Ble eee eas
hye ey stra
ery
Veneers e ies
ear hy eererer resi etsy)
reeves hee
ae ere eee
OE
a vea a gy see aass
eer rik
eer
ree cere ee
Pr wir rer rere eo
Metee hie
PURER COPS S SSeS eee
geese seat
Eee
sheet
qy2ea
eae eas
reras Pree ye
qe ea bade OOS
fyeaea aoa g es
een
Spsgesesaye
eesars saya yeree
PEER ET ELEOS PEFEE TESA ES RR Eee
ATT YTYPEYEE YS
Voesvedud sata sseeeddracereses
Spon deeeetaseacsaceertes ee
aeeeed daa er eres
tee
peeeetscd
Seassderesresoussssck
pascecaerte
peeved seap ee sc are,
graded
stGiee enpmetese
Veer odes tees ‘ che teed te + . 5 SAR A on
aebaaae
Wess reseed
aware gege tet aestdad
aa bed
toeaenree
Teves bo rerrat
She redeee
bsesecssiace
ba vesavecwaye ‘ 8634.
vars
Spree sie seer eee
Prreerl teeta
saersesade
. Seeweendss? :
as enee vase er esr tedayedstses
erase atte?
taecee
ararece.'e ee Dag beaperer cases
deo teat apescreset!
pepasesiiss saree
TITRE TOE
Seeeeairreet
eda bbewar sor rshe
dreree ress dreaes
eee ees Tie
atbive oan eSsrdboareeet cre asaate
eet tye
“seb a bean
paeedaa se
Pee
herve eee eer
eebeeeee
ikea eer.
wera e ee eV ES ANN
deasodee veteres.
creas dt anas
Af:
SA PYTTTENYYY
Sr eedaemdnededaeeaadee
HOTA SSA TIVE RIN,
vestarae
areaurda
ea Sev eeeeer see
Vasgeece “ ybaeereds esas
Veasvnae Peaat is taeeer ad
AAT
Veni s od
soba ne eee
betaes
Prva eee
Seaeca her eayrye
rr Cree
page
ib 2 soeee bs ran
SOD UTS Sead soveaete aw
Peon ese aes
chindiey teed bee eet
vepane? aoapotsert
Cent yeee
ehabrrias
FreEy) pecesedevasenstenogyenidenen.
aun eee ee dd Sepap bons
pedivetones
psneead
pavtragee cdates
abies
deeeeseaiedes
stelibbane
rps eet
vee Vreeenee,
Ses
eeeessaaroaee yy ivegss
goabeaad
Ure ee
edbeeeiel grobadsa
vase
Pebae nee eye Savpaeecs
The poeediecbensenete
UN es ae DATE IVE ENAY
PAE
eetteetmehentbogcete
idgeaegeeer ive eeraaye sted
aa
beqeters
ageettie
voepeeronaiored
sesbapaa shed
Piabteesss3 ee
pvedt Paap aaah ae dad, LER, petanay
Veegiean ay Aa atone
eptabasventersadans
’ OATES
vooer ered tne
ereigeetes sraeeoee
oe
vee
Apapobtisrbaat?
RCO Ce soendecere bes
brane
) BY NATIONAL
ZOGRAPHIC SOCIETY EXPEDITIONS Copyright by the National Gi
Gitnert (
THE AWE-INSPIRING SPE
TACLE OF THE VALI , DSCOVERED AND EXPLORE
From the floor of this vast valley in Alaska several million jets of steam sccthe and hiss—sibilant tongues telling the story of the Hll's caldron of yolcanic heat which lies beneath the surface. Over this thin crust of hot, tre:
their tread, Robert I. Griggs, leader of the Society's Expedition of 1917, and the members of his party made their way, back and forth, lunging through the suffocating vapors, trapping gases for chemical ai aking soundini
studying the geology of this most amazing example of her processes which Nature has reycaled to twenticth-century man—one of Vulcan's etlting-pots from which the world is created. Only about one-fifth of the valley is shown here; but it is difficult to get any real conception
of the tremendous magnitude, even of this small portion, for it hardly scems credible that a distance of two miles separates the tent in thedght foreground from the cloud of white steam immediately above it. The V-shaped crevasse in the central foreground, above which on
of the members of the expedition is seen standing, was the natural stove used by the party in cooking all of their meals while encamped @ the edge of this the First Wonder of the World
Y OF TEN THOUSAND SMOK
yraphic Society
Fre yhotograph by Rourer F. Gnic
e »svENOR, Director and Editor
herous earth, which often broke beneath
mapping the course of the valley, and
A B GC ==
an Ae q D E F ae
Zatrisme f Miso ARnocke ¥ p+ H
Hoye yoke 7 AR Guemandiao Zayduande Nieawlandache Molen a J K |
’ TaN J 3 > jeuzen’
6 i See P| aie D =
“KBlankenbeljha ayes l ‘Oligalagers Tjzendijke |~ VW Vea. Qa R
7 Uytherkd \ eapelle Concctaaee Ainendijke | San i
1 J Weanduyne > i a = on litingeng “OMB, 4{
pLisseweg! . = (Gealecht Lillo. ‘Kabra 4 6
ee ‘5 A Beaty A Ragumafongen yu Cake? ap my ieee a
f n \Duy at i s) 2 J 1 y Q
t Hieuwipunster liouenn re \ Aanoewsvna fo tae Liefkenskosk, Oe ey Becke Dogel ‘oExingsn FH? iivancn ( ie eae eae
De Maan A i Notelaay, ilmarsdonck P Fico, oso) Ditufagon °Keleen Kastalo \ pe The Hook of Hotang—SoRotts A
Viiseghem Zuyenkerke rc i ~ , Flingen OBudlingen oMeutich 4 Gower Pe pharm Tallovoetsllishe gy
t ° Damme! ~_ Middelbodre ‘ Mgerdoach ej opyiten | { Dilmaro © i te NORTH SGA Caves :
| EIS oCemakerke siouttave Mectkerko ° oudkerke@——— LN [d Bade ‘andloopery _{\Verrbroek, eae CKrwurweiler CREE ( a oat
} Osresn) 6 /oBreedene| oj "ou" 8 NeW He aes ier reneen io ‘ 0 teSoland ‘Austrumeelo OWiet ging gMuntingn PeUdeatere A Beghshot Utercomba
_ so Pe RLieheores VF" Sr Presae-Sun-La-Diave avOa-“Urainpras 6 Pape Nees tee ONaatig Fang WS l Haran Bt Pas mae |
i = in Loar °. . tert i Buiboge
Marlakesbe Plnmchehdaste Sill ONjcunoghe Sea a on RY i Laaro |\ Moolbanky Bistele Zwjharecht Yj, ‘SButsdort ¢Kealingea olzbach SO ne rap
Ravornyegs Yas a -Lex-Osten do} — Suaillebryee Maldegem sie eae i Lee \rasthe feveren. Wat —— y) Y aT Tetiingen _—Soverteuken aati ere Daler lkesOe Ce yy PL Gane
} Biola! - andra =I j QSilsbi Besch Woehari | ken COnseholts Ne ° te oaat
erke yandwoordebrogge Varsenaers, © wistrat Stk Kemacke \y,. Ditery MeN Fomchitreat q a sae Soap Kourhispes?syhttach Skene,
Verlorenkest Oudehbour, Opt, St Mic + a eA 2 pera Niouwkerkeh-W: On ORs Borsbeeko 78 rllendert Nobo OL eek Youd Meg, re,
Bains, Roxem falshem > Sears 5 St Paul CZandatragt cWandoack » Sebndort Vala, eras Michie aoe
Westonde_ em) Bnelles ° ijming OH 5 f 00b Perl 0b. Tupalor ate 2 Hi
er Ott Wachiebokye > Kale : Biirken Hasdonck ore ate we SEERA Pa Merschireitr Bacbdort wy etisgen | Cass WAS
Lombartzyde Gane | lve Le rit Heihock CHivbeke ewilrsel. Wi. Dieu \p igen Dedeabiofénreitdor Meinaby 50,
| Dainggs i ij exbom ——_Zadelgh cken Winkel-Sts Croix jt Nioolas Vane eerifad, E:feshem (Mort 2 pa lilingen OMandem, Schouerwald ORS
ited dPalingsbrag Turkeyenhoek Bram ray ae ae Etbetehy Tereckgn Doom B Wtesideke \oHove Rutigen ees Sey ne Wellingeso pi 3 e
hinag NIEVPORNG> St fieorged ahaa ce (0 Mendonck ‘ © Kroak i ;
a ah ote a yghem Gouden Leeuw ooratalee ‘Terdone! Bet, Dneren Pate the fhe \ertelaer Vedkant Rasdort RiGingen Launsdort lee
Babe? b Mannekenayore Het, Leestje ° 8) : CarGuerit Kettermuit? Rupelmond 5 Ponti Monteuseh — Gongelfangeno Bilin,
| ain ‘Acrtrycke ry) Stor Tamisgs Y Schellec\ St LeonurdusLini onticage as Ewendort valdaionn ©
is Ramscappetie ‘h 95" ° Bieendorf)” Laarenboke) Heik Linth, ‘o Huntingen Qac% OWaldmicae ° Mondor!
fatnaor Coxyde norre Engel \ Mitswogs Elvopsele, Gav i 7 lciken\ | °K . Ob.N: ° ° Rinin, on
? Wulpen \ + i Wintham | Nig! th — Waerlons ‘KL Hetlingea 2. Naument Raimelihgen KD Fremersdort is
ola Panne pet Scloor bie Tepes ae Ce NS out OMetrich | 4 °Freckingon o Kirchnaumea Oberesch
x Duyhhogkie Boitshoacke © 0 a HHingene |p MocsAotioeko A ig kerhinase rane Grigdart Guerfangeno, as
Brylane “ilatetke ae ao veld Vingbhautay Elberta! Helleaay Setrowville) ‘onigamachera ObersiSrek arf 8 Zeringen| , Eimentdart 9/] Wa
— Zuyieooy — = re; 4 ‘oloogeveld, Wijnendaale Meerendre ‘broek? | Bottstein| ° en Bisingeno dort OPurwailer 7
svécappells “\ Kloostérhoek ( 4, ijnendaalé 4 -Mariakerko-eun Li sa an Morey le Bas, Uders rated, Schwerdorfa ler BP oa
Molovtes-Bains Ghy veld ‘siamkanke Dischtiot Mahgdoveldg Of T: Hansbeke 3 Sr Gatton ( Terres Ole Chanols Lemmeredorf., — Kalemburg 6 Flusdorto.) || 0 Otrwelley-~S 4 a
Dusit ari ra DHSS Goat _BiNyyckenskerka \O ee Tovekerke 2. wownout Looreld oLachteren —([> ao Teyndonck), Waelhem® at Boudrwy °Mercy-leHaut a Walmesdort, OBleingen by yhargar0% Harm i504 CoB, Neunklrehen fe pach = sort vo i é “
1 SePolaurster, WS eemnesho Ve, Sef Rekewnertwafpelle Qosthanty ladsl09 oschichesdevegg ne Tareas aot a eo ee emily 2 (omens t Malwvillen 2 ¢ Inglingen, Bidlingeng Monneren., Bt Frum Aelort 5 st } fe Ml
ee Oat ge Dunes 'o I aaetee ROE Colombo 0 SOP. Tamporniney Di ee Sleeveseela “ y i/o iY Destelborgen —— Overmeiref Rijkeg fBlsewveld | | oEleffen 8, DE MERLES> 9 g Bancy \— ©0b K Os ellishes c=) OWeoks CRodlact! | Rabelds Niedaltdort, PL Brest Teel
tes Duaey doy Phila Pe 7Martige 8m a OP Be ON yaaa ater OD i SN an PS Lichrenvenoe. 7 Sipps LX eur PeDveute Rane pelt a 6 Suckingen, RDiesdort Pail OKenplich, _ ~OBibiseh mi (fSentlogsn ; :
s Oy, Philippe — ° od Wha Jxein 9 sy Walveri jotkem 7 Be J % ot n ° Z f Z Dodentriel Veurto Leesto M. etn yeringeo Ses aeatO. fudiny — “ o Dogon jee on,
les Hulten d'Oye, 25-2 OPP PUP Hine Gd Syniho “Tetesthem tes Moores dvering}em go" _Alveringhem “is, \ Cas Zarren jfrorert SPN ay -} Youslsere — StDeni Weare Epfermonde -F, dlenbriel 5 Jencph infin Srifventerg Co} ni ET es “tilingeo—, . AUUIOES? _oKlaogea oy, GNU igilngee| 1°) Andleas
Claieomae Se Le Lion, Plagy Z Domkebs HHouthem (, Oudecoppallé Ruyterhookae open, 1 Caoneguem~ ZelyM*YBHMo- | Lasthemn St. Mtin® aT Crear ae. io {itombea® << i Trex (Co ae FP Ymniaae ie ‘Menakirchen —Beckerhols SPF ¥,
os 10. °. Te Cappelle? ©Coudi ‘Hoxao,! | (fisaweber! picadions } Woumme: ‘© CZarrenlinds if c, . ° MOMs; 1 | - oLeerne St. Mtn, Maldéten | Ramj Cappello i ‘Landred Neunhaugr ( ,.o Ymmeldingon o Woladort Teidinga? am
OWaldam TaPseul_T'etle| CGravelines \MouModeter ouleker ub igh pmmleehterahes! oO Hure\stulan >] Nimveappedls °Clercken : to atts Vynckt, |“ Meria-Lerne? “a. Sr ‘Exped Pieanee Bins, 4 ey Schl ag Betringoa°Reniogen Aidlingen”
‘WHocqueries — “OV® Ko Be Georges [Craywick Siete ey Wathem, 1 Anguillea.) G LoypaleHLoogstade Oftazowind Acrgele yp, etbno — Becht? CLandersee!: j a sea? |(,0, St Pierremont a fetsreech fusendorf |
Pont d'Oye® TCofched von, Cadile BS BewuENpE CHoymille\octemere chap” Oe plsey ea 4 ‘Astane oat) Coed f oN eee Pee orl AGiningea __‘Hombyre Dil} linge Ne
2%, Tia “ofvenad fa [o Braga i otemens Ph Nanehor® aa ; NS Kk stip “Muinvitte \ : ,
i Lea eas nate shed yf Besa 7 Bl SNS Kenesbfine Yoo eeuSchoeds _JPellinshove €. Nicowergode ys SemPsto Ke dev'Chaltncler FORE OE Je a: estore Muncie FullrelaGrynnoFime Waly eo peeare é Hen pes Bexwsllcs| igs ]
Dirarerque®) SelOrderapelit 9 } Brouekerqus |, Bteens /Atacgho™ Kil2| iter ind Lindo 7 Noordachoote 2, Mefekama Reena opde ‘GBoech ° Gremilly\P SPINCOURT Horoy-leSec ance NgManco EL Sloyeuvroo Klulnget™> oe /oHlollingea \kq. 0Trombara y °
Xe] {\ | PuStoeles}-Brupzhe ole Klap aus eRexpopde fe Savile )\ ee Rouingbe Witwoneg TEL eghen) bode Heumont pres-Samogneoe AaSeite i Halnelon La Croix Monpourt?? Reslingeages b Mosdolingen gMonterchen PO epee SECS ingle” Bratton) Datemo diieunyon WF
{ sven veleli £ mien) ixjores mi = “ Dl i “
{A crots Btasch..~‘Pitexmo |ye pip, Croghte S90 Quacdypre ci eupels\ | ; ki fe flerchiem ~_/oWolverthen) $ Gage Tas anllineo= Replies rast bi Samed | Rirchen Fee 3 Rema
Pee Ppe West-Cappelo West Vieterens Samivlitered =O pinay _Aveatriambekeg . ~ Opheng Soslionavieley CN ee Be a 2 ‘
ie robe | | 7 : ¢ Ai : im 1g (10, ‘oBblingen ‘ke orev
Bp rina Eeorambake Zuydsehootes é < 5 ibom ©Brosphein von Fy ERNE sign f $Ftt0 nrivendit oMengea Rika ge INSET Belles
ngemarél : ~Dibkeiv Pees) Me i } hte i my "one
(\'Pigrre-Brqyek Lafedyekveldo Eringhem } 6 Bs Aeros, kelveaneo Bi : cegem ©0sel oGetinch| yy Geinkircheno )°Rupliogen SHOWING RELATION oF 1.
t ~ Woesten | Bo Pilken’ i iwegy) Elleve. Hamme -Bere=) [4,0 = 9 Kuhm Be
oink Broven eee Paschendast? | A yoontedo armada Buse Sete Se Sens fe : Cobteahgm oHlne | Sunplleck Bers [412 yan eo || Western Theatre of War 10 | i Yaa
ly Abeete oe Oe verdingtion Portui a /| Lendeled, jhe 2 aeylez™ | 2 ODickele ‘ Hileged, 9 ESS Hekalgin Spm’ Ng, OReleghem _ )Heombesy r Gertiggen | 4g | THE SURROUNDING REGION AN et Se sry of
4 a Ruminghe Sachnpataay gee ot : ; A peaalis ) dl | PrRPR ny aac Nedbrewiimio— ee pee Rare aaa drlgheen Hea Bite UMCECN Neer Zoli” _” ae ; Mitchen, _Volmefin oy) Vanbergs THE CONNECTION OF THE TWO fud ooteeet al ¢ Naess
a ingen apatadlt 1-0 ‘i 4 \ ‘i 4 ° en hale C a isda ope SECTIONS OF TH co} viersor§
comnts rie lag Arete Grant Merckeifhem ples Hurty wile, BL Jes! splesDieen Poperinghé, ie Ye ft Jan onneboko St Pisere fanf ES ll therine (Ba ress pPenderleeu eee pelt 2 earls Go Sas nt) Conflans-enJarnisy be ime igen “S ee THE MAIN MAP
dre pal ls -drioghen?) ;Ristveld co lnrnertynghe oY Pres \wp, Siar) pala 4 a-Bigard?. Helmet t, Seances Bury ‘oGbeuby (Smaredort /
D Autingue® ‘uneq\Nieurlet ahen ¢ Wate : Beal Dadiseel, Harletekog Lombea Grand: Higa ae, ‘ Sou offal Cobeeed, Line oF
ess y Al Volkerinekhoy o> : oLedeghem arleveky Liedokerk fEoshoree, Wolnwots Bitenge. SON Barbe 9 'Hallingen — °Oberwiese F GREATEST GERMAN
Oeen Gee Se) te O water? Wulverdingh eo, CRabroahk fd uses eMiggets | Zillebeko oes Po Porageorrmiral Peer hod Molinbeck fe 7) contest Aneazae Oran Sora rile svigny Gla feairucken HOMO, | Musehbor a PEON APAUS
ele Gen ute 5 AC Y : Yi ‘Weeon “} erne ae janersbronn INE BEFORE SPRING |
°. Jans] ‘Lederzecle lcorseele Heul Rorght Dilbee! Yeas Les Dencourt in 9, ale 7 |
j ‘Eeatte Peasteuy sO Nerdanaason Raa Ochteneted ZTM@aecle gsi| 0 Rywel Abecleo Roningholst, Dickebusch, chanel = PeSei_ oCetthera aeeteek Ziel Ee (BRUSSELS? Stockel Ureoor, Cle eae NoiSeville ine 2 imunlngen eee OG gett 1} |
val, ey, Bayengt/emo. int du Jour s Bardi eet 2. < Bt, Louls Pladyshoek a i i 5 luarbeek Andere WV olen {Ville anx-Prs port, maison ¥lanyilleo ings Halleringso TERRITORY COVERED BY LEFT iy |
t cre ee Prournehers Bytrlecques_o TePanneiol PO Neordpeent? Woemaese Cares! fardifort a Xm Voorn ‘ Fladyshock Gyselbreehteg a inderleelt¢ 7 B setae St Pierre 2 i a “Doihpiare a Brave Sh Marcel Moakao FieSroix Money ofpuche DY oourcettess. | Mobringen SECTION OF MAIN MAP |
lerquesd frtleulifybem Hou ymcheure | Neomtpeent ee ices . Porcbar eur a ated for ;
lemon save CRereifivim oul sue \ Naren [EES ‘Cassel Steenwoorde /-., Weloute bia cyte /__ Haliobls Ooveg ene TOR Ta Py Lombenl Ni oan ! s caeaak i Vibler-aux Boi cen Bory Coilty PHY “Cunusy —-(hieawan | Uy ayesto |
Cohan oningues Cla Taal “Cea et at enero a Onenge Tieton Hodewnerslady Bonne \ ° te yl — arent ‘Tiegtie Kerkhore ‘OWaterniel eS Mar Raavileae | SrowtevoSrigy le RollingeaS © Fullinggn CO Five athe NO MAP |
i) OHfericat iiques choubrouck Bavinehov OS, lo Kemmal, Q an Boitsfart DAMBLONVILLE’ © 6 BVicnville © Reson ° na Te aee BERS COVERED ey BOTH |
cat — Galper{eiN te Marie-(appel f IL Noir’ Kemmel g ° | 0 Wa lns op ¢ was Laqu@nexy i (Fouligey) Dorweller. SECTIONS OF MAIN MAP.
enti in Nomtbesur®™ | Moringhem = ?*™™" © Caimaaral OB lwetre Capfe1 Bert cg 3 flat Garda Diag NDaaBae { MontiowrlerGoin®, | “Beas atuchvile,, OButgmrle” Lily de Matighle ORNs oe Vosembune ser loren 9S paoee OBilkerbachon cGingisn Rodiach
TMingien try Ly ea 7) Sr. Omer ff Greek Bron csp V2 CEN : ! 6 2 OR H } ‘ -sourles Col 768, Jc champton St, Hilaire curen-Wosirt 6, Flobeed oylebeek 9. Pogndrden yinghen Gahucht (PP Hoek . Lachflucee \ invil fey Sabre (fPoumoy- Ory ‘Aika? Voiubaito OVitimauh S27] © Maleeir
é Ron Verna ya ling plage arate Seren HAzepnouck, a. = Ge TS to Bent / oH Wodeeq olferinnes / Mentéeroix oTrdp ml Waterloo 2 BPS St Julien. si Had os of Novel | oy, ; To-Chetive o Peumeyta- Gray? Edolingoa
choecashcbecinuter —Adrinen ie aR a ingen rand See Bole 5 Sn Prolinghien rete Genval, Dampvitosx, aville inaurSeile No ory, Ober Tocioansy
VidlleMoutl Toe iad OFLA ee Oe Gali Oe Meme Raves casks Sroahmen SHH [yf Fi, cri ee BH Ainleros? oq Mus bem Mandal yi Corause 99468 Ranshed OHasmont [erases JAreville }Veson Livilleo omy ~~ oLishon mous
OO Ailics tes Blequil Siemtqaa WRES she Ma-afotts an Bais pS i A Houplines e Gaia LA hamside — Wangebecq a. Panis Ph eae SOM Ranshes Morinifbie Fre [0 Charey ZA odny, }PMarioulles ofilly-en-Seulnois Tie-e0:Blgérro
CreCalleque — Ufaqaty'y CVaudringtemogatreeque /ftemitly. !hen? BequescRoauetsirep> Water ke © | Erquinghem entieres Molembaiz | Orme At np ‘ ohne Ae, AS ee Ging oe _ Pood Ohaing Bt Penola ee eater ealpxy % oBucht arbed !
scene 2 aenem Wiamete Onve-Wiriy Wiralad onetalle Olagre Vierhoue Bh eae i (Geudeghion Papignig’ Olignics BHM Wisdecq? Lane Chie = 7 ‘Vigneulles- Xgmme 13 IGAY Marly’ oy rs, ‘agny-les-Goin an
bedinghem 0 Drionville olety—" Clarquer Rebeca NeatBerquin® — SallyeanteLya, iat Lannov’y Veluiness fo Casa sticks + Stoqunig Propeciy HT Gugntet | Toi jnaney Bassr LecpixeurMewe “pins % ce Hattonchatel ° Wey Vien — lane y
OBeourt — Onteaumont Dohemo. Therournne 2g ; Towne quelme? Cgnies Mourcourt_+ °Popueltes : Heres” Fellabocgs = ces Chae oMarvoaart ae ye cree 8] noua, Looper Alsons Zedorvaux oThimonyille
Syrrols Marqoete a OCtonuany/ _OArvale Upen Ave oMerville Estaigea Tefen, remplouve \, > (Mont-St°Aubert Ajay falas Canaan chisdengien Blincendh eae tagemont Lamaryn? ee eee EEE Fo aah aw Norte stay Oye Detrich}
© Bovt-Desbous Mleurlea iembronne Yb — © Maianit ar Wises i Gong, Barely Eaillyy \ Kai ellos un Byequee Silly hsa i ‘sChaillon arehe-en-Wogtre saith othe 28K Fare Scilly? fe Net Meal olay, fparooweiler> | ‘i
eo fierce. Sey Oe OR anc St Vamamto pn ee ~~ sities ec frost Nile é J Tisosos0 Heres? Gru 1Shenard 28,2000 ard Ho Witeree os -Wanrauy sir TEtienne Spada. oSangevil = f Sion | Aap seme pee omMonchet| Berourt O6t Johanneshor | MM | pag + Aver ¥
es me a oases a eae é ain ' *° Grandma ‘ ip ‘a vary Nonserd, Puno i Last uri ; Mars
ane oe Engulnegate® Willers fRernea Molinghn bet TaLys Bint Riqueal Muro, yranahomo, ——— ies eee a Reyofios Peel _a4gutay. Thieulas "pouchaa | “Wnterie Figfani amma OEAseho| Wiwersee © paca Hevillersy pl pene {Nie sey MorvillesurSeille) oEply Provocypit pe Qhory, © hout Paien aes
‘auquembesgues atres Danche Ling 3° Malnghen| Permuelicg ° Ia Fosse recurs Fameghsea | hereng Be Froyentt NA) jeep 4 ous —Sondtesnie So Feuieng: os Hive digs aan, on TY a Chat Wyn ey Bevo! pos T-A MOUSSON sor Sell Hooourt 4 Orne. a {i
| lei Bgindestinerg eR Rombly Gg) Eierriere ~\—_offlabeecq EO) aieuerre got P Beancamp Se Athiuaing [2,0 Marquain® SOAK GWarchia |Liberchis| Calla. | a Rene soar oTtricoan 3 Si Comte JRonqui oy er Sens Poo Chast co Woovre iu xloresy Maizeruihy / ag)s OU JURE FO Reaves o Hianocayet Chatest-Brebin - 4 @ q
H Petia: pOnmetestinn Ki AY aS - Rouge Croi sabe , ys x . WE apalle 0 (18 MOO, c Z y Burenilles (oumor : udingeno Marimonto j
Dennebroeue myoC , Hray-St. Juljen Norrent- Pontes? 2 manda Vieille Coapzlle? Soave Chapelle Fourmes Listy Wi Nenu | 2cifits? Lanai ounsas ~ Gaursin = ‘Leuze Ofmeigntes Speuglese A §Coraimoay’ | Bornival® PE 0 | Rota OP? Ola False Walnyllia: Joffe tas Se Beat a Clemeryo ee bViviees ODalheen halen ott Molringex® oWolfskircha, Vv W
6 macqueliers Vershoo Walijaoe Jingherm’ ;CubemO j{-tirmande? 2 Cotten © Inknenchon a Ce ae % i ne bnsanStclantoisPhin-en-Pewelo Therese Vax fammccniz go gina \/ BES? BL. GAutreppaATERE™| Cy, ‘SCumbron-fCasteau : Mousa) TE © ty, Magy, ORia Her. °sh nh 3 Labayville, 3 oLimay Ses a Nosieny MS ajax > Fonteny, Gey sag ie o Bexingas Eywreiler® 0 Drulingen
Bimoot Avemes OHlerly sition? Lovindy g/ Feshindig,, | Bmr tens Genneteno) Tings) vem sVendeville\ Puta | Gysoing Eplechin OE nyjadion) gs. save ofulonPeA Yezon wy Ae ates. / bean) Ce reClypor 4 ; [io veo Thy \viters a Vil meee Kine ie eee irey Mameyo Iee-Ponte-Mousod etricourto [9 rneeurt NY obaneuyerille, oBellenis ga eagatets, Eochweiler cL © Liitzelstoin Obermodern 5
moot reappe Pippemsnt. o Auch Beuedicaues ma) Hichetourgl'Avou | Ilies fTesptemars ° Pvillomonn Antoing\ Pb 200 Willaupuis_\ Tourpes Huisignies J 23§e Boule, (pee oleClypo caussines Lalaing HoutaleVal ae i Ayerawville — Maryistn Seichoprey)° Texainville? Were edt eAulncis” Lemoncout\ eo-Saulnais © /Burllonconr’ ‘Gebling Roms o/ Past 0
aneee cee othe Matringhem esumetes- Airy Wesirehein Hera rag Oilnche 6. ouratglos pydea gay nil patency \EAUED eg \ Bilignies® \ertar5y by seeut, Mboygnion pNewtvill, Thiarmon WEAEwinesd-Enghion farTaeones Vee QuatrS Bros O%Mchne” D X Gembloux Loapmost —oxivmay © Hironvile? FT. DE PUVENELLE enh 5 Fock Girtecourtaf OVEN Bedtling? UE “i rociland 7 i Alles
© OQuilen levur tis OLaires Palfart mes endip, | Festutert yy, gies oBathy Guignies as fo ‘S umont} | i a1 ro Lavedal! ‘9. | Ole Dauphin ly Be ace! oFosioux oO y
we Oda Freanes oti Pare hen Enneliere a ‘ Bailes, mt Nas olavedllo 5 ; Pireaumony gtJénd _ ONanzwill )s court ,, Biededort 0 Esperance paca
Remeron PL.st Michel 0} foHlezeequ ands 3 fetus Violain netierss \ Ho Behy reintigSien OW re oat Wai i Mas Aftounigtie Paty, 2 Vytimes 9 (Beaumont Yancoville Fine shot Ejoncourt 3880 Obreek Veta Neuweiler 0 i
Cs OWaill 1 LivousartO Ne a Alloungne o ETEUNE. Engevelin\Bois le Ville Cobrictis ig © oWea-V Bury eignies Ib , faudignies Rivage :3 loulignea ‘OMarche lee eau fines |B Roout! ‘: ‘Rtambgoourt ‘co Martincourt } oh o ‘Freene oVerguville, Bi i i
Btreleo St. Afene)_ Malone silly my Oy gut? ONedan is 5 sie Pu Rumesa=—— = Ar je oy yPKerre )\EMP eles eau pasines |P* Rooube Marbaix, ae Rovigptanss ‘ ‘Arraye? TR Iallaucoun®. coSestavi ‘oHampout © Rohrbach Ki uchsweiler
le Groweillier cascchatte,
Aigiches ea bag ete i 214 aera [ sas _— - “ciate: Oar bers) pia Halande\ Stat Rowseighice ch Goszefien BR ot CE ear Bserile te maGGraeeo \‘oblasoavila See Hap Sutrgvillo OMorey | Moivene \ Arma Gres oMsohnia Coutires® CHETEAU SAL oon tedene” eds ora i
je tlaed Okabry og 2Peshed ofPseD Piety Cauchy-elaTour® [apughoy) ee \Moyshin on (CLapyseoe Raul jee *S2uy. 8) ) ‘sine MEnfe gana NSEMCHEY. Balle 0} Odoument Hamonville gt Damsers ae a ~Armiavegort joAbencourt —/la Marchande, ‘oMorville Andee Jringen i
requy Wafehin \y-a-ln-Tour Anchel 7Marloa EGosnay Ve PPhalempii = Bleh Ch Roulllon 1Y-St Jeanz °Saisinne !'Enfer pa kes = Boiade! et, illas Perwin ORs "Ansanyille ORogeville —_—‘Ballevilloo) Millery oWillers/| 2 Samy 'o. a StMedard Ne i
ssn cools = y Buaererit Benin, Feriochen, i Pee A iieatiQrui is Fibslempin Tr Tuo du Chpmbiat a wae Mofagns H auxorh en clidugesHetes | es SONS Ug OSD Tae ate Bee Y ane fou? Baie? gion 8 ebitincourt greeny GalivlS —— oftarepeoarG MOOT SI Linder a Gorlingen
nia na oteron ipeeeoxetioa Heuohin_saifaig rors aoe — postal Argun! my rahi a Roney EIEN pital Meriagheeee Bea % ‘eare-calte, sf St George. vt {se PY foBioncourt © rey gosoanes > | Marsal Weledirchen\ [ore ( opisalis * {besbei : ;
Bt. Denoeu 7Olxhier OF APS, sane RE cies Olan SS, eee Treuehnel fulluc eae io 2 ix \ tampa Hee oremneasisy Re eles Glas Pechery yee FORET DE LA REINE Réslereven-Hayeo ep Eciterais enoy 2) Attilonaerto i ° hen \ (0°) opreite lien a elvis shim 4g oLixheim 6ii
Teanond bes BalnelesFrenin | © OTrnmecoure Berguencuss 3. regufiex-Pernes DiviowO elles Ban\fontainw a oRerser Auch’ ‘ 8 YPonan Abbaye C2! H ° a Gy vy fustines > Paul: sal ne Vio Bourrsche = | 9 ~ OS. Croix Wingen© | oS Aldi io Iortaee Hoohfelden |
5 cr Azineourt Tangry Mprest Vendin-Is-Vieil® Thumert NionretkPovelo persion eames une Pa tetas foudené (fe, —Nelleccart S422, ff rao Nae Ben Rayaumeis, \ inantone aoe Peeraieal ces Meyeovic | ono ee Pfaletn a i
syeene Ripa OB conse ise ae ZF vottestnal| on] OPurten JHoudain Darlin | tN Seah Wel tie po MS Ola fy eile gies fairpint weal AMUT za Sammy, | ~Loainy 9 dvminwille Phopeyy_{ Cleyant Chan Bowdi Ore Tasfoncei Gcistirch Giwalfingen® ittenstort Rieding mel cs
q ison sur-Crequoise Seneca ‘Maianil Rawal Y RR6 Cailloas eee y Kit) Pokal Te 3 Cote'de Rea; “J ly oBoyer Fimo = es a o Beet Xanrey Det Hof’, . ( {|
‘Beallencourt Conteville _Yathyon| G ' ° d Botery-lesOrehie fe Caillonx ey his \gneD = y; SN Bouxieres 0, Atasorulles Sorneville” o eLany_©Dannelay 2 ) {
‘Wambercourt© is 3 ORasichicourt ieee \ Moncfaux y qSt Amana “m9 p (BAY Morin P. = - 9 Sail Froid \2 ie) oy oe A » / = aw
| ing Zak Blangy-sur-Ternois Onuclier Rebrenve See on Bully Oren) Ruimbeaucourt eee eateres Pla Croise ane Thain? adnestMiee | rray g = Cc — = = = $Eulmont_SLaitre ye Re ee fs OSharnuna \_— Sig) S } - te
W/ Contig) Fe TnfogeOWsmin | Hines es Beate aa eredeie ateaer i" Bs Go Fes Nitontomy sa Hyon Y St Symphoriea — Peronnesc\ 4 peSSeES [gion J Soot A Pray Y y a appre Akos) Sef - ce er Grale EL Delobss ny ine aes Oh \
loot ft tolleneous > ts Vavea t ho “ ig Na cat y Rt Villers-St in teen CJ iF “ var yealles” i rat oO te ce d S mn) - )
' Eequemm ness Rollencourto 4 BW Ota Thieulerd Omuchin bela OFremicourt °Bowvigny Lie Fiines-les-Raches i sin Ville-StGhislain 5 —ee-1n Marche Han ° 4 ‘ Gale Geeta eee Potable) VArmclurto Ve HeRNSION Syaceu” Bourdifng ingen | i
JaNeuvio HeVannt — Auchyg peri! g | Sneroeul ihe Mouehy. Breton” 7)slagnicourt-en-Chy CPt.Servin oS Roos Mantis \-Tiltos °Htasnon oF ogpizones Bray 9, Mont Sts. Alifega\nde Pry HARLEROL J) K aa Srichamps Aeavite Rechicotirt. "Sa Hani I
Bt Andre iets oe Piceremont ore Cray mde Bstree OGouy-en Berving ADETES, Gusts oNMne Veto : Extinnoau-Vel Wandres as Hee Teabeania Sukie Leeda TLS FJaiy E eK fee eT Muxevillo J §i.Mex:Dommirlenont) —oVelaine o Tika peeaee ra J Hoe sendin z io (ity = =
auxDois ign rt Offumierea a IhincVerloingt Otlencourt Frey s farchiennes-Vill Nicoi Joo ick ~ONouvell= een 2 E} is { nt lowlle E obese te saupAmanoe-®, Hoovilla _Batholemont-teo. ©Coinee ips weisubgen o , - tf
AS eee ParecShe ne oC NEBL onetel , Gren g HE Fe ee ng ote ce" Re Ae ee a A oe a ED Be a ee ec ee ya | De NC pete ra a
Lambe pave cis rap peat SIT Hy Usleal © ethonsaet © chienn. % iarveng, \ Scions AU eas it ‘Mont{ignice-surSanbre °' ale Taxon (77/95, Aone aL os Aen ae Pastoyo yoy Aopisey Hormelingf?Niting 3222 Vallerysthal Schaterbof AEH seo o) Gales rupee ek Gand
ova eal Oeutogarad Haren ayia eis - YAS Ne aS te | = Peni REE ie We oe ig f X : ay af
ost Jone, Brenly BL Oeorg hyn, 1 irs fons na ©, CamtlainP Abie? Ville an Big Walters) Aubry MW sc “tXbuenive A ie at 4 TOUL oe, ea mnblaine Bhissoncourt Drowilo VBI (ol 65, iL oHaamtad a wo f° Lorehifigdn arseattt Harbors? patlerstain * ORothanbehl eon pAnaweler Papeete yltendein an
oMouries 6 Bruit fe on tet eou favilleSt, Yeast /Eprbus ie Suite? © Pleroter § Query leePx aes Boag i Loverval Cesven Dommartin nyetso ie EChartreus Opn en aureriont Hicou, “ No A ONbelot) Weber Wolvhoid /DSE He regi Wasselnbeim —“Kuttolshe
heat el Gui) -Ole Qusnoy— Qua eee Nh tecloque’ aleve oF, Moa esClt Tarmette | Thelag \Vllecval 1 far %ttareludn| Og? SES Pa RV excienNEs H onesies NE So Eequen eine OHavay, cecal he MEER TSO Cri ° ‘oArtsur Me a eet TigANEO\ ast Koa acs & oY ag " teenth “vac apie BS OSnicigon cs = Noftheim op b
coneny GuatrivaoxDlangormog utectoqueS enaclieo™™ Dey a . = : No Haveluy Oss Ma neti Ms = eo | yas rcaup Mourthe 2 \ Raville & ° = arho ; aos ‘ OQualienhe
of yrtetontaing BrembAHCOUE YOu Meg OOalamets,Blangereal Frameeonrto Peal mae aS Eloy ta aati OPPy creer Courchels is Osatly Aipippe SPIE RIT niaeeticd gle cue |Racey) tex Happarty te Bout a } Vandocuste [3 cjteaqn ROOMS Ve ranipel Make Bavitl fp erida_ FORET OF PARROY ace rat Ung Neo oreheller®- — “Eigohthal Eel da Wanaen Sag?
