general human interest, would have entitled its writer, when its predictions had become realities, to a place among the prophets. Vat, NATIONAL GLOGRAPHIG, MAG WANE This remarkable paper closes in this way: “T am, gentlemen, your obedient servant, “ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL.” As the telephone art is an American art, so the telephone habit is an Amer- ican habit. A few days ago I asked ‘one of our young men to give me a few sta- tistics. I thought that an occasion like this would not be complete without some statistics; but I asked the young man for statistics without figures, and this is what he has given me: STATISTICS WITHOUT FIGURES The two States of New York and Pennsylvania have as many telephones as the whole of Great Britain, France, Belgium, Italy, Serbia, and Russia com- bined, while Ohio and Illinois have as many as Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and Turkey combined. This cautious young man puts in this note: “This. alignment of States is for comparative purposes only, and is not in- tended to have any other significance.” The city of Chicago, with substantially the same population as Paris, has four times as many telephones as the French capital. Boston and its suburbs, with about one-third of the population of Berlin and Vienna combined, have as many as both of these European capitals. San Francisco, with substantially the same population, has eight times as many telephones as Edinburgh, while Wash- ington, with only two-thirds of the popu- lation of Edinburgh, has more than three times as many telephones as the Scottish capital. Here the young man inserts this note: “Apologies to Dr. Bell. Edinburgh still maintains its claim to the honor of being his birthplace. Let Edinburgh beware!” New York City and its immediate suburbs have as many telephones as Lon- don, Brussels, Paris, Petrograd, Rome, Belgrade, Tokio, Berlin, Vienna, Buda- pest, Sofia, and Constantinople all com- bined. Notr.—‘Here there is no indication of anything but the strictest neutrality. The comparison is between New York and its suburbs and all the capitals of all the warring nations, including Japan.” New York City alone, exclusive of its suburbs, has twice as many telephones as the whole of France, nearly one-half as many as the German Empire, and quite as many as the whole of Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Italy, Greece, the Balkan States, Turkey, and Russia combined. General note: The European statistics used are those of 1914, immediately prior to the outbreak of the war, when the fig- ures, both as to telephones and popula- tion, were probably somewhat higher than they are today. Photograph by M. Rosenfeld AN AFTER-THE-STORM SCENE ON A GREAT VOICE HIGHWAY NEAR YONKERS, NEW YORK EXPENDITURES TWICE AS LARGE AS AT PANAMA The statement closes with this item: The amount of money spent by the Bell Telephone System in construction work alone from 1906 to 1914—the period oc- cupied in the construction of the Panama Canal—was more than twice as much as the amount spent by the United States government during the same period in the construction of the canal, exclusive of the amounts paid to the French Com- pany and to the Republic of Panama. In conclusion, I want to say for the multitude of people in this vast organiza- 322 tion that we have a wholesome respect for our trade. We like to think of it as a high and noble calling. We like to think that our army of men and women 1s do- ing a good work, making the world bet- ter, advancing civilization. It is a most exacting work, so exacting that at times we feel like the prisoner of Zenda, whose watchful guards never let him fall asleep, even for a moment. Though exacting, it is fascinating— fascinating because each one of us sees the relation ef his individual work to the work of every other one in the system and the essential relation of the whole to all other activities which, together with it, make up the work of the great pulsating world. fying. It is satisfying because through it all there is the spirit of service, than which there is nothing more inspiring and uplifting, because it is manifestly and preéminently of distinct and definite value to mankind, a factor in the advancement of civilization—breaking down the bar- riers of local prejudice everywhere and spreading mutual under standing, peace, and brotherhood throughout the world. ADDRESS OF HON. JOSEPHUS DANIELS, SECRETARY OF THE NAVY While we live in a day when there are some things yet to be righted in the world and some problems yet to solve, it 1s nevertheless a privilege of men of this generation that we live at a time when the dreams of poets, seers, and prophets have been translated into realities. The finest things in the world are dreams. ‘Where no vision is the people perish,” wrote one of the old seers, and another, whose vision seemed to overleap centuries and even millenniums and focus itself upon our own times, said: “Many shall run to and fro, and knowledge shall be increased.” It is indeed wonderful what some of those ancient wise men foresaw. Did Nahum get a foreglimpse of automo- biles when he wrote: “The chariots shall rage in the streets. They shall jostle one against another in the broad ways; they shall seem like torches; they shall run like the lightnings.” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PROPHECY FULFILLED Coming down the ages to some of the later men and women of vision, did Mother Shipton foresee railroad trains, automobiles, wireless telegraphy, subma- rines, and flying machines when in 1481 she wrote: “Carriages without horses shall go; Accidents fill the world with woe. Around the earth thoughts shall fly, In the twinkling of an eye. This world upside down shall be, And gold be found at the root of a tree. Through hills man shall ride, And no horses be at his side. Under water man shall walk, Shall ride, shall sleep, shall talk. In the air man shall be seen, In black, in white, in green.” Did old Jeremiah get a foreglimpse of the aéroplane as an army scout when he wrote (Ch. 48: 41) : “Behold he shall fly as an eagle and shall spread his wings over Moab. Kerioth is taken, and the strongholds are surprised.” But there can be no doubt as‘to what ‘Tennyson was prophesying when he said: “Saw the heavens fill with commerce, argosies of magic sails, Pilots of the purple twilight, dropping down the costly bales; Heard the heavens fill with shouting, and there rain’d a ghastly dew, From the nations’ airy navies grappling in the central blue.” Jules Verne a few years ago stimulated the imagination when he permitted his fancies to run riot and thrilled us with what seemed stories of the impossible in his “Twenty Thousand Leagues under the Sea.’”’ What royal fiction it was and how we reveled as he gave us eyes to see ships anchoring upon coral reefs and speeding on their missions without mak- ing a ripple upon the surface of the ocean! New discoveries and twentieth century genius have translated Verne’s dream into the most deadly instruments of de- struction. In, the “Lay of the? Wast Minstrel Walter Scott sang of another wizard: “In these far climes it was my lot To meet the wondrous Michael Scott, A wizard of such dreaded fame That when, in Salamanca’s cave, Him list his magic wand to wave, The bells would ring in Notre Dame!” Ve Gy any, ree “e ws LP Photograph from U. S$. Navy Department THE FIGHTING TOP WITH ITS WIRELESS CROWN 323 324 Truly the miracle of the twentieth cen- tury has been the discovery of radio transmission; it is the marvelous fulfill- ment—a fulfillment which we could not believe unless we had heard it with our own ears—of the story of Michael Scott waving his wand in Salamanca’s Cave and thereby ringing the chimes in the cathedral spire. THE SPEED OF ELECTRICITY The human voice, projected by wire- less telephony, can travel around the earth about seven times in a second. One can speak to a place half way around the earth in one-fourteenth of a second. What a marvelous thing is the human voice! The Scripture itself declares to us that the Almighty incarnated in the fore- runner of the Christ, the human Voice; so that we are told that the strange prophet of the Judean deserts, who wore camel’s hair and whose food was the honeycomb and the fruit of the wild locust, was “the Voice of one crying in the wilderness.” And now what a wonderful thought it is, that the human voice, with all its power, with all its influence, with all it has meant to literature and life, has, under the power of the wizard genius of man, been made to overleap continents and oceans! “, BEATEN TRACK TO HIS DOOR” It is to American engineers that the world owes the perfection of wireless telephony. Pursuing his studies quietly and unknown to the world for many years, Carty has written his name on the roll of honor of science. Emerson said: “If a man can write a better book, preach a better sermon, or make a better mouse-trap than his neighbors, though he build his house in the woods, the world will make a beaten track to his door.” While the world is indebted to the en- gineers and scientists for the invention, it is due a further debt of gratitude to Mr. Theodore N. Vail for its adaptation to the needs of commerce and the organ- ization and perfection of a system for rendering it useful in this way. They built upon the work of Marconi, and Marconi built upon the work of Bell and Watson. As Sherlock Holmes, the wonderful detective genius, springing from the fer- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tile brain of Conan Doyle, had his ubiq- uitous and ever useful Dr. Watson, so did Alexander Graham Bell, the Sherlock Holmes of modern science, have his Wat- son. In capturing the marvelous secrets of nature we can hear Graham Bell give the first message ever heard over the tele- phone: “I want you, Watson ; come here.” Only last year scientists from the old country came to Washington and, at the Naval Observatory, studied and worked with American scientists to determine the difference in latitude. Wireless mes- sages exchanged between Paris and Washington, a distance of 3,000 miles, demonstrated the perfection reached in that wonderful field of science. It seems but yesterday that we were incredulous, as the papers brought the uncanny sto- ries that messages could be sent from coast to coast without wires. PERFECTING THE NAVY'S WIRELESS SYSTEM The Navy has been a pioneer in this conquering of the waves of the air, and its high-powered stations at Arlington, San Diego, in Panama, in Honolulu, Guam, Manila, Tutuila, Alaska, etc., will shortly in very truth put a girdle around the earth, fulfilling Puck’s promise “to put a girdle around the earth in forty seconds.” Working in cooperation with Mr. Carty in his remarkable achievement, was Capt. W. H. G. Bullard, U.S Naimowm superintendent of the Naval Radio Serv- ice, who placed at Mr. Carty’s disposal the facilities of our stations at Arlington and other places for perfecting his inven- tion. To the Bureau of Steam Engineer- ing of the Navy Department is due the credit of the planning and equipment of these stations in a manner which has made the radio service of the American Navy the greatest radio service in the United States or the world today. Among the officers who have been con- spicuous in bringing the service to its present state of efficiency are Capt. S. 5S. Robison, Lieut. Commander A. J. Hep- burn, and Lieut. S. C. Hooper. To the latter more than to any one else, under the direction of Rear Admiral Robert §. Griffin, is due the credit for the Navy’s present system of communication. The Navy has opened 25 stations to commer- Photograph by Paul Thompson THE TELEPHONE GIRL The telephone girl is no more an angel than the rest of humanity, but i i ler patience in ae the face of impatience, her courtesy in the face of brusque demand, her desire to oblige in the face of ugly tempers and crusty dispositions, is wonderful. it” when you feel like smiling. 