Fa Monfioel Reamhuviegl geam® Orem © OBiilievres Pen? Esvivtes ee 6 tin Areal: aa os 4 a F Inregnicel Ge PRiamnt| bet=Sue, ‘Mari in Haut Mog ee Pisrrola Truiche® Fmage.Arhe Yet Houdemont? {yfontadban seurerile Pie Nuixs \ol° oSionviller Embermenil ei SHAltigny -Metairice peietiny ear Restopl | eno Furdenhoim®?
Fone iy i s ° Trel ‘qMarooui ipjlincoury/’ Gavrello” intanben foresoFosi ‘OBraliam jp. uiseiete jerard " y Chatigny ¢ Chavis St. Ni dan 801 iller Bonvill of 4 ‘Amen K «OTL ettanbSah | idatenthals — ( s Westhofe PKirchh
‘Fond de Val Fontaine Etalor vrométa Haute-edte ON, neCanx CON Ambriges 2 - Vitry- ‘ in gt juissiere of 9. Bicquel igny wigny T. Nicouas-py-Poxr® mnmecviller ler o meourt Wasy ttenbéch esthofen _/) Kirchhoim, Fi
OTaaaplgert queeise 2.) soar eNonatt a eh a Ayes ny Chet Viera Sigg Habarey mee Aarts ise Giulia ot ; oT |r Shact Bieme Bioul® Charmes-la-Cote? ais % —- SuopemcFor odree7_Figdiie’ 842001" Dombash ‘oFlainyal Degaville Lancdvevillitx Bots YT utreptrre0 Nem at ‘owelfotha baer poe Raia
an ©Caumont faut Matsnil CShehy ~ Baubers Sericauri G7 ° Ol Yt GS VAS OO) P = ee Calas, Fam, hi Neyelle ‘oGouy_ é Awulenite Spfoury {o> \P, to Bless mite M Dent M is o ‘Ginkys Fine, BN Maisim La 6 E Antheupt, i \Gondrexon® | Spenty oe Calla ( ranheln 5 pfls?achborghoini°
Labroye, ‘Olaravesnes Bauibers Serleourt Rar Lignerenll_ © Mani pees, St Nicofiso) StinGren ery Pee liacho 2, is fe CCroixSTe Marie 3 i SF 2 Fontaine- Valmont Fact nee loabla Vignobl ae pe A _—Lvpeourto — PVillo-en-Vernois, ‘0 FrisoatiO adreran . Freshonvill 1 Peye Bortrambsi \ & Borghiete hberghetnt:
Eos Tigny-sun CxbehO— Uk Da © Noyelle VO” 17! Gove set eamins, foitn atte Rite oan oor Batlone® oEatroee Oxfonetaod at Tard Oh E Jenlain’ a 24, Rotana he i OHamtiyod og Rae j PRigny-Se Martin eMouiret Pont Bt. Vincent ho Ai evillesur Moselle | oNdnoncourt igi hic vibe San Var’ pkailea Sonu Loe a Lovee ia guile, GO gurtaln Flexburgo at ne ee iia
Ae aS ny cn Ber & z z ; the j ae Bassin : rides Mess : thee vititaone_ SX & aig ia Se al ek
8} 3 Bouter ‘ Coney Aveties -Weravitin— Np G7 7Ainas | Beuchy Batvos Hamblalne. ay Sire 2 Wermmicole Poti, 5) Bermerieg va Bete Wine cteteel-Foateny CHahdnetle OBiesinarce —S Blevod-les-Toal hotles Vitern» J aya hanes 3 anil Ooyvll Rog Steak Nim, bE do Villas ToNeviuis 5 anonviller-|~-opjemareyVerdandt 2 — rey-aur Sy 5 Dangotslfeim efgelm o. PeHolshetrp
Baar acter OO paienicDol ada Tiewcourt / ay Deis Toric Tuleyie Moines) Etaing cp Ck Ration ae =a Giteumeix Gari sos Maley ens-Orahate| BainvilleeurMadon > Avslot Ply auxSalines: Vicinonys \ ge Moncel-les SDohjevin ge Martin“) Barts © ‘Vezouse— Pt\Rougimont imp Dachstein Kolbsheinn-
< fips z SW Grand Rullecourt Jae on ‘or mains Monch? Bolty Notre-Dsino famalpeeur-Ecaillon i me an! Stave nen reeds ey That roller 4 eet Burtheeourt ey Luneville FOr, . Kee atin 1 OVal-ot-Chetitlon' 4 \
Poknaine sur Ma \ 2 3 ib an, BEnovlly “ 7 ; get Meg, aR Motes Repquignics ° Fu de Meing Bullizny: Xeuilloy Flavigny o™18 Pricure y Himes ep, Benamenlh mi 4 ahi ed
s) © Willencours0la Newville’ Bonnieres ‘oBeaudricourt arly 5 7 Pee ee ‘Guemapfemy P"PIEPY lRecourt Eeourt Pret gS quignies 5 PRouries “OOstergnies Sori miore Unite? rod B Boia du Fey lavigny ozo. Sadan 2 Snel eee 26 } Domevre “Halloville Petitmont
Srreylen CHORE, NO Nosy Miienwoir (| EVO 0 Sombzin spumetz-le-Loges Sens [NexitoVgase oGuemapiak Day 9 ent Auch ‘obics Noaf-Mem't "UOE 9 sn FameFor lanes ae ruff Pagnecx ¢ Marhhomont’, Nx FFlois Miko Fertig Oyo 56°] 0 Sian a Beaupre Fimo." 4%, - ogeviler' eerily ONcahigay, Gd, Rougitent | \ Movsirern _Duppjeheia
er phe ere : A i ficou 901 D ; i = 23 i : " on ave ie ur 5
oars Bray magic Paton TO Ab bc seseaty Suestleage 6 ee Aon ay Henin Yom say BP e Foe Baas sre oe Goreane Feria en VanneeleChatal /Allarpa eatin Germiby Tibi, | pistes NG Palign BOYS Broo NT got | Blainville eurtieay ca Oh el aan, \Bignail Mootreus, of trix oS Saareur > Great ama] ore aS
eRe Enea ale fave eeu, a Woinsat — Davincoort Tageatetirirs OFM Pateraial 6/88 Martin SMT **Btuchy Cauck? Epinoyo oAbancy : 5 Yves Gomeseer@St Ant aie Goya afta? trey Cot Orapey Hoodelent, 2 Valee{eMonlle _ Chirmois ‘oXermhmenil Es Bo ee Chneeilee Beart Coupe Roseralien Alun jibe,
peste = ley Bt. Lot ~ cangexo’ IN) one [, bs Bailleulval Ficbeu’ cat ie MEE (hea cour Eeallot Ghimigning § Jolimels Sa yy-la Blanche Cole % Parey sf cod) | Autrey NSS) Seintrey Creveshunpe, CHaussopvitle | Lamiath?! Frimb3is ~ chenevi Hablainvde, Petaovile \pMontigny OF gj Anegent(. Bommsy Less | 2 e
B Noylleet-Chaumeo Hiermont, Peat Dealoorgi oF rohen. > hYehauewaten Neg. Aconiement Si a iu opt guar ensne le Croiln Hlaumy Louvigaies loc Queanoy. see ‘Saubcuresles-Vannes° Bariny- )°Colombey-lesstelles be eri Dompthil oma SEES eaa.ris| 2 Caio ovoSt. Mase Catriereg hay er aya NY ) ischofsheim Tanenkeim 1
Pu Hlencourt — Yyroncheux , Fa aoat Aphel —Remaiil 2 Lacheux 9 Sattorl® LUM a Heres sala Hen Poe eae ed Mare HoniBourt Cagaloaute aE aff We OSS Eamo ce sredaatigarmileg iererg Eas AT Hato Handonvitle Vethimenil© Flin] Brouville “Reberrey Sta. Pole SBadgnvler Wackentag Krautergtmohoim i
a e q ae a Cauchie Serie h Raneourt Brel inedart, — edhoevill, ‘ TRecatzto ; ai a 3
AgenSilen 8000008 OYvrench ay OMontigny-tesTonglen A 4g] Cop tstotiuehent alee Teen Fon aE eae saree Eapit . Moa at Bde) Colombey © Ccfiter Orinboot|(~geigtnn priv im ray Bramopeoure f Laidesrt Gerbeviller Fit Sie Seriller_ Pexonno,//0"eanevilor Tepaniine Goshen Bit
Hanchy, Heusscour® 9 Quimica Qos He Vised ation Pome quignnee |S Potumier 78 2 Bt Loger chqene ee iS revile Doleourt? Vikas | ~ OVezelise) Sr MS NeuvillersSe Morello oF 3 Fines: do Mervaville NU“S00 vacua a Online 6 Presnrupt? “Meigia i
| oMillencourt loFately / omen para? le Mallard abe fg uiy ho, Hon orineour Dleovitere nme? of cary mart Longatte’ | Quefint oF Paville flea No. oeRe say ely > Souvoraincourts ,}USViHloncoure (Tan eae la Netveville a > Giedvile ‘Xermamont Pierre Perees? Filo Abst Macias i
Oneux, (eee le Moaegets ‘i 3 rout, He Crtalloy 2s Qoourt Bt, Aland Hanncseatps oe igs pe-Comte Feyiltore feuil Fontaine Notre-Darh Hamfonville °% Ne@Saulxerotto —_ Ognevilleo ony Cay Fontaiog i Acriviller Veney cNout-M Cellos eae A Niedereinnel
‘0, ‘9 Longvillem oProuvills Onin ‘Ablainzevdle Lagnicourt | yf. 6 tes Lpoauf ©Vror Harous Rein tenoy-la Jou ‘ ey GNouf-Mcisona nae ~derehnbeimm
o Mauro Oy To Autheux Canines ag Cea fy Fonqurilers Egart Ablalng bgivcou oMory Gy; ° Che fret Ch es *e —SoFivires oP s 8 ‘ i ‘8 Badeoyil Yh Baccan | Witifaincho oeugciler ne cogaxweller
9 Colborne Bagnaville at 4 Ten 9 Famechon o,, 8" 2 Buequoy SU Geeon G Ha Speoart Oe can aca Epine v Osivey 8 ‘eFourbechied (Sa PL i Ga eEuorad Aino oven ft J Vales 2 Magnieres eDomptail/ Dene ccaed Fl du Gd Red mbacho °/ “ONateweiler set Rae
it, Mai lesnil-Domqus ° A fouin ° cl chagies s i oO 0 a | ? jorge langonv r8 sav id. ion] i & 1 leiligenstein® o re]
Sat TAI OL cen ents ae aria bri tiie SUM, | clement Gonmoart ? |” Acitornd: Se Viena oj _L eve Boule oss sar YEmant © Cusirtsa pW? oPridetete omtanietimomtoarae & Baier ths Lo (Pave Naudigoy | ( Loromontey, 3 Bt Piareimoat Sid Se ! poe Sevisrecd, ) soBelbaen || Hl year gan
Veochetha, BomueBysuel py g,dibeaucourt? Epecamps a SC ager Cignere fo Hébuterne Achlet-le-Pt Delgnios onemiodint Mareoing yy > 4 foarent 08 ‘Fe. de Hurtaut Oatearli Gree ae Broip Chaduilley\\ ”“Xirocourto o | ein N Ost Menarmont 4 bp Baul WI Fogg oWaldershseht oh Barr-f °Gertwoilot Ltenheit
oO ulgnysAbys, CY aueou eB ima OHToudencourt °Congea Authio "Bailly au-Bois, Q ca Benpeteter Cami Reuven Eg ‘oMarbaix ZZ = © Montbliart A peal | Og St Finmlt Lebouville Monae Mina nee, ie 0 Z (ApS fe Monto! ey, Caine Lf. "Y Belmont Hobwaldstersheimo on ay eaten
Busles-Artolg Courcelles-au-Bois Pulseux-au-Afow pale oF pry Sauvage 00 dé Rance Gemonyilla, R024, + RENN an St. Remy-aux-Bois pasta roan Trouaho 2 Fie Been Baral also Bellofone idstteres wsilor
Monitor A Gorenfloso Fraageele een seriel jus-les-Artois © oCoinaanpe Coe at to.ca. Fayt Avesnes 1g Willies } fan (olga Bab Eom incoaral Muerte "resol pie, > oreo Germonville & ‘Xaffovillers one faon-L'Etape Senones’ Vz. Moats To Vous \ Sen bepres: ‘0 Colroy-la-Rachie a ‘St Peter. ioe
OE rgnies re line Ramousied) . 7 ot he fousseville® | Marsinville pea tovil erage Damas-aux-Boi - Donei A Puido ,° iehhofen® 9
‘Aillyo SRanechan Domart ey Bertrancourt perenne po Rese Jo Pt. Fayt Croix Trulfa coal came Carre Galo, Matignollea ee Aa lotge, eAutignyta-Tou Arig TramEnts.ae Jb oF areles ) te Bralleville Sorouirt “Ore, Bois a yee s “EE aan nf a Engg POR S. Ranrupto. Breitentoch Bempandeweller © SBuubcim / Benfeld'oy
1 pao. Beau lo: : i subriverChoor <4 ~ Prue z " Sugar, iarville 5 .oHenmugoes - .[Maurice-sar Mortagne®\ Ravi foal ey Menilo Lampatimentiy Tatchiteld > pO,
5 ( 3 8 gReasrht Opry jolie) Hakbeabamp © ; tear igney o .oHermugney oe sis e ille-aux-Chenes Meall-eur Balvtte Bt. Stailo 3 hafeld Epig Huttenhéin Hl
nehanvill Grandeourt IaBarque LN echainp CAttigneville Vithereyo. Grimoaviller® J Fraisnes Rastaxey “Avreinvill CHaRMes Saison /Fauconcourt Ci ran Claire Fontaths foyenmoutier Grandrupt? Ste i Ite S(t o
F ° St Marti ‘ Tandrichara ORarville o_ hie |° Betanville Xeronval I sut du Pont ‘0 — Viaradncourt ire Henke Olleiee 0 ta Salooeo ge _/oEslenbech , Ttersweiler 4
p12 Ya Vicogne, | Puchevillery | Maillet Niele 081 Rare Dien lo Bats Cease 9" Vireux-Wallerand) py a Housel | Aces® leave Beavein haa sk le eras oN Roxgon Recias 9 Bt Benoit Paialles og) A Oh Chapelle eget [ oboste Bruce Molsenist ans ene ©
= 2 eee errs Englebelmer } oMesnil OTbiepval, Pp = OME Beau = x v0 Rollainvillo _Imbrecour Removille ise “Abancourt E*BerG] jer Vomecourto as ©Floremont’ come e oBadelien | Bat Je Matlo (Harpe? Fontenelle © 7 Gnte. Foo \Eaales ae eee a TTchwarth Blichschwetlor Papemhesn 9
— Neoars Tale 81 —sartinnsrtf—} Anche 0 eheries beat le Sart ee > : ci Rainville > “6 eHia Nees, Bettoncourt S43 oMoyemoat Sri chy se St Remy Denipaire Ryse ie %Busenbers genta
eo ony ante) Hédsuvile 3 Mariiapalek Elincourt _Marets D)NevrcmaTeau | OVenx Froilpo Pd St AW Rugney nt a Grde. Bua Destaase \ ol Foland Hin de apt. NL- Lasts cre a
Ww sill ta xy i © ‘i Dail ° Monti ; a St. Prancher Alto Peiteo “Ambefourt. _Gifeourt-lee:Vieville Bninti - J [Deyfoese oh, Q ¢ i Petembolx — Apambse
Tra s Orteey So) Ovi tn Bsiele, Pobtres of8se08 Avalug, St Martin Riviere ‘4 eh Dy yj) RE Denmartin Repel ‘evil Pusieuzo ‘. Chasy Vk een eon a oF aipenin Nompatalize, ~~ \~0p Votrre St Zee @Ormont Labinp’ ¥Urteis Grobe myaiecs N
Septenvilleg ORubempre Wark Boincourd [ORY Longuaab Ginghy We. ie 2. ° Robeuville Balleyille ope Bouxurulle? obbaty -Vinesy) Hadigny'les Verrieres | Ft. de Romont © a Balloo >! & MicheléurMeurthe Provench 6, Le Dicfenthal? Bhordmonier
| doo Pree, Coane vt Alberp yi Bole meme TA Manantourt Sorelle-Grand pin f a eis Pearl est CN oe a) Houxeras 3 ig er ed Scherweil ES Gy i
| i neneoa at i} © a Papey harwei ] is
OVillers-Bocagen nen etencourt Osfillenco > Hagnied “MizexouET—Jorzey Nomioere olave or cst marvel
MontSavillers 1) ABE Beaucourt Baisienxo G “ 1 Badmenil Bult , 7 ale Raess = Rathsarmhausen [ie
Yrotiens-aCBois , SBavelincourt Brgy, Ltrérille { g \ Ro ome Wisembech Kinheimo Si i i
Mota (* Gunmer sor aon Ist Pierre lay Fréchenco™™ inte om Hees 2 FF VitecurAnere Guirfontsine vralt [Cite du Charnois_ By een Coy, Shar nee Ee Nonunillvo 4, pFremiféptaine Rouges Eau ReBgiville Remomeix aad . "StKrour Eulles cHLeTTerivT|
Lalou Te Mego pranit OCardonnetto onset Preux Bazanry ‘Rue Neuve ~ ‘lip E 3 Gufillers| illeset Menil g © Barogney ‘Sorpoeur’ a jorrepont-sur-l\Arentele_—“oMnilleufaing ‘Paintrux Coinchas? Te Gemain; Vo i rechirellero} Baldenheiin }
j a cag) Piequigny eee eats ee neta iin ue Bey a Stith go eee ae ( ent Pann, Bar Py \Nataseont Tes Beg, coimeureDunlon | Nps. do Merasse x, coerry (° \ savsine Crm —) ALarkiteh — ranges Sito i iteie, Strebel
Wee QWatlos —Rloncour,) Ceylon Scerrien Bonnayo — = y Ia Groeris 9 fel Ve Mio $0 Thilay Fainvillote 59. (Hagndvitle i iad [Perey soul Mo:l pe Doerr s oyaleroy-ad rt Dignonvilla Gugsecourt seers \QBomtaing ola Finpiere o Anoraly erat tere) 1 Zia awycner® ° Pollo f } lusnig. Arto ge!
loogea,, slo yenville lotus RES rimont a out # (rain, ratre-deux-Fanx u } [ {exon heim jy”
pulsar ienolete 3 he gy Fnsl Tepes erence ST. MICHEL Gere Soman | oxvainvillies > Thersoge Meare MadoBurt | opingwcourt Vaudeville! | ‘°Vimena °} Verveatoo pment Lanplose? A” re hae KI. Leberau = Robrewee? | Hida wae hp
! Senet Ola Fayel_/o Oly forbie | Sally Lapretto,chipitly Ceppy = Regraval oly permont me irson | ee Brggoon Malang Voxgontou, MandressurVair 1g Neawlao | Hafencourt oTaneourt) Dompaire Sra email Bru Bitéotainey on Laer a patindiay on tis ¢ : yyy ota
i Balssevalo| r,_Yaiee 6°. oMéricont) —_ Dompis glancourt St Michel oon PaT ; Pa — o | meurMoourt Bainville-saxSeiles) geeee™™ Aydoilleso Fentensy vere = Sl Fpax. SVenemont VP Menard <® Altwoler? Rappoltsweiler } | /Obnenheim (°%4_) H
] uyteet Hamel —ENORTIY Coyigtaa © mEshig. a Nas ae {Li ‘Mostoieux Signy-le ig Ferilloa Gs Cuillog aeeeieny py, Medofiville Angeville_ | oBulgnevito | Nomy ie 3 ES Damas Detaryes 5 puderate EAS or OMe Poulter Gao. \ suche Frazee ent? Pere Cutie © 110
eae, ilerenrhy Prare Veen Scout | EE © f oWatigny Opfitien ome Galas Bi SaulcureelorBulgnevilleg | Outrnesart fiatrenns® Ae Soa ay iS Dillon lng Ver rt ars ise ‘Anon! ~~ SO te Poe Fiat wo pcan Ge ; Treounayt/
Rinieweaoa | OF Foucaucourt, z Poouill i 7 = i . oBourg oUrville Frenc® po. eee. "1 FT. D'EPINAL ger ° oFimenil\\Laveling olvouxg “Orie le Paire Clefcy 0 Plainfaing — OUrbach Zellenber in Eleenhoim 9
‘ © Lamotteen Santerre J Rainecourt Estrees ge-Cheumcs © TE - Lefeville © Villesut It ‘Charmois devt. Broyetes Lepanges/Biny Bessel Aumontny Tinie Neel nan {situates me Oars
11] oH6moy 5 81 ACbin oMontenoy 3 Bayouvillerso —Frameryilleg 5 2rayith rayne ease ee Rae = Folie Fino:? © 16 Polis infant Herpalmoata, Visvile aha OSous la Beppe! Hatdalle SchnierlachQ = eon = \i"
“pHopit St Aubin © Revelles a ea Tectey yar wo Holnon,, Sjlency TeBhulay PASSE ON Mariemooi? Rambavill y; XS anweiero | y
coh flemilly —_ oPremnyan¥al Creuse ~ se Lagsantrefcon © Attly? oPfancilly Re i ane Doce et feanchu MankeS unin att a Poa ¢ oO Kaysersberg>—~o-08'emuheim | on, Aled
froin Bomy-lerPoix ouovalvil ines Larne #3 TON : © Loagli | 3 ‘Ghamparey Gri tay Broek ax Fourneaux— LE pe Z f ansen
Thiewoi- Ho A Oe Hangar ftreiae Douvigux _ oBasuvois ai : Origny,Ste. Ben sign tana 8 Yb peitvte-“Ntpopam Eby d 9 Chempdray Grunge. Bivtey Sera ePTexons OSachemont To Rudi 7 —Ammerchreltr\ "her [qo Wickens} H
Fri Courcelles Domart lena Fizrmont Fe. dary sol ~ Alle ° TEAU arate les Enel Rydlin Urbsis Toliweier
Tabiaye Fricamps Tange aaa Mesnil-St, Laurent Sida iermont Fe, ribnsumeot Verte wrdoury-la Cour Besant Belton : jalgny.; p ise oNetyes slinedu-Houx ise : : Reis Zell” seateenth y ick
t is 7 CPN rn eS CncaCosu Amang REY) Couriymlle # Hesiols-Vivll mont 59 Camron eal Nigiudiere or, 9 aul a ciae bits Cosomebe ieee ete) hee ONevratimont ane ‘Tendon ORehaupal Hsrehigrangen Jet Frota } SREY) Biscivcir,
! ea Polx in cui eavillo-St, Aman 3 ° fs : ores ola Ri atelet | MonteorSet OArreux Gespansars{ Beamon! rpfontai ; ‘ Martin siti gersheim 9 7
1 Eplowier _0Crolaruult z Aeresconrt ; PLandifay Ao oge Stine Richaument © = Vanfedalt ta Subreanier Nouzon Sas ae at Thietous _Dovnou rs Vasinfeto tea Gronies grrr te Grd. Valtin Ok: Nledermorschweier® | Couatan Op
j , Hert nen | Ke Fae ban wont, Rt Wee ro , Franquerltg A finn ‘ sory ry 7 St Medard_ to Sant |\_ ©Urimenily 2 rmengetat |g hee Tak fo) Turkheimo~ Shea weer
=< Perales 51 Warvillers Maucotet nent Bothatourt Malizny Marfontaine? °(—TSt.Gotert Grohard aH costars ates y = 28 eae oF Log a) Ie Tholy, a a a V5 ay) Zimmerrashg /// Viens 4} abun
Zi —<“\ s ae Oe Gules Hpuset? Ola Neuville AVSM#® poury ontieny Bene Y singe chinges geneStlees la Haupt? rvroy son ABAry o- 5 °Straimont glise fila 9 ~ tes Xeweag{Longemée\ © Balbristio Sulzeqn Waltachy /” Jweutsneim | Jo anh
ety, “5 p-——SFremonticrs Tilloy-t Jumel paiva lo, Etalor 2: oon bere rere Bay-on-Ru u le OServion Min, du’ Gigue " la Forge, J a Beillard i) 9. oHohrodber j ° ndolaheirn et
eetierngetie| inom a fal “mess oe ee aoe oat Sea, adem Ses ie” Stag eae 2 Sevan es er OO tS) wll Saat
uplicdir: g.qut™ raux De ‘o Mervillé-au-Bois a = 108 Thiern jogny Men at agny Clement irunchame! art ron-les Vallees ‘ining Ot 8 Mollier\ fay att _Hobrsd Sundhofon ilies
Moraucoury 08% OGulzancourt lo Co 0 THO Pa Tinncourt-Fosse ° 5 ran 7y Pee oDohis i is 6, 'Gernelle Bury Reaon-aux-Bol ° 2 ole Fuing Leve - i j OWolftancens)
ex chal? og oti? i 1otY baad Aerie Neve ourreghy —Mall?taineal Chatillon-les Sons "a a Coen? a Bsionass reat fle Masy oBoseral 5 Parc i Tanaka o Haut-du-Tot [Hue Rupts = Luttenteth, oe P Suen f
oAgsiores OBMamecount Sentelio oCoy z : st BTh arlemont court 6 ET DE CHINY , teres 3 Z Drchtech/ i Overtporschyreter \ 1.4) Neu-BreisachO]>
of iis © CCourcellersons-Thplx sstoeq ranean Eoests| Haale, _Saoviling Aa, e Ol be a a pels SngotooFese Matera ofa oar Gentes Ameri Pies tecoeste |e Hit, Attlewlsing suShAnn dp Salt OMenmuript~ ¢! Chaum@ do Champy , / Cre Prventish Voblinsofen® | eHeiabeimn SO euBretench ast A
eae PO UR Cs ea ac be eer ae A ee ES cee Zee) ai ae ae So ee Gort tta| centting Delt Oe ra hy ee) ce
ei lerin —Offoy 0 VHorieyo 0, Acai \ inval_HAreicourt®) Sn DEinesaert guerbisny Tg Gaaeahe Ramepour Magnyo © RourreySOMainbreson (0 “St. Jgamta.rx-Boia 8 es -eFloing — o)HVONDe va Fulliareo_Remi havi Vanes cat aa ie Sh reSserb } 7k x a
(Bipot) Gommeroax livery Lavasqera a Hg AE AN “Bento, orl Malpart Boullanconre en Ory as ain rears UN etn Td olgeuiloBonnenta ‘ Ce waa Ohya Si aioe, ‘Thin:le Moutier Orwyeres Mondizny 5 gata Villeting Slaire if ip le em 27 Ae t pelaten ule uae Hee Sata conten i ape seule Otandanbach APE Oponbech || op ederbere asia
e BX Beaudeduito trowel ‘lainvillera Griveanes© Py eit SS wed 2, Libermont t 9, ( 9 ‘Raillimont, ur desl Jour Olefay Find} ° Jes Baraques fGa080N—Ooinn anys lo tach + ofall —
Bohneleau era ie) Tie taiggy Estelle Se MPa fa tsiot— 9 Champion — ogfratien 0 ° 2 >Autremencourt CHiaourse-en-Thierache ingy~9 sur-Serre ; ols Rue Gikourdlis SO EGY (eo eDaigsy 9 A te Ch 3 mp ist is © Planoi Sondernach ‘Pfaffenhelm: rarliorghia
ole Meant Ochtsrata Bes oFolevile Baresmon' : Armoageourt eR jfrottes Cauchy. ier Montigny-leFrane Veuxjee Rubigay Mee la Sk Pierroeui-Vance qo Boule Doncheryo Frond Franchoval 9 Jamel i 2 dared Trongemant) zi SWinefelden Ac eeeceaai i
tate Berea alla 1ePiSaier jiglise Margny-tux-Cerises fy NN cel lary aes ; a i A Mitel Ja Foe & "Eau foBoulticourt liso snois éubbesart KT famoigne — Tisti eny Gate q © Wildenstei as i
alloy OCEMPUIS | Choquewso ilies ery obnEEOY QuirPieSes» Ccmtnite Senter ey ie Plary-le-Meldewx Va Neuvillesn-Beme, °F “° Cugny f l'AbbO Tee in a pe Robign; aigny Din Bakke _Dommery Balleroe Foon eee ear V ence Euepign oBoulancets ayo Wadena Le ay ces talline rare Hage Nous laa On ii re i
°) a © 4 Blanefoseo Flechy Villers-Toarnelle 5 I hoes 3 { Berlancourt Guysncourt, ae . lean M co _\ ls Romagne® { — Rogivill ° oat e ‘vernaumont- . ill ar °, H |. ole Baison | Lanchtakos Inmate’ i
eH efi Tan /Botre\ nan rn oe es LT og, Ba se room ofan Aa Fa a a A ee i rel bar a a Ee onal fn oa a svianal | [lating ng PPro Baan Lay : gu
Gre Green ster ils ODomall Bretenil/ Tartgny —) etrtvillerss, Mesuil-St. Georges re ree ie sCrapeaumesail Beavilh? ‘Pirasiegh 2 ee ane tes Plemgponh la Ville-aux-Bois hemtine | orseu \ op) fants une Boke Hamblaie Pier © || Barbas —{ Villenurly Mont “Elan apopte Bhorenges Kose) ety eur Mews 7 x Dallefontain On Cote OF BD ieSGirmont A bal I
GrA Orie S ero ° "i MowrD) : : Gees ? OChantrud Fme. © ‘noeville Chaumont-Porei i mS ans n! 0 Tetaigne - cay Fe aymont M Bauleures: Hl
Baal iN Orie Pca peg Gallet ole Croea en Sitanx JeMesail-St.Firmin 549 cardonnota Mo: a * OP PSB pay Sager IVerneuilaurSerre Su Reuter lo Thuel is RAE mop ‘Roreienagivron paecpilelelWeipty a oPols Tera, yy Beauregard? St, Aignan-cur Bar ©Thelonn, oMay Coane FORET DE MERLANVAUX Ville’ courapio a eanratetae ene a Our sur Moselotte y
a eS aad So tet the aN Gl igen] PE [Ce one Seen a oR Oe alee, oe et a na Com ny [Seton ere oO,
L. ‘TroussoncourtO 8G Beauvoir” “P°U \ Welles-Porennes? Pay —— '-—ta-Potitre———_L2eay © n Blanche Ecoret Fme. oPiry-le-Groa 9, eDoum« i OWagnan | gi? J yO ola Hi Tour? vocennage _ oBulson S varbeaux® yi 4 i Ja Moaiagne *| Ment
‘Oursel-Maison o oveenh nea, Royancourt | Rubescourt \ OMS la Mafeligre re’ - ‘oMonceau-le-Wast ° Bon Walop hime: du Pont des Aulnes Viel s & Neuviry 4 Villers- 9, forgne 1 | Villore-dert. Gerourille . oFerdnupt =o. w i
genre Maison | Evauchi rarimajsa, 1a Morlitre' : ee Oynax Ne Clenibase os OCannysur- Mats ‘OSceaucourt Peauraine . oO oWaleppe is Mesmont Me lo ‘Tourns 1S rite ORET DE MAZARIN Heruucourt, i Ia Rosier}
Aleieneell fuller ove OHtedeacourt ODomiho NG el lA i ca isinelies Lassigny o pansestet, (or [exenetose % Bg BO“ON. D. de Liesse [ie Pres /6 opp Ma omy fe saree. rent uate ecient hy Gol dort Chem aaa ee Psy Croats a oemopteeen, mayag (8 Deamon anepash Gei Tanghotzo Sila)
8 St. Andro OF; lers \\ Morainvillers reenyens follot " Biermont FOL nnaIa fodineo Lappion: ‘Sévigny}—°Hannogno: Remaucourt SEE CYNE Hagnicourt Maremny Malmyo {0 Maisonealle PRaucourt Corariecsie Lat morpmosingns Te Ca aoe Gehan" Dianschen tal
3 ocvecoeunil yee PirtOrrllereSorsl 5. / IgBerlirn Div OCHy her Giny Fae lola Bourrio S Novion-Poreien Sie Pas eT ebpon-lesVends gy Le Thillot LeBRul 2 “UR st Amar oo? Wunhsimo
I oes AeTHREE! PYcoarenis paper Bf Gul Pla Raye ale ent 1s Cour 2M Borin Fly Fine? fay ng: Hye Sen Paiet SE \ Hin’ cia Nouviloa Ma i Malandr os Rocholld resets Frese 2 era St Nisin estes? South Hermamerelo
Maignelay\oTHe ‘Mortmer_ O° JeMeut[Mate — ‘Thlescourto pp oolortincourt a Biches DE ST. GOBAIN i ones “Chaudion ©; Vi Sep ‘oChagny-les O: Mus eee ae obveuhey: Aeweli/an Parpais 4 ats
aan Likby Mauer A Malenelay, Gale feeuiliate “Gannertancourto Panel Eveqns Quleray "a BASSE Fhg. do la Neuvill lt Selva oBanogne a tie Salles Monclin, 4 wiles Omont Casing Artaise le-Vivier es Mtn eee oe es 8. Maurice $e Grexon o__, Bertschweilar
ii Re el oe con oXe Motmont SAC ie a Peat f SeNelfestcRane 59, Te OSE, oPetg ey FyowoKHTE Foner Raa Io Hejlloa_OE SAMOUSSY ©, ,, A. /Sissonne fnrleComid St Fergeax — Thoring 2 2 CamosinA Gent cesreeny RCS aes troville Olreur Ch a yee) Geom o Laurel > chataau-Lambert Goxtts Verriere iter MOUSE gear Berreler
ade tae Real Noe eles avigni hal voy, Lalu, Resse} Seer taeatte_Oal Chiry®, 5 Eppar che = ° : Monctif? 1a Cot juincourt vergD: a ola Ba Lon} mouliyres % at
soma chows | Slog, eau eno Digan Bl aA Re One C. oBadraont V'Essavillon woe les Epps? ; Grog: oe OP Temuttont [PAmicout Lee po ESR Ga WARS 3 at sot taps Tho Dampighre JeFrbier/dathem ese Ripbach cheer i
[REESE HR ypeville Sue Tae RRSS Avreniont cil tere) yar atatg} Boge ayiton Yomtiny i Edyo.~ Sorbn, Bertongourt NO") lea Aisernentso le gy, Merquigay Stonne Bla i Nat Maar, WPL Verneuilo —_ NHfarnoifourt Orox OBenlotte: ola Pilla ~-%, 47 B ° Stalfelfelden
Fre Cuppy, Sanavewse | Suimncello la Boudiniery OMG AYA Ce St. Martin-ans-Rois Be saat sreryusglid On NAesteourt Drona IParfondra ©} eau en coccts aes Rae Ha l'Allomsgne Gone, Thatoail-Porcien | ig LoQuy Paar Sry ourteron’ teria pence eit sos Uj umonta Sauveney Sur Pew Ga.Vernayjl Besutey O° oe Attogrey Aaoulaune Bourgagotts % Bato ota ie
1 ake \2 ronne,, Pit B = Q2Gericourt Fine “0, ©: DE ST, Pi {sles it IS iselisre Jo Mortars fServanc a Sogen__(Obsrbruck
Verderel ‘Fontaine St. Lacien ©Montreuit Nourarde-Frane w. Vi Cambronne, ob: Flouricourt Fm: Lor Si cig ‘Lamets ‘oTannay iERREMONT cy liero 2 re FReryance . cMieli Ouhreta 5
‘0 Colseaux ° facquemoulin igne(mont, | sfarest? Chevineourt © Ai, Lombray Sr) TBYeres — Courtrizyo re) re Ville Hi nat ig Berliere ‘Lory ‘ > i terteakt sss0y Ta Mee de eeenca cca -¥ fel
Berle Guim Uaeanasetecnicen eels “5 Coupe dui Scakaatol NPR roca ier Seni — Scher OHfenichalons ols Malmatoon ggruny 1, Thour got OMNI pag =itese x 4 Hee: gin Grove \ mt ie irebberg _°Barbech
0 Trotmeroux \} G01 Melieoeq® Sm i Aubigny. en ‘Geom ‘eMentgen ——| doa 2 de FORET DE DIEU! ° 9 of jederbi H H
. Essuill te Meanil yurmay , Anthit e0cq (ET DE PAN No 2. St Lambert i ooo] Ret Le 3 alfa lerbruc Tuppacl, E
jodencen-Bray Han, [, Daf, 0 Velemnes MOG rattan I Pleperet Las a New $ A apeetbenig = Wenn eyo eee Wa ate ee RR ae inValleP © rats ©Armncy oAizalles PT GRE LS om © Neuville Day Soulmaitbe” Paneuvatesur an ele de Cars pete Pemey aa es gy, Fort do OUD ESTA asmunsterey . Oneida Ofer Amach ma] i
Bavigniea _ Fouquonles “5 fillesontsine St, Rimaolt 7+ Hara) St. Lege Ollancbut|—pysaTcing Nafipeet 0 Olepfesnl oMartigny OPloyart-Vaurscide © Berrieux | \oAmifontainu yFma CJaransourt7oBalnsy Beanuy Su PiereSont °Vdux-en Dieulet Beoufort Baader? Handles Juvigny, Montag | velrey| wut \ de Bre Mashiein Tamont __ Belonchamy lo Bgs ole Montanjeux ibrerescanudig 4 toa taaleh tlbech foNieder-Aspach ~ Lawerb a 4
j la Cliapolle-aux-Pota } Wille nioy ONE emanate ouraval fi ignteregENlnvillere Berar Cole Plesis-Brion —‘Tracy!lo Mont rol, soul hermis ~ ase © Avancon Bricalleesur Bur a Te Muay | Juv aa roe Seo OF seleny Prac criams SON MRS SUT CLD fe rar ea ae clepulx | cle Madaleing é ‘oSehweighauson seman 113 | 9
g ie Fougutrll OF Be ctrl igsereh Noroy Cremfatcy ve _ FORET Houlisioustouvent 5 ux ieee IF saconrille ©Corbeny ——y’] Dany Fame. BroviseuxetPlomey, //PAsteld-la Ville OMont-Laurent pap eVoneq pred ky Guinea des Dames 3 wwigny-sur Loison 5 Bem lis Rema? espe oes Salen ree Se eee Gowshtietin y F
‘Avrechy Rouviliers eemIDE ALA CUES A ville Vauclere Fre: Avaux 2G Viourcles Asteld “St Loup-en- A, Repos Beaumont Fmeo | oc Feuille Fe St ae eae we Champy He eseen OW iagd 1 Marlleo. sapere 5 Bere otanimt «- GkBarthelemy le Feet Da ASctesttan Veocauh tule Aten Basomge el mb AR Lerma —
zm olay a0 i, Re a a i Tyrones Fes i ° in mont lug i Saeey |}
14 iprourt Tamgoort, ouilgee Bison Bato Maneny, eset % Jocermy FE Cito a Veoboison’ Fue ne oPerthes ve Basle: Chapencies cra Shoemart Dalleiies Nee Pe et OHalles — Mitedacto ochvemeee ne cRemoivillo PeRwiyo Beifour peel, 1) fe Neweaie gip apdie. (18M Besallee Bal iouergute eee) eee Niler Diese | (Pome
2 arala os Ei Q ayslere | e aux 7 ages { : 2 illrtach OCharmois lly peepee Neuvolle ie TeMagny\ Ptancher Bas Sr oPetitmagn Nielier - i cen Flectitatt
: ct sei ne mmtmeettt pimberite| g° Katrees-St{Denis uf, eas PAu * Ol, F a Seninndle ime Tagnong Ola MenilderAmaniee eComy A uaireChamps German Qh Tally a Fererwe WSEa Santa a estnrent—oDambetdit Nar ret SS Sho Rhien : Grommags ch on \\ jeohanitaiebech °Disfmstten ittogsn & *Plghsliniono
Tally Crate Mari], Newt Cmte oon Se BY oa ee milcateaad cag hata Picdn ste 08 ents 9 Sula ol Villedus Bois Netifehatel|” | oleate Jods elles | - °Coulommes A gn“ teoteanee ss Buzane oBarricourt PMobiensdevant Sassy. Peis Colombes Adgtans | yo" Cor? SEG thane Moyer, —cOhampsaaey——'s Oetls aE im OY foo a beeen | ngomerensletFrominuyy 1% Bra H
Vilere St Barthblemy’) St. \ : Te Rae BEE esp ee pinewse \ Montplatai le Port, Vailly Mou SG" |Aoutina Vaasdgas Chat. de Blane Sablon “7 |.% aS al hl oes ee ¢ Adam f Mont Bois do 5 a: Mouliney SRT eon a proidetrre SORA 2 ee ss Sy Yauthtets eine Bornes — 3 Alishsim — Lan 4
\e Initir oot 0% i le , i Mouliney. os ee ° tes BS Foie an ‘Anget Yauthiermont 2 ‘Obes 7 ;
3 i ma 9 0.04.Fite James 088 yall real ©*o Foutenk Chayenne Soupir OCuissy-2t Gen; : 7 Pigaicoart BLRemy-le Pets Thenor; ‘ devant Saesey 0 Lion Lonapont =o, ES Drbiey q - : ; * 4 00 polvaity) oMeir, F -Brobant_{smontp ‘OReilly ot eal ore See oy CTNeY ay (atgighofes ‘ i
oy a Odfarivault | ) antic omnenle Aaa oe pret PH?” iP Chery 5 Sax [Roe eamat Se Pine aN (anuans Feo Ona heey Tien Stauney | Brnaer'o~ J Chery Bransoort? 6 GrcelledSapicourt Bee Boe Genevieve Fine? CAtey 8 46 Chat APremont i Bpinonvitte Montgicon Driflancou\ ABilemont Fimo ae LAS ae Map Berpug® ce ee a ingest Ronpenceles ramen
Flow, 7 ‘© Meru{4 Lalande? OMontehavert |. vert) f) A . ers-St. Frambourg ‘OD: \ S71 ere ea Conrdoux Fonte y u rice ° Bauli ~©Charpentry J Forges Sa Beaumont In Bouleye 7°. —OVillerscxel Bem. 7 ise Feldbach, oDurinenach -Hagenth a
Riansinet ny, JaVillopeurale Ro 6 : Pent min / jes laies DHALATTE Oznga racy Roxy coiey pouatre 0 Conte oy Fou! Serzy- TS Go Veuty O ove Rmy Mateull-eo-Dole Sevieny Sur ANIRR Offralon® Clanwry vrigy COTE | OK, | PMoronvilliers aha il oblast Sondbiaiasitle ” Molarcomt —cllalancourt ree I REM Sani Vey. Geara Courbongn® Pom Desandent, gis. Bethoneaurt) Gade JV* Charmont Flite Reandy’ a | oMobs Keutach ‘au phn) Liter, ane rte t
onnevills Tumbrel SeCPoEe SFroseuse CPuiscux Grouy-en-Thelle A area ee oi > ° m Grand-Wey Beuguoux Jo Vai eaee) \rmnoeaaalest Cory | o Magenta Sey Bee, Mari p = vy; ‘oth Cumieraef [SChamp le Betos B.de Moatiee~) Pont Sar 10 Me Maren’ jenans gAlloudans ) : ° OE tntornuclion oaiawaton Pili Lafmen,
i 2 rea ~ / /aor-Out ‘rama(ll uleuse_o Mery-Pr Bezann: iba Fy Gre ~ ° Arennes, .epPy P ontsurlOignon) oSelecey GCourchaton BPAndro oC: OPfotterhausen Buchsweilor ic}
ie Villotartsg 5 ro | @ a) | 0 Signy \Paveroties 3S) Billy-sor-Ourea.. ‘rama(lle 3 Coem 2 so Mery-Premecy 85, Riponto y-el- Day ry Bde Montinusn Nacherauvill hi i { ee Source See Tea
‘Amb erieoee snoy-enéThel}e jondreville A testiv-anx-Bde OY. wile ' Bouillet >< Trak Pargny- ‘o a | = A iFmois e We 3 willo irextmont 1a ‘Jean Fechel' Delis oe i Pfirt' ingen
~ Beep eile Haine. Shara Borel aun ( Suonne Rouville Onecare ey \odesenle| cgay ‘Ouleh subponay ¢ BS i es n ele Veudesincourt See ice ies Teron” Bdtdela Gare, 6 de Cheppy faker ea ae Fallon Gresfinont 16 Roch ean apt epg SP) Durligeary op PA? osonderoct
Boutopillers } as CBello Eg orangles Sorat rages ‘oe Nanay, Olea Marquises Frm ‘ Champagne Bourguillag Van Oybenu: 8 | | Cubri © qAccolams Pui court /Lebeiain NEBuiMon,, NEM ‘OBontol ° Taderaorfo eth
Re CN Hipwillen 2} aah TaN peceunetit _Caie [Nore Dame Fere-cn-Tardenois Sd Boaly SO Romy Auberivesur Suippe “ ~— \Vienhesto Chateau 17 Buca oy es eee Oy ee es? Bae Moafiesion | (Grasigon PMignes Damphreis — ¢ ae ee wl amt ape? ay 15
'o\ leHeaulme ©) Her fandicourt Goan DT Se ae : 4 oct acy y; : Bhgigon |p 5 2-\GUTheas | la Harnzeo, Montzsville avferney) Cus %s ( Vinkel oBorgmatt
Achar Cs f M Oo \ Chambly, si | ane reny 6) Te go Asagny> Ville-en-Targenois Ble 0, 0; = o Besusojouro— “555° | ns /-Oln Placardall Gormonyilla: < 4 Nans Bois oEtreppe Z Bier SS 9 REMAN wade
y Bereagnyy le gnel There) J Reale on LF otets YSeuilly—wetoo— mene yilaen ieneene Meese Gu Coe Sermas Bell vier =p Fala Soar Paces le-Hexloa) Sl Mein Fatton| cule ERO OTE Champ > Chau For de Hose Yigshiteo, Shari Bil A) Coe OR ate | Pal eka Modi BY onegg Vsdeocous_opilamle Se Latidort oe Sper gee baa ite j
= on | oleLys la Cri illaeuve jaa y— A Mes. igi, \ 4 - % i jondonahs- i iS
2B. \ oblarines enougie"O Frralowitla Pern Se ie ans ee zy, iy oe ea Rémiigny Ree a ees Chaser Alera pity taAtontngue ‘controle La a eee = oHfurlie > oMinavcour} ey Vomeiee is |< 2 oh peneatr Verrieres Fit OPatholainville Moulainvilloo puleaionlios Eeharqueneatrfancenann Go ee i “Bure, EN te Seon
x yeaumomt-sjit-Oise ( Lamorlaye — Ae inv Rocourt mont i a Pe ay Po Verzenay - ‘Bacor artioux % le ‘Neuvilly, Fromérevilled isl ‘4 ‘o Morio! ate fs Léwenbure. cloggenby ~O. *
fouery \Prignancout Gripe ai ho etme Ntours ONG aE > Monfemafroy Sere aly Ge \ el 3 Miler Olly ofp pall? ay) ° ieier y - EE ‘SJonchery-aur Si ~pWargemoulin : reville? VERDUN +! Hrerimepconrt form 5 Shsiondile ‘ cveegenburg,
[6] vatero,\ Santeit roe nao Ne eae Asses Caye \ Orz-18 Ville mene | __Villere St. Genest he puns, Geis Bier Ne rae Ai slnine Champa, euvtialaux Lie Ci Chigny-ffRovses OLuder Mailly-Ckempanne, \. ippe } sae $ — A nbroville— Rec cary i 2 5 pea a as SP Seow ae _cuauteng,
Gouzangres’ BpinteRin Yi f prerolles © p Olt) g ‘pChanmontel ° 4 Ermer -le Haudouin 7 ilo) Oo / Bovrardes' Frespes, ’Jonquery ‘9 Courtagnon VerzyQ, les Petites Lores ptSealx om ‘OF me, de Jonchery Obanvrieu! Florento 212 (aoa ¥ Beller; Ty <0 F; ‘orrent egiecbTI5~ Opleyjqusa Overall Litabe
ORs Wee Cormeillceen Vern Paripaino Sayretes — Ne Chapel en Sereal’ — yfontaby Oto Z baie, Fete OSemaeviere | Biavieny, TNevtacnaeh Chezy-en-Orzois ee ke Kore ‘qcushery QNanteuil-la Foise y oO Agora a eceeeten}e Grand Osh cya. ae Mofgedonto ota NeatoGe| P Lechered Soourcelks. Bish: Teno )) [d= Willers sous, preid Meares foe W Comat, JOP lenis cig —— MONE ybierea
PeSthay a Vera cville 2 UI faa Mertotdatain { StS TICID ee Neafehellesg J ( y2n-Orrols 0 evlllon | Bones 6 Vilerhitage « bh : i Vauremont _ |\_ YillereMarma | Mourscton- 3) Lippes dean: ‘ a Neufof eres often: i : S— Te caurgeky—T a Fg Sv ea
De ville -Isle-Adam 2 juzarchesO.‘Thimecourt 0 © OLols Silly-le-Lon Bouillancy o Ye Bax Bo Oy Montigny-1’Alli o rs Paxty-Gri © Basligux- oMenicourt FO "mon a fe here Fm Ne Pear Tot ‘© Dommartin. 5 en-Argeine mei OGlay Fontenaisl \ \ PRePo Motjembar
lo Bord = Liviliers | “Valmondois Cra Gascourt 0” "Bellefontaine |Suryitibrs OPlay A Tore cnSeitatee teeeeaty tea ERC HIN VAllicr hl. <-Ocourchampa SBS couPpoit Mca papel Hora Jo. trate. ous Cation, Conaiees Sree N eatin oemaenoe ['s aiegag | HOO aSemmesulpre our Hans 5 -=Nla Nowvilleau-Port les tiga oA SV raincourt | ofocourt Manhoulles inghevil “OPS TGrpatootaine _ oCBe¥ene \ Buretautray She pa sees ae
5) Abteiges ON Dontgeroult Any Nerville Relloy assy 0 OOF ones | JeP)fssis Belleville 9 Reee—9 [autevesines _Biire . = } v7) (Péreui rmoyeux ° ‘Trepail ) Billy-¢ | Bass claus ee Ta Grange-aux-Boia ON onus a ne wrt Nixeyillo | Landrecourt? Fresnesoysas ‘od 2) oft Dannemarit J OR, eos ‘Outrémont ©, Montavon Sa Bareehil 16 i
ON EY Courcdtles OQ nery “0, fp Mafliegs ‘llaines J ui St. Wite ° Posse Martin sons 9, 7 Tanlforne > { 3 ox ie ~o so bons i Q ‘Goons Bi lo -Fontaine 9 6 ‘7 Aseville iceray omer /—' o8eprai lemonto’ (ecu: R:
5 es lain ‘odneny farlyaja Ville ° Lagny lt See Brio ean omen Trugny anlgonne, YVineelles 0} Dvernedit Bi an in Vert berrns | 3 ¢ Somme-Bionne spars ‘OSenades « 5 Harnitle 2 yp eleee ‘oCurroux
ochre » Valhormell |O— — Monsoult 0 ° farcil-en-] ‘Banmarshals. iy oe ae xy-Manceuvre Fas | Hervilliers o Bld = ‘Chassins! Vernet 0: ORdday oNeuville MTauxtores-Mutry 8 | Valmy —~2.SteCohiere Lea rangle Comta’ = Marcheville pumnevil Ss ——-
Meeail See & fo Vittiersi@seo dsrelen-Brance Veriags Qissery oO | “usy Neuilly fareilly : “i | Hautvitt u Y Ves Marengo YS ee | ‘lle-sh BEtgneriil|
y : 4 Villers Adam ‘liens Pte Mouny-le Neat it, Path [ Punleax; © of 0 Opn f 3 lo—To, Pane me utvillersy——o Charpillon’ J Boor } Bouy o| GSP She Menen Bean " 6 ahem Champ! eri —
GL Pak pyro lucia ( natenogh ga {paul Chadian bre! ovitiren ce ; tour | Forty oe, Beas Sf Stepan Chm \ : VR Lay Yemen (it coma Oo om Pamery Sumiers nizy. a gentafy Santana R_9kmbonnsy/ tes Grades Looe sen ta Croce Camp DATE Panares Pre raheg Cue Beal Vetsaneat alanine ass Woore u Mi Ww.
fi § ie less « OMarnone in Poterie nif raeuil® =O jean SON ] a = es ti si Cham jibe s cl
Z erat colnet Sit anbry FentennyjeteParisis Ochoiyy an, © CDammiartin Marghemoret, © Aa Rame |°PlesivPlacy 15" eee Fieve | SE Tracy 0 - TLeavrigny Qe Mater DAvenay Ineo o- | SA Coperiy Busy-le Chatear ° Sa al bevalo , PArgewn \WVerricres a Seaplecatto) Sees \ Wodonville’ 16
3 vii uen-l'Aumons \ CBessancourt * 1g, 4 Chenevieres ae Roe / javren of peanay YF remus Verhelle vendre e cs Cnfontcivraalt Reailly 0 Scilly Festigny ’ ole Mesnil Hottier ° Boursa o “AYO Ween ‘Tours-sur- SERIE = an ies ° lgpeaxOGieanequrt/) Damplerre-sur-Auref foal . o G ert x ue ‘ile court
\ uvTes, eft Ma . Soupplet 359 cautyal seed lexy: \ Vauci i iascuil au-Templey Voilen . i Boit de Beaulieu Oscheso 3 < fouill eben ‘
Menucourt © OBoisemdyt, 3 Sa aA Seu DE trepilly 2. fo oRadenont BY sattondiere Cuageau/ A jeslele Repoos | inte? ede gal a x Goats peeleers Opanpterretareyiai St Renyrur Buoy IaChapalip of Ovum etre iss ee Piao fe : Y — SeRemy NeHannonsille od
ywemont — Jouy°O} y eh o feene f Ny, eel iay, querre Ole Thiolet— migis 14 Cy, Ch 9 = Feuilur Ay Aigny la Veuve SN envle Auveo- Gs ° PChatelces St. Rowin oh Ravigny & Geni Dommartin- ° AP oO E
AGY ‘SP gy, Bey © Moptllgnon ef) mys ane_|_Darey G08 OA oreyon Geet, Canin ‘Coupra ele ae OTe Peg ‘Comblizy_) x fad Oiry So rx 4 OO St. Mard- ia e)) Beaution virwart fPmpemut Cony oe’ \ gab In-Montagno® Oi ae f
PMeais Bo Ie ie c ae 5 his here a Wao ling E = ° - arts rans-St, Remy aa te = : ee : k
PRaisQoeyed\ — FaoAnty | Bela _ ee ive | a7 OS este nid Pomrtin® rogy iaecces 0d DP pPemmsngex pers ane : ~ 0,8t. Etienne-au-Temple Tilley © heey Ome PaSaisaten-Aggoane » OFA Oana on NY Rantieres ov sucfoe PalameixSt Mauriooo \
Se pS isey-en:France Ve of Oy ‘on Chambry|Varreddes 0") fancron 2Mentoutin Bezu-le Gu ° Tgny-le Jard © Martins Ablais) 9) 2 Guot Aulnay>" ree e Br Cla Sue ‘oBt Andro Villeh Viebitle® Billy,
17 AN Eeubonne Vaudherland Compansta Ville O/ Naxtguillet fo pj lverny, a. | OJ Bai SAPS eww "FY Bonnell lela Cond = Des ARs” JalomeNguir Marne Suvigay yp Marae Dampier to Chreming—|rienyc ~pBrizcanx ses RES Dompicrreaus-Bois Yl i
Saville Ei Trembley o aKitry atdry | ——0 Villeroy an Boia levies inne Toxshamps —° Memy Iplmon \ \ - ‘ PEED Ay 215 Behind OGuiment, Foucaucour eNebicourt OFteippas na sana Fe ce AR H
eet 2 Mei mon BMelieosesOnte oP Crotes Z ) athlend / > ; vey sursAnt eau eBulains 8 mah |
Ey, oqicbenntt |, Ltemuny| Mr Moy TES OAvernia ioe Chigly ously “|= ates harass ( Monthielon Siney Sum Jlaiare fry Matougues _) : | te Viet Dampier Senard \ Melencostt ore || Bde Mew Bouguemodt Seo }
ere pu Rviiey 7 Oresy 2) + Chmay nts thy Cony juerets a Mh = -Morangiag .\ cat ‘Chatnpigneul- ‘St. Gibries St. Martin-sur le Pre Efense! ‘©Bournonyill Ghiarmoates Triaucourt id tN eee Bensite YoLacroixsur Meuse slanche | hate) PREPARED IN THE MAP DEPARTMEN i
“Je Diane Met —_ o \ Seakvitee 4 ee bake Rae: 1 sar! zea} Rignancou ‘
CF be 4 pee, ie FH teuittyo’ Claye-Souilly a hea GaiiGar Eee FSi ipous-Or Za Viera yen »> " Pee 2Ghannontis Srougane Fae i sblai Weon— O Twn OU ty Beqln, (Bannonen Tamorvileo—2f.avignevillo T
: fe ON Valepariats Piece } MEAUX Monteeaux o avant eave pagoe Commilleg® Fagnies ‘ Toi cee atcoust FfautGhamp © Thillombois mee cf
Ae aT ANG a asoure | “3 ye 1 fecnsiwag oF tains |g. Setsort 0 Ie eeepc — PNERCPEbou PTY ae FT. DE LA] CHARMOYE Be Pleo) Fr. de ross ry Oia Chala! j__ GNRS Mone Ere eemrane) ( Nourllsst oBsAnne sad RouvroissurMBusso rn ae | OF THE
B foul Been 3s Spc { # ane igny-Signets fone ° OlaFerotterie |__ aon ota Ail Irbais'ALbayo Y Villereaux aux-Oles a ie ; i Wailechirtinn au ‘ 2, ue Senonville’ — O-Varvinay :
leeRitceeteKot Chaba Mo ae B tevin VOleraude (@ ens (MLE PS 9 Gonare)® oBassevelle Roscy-Uellevalle eRe niece 16 J Cosportie \\ i / ha Croix Molyéan lo Chatelier armenia Ns i) eiaicelate Ale eras tre u pecs
Storm BO | Boys Conray ( QFCY Yaanes ‘ato lspIitienay rent nye sige? Haney 0 pales nr ica Fontenelle dee Montinort Sy) Chaltrat au Bots Thibie Cectus J wll a centile “ost Nant Fertde Being Vi Fou Viet Merchies bats Masi ire Bae a peWomee | 17 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY H
- \ See beh : 1 aire if | ony St Villiers V \ Chapelle-sons-Orbais RO Sontault-le-Manpas Me eff Sy rainy BESS
a Rail Momrerll Borde Carat 0 Quiney Segy gD 1 Montebise Chit ORY Hoitron Replonges chet deta Vite Corrotert elesons ° Saulierea st Q] grh Ole Freme me) GRU OC f citerercourtoux Po uta pe siesAire Busoralleso
ney ‘Therigny, Dany i ent PlerreLevee Ja Horde Foi LR Ushidevillidrs 9, > meats . Ia Coure ° . ° Laurent 0 feeder 2 Busy-leRepos Stn Vaudospourt ee : Wointitloo
Res 9 ny come t Goi Tekbaades NS /_ les Pas, Ces eFealle ofenvilles colle eames / Phin frwux Moat Q Cory lo u ~Ve-Monbig Feo Lislees\Barrois SAI he BES ST, MURIEL)" Montes © ‘ FOR
oe 9 Boctours S#®7 Ruteate Maison” | hay gy, aK(0rer eNotes Garter fSninemx oH I ne champs oerementers rd Sete cares ° ERED SION ea ! Posse 9 cu Ae y PMaratela Pr o- oioey Fault de Nancy) =
Neally.Pjaisance ( es Chaises) 0” dats da. Veree a veaaidead Maret Krontmirail a 5 ASS Etrechy. y Volye ~Germinon _Cheniers Nultement, Mairy-o\\ Ola Ville Francheyille { ae) oye “Auzcourt Mlotte-devant-Lovepy, oMaratvla Grande yinedoy “ fy srneville
Y Atos eee if catinmtin | yp | PYSBrtara] 7 = Jose -—7Montmirail enisine 0 ismpaubert 3 shes oiny-en-Brie Bergeres gl y “RIF Cool) sarilarat N= vesignel sar atieas Bronne St, Jean-devt-Posione Fa aaneeetN fas Lauppycie Ones Yoong meas Flledgyant-Bolrain 5 pally seus CLeurmant N A I ION Al G EOG A H
Gacy leFaytt fon (er Banna) COR ESS Te a. ‘ Vanault-le Chatel = Cs aL Bellefontaine Ft Oy oy ‘Balralcy vi ‘Han. lo Xivrsy S MAGAZINE
Seria Creey Ge ( Oo 9 Rebai - ‘Mecringes Sofa \ Bi mice o ‘anault-le Chatel Om | __— = ‘imedt\ 1 ‘me.. Louppys jenicourtsous Conde. in Villette -cur-Meuro ‘Apremoat
S x Giremouticrs\___ st, Germain: bais gree Teal ‘cubes pin lo Toulon Nd oT Sep i OVernancourt ‘Ronde Rontaine _OVillere-aux ‘oAtlinncalles, i De de te / oe eee pitta ee —e
iy 4 St. Sincor SC “ seit Veer ¢ aa IgVillenoue Sd ni ° cee Cieut or ‘ OQ Litncoors tyme ov . Re erre nEBFo Rast ae aioe Bonoout | °° “OGirauvalsia SCALE 1 : 45
slorteert YS. Agustin, ChaillySn-Brie / Tay Morsains cay, Reuyo Brouwy-le Pt. Bannes ‘citainesur-Coole ») \ EES Oa , CWevrate Grand 1 Heittz-le Maur Ul eh RESET C yt e LDUEE APPROXIMATELY 7% MILES TO | INCH
\ ; oMiroleen rie 7 g(Strefole si 4 o Brousy-loGa. \\. Vesigneut-urCoctoo Pring Santee Say OO arecin SETA, Wigthe te soa mh a 4
= pee Cheignewx w \ AAS. Quentin-tes Marais P80p — OiteiltetBveque S YS \ Jouy / 5 0 iG
| Fuxsurcool? 4 x ; Helite1Bveqas = SS Bante Dire f ° = SS ee 20 2
ae Drouil Ch = D é ‘ Rangeval a 20
’ Qoemmartin-Leterée / TREAD eet By olen 8p AU ea Nees i\ aap ; MERCY cormeville aie
\ ere Weds | peRearret x si pesos ge Bui Cou ReeAiP0) S0cley | onatmapre Chonvitles —oAntnota STATUTE MILES
S Coole? eee chrichanourt Oona exes Tar Peraecourt { Ve (
TR 5 ( Lo se _f—— seh = =oSilmont \ uy THE MAP IS DIVIDE
1 a Z 1 St Eeang 3 | Be ‘9 Chorainonta: Ville a ey, Paki) acs Bow FORET DE COWMERCY IDED INTO 10 MILE SQUARES)
. (Esternay Zé Connantre Virav-is Faawoct pray oStLomier ___Troisfontainew 0 © ronvilis = Silt \ St. Martin)
i j \ cot arenes ‘ronvill@ONAWitleronesiee Oo Nancoltle oe __Tanenville ————= RAILROADS TRAM LINES
) = 2 Sauls © Saulx— Mani :
o Brie-Conite-Robe! / ~~ ane Gaudry Si|Aubinede Ai
rt ( Ognes, ©Correy Sek ee ad eal 3 | spt | f sur-Aire = ae 4 COPYRIGHT. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D. c., 1918
StBon 0 Gotirgancon | Poivres-S* Suzanne ee a al Haironville ‘Ligny Vanya Grande 5, —VWoid9 by Cotte
& : ‘ © Sompuis { : Nant le Ga. Moldincoun® "oMeligny-ta Gra fj
Semaine 9. oBaineoun "8 incour' » ses cael INDE
ae Maly D / Rupt [lous ae 0. GC 5 =
/ Vaux! jaives-en-Bloi : omplete alphabetical in il
, Sate eae Lavina bacon CheaBovons _ MelienyePot® Pe UL eset 19 Pp index of all names available upon request, by mail
iN ff ori naLon —Boreaa’ BDURQY eal Twenty-five Cents
een eed
Amand Roe, | |
j
fan
4
)
See
of Bx |
- Pit ies %s ? wu?
gh,
Oph tape LT ae
ip rs a. ok
Be ody ae et
: pe
’ ; p
4 a” a
us : rat
td ; + ‘
ee =;
; *
! 43 oa
atthe
.
na 4 é
A oy
vf ae
cs = a
; i) M4 7 re :
+ } fi a
~ J va
i *
oi
a 4 4
, z
t oe ,
,
1 «* Pte
u ¥
\ ‘
é 5.2
{ ve
oe
OF
-
i :
. us . “ he yi
,
=
ce ss
~ *
. jy oN
‘ +
i
\
i “2
i
» 3M
;
‘ q
f ‘
‘
: ' ,
i 2 ;
fy ee i : ; F
° ,
* n
} i 5 ty aaa q
; ay
M ‘
} { Pate .
‘ .,
2 ; 2 ,
y x ee a
’ . , \ te
te . nd a.
iw hy «
f mm wh vb u
*) ’
- e's ¥ rs »
7 : ; ,
’ " a! 7
f ' ‘ 4 :
‘7 "e
7 . c ‘
yo) sg re : VLR AS +“ 4
‘ yr
7 “ r
yyy
4
‘an
m FJ
k }
| \
~ \ ER “SA
LUME XXXIII ~
GEOGRAPHIC §
MAGAZINE
NeW
INDEX
January to June, 1918
VOLUME XXXI LL ns ona
( nov 5 1981
PUBLISHED BY THE
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL
WASHINGTON, D.C.
oom ttUI
¢
A)
ran pu pu Peers enppecgpeeengpeet
Ay wR
AUN yanaq
l ry)
=~
i nS Ay
*
VScom
4
i my
)
"
ff]
a
' > 4 O
be 4 ”
Q 5 le '=4
U
hee"
Dh
elit
mint
iD
¥,
i adluniseeluuif ilies
deel
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL
SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C.
O. H. TITTMANN as
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, DIRECTOR AND EDITOR
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE
O.P.AUSTIN ... . °
1916-1918
Frankuin K. Lane
Secretary of the Interior
Wititam Howarp Tart
Formerly President of the
United States
C. M. CHEsTER
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy,
Formerly Supt. U.S.
Naval Observatory
FREDERICK V. CovILLe
Formerly President of Wash-
ington Academy of Sci-
ences
Joun E. Prrtspury
Rear Admiral U. S. Navy,
Formerly Chief Bureau of
Navigation
RupotpwH KaurFMANN
Managing Editor The Even-
ing Star
T. L. Macpona.p
Merb, Fs Ae CoS:
S. N. D. Norru
Formerly Director U. S. Bu-
reau of Census
PRESIDENT
SECRETARY
BOARD OF MANAGERS
1917-1919
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
Inventor of the telephone
J. Howarp Gore
Prof. Emeritus Mathematics,
‘The George Washington
University
A. W. GREELY
Arctic Kxplorer, Major Gen’l
Army
Giieert H. GrosvENoR
Kditor of National
graphic Magazine
Geo-
GeorGceE OtTIs SMITH
Director of U. S. Geological
Survey
O. H. Trrrmann
Formerly Superintendent of
U. S: Coast and Geodetic
Survey
Henry Waite
Formerly U. S. Ambassador
to France, Italy, ete.
JoHn M. Witson
Brigadier General U.S.
Army, Formerly Chief of
Engineers
JOHN E. PILLSBURY
JOHN JOY EDSON
GEORGE W. HUTCHISON,
WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER
RALPH A. GRAVES
VICE-PRESIDENT
- TREASURER
ASSISTANT SECRETARY
ASSISTANT EDITOR
ASSISTANT EDITOR
1918-1920
Cuartes J. Bey
President American Security
and Trust Company
JoHN Joy Epson
Chairman of the Board,
Washington Loan & Trust
Company
Davin FarrcHILp
In Charge of Agricultural
Explorations, Department
of Agriculture
C. Harr Merriam
Membcr National Academy
of Sciences
O. P. Austin
Statistician
Greorce R. Putnam
Commissioner U. S. Bureau
of Lighthouses
Georce Suiras, 3p
Formerly Member U. S. Con-
gress, launal Naturalist,
and Wild-Game Photogra-
pher
GRANT SQUIRES
New York
To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago,
namely,
Geographic Society publishes this Magazine.
“the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,”
All receipts from the publication
the National
are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic
knowledge and the study of geography.
Articles or photographs from members
of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Soeiety can
use, adequate remuneration is made.
Contributions should be accompanied by
an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed:
GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, EDITOR
A. W. GREELY
C. Harr Merriam
O. H. Titrrmann
Rorert Ho rutstrer CHAPMAN
Water T. SwincLe
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL
Davi FarrcHILp
Hucn M. Smits
N. H. Darton
Frank M. CHapmMan
Copyright, 1918, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved.
CONTENTS
Aces Among Aces. By LAuRENCE La TourRE?TTE DRIGGS...........0.ecceccccececceces
meesvor the Air: By Capt: JACQUES DE SIEVES: «6c 562 snc 0 oie alesis lis sowie oe oe bene
America’s Part in the Allies’ Mastery of the Air. By Major JosEpH TULASNE
Appeal to Members of the National Geographic Society, An................0..0e0 eee
Battle-Ground of Nature, A: The Atlantic Seaboard. By JoHN OLiveR La Gorce....
Billions of Barrels of Oil Locked up in Rocks. By Guy Ettiorr MITCHELL............
Building America’s Air Army. By Lieut. Col. Hrram BincHam, Signal Corps, U. S. A.
Cooties and Courage. By HERBERT CoREY
ooeseeeo eee eee ec eee eo eee eos se oe eee eee eo woe ee eee ese
Flying in France. By Capt. ANDRE DE BERROETA, of the French Aviation Service......
Forerunners of Famine. By FrReEpERIc C. Watcortt, of the U. S. Food Administration
Forming New Fashions in Food: The Bearing of Taste on One of Our Great Food
Economies, the Dried Vegetable, Which is Developing into a Big War Industry.
By Davip FarrcHiLp, Agricultural Explorer in Charge of Foreign Seed and Plant
infroductionnaw. 5. epartment of Agnicultunesics. .o.a-8s6 ss... oscne Hoes
Future of the Airpiane, The. By Rear Admiral Ropert FE. Peary, U. S. Navy.........
Gem of. the Ocean, The: Our American Navy. By JosgEpHus DaANieLs, Secretary of
the Navy
MCBAMA Nim OM AT ee Tete «io crepes allah s eoareleot eee eepsile een Cale scarab aps Sn NUE eee ees
Germany’s Dream of World Domination. By the Eprror........... Rl ae ee
Health and Morale of America’s Citizen Army, The: Personal Observations of Condi-
tions in Our Soldier Cities by a Former Commander-in-Chief of the United States
PeUiyeana Naviyeo) bya VWAILLIAM EIOWARD! LART. cai siete 5 elevess oc 4 sets «Mera aiy deacons
Helping to Solve Our Allies’ Food Problem: America Calls for a Million Young Sol-
diers of the Commissary to Volunteer for Service in 1918. By RALPH GRAVES....
Etospital tieroes Convict the: “Cootie..c% 3... s060%0.a08 Bee eM a ne ons Sango Sra
Isle of Frankincense, The. By CHaries K. Moser, Formerly United States Consul-
ENC Ht ent Opa NGCLET > PANIC DV ae ectte atca xe eet oe ata oo Bie Sada SAS Oh 8 vk UES Ul Al eee
Italian Race, The. By, the Epitor
ceceoecereoeoeo ere oe ee oe eee eee eo eee eee ee Be oe Be ew ee ee wee MO Oo
Italy's Eagles of Combat and Defense: Heroic Achievements of Aviators Above the
Adriatic, the Apennines, and the Alps. By Kindness of Gen. P. Tozzi, Chief of the
Italian Military Mission
ee ee Se
Life Story of an American Airman in France, The: Extracts from the Letters of Stuart
Walcott, Who, Between July and December, 1917, Learned to Fly in French Schools
of Aviation, Won Fame at the Front, and Fell Near Saint Souplet................
ational Geographic Soctety...0.2.6.. 2.600. cdoes Sis cone oe ea Re eens PB Aer
National Geographic Society in War Time, The. By Major-General A. W. GREELY,
Plain Tales from the Trenches: As Told Over the Tea Table in Blighty—A Soldiers’
EIOUICe aI ob anise: (Dy, CAROL 1, COREY 0 2...4c sk eure e, casi se siecle ete oii enor
Piessianisin, By ROBERT LANSING, pecretary Of State. .-.1a500+. c++. sees ecee oes ee
Shopping Abroad for Our Army in France. By HERBERT COREY........-..----+eeeeee
336
350
107
ors
II4
559
219
170
510
IV THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
PAGE
Smaller Mammals of North America. By Epwarp W. NE tson, Chief, U. S. Biological
SMIViGVane ences «Alek va su ioaieie. Sha Minis on m noe w 0 "nove ig: eave" pte RAVES ESR nn 371*
‘Symbol of Service to Mankind, The: The Greatest Humanitarian Movement of Modern
Times Originated in a Practical Attempt to Meet a Practical Need with a Practical
Remedy. By Stockton Axson, National Secretary, American Red Cross......... 375
Tales of the British Air Service. By Major Witu1AM A. BisHop, V.C., D. S.O.,M.C. 27
Unique Republic, Where Smuggling Is An Industry, A. By Herbert Corty.......... 279
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, The: An Account of the Discovery and Exploration
of the Most Wonderful Volcanic Region in the World. By Roserr IF. Griccs,
Director of the National Geographic Society Katmai Expeditions of 1915, 1916,
ATWO V7. ick tahoe are RM ond idl g hed o's aokee Seer ione: Gree ba uercban efocal mile dolehatelote alee aCaet ae II5
Voyaging on the Volga Amid War and Revolution: War-time Sketches on Russia’s
Great Waterway: "By WILLIAM (PSELLIS: isa, «5 ins cee diet ee 245
What Is It To Be An American? By FRANKLIN K. Lang, Secretary of the Interior.. 348
MAPS ISSUED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY WHICH ARE PROVING
INVALUABLE TO ITS MEMBERS IN FOLLOWING WORLD EVENTS
MAP OF THE WESTERN THEATRE OF WAR, showing practically every place mentioned in dis-
patches from the front—a map on which the progress of our armies may easily be traced. Size, 27x 314
inches. Price, panet, 75 cents each (including index); linen, $1.50 each (including index). Index alone. 25
cents. Postpaid in United States. Koreign postage, 25 cents extra.
MAP OF EUROPE and adjoining portions of Asia and Africa. In seven colors. Size, 28 x 32 inches.
Price, paper, 25 cents; linen, 75 cents. Postpaid in United States.
MAP OF CENTRAL AMERICA, WEST INDIES, AND PANAMA CANAL, In seven colors. Shows
steamship routes witlr distances indicated. Also relief elevation sketch of the Panama Canal. Size, 16% x 23
inches. Price, heavy art paper editicn, 50 cents. Postpaid in United States.
MAP OF CHINA and adjacent territories, including Mongolia, Manchuria, Chosen (Korea), East Turkes-
tan, Tibet, and northern India. Size, 17 x 23 inches. Price, paper only, 50 cents. Postpaid in United States.
MAP OF MEXICO, together with an enlarged inset map of the central portion of Mexico (1916 edition).
Size, 22 x 30 inches. Price, paper, 25 cents; linen,,75 cents; on rollers, $1.50. Postpaid in United States.
MAP OF ALASKA, showing the railroads, finished and proposed, telegraph and cable lines, overland
postal routes, and glaciers. Size, 16% x 21% inches. Price, paper only, 50 cents. Postpaid in United States.
The Society has also published, as supplements to the NatronaL GEoGRAPHIC MacaziNe, the following
maps in color: Balkan States, 1914 (1814 x 2234 inches, paper, 25 cents; linen, 50 cents). South America, 1906
(10% x 14 inches, paper, 25 cents). World, showing principal trade routes, 1912 (5% x 8% inches, paper, 25
cents). Africa, 1909 (16% x 21 inches, paper, 25 cents; linen, 50 cents). North Polar Regions, 1907 (19 X I9
inches, paper, 25 cents; linen, 50 cents). A few copies of each of these are still available, but the editions
are limited. If the supply is exhausted before your order is received, your remittance will be returned, as no
additional copies can be printed.
These maps are obtainable only at the Society’s Washington headquarters, 16th and M
Streets. ;
REPRODUCED BY __
THE COLUMBIA PLANOGRAPE CO.,
WASHINGTON, D. C.
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIII (January-June), 1918
AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX
Page
GG Ne 4
mVbert Squirrel... sc... < ill. (colored), 448; text, 462
Abyss of inconceivable size: Katmai volcano.... 162
Accidents in the world of discovery, Few...... a) ROR
Ace, Great Britain’s premier: Major Bishop. ill., 571;
text, 572
ACES AMONG ACES. BY LAURENCE LA °
LOUREITE DRIGGS cota sccedscc asses 568
mxceswAmOons ACeSis so cs.cs ss 6 ill., 569-573, 576, 577
ACES OF THE AIR. BY CAPTAIN JACQUES
DE SIEYES, OF THE FRENCH AVIATION
SEC RIV UCB scciccetersuse celattcqeree cence shine eatemecens
ces, Roll-ot: All: belligerents: ie .)... cee es 575
Adage, Ancient: “‘Whom the gods destroy they
MES eM akepma dese seacieiere See ashes oc lolita 387
Aden, Arabia: Arabian kitchen, ill............. 272
Administrative personnel must be trained: Air
ESF 7015 RePEc RAO Ch ERP HAL LSS ie cea eau 77
Adriatic, Heroic achievements of aviators above
the Apennines, the Alps, and the........... ou 3S
Adriatic, The flight across the: Italian airmen.. 41
Weriali ‘mailuservice outlined. 6. 6.6008 chee ces 110
Aérial photographs, Interpretation of......... we I5
Aéro Club of America, Transcontinental airways
DEODOSed Dy the tine. ciecctere s cleracsiaiv ene onic ccc’ oO
Aérograph: Alton Beach, Florida, ill........... 67
Aéronaut, French: In observation balloon, ill... 17
Aéronautical training station, American, ill..... 83
Africa, portion wanted by Germany............. 559
Age of “‘reformatory” authors: England......... 376
mericuiture: harm scene; all)..c. oe. u 5 a eee een 564
Agriculture: Harvesting the grain, France, ill.... 368
Agriculture, How the dried vegetable habit would
CAML MW OLIG, Yoyperscvs ie custsle eee aie She ob ieee oko as 361
Agriculture: Pig raising, ill......... 172-182, 184-191
Aiding the Government in training flyers........ 110
Air, Aces of the. Ey Captain Jacques de Sieyes 5
Air admirals of the future.......... Bicesteettoletamiovs 107
mireavehors-. kite balloon, alli. . 6). ccs leie store 6 os. 0
Air Army. Building America’s. By Lieut. Col.