325 She will always “beat you to cial business, and besides that every ship of the Navy is herself a commercial sta- tion, as all private messages handled are paid for by the senders. In addition to the paid commercial business carried on by the naval radio stations, the system renders a free serv- ice of inestimable value in the daily transmission from Arlington and other stations of the time signals from the Naval Observatory, thus enabling ships at sea, even though far beyond the range of transmission of their own equipment, to determine their exact chronometer correction. Even sailing vessels, which habitually make long voyages and which have no power with which to operate a radio station of their own, may at trifling expense be equipped to catch this signal. Our own naval ships have carried it far into the Mediterranean. In addition to this, over 300 jewelers throughout the country are now receiy- ing the Navy’s time signal by radio, and there is little doubt but what this number will grow to 3,000. WHEN WAR’S LIGHTNINGS FLAME THE SKY During the war in Mexico, when all land wire and cable communication be- tween the United States and the south- ern part of Mexico was interrupted, the naval vessels on the west coast afforded the only means of communication. The air has been put under contribution and is now the fleet-assigned servant of man. The S. O. S. call has reduced the terrors of the deep. Another interesting feature of this free radio service, which should be of incalculable benefit to shipping, is found in the radio compass now under con- struction at the Fire Island station, near the entrance to New York harbor. This device is intended to send out radio sig- nals of such a character that a vessel in a fog may get a close approximation of her “bearing,’ or compass direction, from the station. By means of observa- tions taken 5 or 10 miles apart, it should be possible for the vessel to determine her actual position with fair accuracy. This is the first installation of this type - to be made in this country ; but a second installation of different type, though an- swering the same purpose, is undergoing tests at Cape Cod. THE WIDE WORLD TO COME WITHIN EAR- SHOT The signals sent out by the radio com- pass at Fire Island will necessarily be limited as to range; but the Cape Cod installation will allow of a coasting ship calling the station in the usual manner from any distance within the ship’s ordi- nary range and receiving a definite reply as to her bearing from the station. In the case of Fire Island the ship will de- termine her bearing from the character of the signals continuously emitted; for Cape Cod the station determines the bearing of the ship from her calling sig- nal and sends the information back. If these installations prove as successful as anticipated, the radio operators of ships will become an important part of the navigating force. In the fall of last year the human voice was successfully transmitted by radio from the Naval Radio Station at Arling- ton clear across the continent to the sta- tion at Mare Island, Cal., 2,500 miles away; and several months later, sitting at his desk in the Navy Department, the Secretary of the Navy sent the first order ever issued by the Navy by wireless telephony to Rear Admiral Usher, com- mandant of the New York Navy Yard. The radio system of the Navy has been so thoroughly and completely organized and the Navy’s system of communica- tion, under the efficient organization of the Office of Naval Operations by its present chief, Rear Admiral Benson, is now so effective that messages to every part of the world can be sent at any time of the day or night; and this division has been put under the supervision of a thoroughly trained naval officer, within 50 feet of the desk of the Secretary of the Navy, and in immediate touch with the officers and officials of every depart- ment. NOTE TO MEMBERS Owing to unprecedented conditions in the importation of special inks for color work, together with the very large increase in the edition of the NATIONAL GkoGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, due to its continually growing popularity, it has been necessary to postpone until the April number the thirty-two pages of four-color work, illustrating the article on “America’s Playgrounds, for the March number. 33 which was announced VoL. XXIX, No. 4 WASHINGTON APRIL, 1916 THE NATIONAL GEOGIRAPIHIC MAGAZINIE THE LAND OF THE BEST By GILBERT H. GRosvENOR AuTHOR oF “YouNG RussiA, THE LAND OF UNLIMITED POSSIBILITIES” ARELY has there been afforded a R more impressive illustration of the statement that it pays to adver- tise than is to be found in the story of the endless stream of tourists hastening to Europe during the several decades be- fore the great war. The appeal of the art treasures and associations of the Old World, which is the original home of all Americans, is really not sufficient explanation of the fact that until last year 100 American tourists were crossing the Atlantic to one American tourist who crossed the United States. The delightful literature which the European travel bureaus and steam- ship companies placed at our disposal so whetted our appetite for a view of the lakes of Ireland and Scotland, of the cas- tles on the Rhine and Danube, of the scenes made famous by Shakespeare, Dickens, Victor Hugo, and Goethe, that we turned our back upon scenery more beautiful, wild flower gardens and for- ests incomparably finer, mountains more superb, and lakes more radiant than any to be seen in the lands across the Atlantic. It is true that one finds a more ancient culture in Europe. It is also true that he finds more splendid architecture. And likewise it is true that he finds there bet- ter art; for before America was born into the family of nations Europe had castles and cathedrals and masterpieces of art and sculpture, But in that architecture which is voiced in the glorious temples of the sequoia grove and in the castles of the Grand Canyon, in that art which is mirrored in American lakes, which is painted in gey- ser basins and frescoed upon the side walls of the mightiest canyons, there is a majesty and an appeal that the mere handiwork of man, splendid though it may be, can never rival. Nor is our country lacking in hallowed and historic spots.. Is Waterloo, where Napoleon’s star of empire set forever, any more sacred to the American heart than Appomattox, where a new nation was born out of the throes of internecine strife? Are Austerlitz and Wagram, with their high tides of the French Em- pire, of soil more sacred, of atmosphere more hallowed than Valley Forge and Gettysburg, Plymouth Rock, Independ- ence Hall, and Mt. Vernon? Does Lon- don or Paris or Berlin contain more of inspiration to us as a people than Wash- ington, the Nation’s Capital ? We have wandered far to find the pic- turesque and the magnificent, and yet it is not entirely a provincial philosophy which says that New York is in many ways the most wonderful, the most strik- ing, and the most interesting of all the cities of the earth; neither is it only the voice of the man who has never seen other shores that pronounces Yellowstone Park the most marvelous picture-book of Nature’s library ; nor yet ts it the narrow pride of the spread-eagle orator alone that awards to the Grand Canyon and the Yosemite and the Big Trees first place among the wonder scenes of the earth. Luray Cave, in Virginia, and the Mammoth Cave, in Kentucky, sur- pass in originality and grandeur any caves in Europe, while Ni iagara Falls has no rival in Europe or in Asia, and our American forests are the glory of the world. Man goes to Asia and to Africa to study forgotten civilizations, when the Redskins upon our own Western plains and in our own cliff dwellings reveal stories of the past as strange as any we know, and constitute a race more magnificent in physique than any that can be found in other parts of the world. When one comes to examine the literature of America for the tour- ist, one is amazed at the contrast between that literature and what he finds from other countries. Baede- ker publishes a guide-book in three volumes to tell about Italy, and one volume to tell about the United States and Mexico. One can find more literature about the geysers of New Zealand than about those of the Yellowstone (though the Yel- lowstone contains more geysers than all the rest of the world) ; more about the troglodytes of northern Africa and Asia Minor than about the cliff-dwellers of Ari- zona and New Mexico, though the latter were much more ingenious and more amazing in their achieve- ments. As it would require more space than there is between the covers of this Magazine merely to index all the places of scenic and historic in- terest in our country, in this article we must content ourselves with mentioning in text and picture only a comparatively few. Remember, that the United States, excluding Alaska, is as big as England, Scot- land, Ireland, France, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria- Hungary, the Balkan States, Swit- zerland, Holland and _ Belgium, PENNSYLVANIA 4 4 Us} ROCKVILUI AT > as 2 Le single scene SUSQUEHANNA RIVEE THE © a more picturesque landscape than this, or a more successful combination of art and nature in a OVER BRIDGE STON]; One might travel all over Europe without seein ‘TTTE BAREFOOT BOY WITH CHEEKS OF TAN” This young man cut his “fishin’ pole,” dug a can of worms, gathered up his basket, and then a 5S S eD > INS ae said: “Mother, how many do you want?” oS ern ee r Be, sg Bheneenn by Edwin H. Lincoln THEIR LAST PORT: NEW BEDFORD, MASSACHUSETTS Whalers Rousseau and Desdemona Rousseau, built in 1802 by Stephen Girard, of Phila- delphia, and used at one time as packets between Liverpool and Philadelphia. of most of New Bedford’s leading families were founded on whale oil and “bone,” and every tradition of the town has a whaling background. The fortunes 330 Photograph by Edwin H. Lincoln LOMBARDY POPLARS ON ROAD BETWEEN LENOX AND PITTSFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS Pittsfield’s Public Green has been called “the heart of the Berkshires,’ and Lenox has been christened “the gem of the mountains Between them stretches miles of scenery, with old Greylock in the distance, as pastoral in its charm, as soft in its beauty, as inviting in its appeal as anything that’ Europe can offer. 331 ESujo uvIIOWY Ino ueyy onbsoinjzord ujooury ‘yy urmphy Aq ydessojoyg TES y JO [Nfoov41s IIOW SuLyAUL UTe}UOD dOUe HOV TIIA GNVIONY MAN V If 10 purjpsuy fo SOLUNUILUOD petns oy} OC, THE LANCASTER ELM, THE LARGEST IN MASSACHUSETTS Several of our States already are pointing the way that all of them are certain to travel in the future. Mountain tops, historic sites, battlefields, and other places of scenic and historic interest are being acquired by the State and reserved for the public. Norway and Sweden, and European Russia, excepting the provinces of Arch- angel and Perm. PICTURESQUE AND HISTORIC NEW ENGLAND Boston—with its rich history of Co- lonial days, its brave leadership of Revo- lutionary times, its appreciation of cul- ture in the years when our people were so deeply absorbed in the problem of conquering the wilderness and building a nation—takes on a new meaning when one has visited its Commons, passed in and out of the portals of Faneuil Hall, made a pilgrimage to its old churches and the burying ground where lie the Ashes, Ot, Mancock, Adams, andy aul Revere. w Already more than 50,000 people an- nually journey to the town of Plymouth to pay reverent homage to the memory of the Mayflower. Plymouth Rock is now appropriately cared for. On the hill near by rises a beautiful monument, which the nation has erected to the memory of those who risked their all to come to America in that pilgrim craft. It is said that the splendid statue of Faith which crowns this monument, and which 1s 40 feet high, is the largest stone figure in the world. Plymouth Rock can never mean as much to the American who has not seen it as it does to him who has stood on Plymouth’s sacred soil and felt the thrill of the spirit of those who fashioned here a cradle of modern hberty. A hundred and one delightful and rest- A NEW HAMPSHIRE HARVEST SCENE, WITH CHERRY MOUNTAIN IN THE DISTANCE When the broad elm, sole empress of the plain, whose circling shadow speaks a century's reign, Wreathes in the clouds her vegal diadem— a forest waving on a single stem. —Oliver Wendell Holmes. The trees of America are the best God ever planted. Vast stretches of them have been cleared, but our forests still contain the largest, most varied, most fruitful, and most beautiful trees in the world. Wide-branched oaks and elms in endless variety, walnut and maple, chestnut and beech, sycamore and locust, along the coast of the Atlantic; to the southward, dark, level-topped cypresses, sparkling spice trees, magnolias and palms, glossy-leaved, bloom- ing, and shining continually; to the northward, white pine and spruce, hemlock and cedar; westward, oak and elm, hickory and gum, ash, linden, laurel and pine, juniper, cactus and vucca; westward still further, new species of pine, giant cedars and spruces, silver firs and sequoias, “kings of their race.’