Eterctisae iis Hatin... steccvele soere ie cielo. 6 ove! avel ete. onierec ove 48
Air fleet, Arrival of America’s anxiously awaited. I
Air fleets of the sea: Nature’s warfare.......... 5II
Airman giving a “password’’ shot, ill: .5..:..... 34
Airman in France, Life story of an American.... 86
mirplane:= Atlantic coast,. 1]. sisi: «nies eure 83, 85
Aviation Mission to America, Brench, si) som satan
Aviation schools: United States, ill.... 63-65, 70- oa
8, 90, 94, 97, 100, 23
Aviation, Three branches Of... + sss slsiteenane a
Aviator, French, welcomes American battleship,
TDs oss 3 5.0 ere abe ceriess seve sire cave oconevs alee tn le tatarste nea -
Aviator man-and-woman power, America rich in. 109
IMSentay dy Wen oosanncan 4, 105, 324, 569-573, 576, 577
Aviators: Aces among aces. By Laurence La
Tourette Driggs) oie <..0's cise so clcle sveleideipteralanaiane 568
Aviator’s sign-post for night flying, ill......... 112
Aviator’s tests, Prospective...... ill., 70-73; text, 82
Aviator’s uniform, U.. St ‘Army. aller 93, 105
Aviatrix, American: Ruth Daw, lst cetera III
Axson, Stockton, National Secretary, American
Red Cross: The Symbol of Service to Mankind 375
‘oR?*
Baby kissing soldier father good-bye, ill......... 552
Railo, Captain: Italian airman.!. 27.” 10 -tslleie ete 45
Bakery, Field: National Guard camp, ill........ 227
Balance: test:) Awviationy. . ys cele «ieelel = sieleleleisieletetetele 82
Ball, Albert, Some of the exploits of: Royal Fly-
WIE (COT PS ore, crc setennsesied s\.01/s) oco.s, oo oy cuorenehetele Reema 27, 573
Balloon before its inflation with hydrogen gas, 3
ADD apd ste roots o abenevedoleteteyetere opetere skola te Ren Renee Renenens o
Balloonist’s life-boat: The parachute, 1.2.1 32
Balloonists, Twin service of: Air army......... 80
Balloons, Destroying German kite............ os arena
Balloons in war, ill...... 17, 22, 24, 25, 32, 35, 80-85
Banded lemming..... ‘...text, gor; ill. (colored), 417
Band, Sailors’, in W. S. S. Campaign: New York
City; “Ue ree ts ee cueies @ eleteolere CRI R IeneRerene 89
Bankers finance pig-club boys...... text, 174; ill., 178
Baracca, Major: Italian airman................ 47
Barbieri, Squadron Commander: Italian air fleet. 45
Barcelona; Spain: Daily lifes... 5- eerie -279
Barn painting as guide to aviators, ill........... 112
Barometer, Food resources: Supply and demand,
rt eee ACen ERI ISI.O GOOdO.b.0 DCO OC 341
Barrel, Allies? flour: Chart showing supply and
demand, C1) ey Een EIS is GOI oCo S00 c 344
Basket of an observation balloon, ill............ 17
Bat, Big-eared desert....ill. (colored), 465; text, 492
Bathing an ordeal in northern France..... . 504, 506
Bathing suits are unappreciated, Where: Russian
Wee GobodoocOoD ODD DaDOODUDOODDODOODONES 261
Bato anys chen crc sitietelalatulels one wie telalc uteteietenenels text, 491
Bath, Story of a: oldies at Blighty=.. 04cm 309
Bat, "Mexican....... oe dll. (colored), 4653 text.eaon
Bate oRed inc scttieye cee aveiseeks ill. (colored), 464; text, 489
Bats with bulldog faces..... IS ONT cOIa-p'5 oc 382*
“Battalions of Death’: Russian women soldiers. 251
Batteries, Fake, to deceive scout planes......... 15
BATTLE-GROUND OF NATURE, A: THE
ATLANTIC SEABOARD. BY JOHN OLI-
VER ‘LA. GORCE. . a. 6.4. ois civ oot cee erent 511
Battle in the sky, Sham: Airplanes, ill.......... 100
Battlements of the Maine coast.............ee0- 513
Battleship, American: In foreign waters, ill..... 6
Battleship at anchor in home waters, ill........ 84
Battleship, British: H. M. S. Canning, ill....... 35
Battleships, Italian: In the harbor, ill Ren eat ct Dic 43
Battleships, United States, ill............ 315a, 315),
3174-321, 321b, 323, 324d, 325),
327d, 329-3314, 333, 389
Battleship with a naval hydro-airplane’ on the
deck, tt AN ee mo Ain Ue OOO rn OC 108
Battle’s progress sent by radio...........+++-65 16
Battle, World’s greatest... .3....00sccecs+eeree 354
Bayonet drill, Sailors practicing, ill............. 3214
Bayonet practice by U..S Marines in France, ill. 242
Beach mouse............ text, 422; ill. (colored), 428
Beach scene: Ormond-Daytona, Fla., ill......... 528
Beacons that guard the neutral’s rights: Nature’s
WATLAT OE tisce sa lo:> fo ete we lexenanel eid Steet one enone ieam 538
Bear tracks, Katmai Valley, Nlaskaleeenciete yee 129;
ill., 152
Bear trail that sprouted, Katmai Valley, Alaska,
rt | ee eee one Peron IN A Pa Apolo. cd 0.0.006C 152
Beasts that roam the night, Countless.......... 379"
Beauchamp, Captain. de........0..6052+-eeeeees 7
Beauregard, General: Suggested neutrality of
army surgeons in War.......--++eeeeeeeees .. 386
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIII, 1918
Page
Beaver, Mountain....... text, 427; ill. (colored), 432
Bedouin cave-dwellers, Among the: Socotra..... 273
Beef: Barometer of supply and demand, ill...... 341
Rect. otigan: Area. in SAmiericact.:.. .- ...c 04 ensisv0.0 « 361
Beggar at Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, ill......... 250
Relgtanwaces:, Record! Of. 4. cscs emo: ware cetienee 578
Relewm, All “that, was’ left''Ofs Ss. s-'.0.6.5 «le. v0. 214
Belgium, A matter of German ‘“‘Honor’’-to hold. 565
Belgium: Chart showing deaths by fighting and
"ATT VSR ATT tee UPR a a ga oe
Belgium in Nature’s warfare, A: wrecked ship,
MURS Maere certo r ieecer sete crores a easter te sieterean sucha’ Suasstaiiane 512
Belgrade, Serbian children of tragedy at, ill.... 339b
Beil, Alexander Graham: American inventor.... 113
Bell and Chanute airway, The proposed.........
Bellizerents, Roll of aces of vallj.c.) . oc waco ee
Benefits from boys’ and girls’ clubs.............
Benois, Lieutenant: French airman, ill.........
Berlin, Deceived by military clique of: Prussian-
SERUM yoiccs oer ore) s Wie o crocs fans cusersue os erode we VeTarOIRC ee. ocae
Bernhardi, General von: Quotations............ 563
Big-eared desert bat..... ill. (colored), 465; text, 492
Big-eared rock mouse....text, 423; ill. (colored), 429
Billeting officers precede an “outfit’............ 495
BILLIONS OF BARRELS OF OIL LOCKED
UPD IN ~ ROCKS. BY) GUY | ELLIOTT
MITCHELL, OF THE UNITED STATES
Bingham, Hiram, Lieut. Col., Signal Corps,
U.S. A., Chief of the Air Personnel Division
in the Office of the Chief Signal Officer of the
Army: Building America’s Air Army.........
Biplane, Caproni, flying near the Woolworth
tower News Yorks Citys ile. st co sciecidee sole 46
Biplane looping-the-loop, Newport News, Va., ill. 68
Biscayne Bay, Fla.: Aviation school machine,
ill. 63, 67
Bishop, William A.: Royal Flying Corps ace. .ill., 33,
571; text, 572
Benen: William A., Major, V.
337
195
48
CDs Sa nO:,
. C.: Tales of the British Air Service....... 27
Blacksbread> Russias; osc chee. paves ttevelernewens 248
Black cross of defeat, ill.......... Bau nS OOO 45, 99
Black-footed ferret...... ill. (colored), 449; text, 469
Blarina, or short-tailed shrew: Tracks, ill....... 490
Bleriot training, Advantages of the: Aviation... 91
ley me nike? Ouotation):... -). «es <64)s.2 «sos o + siereie o's 563
Blighty—A soldiers’ ‘‘home’’ in Paris...... text, 300;
ill., 302
Blood of the brave not shed in vain............ 547
Blossoms and fruit, Frankincense: Socatra, ill.,
269, 270
Blount, Hénry Fitch: Resolution concerning his
CAEN ratate cia ay Stevcaete: Sik GeO eek ein aes 371
Bluejackets forming a living flag, ill........... 228
Bluejackets, United States, ill........ 314, 315, 315),
316, 320, 321a-b, 324a, 325a, 326,
3270-329, 329b, 330, 331b, 334, 389
Blue mud, Katmai Valley, Alaska.......... eee 1139
Blue smoke, Katmai Valley, Alaska.,........... 137
Blunderbuss made by Tower, in London: An-
LG Atle cacderoge tie cic (ooo tue Geshe, Gor h cl eilave 6 GR aia ehdleRiers 299
Boar’s tusks, Prussian, must be drawn.......... 388
Boat-house and lagoon: Great Lakes Training
SSEALIONs TLE cieotcks 2 aiet Notre si steroie ee ids eerorsteie -. 64
Boat life on the Volga, Russia............ text, 245;
ill., 256, 258, 259
Boats, Seine River: Paris, France, ill........... 308
Baatsssoocotrans: tls... fic srv.te,ciacsucistors cere e eoane 96 FIR
Boats, Torpedo-: Marking the way for Italia
ALUANIE Teele ot natopersieieets auece rere esse coral ove iene SO60C 41
Bolshevik idea of freedom............-000. deters (249
Bonibardment;, Aviation ofs. =~ a2. sence» screen 14
Bombing machine, Handley-Page, ill......... ses ©6336
WaLeas: COUTE TINEW COATS LOT. <2 ors oe cice oi s's o-s/eie 381*
Boston bull, “‘Buster’”: Mascot of the Texas, ill.. 324a
Bothe, Lieutenant: German aviator.......... cog ii
Bottle-fedopig Me cic ocicicole oo ‘ishae eh avers ttle jereue 173
“Boulder Flow, Great Mageik’”’: Alaska...... ill., 159,
text, 161
Boundary lines of European nations as drawn by
5255 eee TN cies ov COREG Dee EE OREO OO Oe 338
Bowles, Charles S. P.: Geneva Conference... 385, 386
Boy riding a pig, ill «2° 174
Boys diving for coins: Socotra..:.text, 268; ill., 277
oer ere eer ese essere s ee seeree ee
Boys’ pig clubs....... text, 170; ill., 172-175, 177-182
Bayasi plea tor more hogs) A ase cele cae emiene - 187
CAA PRAACIMIRUSSIAs eiohcyside clete oreioke eheleienre cis eietele 248
.
British aces), Records of there eee eee 577
British airman giving a “pass-word” hot, ill.... 34
Britisheairplanes; dla. eee eee pee eee 29-31, 36, 37
British Air Service, Tales of the. By Major Wil-
lramPAn Bishops Ven€ 1D, SO. Vile eee eee 27
British army, Dried vegetables for the, ill....... 366
British children in a cellar during an air raid, ill. 374
British fight the cootie, How the............... 506
British observer landing in a tree, ill........... 32
Broadside, Firing a: U. S. S. New Hampshire,
WL oH ee dN oy artes neyee site ala oheL eae tene & katte oie Tees Ee 3174
Brown lemming......... text, 402; ill. (colored), 417
Biro wnenatee eee ae text, 423; ill. (colored), 429
Browterat:+Erackss ill 5. tie eee ee 472
FLOWN ovsCanadian:. aces.4- ee eee 575
BUILDING AMERICA’S AIR ARMY. BY
LIEUT. COL. HIRAM BINGHAM, SIGNAL
CORPS, U. S. A., CHIEF OF THE AIR
PERSONNEL DIVISION IN THE OFFICE
OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER OF
TELBS AR MWYS cit soc cue Men ee eee 48
Buildings of greater New York would not fill
Katmiatcratene.i si: mein dese eee 169
Building, tallest in the New World: Woolworth
tower New. Vorks Citys silliest ee eee 46
Bulgaria: Charts showing deaths by fighting and
famine; eilli'ss screens on cine eee 337
Bulldog ‘‘Buster,” mascot of the Texas, ill...... 3244
Bulldog faces,. Batsewith=.) eee eee 382*
Burden of profiteering falls upon the wage-earner 343
Burgess, Abbie, and the Matinicus light......... 539
“Buster,” Boston bull, mascot of the new Texas,
TUES si creat Senye aca ote te rere se eaeee ee ee 324a
eure in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,
Mer rejrevssuar sashes ucierene vate atenersicls Minds Ueto ie oie ae 148
By-products of naval activities................. 316
Byzantine Church of Santa Coloma: Andorra
Republics ash ae aes oe tac eee eee 285
Cz
Cab driver: Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, ill...... (2 25%
Caddo Parish, La.: Original boys’ pig club...... I7t
California ground squirrel........ ill. (colored), 437;
text, 439
California jack rabbit...text, 385*; ill. (colored), 405
Camel machines in flight over a British aéro-
Gromer illo eisai ale vohersteverovaleretetMeteyedcterererore 31
Camouflage? Wiss 5 sistas catesve eee nero eee weed
Camouflage of the sea: Smoke screen, ill.. 324b, 3274
Campobello Island: British ground............. 513
amp Hancock: Soldiers in training, ill..... 225, 241
Camp: Katmai expedition to Alaska, 1917, ill... 116,
Camps, Cost of: U. S. cantonments............ 239
Camp, U. S. Geological Survey: Wash day, ill.. 202
Canada: Pumpkin field, ill............. aoictetee 193
Canada: Vegetable-drying factory, ill. 363a, 363b,
Canadian Companies drying vegetables and fruits.
Canillo, Andorra Republic, ill.................. 286
Canned goods for the American soldiers in
Rinancesoi lle ss civortec oeccctorstercisers ecsueiers seiste Aistorevs 207
Canning at home must not be discouraged...... 364
Canning, H. M. §S., and its kite balloon, iJl...... 35
Cannon, Column of: Place Vendéme, Paris, ill.. 310
Canteens, Red Cross, ill..... 377, 378, 380, 381, 384
Canton, China: Pigs going to market, ill........ 191
Cantonments, Cost of the............. Sisleteretetereve 290
Canyon, of Sant Antoni, Andorra, ill........... 288
Cape Ann, Mass.: Rocky Coast................. 521
Cape Elizabeth, Maine: Portland Head Light, ill. 523
Cape Hatteras lighti.ss< cc one ene ccieeeee Seee 541
Cape Henry, Va.: Coast scene, ill.............. 536
Cape Henry, Va.: Lighthouses, ill.............. 516
Caproni biplane flying near the Woolworth tower,
Newsvork, City, sll eine eee certian eee 46
Caproni bombing machines: Italy........... sie 40
Caravan along the Wadi Motaha, Socotra, ill.... 266
Career of Captain von Richthofen: German ace. 574
Carrier's cart: Ripoll, Spain, al. ..2.- 3... 0.8 . 287
Cart; Horse, Spain, ill..2..:; Fe Ree Oe 287
Cart immortalized by Don Quixote............. 280
Carts) ‘Spanish, Woe Coca ace a 287, 290, 294, 295
Castor-oil bean-raising industry reéstablished:
Wnited 'Statessccicm sic x Sus oats eetalv ee wire sieleieres . 48
VIII
Page
Castor-orl beans for American airplanes......... 48
Catalan dance, National: Andorra, ill........... 296
Cat and squirrel: Hereditary enemies, ill........ 372"
Gre sCommons Cracks. illic vnc siew oketeie'a one sie d's, <5 385*
Caterpillar stage, An airplane in ae, AS Gcaros 60
Cathedral, ‘‘Cross of Chartres’’?: An airman’s
VLE Wopill liopspere scree eucreterele ieleusl'e leita snenesnelcleteieltsieletehere ve 2
Cat, Ring-tailed......... ill. (colored), 460; text, 482
Cats and dogsias) Pets; ZS LIVAly ci at eladafe, eraldha-ssahe oie'e 45
Gattlemor aba rans Ml sieves crcl clerics) ale laleveis fogreielelpinrs 564
(Ceti ay SOYeO TENORS Gp ad SOO Amb OlO He OSI DOO doin Od anc 27%
Caught in dangerous cross-currents: Italian air-
TW Solb.6 Cola 0.0 Oc DOC HEE BORNEO OOuO an cO TOG 40
Cave-dwellers, Among the Bedouin: Socotra..... 273
Cave-ins and fumes feared: Katmai district,
INGE coo oo noob 00 OD OG OOO A OOn Oo OU OU 0.0000 121
Caviar, World’s source of supply of: Volga, Rus-
SEY deo Gat oi De ACE HOLE GP aEe Ree ae RS acer ye 47
Cellar, Children in bomb-proof: British Isles, ill. aoe
Central thought of se russians cise leteese eleleliels 547
Cerberus, Mount: Katmai Valley, Alaska. .text, 130;
ill., 130, 140
Chalk-line, Walking a: Aviation test, ill........ 71
Champion pig raised by a boy of six...... in 176;
] 179
Champion racing crew of the Atlantic fleet, ill.. 229
Chanute, Octave: Pioneer aéronautic engineer.. 113
Chart: Illiterates in United States, showing in-
Greasesangs Gecreaser sill: . «sierra Astevele ester ci eraissers 350
Charts, Food: Showing supply and demand, ill.
341, 344
Charts showing deaths by fighting and famine, ill. 337
Chemical laboratory in the Katmai region, Alaska, J
SD eee Hone eae acca iia raevcbete opcraloual srclisue oheneb el ohelel etenais 165
Chemical manufacturing plant, Like a _ huge:
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes............ I5!I
Chicago to New York via airplane: Ruth Law, ill. 111
Chickamauga, First Virginia Field Artillery in
CAIN ate, cll ye epezcece er ciehe sone snetles her ober sso) chiens ekeis 224
Chickens and pigs travel with the family: Volga
SUSANNE colbosodéosoubodoopoubaoodebooongDGS 259
Children: Andorra Republic, ill................ 283
Children, Armenian: Russia, ill................ 255
Children in cellar during an air raid: British
Uses mailer. pesos ctovaceve lei kerevehaisrcwe olelasywuswenalevaiStere 374
Children, Italian refugee: Drinking soup, ill..... 346
Children, Serbian refugee, ill................06- 3396
China, Canton: Pigs going to market, ill........ 191
China, Conquest of: Germany’s dream.......... 567
Chipmunk, Antelope....ill. (colored), 437; text, 443
Chipmunk, Eastern...... ill. (colored), 440; text, 447
Chipmunk, Eastern: te Ulver asetereceuecseivess, saree 477
Chipmunk, Golden......ill. (colored), 440; text, 443
Chipmunk, Oregon...... ill. (colored), 441; text, 450
Chipmunk, Painted...... ill. (colored), 441; text, 451
Church, Byzantine: Andorra Republic, ill....... 285
Church, D. B., Photographer, Katmai Expedition,
HONE 2 SEAM ONY: sree se lonei elas casks Biever elereiereleioielereie.s 153
Cigognes (‘‘Storks”), Fonck of the............. 568
Civilian Relief, Red Cross Department of....... 388
Civilization, Socotra’s EAT Y a icccgetoie cole pateloreveietetehe ts 276
Clouds, Out of the storm: Airplane, ill......... 69
Coastal airship landing in a gale, British, ill. Si,
@oast-guard crew, olin cs yo. cuetetesiersccos sere aiebe seis eis 540
Coast-guard cutters, Work of the.............. 545
Coat of arms and motto: Andorra Republic, ill.. 284
“‘Coddlers’”’: Trench pests..... RTS ea AEC OT 497
Coffee, Roasting Mocha: Arabia, ill............. 272
Coins, Diving for: Socotra........ text, ee ill., 277
Cold storage, Animals that put themselves Wha bos ses
Colonne Vendome: Paris, France, ill........... 310
Colorado, A mountain country resembling: Sonia 281
Color and geography: Animals.............. wists: #34
Color-sense tester, Jennings self-recording....... 82
Combat and Defense, Italy’s Eagles of. By Gen-
Cal PLOZZ A aliavetersic.c6e gies: d0e oleveherevouave aeloiisheesre 3O
Combate ucAvaation oOls verso cytiee tet rateein cio ole eibioe ese II
Combat in the air, A. mimic...) 2.50 6.0....5- we. 104
Communiques of Nature’s warfare...........0.. 521
Community driers for vegetables and fruits..... 368
Community wash-houses: ‘France............00. 505
Conceptions of the American Red Cross, Two
FETAL TR Decay circhtaye ie Have toi's a ve eivenanavcclie: ave yevelfen sche vatel sera auehens Ore 388
Confession, A sinister German................. 549
Confession,. Herr Thysson’s amazing........ dee SOL
Conquerors, Kaiser’s worship of ruthless........ 561
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Conquest of India and China with Turkey’s aid:
Prussianism..< c's «clay aistelv a sis o/s Pel cae eee sie ont 567
Conspirators, Watch long kept on German...... 553
Convalescent ward: U. S. Military Hospital No.
¥, Paris,Glstivciicleets so cite cee eee 371, 372
Convulsion of nature: Katmai Valley, Alaska... 161
Cony, Little chief hare, or pika..:..:...-. text, 392;
ill. (colored), 409:
Katmai district, Alaska..
ill., 120, 122, 150; text, 123
Cooking fish on the hook, Possibility of: Katmai
Cooking at a fumarole:
Valley, -Alaskayis<.4scaictm acl oetetor text, 1413) alters
Cooking of dried vegetables requires care....... 367
Cook roasting Mocha coffee: Arabia, ill......... 272
Cootie is a hardy insect...:... + «soe oie eee 505
Cootie pest, Eliminating the, ill... 496, 498, 500, 503
COOTIES AND COURAGE. BY HERBERT
CORBY | tere iis cio care ioe ei sip keen eee 495
Cootie started, How ‘the. .:. oc... cn aetna 507
**Cooties’’:; Trench: pests: .4< .« a+ oes nrcieiee eae 497
Corey, Carol K.: Plain Tales from the Trenches. 300
Corey, Herbert: A Unique Republic, Where
Smuggling is an Industry (Andorra Republic). 279
Corey, Herbert. Cooties and Courage........... 495
Corey, Herbert. Shopping Abroad for Our Army
in) ESTanCes, 0s: «sieves: avelere everelo-e sea eee eystereiite 206
Corn and hog ratio.is 13 to 1.....4- «cee eee
Corn: Barometer of supply and demand! ike ats,- 341
Corner in correspondence: Camp post-office, ill. 226
“A Corner in Pigs’: Market in St. Brieuc,
France, ill..... é bab ere Jb oer eue eter OeNerenetere tere 187
Corn, Harvesting, ile oh oo. ook eee 194
Costumes: Russian peasants... sacemeeieee 261
Costumes,’ Spanish... oc). sine cies. o ase erence 295
Cottontail rabbits......text, 390*; ill. (colored), 408
Cottontail rabbit: Tracks, | A a sR a cr 390*
Counterfeits rubles, Germany...........200.e% - 342
Courage, Cooties and. By Heber Corey Samo 495
Cow-and calves, Ul. ..0.,ceile oo 5 ootian eee 504
ate used in unloading ships, Steam: France,
V1, ce reer eer cccreevrccccccsccere Se ee ee 217
Crater dimensions, Katmai volcano............. 167
Crater, Greatest active, in the world: Katmai... 168
Crater Lake, Oregon: Dimensions.............. 168
Craters of the plain, Katmai Valley, Alaska..... 134
Crimea, What Florence Nightingale accomplished
in the AS A A ROOT Hans O.0 COO 04 381
Cross-country flight, The first: Stuart Walcott... 93
Cross-currents, Caught in dangerous: Italian air-
TMIEN Sorc ods oss oa Gia oles Fee ote Slee eee 40
Crosses, Wooden: ‘‘The Dead Arisen,” ill....... 3550
eet oo Chartres” Cathedral, Airman’s view
(op | A hee NN ie ee Sons 2
Cross of Defeat; Black,-ill...... 0... epee 45,99
Crusade, A mighty: World war. .......-csemeeme 557
Crying) An art: in, town. ....< cs. s< cere pee 293
Cucumber tree: Socotra). 5... 0s. . on... ee 273
Czechs desert to Liberty’s armies. .text, 253; ill., 264
OG) Du
Dahamis.; Socotta. a... «/ocs « serene ener
Dance, National Catalan: Andorra Republic, ill.. Bee
Dangerous and contagious doctrine..... Boononod Se
Daniels, Josephus, Secretary of the Navy. The
Gem of the Ocean: Our American Navy....... 31
Darkest page in human history........... Booca SS
Day-and-night race, A: New air mde see arnt 56
Days and nights in the trenches. Sabo doaoooG SCE
Days when profiteers will be dead..... ol oicierete ener aed
Daytona-Ormond Beach, ‘Fla., thai. cscs stereos 528
“Dead Arisen, The’’: French drawing, ill...... 3550
Deaths by fighting and famine, Charts shows
World. war, ill} o...c-6's wis «iene, onesarlereiiereiete 337
Debeque, Colorado, Experimental oil still, ill.. 201
De Berroeta, André, Captain of the French Avia-
tion Service: Flying in France........ Moco. ©
Deck scenes on a Volga steamer..... text, 257, 259;
ill., 256, 258, 259
Decorations are bestowed, When: Aviation. ..... 103
Deermouse:, Drackss iles iyi ele one el le eienels diel eee 7.0
Defense, Italy’s Eagles of Combat and. By Gen.
Pe Tozziy veils 2 bates oanbre tere poekcuc tener eas avo oleate
Defensive and offensive animal alliances. ciere alate nee
Dehn, Paul: Quotation...............0.- « eevtemeeOs
Delousing establishment: At the front scheberne Bobo See!
“Delousing fund’; Germany........ AO °"/
Delousing aehante for killing cooties: ’ ‘War zone,
ill .+. 496, 500, 503
UL ere rere cree rer vneerccce eeeee
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIII, 1918
Page
Dente del Pasubio, Airplanes above the: Italian
front, ill
Deposits all colors of the rainbow, Katmai Valfey,
PAG ae cicic ds tie gee etatieMeanane overciisvensia sWarehaat duvcha sich, 139
Derrick hoisting an enemy airplane, ill.......... 38
Deserted city: Nizhni Novgorod, Russia........ 246
De Sieyes, Jacques, Captain of the ‘French Avia-
tion Service: Aces of the Air................
Destroyer named for chief gunner’s mate....... 321b
Destroyers, United States, ill........ 3153) 3240; 334
Destroyer, under aways lnc. cieielelctele > tevetchs + le ole II
Destroying German kite balloons..... seme vorsherete 21
Deullin, Albert: French ace, ill. ..:.........e.0 572
D’Harcourt, Captain, ill..... Lie salar alin oie Yerchelio cot sieraness 576
Diamond Shoals lightship.......... aS So ee Bae 541
Dimensions of the crater of Katmai volcano.... 167
Dinner-pail, Their full: Pigs, ill................ 181
Dinner, Serving: Military hospital, Paris, ill..... 372
Diplomacy entered, Where kitchen.............. 207
Diplomat, Commodore. Perry a brilliant......... 326
Dirigible entering its hangar, French, ill........ 20
Dirigible flying: American aéronautical ‘training
Station, Wly mc..cs.ce ss ae hulistioa lewelicvelier svastens 83
Discovery, Few accidents in the world of....... 325
Distillery, Oil-shale: Juab, Utah, ill...... ee eiesais 200
Distilling rock for oll.......cceeesseceecees ope BOY
Diving for coins: Sccotra........text, 268; ill., 277
Divisional or reconnaissance aviation........... II
Doctrine, A dangerous and contagious..... - 336
Doctrine, Prussian: ‘‘As we will it!”’.......... 49
Dog and rabbit: A millennial scene, ill......... 375
Dog-cart, Refugees’: France, ill.........+-.e00- 505
Dog mascot of the new Tezas, ill
Dogs and cats as pets, Pigs rival..........+0+6-
Donkey and woman toil together: Spain......... 284
Don Quixote, Cart immortalized by............ 280
“Doping” the wings of airplanes, ill............
Dorme, René: French ace...... text, 7, 569; ill., 572
Double-decker. Az Pigs; illo sccc esc seed sees 162
Douglas squirrel....... ill. (colored), 444; text, 455
Drafted men, Parade of: Washington, D. C., ill. 566
Dragon’s-blood trees: Socotra..... ill., 270; text, 273
Drawings, Lucien Jonas’: French war scenes, ill.
355-3550
Dream of World Domination, Germany’s. By the
Editor 7..<:.\- Fe UA eS RCO ECE Risretere'eyeree 550
Dried fruits produced annually: Value......... 365
Dried tomato, Advantages of.........+- siepeleicie is
Dried vegetable habit would change world agricul-
ture, How the..... stodevonsyere Sie feteteic (austere Bh che asceis
Driggs, Laurence La Tourette. Aces Among Aces 568
Dri
Drunkenness, No soldiers’ camps ever before so
SHAS 19d GHOGOOOe Steete spe lee aYavecerslove ovehenusrs o. 227
Dry-dock: Ship being washed, ill...... 327, 329, 389
Drying at home is important: Vegetables...... -. 365
Drying companies, American.......ss.seseee- «2 367
Drying companies, Canadian..... pier ehereves ease veopotele 368
. 363a-b, 366
Dunant’s efforts bear fruit at Geneva........... 385
Dunant, Vision and plan Ch tale oe OES OCMC REO 383
Duroc Jersey pigs, ill....... sesticeenre ‘ .. 178, 179
Dutch white-potato mill: Reported output...... 361
Dye, Edward T.: Selling W. S. S. in New York
(OG SLY ecAgeadnoe@ocaucno sou GUC siegeOiniel porate - 389
Sere?
Fach camp a great city..... Spear Facto ve Nee agt
Eagles of Combat and Defense, Italy’s. By Gen.
MNOZZ AS eta eon osparetasnstelauenetercioneeatene Ee etticetele erent ao
Ear and West meet: Methods of transportation,
i eeooereeeee eee eoereree0 eee 29
440; text, 447
Eastern chipmunk: Tracks, ill.......s0.ceccoees 477
Eastern States, Oil deposits in...... OOO OOO OO C))
Eastport harbor, Maine: “Old Friar’? rock....... §13
Educating the immigrant, ill..... sseee 351-3516, 353
Educational work, Red Cross........seseeess0020 390
Eiffel tower arches, Paris, France, ill......... e+ 307
“Elephant,” or French observation balloon, ill... 24
Ellis, William T.: Voyaging on the Volga Amid
War and Revolution.............. oletttecclee sie 24
Employees, Shipyard, ill......... Beeler erecrenS47.0s0 347,
Endowment Fund, American Red Cross........ 387
Enemy’s morale, Shattering the.....
eeovoeveee eee @ 3 25
Engineering class afloat: S, Navy, lsc. sa "316
Engine, Life of an airplane: 100 hours......-.. 61
ate eerste wee S240
ling, US. sailors, ill........ nono Ks ROR SG
IX
: Pa
Engines, Airplane: Student aviators, ill........ 76
England aroused by war correspondent’s dispatch 37§
English for the immigrant: Demonstration lessons,
ili Wee. 0000 Oyo owes ccerccerversssseses 351, 3514
Entomologist with his bug net: Katmai Valley,
Alaskayeall iret oral pte tele Gai, aotearoa ee be oe ae 135
Epicurean tastes, Our expenSive.........seeee0+ 859
Epilogue, A mean and bitter......... 0 anetsiane y's o 575
Equilibrium test: Aviation, ill.............. sisies = A
Erard, Captain Aviator. +c. -p ene e eer > A, ale /
Fscaping destruction by a miracle: Aviation.... 1o1
Kurope, Map-) Mood andiwatamieee esses ee 338
Europe: Map of the Western Theatre of War
(supplement) Auieis:.. scite cles cece oe see 2)
Europe, portions wanted by Germany........ aol SSO
Every generation has had its war........ DP ie
Every soldier must be an expert........ DARA DI PLE
Expedition to Alaska: National Geographic So-
ciety, 1917. By Robert F. Griggs, Leader..... 115
Exploits of the late Captain Ball, Some of the:
Britishe Ait wenvice tenis. -niieceer Pies ie ousine ote or ag
Exploration, Navy’s work in science and........ 31
Explorers, [Three most eminent naval........... 325
Exports; sSocotran! Jc se cleo ce sei aieeeiae aoe 277
son
Factory, Airplane: United States, ill.......... 48-62
Factory, Vegetable crying: Canada,-ill. 363a, 363b, 366
Fair at Nizhni Novgorod, Russia............... 2
Fairchild, David: Agricultural Explorer in Charge
of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, U. S.
Department of Agriculture. Forming New
Fashions in) Food sic. 2 sce cies iets © vciele socio ein G56
Fake baiteries to deceive scout planes.......... 18
Falling Mountain, Katmai Valley, Alaska...text, 131,
: : 141; ill., 136, 140
Falling test: Aviation, ill............ Ben00d0 TB oe
yamine: Charts showing deaths by fighting and,
ee ie eae cacerere dala seejiatevetchete, Deter anee ls sterevenptes
Famine, Forerunners of. By Frederick C. Wal- a7
COttaerercnie oi crens sais Velenanaiayeuecetcrer Toe tslorerenerene oo sane 6ELo
Farmers being taught through their sons........ 183
iuevadeh: aipiateucdete ders sterereceeneee 5b BE
Farm scene, Canada: Pumpkin field, ill......... ae
Wk. eoooevevoeoe8@eeeeseeeeteeeesesee eeereeeeve eevee 16
“Father of the Steam Nr.-y”: Commodore Perry. ae
IQI7 eoeveoeeeoeeeeeeeeeseeeoeeeeezseeeveeeees eevee I
Feats of daring, Thrilling: Aviation............ 33
Fed amazingly for four fr nes a day: France... 101
Ferocity, Concentrated: Animals.............++ 375°
Ferret, Black-footed.... ill. (colored), 449; text, 469
Féte day in’ St. Julian’ os ./0..c2.0 as seein che ee eeeeOy
Field bakery: National Guard camp, ill......... 227
“Field for Germany, A magnificent”........... 563
Field mouse, or meadow -mouse...........text, 403;
ill. (colored),
Field mouse: Track, tic: en 504
Hield-workers: France, dll)... -cecesieieeiieiene 338
Fighting, Charts showing deaths by famine and,
Mi. e@eoeeoeereeeeeoees ee eeeevesee eee eee
Fighting planes, Tactics of............ ietnenetete pu
Fighting the pest in German prison camps: Cooties 507
Filing fittings for airplane wing spars, ill....... 53
Fire Island Lightshi ce ecoeeee eee ooo te eeeeeseeese 54!
Firing a broadside, U. S. S. New Hampshire, ill. 3174
First cross-country flight, The: Stuart Walcott... 93
First view of the Ten Thousand Smokes: Alaska. 117
First Virginia Field Artillery in training, Chicka-
mauga, ill, . eoeeee e@eocvee eeecetgeeveseeeeeeose eee 224
Fish caught by hand: Alaska, ill............s000 164
Fisherman, Socotran: “Gogglywoggle’’.....text, 268;
ill., 2
Fissures, Katmai Valley, Alaska..... Ritonere eeepc ee
Fissure Lake, Katmai Valley, Alaska.. text, 139, 140;
ill., 146
Fissure, Steaming: Katmai, Alaska, ill.......... =<
Fittings, Airplane: In the making, ill........ 53, 62
Flag formed of 10,000 bluejackets, ill.......... 228
Flag, French: Red Cross canteen, Paris, ill...... 377
Flag, Italian: Warehouse at Rome, ill.......... 387
Flag, Pledging allegiance to the: U. S. ship-
builders, ill sc... c eh tee cere eron eose 3478, 3476
Flag, Rag-pickers’ Union: Spain... text, 279; ill., 204
Flag,“Red Cross) alle. satin s eacte cls emcees - 382, 387
Flag, Red Cross: Adopted 1864......... aiaisve sialcer GeO
Flags, French: Strassburg monument, ill....... » 304
x THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
se eee ew eee ee Peewee eee ee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
Cr rd
Flag, U. S.: On a submerging submarine, ill....
Flag, U. S.: Red Cross canteen, Paris, ill... 377, 384
8
Flag, United States: Warehouse at Rome, ill....
coco rere eee eee eee eee eee see eee eee seeeei eens
Flood in the Katmai Valley, Effects of the, ill...
Florence Nightingale accomplished in the Crimea,
VARIA Gomes gees rat Peale cit Gs "ay trowntsadvaic ial sot ayere. aoe vo 381,
Florence Dignuneales nursery novitiate........
Flava eas 2 DICK Day Alles ievetae a cio) lnrsievcla=
Flour barrel, Allies’: Chart showing supply and
Geman: illevelaee a Sie A euteisre eiulalevasmia: s) eesera disteselore aye
Elour. Potatos two! kindSvatvasnc. secu veo se.
Flour, Price per barrel: Gnait, ill
Flour, Sweet-potato, Virtues of................-
eee eee eee ee oe ew
Flour, White-potato: Reported Dutch mil! output 361
Flowers of pure sulphur: Katmai Valley, Alaska. 139
Blvyersinea ‘beany patch: (Alin. cisels win aha lneuets to) sais
Flyers, Aiding the Government in training......
“Flying eCadetiesiny training ened «cee «c cleaeotere 83, 85
Fiying in a Nieuport............ text, 95; ill., 570
FLYING IN FRANCE. BY CAPT. ANDRE
DE BERROETA, OF THE FRENCH AVIA-
SRTOING SIER VICE ieee niche: so 8 cle lecotevoneieiensier beh
9
Flying schools, American: Airplanes, ill...... 88, 90,
97,
_ Flying squirrel.......... ill. (colored), 449; text, 466
i 7
Flying, Studying the mysteries of, ill...........
Fly is dangerous at the front, The..............
Foug, George W.: Geneva Conference............
olding wings,. Airplane with, ill...............
Following an airplane wing through its manufac-
(GIRS GSonGOU 4DOOCUSD OOOO OOO RUC dH O64 Gud UdOde
Fonck, of the Cigognes: Aces Among Aces......
Fonck, René: French ace, ill..............2200%
Fonck reveals his secret: Aces Among Aces.....
Foed Administration has done for us, What the..
Food and war map of Europe, ill...............
Food charts.showing supply and demand, ill. 341,
Food controllers, Problems of..... Patsiaecihedakeleneinre
Food essentials, Two newly discovered@’.......... 3
Food, Borming New Fashions in. By David Fair-
cni 0 Osi 5 Oo OO OIG 0 OOO 6 O.6.0 Om oloclo Oo ecce
Food: Katmai Expedition, 1917.........+.+see0e
Food law enacted, 1917: Effect, ill..............
Food Problem, Helping to Solve Our Allies’. By
Ral phy Graviesincorce cca ciatoveiesotssopseeertiowe oinlelstee™e sets
Eocd, Prussian soldiers stripping Polish homes of,
TTY ee esteh ce a sw ter en iy ts PD OUTS A At, yor TEN eT
Foods, Our limited FANE OL vies cote ele ceaihic views)
Food: The part food plays at the front.........
Food the principal occasion of excitement: Volga
DOMES retere ne oe 500 PASH
Gunsdrill ss Savlorsepracticmng sally serene seine 321a
Gun, Machine-; On a destrover, ill............. 334
Gans. S. Navy, ills. on 6 os B15.) 3150) 3174, )/31o;
319, 321, 3215, 333
Gun, U. S. infantryman’s iI eee geaetens
552
Guynemer, Georges: French ace.. text, 7, 568, 569;
all, 572, 576
a © hed
Habitudes are changing, The American’s........ 360
Hadibo, Socotra: Capital of the island.......... 267
Hagelbarger, Paul R., Assistant Botanist, Katmai
Expeditions LOL 77 eStimMOnyaacs ee ee ier eee e 148
asiier, pheaksnot SOCOtiaAR Emel illo ore rails 267
Hail of pumice, Katmai district, Alaska......... TZ,
Haleakala» Hawai Aimeanicccs > cise cele lee eusie 168
Elanititone 1 ord sete aces epee racaciev eres ee o7e
“Hammer of God, We are the’’: Prussianism. 55
Hammocks, Sleeping: OTSA Sr North Dakota, ‘UL. ees
Hancock, Camp: Soldiers in training, ill.... 225, 241
Handley-Page bombing machine, British, ill piconets 36
Hands and faces go unwashed: Russian peasants.. 260
Hangar, American aéronautical training station,
BEDS catego sre PA eaier oro. oes howal sa lePbear ay Versi sr enetegone otske els 83
Hangar, French dirigible entering its, ill
rs Page
angars, ltahany alle. cl. ass ata ee 41, 42
Hashor, New York: Liberty and her defenders,
DUD ores agate’ shove ccetakpier oka cueetedo in eeteielaes te eI E I eae ee 256
Harbors, Atlantic coast, 4llaere eet ee eee eee 531, pee
Harbors, Atlantic coast: Nature’s Red Cross sta-
ELON) ic. cdayiqe tye cher DE Sve nee Ere eI 545
Harden; Maximilian: . Quotations... 4. .65-> ee 565
Hares eAncticz ey ance: text, 389%; ill. (colored), es
Hare, Wittle chief, ‘cony,. 01 pikase-oeuce eee tEXt, 302%
: i . (colored), 409
Hare, Varying, or snowshoe rabbit...... 7o of OXt, 387% 5
ill. (colored), 405
Hare, Varying, or snowshoe rabbit; Tracks, ill.. 388*
Harvesting corns ‘ill. ane ce on eee eee 194
Harvest mouse... cscs text, 415; ill. (colored), 425
Harnvestscene:) Mrance, alles see te eee eee eee 368
Eiasse, Ennsts, Ouotations. merece ee eee oe 563
Headgear, Formidable: Russian peasants........ 261
HEALTH AND MORALE OF AMERICA’S
CITIZEN ARMY, THE: PERSONAL OB-
SERVATIONS OF CONDITIONS IN OUR
SOLDIER CITIES BY A FORMER COM-
MANDER-IN-CHIEF OF THE UNITED
STATES ARMY AND NAVY. BY WII,
LEAM HOWARD DAED 22 3) ain eee ee ee 219
HELPING. TO SOLVE OUR ALLIES’ FOOD
PROBLEM: AMERICA CALLS FOR A MIL-
LION YOUNG SOLDIERS OF THE COM-
MISSARY TO VOLUNTEER FOR SERV-
ICE IN 1918. BY RALPH GRAVES....... 170
Herbert, Sidney, and the Red Cross spirit... 377, 380
lien oes, los pitallee ee ccie eretere ketene sete ieee ees 510
Heroes, Living in the midst of............. ie ctets 5
Heroes) without glony/..0..052. 426 e00ess eee nee 497
Heurteaux, Albert: French ace..text, 7; ill., 572, 576
Highland Light, Mass.: Coast scene, ill......... 522
Huigh-record {shirt |Coeoties: 5.2) .0.000-45-085 56 509
Hine, James S., Zodlogist, Katmai Expedition,
IQI7: Testimony RR ee ites eon re be EAL ois 150
Hirsute effulgence, Examples of: Russia........ 257
H. M. S. Canning and its kite PEON, tlle cee 35
Hoary sbat, tex 8 sai uatoncasieeetadeve ce aie Resear ae ened eee 491
Hoary marmot, or whistler....... ill. (colored), 433;
text, 434
Hog and corn ratio is 13 tO 1. 63. cece cles oe ota 343
Hog-nosed skunk........ ill. (colored), 457; text, 479
Hogrel, Commander: French ace, ill............ 572
Hogs: Barometer of supply and demand, ill..... 341
Holy, pool; Jerusalem,. il... acc ee nes oes 30
Home canning must not be discouraged......... 364
Home drying is important: Vegetables.......... 365
Honorary membership in the National Gee-
graphic Society extended to President Wilson. 369
Horse cart Spainy illic. so cisiickee nein 287
Horse-play and songs lighten the toiling hours:
MolgavstevedOressamimcrsleacesickerocteicio oie poco AO
Horses of Neptune, White} ill... ..-2.2..2........ 333
Hospital Heroes Convict the “‘Cootie”’.......... 510
Hospital- room, Naval vessel, ill................ 330
Hospitals, Military: France, ill......... 370-373, 379
Hospitals, Terrible conditions in: Crimea:...... 380
Hospital ward in France, National Geographic
S O CLE EY AS arias Se ade avec seen aus Calica See a 373
Hostess House for soldiers, ill................. 229
HHotelmde VallesvAndorras lle ee eee 284
Hotel de Ville: sPuigcerda, Spaine.s. 4s. eee 203
Hot springs, Yellowstone Park number. 4,000. 131
House mouse........... text, 427; ill. (colored), 4209
Houses, Stone: Andorra Republic, ill.
. 286, 291, 292
How the . dried-vegetable
habit. would change
world agriculture Bett accnesrane cto i ae Pemere Rome tewaiemece tarot 361
Hubbe-Schleiden: Quotation.............0.6..:. 567
Human history, Darkest page in............... 338
Humanitarian movement, greatest of modern
times: Red Cross. By Stockton-Axson....... 375
Hunger forces Roumania to peace............. 337
Hunting the Hun in the blue Atlantic, ill....... 235
Hurricane, U. S. S. New York in a, ill..... 319, 333
Hydro-airplane, Giant: In the making, ile icee 58
Hydro-airplane, Naval: On a battleship, il leecpeee se 108
Hydro-airplane, Navy aviators with, il!......... 2
dee -airplane: Port Washington,- Long Island,
DTA aycroi cienah s scveleoka reed she venstous berate suelo Meta a cus
Hydro-airplanes, Tesla 10 Fe ae ena eee een 43
Hydro-plane: Atlantic coast, illo; .....5....... 520
Hygiene and sanitation for the immigrant:
onstration lesson; ill ee e e 351a
>.) wk
COs Page
Ice and atmosphere, Water’s allies............. 513
Ice as a land ally: Nature’s warfare............ 521
Illiterates in United States: Chart showing in-
crease and decrease, ill..... aa elnnvsiaie ore lVeleveis) te 350
Immigrant, Educating the, ill......... 351, 3510, 353
Immigrant illiterates in the United States: Chart
showing increase, ill......... i aiellwrersariay aevee sei ele 350
India, Conquest of: Germany’s dream.......... 567
Industrial conditions in Germany.............. 340
Industries, Socotran........... Ta aatate ite Guaterensioekee 278
Industry, Smuggling is an: Andorra Republic.
Rverlen bert COLCYs. 6 sc mcie oe eine cle siacitieriat sein 279
Infantry and spotting planes.............eeeeee 19
Inferno, The modern: Valley of Ten Thousand
Sinokes we Alaskalinis eleistelslelelehers le) aials) scie}piels ein 6) 01s 150
Ingram: Destroyer named for chief gunner’s
MEK. GOOdOUOOOOUS a tencabareraicoyaxe chia fetle/ta, saree oumvoitone (or 321b
Ingram, Osmun K.: Tribute to his bravery..... 321b
Inoculation tests: Soldier volunteers............ 510
Insect powder used by soldiers at the front..... 508
Insects, Dead: Katmai Valley, Alaska.......... 129
Insects: Trench pests.......-.200. Seieverereraietelels 6 495
Insignia, Airplane, ill..... -» 36, 45, 62, 99, 570, 577
Insignia, Red Cross: Adopted in Geneva, 1864.. 386
Instruction, Many special courses of: Air army. 8c
International law, The navy studies............ 314
Interpretation of aérial photographs............ 15
Intrigue set afoot, Vast: German leaders....... 551
Inventions to Japan, Taking western.........++ 327
Investments in Liberty Loans: National Geo-
PLAPNICNSOCLELY ira «teres elorsiciens cele clelere teers) aio tel iellsls 372
ISLE OF FRANKINCENSE, THE. BY
CHARLES K. MOSER... 25.2 cc ccws ccc ece 267
Italiantaces,. Record Of... . 6+ css stelle eaortoleciee 57.0
Italian airplanes, ofl. ccjercc crc ere oie she» ere 39, 41-44, 46
Italian children refugees at Palermo: Drinking
Soliity Toten ones cope cUconaennd eden unH boads 346
Italian hangars, ill... ec cee ce cleo eee 41, 42
ITALIAN RACE, THE—AN APPRECIA-
TION, BY DIDE WDIMUOR 5c. stee-s)eenereie « 47
Italy, Chart showing deaths by fighting and fam-
es, UB Rede oe oncom anome ocd Pastor eta fe sheds en seacaiohatete 337
Italy, Rome; Red Cross supplies, ill........ 376, 387
Italy, Solferino: Birthplace of the Red Cross a
SPAT t erosya clove e ctekskelotel ote) ele ksesie sete) « ROS arate canes 383
ITALY’S EAGLES OF COMBAT AND DE-
FENSE: HEROIC ACHIEVEMENTS OF
AVIATORS ABOVE THE ADRIATIC, THE
APENNINES, AND THE ALPS. BY KIND-
NESS OF GENERAL P. TOZZI, CHIEF
OF FYHE ITALIAN MILITARY MISSION.. 38
Italy, Under three flags in, ill.............0... 387
aa ES
Jackh, Ernst: Quotation.........-.eseeeeeeeene 563
Japan, Taking western inventions to.........+.. 327
Jennings self-recording color-sense tester.......- 82
Jerusalem, British airplane over, ill............ 30
Johns Hopkins University, Rat specimens from,
iMag hea dcietane vate custeus sears tuueleRessmorete ieee 357-360, 363
Jonas, Lucien: French drawings, ill...... «+ 355-3550
Jones, E. W.: Originator of the boys’ pig-club
MOVEMENt 2... cee eee eer rece rr creer sersesees 171
Juab, Utah: Old shale distillery, ill............. 200
Judgstaffel No. II: German air squadron....... 574
Jumping mouse......... text, 394; ill. (colored), 412
Junior Auxiliary of the Red Cross...........-. 390
“Just in’: Soldiers from the trenches........... 300
Oe
Kaibab squirrel. ......).- ill. (colored), 448; text, 462
Kaiser's worship of ruthless conquerors......... 561
Kangaroo rat........... text, 400; ill. (colored), 416
Kangaroo rat, Fland-fed, ill...........----...-- BB
Katmai, Ascent of: Alaska............eee+eee- 162
Katmai Canyon, Climbing out of: Alaska, ill.... 163
Katmai crater. compared with Kilauea, Hawaiian
MG latina st certo ters artfereuelioke le loleueltesre rene ill., 167; text, 168
Katmai District of Alaska, The Valley of Ten
Thousand Smokes. By Robert F. Griggs..... 115
INatinaielass, Alaska, alli. 2.10006 seu 118, 140, 158
Katmai, the greatest active crater in the world:
ENWas Keaaee elcid atene Fey GREED, SOD IO OOO COO 168
Kazan, Russia: Volga port..........seseeeeees 262
: - ; Page
Kilauea crater dimensions compared with Katmai
VOICANG, 2 onc ccccescbevievsanavs ill., 167; text, 168
Kirchhoff, Hermann: Quotation..............+. 565
Kiss, A pig's, Al]... « om's's vie» uote cia eiatetlesn en 184
Kiss: Baby kissing soldier father good-bye, ill... 552
Kitchen, American rolling: War zone, ill........ 499
Kitchen, Arabian: Aden; tl)... ....2.0coan eee 272
Kitchen battery: Portable ranges, ill............ 230
Kitchen diplomacy entered, Where............. 207
Kitchen, Red Cross canteen: Paris, ill.......... 384
Kite balloon, ill.<:,...s.occenwois'sie see 2 sient 35
Kite balloon on observation duty, ill............ 85
Kite balloons, Destroying German........+..... 21
Knights of Columbus in camp...........s.eee0. 227
Knights of Geography. -. «< i00+ 05 sss neon 323
Kodiak bear, In the path of the, ill............. 152
“ey”?
1-45, Tangled remains of the: France, ill....... 14
aboratory specimens, rats: Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, ill....... AOCOOOOUIOON DOGO Cc 357-360, 363
Labor-saving devices lacking in Russia.......... 262
“Labor, Why not import American”: France.... 218
Lafayette Escadrilles. cj. 0 « « ovia.se vee 5, 568
Lafayette Escadrille, Quartered with heroes of
(a0) ORR EC ACen GIG OMI CIO OO dOn00D0OO. 8
La Garde, Paul de: Quotation...............+. gee
Lagoon and boat-houset Great Lakes Training
Station: ill isis ingctaiee cies as orn ae ae Fee
La Gorce, John Oliver: A Battle-Ground of Na-
ture: The Atlantic Seaboard.............000. 511
Lake, Fissure: Katmai Valley, Alaska..text, 139, 340;
ill., 146
Land assumes the offensive, When the: Nature’s z
WAT LATE: si) iohé.se. «: 6\’snsy.0:8 6 01.0781 ov'e,'s 10 nore Gielsitel RO ene 523
Landing field; Aviator’s, ill... . <2. + «+s cpreerenee 112
Lane, Franklin K., Secretary of the Interior:
What Is It to Be an American?.............. 348
Lange, Friedrich: Quotation.............e+e08. 563
Langley airway, The propodsed............++.+-- 113
Language? Socotraic..s so <0: s0.oad cele eee 277
Lansing, Robert, Secretary of State: Prussianism 546
Large weasels, or stoats.......... ill. (colored), 452;
text, 469
Foundry work done without waiting: Bluejacket,
| EAS EC Cd ROE O86 OG 00 500C 326
Laureati, Captain: Italian airman.............. 47
Lava plug of Novarupta, Katmai Valley, Alaska,
ill., 138; text, 145
Law, Food, enacted 1917: Effect, ill...........- 345
Law, Ruth: American aviatrix, ill............0. III
Law, ‘the Navy studies international........... 314
Law vindicated, Selective draft.............00% 244
Leadership could accomplish in Russia, What... 253
Least’ weasel!n. ..sisscuse ill. (colored), 452; text, 471
Legend of the Sirens of Socotra..............% 269
Lemming, Banded....... text, gor; ill. (colored), 417
Lemming, Brown.......text, 402; ill. (colored), 417
Lentils grown an ‘Socotra... js osc cleeeeiae sree R200
Les Escaldes, Andorra Republic, ill............. 291
Lethe, River: Katmai Valley, Alaska...... tere 140;
ill., 141
Letters from Stuart Walcott. An American Air-
mani ain’ Frances, < alscisc0s) 0 ore on edslelec redone eroreiolenens 86
Leutwein, Paul: Quotation: ...). 2% «01. 02 oon laleiete 565
Liberia location chosen by Commodore Perry... 326
Liberty and her defenders: Battleships, ill...... 3256
Liberty Loans, Investments in: National Geo-
graphic: Society, x2 0. c/s sieves els icle ober onereieierate 372
Liberty theatre in camp..... OG0000 orevolelereielereletelemccey
Library in a battleship, ill.............0. ROO ne
Life-boat, Parachute is the balloonist’s, ill...... 32
Life of an airplane engine only 100 hours...... 61
Life-savers: U. S. coast guards..........0. 541, 545
Life-saving boat and crew, ill... 2. << oe «felelejieierls 540
LIFE STORY OF AN AMERICAN AIRMAN
IN FRANCE: EXTRACTS FROM THE LET-
TERS OF STUART WALCOTT, WHO, BE-
TWEEN JULY AND DECEMBER, 1917
LEARNED TO FLY IN FRENCH SCHOOLS
OF AVIATION, WON FAME AT THE
FRONT, AND FELL NEAR SAINT SOUP-
] Fd enn, Pee DiMiGinna rE MeDOIIID.O © OHO 0 vista eG
Life story of a pig-club pig........... ARC 177
Life story of the louse’ family ic. wc cele tete 501
Lighthouses: Atlantic seaboard, ill.......... 516, 523
Lighthouses; Us ‘S..75. ere wretemieteneieieisteteletstyeierhtnee 533
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIII, 1918
Page
Lightness and strength, A’ maximum of: Air-
PAM ES spas ceo yareheaehanere exe coolers eleie’s ill., 48; text, 55
Linen for airplane wings....... rll 403° S53 text, 55
Lines of national suspicion to be obliterated.:... 322
Little spotted skunk..... ill. (colored), 456; text, 474
Living in the midst of heroes.......... iN avcoterets
Llivia, ‘‘a Spanish village in France’”’....... 279, 289
Miiwiassspain: scenes, alle. ws. os. «crs <1 292, 293, 295
Loading a transport with troops and supplies for
STANCES tallow carats oe ee toleke eeterehereaceioleve eheteie sles e200
Long Island beaches and ‘shifting sands Syeuahonetone 40 829
Loop-the-loop over Newport News, Va., ill...... 68
Louse causes trench fever and typhus.......... 501
Louse family, The life story........... Se iee se S01
Louse habits during the war........ Ve ascieteiae ole: «| 509
Lubricant from the castor-oil bean............. 48
Lufberry, Raoul: American acé..text, 7, 571; ill., 570
Lumber rafts on the Volga........text, Goa ill., 252
Lumber resources, Straining America’ Siolfsccisietie = °53
Lynn Harbor, Mass.: Map, ill.......... seeedee 534
“MM”?
McCudden, James Byford: Royal Flying Corps..
572, 573
Machine, Delousing: Cootie pest, ill.... 496, $00, 503
Machine-gun on a destroyer, ill.,........... 334
Machine-gun, Studying the anatomy of a, ill.. 74
Madrid, Spain: Rag-picker’s cart, ill............ 294
Mageik’ boulder flow: Alaska, ieee ete, 159
Mageik volcano, Alaska...............000% wees 161
“Magnificent field for Germany, Se Acie Aad 1 Oe 8 563
Mail service outlined, Aérial................... 110
Maine coast, Battlements of the: Nature’s war-
JENS RGR OOS ACO DO OOOO OU TOUEOUde Gl ooo COORG 513
Mammals, The Smaller North American. By
E> W.. ‘Nelson:..:....... Sek COM ie cle tekeueie ate NaU7te
Man-and-woman power, America rich in aviator. 109
Man as a profiteer in Nature’s war........... be GSS
Map) Europe: Hood and, war, ilt...... 5.4.6... 338
Map: Germany’s Dream of World Domination, -
BU rece tepeaeictc aie oer ae esc oxe caved oucctas siceucko sustsislersseie se suatete 55
Map, Outline: Valley of the Ten Thousand
SET O KES aes cvodte Wok atote oie rate or eee cene Ris bom. « gtave ons omeuseeee 155
Maps; Atlantic seaboard, ill..........:..... 533-535
Map: Spain, showing Andorran Republic loca-
CLOW arose sce orarerey ster ete core celavategalecsige tos alee oie ie ereuetene:s 281
Map: Western Theatre of War (supplement).... 371%
Marblehead, Mass.: Rocky coast.............-. 521
Marine scenes: Atlantic seaboard, ill....512,.514-516,
518-520, 522, 523, 525, 526, 529-532,
536, 537, 540, 542, 543
Marine scenes in war time, ill........ Kodo SURE, SUB;
3174-319, 321, 323, 324b, 324c, 325),
327d, 3290, 331d, 333
Marines in, erance, We Ss0illi, oc. ore 6 adoa, Ou
Marines, Mascot of the: War zone, ill.......... 504
Market day for pigs, tli. secre «cic ccevclee 186, 187, 191
Market scene: Astrakhan, Russia, ill...... - 247, 260
Marmot, American, or common woodchuck.text, 431;
ill. (colored), 432
Marmot. American: racks illec. cin ee. cece © ae 7
Marmot, Hoary, or whistler....... ill. “ (colored), 433
text, 434
Marnsherabbitecmenceace ce text, 391; ill. (colored), 409
Marten, or American sable....... ill? (colored), 453;
text, 473
Martin Valley and Martin Volcano, Exploring, . SLO
Mascot of the Texas: Boston bull, ‘‘Buster,” ill. 324a
Mascot, Us Ss; imnarines:) War, zone, dilie... aoe 504
Masts, Fighting: Battleship, ill..... . 315a, 3174, 3170,
321, 321b, 329a
Witiictis te lit: b:.k yous Sacro) op seel = cote t tepeee Wei ere SSO
Matter of German ‘“‘honor’’ to hold Belgium..... 565
Maury, Matthew Fontaine: Naval hero......... 329
Maury, Wilkes, and Perry: Naval explorers..... 325
Maynard, Clarence F., Topographer, Katmai Ex-
Peaition: 1017: | Lestimony,\.. sees ss eles eo cles 149
Meadow mouse, or field mouse............ text, 403;
ill. (colored), 420
Meadows mouse sj urackss villevsss marcia caine 393
Mechanic beparring a motor in the air: France,
BA > se loaner ne ater a oe Sie he saya ee eadinrora a ayoteners 23
Medals decor ating a policeman: Russia, ill...... 254
Medical Corps of the Navy, Work of the Metensnateuse 315
Medical staff in the Air army..... Fa dane wielteleeteretehate 61
Melonsrenrowm itl Socotra co siclceinio cece cies 269
Members of the Katmai Expedition, 1917, ill.... 156
XIII
Page
Mental examination is not formidable: Aviation. 82
Men whose hearts are in their work............ 216
Metal fittings for America’s airplanes: In the
Making) ll. se cheteleaieleerete ets Gene ioe ee 53, 62
Mexicantbatece -eebecre. ill. (colored), 465; text, 491
Mice, Nest of young white-footed, ill........... 379*
Midland, Texas: Jack Starr and his champion pig 179
Military clique of Berlin, Deceived by.......... 554
Military Hospital No. 1, ase Paris, 110 5s 370-372
Military relief association, First permanent:
Winited: Statestier tcc tee rie eee ee 385
Milk-fed (pig; il. 336 eo tet ace ee eee. 173
Mill, Dutch white-potato: Reported output...... 361
Millennial scene: Rabbit-hound and a young
rabbit, ll. (4. fase ete ee ee ee 375*
Mimic icombatiinithe ait, vas. eee eee nee 104
Minaret, Approaching the habitat of the: Russia. 262
Mineola Camp military aviation school, ill...... 5 OS
Mineral wealth, America’s immense............ 205
Miniature gardens on lumber rafts: Russia...... 248
Mink, American......... ill. (colored), 453; text, 472
Mink, American: Tracks, | AR arene ean 482, 483
Mink taking its own! picture, ill-2..5--5.--4- 60 380*
Minot Wedge sieht) xc. et ctee oso oe ee ee 539
Mison, France: Captured Zeppelin, tl eee 14
Mississippi River deltas) Mapiiill seas ee 533
Mississippi. W2'S. Sagill...) cee ee eee eee 3156
Mitchell, Guy Elliott, of the United States Geo-
logical Survey: Billions of Barrels of Oil Locked
Up" an ROCKS Airis, sees anes etalate: eke eo eLOS
Mocha coffee, Roasting: Arabia, ill............. 272
Modes of attack: Airplanes. 5.c......0202. 00-0 19
MokallayyArabia spices dock seein oeeenee . 278
Mole, Oregon Ps er tes Saeene ill. (colored), 461; “text, 484
Mole, Star-nosed....... pill. (colored), 461; text, 485
Monument, Strassburg, Alsace memorial, ill ee 304
Moonlight on the water: Atlantic coast, ill...... 526
Moral courage needed to bear trench pests...... “499
Morale and Health of America’s Citizen Army.
By William Howard Taft....... scars eletomree eee 219
Morale, Shattering the enemy’s............... Sh 2S
Mormon shale distillery near Juab, Utah, ill..... 200
Moser, Charles K., Formerly United States Con-
sul-General to "Aden, Arabia: The le of
Frankincense iis oc isetne eke ore bicker ons 16% 267
Mosques, Tatar: Astrakhan, Russia Se ROO teens 262
Motor, Airplane: Student aviators, ill. A 77
Motto and coat of arms: Andorra Republic, ill. a
Moujik, Spring beds unknown to the: Russia.. 251
Mountain-beaver........ text, 427; ill. (colored), 432
Mountain country resembling Colorado: Spain... 281
Mt. Callahan, Colorado: Oil-bearing rock, ill.... 204
Mt. Cerberus, Katmai Valley, Alaska. Lee atext,, 130;
ill.,° 1-30, ae
MtsDesert: light 2458 4st. Sioa oncieicie koe eee
Mt. Katmai, Alaska...... ill., 140, 166, 168; text, a8
Mt. Mageik, Katmai Valley, Alaska... .<..text, 1393
il, -140,. 157
Mt Martine Alaskae.. os scree rca ill., 140; text, 161
Mouse, Beach........... text, 422; ill. (colored), 428
Mouse, Big-eared rock...text, 423; ill. (colored), 429
Mouse, Field or Meadow..............205 text, 403;
ill. (colored), 420
Mouse, Field or Meadow: Tracks, all sso 393
Mouse, Grasshopper..... text, 418; ill. (colored), 425
' Mouse, Grasshopper: Tracks, ill................ 468
Mouse, Harvest......... text, 415; ill. (colored), 425
Mouse, House.......... text, 427; ill. (colored), 429
Mouse, Jumping........ text, 394; ill. (colored), 412
Mousels Pinel ociccmicnereisiere text, 406; ill. (colored), 420
Mouse, Red-backed...... text, 407; ill. (colored), 421
Mouse, Rufous tree..... text, 410; ill. (colored), 421
Mouse, Silky pocket....text, 395; ill. (colored), 413
Mouse, Spiny pocKet....text, 396; ill. (colored), 413
Mouse taking its own picture, ill............... 378"
Mouse, White-footed....text, 419; ill. (colored), 428
Mouse, White- footed: “Tracks, Ulcer oe 470
“Movie” show on a battleship, ill.............. 320
Mud, Blue: Katmai Valley, Alaska............. 139
Mud Canyon, Katmai Volcano, Alaska, ill...... 132
Mud mark, High: Katmai Valley, Alaska, ill.... 142
Mud, solidified: Katmai Valley, Alaska, ill.. 148, 149
Mules, American army: Brance, ale ances ote 212
Mules, Chief traffic is in Spanish: Andorra...... 209
Muscle balance test: Aviation, ill.............. 70
Music, Russian love 2ob. Sante sas wistteree arene i as) 262
Miuskratsncc sine ever een cies text, -411; ill. (colored), 42
Muskrat: Tracks, ill......... Sialeyeveje ss istefecese Sena On)
XIV
Page
SING
NahanteslWassusis Miati :1llierrsyevensueclerere a metal oisiclers c cis 534
Nahant. Mass.>) Pulpit (Rocky ills desis aievctoie ee 514
Names that will inspire the future navy......... 320
Nantucket ightshipwatercictecicleistelelevsieyee eiplevertele © oe 539
Napoleon, Tomb of: Paris, France, ill.......... 312
National Army men in training, ill............. 556
National Geegtaphic Society: Appeal to members. 347
NATIONAL EOGRAPHIC SOCIETY IN
WAR TIME. BY MAJOR-GENERAL A. W.
CG RUEBEG Vor ce ay ANIRRIVE Y cicreveictone's) 6.5 sais Gosreveelen4 369
National Geographic Society: Notable achieve-
ments
National Geographic Society’s Katmai Expedition,
1917: Members, ill
National Geographic Society’s Mount Katmai Ex-
edition, 1917: The Valley of Ten Thousand
mokes. By Robert F. Griggs.............. IIS
National suspicion to be obliterated, Lines of.... 322
Nature’s Battle-Ground: The Atlantic Seaboard.
Bye john Oliver La Gorcess :35 os aes ae ce seus iE
Nature’s warfare: Atlantic seaboard, ill.. 512, 514-
516, 518-520, 522-526, 528-537, 540, 542-544
Nature’s warfare, Communiques of............. 521
INatuxe’s: wild-foll: Tracks) ilciscs. «sets cleccie oterors 383"
Naval activities, By-products of.........e..e02: 316
Naval base, Austrian: Cattaro.........0....2e008 45
Naval explorers, Three most eminent........... 325
Naval hydro-airplane on a battleship, ill....... ~- 108
Naval Observatory transformed by Maury....... 332
Naval training station, ill..... atcnsrceerc ers 222, 314, 316,
3210, 3250, 328, 3315
Navesink light ........... BLsienashenal eueucishovotctoteiorereys 541
Navy aviators with hydro-airplane, ill....... OG, KEY!
Navyniny peacen bine) allie incre «sete eysie a's ane snetss aoa 324d
Navy, Our American, ill......... 314-316, 317a-321b,
_ 323-324d, 3254-331), 333, 334, 389
Navy, Our American: The Gem of the Ocean.
By Josephus® Danielsin.: .. 2 < is0)s cieicleiela! ovens <6 313
Navy studies international law............... aig epic
Needs difficult to foresee: Air army............ 60
Nelson, Edward W., Chief, United States Biolog-
ical Survey. “Smaller Mammals of North
RINNE TIC AY Mids, cle eter evehehe cre ehedsvere tlie oroltne uileberive 371*
Neptune, white horses of, ill.............eceee0- 333
Nest of young red squirrels, ill...............- 398
Nest of young white-footed mice, ill............ 379*
Neuilly, U. S. Military Hospital No. 1 at, ill.. 370-372
Neutral jroad! to- Wlivaas lee ssp eo eles lore wee e's 293
New coats for Boreas’ court..........eeseeeeee 381*
New Hampsiure, U.S. S; ile... 2. eee ee 3174
New order of warriors will fare forth, A........ 322
Newport News, Va.: Loop-the-loop, airplaine, ill. 68
Newport, R. I.: Naval training station, ill.. 222, 328
New York City buildings would not fill Katmai
CHALE The ere enc oeored ar cece erielvovtet wits lotiowe teresa ancueloncisuersdeustens 169
New York City daily water supply............. 168
New Yorl. City: Master Edward T. Dye selling
WwW. S UN ecpapeee ae tee eusas AE ae a ae AG 389
BGR ciety opener mates Me Nt Hoes 3250
ie eee ere Seckerents
New York, U. S. S.: In a hurricane, ill.... 319, 333
Nieuport, Flying in a............ text, 95; ill., 570
Nieuport, The wild man in the.........-....06. 92
Night-flying airplane, ill............. tec eescoees 579
Night flying,-Aviator’s sign-post for, ill......... 112
Nightingale, Florence: During the Crimea.. 381, 386
Nightingale, Florence: Nursery novitiate....... 378
Nights and days in the trenches.............-. 503
Nine-banded armadillo... ill. (colored), 457; text, 480
Nizhni Novgorod, Russia: Daily life....... text, 246;
ill., 250, 251, 254
No army is cleaner than America’s............- 509
Noisy Mountain, Katmai Valley, Alaska.... ill., 144;
text, 144
Non-stop flights, New world records for: Italian
PL TTILC TUT eee asa to rec Ones ehou.g aHSTa Pn Telieiea old aloe eta oeManoredans 47
Norfolk, Va.: Sunrise on the water, ill....... 6 Ret
North America, Germany’s aspirations in........ 561
North Dakota, U. S. S.: Sleeping hammocks, ill. 329b
No soldiers’ camps ever—before ‘so free from
Anunkennessy, | oie creiesisys, sieve es «suche, clabeleletenel's dono eee)
“Nothing stands alone’’......... RNS Sie elle se ors 390
Novarupta Volcano, Katmai Valley, Alaska..text, 131
144; ill., 138, 140, 145
Nungesser, Charles: French ace..... text, 7; ill., 577
Nurse, Red Cross: Military hospital, Paris, ill... 373
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
= Pa
Nursery novitiate, Florence Nightingale’s....... s
Nursing, Scientific: Modern system developed by
Florence Nightingale). {as4a acest s/s eee 383
Nutritive value, Potato’s great....cscccccceescns 362
*““Nystagmus test”: Aviation, all). ..:.ooegeneoee 71
Sh)?
Oats: Barometer of supply and demand, ill...... 341
Observation balloon above a battleship, ill...... 84
Observation balloon before its inflation with hy-
drogen gas; ill i: s-0).)slonte wlnyaete cee ee te)
Observation balloons used in war, ill...... 17; 22, 24,
: 25, 32, 35, 80-8
Observation work: Student aviators, ill.:....... ae
+ 230, 232
Ocean race, A great: Governor Mo:ton and Prima
Donna, c's cin, orsis ic +0 610 eiais tee Hain a 334
NAGE ele ci arayai stare allsvaderalove elects ale ovale esepatatete eee 202
Oil used ‘by Volga “River craft!) oo assess 248
“Old Friar,” rock in Eastport harbor.......... 513
One of ‘America’s'air triumphs. ..s0.0. 00 ceeee 51
“One -Volunteer”: French drawing, ill.......... 355a
Oregon chipmunk...... ill. (colored), 441; text, 450
@regonumoles ceici.ce rere ill. (colored), 461; text, 484
Origin, qf the, word Socotra... 1.5.20. eee 277
Ormond-Daytona Beach, Fla., ill............... 528
Outline map: Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes... 155
Qut of the’storm: Airplane, ill. 3:2) .2 -.0neeeeee 69
“Over the top and at ’em,’”’ Learning how to go,
BDe i Ba aiks,wiaiie i’ « Valleys sh eliatovere ehure ie oor 01a, sue SRO RORC Ene 241
@xen*® |Spain; iles- coe. ee EIN CINE Bin o 290, 295
Ozarks: Hogs with wooden yokes, ill........... 176
CO} ET)
Pacific Ocean: U. S. S. Georgia in a typhoon, ill. 318
Painted barns as signs to aviators, ill.......... 112
Painted chipmunk...... ill. (colored), 441; text, 451
Painting the distinguishing star: American air-
Planes Wh 2 css cre ayo gecteisrcuece. Sela eteeiene al Ge 62
Palace of the Trocadero and the Eiffel tower:
aris;; France, ill ie 4 tener ae he eee 307
Palmerston; Quotation’ from’... sss... senso eee 317
“Pants rabbits”: ‘Trench pests: ..>......-+. 0000 497
Parachute is the balloonist’s life-boat, ill........ 2
Parade of drafted men:Washington, D. C., ill 566
Paris, France: Military hospitals, ill........ 370-373
Paris, France: Scenes, ill.. 302, 304, 306-308, 310, 312
Paris: Red Cross service, ill...... 377, 380, 382, 384
Part food: plays at the front...... PRE 6.0 or - 340
“‘Pass-word” shot from an airplane, ill......... 34
“Past, pointing”’. test:. Aviation, ill....2s:-s sees 73
Patriotic meetings, Shipbuilders’, ill....... 347a, 3476
Patriotic posters, ill..... sishewo tele areve Saale tesekeherercreietene 550
Patriots may enlist, How young........... Soa | Cele
Peace born of kindness, A......... Shae epete: seovanege 329
Peace, Navy in: Se alls ae eae etc Ss eer ene 324d
Peace, Relation of Prussianism to.......... 546, 547
Peary, Robert E., Rear-Admiral, U. S. Navy: The
Future of :the’ Airplane &. conc. c71k oe oe eee 107
Peasants, French: Eating their crust of bread, ill 339a
Peasants, Russian: Life on the Volga..... Sercsct 245
Peeps into fur-folk homes..............-.eee0e0: 381*
Pennsylvania avenue, Washington, D. C., ill..... 566
Pennsylvania, Ws S29. all cee. ee ee ee 17b
Perry, Maury, and Wilkes: Naval-explorers..... 325
Pershing’s big task, General.......... sus oseetewet aks . 209
Personnel, Great problems of: Air army........ 57
Personnel, Katmai Expedition, 1917...........-. 154
Pests, Trench: Cooties and Courage. By Herbert
Corey) ods yieteeais Vic cig bic notre aie di sicthtes chee Os
Pet-sheep movement, ill.............e2eeeeeee - 192
Pets, Pigs rival dogs and cats as..... Src c Sle LOY
Phinny’s tribute to Maury...... cig a,eid wiereicle/e aaa
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIII, 1918 XV
Page
Photograr.hing leaves and flowers of the Frankin-
CeNnSser es SOCOtras pilin ste cese. aera enteene Buetane cies. be sie 270
Photographs. Interpretation of aérial............ 15
Photographs taken from airplanes, ill. Fy ey HO, 0190
T7 el One 2Om 2oues4 nay. 67- -69, 100, 102
Photography, Animal flashlight, WE Mecbisvctenece tere ors 380*
Photophysicists and the air army............... 60
Physical training: Naval station, ill......... 314, 3254
Eiccio. Colonel Ltalian aimmantncy ss oo oseee so - 7
Pictures, Animals taking their own, ill.... 378*-380*
Pictures, Moving: On a battleship, ill........... 320
Pig-club member ws. the ‘“‘practical’’ farmer..... 172
Rigo clubssebeginmingsvotis scsi se cece oie cis elev s «teint 171
Pig clubs, Boys and girls........ Se flte es ceaeeus 90 NAO
Bigw families; Mle. oe se ee 175, 177, 180-182, 185
Pigs and chickens travel with the family: Russian
DEEMED Goosaranddoaco0M4ocdooddOOd Ooo aDDOOO 259
PapasekcisssecAry all s05, fess siecseeuersuevavevayst eveceetsus euapele cues 184
Pigs mival-dogs) and cats das petSe. ccc scrrciels se) « 181.
Pika, little chief haré, or cony...u.....:.). text, 392;
ill. (colored, 409
Pine gmOuse acters oils chee es text, 406; ill. (colored), 420
Place Vendome, Paris, France, TD ee oie yacsus onsen 10
PLAIN TALES FROM THE TRENCHES:
AS TOLD OVER THE TEA TABLE IN
BLIGHTY—A SOLDIERS’ “HOME” IN
PARIS. =BY CAROL 3K. COREY....i5..... 300
Plant life destroyed, Katmai Valley, Alaska..... 129
“Plant our foot where it appears important”:
IPASSTATIISI 6:2 th6) sence ateseha ie alone Mecciess coPahvatususucvens 562
Plaza. de’ la, Constitucion: ‘Llivia, all... 2 6.23... 205
Pocket, gophers: ......- text, 398; ill. (cdlored), 413
Poland: Chart showing deaths by fighting and
famine, ill.