—JoHn Murr. ful places in Maine beckon the tourist, ences which that part of our country, from the rock-bound island of Mt. Des- famous alike for its history and its scen- ert, on its southern shore, to the primeval ery, has to offer. He who reaches the forests of its northern woods. summit of that lofty peak journeys as One who visits New England without far north in temperature and in flora as going to the top of Mt. Washington, the Greenland. From the Observatory one culminating peak of the White Moun- may look north, south, east, and west, tains, misses one of the charming experi- the only limit to the view in any direction 335 ACES: FROST! MOUNT WASHINGTON, NEW HAMPSHIRE, SEPTEMBER 30, I9Q15 A combination of an exceptionally heavy frost and a strong wind one morning last September transformed the end of the railroad trestle and the little stage office on the top of the mountain into fairy structures of glistening white. . ae Photographs by Guy L. Shorey MOUNTS ADAMS AND MADISON FROM CORTES NOTCH TRAIL: NEW ENGLAND One does not have to travel across the continent to find mountain-climbing steep and rugged enough to gratify all but the confirmed Alpinist ges Photograph by Edwin H. Lincoln THE VALLEY OF THE HOUSATONIC, WITH GREYLOCK IN THE DISTANCE: PITTSFIELD, MASSACHUSETTS This valley has contributed the marbles out of which some of America’s most noted structures have been built. The Nation’s Capitol, at Washington, and the City Hall, at Phila- delphia, share with St. Patrick’s Cathedral, at New York, the common origin of their mar- bles. chusetts. being the power of the eye to penetrate the distance. Northward, one looks into Canada; eastward, into Maine; south- ward, across New England; westward, into New York. It was Henry Ward Beecher who said of the autumnal foliage of the Berkshire Hills: “Have the evening clouds, suffused with sunset, dropped down to become fixed into solid forms? MHave the rain- bows that followed autumn storms faded into the mountains, and left their mantles there? What a mighty chorus of colors do the trees roll down the valleys, up the hillsides, and over the mountains!” These hills constitute one of the fore- most playgrounds of the eastern United States. Their roads are as good as the Old Greylock, “cloud girdled on his golden throne,” is the highest mountain in Massa- Appian Way ever was in the palmiest days of the Roman Empire. And he who journeys southward from them comes down the verdant valley of the Connecticut, the central portion of that charming little State of which De Tocqueville on his visit proposed his re- markable toast: “And now for my grand sentiment : Connect-de-coot, ze leetle yel low spot zat make ze clock-peddler, ze school-master and ze Senator; ze first give you time, ze second tell you what to do wiz him, and ze third make your laws and civilization.” New Haven and Cambridge are two spots that must ever be hallowed in American history, for who can estimate the nation’s debt to the two old uni- Photograph by Edwin Levick GRANT'S TOMB, NEW YORK CITY, SHOWING THE HUDSON WITH THE ATLANTIC FLEET RIDING AT ANCHOR Next to Central Park, where broad acres of the most expensive land on earth present a velvety expanse of green, and great rocks, surrounded by carefully tended shrubbery and gracetul trees, retain their rough natural beauty, the most inspiring “breathing space” is perhaps Riverside, which occupies a considerable proportion of the shore of the Hudson north of Seventy-second street. From this park a fine view of the Hudson River may be had, and within its confines is located the stately tomb of General U. S. Grant, which is to New York what the tomb of Napoleon is to Paris. 38 ios) te sas iciaenbeansascmaailts (go Ea Photograph by Brown Brothers THE TOP OF THE BUSINESS WORLD: LOOKING FROM THE WOOLWORTH BUILDING PAST THE BATTERY TOWARD THE SEA It takes no undue amount of national pride to accept New York as the world’s foremost metropolis. London may be hundreds of years older and bigger; Paris may surpass it in art and architecture; Berlin may hold the better of the argument in “newness,” but nowhere else on the face of the earth is there a city of such many-sided greatness as New York. Its port does more business, its banks have heavier clearings, its immigrant station has more incomers, its streets are trod by a more polyglot population, its urban railroads handle more traffic, its bridges carry more people, than any other city of Christendom. 339 ! L t t lm Photograph by Brown Brothers AN OASIS OF RELIGION AMID A DESERT OF BUSINESS Trinity Church, New York, standing at the head of Wall street, its tower, looking down on America s financial center, seems a hand raised to heaven in an appeal that men may not, while absorbed in the struggle of the “Street,” forget their God. ios) Te 2) ri i alee a om ees , 7 Rn | . Nae d «hae & ek ; YBa e \t ‘3 oes * Copyright by Edwin Levick LOOKING DOWN UPON A FOREST OF SKYSCRAPERS: NEW YORK CITY Upon the top of one of these man-made mountains there is the same peaceful quiet as on any mountain top. No sound from the streets below comes up this distance. Men on the sidewalks are infinitesimal dots, darting hither and yon. Looking down upon them, one is inclined to reflect what puny beings humans are, and from this lofty point of view almost forgets his sympathy for their personal interests. Then comes the realization that this moun- tain was built by these puny beings from materials dug out of the earth in a crude state, purified, shaped, and fastened together in a manner that will make it stand practically for all time, and then a feeling of reverence for the human brain—that God-given boon which has made these things possible. Note the men on the tower in the foreground. 341 SOUL] JVOIS OM] JSvoy ye $O 9dIATOS OY} SUILP[IOV} “pvOsIVY SUlJIVUUOD YIOR MoN oY} JO syovsy AMOF Artes [][rm ‘2161 ‘Arvnuef ynoqe pousdo oq 0} OSplg yory 3eD [PH Mou oy, “uonsodoid ur oyfer} Jepnorysa J9y}0 YIM ‘stnoy ANOJ-AJUIMY AIOAD [IAVIZ SILI ddPFANS OOO'SZI dUOTe oSplig, UATYOOIG ody} 10AQ “Buoy SOJIUI XIS 19AO ISPlIq Jess B oyRIU pyhom Asy} pus 0} pus pooeid Fr pure “YSty st JuouMUOT uoysuryseA\ oy} Se opIA sv AvMpvos B oprAosd pynom SdINJONYS Jos VAY ssoy} ‘opts Aq opis pooeyd J] “YpAvo oy} o[pALS 9dr} ULY} oIOW PyMoM ‘pud O} pua paoLId Fr ‘YOIYM FO sosTA oY} soyqvo wo. popuedsns 91v Woy} JO sory yf, [Vu vUeULg oY} SL YON se Jey SLM jysOd PoUTqUIOD Iloy], “JOATY ySe%x] OY. ULds soSpr4q poojs snoutsous DAL] d JNOT OS SHDGIYT GNV IMOHS OS UVAddV SMOOTA ALIO Od GIYOM HHL NI US TA ANAM MolAa’] uIMpsy Aq ydeisojoyg ms a ‘AYS OY} OJUL dn avez Os API OY} P[inq 0} s]qissod yt soye YOIYM JO Yoo pljos oy} ‘purysr ayy jo SON Iqissod UONLpuNoF OY} Pays ysoaUL JOAOU pue “YSIY solsojs paspuny & j[eY Ssurpymq soyjo JO powivoip oy Wy} ApOAL JOU st yr OZ ‘oromoy ‘MOUY OY] ULYF ATOSIAL o1OLU JYSHOd ATYVqoad 19}9q —*000'O0O‘OOO'EY IYI] SUIYJIWIOS 1OF SO] AIO UL HL [JOS OF dIGe oq MOU P[NOM ‘spraq pur YO]D pow ut SAL]JOP DAY-AJUIMY JNOGL TOF OTOL UL SUVIPUT oY} WOIF puLysyp UL}eYULYYL JYSnod oAVY O} PIVS St OYM ‘JOUTDAOS YO NC] ISI oy} “YMUIPY 1o9}oG d AVS HH GINOM LVHM ‘SIFT, HHS GINOD LIONIW WALAd AL 343 = s eB RY s BERLE EBELASZSEUSES AC RESAGSE ESS. Races seaguserens EMBL ELSEBLGSES BEES. = as = ‘ureyunoy Ot} OJUL duinf sxoq pue Mey jo suvIpiens 9S9Y} fo SOToUdIIYApP [eNstA dU} IZI[eot ‘stodedsMmou JO Spuesnoy} JO spo oy} pur }eIq STU, JO IIULOS JSOYJAVE oy 0} Yo Ipuny suljnqrysip ‘s Ss. SOUISNG oyunes je OO surystyqnd IH] MYL jurzsoduir ue yons Aejd OYM suBdIIOWY SuNO< asoy} pue ‘sAep jOY UO suTejUNOF Y4ted JO APUISIA dy} UL JYSISaXa peq doparsp udswiaotjod yao V ANI S WAL WM ce ‘ HHI—NI NO WNOD MV,, MW ) i. ayy ul 4 op LO ed ‘OIOUL SOLO OOO‘OT poamborv PU SOIVIG OM] OU} iM spurvy ‘avd 9}e|ssojUL Uv JO 9 TOF UOTJOV JUuIOL YOO] 3.104 MON pure NUNSOp seM sosodand oyeatid 1OF¥ UOSspnyT oy powol ojdood poqards-oiyqnd JO SYULC OY} SuUOol[v URILIOWW ol JO ponuruos oq} yw -Y1OX MON oY} UVULLIR oy} OF UOTze H ‘HI pleMp IIpap puv UOTIS oqnd ayy 07 Audp 0} p uIOS SVM UvWAIIvNOD yoos-desy oy} WwyI p YJ UL padvyidstp oyI]V 9121GQ puv UdZIIO JeYy VY 9}e] Sivok Udy, JOY} UO1VVI19 ayy pur N OOO ur 4n¢ JO uornrsmbor ou} ulm ATS. uospny ee! fo uoly ITUTLIOD oy} Jo 00} JouUR N “INI@TIV MWAIN ‘NOSAOTI 1S80}0Yq 345 NIAGARA FALLS, CIVILIZATION S SUPREME SPECTACLE IN WATER 346 THE AMERICAN FALLS: NIAGARA ih : # ‘ . é & wt m Photograph by E. W. Fox IN THE GRIP OF THE ICE KING: NIAGARA FALLS Though Niagara is awe-inspiring and soul-conquering in its thundering power, the silent, noiseless, eerie army of the Ice King sometimes steals upon it, stills its thunders, and trans- forms its plunging waters into solid masses of Ice. 347 “OWI0S O} UIT} IOF JINpuUS 0} nq ‘Teak B 10 YJUOUL B JOF FING Usoq JOU DALY YSIYA s][ey Uorptsodx jyeo1s oy} SUITISIA “JuoUIMUOTY UOoSuIYseA\ oY} JO MOprys ay} UIYM A[qeyyord juods oq URS SyOOAA “JUOWOADIYIV ULTIoOWY pue AIOJsSIY ULIIIOWY JO UOTIsOdxd ,usdo skemye,, ue si Jeyides suorjeu ay} SsyqiyxXo sy ur Yorr pue ‘JsotoJUl S}t UT Sulinpus “Ajnvoq s}r UT [elUUOIOd ‘UOSvaS UI SALA JL SI Jey} UOT}TSOdxXd }eoIs 9UO SI oI9y} JN ‘O83 SuoTIsodxa pue ood suor}IsOdx*y OVNOLOd AHL WONT NISVG ‘IVGI SSOYMOV ONIMOO'T “INHNOANOW NOLONIHSVM SHE UPC “YW SetteyD Aq ydevisojoyg TEUAVS SUOTeU oY} VIA PVot P[HOYs Jox1} yS14n0} AtOA‘T “MULT JO Pud dy} pue SuluuIsoac dy} sjuds -o1dat JT “JAOSor 4YSLP JO [LUNqIA} [eIIpa,T 9Y}J—JANOD ousdng sojwVjyg pau, oy} sys os|e W sspug "SO}CIQ JYSIO-AJIOF OY} WOE SoA eJUoSosdad porpuny XIS puw oAY VooArjod FO dryssoquow VB MOU SUIALY ‘ssatsuo) Aq pajovus o1e UOIeU dy} JO SME] oY} OWOP Sulsodun siy} YWeoUsopua WYOMS-MONS V WIV NOLINIHSVM LV ‘IOLIdVO MEL UI}FIVIN YY sopreyg Aq ydeisojoy gy ~~ se 349 ‘Qansevat} [Jom AvUI UOTeU BJOYM B YIYM ArQUDIS JO Iq B SI ssoy oy} sUOU Atso,J Ssodiepy jnq {A[B8u01s os yt ynd aavy jou pynom ay ‘98105 Roy 94} 10 “ols “YIVG [PUOHLN SUoJsMOT[DR OY} ‘UOAULD PULID ay} Ud9S PeY OY Fl ‘asimod JO ,,ainyeu Ul soudds Snopuadnys ysour dy} JO ouO,, SUIRJUNOW, VSPIY OM[_ oY} sossed oewojog 9} YIYM YsSnosy} 95108 ay} paljeo uossayaf “Ajnvoq [eimjeu papodoxa-wopjas jo ainjoid eB axyeut Aoy} Aljoyy Stodrepy je Ivulojog oy} surof _“soiys oy} JO Joyysnep Ireyz,, Aoy[eA snowey s}t UL 9Al] OYM dSoYy} Aq payyeo ‘yeopueuays oy} d19Y AA VINIONIA LSHM “ANNA SUMUYVH :GIVY SNMOUd NHOL FO NMOL HHL eH ‘[ euesn4y Aq ydersojoyg “AUepdsoy VIULSATA YM spuesnoy} FO sporpuny sit pourejiojua Sey uolsor yUIOT PIO oy} Yoodsoid ul surwaeys ‘oywuN[D ur Awyeq ‘hs104sS1y Ul PRY “Avg, oyvodesoy O} 9UVIQUO OY} SUIPIVNS SABMTL UOTBIYIIOF V JO IOS 9WOS UDaq Sey dtd} ‘sasdv] JOYS YIM ‘OU} Jey} 9OUIG “1IQI Ul ‘ose sivad Sof YMG d19M spuL{s MOU JOIUOPY PIO IIOYM SUOTILIYIFAOF SIG OY, “Vos oY} FO dIVJAVM 9} PoZIUOINJOADI JY} 9]}WeVq [eavu dy} pue auopusdopuy FO AVAA S,LOLIOLUY Po}eUILUtd} FLY} 9T}Ie PUL] oY} JYSNoF sem os9Y 'pPIOAA MON Suryvods-ysipsuryy oy} UL SUOTZSYAOF YSs1y 94} Poqoo.a9 AXIOM JOY FSM] UMO ITOY} oYLU OF SoaAezUasaidar sydood oy} JO SuTIOYyes ys1y IY} Pfoy SVM oJOY fVoLIOWIW Ul AUOTOS Ysi[suryT Js1y dy pozuryd SUM OIOF[ “SpVOY UOJMWUILET StopsIOg YOIYM JLY} UL ULY} PIOYPLS JSIIIJUL [LTTOJSIY DOW SI S9IVIG PoPUL) 9Y} UL JU9}XO YI] JO AJOVAI10} OU UT VINIONIA “LYOTNWOD LNIOd GIO GNV HOUNOW JOT JO MIA V suepy “y[ 981095) Aq ydeisojoyg SPSVer AAR Ans & THE MAIN STREET OF YORKTOWN, WASHINGTON IN 1781, N 33 MILES FROM NORFOLK EAR The house on the left was the first custom-house in America. in evidence than the automobile. Ne oa WHERE CORNWALLIS SURRENDERED TO THE MOUTH OF THE YORK RIVER, The ox-cart is still more Here stands the house of General Nelson, the Virginia patriot, who offered twenty guineas to the first cannoneer who would hit his house, saying that it meant nothing to him while it harbored the enemy of his country—Cornwallis. And a cannon-ball embedded in the chimney tells a story of good gunnery. versities which honor the names of their founders, Flihu Yale and John Harvard? Surely Oxford and Caml bridge have ren- dered no more conspicuous service to Ku- rope than Harvard and Yale to America! And there are many other college com- munities whose halls are fragrant with traditions more inspiring to Americans than any of the memories associated with the university buildings which tourists visit in Europe — W illiam and Mary, where Jefferson and Monroe were college boys; the University of Virginia, found- ed by Jefferson ; Princeton, the unive ersity which graduated Madison and where Joseph Henry taught. THE EMPIRE STATE From its metropolis in the southeast to Niagara on the west, from Plattsburg on historic Lake Champlain to picturesque on Lake Chautauqua, the Empire State is full of lure for the traveler. New York City is the most cosmopolitan community of the earth. There are more Jews in it than in Jerusalem, more Italians than in Messina, more Germans than in Bremen, and more Slavs than in Kishinef. Some one has said that New York is a city that is all things to all men; that the artist translates it in terms of beauty, the practical man in terms of efficiency. He adds that everywhere it is spectacular, the big setting of a big drama, a place of endless experiment and achievement, the city of skyscrapers, whose elevators con- vey one with the speed of an eagle to dizzy summits, from which those who walk the narrow street below seem like so many ants following their daily toil. To the Hudson River many a world traveler has paid tribute. George Wil- BRUTON PARISH CHURCH: Photograph by H. C. Mann WILLIAMSBURG, VIRGINIA Bruton Parish Church was built in 1710 and is the oldest church in continuous use in the United States. building in Virginia. It was more intimately associated with colonial history than any other Five Presidents of the United States—Washington, Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, and ‘Tyler—worshipped here, as did also all of the colonial governors and the members of the House of Burgesses for three- -quarters of a century. Among its interesting relics are the Jamestown baptismal font and communion service. liam Curtis declared that “the Danube has in part glimpses of such grandeur, the Elbe sometimes has such delicately penciled effects, but no European river is so lordly in its bearing, none flows in such state to the sea. Of all our rivers that I know, the Hudson, with its grandeur, has the most exquisite episodes ; its morning and evening reaches are like the lakes of a dream.” The trip from New York up the Hud- son is one of rare delight, whatever the season, for between the magnificent country estates and the history and leg- ends of Tarrytown and Sleepy Hollow, of West Point and the Catskills, there is romance and entertainment in every mile. But when autumn comes, and the trees 353 reach their unanimous verdict that the colors of the rainbow should be matched by the colors of their foliage, the traveler upon its waters might well “doubt if Eden were more fair.” The Adirondack region, stretching from Canada down almost to the Mohawk Val- ley and from Lake Champlain to the St. Lawrence River, will ever claim the loyal admiration of the tens of thousands who visit it. The beauty of its intricate chain of lakes, the solitudes of its deep wilder- ness, and the magic of its flaming chasms linger in the minds of all who have wan- dered there. Upon the southeastern border of these mountains lies Lake George, a gem ina setting of mountains. The Italian thinks THE WASHINGTON OAK, NEW ORLEANS, The gnarled, Louisiana’s vast virgin forests. through Orleans’ proud boast that she is the of it as Como, the Englishman as Win- dermere, and the Scot as Katrine, for it possesses much of Te enchantment of each of these famous waters. In central New York are to be found those remarkable lakes which we know as Oneida, Cayuga, and Seneca. The culminating spectacle of the East by unanimous consent, is Niagara Falls. The Indians described it in a phr ase than which no word-painter has ever found one more expressive. They called it the “Thunder of Water.”’ Niagara is with- out a setting. Some scenes gather as much from their surroundings as they themselves possess; like a mirror, they borrow some of the loveliness we behold in them from other sources. But Niagara has all its beauty and sublimity within , Photograph from M. L. Alexander THE LARGEST LIVE-OAK IN- THE WORLD: AUDUBON PARK, LOUISIANA wide-branched oaks and the funereal Spanish moss are not confined to They come right down into the city, Audubon Park and feels its restful spell cannot but accept, at least in part, New “city that care forgot.” and one who rides itself. There is nothing of charm or at- traction in the approach to it from what- ever direction. Just as the United States is setting aside national parks and national monu- ments in the West for the benefit of the generations that shall come after us, so New York, in particular, is making reser- vations, historic and scenic, for the bene- fit of her people. The American. Scenic and. Historic Preservation Society is incorporated under the laws of that State and has been intrusted with the custody of most of these places. It annually makes a report to the Governor, showing what steps are taken, and has labored with unusual suc- cess in its field. Letchworth Park and Fort Ticonderoga, the one an example of 354 the places of natural beauty and the other of the places of historic associations, are under its control. INDEPENDENCE HALL AND VALLEY FORGE The State of Pennsylvania has her share of shrines. In Philadelphia there is Independence Hall, than which there is no more hallowed edifice in Europe or America, for it was in this old brick building that democracy had its birth. Surely no place in Europe holds as just an appeal to the lover of liberty. And then there is Valley Forge, set Photograph Hypo Coquille UNCLE EPH’M AND HIS OLD GRAY MULE IN FROM THE COUNTRY: BAYOU SARA, LOUISIANA This is a surviving touch of the old South, of the days of “My Old Kentucky Home,” “Suwanee River,’ and “Old Black Joe” aside by the State of Pennsylvania as a park. How can Americans better com- prehend the sufferings and sacrifices out of which our nation was born than to go to Valley Forge, and there on the very ground read the story of that cruel winter which moved the Father of His Country to tears! Within a few hours from Philadelphia, Baltimore, or Washington is the battle- field of Gettysburg, listed by the historian Creasy as one of the fifteen decisive bat- tles of all time. As you make your pil- grimage to the sacred field through Mary- ‘AWM Jey) AouInol oyM [Je JO spustzy oyeu pue jeodde opim e savy AsjUNOD UIeJUNOT ynoyoo’yT dy} Fo A10} “SI. IBM JIAIO OY} pue eurpoieg YON Jo AsqUNOD AEMEXOY, 2YL’] 9Y} JO ssouandsoinjoid ayy, “jSotojur Sulpiqe pue doosp ew uoISe1 sJOYM oy} pur] 0} daidsuod danjeu pue AJOISIFL “BoIJoury Ul sodvospur] [MFHNvoq JSOW dy} JO DWOS DALY LUL[OID YWON Uso}saM pue dossouUAT UsJOyse’y NIVINOQOW LAOMOOT WOU VAAN AASSHNNAL AHL JO GNYd@ NISVOOOW AHL GNV VOOONVI.LVHO 2 aay: see Photograph by T. P. Robinson THIS 1S NOT A SCENE ON THE BANKS OF THE NILE, BUT A VIEW ON ECONLOCATCHEE CREEK, FLORIDA Florida, with its cabbage palms, tropical jungles, palatial hotels, and wide, hard beaches— “the land of eternal summer”—is only thirty-five hours distant from New York and thirty- three from Chicago. 357 “AIQUTYIVUL JO 919% SIy} JO sJUPM dy} nbs ooo's€ ynoqe jo baie JOOY & SLY WOOT sHOWIOUI SI, “SUOT}IPUOD SUTYIOM ysoq Oy} 104 dYVU JYSIpUNSs JO spooy pue ‘ue sind ‘ssourpuvo[D JO WINUNIXLUT B ITO “TI[IUT [Xo] UBIO Utopout Jeords] & pue sollojoefnuRU JVIIS Isoy} FO Ssiq SAtjUNOD 9Y} JO 9WIOS PUe ‘sa}e}IG Pou, 9Y} OJUT pozy10duut 9UO FO JOIIOJUL OY} SMOYS dAOGE UOTLIYSHI[E oy J, “o1aY po}woo] o1v si] WIS jsoss YJIS MLL dy} [[B FO Pjry}-ouo souroo ‘eruva[AsuUag ‘UOJULIOG JO APUIIA BY} 0} ‘APO YIIS SUIpvo] Sosouy si ‘Aostof MON ‘Uosiojwg YSsnoyipy VINVA'IASNNid ‘NOLNVYOS LV ‘TIIN WIS NVOIMHNV LVaNO V 0} puo}e 0} potmbos o1e soAtjetodo oSh pue Yoof oie . — assenenstin ae ~ | Peete tte te sce i io,4) Ww ico) year UL URIINA JO DVUIN} C—P]IOA of} FO Soto [Vl Isnpul JSOWIIOF NOL]G,, YAM popvoy TATY AUDYSa[Y oy} UL Joop [od Yoangs}Hid & SA] hy ayy JO suo YSssnqsyi1g oyeu 07 dpoy YoryM soasy oyy Wyse daoy 07 ,spuowrip “Keq oy} WOIJ S4d}SKO JOU WOO JOALL OY} WOIJ [OAVIB JOU SE SY} ‘ON HOUVAIS Lid LY ANHHOWTIV HHL JO MIA V lle reperrerr: nce saswon ene "TEES Sad Fe ONE OF THE COUNTLESS GREAT LAKES: FIVE HUN AMAZING SIGHTS TO BE SEEN NDRED THOUSAND DOLLARS WORTH OF COPPER Photograph by Gilbert 7a, Grosvencs ON THE WHARVES OF OUR INGOTS AWAITING SHIPMENT AT HOUGHTON, MICHIGAN Industrially as well as scenically the United States affords fields of interest to the tourist surpassed by no other part of the world. two-fifths of its iron and coal, one-third of its silver, land or Pennsylvania, you see a landscape that painters love—undulating hills, roll- ing fields, watered with w inding streams and ornamented by groves of oak and hickory, picturesque farm-houses, and huge barns packed to the rafters with Nature’s gifts, for these counties possess some of the best land and best farmers of America. Fifty-four thousand of as brave men as ever marched to martial music min- gled their blood at Gettysburg in 1863. The government of the United States has spared no effort to preserve to the future the memories of those who bore the brunt of the bitter struggle. and to mark alike the position of the Blue and the Gray of those sanguinary days. It is the best marked and best cared-for bat- We produce three-fifths of the world’s copper, lead, and zinc, and one-fifth of its gold. tlefield in the world. With its magnifi- cent picture of pastoral beauty, its splen- did roadways, and its eloquent monu- ments, Gettysburg is a sight to thrill the heart of every American. Nowhere can we find sights and mem- ories more precious to our hearts than those which abound in Washington, the most stately capital city in the world. The glories of the nation’s capital have, however, been so well described in the pages of this Magazine by ex-President Taft and Viscount Bryce that they need not be referred to here. Not far from Washington is Harpers Ferry, where the Potomac breaks through the mountains on its way to the sea, and the scene of John Brown’s raid; here came Stonewall Jackson to capture the 360 force which stood in the way of the Con- federate effort to carry the war into Maryland and the North in 1862. From Harpers Ferry far away to the south stretches the famous Shenandoah Valley, the granary of the Confederacy in the 60’s, of which Sheridan declared that he had laid it so bare that a crow flying across it would have to carry his rations. The Valley Turnpike, once the race-course of armies, is now the peace- ful highway of the automobilists who journey from the North to the South. WALLS OF DIAMONDS AND PEARLS Half way up the Shenandoah Valley are the Luray Caverns, an underworld palace built by the busy hands of trickling waters. Aladdin, we are told, was once permitted to enter a cave which exhibited such decorations that its glory both daz- zled and affrighted. But Aladdin never beheld anything more wondrously ex- quisite than the water-built architecture of Luray. The Throne Room is canopied with 3201 Photograph by W. H. Brandel TYPES OF AMERICAN GRAIN ELEVATORS: THE GREAT LAKES The United States is the principal grain exporting nation in the world, having more grain elevators than the remainder of North and South America and Asia and Africa together curtains woven of diamonds and pearls. The Saracen’s Tent has more than Ori- ental splendors of richest damasks and golden samite, which drape the crystal couch in festoons of magic beauty. Ti- tania’s Veil is woven of petrified spiders’ webs, while the Ball-room seems as if set to celebrate a marriage between the gods. The visitor to Luray today shares the sentiment of another visitor of long ago, who exclaimed: “Mortal hath not made the like, nor human fancy conceived thing more magnificent !” As one journeys westward from the Atlantic seaboard, whether by the north- ern route and by boat through the Great Lakes, touching at points of interest along their shores, or by one of the cen- tral routes through western Pennsylvania or West Virginia, or yet by a southern road through New Orleans, there will be discovered a continual succession of dra- matic and matchless spectacles. Not the least of these is the Mammoth Cave of Kentucky, the biggest cavern of the world. The discovery of the cave Photograph by Eugene J. Hall THE ROAD DOWN THE BLUFF NEAR ALMA, WISCONSIN: MISSISSIPPI RIVER The country at the head of the “Father of Waters” was once the scene of hard-fought Indian wars and in those days, not so long ago, a wilderness of vast expanse. Now it is thickly settled by farmers, whose fields of golden wheat have brought them wealth, and many of whom now superintend the work on their farms from the rear seat of an automobile. no ssed jeY} SoNIpOUtOD [RANy[NIASe JO JUNO JsvA OY} B[pULY OF dIqB SI $o}eIG poyUA, dy} IY} dsoY} se ‘sysod ino jo SoInjonsjs juris Yyons ySnosy} AyUO st JT ‘Sotov OST sordnooso yuryd oanuo oy} o[IYM {FOOL AopuN puNoOAs JO sotoe Ez oie dU J, ‘Woo Jod oF AjIpOWWOS [einqNolise Aue SUI[pURYE JO 4SOd 94} VNPot OF pies St pUB VURISINO’T FO 9}V}G oY} A OOO‘OOS*ES JO JSOO & Je JING sem j] ‘odJfoo pue seSns se yons ‘ 95VIOJS OY} OF poydupr st pue UO}}JOD JO soTeq OOO'OOD'S JO Ajroedes e sey i SOIpOWUWoO. payed 4 ‘Pp[JOM oY} UL vsnHOYyoIeM I ye BANNWISe ysoSav Japurxayy * IO I” jo | 24} Sey SUvOTIC) MON SNVATYO MAN JO LNOd :dND UNOA OL ALAOU NA "TT wory ydersojoyg AAT 1OD you LL di Y ‘ULLT[LD OY} 342] 9Y} O} Jey} Pue ‘UOSIpePY 24} 1oJU9D 9Y} UL Jey} ‘UOSIayaf Oy} ST WYStI dy} UO JdAI1 dy} dinyord ay} UL “OyloVq ay} 0} doy} WOIF AO}II9} 9Y} MOUY oYS Jey} podunouue pur ‘oswWOY OSe-Suo] soy se yods oy} poziuso eI ays ‘pooypyiys Joy ur Aeme polises ysnoyiyy “Asjunos oy} Jo AaAIns & 1OF aSpi4t dy} JO do} oy} 0} poquijs pue dsess sejoyLC] IY} Wor, UOTTIP -odxe Yie[D pue simo’] oY} popins ,“ueWIOM pIIq,, UPIPUT oY} ‘vameleorg yey} O10 SEM JT ‘SIasIApe Suryuer OM} sIy pue UOSIayof JuapIsoig Jo Jouoy Ul Y1e[Q pue stmo’] Aq poweu ‘UosIpey] oy} pue ‘uUZeT[eD oy} ‘UOSsIayof oy} a1v AST, “TMOssIpY OY} eYLUT 0} 10YJ0S0} OUIOD SJOATI UTeJUNOUI de14} ‘SYIOY so1Y], pue ‘9}jng ‘eUsp|I_{ UsemMjoq ysuet1} [esojejimbs ue fo xode Usojsva oy} Je ‘vuLJUOTY JO SuIejUNOy AYDOY oy} ur dn sey VNVINOW ‘SMUYOT HAUL FO ALIO AHL UVAN WAI IMAOSSIW AHF, JO SMUOT WAVHY uazqoayoS “y Aq yders0j04g NEARING THE SUMMIT OF PIKES PEAK ON THE COG RAILWAY Pikes Peak, 14,108 feet, is the highest mountain in America whose summit is reached by a railroad. Little Switzerland, only one third as large as the State of New York, contains more mountain tops accessible by railway than the entire United States. It may be stated, however, without belittling the enterprise and industry with which the Swiss engineers have patiently constructed their marvelous railways to the summits of Gorner Grat, Pilatus, Brienz. Rigi, etc., that the money which financed these railways was in large part the vacation cash left in Switzerland by American tourists. was a God-send to the country, for in the war with England in 1812 the United States secured from it the nitrous earth from which was derived the saltpetre used in the manufacture of the gunpow- der for our armies. Nowhere else can one travel so far in Plutonian regions of perpetual night, where petrified efflorescence is a substi- tute for vegetation, as in this great cavern. Vastly larger than Luray, the Mammoth Cave possesses a rich variety of formations. Many of these are huge in their proportions and remarkable in the delicacy of their structure. Strange species of creatures are to be found there. One of these is a blind and 365 wingless grasshopper, with extremely long antenne; another is a blind and colorless crayfish; and a third, a blind fish which grows to the length of about six inches, and possesses the additional curiosity of being viviparous, producing its young ina livi ing state instead of by eggs. Occasionally ‘there are fish caught in the running streams of the cave which are identical with species common in Green River, indicating a subterranean connection between that river and the streams of the cave. THE MOST IMPORTANT RIVER IN THE WORLD The imperial Mississippi Valley may well claim the attention of those who "SIOp1Og JOY O} Woy} SuMUOSIM UT PUB }Soa19}UT JO soovid Joy Sursos JO} SOIOVF YIM SIOPSIA Surpraoid ur yjOq ‘UMOYS sey 9}v}G [eLUUOIW,) Ol} yisids oatssoiso1d v yeym soyrdtusexa yeoq Sot FO doy oy} 07 ALM -YsIy oprqowoyne prpueyds oy} $O SUIP[ING oJ, “}SIINO} 94} OF IqISSadev AJOUIS IY} eye 0} OpLIJOTO) se Yonur sv oop SALT $9}VJG MoT ACIM Lid ALI AAUNO NIdwlIVH V DNIMOHS ‘AVMHDIH OLAV MVAd SDI 1d Be 366 ON THE ROAD TO THE SUMMIT OF PIKES PEAK The automobile in the picture is 13,000 feet