Polecat, spilogale, or little skunk: Tracks, ill.... 488
Policeman at Nizhni Novgorod, Russia, ill....... 254
Polish homes stripped of food by Prussian sol-
GETS STE hte jets, stoecs Ruelieae de. suet skovayeisoeo, cle @ ahalee sce oPacs 339
weolitical curiosity, Lt is) a) Andorran... se. : 207
Pomilio factory, Mammoth hangar of the, ill.... 42
Population: Andorra Republics fa.. «---c66s «oe 299
Ropalation: = SOCOthaA tir. cae o)-cnis weusic eS ele ienelete oe 2/9)
IROTCupines. aces ces text, 393; ill. (clorea): 412
Portals, Hotel de Ville, Andorra, 5) Renesas ee
Portland Head Light, Cape Elizabeth, Me., ill.. 523
Porto Rico: Packing pigs to market, ill......... 186
Ports, Volga River: Russia.,..... il]., FG, 247, 2525
; 254, 258, 260, 264; text, 262
Per Washington, Long Island: Hydro-airplane,
MUL Eeera ets eRe tee sunme eer heae ie eilaraiete eis oetautena tne 66
“Possession of Northern France is vital”: Prus-
STATUS IIE ereys ositon Favte bos eu atanel liste so spa a oo ovaltecele ee 567
Posters, Patriotic, alice! srs wcPabter vers sare eines tevanstwrele a: 550
Post-graduate course in France: Aviation....... 86
Post-office, Camp: Corner in correspondence, ill.. 226
Potatoes raised for alcohol: Germany Bee as 5 ee 205
Rotato nouns wor kindSsOfiecs | ssc eee oa ee 362
Potato mill, Dutch white-: Reported output...... 361
Potato great nutritive valuess. oc. ceo. 6s sex 362
Hotato, Sweet, possibilities Of--....c.0.. sesso. 361
Potato, White-, situation....... De OAT A 361
Potpourri of races: Russia................+..2: 255
Powder, insect, used by soldiers at the front..... 508
‘Practical’ tarmer vs. the pig-club member..... 172
Prainte-dogmerer nes cere text, 434; ill. (colored), 436
Premier Escadrille: Aces Among Aces.......... 568
Prevention the watchword of the Sanitary Com-
FITISSTOVN tee vee EN eas cis ke a dosete Ei ciio ts loncuce se eaane se 386
Pricesof flour: per barrel: Chart aliz..4. seen. 345
Pxicess Our method of fixingeericcn orem see 342
Prima Donna and: Governor Morton: A great
GCEATI GT ACE Ae Shue see aioe Orta meas essed hae aes 334
Brincer of “Walesir ile sane ack ce hio ten. stavsta ce ot oho: fais 576
Princeton school of aviation: Serdentst Woaceta Beri
Prison camps, German: Fighting the trench pest. 507
Exoblems) of ood controllers. S251 ele 342
Pro hiteering falls upon the wage-earner, Burden
Lene ae SUTRAS oie aha ae hata ate Nea lentva ce eUANS Ge scdietets-s 343°
Protiteer, iv Nature's war, Manas acc... ole 53%
Profiteers will be dead, Days when............. 324
Propaganda, The necessity for..... Fy eat ae RRL ee 222
Propeller, Airplane: In the making, ill.......... 57
Prussian boar’s tusks must be drawn........... 388
Prussia doctrines AS we. will iti... oe ce 549
PRUSSIANISM. BY ROBERT ‘LANSING... 546
Erussianism, Cerltrali thought of sseecee ack - 547
Prussianism_ described in 1871: Fortnightly Re
ECL rca tha Re Rie crater eye its, tee ota E65
Prussian soldiers stripping Polish homes of food,
MMe DER dye elec Tole Cle VCIM ISVS aU Glew atere Lecter Reales 3
Psychologists* MEME nAiG AuILY/2c Wace «ste tuee.<.c oe eee
Page
Public Square, Llivia, Spain, ill. and text....... 292
Public Utility,,Geneva Society of.............--. 385
Puigcerda, spain, Description... oie ee 284
Puigcerda, Spain: Old rope-walker, ill.......... 298
Pulpit) Rock. = Nahant) Mass>, ales eee eee eies ee 514
Pumice, Hail of: Katmai district, Alaska........ 117
Pumice, Lumps of: Katmai, Alaska, ill......... 145
BRampkine fieldesCanadavealler. ser cece ee teria 193
Pe rmnachine in an airplane parts factory,
AE ee rs Ae OO lo emote © 50
“Punch the clock’’: Immigrant school, ill....... 353
Purchasing officer achieves results, How the:
Wise Si cAmiivastareeyetaisue rr veloc. eis bestare ete oustniors te eoieieke 209
PutnanpsDavidebs American aces steiciewct ere eieietes 572
Ow
Quadruped with biped track: Common cat; ill.... 385*
Quotations from Germany’s war leaders..... 561- 567
sR?
Rabbit, Antelope jack...text, 384%; ill. (colored),, 404
Rabbit, Antelope jack: Tracks, ie caper ee eros 386*
Rabbit, California jack. .text, 385*; ill. (colored), 405
Rabbit, California jack: Tracks, Ms ines loco sete 386*
Rabbit, Cottontail...... text, 390%; ill. (colored), 408
Rabbits: Cottontailimelracksse ler eter tiieeeertet irene 390
Rabbit-hound and a young rabbit, ill........... a7 5a
Rabbit, Marsh.......... text, 391; ill. (colored), 409
Rabbit, Snowshoe, or Varying hare....... text, 387%;
ill. (colored) , 405
Rabbit, Snowshoe, or Varying hare: Tracks, ill.. 388*
Race, oN day-and-night: Air industry....... Bae ae
Race, A great ocean: Governor Morton . and
PrimacDOonnads. chs :oe. yee ee i. iso) 334
Races: A potpourri of: Russia...........-...-. 255
Racing crew of the Atlantic fleet, Champion, ill. 229
Radio, Battle’s: progress sent by............-+6- 16
Radiotelegraphy used on airplanes: France....-. 15
Rafts, Lumber: Volga River, Russia...... ee 248;
ill., 252
Raft, Socotran native: , Gorslyworsle oe 268;
ill., 275
Rag-pickers union flag: Spain..... text, 279; ill., 204
Railsfence © zanks, lllevcts are derenetteiel ole oneesneraiene 176
Railroad cars lost and found. aA arcs ee eee 214
Railroads playing a major role: U. S. Army in
A hehelol: Rene Gee PS ea nic. aea His DOI. Corn oO DC 213
Railway station in France, American, ill........ 212
Rainbow, Deposits all colors of the: Katmai -Val-
ley. eAllaskarmvamiccs 5 cura < Gutoee-s). shee eer ete 563
Spring beds unknown to the Moujik: Russia..... 251
Springman, Theodor: Quotation..............6. 7
Squadrons of Italian airplanes, ill..............
Squirrel ~Abert-o) alee ill. (colored), 448; text, 462,
Squirrel and cat: Hereditary enemies, ill....... 372*
Squirrel, California ProOund-eeeeee ill. (colored), 437;
text, 439
Squirrel, Douglas....... ill. (colored), 444; text, 455
Squirrel, Flying........ ill. (colored), 449; text, 466
Squirrel) Shox: soe «1. ill. (colored), 445; text, 459
Squirrel, iaarat “racks’ sill. 2:c.G erased nee hoe 478, 479
Squirreli (Grayes sees. tee ill. (colored), 445; text, 458
Squirrel, Kaibab........ ill. (colored), 448; text, 462
Squirrel) sRedtrers. caer ill. (colored), 444; text, 454
Squirrel, Rustry fox..... ill. (colored), 445; text, 459 ©
SquipreleRustyatox-dirackss tll). sme eee ere 478
Squirrels and their nest, Young red, ill......... 398
Squirrel, Striped ground. ill, (colored), 436; text, 438
Star, American distinguishing: Airplane wings, ill. 62
Starch, “Potatot a. btocstice eee eee 363
Star-nosed mole........ ill. (colored), 461; text, 485
Starr, Jack, and his champion pig..text, 176; ill., 179
Statue of Liberty: Distant view, le Bet a 325b
Steam cranes used in unloading ships: France, ill. 217
Steamer A. Volga. ill aioe ere 256, 258, 259
Steamer, Kreights Great) Wakes ill, see see eer 548
Steam-heated tents, Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes cistern sa le eee eee il., 116; text, 123
Steam issues from solid rock: Katmai Valley,
Alaska, ais tivevncnece sls, haneiontiors cicreteremsio tree 143
“Steam Navy, The Father of the’: Commodore
PO DTy: ihe. ccafovesere sutieye eoaetes ap ch cae clio se anee taylan 326
Steam oven, Natural: Katmai Valley, ill...." 120, 122
Steam-table, Perambulating: Hospital, Paris, Wes Bz
Stereoscopic vision test: Aviation, as bP er end es 70
Stevedores, Russian: On the Volga....ill., 249, 258;
téxt, 261
Stille, Charles J.: “History of the United States
Sanitary Coipinission?’.. -....c wie eee 38
Still, Experimental oil: Colorado, ill............ 201
Stoat, or large weasel.. .ill. Colored), 452; text, 469
Stone houses: Andorra ‘Republic, ily 286. 2oree eps
Stoppani Sergeant., italian ainmane. eee eee 47
Stores, Traveling: French Villages, FON bee aed siesta 506
“Storm flag of the empire’: Prussianism........ 565
Storm, Out of the: Airplane, tT vss oa a a ates 69
Stormssatusea,) ilies ite ces eersaers) bers 318, 319,- 333
Story of a bath: Soldier at Blighty... ..22-- 2... 309
Story, of Raoul Wutbery... oe cee eee ~ S71
Story of the Volga: Russia... +c ieee 245
Stoves: Army kitchen battery, ill.............. 230)
Strassburg monument: Alsace memorial, ill...... 304
Streams run red with blood: Europe........... 353
Strength and lightness, A maximum of: Air-
PLATES coset tien ore trdevevolsie skotes lane eae ill., 48; text, 55
Striped ground squirrel...ill. (colored), 436; text, "438
Stuart, Edward (Mr. and Mrs.) of the Serbian
Relief Commission< ile ccc ooo eee 3390
Submarine, American: Submerging, ill.......... 324¢
Submarine destroyer, ill........ b eibualetete vepene toons 235
Submarine secondary to airplane............... 109
Submarines employed by sea: Nature’s warfare... 527
Submarine survivot’s first speech, A............ 310
Sufferings of Russia unprecedented............. 349
Sugar-beet in America, Area of the............. 361
Sulphur, Flowers of pure: Katmai Valley, Alaska 139
Sultan Hassan ibn Imad, lord of the Isle. of
Franc Cerise icici ceseteie. . si bile 273
Trees, Dragon’s-blood: Socotra....ill., 270; text, 273
Trees, Frankincense: Socotra............- text, 267;
ill., 269, 270, 272, 276
Tremendous pressures must be withstood: Air-
PIANIES) 5:0 0, 2c-stsveovelelleValsiey slolelotepeloneinialslovete tienen 52
Trenches, German; From an airplane, ill....... 102
Trenches, Plain Tales from the. By Carol K.
COREY. osteo: ars biellolaye ovaceye reels ve vaheRohel alee ale te tenenanannmn 300
Trench fever and typhus traced to the louse..... 501
Trench pests: Cooties and Courage. By Herbert
COrey ae iie 4) droatbce o 8 01p Sigleveletelsyaleloleteistete to Reerenarae 495
Tribute, A sea dog’s, to a comrade)... .0 eee 335
Tribute to an enemy ace: Captain von Richthofen. 574
Tribute to Osmutn K.. Ingrameee. 2 en eee 321b
Tribute to the American dead: France, ill....... 508
Tri-color and the Strassburg monument, ill..... 304
Trocadero, Palace of the: Paris, France, ill..... 307
Troops can be attacked by airplanes, How...... 22
Troop tents: American aviation school camp, ill. 90
Droop trains) U.S. soldiers, alles eine 210, 560
Truck, Yar M. (G2 Av: Waar zone, ill... cert 502
Truing the airplane: America’s sky fleet, ill..... 52
Tulasne, Joseph, Captain, Chief of French Avia-
tion Mission to America: America’s Part in
the Allies’ Mastery of the Air................ 1
Turkey: Charts showing deaths by fighting and
famine; Wl oe Gsiaiere, oe bashes cere ee avatar eae 337
Ayurkish aces Record! (Ofs. «. «cml cys ciclo renee terete 579
Turnbuckles, Girls making airplane, ill......... SI
Tusks of the Prussian boar must be drawn...... 388
Two examples of Italy’s air achievements....... 40
Two-seater airplanes: American flying school, ill. 88
Type of American officer in France............ 497
Typhoon, U.S: S: Georgia ina, illic... eee 318
Typhus and trench fever traced to the louse..... 501
Mzaritzuinie Iussias sViOlga port. «sco oc «eterna 262
GO) (9 fu
Under three flags in Italy, ill.................. 387
Uniform: Great Britain’s Royal Flying Corps,
v1) pees Parc ear ineh ies i PIP eeNCR PRE ROR Mena eea TG O09 60 33
Uniforms: French aviators, ill................. 4
Uniforms: U. S. Army aviators, ill.......... 93, 105
Uniform, U. S. infantryman, UW abe oobi 552
Union, Rag-pickers’: Spain........ text, 279; ill.,. 294
UNIQUE REPUBLIC, WHERE SMUGGLING
IS AN INDUSTRY, A. BY HERBERT
CORE Yoke Seiccisie she tetaveni o reakgertne s sysa.h Gaelepeenetenenete 2
United Kingdom: Chart showing deaths by arate
ingMand famines all’. 5... svead «econ oeuateen Gene 337
United States:
Airplanes in the ‘making, ill... . oscc.losms 48-62
Army aviator’s uniform, ill................ 9
Atlantic Seaboard: A Battle-Ground of Na-
ture. By John Oliver La Gorce.......... 511
Aviation schools, ill........... 63-65, 90, 94, 97
Coast and Geodetic Survey, Nature’s war
COnLeEspondentic . secete sists oe slokenclen veto roterer ele 541
Coast Guards:.Wearers of the cross..... 541, 545
Colorado, Grand Valley: Oil shale, ill... 203, 204
Colorado: Oil-shale beds, ill........... 196, 201
District of Columbia: Parade in Washington, oe
1 ante mee MM ASOLO E Oices Gi0'o Oc 5
Florida, Alton Beach: An Aérograph, ill. 67
Florida, Biscayne Bay: Aviation schoo] ma-
chine, ieee ante etoetl scoleeaeneeeieee 63, 67
Florida coast scenes, ill..............-- 542, 544
Florida, Ormond- Daytona beachiy se ereeeae 528
Food Administration has done for us, What
de ae Racist ee PL EOS AIbS 6 p.0°0 Or 0 Oc 343
Geological Survey: Testing oil rocks. text, 1953
ill, 196-204
Georgia, Augusta: Camp Hancock, ill.. 225, 241
Georgia, Chickamauga: First Virginia Field
Artillery in training, ill................. 224
Great Lakes, Freight steamer om the. ilar 548
Great Lakes training station, ill............ 64
Illiterates, Chart showing increase and de-
Crease” Itty alee crea cr cnetsneis orth ee eRe 50
3
Long Island: Mineola aviation school.,. ALE as 65
Long Island, Port Wastes Hydro-air-
planes iliac. -rtcrei a.foheie) ce) neh lel= Las esto ian
INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIII, 1918
Page
Louisiana, Caddo Parish: Original boys’ pig
Clea ee reyes bro oot eis sal nile oi che Wene tou eicleusnesteveneteds 6 171
Maine coastscenesy Illini a. coe ole ssale 6 ee 523
Marines) inj brances ills... - 210, 242, 504
Massachusetts coast scenes, ill.......... 514, 515,
as F Sealy 522, 534
Military Hospital No. 1: Paris, ill..... « 370-372
Minnesota, Fort Snelling: Y. M. C. A. build-
LINSood Td, CAMP ale areca: eiore eneicl ethers oysue eve = 220
Navy, Our American: The Gem of the
Ocean. By Josephus Daniels........... 7313
Navy, Our American, ill...... 314-316, 317a-321b,
323-324d, 325a-331b, 333, 334
New Jersey, Sandy Hook: Map, ill......... 535
New York City buildings would not fill Kat-
IAI CHALET Soria seas oer ae alae wie, Sheleneoste less 169
New York City daily water supply.......... 168
New York City: W. S. S. campaign, ill..... 389°
New York City: Woolworth tower, ill...... 46
New York Harbor: Liberty and her defend-
ETS ill cere ajenn cerseer kee Suet aoa Sea reemer awit ehe ecole) eile 325b
New York, Ruth Law at Governors Island,
BU Oi evesarercase oir apae sian ees siisve enue tee ede oi sie cdnts III
Pennsylvania farm scene: Sheep, *‘]........ 192
Record of the aces of the United States.... 577
Rhode Island, Newport: Naval training sta-
COM SAD eres ses pemsoere ole sie es sVos oreo ieescsus 222, 328
Sanitary Commission the first organized prac-
tical Red Cross Association.......... 385, 386
Soldiersscallliccisclacete oc:cte'. 207, 208, 210, 212, 215,
220-221, 224-228, 232-237, 240-242, 496,
498-500, 502-504, 552, 554, 556, 560
United States not signatory to the 1864
WL@ALY?: eCsENEV.Acisiaroys ce isclole sors s ore ewes eee 385
WETSaS. Aticoa at sea, Alea. 2G sue: cael 6 321
US sn. Florida] Sick ibaysutlle «fhe. .jou ese 5 330
U. S. S. Georgia in a typhoon, ill.......... 318
U. S. S: Mississippi, ill........ Snavehebde ae eis -. 3150
WSS) News Hanipsiiire. We een etes cee 5c, 6 3174
U. S. S. New York in a hurricane, ill... 319, 333
U. S. S. North Dakota: Sleeping hammocks,
TULL OSSEA i costae ta ee ee ecco one ee . 329b
We Sa Seoenssyluattiae Whee ccs 6 «cle os aera: 317b
U. S.S. Texas: Boston bull mascot, ill..... 324a
U. S. S. Teas, Official family of the, ill.... 321b
Weah=x@il-shale beds> illhese oe ae ne ee 198, 200
Virginia coast scenes, ill...... 516, 531, 534, 536
Virginia, Newport News: Loop-the-loop, air-
plane, ill..... Peis Or ease Ona Er a ee
Wyoming: Oil-shale beds, ill........... 196, 197
Universal history the history of the world’s great
TIC tapos OO On OOO SION Tin 50.6.0 Ot Ene tane aes 325
Universal sign adopted for the Sanitary Corps.. 386
Universe will be ours for helping our fellow-men 319
Wnold> Johannes: Quotation.....50 02. «css Bouoo ies
Un Souvenir de Solferino: Henri Dunant......-. 383
“Until. the German autocracy suddenly went
BITS Cl bacege stare as evens eretesciersyas CoCotersaievavalabecs areistsien $300 KR)
SEN7 22
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska, ill.
(stipplement) itn. a. «ors lo one 115, 116, 118, 120, 122,
124-128, 130-133, 135, 136, 138, 140-146,
148-152, 154-160, 163-169
VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES,
THE: AN ACCOUNT OF THE DISCOV-
ERY AND EXPLORATION OF THE MOST
WONDERFUL VOLCANIC REGION’ IN
THE WORLD. BY ROBERT F. GRIGGS,
DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GEO-
GRAPHIC -SOCIETY KATMAI EXPEDI-
TIONS OF 1915, 1916, AND 1917.......... ait
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes compared with
Wellowstone (Parks nck sie Sore Re ob eee 131
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes named by Rob-
BE Bion NARS ioc aim croneas wlohe ake rice Sete Mrosteaf hes Ae Gan G4
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes: Outline map.. 155
Vapors cured rheumatism: Valley of Ten Thou-
SAME SINOKESa a NlaSkaly sie cacioiciee eerie ies: 124
Varennes, France: From an airplane, ill........ 18
Varying Wares.,.....8 5... text, 387*; ill. (colored), 405
Wessnny lene Ameo Mlegasdaocgoopocucgquan0c 388*
Vegetable, dried, a war industry............... 356
Vegetable drying factory, ill......... 363a-363b, 366
Vegetables, Whiy do we) eat... 220.0 ci cecsnle 356
Vents, Gas-emitting: Katmai Valley, Alaska, ill.
; 133, 135, 151
XIX
Page
Verdun, Rampart of: French drawing, ill....... ee
Vest (Senator), Ouotationytrom-e see eee eee 333
Virginia Capes: region, (65. oc ess ce ee 528
Virtues of-sweet-potato flour. ....0<.00ceecc-cce 361
Vision and the plan of Dunant................ 383
Visitors regarded with justifiable suspicion: Llivia 279
Volcanic vents, Millions of: Katmai district,
aS 4 cc 5 vockeae Ones ee hg ee 119
Volcanoes, Alaskan: Valley of Ten Thousand
Sniokes) (eden eee text, 115-169; ill., 115-169
21 9 6 #10 sole le
VOYAGING ON THE VOLGA AMID
WAR AND REVOLUTION: WAR-‘TIME
SKETCHES ON RUSSIA’S GREAT
WATERWAY. BY WILLIAM ‘I. ELLIS.. 245
EN
Wadi Motaha, Socotra: Caravan, ill............. 266
age-earner, The burden of profiteering falls
UPON the..c.5 tastatn ste. teveteee of aes ae 343
Wagner, iNlaus;;Onotatione sass eee ee - 567
Walcott, Frederic C. Forerunners of Famine... 336
Walcott, Stuart: American aviator, ill.......... 105
Walcott, Stuart, American airman in France: I-x-
tracts from the letters of Stuart Walcott....... 86
War and food map of Europe, ill.............. 338
War between land and water................... Sit
wa courespondentis dispatch which aroused Eng-
AIG sh eionctlon si sro ten sie sus Yeus revel anevena reste Cheb ce Rane nee
War, Every generation has had its............. aie
Warfare along the Florida Keys, Nature’s....... 538
War industry, The dried vegetable a............ 356
War Map: Western ‘I'heatre (supplement)....... 371%
arm water from snowdrifts, Katmai Valley,
MM aS Kae cisceciaiscanu) pst te oe eee eee text, 1403) 1115) 146
Warplane, French 125-miles-an-hour, ill......... 36
Warriors will fare forth, A new order of....... 322
Warsangli country, Somaliland: Frankincense... 267
War Savings Stamp campaign, National Geo-
graphic: Societys 24... cco ae one ee 373
War Savings Stamps, Edward T. Dye selling:
NewYork: City, te... sth sicher eee on ree 389
War’s birdmen to play useful réle in peace times 109
War scenes: French drawings, ill........... BRR, ESL
War scenes: French peasants, ill..... Paid bocca 330A
War scenes from airplanes, ill...... A 5 UO> Wis 0%.
18, 26, 28, 34, 37, 67-69, 100, 102
ar scenes: Polish homes robbed of food by
Prussians): leet ccsence cts eae eee 339
War scenes: Serbian children of tragedy, ill..... 339
War scenes, United States naval, ill..... Z15G,) 3150.
3174-321b, 323, 324b, 324c, 325),
War Time, National Geographic Society in. By
3
War, Western Theatre of: Map (supplement)... 371*
War zone, American battleship using a smoke
screen in the, sll)... 2.3... Pe ee AI Gc bao 327a
Wash day in a U. S. Geological Survey camp, ill. 202
Wash day. on, a battleship) ull.) 4) see 326
Wash-houses, Community: France.............. 505
Washing the ship in dry-dock, ill...... 327, 329, 389
Washington: Parade on Pennsylvania avenue, ill. 566
Watch long kept on German conspirators........ 553
Watchword of the Sanitary Commissien, Preven-
tion: the) 2.4 6 ses nails caiiecane iste eraCaRero rake kor at oetenctone 386
Water’s allies in its air attacks................. 513
Water supply, Daily: New York City........... 168
Waves, Atlantic scaboard, ill......... Bias SU25 Gus:
518, 525, 530, 540, 543
Wearers of the cross: U. S. coast guards....... S41
“We are the hammer of God’: Prussianism.,.... 551
Weasel at bay -on a tree-trunk, allj ooo. oe 376"
Weasel, Large, or stoat..ill. (colored), 452; text, 469
Weasel) Large) or stoat: Tracks, less. eee. 481
Weasel: Iveast. ;...-...- ill. (colored), 452; text, 471
Wieasele “hracks) ile. sacsereiie cites Nica Wee Ouro: 481
Weather has many evil moods in the Valley of
Ten Thousand Smokes, Alaska............... 127
Western inventions to Japan: Taking............ 327
Western Theatre of War: Map (supplement).... 371*
West Quaddy, Head: Wight... (90... -.-.. soos" §38
What constitutes conspicuous bravery........... 573
What Florence Nightingale accomplished in the
Crimea, aris core tee See Cr ere ep WE aces 381
XX
deg
WHAT IS IT TO BE AN AMERICAN? BY
FRANKLIN K. LANE
What leadership could accomplish in Russia.... 253
Wheat: Barometer of supply and demand, ill.... 341
Wheelbarrows of pigs for market: China, ill.... 191
When an American ‘“‘outfit” enters a town....... 495
When the cadet first flies alone: Aviation....... 85
When the sea encounters cross-fire resistance.... 517
Whistler, or hoary marmot...... ill. (colored), 433;
text, 434
White-footed mice; Nest of young, ill........... 379*
White-footed mouse..... text, 419; ill. (colored), 428
White-footed. mouse: Tracks, ill............ sae 470
White horses*of Neptunes ills. .c ci. 6 cee ces oe 333
MWYNite=poOtatom Situation wires ate cteisielels «/sleidiclere)selere 361
White River, Colorado: Ojil-shale beds, ill...... 196
Why men say republics are ungrateful.......... 335
Wicker-baund pigs going to market: China, ill... ror
Wild man in the Nieuport, The............... «2 92
Walkes, (Gharles Navalhero. cf. lsc)o1 aisle 2 cccreleys ols 325
Wilkes tear di iccseeis crore niecesc tte wratalens ie crekereteneiee’s 96 SG
Wilkes, Perry, and Maury: Naval explorers..... 325
Wilson, President,.marching in parade of drafted
men, Washington, ill............ 2c eee e'cus 6 S60
Wilson, President, receives honorary membership
in the National Geographic Society.......... 369
Winds a Bolshevik army: Nature’s warfare....... 535
Winds, makers of sand-dunes...........000e%+8 535
Wine-sacks, Skin: Seo d’Urgel, Spain........ deer 205
Wings for the American birdmen, ill...
Wissemann, Lieutenant: German pilot...... stelereeeSOO
Wives travel with soldier husbands: Russia...... 250
Wolf tracks, Katmai Valley, Alaska............ 129
Wolverine tracks, Katmai Valley, Alaska....... 129
Woman and donkey toil together: Spain........ 284
Woman flyer: Ruth law, ile scercs siete sisi srelejelere ore III
Woman power, America rich in aviator man-and- 109
Women field-workers: France, ill...........e00. 368
Women sewing linen on airplanes: United States 55
Women soldiers, Russian.......sececcccocevce - 250
Women to can for American soldiers, French.... 216
Women workers in airplane factories, ill..... 48, 49,
$0, 51, 53
Wonderful and amazing sight: Valley of ‘Ten
Thousand Smokes, Alaska........ aia Be ece 117, I19
onders of the World, One of the: Valley of
Tene Ghousand sSmokest..j: adascs eletiece es sacs IIS
ill. (colored), 432
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Page
Woodchuck, Common, or American marmot:
Tracks;,* ill, o's asco poled cals ete boon oe eee 475
Wooden yokes, Pigs with: Ozarks, ill........... 176
Wood, Leonard: Major General, U. S. Army, ill. 111
Woodrat? -a., aacoies eee text, 414; ill. (colored), 424
Woodrow Wilson airway, The proposed......... 113
Woolworth tower, New York City, ill........... 46
Work drove away fear: Katmai Expedition, 1917. 153
Work of the coast-guard cutters.............2.- 545
World against Germany, The case of the........ 221
World ayricultuic, How the dried vegetable would
CHAN ge) iis cicic cies 0 0 0 pin'n'e cere sr eystste ace anataeteneean 361
World domination, Germany’s dream of. By the
1c he) ee EP 559
World domination, Germany’s dream of: Map, ill. 558
World dominion, supreme object of Germany... 547
World never again to be victimized by Prussian
Perfidy, oo: 's.- ce wieinie afe:c'c.e/0/e16) 5 tinei> ole ln enn 555
World of discovery, Few accidents in the....... 325
World, One of the wonders of the: Valley of
“en. Thousand -Smokes. .: 2s. ...> sosoe ce eee II5
World’s greatest battle, but not the last......... 354
World war: Charts showing death by fighting
and: famine) ill... oc 5: 4/0 blese ¢.cust one era eter ree 337
World will be free again, When the............ 244
Wreaths and flags on the graves of the American
dead:) France, illic3 . coon eae Wie
Wright Brothers airway, The proposed.......... 113
GO
Yams grown in Socotra...%.... 0. « sesleuwtcee aeeane
Yellowstone Park, Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes ‘compared. with... 4 ..- >see soe 131
Yokes, Pigs with wooden: Ozarks, ill........... 176
Yoke;*The* Spanish} alls... aa eee 290
Y. M. C. A. barracks for American fighters in
Paris, lle i230 6 sales 0 6 pe © 3 I nee 306
Y.-M.CvAL vin icampg.2 ee ill., 220, 221; text, 226
Y. M. C. A. truck of supplies: War zone, ill.... 502
YioMe BA. cilh cn sda): oi eet oe eee sehs W227
SZ?
Zeppelins captured by French airmen. ill...... Tear
Zoko, ‘Socotra:- Ancient; capitall,.-. +. se eee 277
BOOKS OF EXCEPTIONAL INTEREST AND UNSURPASSED EDUCATIONAL VALUE,
which are available to members of the National Geographic Society.
If published for purely com-
mercial reasons, the price of these volumes would be several times as great.
“WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA,” in-
timate studies of the big and little citizens of the mam-
mal kingdom, by E. W. Netson. Illustrated with 64
pages of full color reproductions from paintings by
Louis Agassiz Fuertes; 50 sketches of wild animal
tracks by Ernest Thompson Seton, and numerous black
and white half-tones. Bound in royal buckram (stiff
covers), or military khaki (flexible covers), $3.00.
“FLAGS OF THE WORLD,” by Commander By-
RON McCanpbiLess and GILBERT GrRosvENoR. A _hand-
‘ somely bound volume of 150 pages, containing 1,197
flags in their full colors, 300 illustrations in black and
white, the complete insignia of the uniformed forces
of the United States, the international flags in use on
land and sea, together with an epitomized history of
each flag, and an authoritative history of the “Star
Spangled Banner.” Bound in royal buckram (stiff
covers ), or military khaki (flexible covers), $2.00.
“THE BOOK OF BIRDS,” 200 pages, illuminated
with 250 matchless subjects in full colors, 45 illustra-
tions in black and white, and 13 striking charts and
maps. Bound in royal buckram (stiff covers), or mili-
tary khaki (flexible covers), $3.00.
“ALASKAN GLACIER STUDIES,” illustrated with
more than 200 reproductions from photographs, 68
sketches, and 9 maps in colors, compiled by Ralph
Stockman Tarr and Lawrence Martin. Handsomely
bound in red linen, price,- $3.50.
“WASHINGTON—THE NATION’S CAPITAL,”
by WILLIAM H. Tart, Former President of the United
States, and JAMgEs Bryce, Former British Ambassador;
35 pages of color illustrations, 59 pages of half-tones,
2 large panoramas, and a map in color Bound in
cloth, price, $3.00.
“SCENES FROM EVERY LAND” (Third Series).
Price, bound in full leather only, $2.50.
“SCENES FROM EVERY LAND?” (Fourth Series),
200 full-page illustrations, 24 pages in 4 colors, 20,000
words of descriptive text, by GILBERT GROSVENOR,
Kditor NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MacGazINneE. Cloth, $2.00;
full leather, $2.50.
EARLIER ISSUES OF THE NATIONAL GEO-
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE are in many cases available
and copies for reference and study-club work may be
obtained from these offices usually at 25 cents each.
An index of articles published in the past which are
useful for such studies has been prepared and will be
furnished upon request.
These books are obtainable only from the
Society's Washington headquarters, 16th and
M Streets N. W. Postpaid in the United
States.
VoL. XXXIII, No. t
WASHINGTON
JANUARY, 1918
TWIRUE
Oa
NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZIINIE
AMERICAS PART IN FHE. ALLIES’ MASTERY
OF THE AIR |
By Major JosepH TULASNE
CHIEF OF THE: FRENCH AVIATION MISSION TO AMERICA |
HE summer of 1917 was marked
i by very spirited air battles for the
supremacy of the air.
During those battles the losses of the
Allies were great and those of our ene-
mies still greater.
At the present time we are profiting by
the lull which the winter rains have
caused in air raids and are organizing
large fleets of well-armed and well-
equipped planes for the spring 1918.
The aérial program of the Allies is a
mighty one; that of the enemies is just
as mighty. ’ Every one 1s convinced to-
day of the importance of the supremacy
of the air throughout 1918.
The American people have understood
_ admirably the part which American avia-
tion is to play in this gigantic struggle,
and the enthusiasm of the American peo-
ple and their determination to intervene
in order to blind the army of the enemy
has enabled Congress to pass an aviation
bill calling for an appropriation of $640, -
000,000.
The officers in charge of the organiza-
tion and development of American avia-
tion and the business men who have spon-
taneously offered their services and busi-
ness experience have done a great deal
during the last six months. Aviation
schools have sprung up all over the coun-
try. Several of them are at present work-
ing at full speed. Hundreds of pilots,
full of dash, are being trained, and they
are going about their work with the same
zeal which they formerly displayed on the
football field at college.
ARRIVAL OF AMERICA’S AIR FLEET
ANXIOUSLY AWAITED
American engineers have designed and
constructed a powerful motor, and the
workshops for motors and airplanes are
fully organized for the task ahead of
them ; but if these machines are not ready
in time, provisions have been made. in
France and other Allied countries to place
the necessary airplanes at the disposal of
American aviators, so that they will be
able to take part in the air battles in the
early spring of this year.
On the whole western front, extending
from the North Sea:to Switzerland, the
arrival of the American air fleet is anx-
iously awaited. This fleet must consist
of a mighty battle squadron and a mighty
bombing squadron as well.
The battle fleet is the decisive element
in securing and maintaining supremacy
in the air. But the Allies must also have
a large number of pursuit squadrons,
efficiently armed and piloted by daring
aviators.
The American fleet of battle planes will
enable the Allies to secure the indisputa-
ble mastery of the air.
© Underwood & Underweod
AN AIRMAN’S VIEW OF THE FAMOUS “CROSS OF CHARTRES’ CATHEDRAL
A unique picture of one of the most treasured ecclesiastical structures in France. Across
the upper half of the photograph may be seen a part of the framework of the airplane from
which the picture was made. Situated 50 miles southwest of Paris, this magnificent Gothic
pile has not felt the ravaging hand of the Hun.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZIN 3
It it necessary that this air fleet should
come at the earliest date possible to take
its place in the struggle. The supremacy
of the air for 1918 will be decided during
the first months of the spring. At that
stage of the war it will be absolutely nec-
escamy tian tien Nites mulesthe ain, As
was the case in the cavalry battles of the
First Empire, the supremacy wrested
from the enemy in the first encounters
will hold for many months, and subse-
quent small reinforcements ordered into
the struggle will not be able to regain that
supremacy. The American air fleet must
be at the front early this spring and in
great numbers. It will be there if Amer-
ican industry turns out products quickly
and on a large scale. ‘Time saved will
save human lives. If two squadrons of
American battle planes could have been
gee Dunkitke ta. september, 1or7, the
French Aviation Service would not have
suffered the irreparable loss of Captain
Guynemer. |
Since 1915 French aviators have been
making bombardment raids. ‘The raid
upon Karlsruhe, in 1915, made by 20
bombing planes, thoroughly terrified the
Germans. In that attack more than 200
persons were killed or wounded, and for
many months this reprisal stopped Ger-
man bombing of French towns.
SHATTERING THE ENEMY’S MORALE BY
AIR RAIDS
In 1917 bombardment of our defense-
less towns by German planes began again.
London and Dunkirk have suffered most.
Public opinion in America has been
aroused against these bombardments. Re-
prisal bombardments have been suggested
frequently and have been effected. Dres-
den and Frankfort have been visited by
French planes. But the people of Amer-
ica must realize that it is more difficult
for the Allies to carry out bombing expe-
ditions than for the enemy. The same
distance which will take the German ma-
chines over London and Paris will take
the Allied machines over Belgian towns
or French towns in the invaded territory,
still quite far short of important German
towns. It is thus clear that the problem
of bombardment is a more difficult one
for the Allies. And this is one reason
why we should go at it with all our might.
Only a person who has been in a town
bombed by enemy planes, especially at
night, can understand how panic-stricken
the inhabitants become, and this increases
the effect of the material destruction by
shattering the morale of the people.
A systematic bombardment of open
German cities, carried out relentlessly day
and night without interruption, in answer
to the bombardments the Germans have
been carrying on for the last three years,
in violation of all laws of warfare, would
seriously affect the morale of the enemy.
The air campaign of 1918 will be de-
cisive. A powerful bombing fleet, no less
than a great battle fleet, is essential to
success, and both should be ready for ac- -
tion in the spring.
By repeated raiding trips, day and
night, this bombing fleet would contribute
immensely toward destroying the morale
of the German people and would hasten
the end with an honorable peace.
HOW TIME CAN BE SAVED
It is, therefore, necessary to put forth
every effort to develop and speed up these
two forces—a fleet of American battle
planes and a fleet of American bombing
planes. The thought of getting to France
in time must stimulate the industrial
population of America in the building
of these air fleets, as well as the officers
who have the enormous task of organ-
izing this mighty fleet, of training the
aviators, and arranging for the supplies.
How is it is possible to save time, and
thereby to save human lives? This can
be accomplished by spending money and
applying to the creation of the American
air fleet the wonderful industrial organ-
ization of the country, and, finally, by
shipping the finished products fearlessly,
by facing all risks.
AMERICAN AIRPLANES IN FRANCE WILL
HASTEN END OF WAR
The sooner American planes appear on
the French front, the sooner the war will
end, the more lives will be spared.
In Europe great numbers of airplanes
and engines of the type now used at the
front are being built and will be used
this spring.
‘JoTons) JULUd}
Joyoede’T JuCUd No] 4YuUISIaG JURUdINI’T : MOI puoddg ‘“JOIWIe], JUeUSINaV’T pue ‘sys 24
2
‘eyoolIog oq ulejdeg “ouedsy JueUsNV]T :1YStt O} Yo] WoOIf Suripeat “MOI JUOIY
-nav’yT ‘neojnqey, Jueusaynory ‘oljeprA jueUsNo’T
ureyded ‘otoda’yT ureydeg ‘(JuepueuUod)) duseiny, soley
~
VOINAWV OL, NOISSIN NOILVIAV HONAY AHL AO SYHANAW ;
UIJILPY Sopiey
ceeetenrere
> Aq ydesrso0j0Yd
eee ee re se Saleen
= >
*
ae
|
1)
i
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oO
In America the Furopean types of air-
planes and motors will be built, at first,
to aid the English and French factories,
in order that the Allies may have the
largest possible number of battle planes
at the earliest possible moment. Then
the new airplanes, more powerful and
better armed, will be built to be used
during the summer of 1918.
The unlimited resources of American
ACES OF
—
industry will make it possible to carry
out these two building programs, first,
to insure victory in the spring, which will
soon be here; and, second, to provide for
the future by building machines with the
latest improvements.
The Allies are anxiously awaiting the
aid of the American air fleet. If this
fleet comes in time for the 1918 battle,
it will be the deciding factor.
THE AIR
By Captain Jacques De SIEYEs
OF THE FRENCH AVIATION SERVICE
VIATION is a game—an amazing
Az: a eae! on adventure, of
countless thrills, of soul-stirring
excitement, a game in which courage, dar-
ing, resource, determination, skill, and
intelligence achieve honor in life or, if
the fates so decree, glory in death.
To the pleasure of accomplishing ‘one’s
duty is added that of reaping immortal
rewards—perhaps the reputation of a
Guynemer, of a Nungesser, of an Heur-
teaux—men whose names the whole
world repeats and acclaims.
The duty is glorious. If an aviator can
accomplish his task by sacrificing him-
self for others, death can be faced with
equanimity. And American history is
sufficiently rich in glorious examples of
sacrifice, of devotion, of abnegation, to
prove that the sons of heroes of the past
will be just as brave as their forefathers
and just as ready to die, if need be, for a
worthy cause.
Indeed, Americans have already proved
their valor in the Lafayette Escadrille,
some of whose members have fallen, but
which has continued to increase in num-
bers until now it is the richest in pilots
of any squadron in France. I lived in
the Somme with this squadron. One of
my friends, Captain Thenault, com-
manded it.
The Lafayette squadron is a squadron
of pursuit, equipped with one-seater ma-
chines—swift, light, fast climbing, well
armed, made to battle against enemy ma-
chines, to prevent their entering our lines
and attacking our scouting machines
while we are at work.
I. had the good fortune to be m the
aviation service at Verdun and on the
Somme in 1916. These two operations,
one defensive at first and the other of-
fensive, resulted in the adoption by the
aviation service of the organization now
employed.
LIVING IN THE MIDST OF HEROES
I was in the pursuit branch of avia-
tion, living in the midst of heroes who
have glorified French flying. I have wit-
nessed in the air acts of legendary cour-
age; have heard on the ground reports
of fights that thrilled us with admira-
tion. ‘There was an extraordinary fever
among aviators, each one realizing the
importance of his role and wanting to
do more than: his duty, and the aviation
corps was flying in all weathers—in wind,
in storm, in the midst of or below the
clouds, at less than 200 meters.
The watch in the sky was never re-
laxed. From our aviation field, where
the group of squadrons of pursuit was
stationed, a squadron of 12 machines left
every two hours, to replace another on
the front. If reinforcements were asked,
others left. Lastly, atveach’ attack, the
sky was swept by the entire group of
nine squadrons, and each day brought
new satisfaction. Each day brought also
a fresh harvest of heroic actions, bloody
SUALVYM NOIMIYOT NI AWHHMAIWOS IVATSAV SLI NOdN dIHSYVM NVOIWANV NV SHNOO'TAM MOIAUAS NOILVIAV HONG AHL FO JINN V
poomMisopuy ®Y poomispuy ©
"
TH NATIONAL (GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 7
sacrifices. Each day aviation reaped new
honor and new glory.
Once it is the Sergeant de Terline who
bravely enters a combat with five enemy
airplanes, and bringing down one, puts
the rest to flight. He pursues them, is
wounded, his machine-gun jammed. In
rage, unwilling to let go his prey, he pre-
cipitates his more rapid plane into the
plane that injured him and drags it in
flames with him as he rushes to his death.
Another time it is two of my com-
rades, pilots who protect me as I take
photographs. An enemy machine comes
to attack me. Both hear the same voice,
the voice of Duty; the two comrades hurl
themselves upon the enemy with such
force, so-straight, that they collide and
fall in flames to the ground. The enemy
plane, seeing the two dive upon him so
fiercely, flees without disturbing me. I
cannot recall without the greatest emo-
tion the death of these two trends in
saving me.
DARING ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE ACES OF
AVIATION
Then again it is Nungesser, who climbs
into his machine at 9 a. m., remains on
the lines until 3 p. m., landing twice to
take gasoline. In the meantime he has
brought down an enemy balloon and two
planes, one of which was getting the best
of a British plane.
Or again it is Heurteaux who brings
down a boche each fine day. I have heard
that he was gravely wounded in Flanders
a few weeks ago.
Then there are Thaw and Lufberry,
the American “Aces,” whose courage is
a daly, topic. And Aarascon, who, in
spite of an artificial leg, brings down
seven airplanes in three months.
And Captain Erard, an observer, who,
in directing the firing of the cannons thus
t protect the: attacks of our infantry,
flies so low above the lines that his plane
constantly returns riddled vith bullets.
He ends finally by being hit, and falls,
bloody, but smiling happily at death, in
the midst of the infantrymen whom he
has led to victory by sparing their lives.
Then there are five pursuit aviators
who at each attack fire on the enemy, as-
sembled for the counter-attack, and dis-
perse them with heavy losses.
And Captain de Beauchamp, who bom-
bards Essen at one time, Munich another
time, passing from France to Italy. He
has since fallen gloriously, a victim of a
combat above Verdun.
Then there is Dorme, famous among
us for his skill, who plays with German
airplanes as with flies. But he loses one
-day at this dangerous game, and in a
struggle with the enemy in superior num-
bers receives his death blow and fails in
the German lines.
THE CREAT CUYNEMER
Fallen also is Guynemer, fallen from
the sky of glory where he has written his
deeds in letters of fire—Guynemer, whose
name is on every lip—a pure jewel of
valor and sacrifice.
“Fifty-four airplanes, 215 combats, 2
wounds.”
That is his last citation before dying.
It is quite sufficient to remind you of the
whole story of that gallant air champion
of liberty. :
I have lived near him. I have known |
his intrepidity, his tenacity, his fascina-
tion. Duty of combat was for him a re-
ligion. He had an iron will. His pres-
ence alone so electrified his comrades that
the squadron to which he belonged pro-
duced more aces than any other. He was
upright as a sword, pure as a diamond,
and utterly absorbed in the struggle
which he carried on to the detriment of
a constitution already frail. This mere
child, who was yet more than a man, suc-
ceeded in bringing down three enemy air-
planes in less than an hour. Chiefs and
comrades spoke to him always with re-
spect. He was of a finer essence than our-
selves, inspired with a sacred fire which
passed our understanding ; convinced that
he could not always be victorious, having
already found himself several times in
awkward positions, twice wounded, he
kept at it furiously, never refusing com-
bat, rather seeking it. Incapable of re-
treat, he fought in spite of everything, at
any time, with any one, with any number,
with 10, with 20, only abandoning the
fight when wounded, without ammuni-
tion, or without gasoline.
Guynemer fell in the midst of 40 enemy
airplanes, of which he had brought down
one; one arm was broken, a ball in his
‘UdUT ITDY} JO OoUvAP UT 9} & SAVMTL OI JO UTeJIND dy} DAY OF Se OS paysod SjsI1O]][VIe
ay} doay 0} st yt Ajnp ssoyM uoware Aq ATIpval poziusode1 oq Avul AY} Jey} OS ‘syed Aloy} UO spivorid o}14YM IeVaM sdi0d surmoeye ArUeTUT
yousty dy} O} Sursuojeq sioipjos ayy, “suBApe [NJssadons & J9};e sjnosnp UeUIoL) 9Y} quod OF St jt AjNp 9soyM ,{SioUueIII-YOUII},, Ipeusss
-puey Yours OY} JO SodIpIATJOe oY o}eOIpUL syous Jo synd oYM oY, “YOUSI} B Ul Stoyoe}e oy} Uses oq APU MOLEd IW Y “sy unS-oulyoeur
Awious Worf ssdjesd [Jays Aq pasojyjo uond0}01d oy} FO 9SvJULAPL SuTye} UdWAIJULJUL YIUII,T 9Y} Uoss oq AvU JoUIOD puey-yYysts Joddn oy} Uy
UVM AHL JO SHAVAIOOLOHd ‘IVINAV WIAVMUVWAY LSOW AHL AO ANO : aa
AMAVILLYV ONILNOddAS AUL ONILOAIG SI AHAVAOWIALOIGVA ASOHM NV IdYIV NOLLVAYASHO NV WOU MOVILV HONTYT V JO MATA
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 9
head, and a smile on his lips. No words
in any language can convey a just appre-
ciation of his valor or his sacrifice.
In France they have given his mortal
remains the place reserved for the great
men whose names are the honor of our
country—the Pantheon. At least, there
they will rest when we shall have snatched
away from the Huns the little churchyard
of Poelscapelle, where they were buried
respectfully.
But Guynemer is not out of the strug-
gle for us. Heisastar inthe sky. Many
stars will come to aviation, more numer- |
ous yet, lured by its gleam. Go over
there—you shall see that star, and feel its
lure, and desire to fly up to it. There is
no child in France who does not lisp’
Guynemer’s name; no boy who does not
want to follow where he led; no soldier,
no chief, who does not have before his
eyes the example of that youth who over-
topped them all. The path he traced is
straight and true. He followed the way
of honor.
THE AUTHOR'S OWN EXPERIENCE
I am reluctant to write of my own case,
but I ask your permission to do so in
order to show you what a fascination
aviation has for one.
Officer by profession, I was interested
in flying before the war, but only a few
months before. Not being sufficiently
trained when the war broke out, I had to
go back to my infantry regiment on the
eastern frontier.
On the 22d of September, 1914, both
my arms were broken in a combat. As
soon as I reached the hospital, I put in a
request to enter the air service if possible.
My request was refused; there was too
great a need for infantry officers. So,
when my arms were well again, I re-
turned to my regiment at the front. In
January, 1915, my foot was blown off by
a shell; they cut off my leg and they cured
me. They gave me an articulated leg.
Not wanting to be discharged, I again put
in a plea to join the aviation service, and
after a great many formalities was al-
lowed to become an observer. In a com-
bat at Verdun our machine was riddled
with bullets and was obliged to hobble
back to our lines. A bullet had carried
off two fingers of my right hand.
I joined my squadron again in the
Somme after six months of illness in a
hospital. I remained there five months,
with the good fortune not to be wounded,
happy to be able to serve once more. It
was not the result of a wound, but of ill-
ness and weakness after nine operations
in two years, that I was again sent away
from the front.
In my assignment to duty in America
I would like to think that I have not
wasted my time here, and if I have been
able to persuade some of my comrades
in arms to become aviators my work will
not have been in vain.
FLYING IN FRANCE
By Caprain ANDRE DE BERROETA
OF THE FRENCH AVIATION SERVICE
HE SEVERAL, thousand miles
which separate the United States
from the European battlefields
render the conception of a modern battle
very difficult for an American.
Moreover, such a rapid transforma-
tion in the instruments of war and in
the methods of employing the different
branches of the army has marked the
period during which military operations
have been maintained that even one who
has witnessed the obstinate struggle
throughout these three years has diffi-
culty in following all the details of its
mechanical evolution. ‘The transforma-
tion has taken place more particularly
on the French front, where the opera-
tions have reached an intensity unsur-
passed elsewhere. The Marne, Verdun,
the Somme, the Aisne have been so many
“SJUDUID[SULJUI IIIM Poqieqd MOU dI[qePIWIOF JO UOT}DII9 JY} UIT ByI-1IeYyY a[qeAiasqo
AJaoreos v& ‘K1a}jeq MoU & FO UONLITLJSUL OY} ULOWT AVUT MOPRYS & WIY OF, “Stojrenbpeoy ye o[qenj[eaur st “yooM jse] 10 AepsiojsoA apeur ydessojoyd
ay} aoUIS SayoUst} SAW9Ua dy} UI sasueyo dy} sI9YydIOop pue jYSIY sueuUlsre sy} JO sjonpoid e1oWIed ay} Saye} OYM UeU 9Yy} Inq “oUeTdITe oY} UL
. . . . . e
‘ ‘
J9AIasqO dy} JOU ‘IIAIOSqO poouatiodxd 9YT, “1eM sty} JO suorssojoid ArvejyIU poziyperpoads ATYSIy sy} JO suo awWOdaq sey SuIpeosi-ydersojoyg
SNVIdYIV WAHOIH V WOW NANVE HdVUOOLOHd :SAHONAAL FO MYOMIAN V YAAO ONIA’T SYTAMASAO HLIM ANVITdNIV HONAM
1194197 F PPE O
ig
t
IO
jis,
Photograph by International Film Service
AT THE THROTILE ON BOARD A FRENCH AIR CRUISER: BELOW IS A DESTROYER
UNDER WAY
Airships are more useful for sea-patrol work than they are over land, as the Germans
have discovered’ to their cost.
[ Near the coast they guard channels or detect mines and act
in concert with warships against enemy U-boats.
French dirigibles are fitted with at least
two motors, strong and light, which give them great speed and their petrol supply insures
them an extensive range of action.
diabolical furnaces in which were forged
new implements of war and the power-
ful modern armaments. 3
The preparation, conduct, and results
of an offensive military operation today
bear but a faint resemblance to those of
a battle at the opening of hostilities.
The extraordinarily effective applica-
tion of aircraft to the uses of war has
greatly accelerated this radical transfor-
mation. ‘Today aviation reigns supreme
over the field of battle, controlling the
faintest pulsations of the great volcano.
The object of the present discussion is
to trace the various phases of its evolu-
tion and, although it would be particu-
larly bold to prophesy in the matter of
military operations, to suggest the de-
cisive influence for victory that the en-
trance of the American squadrons on
the French front may have.
iMicteware, at tie Present time, three
II
branches of aviation which differ in the
duties performed, in the machines used,
and in the armament provided.
These are:
1. The Divisional or Reconnaissance
Aviation, a valuable ally of the staff it
serves, of the batteries whose firing it
directs, of the infantry it assists in lead-
ing during the battle.
2. The Aviation of Combat, younger
sister of the first and the most faithful
ally she has for her protection from the
aggressions of hostile airplaines. “At-
tack the boche, down him, or compel
him to flee,” is its clearly offensive motto.
3. The Aviation of Bombardment,
hitherto chiefly employed in reprisals for
the aerial raids of the enemy, but now
called to a much greater and perhaps a
decisive role.
Although essentially distinct, these three
branches of aviation can only be effec-
‘stojjodoid 119y} YIM
SULlOpInuL Used perl
pooMiopuy Y pooarss
‘SPUIIVIO JIS OM} SB YONU OS Suly}OU s[quiaso1 ‘diyssre ay} JO [NY 10 Apoq oy} JO Jay pue jYSII oy} ye popuosdsns
‘SIOJOUL OM} OYJ, “SUIVG So] sUUOGINOg JvoU Y}1va 0} JYSNOIq pue UOWIIIe YOUsI Aq poyorie seM JT ‘“UdIpyIys pue uswIoM
4 .
}E d19YM ‘UOpuo’T J9AO |seAOA Uopleul S}t WOIF SuTUINjJoI seM “SuUO] Joof¥ cZP ueYy} dow ‘uleddsz YJowWeUW sty,
SUOLVIAV HONAYT Ad daddl’ID NYYd AAVH SONIM HASOHM AMS AH AO IVGNVA LNVIO V
pun O
12
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ue
tively employed by, the constant codrdi-
nation of their efforts.
Let us consider the conditions and in-
fluences attending their birth and develop-
ment and the roles they are to play in the
battles of tomorrow, in which your sons
and brothers are to participate.
When the war was declared the chief
strength of the French and German
armies lay in the masses of their in-
fantry, in the power of their artillery,
and in the skill of their cavalry. How-
ever, it seemed the part of wisdom to
put the few hundred airplanes we pos-
Sessed at the service: of ‘the fighting
forces, in order to facilitate the success
of their undertakings. The offensive
strength of both the French and German
squadrons was very small in comparison
with the millions of combatants ready to
clash with each other, supported by the
fire of several thousand cannon.
But these airplanes possessed the power
of exploring the field of battle to an ex-
tent far beyond that of the cavalry, for
which this delicate and dangerous duty
had hitherto been reserved. To them, ac-
cordingly, from the beginning of the war,
was intrusted the observation of the
movements of the hostile armies.
During the whole period, termed the
“War of Movement,” that is to say, until
the battle of the Marne, the French com-
manders were kept promptly informed of
the movements of the German forces,
thanks to the daring reconnaissances of
our pilots, who, accompanied by staff offi-
cers, made flights far within the lines of
the enemy and at a low altitude, in the
rear of the hostile forces. ‘The Aviation
of Reconnaissance was thus created dur-
ing the first days of hostilities.
AIR SERVICE DEVELOPMENT
The number of aircraft in use was so
small that a hostile airplane was rarely
encountered in the course of these recon-
noitering expeditions. If adversaries did
chance to meet, all the pilots could do
was to shake their fists at each other or
discharge their revolvers without the
slightest chance of hitting. It was, how-
ever, from these gestures that aérial com-
bat took its birth, the history of which.
will remain as one of the most brilliant
epics of the present war.
Taking advantage of their excursions
within the lines of the enemy, the pilots
carried with them a few artillery pro-
jectiles which they dropped on hostile as-
semblages, camps, or columns. Such was
the beginning of aérial bombardment,
which, at that epoch, was left to the initia-
tive of each pilot. The bombs were
thrown without aiming, over the edge of
the cockpit, and it was counted a lucky
shot when the projectile hit the intended
target. Moreover, the airplanes of this
period were not capable of carrying heavy
loads ; so that the pilots, as a rule, had to
be satisfied with small steel arrows, which
they dropped upon the enemy wherever
they found them assembled in large
“groups.
This is, in brief, the history of aviation.
It is evident that the general law govern-
ing the development of all technic must
apply to the development of aviation, and
that the aviators must specialize as ob-
servers, as fighters, and as bomb-drop-
pers. If this organization had been ef-
fected in time of peace, it would doubt-
less on the outbreak of war have been
immediately introduced at the front in all
its forms; but, as I have told you, it is the
experience of war that has made aviation
what it is today, and only on the field of
battle that it has been possible to develop
the organization of military aéronautics.
There was no time to lose in France,
nor in Germany. Before all else the avia-
tion of reconnaissance was organized.
The Marne had exhausted the contending
armies. The ammunition had been reck-
lessly expended during this decisive bat-
tle, which saved the world from the Ger-
man yoke. Each army clung to its posi-
tions, while strengthening them with
works of fortification.
Trenches, dugouts, block-houses, and
barbed - wire entanglements—everything
that pertained to stationary warfare made
its appearance, transforming the field of
battle in a few weeks into an immense
work yard,.where every one disappeared
behind natural defenses or improvised
earthworks. Several million men buried
themselves like moles.
The artillery, profiting by this respite,
was able to find positions concealed from
the view of hostile observers. Soon the
‘UOI}TJOWIP JO YIOM 9Y} PoYyst[dwuodsdse pey IJOATOAII UBUD) & WOF Sjo[[Nq AleIpusoUT d1OFaq JOU 4nq ‘sIo
-uOsiid apeUul JOM MID OY} JO SIoqMIOUI ZI SY, *PuUNOIS dy} O} JYSNoIq Usdq PY jf Jo}Fe S1OyestAvU UMO
AONVUI NUYFHLAOS NI ‘NOSIW LV GNXOSA OL GUOYOT SVM LI VALIV SLNAWOW Maa Vv SP-'T AHL
uosdwoyy, [neg Aq ydeis0j}0yg
Sjt JO auo Aq pakorjsap sea urjadda7Z siyy,
IO SNIVWHY GHIONV ‘CaLSIML FHL
mei *
RPE EA
fo
14
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 15
field of battle gave to every one the terri-
ble sensation of being spied upon by an
adversary who inflicted blows from an in-
visible source.
ARTILLERISTS APPEALED -TO AVIATORS
Artillery ammunition being particularly
scarce, it was important to fire only on
reliable information and at objectives.
known to be actually occupied by the
enemy. Under these conditions the artil-
lery quite naturally appealed to the avia-
tors, who, on account of the immobility
of the armies, were now less absorbed in
distant reconnoitering expeditions.
Our brave pilots, who during the be-
ginning of hostilities had been carrying
the staff officers, now placed themselves
at the disposal of the artillery officers,
who set out to discover the hostile ob-
jectives by watching the regions of bat-
tery emplacements. The observation off-
cer recorded on his map the position of
the batteries that had been surprised in
action during the course of his flight.
The landing was made on some field in
the immediate vicinity of the French bat-
teries, which, being informed in regard
to the position of the enemy, opened fire
in most cases according to the map—that
is to say, without observation of the hits.
But it would have resulted in a far
greater efficiency had the aviator, after
discovering the objective, remained in the
air to observe the firing and report to the
battery the errors of its shots. This is
the problem of adjusting battery fire by
aerial observation (spotting), to the solu-
tion of which the artillery officers and
aviators are assiduously devoting them-
selves.
One of the first methods had for its
basis the dropping of signal lights. Then
the aviator made use of certain evolu-
tions of his machine, indulging in per-
formances almost acrobatic to announce
the results of the shots. This crude
method was soon supplemented by the use
of radiotelegraphy. France enjoys the dis-
tinction of having been the first to make
use of radiotelegraphy on its airplanes.
The enthusiasm evoked by the success
of these first spottings was only surpassed
by the chagrin of our enemies, who were
subjected to an accurate and murderous
fire from our batteries, while an airplane
with the tricolored cockade was perform-
ing graceful evolutions over their heads.
It is only fair to add that within two
months after our first trials the Germans
had furnished their airplanes with radio
apparatus, so that we were able to verify,
at our own expense, the advantages of
this new method of directing artillery fire.
But for every new weapon there is a
corresponding defense, and for protec-
tion against the incursions of hostile air-
planes they are attacked by airplanes
armed with machine-guns, are fired upon
from the ground with special guns, and
certain curious stratagems are employed
which may be briefly described.
FAKE BATTERIES TO DECEIVE SCOUT PLANES
For the purpose of deceiving scout
planes in quest of targets, false battery
emplacements have been prepared and
provided with wooden guns. Seen from
above 4,500 feet, their appearance is the
same as that of the real batteries of which
they area faithful copy. To complete the
illusion, as soon as a hostile plane passes
through the lines, the real batteries stop
firing, while the false ones are illuminated
by suitable artificial flashes, giving the ap-
pearance of a battery inaction. This de-
ception is often very difficult to detect.
Both French and German gunners have
often fired at wooden batteries, while an
airplane perseveringly spotted the firing.
These false batteries and the artificial
activity given them in the eyes of the avia-
tors could deceive only for a time, because
the aviators were not satisfied with sim-
ply observing them, but took photographs
of the field and were thus enabled to
study in detail, far from the excitement
of the front lines, the changes which the
defensive works of the enemy underwent
from week to week.
By a careful study of these pictures
they learned to interpret them and thus
gave birth to a new branch of military
art, that of the interpretation of aérial
photographs. Without entering into the
details of this fruitful and fascinating
study, you can readily understand that
by means of lenses with a sufficiently long
focus an accurate image of the field can
be obtained, and that certain indications
on the photographs distinguish the real
batteries from the fictitious.
16 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Moreover, the comparison of successive
photographs of a given region permits the
detection, with practical certainty, of the
intentions of the enemy. If he is about
to attack, the photographs reveal the
bringing up of new pieces of artillery, of
ammunition, and even of troops, whose
movements widen the trails; they show
the creation of new roads, the building of
field hospitals, and the enlarging of rail-
way stations near the attacking front.
If, on the contrary, the enemy is about
to withdraw, the photographs show the
new fortified positions he expects to hold
at the time of his retreat and the destruc-
tion of railroads and highways, which are
the prelude of a retirement. It has truly
been said that each adversary inscribes
upon the field his plan of operations. It
is therefore to the reading of this in-
scription, as one of their permanent and
fundamental tasks, that the scout avia-
tors are called.
In a word, the scout aviators who are at
the height of their efficiency never fail to
snatch from the enemy the secret of his
operations. They no longer permit sur-
prise attacks, which are the most to be
feared of all the hazards of war.
Furthermore, they are not limited to
the execution of this difficult program.
Not content with unveiling the plans of
the enemy by the thoroughness of their
investigations, and with assisting the ar-
tillery in adjusting the firing on the
trenches, fortifications, and batteries of
the enemy, they render their most effect-
ive service during the progress of the at-
tack itself, which they direct and control
while allowing it a logical development.
THE FORMIDABLE TASK OF THE, SCOUT
PLANES
-I shall try to give you a very brief
glimpse of the formidable task performed
by the scout planes during the prepara-
tory phase of a battle and during the crit-
ical phase of the battle itself. The time
has passed when one could make an im-
provised attack upon the enemy, relying
simply upon superior numbers and the
morale of the attacking troops to gain the
victory. s
To search out, in all their details, the de-
fensive works of the enemy (barbed-wire
entanglements, trenches, block-houses),
the position cf all his batteries ; to locate
the trails, railways, munition and supply
depots, and headquarters of the com-
manders; such is the work to be per-
formed by the scout planes before every
offensive operation.
To direct the firing of all the artillery,
whose task is to destroy the barbed-wire
entanglements and the trenches ; to bom-
bard the batteries and destroy the larger
part of them, to set on fire the munition
depots within its range, to prevent or
render perilous any passing along the
roads and railways, to delay traffic in the
supporting railway stations, to control the
destruction of objectives and the efficacy
of long-range firing ; such are the princi-
pal tasks of the scout planes during the
preparatory period of an attack.
Moreover, they assume the enormous
responsibility of the faithful execution of
this program, which is carried out en-
tirely through the intermediation of their
eyes. ntl
VITAL REPORTS OF BATTLE’S PROGRESS SENT
BY RADIO
Finally, on the day of attack, it is they
who, flying at a low altitude over the as-
saulting waves of the infantry, signal its
progress to the superior command; it is
they who discover the active batteries and
reduce them to silence by causing them
to come under destructive fire; it is they
who cause the dispersion of wagon trains
and troop columns venturing along the
roads and trains near the battlefield; it is
they who watch for the possible launch-
ing of a counter-attack, always to be
feared, and which they must announce at
the right moment to the infantry and to
the commander in charge.
Thanks to the promptness of their re-
ports, sent by radio, the commander is en-
abled to make his authority felt during
the progress of the operation. When, in
the midst of the hazards of battle, the
energies of the combatants become scat-
tered, causing confusion and disorder, the
scout planes, by the accuracy of their re-
ports, permit the harmonizing and coordi-
nating of effort necessary to the final
victory.
To describe the airplanes used in scout-
ing, the details of their armament and the
devices with which they are equipped,
© International Film Service
FUR-MUFFLERED AND GLOVED, A FRENCH AERONAUT PREPARED FOR A LONG STAY IN
THE AIR TO OBSERVE THE ENEMY’S OPERATIONS
This photograph was made from a new type of observation balloon which carries two
baskets. The second basket, accommodating the photographer, hangs very near the one
shown in the picture.
17
Pas 156 — Varennes N.O —
24 .5.17 . 10"4S 2400" 0.50
Photograph from French Aviation Mission
THE FRENCH VILLAGE OF VARENNES FROM A HEIGHT OF 7,800 FEET
The airplane from which this beautiful bird’s-eye photograph was made was flying
above the clouds, which veil a portion of the town, only a few miles from Verdun. ‘The
observer’s record (at the top of the picture) shows that it was made at 10:45 on the morn-
ing of May 24, 1917, at an elevation of 2,400 meters.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 19
would carry me beyond the limits of my
space. Evidently it is the observer who
must have charge of the mission of recon-
naissance, of photography, of artillery
adjustment, or of infantry communica-
tions; but he is greatly assisted by the
pilot, whose skill and decision contribute
in no small measure to the successful ac-
complishment of the aerial task.
This, then, is a brief sketch of the im-
mense task of the scout aviators. You
can understand why both France and
Germany first organized this class, so in-
dispensable for conducting land opera-
tions, offensive as well as defensive.
Do not think that the task of the second
kind of aviation, that of combat, is any
less important or any easier. I said that
the aviation of combat was the younger
sister of reconnaissance aviation and her
faithful ally. This is true, for she was
born after the latter had attained consid-
erable importance, and grew up at her
side, her principal mission being the pro-
tection of her elder sister from the at-
tacks of the enemy.
THE TACTICS OF FIGHTING PLANES
I wiil explain in a few words the meth-
ods of the pursuit or fighting planes and
the special duties which the aviators of
the pursuit squadrons have to perform.
To understand the tactics of our ma-
chines you must be acquainted with the
methods of the enemy—that is, with the
formation adopted by the Germans for
the execution of their work.
In normal times the German planes
are disposed in three stories, the most
elevated being also the farthest from the
front.
1. The spotting and infantry planes,
at a height of about 3,500 feet and at
least half a mile from the front. These
are protected by:
2. A defense (barrage) of two-seaters,
at a height of about 9,000 feet and from
two to three miles within their lines.
3. Lastly by the “Aces,” who, utilizing
the best single-seat and a few two-seat
planes, hold themselves at a height of
about 12,000 feet, between three and four
miles back of their lines.
In periods of crisis, when an attack is
believed imminent, or when photographs
are to be taken within our lines, the Ger-
mans launch large groups of machines
over. the affected points. In particular,
reconnaissance missions are executed at
heights of 13,500 to 15,500 feet.
To this rigid and defensive arrange-
ment we oppose a war of movement by
the employment of offensive cruisers, ter-
raced like- the enemy’s machines, which
it is their duty to attack.
Our fighting machines are at present
swift single-seaters, flying from 125 to
140 miles per hour, each armed with one
or two machine-guns, rigidly fastened to
the airplane and capable of shooting only
in the direction of the axis of the ma-
chine, not pivoted like the guns on war
vessels.
The pilot must therefore fly straight at
the enemy in order to be able to fire at
him. He must be skillful in aiming and
steering at the same time, so that at the
moment for firing the hostile plane will
be in the sighting line of his machine-
gun. I leave you to imagine the skill
required to attain this result, when one
attacks an enemy flying at an average
velocity of 125 miles per hour, with his
own machine going at an equal or greater
speed.
THE: VARIOUS MODES OF ATTACK
The following are the principal cases
of es for fighting planes:
The attack by an isolated single-
ee on a single-seater, likewise 1s0-
lated—This is the easiest case. Above
all, the effect of surprise is sought, either
by taking advantage of fog, or by getting
between the sun and the adversary, or
getting vertically over him, where he can-
not see you. Having made a successful
approach, you must get into a good firing
position—a short distance below and be-
hind your adversary, while avoiding the
wind from his propeller.
To accomplish this, each pilot uses his
individual methods, which vary in each
particular case. One of the common ma-
neuvers consists in diving from a suff-
cient distance to about 300 Y feet behind the
adversary, dropping about 60 feet lower
and coming into position for firing by an
upward dash.
If the enemy has suspected nothing, it
is “assassination.”
‘snowioua useq sey pojorpur aSewep
‘ é > dARU Adu] udu: ; 9[3yeq 94} pulyeq si9ju9. uorjejndod Awsaus uodn spres
al Iopjassnqy ye se ‘squiog 119y} peyouney, savy Ady} UIYM JN ‘9UT] :
ae Bed aerisa pue Sree dy} ‘UNpUO'T dYI] Sot paynsoyun uodn syoV}We UPUIor) JOF [estidot ur ATUO Udy} pue ‘saoue\sSUT
MYONVH SLI ONIVALNG WIPGIOIYIG HON V
ADIAIIS OJOYUJ SMON [P1JUND Aq uUdeIsO-CY AT
SSS
diysiie ur pos[npur
otel ul ydo0x’77
20
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE J43
If he has seen you, he either flees or
accepts combat.
If he flees, fire after him.
If he accepts battle, each adversary ma-
neuvers to keep the upper position in the
air in order to be able to drop suddenly
behind and below the other. It is a ques-
tion of skill and quickness of eye. After
a few passes, one of the two gets the upper
hand. When the boche feels himself
beaten, he usually tries to escape by div-
ing. If he dives in a straight line, keep
firing at him, as at a target. If he zig-
zags, you must keep close behind him,
tacking every time he does. His only sal-
vation then lies in the tail-spin or in turn-
ing over on the wing.
Often the single-seaters prefer to op-
erate in pairs. In this case they either
both attack at the same time, in order to
divide the attention of the German; or
one attacks above, while the other guards
the rear of the attackiig machine.
2. Attack on a two-seater by a single-
seater. ‘To effect a surprise is always a
first consideration. The importance of
the attacking position is greatly increased
by the presence, on the hostile plane, of a
machine-gun operated by the observer
and often covering a large field. Before
all, one must never get into the three-
quarters position—rear, below, nor es-
pecially above—for he would certainly re-
ceive some bullets.
The best position is either in front
and a little below, or under the tail. If
he is coming from three-quarters front,
on the same level, he opens fire at about
ninety feet, and if the boche veers to give
the field to his observer, he takes advan-
tage of this move to get under his tail.
3. Attack on a hostile group by a
single-seater —The object of the first ma-
neuver is to isolate one of the airplanes,
50 as to attack it separately. le drops
into the midst of the group while keep-
ing a little above and firing at all his
adversaries, so as to force them to ma-
neuver. It is seldom that one of the
enemy, in his excitement, does not de-
tach himself by turning to the right, while
tie others turn to-the left. It is upon
the former that our fighter precipitates
himself.
4. Battle of a group of single-seaters
against a hostile group.—The group, con-
sisting of four or five machines, holds
itself at a high altitude. The V forma-
tion of flying is adopted. The leader
flies at the point of the V, the others be-
ing terraced behind him. The planes
leave about 450 feet between them, ia
terraces, the leader being the lowest.
The Germans fly likewise in V forma-
tion or single file, in steps; but, with
them, the last plane is the lowest, the
leader being the highest.
This results in the following form of
attack. The French leader announces
that he is about to attack, by balancing
twice, and dives at the last German plane,
which is the lowest. The other boches
make a half-turn and fall upon him. The
remaining Frenchmen then attack them,
with all the trumps in their own hands,
the one uppermost in the air having the
initial advantage.
DESTROYING GERMAN KITE BALLOONS
The other possible missions of the
fighting squadrons include:
The destruction of the drachens (kite
balloons), which completes the fight
against hostile aircraft for the purpose
of blinding the enemy. ‘This mission, in-
dispensable in the course of an important
operation, is executed at the request of
the commander interested.
The method usually employed is the
following: An airplane is designated for
each drachen. It is protected by a second
airplane, on account of the single-seater
defending the balloon. Then our airplane
dives in such a way as to make the last
goo feet at an angle of 45 degrees. It ap-
proaches the drachen facing the wind, so
that the latter will present its maximum
of surface, while protecting him from the
machine-gun in the basket. Ata distance
of 300 feet he fires a volley of incendiary
bullets. This mode of attack is often suc-
cessful. If not, the Germans pull the
balloon to the ground. In either case
the object is attained.
To blind the adversary by destroying
his aircraft is the fundamental result
sought by the fighting group; but it can
also assist in the battle by getting infor-
mation and by attacking the ground
forces.
Having very swift machines at their
disposal and being able to open the way
Photograph from Pictorial Press, French Official
LOOKING UP ALONG A SHIP’S MAST AT A CAPTIVE OBSERVATION BALLOON POSTED
AS A LOOKOUT FOR ENEMY UNDERSEA BOATS
by main force, the fighting aviators are
required to execute long-range reconnats-
sances. But it 1s especially during their
cruises within the hostile lines that the
single-seater pilots gather useful infor-
mation concerning the activities of the
enemy in the air and on the ground. By
making general the use of automatic pho-
tograph cameras, a rich harvest of valu-
able information will be assured.
HOW TROOPS CAN BE ATTACKED BY
AIRPLANES
The attacking of ground forces is a
matter of individual prowess rather than
a productive operation. Troops can only
22
be attacked in the open field and from a
low altitude with machine-guns, bombs,
and darts.
Such, then, are the conditions for the
employment of the fighting squadrons.
It remains for me to tell you of aérial
bombardment, which 1s, perhaps, destined
to be one of the most effective forms of
aviation when organized on a large
enough scale.
But before all, let us consider what
should be bombarded. You well know
the revolting conduct of our adversaries,
who, in spite of all laws of civilized war-
fare, initiated the practice of bombarding
open cities, hoping by repeated murders
W”W] FF
NS
SS
QQ
SGCGCOGQ_
\
\ Sa
N SRR
MQW BWV[ ww
Y Z GL, Y U7
j Ven hy,
Ys g Y
Z iy
Mas: % Li
Ve
Photograph by International Film Service
A MECHANIC REPAIRING ONE MOTOR WHILE THE FRENCH AIRSHIP PROCEEDS UNDER
THE POWER OF ITS TWIN MOTOR ON THE OPPOSITE SIDE
Note the slight blur in the photograph at the end of the shaft at the left, indicating that the
propeller blade is revolving rapidly
of helpless children, women, and old men
to cause panic among the civilian popula-
tion of France and England.
From the purely military point of view,
these bombardments are of no value, so
long as they attack only non-combatants
and do not injure in any way the fight-
ing forces of the enemy. On the day of
a decisive battle, of what use is it to have
mutilated the civilian population of the
enemy, which takes no effective part in
the fighting?
It follows, therefore, that this practice
should be absolutely forbidden in war.
Furthermore, let it be said that France
and England have made raids on open
cities only in reprisal for German raids
on their cities. Among the most famous
of these reprisal raids is that on Karls-
ruhe, in June, 1915—a great success, but
with the loss of two airplanes. Then
again on the same city in August, 1916,
when considerable destruction was caused
and the moral effects were far-reaching.
This expedition caused the boches to re-
23
flect and held them in restraint for fear
of further reprisals. ;
But, I repeat, we have not made a gen-
eral practice of these raids, first, because
they have no definite military object, and
also because it is more difficult for us to
reach tives German! (ettiess taney i ise lor,
them to fly over the French and English
cities. Im fact, the Germans setout trom
French provinces or from the borders of
Belgium, which they have invaded. The
distance traversed by their machines
when they go to London, for example,
would only carry a French or English
machine over Belgium or our invaded
provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.
In other words, the German cities are
much farther from our lines than the
French and English cities are from the
enemy lines, since we have to cross Bel-
gium or our invaded provinces before
reaching the heart of Germany.
But, apart from these expeditions, are
there not purely military objectives that
<]
© Paul Thome
FRENCH OBSERVATION BALLOON, OR “ELEPHANT”
3)
powerfully equipped bombarding planes
can reach and destroy?
ATTACKING THE ENEMYS MOST VULNER-
ABLE POSITION
It is the problem of the employment of
bombarding or bomb-dropping planes, in
cooperation with the other branches of
the army, that we are about to consider.
In general, it may be assumed that all
objectives on the battlefield which are
beyond the range of the guns may be
effectively bombarded by airplanes, pro-
vided these objectives are large enough
to be easily hit. It must be remembered
that bomb-dropping by airplanes, al-
though well conducted with the most ac-
curate devices for sighting and launching,
never attains the precision of artillery
fire. It would therefore be useless to at-
tempt the destruction of small objectives.