above sea-level. are long-distance telephones, a parking space for three hundred automobiles, would know and appreciate the bigness and the diversity of industry and power of our country. Our books tell us that 22 of our States and 40 per cent of the total area of our country are comprised within the Mis- sissippi Valley ; that nowhere else on the globe is there as large a region of equal fertility; that it grows the bulk of the nation’s food and produces nearly two- thirds of our manufactures, and that, politically and commercially, it is more important than any other valley in the world. But how tame the written statement is compared to the actual sight of oceans of green, growing corn; of waving wheat, oats, rye, and barley extending for hun- dreds of miles; of the huge plows, reap- ers, and threshing machines drawn by 16 On the top of the peak there and a lake. horses or propelled by engines as big as the locomotive of an express train. Or, if you are more interested in see- ing things fashioned by the brain of man, tarry at Gary, Dayton, Cleveland, De- troit, Chicago, Milwaukee, etc., each the birthplace and home of enterprises pe- culiarly American and giving employ- ment to tens of thousands. There you will stand in awe at sights a thousand times more astounding and _ stimulating than many of the feudal castles and tor- tuous streets of Baedeker’s specialties. The fortunate individual who can fol- low our majestic Father of Waters from the upper reaches of its principal tribu- tary, the Missouri, down the longest river course in the world to the Gulf of Mex- ico will have an experience that cannot be duplicated. As he sticcessively watches 307 Photograph by George L. Beam THE ROYAL GORGE, GRAND CANYON OF THE ARKANSAS: COLORADO This gorge is the deepest chasm in the world through which a railroad passes. At one point it is so narrow that the railroad, unable to find a road-bed, passes over an iron bridge 200 feet long, suspended from girders mortised into the granite walls of the gorge, which is here half a mile deep. VIEW IN SHOSHONE CANYON: WYOMING The automobile road from Cody, Wyoming, to the Yellowstone Park, which the United States Government has constructed, passes through the Shoshone Canyon. Five tunnels had to be blasted for its passage. Here the Government has built the second highest dam in the world. The lake it forms has a shoreline 42 miles long and furnishes water for the irrigation of more than 40,000 acres of land. 369 LONE STAR GEYSER: YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK There are more geysers in Yellowstone National Park than in all of the remainder of the world. Stupendous as are the spectacles of these giant natural fountains in eruption, they are but feeble reminders of the titanic times whose records are written all over the face of the park. Photograph by F. J. Haynes THE GIANT GEYSER OF THE YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK The Giant Geyser, with its tremendous outpouring of water and steam shooting 200 feet into the air and lasting for a full hour, is one of dozens of geysers found in the Yellowstone. They have all been named, and expressively so: the Black Growler, always fretting and fuming, but never doing much else; the Constant, on the job every half minute, with a ten- second eruption; the Minute Man, with a one-minute.eruption and an irregular, short inter- val; the Beehive, shooting up out of a hivelike sinter cone; the Castle, with its fairy house; the Comet, the Daisy, the Economic, the Fan, and the Lion, each filling well the plans and specifications of its name; and Old Faithful, the originator of the “every hour on the hour” schedule. 371 ‘yred oY} Ul ddUo}SIXO poqinjsipun ue pea] SP4iiq PIM fo soloeds A}ZY pue pospuny suo UeY} tO] ‘SUYJO JY} UL JOIejEds PaqsatoUT JO aJo1 oy} SA¥[d Ivaq JOYOW ay} PIYM ‘sqnd 1v9q apy OF sesns duiny Surpsoy Juepusjje Y1ed & vos OF }YSIS [UOI|GIOX9 UL JOU SI J] ‘Joop s[qeoWNUUT pue ‘s9soOL pULsnOY} [v1oAos ‘yja Ppursnoy}y Uday ‘UOSIG PIM JO Pjoy SuISsvatoUL Ue suTeJUOD JT “PILoUy Ul dAdosoid owes jediourid oy} oq 0} pourjsop St Yivq [eUOTeN suo}SMOTIAA MUVd IVNOLLYN ANOLSMOTIYA AHL NI NOSId FO AIAH V sizing 9 § pre & Mpiy Aq ydeisojoyg 7 a e Photograph by W. S. Berry NATIONAL PARK YELLOWSTONE FALLS: YELLOWSTON Yellowstone Canyon has been called the cameo of canyons. Burton Holmes has de- scribed it as “a mine of precious stones, uncovered to amaze and dazzle the sun itself.” Adown its rocky bottom flows the Yellowstone River, and, where it is grandest and most beautiful, the river takes a leap twice as high as Niagara, making a marvelous veil of seeth- ing, frenzy-lashed, white water—a spectacle which, with its setting and majestic roar, is one of awe-inspiring majesty. EE sll eee a... | Photograph by F. J. Haynes EAGLE-NEST ROCK: YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK é It seems as if Nature decided to establish in the region which we call the Yellowstone National Park a museum where, without traveling far, mankind could study all of her peeeesses and see exhibits portraying all of the activities of the millions of years of earth- making. Photograph by Roland W. Reed THE OBELISK: CANON DE CHELLY, ARIZONA The tiny men on horseback at the foot of this towering shaft of stone tell a striking story of its size. It is but one of a thousand of these stately spires and nature-built obelisks that rise out of the earth in this region of scenic surprises. w NI OL ‘PIAOM oY} UI ISpliq [einjzeu Joyjo Aue uey} ueds Joj}eo1s JO puv JoySty oie yey} Sosplsq [inzeu do1y} sey oUuoTe Ye, “VIUIsSIIA JO aSplig [eanjyeN oy} Jo zeyW sev jeo1s SB Soul} XIS St uRdS S}T “YOR MON Ul SUIP[Ing UoInLpy oy} sv ysiy sv AjIvou st pue ‘o1eds 0} WOO YY ‘[oy1deD sajyV1G payuUA ay} Jo owWOp oy} weds prom “Ysty Joos Qo’ ‘Moquiey ot} ‘osoy} FO ysosre] OY, *SoyIg Poul) oy} Ul puNo}y oq O} d1v POA dy} UT Saspriq Peanjzeu ysossiq oy, ‘solg q[oyy Aq ydesasojoyg HVLA :HOdIUd IVYINLVN MOANIVY AHL ‘UOAURY) PULIT) JY} 0} a[qvAvduUOd soqyv4{G pou, dy} opisyno Suryjou puy [IAL NOK puv aqo]S oatua oY} YOIVIG “MMNIM WVITIM—,,poyowordde JoAd suondoouos ouyqns SOU ALY} UL UO JOU oJULCE JoyyOU se yons g J se ‘ALIA THFIWSiF FO oA puv uoryrposop Aysvys jo juvosed v,, “MITIIPY NINOVO([—,,ipor) fo [NF sv ‘Arops yo [pny sv WY} YAR AOYJOPY FO Sop AWPU AoYJO Auv oloy} sy ‘ysv AyPEnuruos JT Yod-yured oprur giz Aq Si sty} OJUL op v Jyey uvyy OGVUO'1IOD HHL TO NOANVO GNVUD AH JO STIVM WIS HILL FO UNO WO MiLA V uoJIeC, “EL (N Aq yaeisozyoy [Hye ITOUL 2) Ul MOD UMOLD] SULOO dAvY J "L» 318 250 other rivers, many of them turbulent giants like the Ohio, the Arkansas, the Red, etc., add their brown floods to the broad torrent, he can easily comprehend the statement that the Mississippi River discharges into the sea one-half more water than do the Rhine, Loire, Po, Elbe. Vistula ve Danubess Don. Dnieper. gand Volga all together, and that it brings down to the Gulf of Mexico annually more material than has been taken out of the Panama Canal from the day that De Lesseps removed the first shovelful of earth. On the lower reaches of the Missis- sippi he sees dikes thicker, higher, and longer than any Holland can show, parts of a levee system much more extensive than the famous reclamation works on the Zuyder Zee. The latter, however, are better known, being generations older and nearer to routes frequented by travelers and writers. Here, also, he passes sugar-cane plan- tations, cotton fields, cypress forests, quaint old steamboats redolent with mem- ories of the days of Huck Finn, pictur- esque negro populations—a weird con- trast to the blazing furnaces of Pitts- burgh, the white flour mills of Minneap- olis and St. Paul, the noisy cattle yards of Kansas City and Omaha, the snow- capped mountains of Montana and Wyo- ming and Pikes Peak in Colorado, all tributary to the same river. It is to be regretted that today there is very little traffic on the river compared to earlier days. THE YELLOWSTONE PARK Leaving the masterful Mississippi Val- ley and journeying westward, we soon enter the region of the national parks, of which there are eight of the first order— the Yellowstone National Park, princi- pally in Wyoming; the Glacier National Park, in Montana; the Rocky Mountain and Mesa Verde National Parks, in Colo- rado; the Crater Lake National Park, in Oregon; the Mount Rainier National Park, in Washington, and the Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks, in Califor- nia. To these must be added the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, in Arizona, the scenic masterpiece of the world, officially THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE classed as a national monument until Congress makes it a park. Fach park has its own individuality, and each in its specialty excels. Together they contain more features of conspicuous grandeur than are accessible in all the continents. Foremost in interest in the Yellowstone are the geysers, of which “Old Faithful” ranks first, not because of size, for the Giant is a Goliath beside it; not because of beauty, for there are others more beautiful; but because of fidelity. It never disappoints. It is so regular that it could almost serve as the nation’s standard timepiece. Every 70 minutes “Old Faithful” shoots its great column of water heavenward. At each eruption it sends up into the air a million and a half gallons of water (see pp. 370-371). One writer has described the geyser basins “as laboratories and kitchens, in which, amid a thousand retorts and pots, we may see Nature at work as chemist or cook, cunningly compounding an infinite variety of mineral messes ; cooking whole mountains; boiling and steaming flinty rocks to smooth paste and mush—yellow, brown, red, pink, lavender, gray, and creamy white—making the most beauti- ful mud in the world, and distilling the most ethereal essences. “Many of these pots and caldrons have been boiling thousands of years. Pots of sulphurous mush, stringy and lumpy, and pots of broth as black as ink are tossed and stirred with constant care; and thin transparent essences, too pure and fine to be called water, are kept simmering gently in beautiful sinter cups and bowls that grow ever more beautiful the longer they are used. “In some of the spring basins the wa- ters, though still warm, are perfectly calm and shine blandly amid a sod of overleaning grass and flowers, as if they were thoroughly cooked at last and set aside to settle and cool. Others are wildly boiling over, as if running to waste, thou- sands of tons of the precious liquids be- ing thrown into the air to fall in scalding floods on the clean coral floor of the es- tablishment, keeping onlookers at a dis- tance. “Every flask, retort, hot spring, and geyser has something special in it, no two Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott A PUEBLO WOMAN AT LAGUNA, NEW MEXICO She is shovelling bread into an open-air oven, preparing for a corn dance celebration to take place the following day. The Navajo and Pueblo Indians for a hundred miles around Laguna were met on the way to take part in the dance, which is in reality a prayer for rain. 379 ALIO MYOA MUN dO SNACAUVS TVOIDOTOOZ AHL NI YADIL ONIdGAAIS AHL NOUY add uyyuvsy £9 amosyvonp io4) UOTSoI JSBVA Jv Uf alte q/0U 7 ‘euoseyed 0} PIUIOJIeO UIOYyyNOG WoT Ayreou ut urewior o8en8ur] Joy pue omyooyryore Joy ‘poopq Joy ‘POM MoN oY} Ur uredg 0} Ajo] ST [fOS JO JOO} w You ysnouryy VINMOUITVO ‘VUVddvd VINVS J XQ aModyoopn yr O NOISSIW GIO SNOWNVA AHL 381 ; 4q ? sis va ] Ubu PEO! ES a, Au tochrome by Franklin Price Knott A STRIKING POSE IN THE EAST INDIAN DANCE, “THE GARDEN OF KAMA” ioe) Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott THE POETRY OF MOTION AND THE CHARM OF COLOR GNVIONG M4N -aHOTOO dO LOIN SLI AGNV GTOO dO ONVI SLI HLIM DONINAYOW ALSOUH V NVHL Wedadva SI L NOU Ig UyUdigy &q auosyrojny VHM 384 *BUOZIIV NOUN 9g uyyuvsy Kq auosyoojn py ‘redeye\\ JO o8¥ITIA oY} ST YoryM UO vsoU Ysty oY} Jo oBpa oY} Je UdYe} SEM OLING oJYM sIy pu uvIpUy Idozy v Jo osnqoId sIyZ, dada SIH GNV dSYOH AIVd dO GCNIX WHHLONV - a ex 385 SURPRISING THE ENEMY Autochromes by Franklin Price Knott “WILD ROSE” AND HER PALE-FACE FRIEND, GLACIER NATIONAL PARK 386 ed ee on Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott A FAST-DISAPPEARING TYPE As the settler encroaches further and further upon the cattle country, the cowboy and the romance of his calling are rapidly approaching the point where they will exist only on the motion-picture screen and in the Wild West Show. 387 ‘4seo0d eIUJOJIeD 94} uO siojoo ut ueod vy aadld NO SNHAVEH ONINYOW AHL ONILLYS ASIYNns NOUY ag Uuyyuvrsy Kq aumosysony "Er er ve wenn LET LL «ome Bite ree Mat ie,6) we Photograph by Kiser MT. HOOD AS SEEN FROM NEAR PORTLAND, OREGON Truly the great Far West is a land where every prospect pleases. ON THE RIM TRAIL OF CRATER LAKE, OREGON “The eye beholds twenty miles of unbroken cliffs ranging from five hundred to nearly two thou- sand feet in height, encircling a deep sheet of placid water in which the mirrored walls vie with the originals in brilliancy and greatly enhance the depth of the prospect. Although the blue of the lake is deeper than anyone who has not beheld it can imagine, it is yet so transparent that even on a hazy day a white dinner plate ten inches in diameter may be seen at a depth of nearly one hundred feet.”’ PHBWEFEDE Bu biry A MEADOW IN THE YOSEMITE VALLEY, CALIFORNIA 391 Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott THE CHIEF PRIEST OF -THE SNAKE CLAN: HOPI TRIBE His face and bedy are smeared with black and white and yellow paint. His ornaments are many. A gray fox skin dangles from his back. On his legs are bound shells of the desert terrapin with points of antelope hoofs inside to serve as rattles. Eagle feathers are carried in one hand, with which the snakes are stroked and pacified. A prayer stick is also in his hand. Some claim that the priests drink an herb tea before the dance which renders them immune to the poison, but all agree that the snakes’ fangs are not extracted. Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott “LA MOUSE,” A VENERABLE FLATHEAD CHIEF, OVER EIGHTY YEARS OF AGE: GLACIER NATIONAL PARK His name may suggest the most timid of animals, but his courage is that of the king of beasts. The Northern Indians are very fond of ermine, and cut the skin in strips and hang them on every available part of their costume. 393 ‘salzepunog Ino utyyIM sodeospue] puesnoy} ua} Joao peaids vos Avut ouo se sjodieo yUsoytuseut yons psonpoid JoAoU sey vISIOg JO que ay} JO [TV ‘S07eIG poUA oy} se SIomoy pyiM jo soreds jo Joquinu yseA & YONS JO 10]O9 Jo SSoUYOLI Joywveis sassossod pjioM oY} UI UOTSoT JoyYIO ON SdIddOd dO ATHId V UOSLAADY) &Q YDATOIOY JT 394 Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott MAKER ively appreciation of color values and com- THE HOPI BASKET f every land. he art critics o , with its 1 lan Ind binations, and of geometric designs, has been praised by t The untutored art of the American 395 re" ~ Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott A WATER CARRIER OF ACOMA, NEW MEXICO Acoma is said to be the oldest continuously inhabited village in the United States. Its people defied the Spaniards before Jamestown or Plymouth Rock appeared in history. : Se ae Autochrome by Franklin Price HOPI INDIAN AND HIS HOME The brilliant red of his blanket proclaims the success of the Southwestern Indian in producing fast colors. Some tribes are able to make multi-hued blankets with the delicate shadings of the finest art embroidery, the weaving being so perfectly done that one cannot tell which is. the right and which the wrong side. Knott 397 me | ' Aulochrome by Franklin Price Knoit A TWENTIETH CENTURY PHIDIPPIDES OF THE HOPI TRIBE Not even the messenger to Sparta showed greater endurance than the pure-blooded son of the Ameri- can desert. Many of the Hopi Indians ran daily to and from their little farms, often ten or twelve miles away from the barren mesa where they live. 398 - SSR RENAD a J i e Ss Autochrome by Franklin Price Knolt A CENTURIES-OLD STAIRWAY, ACOMA, NEW MEXICO The same races that built the splendid structures of Yucutan and Chiapas constructed the pueblos of Arizona and New Mexico, and that they did their work well is shown by the way it has defied the teeth of time. a Sg ELE y | Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott SUN BOW, PUEBLO CHIEF, OF TAOS, NEW MEXICO This noble’specimen of his race, though wearing a war bonnet, is a man of peaceful pursuits. He and his people are not wards of the Government, for they hold their lands under early Spanish grants, and have always managed their own tribal affairs and property. Lip an 400 Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott THE SOUTH PUEBLO OF THE TAOS INDIANS: NEW MEXICO This is a big community house, the home of about three hundred industrious people. 401 ; ‘uouIwIoD oyInb oloy ore ‘voLIouly UT oJOyMosTO oeI OS ‘soIMyeotO [H}IWNeeq Soy} FLY} yred styy ut paqyoojoid Ay[njoreo os uooq covey Yorym “dooys ureyunoul pur 4208 ULEJUNOU! 9}IYM-MOUS JO SIO] JOJ puUNOISyoVq JUoT[ooXo UP pJOYe Syto posojoo ATYO oY, “Ye Joey jo yypeosq puv yysuoy oyy Ysnosyyz Joyo oy} uodn ouo pMoio sureyunopy AoA oy} Jo syvod ouests Jo spospuny}{ MUVd IVNOLLVN WAIOVID AHL ‘dNVO WAIOVIO-ANVW WOdd NUS SV LLONAACIN AAV dasiyy KQ YG DA50}0Y T q 402 sty sivoM | [[Ng Novryq,, pItyo eB jo yyeop oy 10; Surumour jo ospeq oy} se punoqun arey ‘oovL MOY} Jo sojdurexa ysoq oy} Suowe ose ‘suvIpUy JooFyo|g oy} JO Uout ourorpows oy} ,,“[[ng xorg ,, pue ,,sdutsdg 31q,, MuUVd TIVNOILVN UAIOVID “SNOILOd WIATHL ONIGNNOdWOO NaW ANIOIGAIN YOUY aud uyyuvay KQ akosyrony r ee 403 Autochrome by Franklin Price Knott THE BIRTHPLACE OF THE’ RAINBOW Man cannot unscramble eggs, but a single drop of water can unscramble light, and the effect of this process at the Bridal Veil Falls of the Yosemite is both sublime and beautiful. The Yosemite con- tains four other falls as magnificent as the subject of this picture, the Vernal Fall (drop 317 feet), the Nevada Fall (drop 594 feet), the Illilouette Fall (drop 370 feet), and the Yosemite Falls (upper fall, drop of 1430 feet; lower fall, drop of 320 feet). The Bridal Veil Falls has a drop of 620 feet. Each one of 404 Autochrome y Franklin Price Knott CONSIDERING THE LILIES: MT. SHASTA IN THE DISTANCE Mount Shasta, according to an Indian legend, was the first mountain made by the Creator as His masterpiece, and with this as a model He designed the other mountains of the world. The ascent of Shasta is difficult, but with competent guides is not perilous. With the little town of Sisson as a base, there is a good horseback trail to Timberline Camp, an overnight rest six miles away. Starting from this camp very early the next morning, the experienced mountaineer can make the ascent and return to Sisson in a day. 405 ‘opty ystIy ye oytoeg oy} uUvY} Joysty oprur 2 UBY} SIO ST J[OS}T pUNOIBOIOZ oY YL} JUIUID}VYS 9Y} WOIJ pospnl aq Avur yoryM Jo ZYsIoy oy} ‘esueyY Ysoozv J, Jo odojs UIOYINOS oY} SMOYS MOTA SITY T, Muvd IVNOILVN UAINIVY “ASTUNNS WALNIM V sausvg “FT Vv &9 yg vssojoyd ‘ pay 406 ‘ppiom oy} ur Aemysty Aue Aq possedansun st ‘vos oy} 07 sosues uIvyUNoW yvo18 OM, YSnoIYY snd JI SB SPfOJUN pvor oy} YOIYA pPUL]IOpUOM oTUBOS oY} WoIF sv jo sv yulodpuLys SursooUrsUD UL WIOLJ ‘pu ,,‘PIeATHO| 4S9VVo1 SVooury ,, poueu [jam st UOSoIQ ur ‘AVMYSIT ANT viqunjog oy, "TyyNeeq oy} pue oumryqns oy} “puvsid oy} SoAoc, OYM 4STINO} oY} OF SpxLMOT YO Joo ondury puyjuy oy} puev 4ySvog ysoA, oy ‘sodvospuyy surdsur pue ‘surrey prpucfds ‘sfemysry quooyruseul ‘soar peoiq ‘sureyunow poddvo-Mous usomyog CGNNOWOANOT AHL NI TIIHAUVIN GNV ‘AVMV SATIN ALXIS GOOH LNNOW ‘adVOSANVI NOLONIHSVM V YG VASOJOY J ee saudpg “TTP &Q ee 407 BIG TREES IN RAINIER NATIONAL PARK _ After all, it may be the big tree that will explain one of civilization’s greatest mysteries. Under the scientists’ micrometer it is telling us of striking fluctuations of climate in bygone ages, and introducting a new factor in that most profound and far-reaching of the problems of history—the cause of the rise and fall of nations. " Phologra ph by "A. H. Barnes 408 Sie OR als ood NOD ETee by AS H. Barnes ALPINE FLOWERS IN RAINIER NATIONAL PARK The flowers of our mountains match the sunset skies for color, the sands of the sea for numbers, and the filmy-winged butterfly for grace. 409 zs Photograph by Kiser A SAPPHIRE IN A MOUNTAIN SETTING: BLUE LAKE IN THE GLACIER NATIONAL PARK What American engineers have done at Gatun, glaciers have done in our high mountains. A glacier lake is often a dam-obstructed river. the dam being built out of the earth-shavings resulting from the flowing onward sweep of the mountains of ice. 410 WSUS, ILAMNIDY ONS Asha, Iss Syae being the same in temperature, color, or composition.” The Yellowstone National Park has a canyon gorgeous with all the colors and shades of the rainbow, and is the best stocked wild-animal preserve in the world (page 372). THE GLACIER NATIONAL PARK The situation of Glacier National Park is unique, in that it mothers streams which flow into three out of five of the earth’s great oceans. It may well claim to be the top of the continent, for its rivers drain into Hudson Bay and the Arctic (@cean, into the /Pacific; and through the Missouri and the Mississippi into the Atlantic. As the Blackfeet Indian Reservation adjoins the park, the visitor has the added touch of charm that Indian life gives to any wild place (see pages 386- 393 and 403). The Glacier National Park was made by the earth cracking in some far-distant time and one side thrusting up and over- lapping the other. It has cliffs several thousand feet high, and more than sixty glaciers feed hundreds of lakes. One lake floats icebergs all summer. The scenery is truly Alpine (see pages 402 and 410). Lake St. Marys, Lake McDermott (page 402), and Lake McDonald are the peers of any of the mountain lakes of Switzerland and Italy. This park covers an area of 1,534 square miles, and main- tains such an excellent chain of chalets, hotels, and trails that the tourist can see its many attractions in comfort. THE PARKS IN COLORADO The Rocky Mountain National Park straddles the Continental Divide at a lofty height, with snow-capped moun- tains extending from end to end. This park is in the heart of the Rockies north- west of Denver, with Longs Peak as its center. It was established by congres- sional enactment last year. Estes Park, the gateway to this mountain playground, is a beautiful little valley town nestled at the foot of the ridge, and yet itself more than a mile and a half above sea-level. Longs Peak is nearly three miles high, 411 and has several neighbors that run it a close second. The Mesa Verde National Park hides in its barren canyons the well-preserved ruins of a civilization which passed out of existence so many centuries ago that not even tradition recalls its people. Here one may study the modes of life of the prehistoric American as they can be studied in few places. ‘These aborig- ines had their civic center and they had some progressive ideas in city planning. Community life was the order of those times. One house had 200 rooms for family use and 22 for worship. Another once sheltered 350 aborigines. The Sun Palace, discovered by Dr. Fewkes in 1915, is an ambitious structure, apparently ded- icated entirely to the worship of the sun. MT. RAINIER NATIONAL PARK Mt. Rainier seems to keep perpetual guard over Seattle, Tacoma, and Olym- pia. Any one who has beheld its many moods, who has watched the ever-chang- ing picture as varying lights have played upon its summit, who has coasted on its glacial rivers, can understand why the Indians called it ‘’Tahoma—the mountain that was God.” The Far Northwest was once a region of terrific volcanic activity. Mt. Shasta, Mt. Hood, Mt. St. Helens, Mt. Adams, Mt. Rainier, and Mt. Baker all stand in one far-flung group as silent witnesses of the dim ages when America was in the making and when they sent their beacon lights across the sea. Where once flamed the fervent fires of earth’s boiling caldrons, today snow and ice reign supreme; where once floods of molten lava swept, today forests of fir, pine, and cedar and gorgeously carpeted flower beds refresh the tourist. Mt. Rainier has a glacier system ex- ceeding in size that of any other single mountain within continental United States. From its summit and cirques twenty-eight named and a number of unnamed rivers of ice pour slowly down its sides. These rivers of ice have carved on what was once a perfect cone four- teen valleys through the solid rock. A bird’s-eye view taken from above the mountain would show it to be covered by ayy VIUIOFILD “eestA VIA poyovos ‘yreg [vuONeN vronbag oy} Ur Stoquinu jsoj}ve15 OY} UL puNoy ov Ady} Inq “Ye [RUONeN ojW9s0X UI Uses 9q 0} a1e SUdUISods pipuayds Aue], ‘“epeAIN B41dIG Sy} JO Sadojs Uso}samM oY} UO MOIS BIUIOFITL JO spOOMpor AIvUIPIOvI}XS VINUOALIVO : MUVd IVNOILVN VIONOUS AH, NI JSUYOT LNVID FAL ONL 412 Photograph by Curtis & Miller WESTERN LOGS USED AS DREDGE TIMBERS AT PANAMA So superior are the trees of the West for masts that they are in demand in almost every shipyard in the world. In the words of Muir: “They are felled and peeled, dragged to tide- water, raised again as masts and yards of ships, given iron roots and canvas foliage, deco- rated with flags, and sent to sea, where in glad motion they go cheerily over the ocean prairie, in every latitude and longitude, singing and bowing responsive to the same winds that waved them when they were in the woods. round the world like tourists, meeting many a friend from the old home forest; After standing in one place for centuries they thus go some travel- ing like themselves, some standing head downward in muddy harbors, holding up the plat- forms of wharves, and others doing all kinds of hard timber work, showy or hidden.” an enormous frozen octopus, stretching icy tentacles down among the rich gar- dens of wild flowers and through forests of fir and cedar (pp. 406, 408, 409, 427). ‘THE YOSEMITE AND SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARKS No words can adequately describe the majesty and friendliness of the giant red- wood trees of the Sequoia and Yosemite National Parks, the stately granite domes and sharp pinnacles, the roaring white cascades, the deep, dark canyons; the fragrance of meadows carpeted with lu- pine, columbine, evening primrose, mari- posa lily, shooting - star, pride of the mountain, etc., and the many sweet- scented pines and cedars, among which 413 are flitting countless songsters dressed in as lovely colors as the flowers. In this fairyland, the lover of outdoor life can camp for months in summer without taking tent or raincoat, for it never rains here in vacation time. Switzerland, the playground of Fu- rope, visited annually (until 1915) by more than 100,000 Americans, cannot compare in attractiveness with the High Sierra of central California. Nothing in the Alps can rival the famous Yosemite Valley (pages 401, 416, 417), which is as unique as the Grand Canyon. The view from the summit of Mt. Whitney sur- passes that from any of the peaks of Switzerland. There are no canyons in Switzerland equal to those of the Kern hotograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor KING OF ALL TREEDOM : 2) NATIONAL PARK ns outstretched to encircle the tree. The General Sherman GENERAL SHERMAN, THE SEOQUOIA It takes twenty men with arms tree is pronounced by the United States Government the biggest tree in the world, measured by the amount of wood it contains (see also the remarkable photograph by Eddy printed as the frontispiece to this number). 414 Photograph by Lindley Eddy IN THE GIANT FOREST OF THE SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA The “General Sherman” Tree, shown on the preceding page and in the frontispiece, belongs to the greatest grove of trees anywhere in the world—the Giant Forest of the Sequoia National Park. The General Sherman fortunately stands on public land, but the majority of the redwoods of the Giant Forest are privately owned. Though it was to pre- serve this incomparable group of trees that the Sequoia National Park was created by Congress in 1890, funds have been lacking to buy about I,000 acres scattered through the grove, in 40-acre tracts, on which stand most of the best trees. The owners have expressed a willingness to dispose of their lands to the government and have given options on their holdings, but Congress has never appropriated the money for their purchase. If Congress does not soon appropriate the $50,000 required, it is to be hoped that sufficient funds may be raised by private subscription to buy the private holdings in the park and donate them to the National Government. While these splendid trees are in private hands, there is always the possibility of their destruction. 415 LHOIN TI NO STIVI ONOHOd GNV SMO00U% IVUGHHIVO AML GNV Lda IHL NO NVLIdVO TH HLIM “LINASON MIL OL AVMALVD AI Aingsytd Aq ydeisojoy gs aid Photograph by Gabriel Moulin EL CAPITAN: YOSEMITE NATIONAL PARK Towering 3.600 feet above the Merced River, which mirrors back its beauty and its majestic lines, El Capitan, that vast block of unjointed granite, each of whose several faces shows a surface of more than 160 acres, stands in stately silence, one of the noblest rocks on earth—a literal rock of ages. Riverside is known as the “orange capit al,” from any other distributing center in the world—s,o00 carloads of oranges each year. Photograph from Dewitt Hutchings MAGNOLIA AVENUE: RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA for from it are shipped more oranges than Here were planted, nearly fifty years ago, the two navel orange trees, imported from Brazil, from which are descended all the seedless oranges of California. and the King rivers, which contain scores of waterf falls and roaring streams, any one of which in Europe would draw many thousands of visitors annually. Many of the big yellow and red pines, of the juniper and cedar, eclipse the trees of Switzerland as completely as these pines are eclipsed by the giant redwoods. And then, as to birds and flowe ers, the High Sierra so excel the Alps that there is no comparison. Never will the writer forget the melodies of the birds and the luxuriance of the meadows passed in the marches from Redwood Meadow to Min- eral King, and then up over Franklin Pass; the fields of blue, red, yellow, orange, white, and purple flowers, all graceful and fragrant, or the divine dig- nity of the great ‘Siberian Plateau, nearly 11,000 feet above the sea, and yet car- 41 peted from end to end with blue lupine and tiny flowers. From the educational point of view, the High Sierra so surpass the Alps that again no comparison can be made. In one day’s ascent we observed fauna and flora to see the equivalent of which on the Atlantic coast we would have to make a journey of perhaps 1, 500 miles. When we started in the morning we were hear- ing birds that correspond to the latitude of Charleston, S. C.; in a few hours we had traveled northward to Newfound- land and Labrador, and then descended to camp amid feathered friends whose counterparts are found around the writer’s farm near Washington, D. C. A day later we ascended Mt. Whitney, the highest peak in the United States, and had a glimpse of birds of the Arctic Zone. A VIEW OF LAKE TAHOE Snow-capped mountains and lakes of every shade of blue are scattered throughout our great Northwest in wild profusion. tion of them, however; Seeing one after another does not dull one’s it only exhausts one’s vocabulary. much-advertised lakes of Scotland and Ireland, apprecia- We cross the ocean to see the which, though picturesque, are eclipsed by scores of lakes in our own land from the Atlantic to the Pacific. Within the boundaries of the Yosemite and Sequoia National Parks tower the oldest of living things—the Sequoia gi- gantea (see the supplement and pages 412, 414, and 415). It is an unusual experience to stand under these big trees, to gaze upon their stately proportions, to reflect upon the storms and stress they have survived, and to visualize the strange changes in 419 human history that have taken place since they were seedlings. Long before Moses had led the Children of Israel out of Egypt, long before his brethren had car- ried back to their father Joseph’s blood- stained coat of many colors, long even before the birth of the patriarch whose children and whose children’s children to the remotest generations the Most High promised to bless, even before the aged THE LOWER WATER-WHEEL FALL: TUOLUMNE RIVER Photograph by Pillsbury Picture Company CANYON, CALIFORNIA The water, sweeping madly down the Tuolumne River, now and again strikes a spoon- like depression in the hard, sloping granite, which gives it an upward and circular whirl. At high water these astounding perpendicular w hirlpools are fifty feet or more in diameter. Pyramids had reared their heads on the banks of the Nile, long centuries before the Hanging Gardens of Babylon had been constructed, these trees had begun to grow. Thousands of years the General Sher- man tree has stood, offering its head to every passing thunder cloud; but so strong and sturdy is it that, like Ajax, it can defy the lightnings. John Muir gives us a graphic picture of a sequoia in a storm: “When the storm roars loudest, they never lose their godlike composure never toss their arms or bow or wave like the pines, but only slowly, solemnly nod and sway, standing erect, making no sign of strife, none of unrest, neither in alliance nor at war with the winds, too calmly, unconsciously capable and strong to strive with or bid defiance to any- thing.” The sequoia is said to be one of the two surviving species of a once numer- ous genus which, before the Glacial Period, spread across the American con- tinent and occupied Europe as well. The only other survivor is the redwood of es 420 the California coast (Sequoia semper- UVIFeENS ). The wonders of the Yosemite National Park are easily accessible via the Yose- mite Valley, where accommodations are provided for every degree of income. Desmond camps and excellent govern- ment trails enable the visitor to see the giant trees, water-wheels, and canyons, while the more adventurous, who desire to ascend Mount Lyell and its magnifi- cent neighbors, will find entertainment in Tuolumne Meadows, at the hospitable headquarters of the Sierra Club, an or- ganization of mountaineers who have re- vealed the Sierra to the world. ‘The “General Sherman” tree is in the Se quoia National Park, reached by an auto- mobile trip of 65 miles from V isalia. Our national parks belong to the American people and are administered by the Department of the Interior. aite Secretary, Franklin K. Lane, and the As- sistant Secretary in charge of the parks, Stephen T’. Mather, realize that as play- grounds for recreation and instruction “ef = ie is Et inet : Photograph by Gilbert H. Grosvenor IN THE OLYMPIC FOREST: WASHINGTON STATE It is worth a trip across the continent just to see the monarchs of the forests of Cali- fornia, Oregon, and Washington. The coniferous forests of these States surpass all others of their kind in the world, not only in the size and beauty of the trees, but in the number of species assembled together and the grandeur of the mountains they are growing on. placard on the tree is one of the Forest Service warnings about fire. rules for the prevention of fires in the mountains. Rule Two: Don’t throw away burning tobacco. Break it in two before you throw it away. Rule Three: Make your camp-fire small and in a safe place. a Rule Five: Don't make large bonfires. If it’s too big, notify a ranger.” with water and then cover it with earth. Tf you find a fire, put it out. our national parks are without rivals on any continent, and are successfully striv- ing to make them as available to our citi- zens as Italy and Switzerland have made theirs. Though the parks are remote from the Atlantic coast, they are not so distant as the playgrounds in Europe, and are reached by the tourist much more easily and quickly. Our country is the treasure-house of nature’s scenic jewels, containing so many and such an infinite variety of marvels that thousands of our matchless treasures The “Observe the six Rule One: Be sure your match is out. Rule Four: Put out your fire Rule Six: cannot even be mentioned in this brief article: hot springs, as salubrious as any across the ocean; broad, hard, white beaches like the automobile course at Ormond, superior to any in Europe; coast scenes like those at Mount Desert, Marblehead, Mount ‘Tamalpais, Santa Barbara, San Diego; an inland waterway which parallels the Atlantic coast and is almost continuous from Massachusetts to Florida, with possibilities for aquatic enjoyment unequaled except in our own wondrous Puget Sound; canals pictur- ‘(Lob a8ed osje aos) win, NHOf—,“saysutag adjpeus Oy} Suouie PAZ OI] OUIYS Soy] AI [LIUs s[qvioumnuur opryM ‘suotsuedxa DHl-ayv] puv soye] YIM Us]JOMS PUL PafieuUs Ie squT] UTPLUE 94} FopIM Sojlul puvsnoy} v Ajivou ‘soyoueiq Joddn s}t yo peasds oy} ssoroe poinseotu ‘Due SUC] SalI puRsnoY} XIS jnoge ‘yvO PjO enbsosnjoid ‘poddoj-pvosy “posshs L oI] SE “SULLJUNOUT oY} OF LOS dy} WOIZ POMOTA “BIqUINJO) ot,L,,, WiAS MHL GNV GNVILMO0d OL SNIVINQOW UAVOSVO AH, HONOYNL AVMILDIH VAAIM VIAWOIOD LVN AML NO “LNIOd NMOWO Jasty ‘ET pel Aq ydeasojoyg A ‘OPI JOOF V puv YY} yOuE uv Yyuryd Jo sou AnoF JOAO OYLU pyNoM 901} SIT, ‘3! JO yInq oie sdiys pure ‘sivo yYysro1z ‘sosnoy pur ‘oquiny sty} JO soy muenD os. s[plu SuuLpq "YIOM SULIOOUISUD JoYyJO PUL ‘SYIdiop “SuIpP[Inq-espliq JO} potNoos oe ‘sJouy Wlosy oosZ ‘suaquiyy SHOWIOUS SYUNI} ISH oso} WOA] ‘SOSH [LANJONAYS 1OF Joquuny] suoreu oy} JO UolJodoId poos v YSiusNY JsoMYJION OY} JO Sood} AY Jvois oy (ER MII-SWTONOd UNO WO avd 3 ist] 4 eo g ee re Copyright by Miller Photo Co. UPPER KLAMATH LAKE, OREGON, WITH MOUNT MC LOUGHLIN (OR MOUNT PITT ) IN THE BACKGROUND Upper Klamath Lake excels in the profusion and beauty of its water birds. ‘Great snowy pelicans float about on its waters like graceful yachts. There are countless great blue herons, coots, snipe, mallards, kingfishers, and different varieties of ducks, all protected by the game laws of the State of Oregon, whose citizens long ago realized the large asset they had in their wild life and have protected it. Upper Klamath Lake is reached via Klamath Falls. & Miller is a Photograph by Curt ELDS OF RAINIER NATIONAL PARK, WASHINGTON G ON THE SNOW FI NT COASTI ite) N A0A VT [r9T\I Aq ydess0j,0y gq AQUI JUNOPL SV pULIS sv SUIeJUNOW PURIIDZ}IMG JOU ‘eySse[y UMO INO UT Au YIM o[qQeIedwi0d s1o1seTs 10 spsoy ou VMUISVIV :YsIOWID VIANN'TIOO SuIvJUOS AR MION 420 SUOISaI IVJOd JI]} JO OpIsjno pPjIOM oY UT ysaSIV] oY} o1v SJOINLIS s vystTy VUASWIV :YHIOWIO SGIIHD FO MUIA V S JOPLIN Y shang Aq ydesso0,0yg “JOJUIM UT Avpprut ye pue eT, “OUI UT UOZIIOY 9} dAOqe 4vj SOSII JOU JoOWUINS ot AJOPLIIO} JSVA yey} [je ur sof » VOLIOULY Poeluep jou sem «NOS LHOINGIN WI, wo GENSVisii S VOI V usulo’y *f [rep sq yderZo0j0yg - 1} UL Sjos JoAoU UNS dy} v[NsUTUDg PAVMOS oY} puke uoyn «UNS JYSIUpIU oy} JO pury,, ev uadad ‘SUOTLU OY} O} SqpIB sat JOWUINS UT JYStupiur ye A FLOW [ puno. uontsod sr sMoys dInqord FO YOU Surd] vysepy ul Possed oinjeyy uoy A ee ? 4 ne Y MW pu TOTTI NY sang Aq ydessojoyg VW {ypHoyyip * jo jospo S Apoqowios FO PvoJSUL SUTLJUNOLU UMO ANOA O[VIS OF UOLPOVYASTVs v WASOP PoAISop AUB JO SUIQU[O JOJO UVI SoPVIG popup) oy}F AOF Sourquijpo-urejunow so0F odosny{, OF OB OF ‘ ANIM GUIOMONV NV NO ‘NOLONTIHSVM “istvd TNOOW ONIGNHOSUdC SUWUANIVINOOW SC \< \~ MG DRC \ WCE \ SpddU JUO ON CY 4209 Photograph by Putnam & Valentine WATER-LILY POND Alt HOLLYWOOD, CALIFORNIA The boy on the right is also giving baby brother a “sail” esque as any in Holland, such as the mountain gorges and blue-grass pastures of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal from Washington to Cumberland, or the his- toric Mohawk Valley of the Erie Canal a desert with colors as heavenly as those of the Sahara and, though devoid of pic- turesque camels and Arabs, adorned with the most extraordinary cacti and desert vegetation on earth, and studded with marvelous works of the human hand like Salt Lake City; great fresh-water lakes, 430 on which you can take a voyage of one thousand miles on ocean liners; Alaska, possessing the grandest glaciers in the ° world outside the polar regions, fiords more impressive than Norway’s, and mountains like Mt. McKinley, which towers nearly one mile higher than the loftiest peak in Europe. Any of our readers could spend an en- tire lifetime seeing nature’s masterpieces within our boundaries and not reach the end of the catalogue. VOL. XXIX, No: 5 WASHINGTON THE NATTONAIL GEOGIRAPIHIC MAGAZINIE May, 1916 BURTHER EXPEORATIONS IN THE LAND } OF THE INCAS ithe, Peruvian Expedition of 1915 of the National Geographic Society and Yale University By Hiram Bincuam, Direcror or EXPEDITIONS in I9II we commenced systematic exploration in southern Peru, in the country made famous for American read- ers by Prescott’s celebrated classic, “The Conquest of Peru.” On that expedition, which was primarily intended to search for the capital of the last Inca, Manco, who had rebelled against the Spaniards and fled into the most inaccessible part of the Andes, we discovered a consider- able number of unknown ruins in a vir- tually unexplored region north of Cuzco. Our most important discovery was that of the wonderful city of Machu Picchu, which had been lost for so many genera- tions that, with the exception of a few local Indians, no one in Peru was aware of its existence. In 1912 we returned to the same coun- try and spent several months at Machu Picchu clearing it from the forest and jungle and making such excavations as were necessary in order to restore it as far as possible to its original appearance, except that we did not attempt to put roofs on the ruins.* In the meantime we had also discov- [ WILL be remembered that it was * See “The Wonderland of Peru,” with 250 illustrations, in the April, 1913, number of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. ered, through the observations of our topographers, that the surrounding coun- try had been previously mapped with such great inaccuracy as to make the re- gion between the rivers Apurimac and Urubamba appear to be much smaller than it was in reality. Owing to the pre- cipitous nature of the mountains and the profound depths of the valleys and can- yons (see the illustrations, pages 480- 485), it was impossible for us then to penetrate the highlands immediately ad- jacent to Machu Picchu. We did not know whether there might not be some other place of equal or greater impor- tance; we were unable to state how the people of Machu Picchu entered their city, or whether they had highways lead- ing to other parts of the country. In to914 a considerable part of the neighboring region was mapped, some of the ruins which had been first visited in IQII were surveyed, and, best of all, the presence of an old Inca road leading in the direction of Machu Picchu was re- ported. Of their queer record stones, attractive pottery and bronzes, and of what we had been able to discover as to the history of the city by searching the ancient Spanish chronicles, members of the National Geo- ‘ UOT} pIdX9 9Y} FO DdIATOS OY} Je Jnd ay YIYM wWooLr -d18M OY} JO yNO ado 44Zo] dy} UO ‘saTUOSTeq OM} }XOU dT, ‘syUsW ede oyeAtid S.tesap UOd JO yno suddo ‘s4reysdn “suIpjMq turfjouo’yT ay} JO AUOD -[eq Jouso. oJ, ‘o9ugo-jsod Ooznd 9} SI ‘Weqissey sy} Jopun ‘Joo01}s 9Y4} UMOP Joy VIN “APULD ULITIOULY O} S][IUW IVSNS WOT} SUTYJAIOAD S][as Inq ‘joyueq e@ AjUO jou st aFY “sed ye yYsnoq oq AeW eUII’T UO ISULYOXS JEY} JUOWOSTIOAPe oY} SI [PM SITY UC ‘Id1eYD JNOYJIM OOZND UL JUIse INO se poyoe sivok [er9AVS JOZ sey pue ABM AAD UL UOIIpsdxe INO popudTsIjod sey OYM “JURY TOW UPI]eR}] ue ‘TUI[JOWO’T 1esop) UO FO JUOWTYST]Ge}so 9} SI JYSII 9} FY ‘oonposd YUM oovid-joyIeU oY} 0} AVM ITOY} UO SPUIL]T OM} 91e ainqoid dy} FO a[PPIW oY} UT “‘papMOTD SVM JOJeOYI OY} Jnq ‘100d alam o[dood oy} JO JsoW pue YSIYy sJaM SodTIg ‘Jo}eaY} oInjord-uOTOWU ODZND) 9} Je sso) pry UPIDS[IG IY} JOF JYOUSq eV OJ DWIOD Woy} Ssprq pue SUPIS[IG IY} JO SSULIONS oY} Spuryysty UreyUNOU 9}JOUIII VSO} UT dn udda ajdoad 9y} 0} SaouUNOUUe UOdIOY} JUIWSIJOApe 9YT, “Jsanbuood ysiurdg OY} FO 9UIT} OY} Je Soinjonsjs eouy JUsTOUe WOIF UIyxe} SIUO}S JO qed adie] Ul Ying ‘pootopT &’T FO JUDAUOD oY} FO ST[VA JY} IIe JZo] OY} UC O0OZAD NI WHINUNOO SSHNISONd IVdIONINd AH, N Photograph by Hiram Bingham INDIAN BOYS, WITH VERY ELABORATE PONCHOS, VISITING CUZCO _ _ Cuzco is the Mecca of all the Indians in southern Peru, and one of the most interesting sights in its streets are the visitors, whose district may be told by the cut of their garments and the patterns they affect. Here are shown three visitors from a distant province, who were very shy and only with the greatest difficulty could be persuaded to pose for their pic- ture. Had it not been for the good nature of the porter, or cargador, who stands at the left, we could never have persuaded them to face the camera. graphic Society were told in the Febru- ary, 1915, number of this Magazine.* But of the food or the flora and fauna of those remarkable builders, who con- structed splendid granite palaces and re- markable agricultural terraces in this long-hidden corner of the Andes, we were able to give very little information. OUR PLANS FOR OUR LAST EXPEDITION Accordingly, the Expedition of 1915 had for its chief object the securing of as much information as possible about the former inhabitants of Machu Picchu and the territory immediately surround- ing the city. Thanks to the codperation of the Bu- reau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture, we were able to investigate the original food plants of this vicinity and learn what medicinal plants were known and prized. * See “The Story of Machu Picchu,” with 60 illustrations, in the National, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, February, 1015. 433 We also secured the services of a com- petent naturalist to tell us with what birds and animals the people of Machu Picchu were familiar. Furthermore, we succeeded in locating several ancient roads leading toward Machu Picchu (pages 446 and 447), and while following them out discovered several new groups of ruins, evidently representing outlying fortresses and fortified stations used for the defense of the capital and for the convenience of travelers on the highways. Finally, by process of elimination, we were able to prove that Machu Picchu was the capital of a considerable area of country that was once densely populated. In the course of our work we crossed a number of hitherto-unexplored areas, collected large numbers of botanical and zoological specimens, mapped a new river system, and took measurements of nearly all of the savage inhabitants of the newly visited valley, besides many of the semi- civilized folk of the older valleys. ‘AJNOYJIP WOYIIM UWIYy} JOoUUOD UPd Japeat dy} ‘9UO 19Y}O IY} FO JOUIOD UtI}SOMU}IOU oY} UL PUL deur SITY} JO JOUIOD U1O}SvIYINOS IY} UL foozng Suneooy Aq “oad s}t JOF NYT Nye] sey YoIyM N1isg JO Spurpysiy oy} FO WOTPaS Jey Surddeur pue Sursojdxo JO YIOM S}I UL SIOI FO uot}tpedxyy ay} Aq paMoy][OF Sonor oy} smoys ‘a8ed opsoddo ay} UO 9UO dy} FO WOTIOd Uto}sOMYIIOU 9Ul91}X9 OY} U souly payop Aq 1 AJOPII0} dy} JO Uoreuosordo1 ayeos Josiey eB St yoryM “deur sry, C161 NI GHNOTIXA AYOLIVAAL ONIMOHS dVW WLNOW ook aQvV3aLSWNS HV a Pecorrrsyy Ri oquieyeult ik PYDUuRoIese | AMINE seauiiten, ofl i s m sane sou s PY er, snag equIEdnayy Me : leaped « { f : eagenboyg / MES / ee Re eee 2 a Se26 5 AD ASB Meee sz oqureyée) Ue UIC SS hoes N 4 Wd: oH »S - / ER EAN i ; . 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ADVANTAGES OF HAVING A MANY-SIDED STAFF Since we have now concluded our stud- ies in the region about Machu Picchu, it may be of interest to the members of the National Geographic Society, who have so generously supported these expedi- tions, to learn something of our methods of work. In explorations in foreign lands a certain amount of time must be wasted. There is tedious work to be done in estab- lishing friendly relations with the foreign government, securing the requisite per- mits and introductions, forming satisfac- tory connections with reliable local busi- ness houses, purchasing the necessary equipment and supplies, securing efficient and trustworthy native assistants, etc. The amount of bother and trouble is not materially increased by having a rea- sonably large expedition, so we have al- ways deemed it decidedly worth while from the point of view of economy to have as many branches of science as pos- sible represented in our party. There are other obvious advantages to be gained by having men of distinctly different tastes and training working to- gether in a new territory. While ‘each _man cannot cover the entire country, his 435 opportunity is broadened by the possi- bility of one of the other members of the party being able to report to him the , ‘IHAVYNON WH, JO Toqumu sty} 07 ddo1d “SIJUOIF B sv pozutid vuetouvd snojaareut oy} UL poyesysH]][! sso1js0}¥ oy} Jo javd yyews wv smoys oinzord si, “soUst10qe UvdLIOLW oY} JO TPs Surtoou -[sU9 PUL DULIOADSIOd oPqeYsVUlIs IY} OF P[JOAA MON OY} UT JUSTUMUOU Suryl4js Jsour oy} ssorjO} Jeoss siyy oyvut StopMq orypyeSour JuoTOuR oy} Aq JUIUI9D IO ILJIOUL JHOYPAM J9Y}I90} poyy oie Ady} YSIYM YIM uoIs1oo1d puev divd AIvUIpIORIZXO oY} PUL soUo}s ashy osoy} JO oZIs MURSIS dYT, OOZNO AVAN “NVNWVOHVSOVS JO SSHMIMOT AHL NI SNOLLVOIMIIAIOT TO UNIT WAMOT AH LO LAVd ¥ weysurg wearpy Aq ydes 6 ae ¢ 436 BURA EE Ra XP ORATION S =EN LEE, WAND) OL TEE INCAS 437 presence of new material that he would otherwise have missed seeing. For instance, on this last expedition the most interesting fossil—a portion of the shell of a gigantic antediluvian “land turtle’—was found by one of our civil engineers in the office of a village magis- trate whom he was visiting for reasons of diplomacy. The head and skin of a fine puma or mountain lion, the largest and perhaps one of the rarest mammals in Peru, was secured not by the nat- uralist, but by the surgeon while on a journey to see a very sick priest some 40 miles from our headquarters. Had it not been for the surgeon’s willingness to go far out of his way in attending to this call of charity, our collections would not include a puma. It happened that a belt of forest, probably the highest known in the world, was located by the director while ona reconnaissance trip through a region which the botanist was unable to reach. On the other hand, the botanist was the first to observe an interesting feature in the fortress near Cuzco, namely, a groove cut across a corner- stone so as to add to its symmetry by making it appear to be two stones instead of one. ‘The naturalist spent several weeks in an unsuccessful attempt to lo- cate the presence of a spectacled bear, until one was accidentally found by the director while engaged in archeological reconnaissance along one of the old trails leading to Machu Picchu. Thus it will be seen that a single party, devoted to the study of one subject, is at a disadvantage even in its own specialty, as compared with an expedition com- posed of several parties of observers trained in various fields of investiga- tion. The Expedition of 1915 included the following: Hiram Bingham, Ph. D., Di- rector; O. F. Cook, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agricul- ture, Botanist; Edmund Heller, B. A., Naturalist; Clarence F. Maynard, C. E., Topographer; David E. Ford, M. D., Surgeon; Osgood Hardy, M. A., Inter- preter and Chief Assistant; Elwood C. Erdis, Chief Engineer; J. J. Hasbrouck, Ph. B., Engineer; Geoffrey W. Morkill, Assistant in Charge of Headquarters; G. Bruce Gilbert, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, As- sistant Botanist; Ricardo. Charaja, As- sistant to the Director. In addition, we had such native guides, muleteers, and soldiers as were necessary. We used 50 mules and 5 horses. On the 1911 Expedition Prof. H. W. Foote, of the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University, had codperated with me in assembling a balanced ration in “unit food boxes.” The object of this plan was to facilitate the provisioning of our parties by packing in a single box everything that two men would need in the way of provisions for a period of one or two weeks, depending on the size of the case. We found that the larger box was too heavy, so in 1915 only the smaller size was used. These boxes have given such general satisfaction, not only to the men themselves, but to the surgeons who had the responsibility of keeping us in good condition, that a few words in re- gard to this feature of our equipment may not be unwelcome at this point. THE NECESSITY OF VARIED AND WHOLE- SOME FOOD Many people seem to think that it is one of the duties of an explorer to “rough it” and “trust to luck” for his food. I had found on earlier expeditions that the result of being obliged to subsist on irregular and haphazard rations was most unsatisfactory. While “roughing it” is far more enticing to the inexperienced explorer than the humdrum expedient of carefully preparing, months in advance, a daily bill of fare that shall be suff- ciently varied, wholesome, and well bal- anced, the results of such “trusting to luck” are very unsatisfactory. The truth is that providing an abun- dance of well-selected and _ properly cooked food adds very greatly to the efficiency of a party. It means far more trouble and expense for the transporta- tion department, and some of the younger men on our parties sometimes feel that their reputation as explorers is likely to be damaged if it is known that straw- berry jam, sweet chocolate, cheese, and pickles are frequently found on their bills of fare! 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