Without undertaking the description of
the battlefield itself, with its first and sec-
ond line trenches continually exposed to
the fire of the enemy, I wish to mention
the principal organizations, which are lo-
cated immediately back of this fighting
zone of about eight miles. In this region
of comparative safety the troops are as-
sembled for an attack.
There one finds the army supply sta-
24
tions, artillery depots, ammunition de-
pots ; also the airplane landing fields, with
their hangars, their machines, their roll-
ing stock. Lastly, it is in this region that
the soldiers are located to rest after their
sojourn in the trenches, and where they
can profit by the relative quiet to obtain
the necessary relaxation for their nerves
after the rude shocks of battle.
This zone is reached only by an occa-
sional very rare shot from special long-
range guns, which are not often used on
account of the great expense and the
great difficulty and long delays involved
in moving and mounting them on new
foundations. It follows, therefore, that
the rear of the battlefield 1s densely oc-
cupied, very DOSES, and practically
unmolested.
Avese,arethestlinee escaral conditions
for the profitable employment of bomb-
dropping airplanes, and these are the real
military reasons why our fighting squad-
rons have expended their energies in op-
erations over the rear lines of the enemy
rather than in distant raids of doubtful
military value. In regard to this question
of the choice of objectives, I think you
will agree with me that the excitement
caused by the long-distance raids hardly
compensates for the slight gain.
A FRENCH “SAUSAGE” BALLOON READY FOR AN OBSERVATION ASCENT
The tumor-like protuberance at the lower end of the gas bag acts as a stabilizer.
The
end under the bag is open, and through this simple mechanism the balloon is kept pointed
into the wind.
However exciting it may be to read of
such exhibitions of prowess, far from the
fray, it must not be forgotten that it is
only by striking the enemy in a vital part
that any important weakening of his
power can be effected.
Moreover, the ravages resulting from
repeated bombardments of the rear lines
are considerable, both from the material
and moral points of view. A single lucky
shot can blow up an ammunition depot
containing tens of thousands of shells
and effectively weaken the offensive
power of the artillery.
SHATTERING THE ENEMYS MORALE
A bomb falling into the midst of an en-
campment of troops at rest throws con-
fusion among the men whose nerves,
shattered by the shocks of battle, are
commencing to recuperate. I leave you
to judge of what value are troops who,
harassed by the enemy even in their rest
camps, are obliged to return to the front
without having been able to get their
needed rest.
25
From this point of view the damage
done the enemy by bombarding his avia-
tion fields may likewise be very great.
The machines of several air squadrons
are often assembled on one field, offer-
ing a very vulnerable target to the shots
of the enemy.
During the battles of Verdun, the
Somme, and the Aisne our bomb-dropping
squadrons were daily employed, in con-
junction with the other branches, in pre-
paring for the success of our offensives
by harassing the vulnerable parts of the
enemy’s rear lines. Several ammunition
depots were destroyed and the ravages
caused in connection with the transpor-
tation of troops, notably at the railway
station of St. Quentin, will be famous in
the annals of the war.
A choice must be made between the
two methods. The French and English
have developed the bombardment of
purely military objectives, while our ene-
mies have devoted their energies to drop-
ping bombs on cities.
It goes without saying, that every ef-
ai a]
A FRENCH GAS ATTACK BEING LAUNCHED AGAINST THE GERMANS FROM A POSITION
MIDWAY BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND LINE TRENCHES:
PHOTOGRAPHED FROM A SCOUT AIRPLANE
fort is made to carry the maximum load
of bombs. But it is evident that this is
possible only at the expense of the speed
of the airplane and especially of the
quantity of gasoline and oil it can carry,
thereby limiting its radius of action.
Accordingly, two very different types of
machines have been invented—one very
swift, able to fly at a speed of over 110
miles per hour, but carrying only 700
pounds of bombs (Breguet type); the
other very slow, since it can make only
80 miles an hour, but able to carry 4,400
pounds of projectiles (Caproni type).
The first type is used day and night
on the French and English fronts, where
the enemy has his most powerful planes.
AIRPLANES WHICH ARE USED AT NIGHT
ONLY
The airplanes of the second type, be-
cause of their low speed, can only be
used over the front lines by night. They
would be brought down, without fail,
should they venture within the enemy
lines by day, where they would only be
the playthings of the swift hostile battle
planes.
In regard to what may be expected
from the entrance into line of American
air squadrons, this spring, it may be said
that although the Allies have always held
the aérial superiority over their enemies,
26
at the cost of very heavy sacrifices, the
advantage in our favor has never been
great enough for us to risk a decisive
battle, that would forever give us the ab-
solute mastery of the air. Whole squad-
rons have been beaten down, but the de-
struction of the enemy’s air fleet has not
yet been accomplished, owing to the lack
of sufficiently powerful means.
This is not, however, an impossible con-
ception, and in the future, when Amer-
ica’s air forces arrive to reinforce those
of her allies, it is possible that the an-
nihilation of the enemy’s fleet may be
undertaken, after several days of sus-
tained battle at the outset.
In case our forces prove the stronger,
the enemy will have no other alternative,
to prevent the loss of his air squadrons,
than to refuse battle by not flying; but
when our bombing squadrons intervene
with an effect so deadly as to compel his
fighting planes to give battle, he will then
bring on the struggle in which the Ger-
man air fleet must succumb.
I do not pretend to foretell the future.
I can simply tell you this. The decisive
air battle has not yet been fought, al-
though gigantic land battles have taken
place. America will, I hope, have the
honor of fighting this battle at the side
of her allies, and it is probable that the
road to victory will then be opened by
way of the air.
TALES’ OF THE BRIFISH AIR SERVICE
By Mayor Wii11am A. Bisop, V. C., D. 8. O., M. C.
Major Bishop, the premier ace of Great Britain’s Royal Flying Corps, 1s the
only living person who has won the three distinetions of the Victoria Cross, the
Distinguished Service Order (twice bestowed), and the Military Cross. Although
only 23 years of age at the present time, he had been a member of the Canadian
military establishment for three years prior to the outbreak of the world war, and
became an aviator shortly after reaching France with the first expeditionary forces
from the Dominion. During the past three years he has brought down 47 Ger-
man machines in 110 air battles. Captain Albert Ball, several of whose exploits
Major Bishop describes in the accompanying article, was only 19 years of age
when killed, yet he long held the record among British aviators, the official count
of machines destroyed by him being 43. At the time of Captain Ball's death Major
Bishop had destroyed 15 planes. The latter rapidly took a commanding position
in the records and a few months ago surpassed the count of his compatriot who
had fallen. Major Bishop now not only outranks in air achievements every other
member of the Royal Flying Corps, but has held the record for all the Allied armies
since the death of Captain Guynemer, of the French Aviation Service.
OME of the exploits of the late Cap-
S tain Ball, V. C., were most excit-
ing. He was especially noted for
getting himself into the tightest corners
and then, in an instant, turning defeat
into victory and coming out of the fight
victorious.
Upon one occasion in the early part of
his career as a fighter he had gone some
twenty miles across the enemy lines,
vainly looking for some one to fight with.
Finally he saw two enemy machines fly-
ing together. Without hesitation he flew
straight at these two and engaged them
in a fight which lasted over ten minutes,
at the end of which time he found that
he had run out of ammunition. The two
enemy machines had also had enough of
it by now and seized their first opportu-
nity to escape, diving down to the ground.
Ball was much disgusted at this and
emptied six rounds from his revolver at
the two diving machines. He then seized
a piece of paper and a pencil which he
had with him and wrote out a challenge
for the same two machines to meet him
at the same spot the next day.
At the appointed time Ball turned up
on the spot and a few minutes later the
same two enemy machines approached
him from the east. He flew toward them
- Ball.
27
to engage in a fight, but at that moment
three more of the enemy came down from
the sky and attacked him. It was a care-
fully laid trap and he had fallen into it
without even suspecting that there was
one.
The three enemy machines that had at-
tacked him from behind were of the latest
fighting type and were all flown by expert
men.
At every turn Ball, who was under-
neath and was thus at a slight disad-
vantage, found himself outmaneuvered.
Turn and twist as he would, he always
found one of the enemy on top of him
and another just ready to catch him if he
turned the other way. Several times bul-
lets passed within inches of him. Finally,
deciding to escape, he realized that he
must do something extraordinary; so he
dived toward the ground and, picking out
a large field, glided into it and landed.
The three enemy machines at once sus-
pected that he had been shot and forced to
land, and they all glided down and landed,
either in the same field with him or the
adjoining one. ‘Then, jumping out of
their machines, they ran over to Captain
However, Ball, who had carefully
foreseen exactly what would happen, had
kept his engine running slowly while he
was on the ground, and the moment he
“Ioqiey TyWOTeS dy} Ul sdrys JO Jaquinu 9[qeJopisuod Aue FO [VATIIe JY} UO qe} SuIdsay Aq satpy ay} Fo jsed sy} UO sadAoW poze[duisjU0S
quejioduit JO Uva] 0} JOAVAPUD SUOJNIT, oxy, “JULISIP Softw posIpuNny *& Soul] Jy} PUTYyoq Worf SuIAY ‘InOY UOOU dy} jNoKGe ddURSsTeUUODII INDY}
OS SI PJIOM 9} UT A}ID JoYJO OU sdeysDg
dn poy
”
ayeul Ayjensn sion Awous oy, “SuUey[e_ oY} UI seq Sol][Y ay} ‘IyluoTeg se souvydire uo
‘ 6c
ANWIdOWAV NV WOU IMINO'IVS AO MHIA AAY-S Gada
6
‘OUT ‘DOIAIDS SuljeIIsN]I[] sso1g wor ydessojoyg
“AJIULIFSIAYS jo
SovpAy Ig OY} UL UOTPZTIATO 910}So1 0} SUIdTOY St YSTYM 91N}VIID9 PIsuIM 9} FO JUWOISap 9Y} JOAO PoyIOxd sulVasS Jopll qery s}t Jou yunoW o/quiny
OY} JYWON “SYN, oy} WoIF pur’yT ATOPY oY} FO ysonbuosd JUsd91 oy} UT ojos Juejsodur ue podeyd UIv}IIG Jeoatry Jo sd1iog BUIAT YT [eAOXy oy,
LHW LSM GNV LSVa :NYAGONW GNV LNYIONV ‘NOLLYLYOdSNVUL IO SGCOH LAW
pooMsopuy
WOOK WRG
WG
NY pooasapug, @
\
S\N NS
29
© Underwood & Underwood
NO BOMBS WERE DROPPED BY THIS AIRMAN TN) HIS FLIGHT OVER THE HOLY :Crivsomu
JERUASLEM WHILE IT WAS STILL IN THE HANDS OF THE TURKS, FOR HIS
MACHINE BORE THE EMBLEM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND OF CIVILIZATION
In the foreground is seen one of the holy pools, while the conspicuous structure in the
middle background is the Dome of the Rock, a mosque erected over the rock upon which
once stood the altar of burnt offering. According to Arab tradition, the Holy Rock covers
the abyss in which the waters of the Flood are heard roaring, and it was here that Abraham
was on the point of slaying Isaac for a burnt offering. .
30
WY) LLLLV#@#élld
Y
vw”
Z
Wy a
we
uml ts hl”
Wf yy
YY Y
Y
CAMEL MACHINES IN
SORRRANERRRRANRNRE
ROWWRWY¥’
~,
WWMM
RWWBAWwvE
QS
Yy
AIRPLANE WITH FOLDING WINGS, USED IN THE BRITISH ROYAL NAVAL
AIR SERVICE
The possibility of landing on the deck of a warship after a flight in air was first demon-
strated by the late Eugene Ely on the United States cruiser Pennsylvania, off the coast of
California. He alighted on a platform on that vessel without mishap to himself or his
machine.
31
so
Underwood & Underwood
THE PARACHUTE IS THE BALLOONIST’S LIFE-BOAT
This British observer, his balloon destroyed during the battle of Menin Road, in Flan-
ders, descended into a treetop. While his comrades were climbing to his aid the observer
succeeded in swinging on one of the ropes of his parachute to a near-by truncated tree, from
which he slid to safety.
32
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 33
saw the others come
out of their machines
he tore off again and
flew away from them.
By the time the first
of the Huns had been
ale to get off the
ground, Ball was over
half a mile away and
had made good his es-
gape, fhe risk he
took in landing this
way was very great,
as his engine might
have stopped when he
landed, in which case
there would have been
no way of starting it
again and escaping.
On another occa-
sion, about six months
later, ne (had ‘an’ ex-
perience just as thrill-
ing as the one above.
He had chased an
enemy machine for
ten miles behind its
lines and, on turning
to come home, found
himself cut off by sev-
eral groups of the
enemy. Picking out a
group just in front of
him, and the smallest
group which was try-
ing to cut him off, he
decided to fly straight
at the machines and
through them. There
were four in the party,
and as he flew toward
them they all opened
fire at him, while he
did the same at them.
tite teader of the
enemy patrol did not
like it, however, and swerved to one side,
just as Ball was hoping he would. Two
of his followers did the same thing, per-
haps in the hope that they would be able
to catch Ball from the flank ; but it was all
according to Ball’s plan and he carried
on straight at the last man, whom he
hoped would also turn.
Photograph by Charles Martin
MAJOR WILLIAM A. BISHOP ON A VISIT TO WASHINGTON
While in the National Capital, a few days before his return to the
front, Great Britain’s greatest airman called at the headquarters of
the National Geographic Society to give the accompanying account
of several of the exploits of his fellow aviator, the late Captain
Albert Ball, V.C. During his stay in this country Major Bishop
has rendered valuable assistance to American officers charged with
the development of our great air fleet.
At a speed of 250 miles* an hour they
approached, both firing two machine-guns
at each other. It looked as if they were
going to go into each other. Both men
seemed determined that they would not
swerve the slightest. Ball told me later
* They were each moving at 125 miles per
hour.
Photograph b
\ S
y Central News Photo Service
Ss
BRITISH AIRMAN GIVING A “PASS-WORD” SHOT TO HIS OWN MEN BELOW
It not infrequently happens that anti-aircraft gunners mistake one of their own fliers for
an enemy.
In such cases the aviator fires a smoke signal from this type of revolver to
identify himself as a friend. Today the signal may be two puffs of white smoke; tomorrow
it may be three.
that he was quite sure in his own mind
that the man intended ramming him and
thus causing death to them both.
Many bullets struck Ball’s machine, one
hitting an oil pipe, allowing the oil to leak
and splash over him. His face was cov-
ered with it and some of it got in his
eyes and he could hardly see. He closed
his eves and flew straight, firing as he
went, expecting every second to hear the
awful crash when they would strike. The
other man, however, when only about
twenty yards away, suddenly dived down
34
It is the “pass-signal” of the skies.
and went straight to earth, where Ball
saw him crash into the ground.
Upon looking back upon the encounter
Ball came to the conclusion that he must
have killed his adversary with an early
shot and the way in which the German
fell back in his seat must have just held
the machine in a level position for the
length of time while he came on straight
at him. Ball thought the man’s fingers
must have remained on the triggers of
his guns.
Ball managed to escape the remainder
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
©o
oS
isos
He Mes. (CANNING AND IS KITE BALLOON
The captive balloon is the all-seeing eye of a warship.
approaching enemy fleets, but it readily detects the lurking submarine.
fire of long-range guns.
of the crowd, but a little later he had a
most terrifying experience. While cross-
ing the lines he had to pass over a very
intense battle raging on the ground.
Shells were dropping everywhere and he
knew that in flying over this ground he
was passing through air which was liter-
ally full of shells in their flight.
Suddenly, with an awful sound, a shell
struck his machine about two feet behind
where he sat, passing clean through the
body of the machine without exploding.
The unfortunate part of it was that in
passing through the machine it practically
severed all his control wires, which meant
that all the mechanism which directed the
machine—except a few strands of the
cable—had been destroyed.
His machine immediately went into a
spinning nose dive and fell, out of con-
trol. Simply by means of the most deli-
It not only gives warning of
It also directs the
cate handling and great skill he managed,
when only 2,000 feet from the ground, to
regain control of his machine and headed
it in the direction of home. Any ordinary
pilot would have been content to come
down and land in the first field; but not
so Ball. His aerodrome was still twenty
miles away; yet he flew this damaged
machine all the way to it and landed there
without further damage.
His flight home must have been a terri-
ble experience, as the shell in passing
through his machine had strained it and
damaged it tremendously, and at any
moment the whole machine might have
collapsed and fallen in pieces; yet Ball,
with his customary coolness and courage,
brought it back home to his aérodrome
and landed. Twenty minutes later he was
in another machine and on his way to the
lines to look for another fight.
‘sjaqjnq gz Aq poinjound useq avAey OF punof sear surd oy} ‘sanoy UdAdS UL sa]IU OO JO IYSIY yySiu disj-punos & Jazze TyIuoOTeG ye aseq
Sj 0} BSuruinjo1 UG ‘Te}Ided ysHyANy, ey} FO Joqiey oy} Ul pesoyoue sdiysieMm J9y}O [V1oAVS Puv wWaqgaor) JoSIN1d dYJ—S}os1e} 19y} punoy AT]eN}UWIA
yorym jo Auvur ‘squiog QI JO OS1¥d B palisey Aauanof ay} fo dey ysey oy} UG “PyruoTeg pure ‘owURIIQ ‘aUIOY “esIg “eizadg ‘sa[[lesteyy “SUOA’T ‘SIIeg
jo Aem Aq a[dourjurysuody 0} UOPUO’T Wot} JYSIP aIU-000'7 SP YAM PJIOM oY} PIYts}]o AyyUaIa1 YSIyM ouryd Fo odAy oY} St auTYeU d8IL] I,
NVIdUVM HONS
NNOH-NV-SWILN-ST1 VIVNS AHL FO ANO HIM NOSTYVd NOD NI NMOHS ANIHOVW ONICWOd AOVd-AWIGNVIL HSIlIad ALOWWVW V
uosdwoy yp [neg Aq ydesso0joyg
a A
Yj
Yj J
a
AeOUDN DEL (Ob BREST. ATR SH BPS) Skt TING. PORTE ON PATROU DUNG
This striking view of an English sky fleet was made from a sixth dirigible. Note the
typical English landscape with numerous hedges and rows of trees dividing the fields into
odd-shaped polygons.
SA SSNS SSA XK SV SN
Photographs from Geoffrey Butler
ONE OF THE BRITISH COASTAI, AIRSHIPS LANDING IN A GALE
Q7
ITALY’S EAGLES .OF COMBAT AND DEFENSE
Heroic Achievements of Aviators Above the Adriatic,
the Apennines, and the Alps
By KinpNEss oF GENERAL P. Tozzi, CHIEF OF THE ITALIAN
Miurirary Mission
N THE supreme struggle of civili-
| zation the employment of twentieth
century warfare’s most important
weapon, the airplane, has entailed tre-
mendous sacrifice and called forth inspir-
ing deeds of heroism on the part of
Italy’s airmen.
None of the other Allied nations has
faced such a variety of difficulties in the
terrain over which its flyers have had to
operate incessantly since the peninsula
kingdom declared war on Austria in May,
1915. For two years the battle line ran
tortuously among the perpetual snows of
the Alps, and high above the mountain
peaks Italy’s aviators performed with
stoic fortitude their patrol of the skies,
ever watchful of the enemy’s planes and
keenly alert in scouting for information
to aid their own advancing Alpine troops.
While one branch of the Italian avia-
tion service has been employed as aux-
iliary to the land forces, an even more
numerous force had to be organized at
the beginning of the war to protect Ven-
ice and many other beautiful and historic
A SALVAGE CREW HOISTING AN ENEMY AIRPLANE WHICH BECAME A SUBMARINE
AFTER AN ENCOUNTER WITH A VICTORIOUS ITALIAN AIRMAN
38
YYW;
Yy
RNC \ SRN
Photograph by International Film Service
SENTINEL OF THE SKY
Vi,
High up in the snow-covered Alps, circling above the rocky Dente del Pasubio, the lone
Italian airplane is a veritable sky sentinel. In this picture the Italian machine is chasing an
Austrian Albatross which attempted a raid on the Italian position on the mountain top.
39
40 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
cities of the Venetian plains from the
ruthless bombing raids of enemy air-
planes. Fleets of seaplanes were also re-
quired to patrol the long Adriatic sea-
board of the peninsula to give warning
of the approach of raiding Austrian war-
ships, while a constant lookout main-
tained for enemy submarines was no
small part of the duties performed by the
Italian air forces.
With mention of her defensive and
scouting air service, developed in the face
of a foe already thoroughly equipped in
this branch’ ‘ot “warfare, the story ‘of
Italy’s air achievements only begins.
Tremendously effective has been the de-
structive work which this nation’s avia-
tors, piloting huge Caproni cars, have
wrought on Austrian naval and military
bases—Pola, Fiume, .Trieste, and Cat-
taro.
TWO EXAMPLES OF ITALY’S AIR
ACHIEVEMENTS
Two concrete examples of, Italian ex-
ploits in the air are typical of countless
deeds involving exceptional skill, un-
daunted perseverance in overcoming
enormous difficulties, and magnificent
daring in the face of death and disaster.
A short time ago two squadrons of
Caproni bombing machines, rising at
four-minute intervals between units, flew
from a base aviation camp, located some-
where in the Venetian plain, to another
camp in the vicinity of Milan. This was
the first lap of a history-making expedi-
tion through the air. The start for the
second lap, from Milan to Rome, was
made at 8 o’clock the following morning.
Rising from a sunny field in Lombardy,
the machines had proceeded only a few
miles in their southward flight toward
the Apennines when they were enveloped
in dense banks of fog and masses of
cloud. But on they flew, the pilots
guided only by their compasses and baro-
graphs.
Over Piacenza they soared, but that
city was hidden from the air voyagers by
impenetrable mists. Now, according to
their calculations, they were approaching
the foothills of the Apennines. They be-
gan to mount higher and higher, until
their barographs registered an elevation
of nearly two miles—a height sufficient to
enable them to negotiate the rift in the
peaks known as Cisa Pass. The calcula-
tions were accurate; had they been even
slightly in error, the great machines, their
pilots sightless amid the clouds, would
have shattered their wings against the
rocks, like migrating birds dashing them-
selves to death against the walls of light-
houses in their night flights to southern
climes.
CAUGHT IN DANGEROUS CROSS-CURRENTS
Once over the great range of moun-
tains known as the backbone of Italy.
the pilots dropped to within a few thou-
sand feet above the land, between the
cities of Spezia and Massa, on the shores
OnatnerWictimane sea:
Scarcely had the air fleet emerged from
the clouds, however, than they were
caught in the dangerous cross-currents
lying between the mountains and the sea.
The machines rolled and pitched like
cockleshells in a choppy sea. Safety had
to be sought in smoother air strata, and
the groups of airplanes were forced to
break up into units in their search for
less turbulent currents.
A whimsical fate directed one of the
pilots over Viareggio, his home town, and
as the whir of his propellers was heard
in the distance the people gathered at
their doors to watch the birdman soar
by. Passing within a hundred yards of
his own house, the pilot waved his hand
to the aged couple standing on the steps
gazing with eager eyes at the giant air-
craft but ignorant of the fact that it was
their own son in the seat of honor.
Past Pisa and Leghorn and over the
Lake of Bracciano the squadrons flew,
and shortly before noon, after a great
spiral evolution over the Eternal City,
they descended in the rain on the field of
the great aviation camp which lies almost
in the shadow of the Seven Hills. The
trip from Milan, through fog and over
mountain, had been accomplished in less
than four hours. The second lap in the
journey had been completed without ac-
cident.
At ten the next morning the two squad-
rons once more spread their wings, head-
ing this time toward the southeast, their
Official Italian Photograph
THE DOORS OF AN ITALIAN AIRSHIP STABLE ARE STRONGLY BUILT, IF NOT
ALWAYS LOCKED
Danger lies not in the theft of the machine, but in the irreparable damage which would
result if a gale should biow the doors in upon the dirigible, rip the gas bag, and derange the
delicate mechanism.
objective being the Adriatic seaport of
Brindisi, famous in ages past as the port
of debarkation for many historic expedi-
tions against the enemies of Rome.
It was a five-hour journey, performed
according to schedule in spite of the fact
that at one time the airmen were forced
to mount several miles in order to rise
above a thunderstorm. ‘Thus ended the
third lap.
THE FLIGHT ACROSS THE ADRIATIC
The fourth and final stage of this mo-
mentous expedition was begun after dark-
ness had closed in upon the Adriatic.
Reserve tanks of gasoline had been at-
tached to the machines, assuring fuel for
a six-hour continuous flight at top speed,
for these were not hydro-airplanes, and
a sudden descent into the sea would have
meant the loss of planes, pilots, bombers,
and observers.
As the great night-birds set out over
the sea, steering in a northeasterly direc-
tion, a dim glimmer of lights flashed from
the waters like the fitful glow of fireflies.
4I
These were the Italian torpedo-boats
marking the way for the airmen.
After a flight of more than 150 miles
across the Adriatic the dim _ shoreline
of Montenegro was vaguely discerned
through the mist. A half hour longer
and the squadron veered to the north,
Overtime Wake or ocutar
Soon the darkly wooded mass of Monte
Lovcen (the Black Mountain, from which
the Kingdom of Montenegro takes its
name) loomed like a vast shadow upon
the horizon. Passing to the east of this
peak, the Capronis soared over Cettinje,
where Austrian lights twinkled in what
was once the palace of King Peter. No
bombs were dropped here, for all were
needed to wreak destruction upon Cat-
taro, which the raiders were now rapidly
approaching.
Suddenly the searchlights of the Aus-
trian ships in the basin of Cattaro harbor
began to cut the skies; the whir of the
Italian planes had been heard. Almost
simultaneously with the realization that
danger was at hand, the Austrians began
Sotto}jeq AWIUS JO UOTBIOT OY} JO s}sitappyse uelypejyy ay} SurAjiou ‘snyeiedde ssajoirm JO suvou Aq ‘pue ‘suol}
-isod puv soyoduet} uerysny oy} Jo sydeisojoyd Suryr} ‘sour. s,Auiausd oy} I9AO AY ATSNHONuTWUOD ‘MoUs puUe ‘UIeI ‘PUIM 9} JO SsayTpIesoai1 ‘soueyd asoy J,
SAUNIHOVW HONVSSIVNNOOUY
NVYVIVII ‘TOAYAMOd JO dNOND V UOT AYOLOVA OVIINOd AHI AO UVONVH ALAYONOOD GNV “INHLS ‘SSVWID HLOWNVI V
Tjeynuue A OJloquie’yT ydey wo1y ydessojoyg
42
NOISSIW V NO LUVLS OL LNO ; - f F
ndeisoreu een eraou L aqV SUNWIdYIV-ONGAH NVIIVLI JO dNOWD V
Uy
Ly
ah
‘ . ay
<< '
: \
MSG oo
OOCQE i ae
WN \ \
‘
\
\
\
\
&
LN
43
‘souluuady oy} pure sdjy oy} Jo s}ystay AMOusS dy} SuOWUe suOT}eIodO puey-sAOqe I9q}
uo f1IvD O} PodIOf Udsdq VAvY Ady} puUv ‘souTIeLUqnHs JO YI1vos UT jo1jed 0} voie vas JSBA & pry sAeY Ady} ‘AW Aq-1v9dU B JSUIeSe PUSfap 0} seo
-vas papua}yxo ue prey savy Ady], “SuUBITeIT OY} VALY SB SsodINS [RUSIS YONS YUM pur soT][NOYJIp AueU OS PatoJUNOIUD DARCY UdUIITe SuUIYSY M7
SdIV AHL AAOGV INOOW OL, ACGVAN SHNVIdaYIV NVIIVII AO SNOWaVAOS
Ipawnuue \ oPaquie’y -ydesy woz ydessojoyg
44
Official Italian Photograph
THE BLACK CROSS OF DEFEAT
An Austrian airplane brought down on the Italian front
to feel the deadly blows from above.
Fires in arsenals, shipyards, and ware-
houses began to flare in the wake of low-
flying machines, and the noise of the anti-
aircraft guns was mingled indistinguish-
ably with the detonation of exploding
bombs.
Releasing their remaining explosives
upon the island of San Marco, the two
squadrons, unscathed by the shots from
the fort batteries, successfully eluded the
Austrian airplanes and made the return
flight without loss or further incident,
having performed one of the most extra-
ordinary feats of the war. Cattaro was
supposed to be Austria’s most inaccessible
naval base.
While not so noteworthy in the char-
acter of its military mission, even more
thrilling was the bombing raid carried out
by a squadron of twelve Capronis from
a base near Pordenone, the objective be-
ing a strong Austrian railway center and
supply depot rco miles distant.
The bombing machines were under the
direction of Squadron Commander Bar-
bier1, mounted in an airplane piloted by
Captains Salomone and Bailo.
45
Searcely had the fleet taken the air
when a dense fog was encountered. In
it several of the units became separated
from the main group, and among these
was the machine of the commander.
When the enemy lines were reached
Colonel Barbieri was cut off from _ his
companions, and the Austrian pursuit
planes singled out the commander for
destruction.
A terrible battle ensued, the Barbieri
airplane being attacked on all sides by
the Austrian combat planes. The Italian
pilots jockeyed for position with daring
evolutions, while their machine - gun
spurted a constant stream of bullets.
Finally, Colonel Barbieri, who was work-
ing the forward aircraft gun, was struck
in the forehead and lay lifeless on his
Weapon.
But the struggle continued, for Cap-
tain Bailo, who had left. Captain Salo-
mone to steer the airplane, worked the
rear machine-gun without a moment’s
pause. Soon he also was hit and fell
dead in his seat. Still Salomone would
not surrender. Seated between his dead
companions, tense over his controls, he
Photograph by Edwin Levick
THE GREAT CAPRONI BIPLANE FLYING NEAR THE WOOLWORTH TOWER, THE TALLEST
BUILDING IN THE NEW WORLD, ON SECOND LIBERTY LOAN DAY
This gigantic plane sailed from Newport News to New York with ten passengers.
With
its Italian pilot, it also flew from Newport News to the National Capital and return, follow-
ing the course of the Potomac.
Although a ten-passenger aircar, this machine is only the
“little brother” of the Caproni triplane, which has a carrying capacity of 25 passengers.
continued to defy the enemy. A bullet
struck him in the head; he was blinded
by his own blood.
The Austrian planes were now certain
of their prey. Perceiving the two dead
passengers in the car, they made signs to
the pilot to surrender. But Salomone’s
will was firm—the Italian machine must
not fall into enemy hands! With unpar-
alleled fortitude he maneuvered inces-
santly and, although seriously wounded,
succeeded in escaping from his assail-
ants. He brought back to the Italian
46
camp his machine with the bodies of his
fallen comrades.
In addition to the marvelous work done
by the Italian bombing machines is to be
recorded the admirable daily work of the
reconnaissance Italian machines, which,
regardless of the rain, wind, and snow,
continuously fly over the enemy’s lines,
taking photographs of the Austrian
trenches and positions, and by means of
the wireless apparatus notifying the Ital-
ian artillery of the location of the enemy’s
batteries. And when, on dark nights or
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AT
in the early dawn, the Austrian and Ger-
man planes come to bombard our open
cities and barbarously to destroy the art
eseasures of Venice, of Padua, and of
Verona, then it is that our courageous
combat pilots mount at once to the sky
and, with firm hand and stout heart, meet
and bring down the invaders—as, for
instance, Major Baracca, who brought
down 30 of the enemy’s machines, and
Colonel Piccio, who brought down 20.
The achievements of Italian aviation
during the last three years have not been
confined to the theater of war. Its pilots
recently have established new world rec-
ords for non-stop flights, for speed and
altitude. ‘The plaudits of the Allied na-
tions recently sounded for an Italian
aviator, Captain Laureati, who piloted a
Sia plane from Turin over the Alps,
across France and the English Channel to
London, a distance of 700 miles, without
alighting; but this distance record was
almost immediately eclipsed by the same
pilot, with another non-stop flight of
THE ITALIAN
HILE most of America’s air-
\ men will probably see service
above the battle-line which ex-
tends from the North Sea across Bel-
gium and France, they will not be for-
getful of the superhuman skill, daring,
and self-sacrifice of their allies beyond
the Alps, the intrepid Italians, whose
country produces no coal, no steel, and
food insufficient for her needs, yet has
managed for nearly three years to main-
tain her armies against the ceaseless ham-
mering of Austrian and German guns.
Italy, the mother of civilization, of art,
and of science, and the cradle of intel-
lectual liberty, began fighting the invaders
from the North a thousand years before
the discovery of America. She has given
to the world Marcus Aurelius and Dante,
Columbus and John Cabot, Leonardo da
Vinci and Galileo, and in more recent
1,004 miles, from Turin to Naples and re-
turn. Another Italian aviator, Lieuten-
ant Guidi, established the record for
highest flyer of the world when he took
his machine to a height of 26,400 feet,
five miles above the earth and more than
two miles above the summit of Mont
Blanc, the loftiest mountain of Europe.
Sergeant Stoppani, piloting a one-seater
fighting airplane, type ‘“Savoia-Verdu-
zi0,” on the 28th of September, 1917, left
Turin at 2.45 p. m., crossed the Apen-
nines to the sea, and, following the shore
line, arrived in Rome at 5.35 p. m., cover-
ing a distance of 390 miles in two hours
and fifty minutes and at an average speed
of 138 miles an hour.
These achievements are indicative of
the place Italy is expected to take in the
development of aviation when the world
is once more at peace and men’s minds
may turn with confidence to the produc-
tive pursuits of transportation and inter-
national commerce.
RACE
days Volta, Galvani, Garibaldi, Verdi,
and Marconi.
Just as the New World was given to
civilization by her two great navigators,
Columbus and Cabot, so the infinite
realms of space were revealed to man
through the gift of the telescope from
Galileo, that monumental genius who also
helped to perfect the compound micro-
scope which has made modern medicine
and modern chemistry possible. Like-
wise it is Marconi’s gift of wireless
telegraphy which makes the observation
airplane a truly potent factor in battle.
One of the marvels of human history
is this extraordinary Italian race, that for
2,000 years has blessed the world with
one succession of geniuses—musicians,
authors, creators of inspiration and ad-
vancement—from which all other peoples
have benefited.
Tue Epiror.
BUILDING AMERICA’S AIR ARMY
By Lieut. Cot. Hiram BincHam, SIGNAL Corps, U.S. AG
CHIEF oF THE AIR PERSONNEI, DIVISION IN THE OFFICE OF THE CHIEF SIGNAL
OFFICER OF THE ARMY
FTER a trip halfway around the
world, there arrived recently in a
Southern port of the United States
a large steamer loaded with castor-oil
beans. During its voyage many thou-
sands of acres of ground were being
made ready to receive the cargo the mo-
ment it was discharged, and factories
even now are being prepared to turn the
forthcoming crop into lubricants.
Here is a little side glimpse into the
new industrial problems created in the
manufacture of America’s wings. .\Amer-
ica, though in a sense the home of lubri-
cating oils because of her enormous fac-
tory system, had not in her whole long
list one which could stand up under the
power of the Liberty Motor. All of them
scotched and burned in this new-found
strength.
The lubricant from the castor-oil bean,
however, proved a single exception. Un-
fortunately the growing of these beans
had. been discontinued, owing to the in-
flux of cheaper beans from India. ‘The
importation of these had been stopped
recently by an embargo put into effect
by the British Government. The only
solution to the problem was to reéstablish
the castor-oil bean-raising industry in
America. By a special arrangement with
Great Britain a cargo of beans held at
Bombay was released and rushed to this
LIGHTNESS WITH STRENGTH
If 60 people can sit on the wnsupported end of one pair of wings of an airplane, as shown
here, we need have no fear that these wings will “crumple up” in the air
48
GCC
\N
Y
Y
Y
Y
© Underwood & Underwood
WOMEN AT WORK ON THE WINGS OF VICTORY
The planes of a flying machine are covered with a special quality of Irish linen, which is
stitched tightly over the framework by women seated on opposite sides of the plane and
using three-inch needles. The British Government has promised that linen in sufficient quan-
tities will be supplied to the United States as rapidly as needed to complete our airplane-
building program (see page 55).
49
PENAL IN
PUNCHING MACHINE IN
The world is no longer a stage with the
machine shop where each must do his or her
with care, the fittings for a flying machine.
country. Meanwhile, necessary prepara-
tions were made for planting the crop
and extracting the oil when the harvest
shall have been gathered.
This has been done, as so many other
new, unexpected, and surprising things
have had to be done, in building up Amer-
ica’s Air Army. If ever there has been a
succession of unforeseeable needs, of
baffling problems, and of almost heroic
methods to hew through to results im time,
it has been in the effort to establish upon
almost no foundations whatever one of
the most intricate, and I am not sure it is
not the most intricate, industry in the
50
© Committee on Public Information
AN AIRPLANE PARTS FACTORY
men and women merely players, but a vast
bit—in this instance punching, and punching
world. I only wish it were possible to
thrill others with a little of the romance
of this new industry which has so thrilled
us here in Washington during the past
six months of effort.
Many people think an airplane is a sim-
ple thing to build—a pair of wings at-
tached to some sort of body, with an en-
gine in between and a propeller in front.
A few rough cuttings, it is pictured, a
little nailing up, and the machine is ready.
This is not at all surprising, for even
many manufacturers themselves are igno-
rant of the fine workmanship and ma-
terials which must go into an airplane.
W
\N
Uf Yj
Ai
SS
A \\\“
WW
© Committee on Public Information
GIRLS MAKING AIRPLANE TURNBUCKLES
Every job in the manufacture of a flying machine is a responsible job, for, like the
famous One Hoss Shay, every part must bear its burden of terrific strain as long as any
other part.
Colonel Deeds has in his office a letter
from a manufacturer who gave two
dredges, among other things, as equip-
ment on hand which might work in some-
how in airplane work.
Let me try to depict by a rough picture
a plane in the making. Suppose, for in-
stance, you were set to driving 4,326 nails
and 3,377 screws. Undoubtedly that
would be quite a task—a total of 7,703
separate operations. Well, when you had
reached the 5,000 mark you could truth-
fully be told that you had done less than
two-thirds of the work of this sort re-
quired for a single airplane. (These
meutres-ate for a training plane; for a
French battle-plane 23,000 screws are
said to be needed.) Somehow a plane
looks so simple and floats so gracefully
through the air that we lose all thought
of the skill that goes into its making.
ONE OF AMERICA’S AIR TRIUMPHS
Just recently we have received some
figures of the material which is required
for one of the simpler training planes.
For instance, 921 steel stampings must
be cut out, 798 forgings cast, and 276
turn-buckles, all for a single machine.
Think, then, of the hundreds of thou-
sands of such pieces needed. for the thou-
sands of planes in the American program
and of how utterly hopeless the situation
would be if those parts were not stand-
ardized, turned out by machinery in tens
of thousands, and usable in scores of dif-
ferent factories on any kind of plane.
The reduction of aircraft manufacture to
the simplest, standardized, quantity pro-
duction basis has been one of America’s
great triumphs in the air and an achieve-
ment which very soon will be making
itself felt.
But metal must be used in an airplane
as little as possible. It is altogether too
heavy, especially when a few extra
pounds make all the margin in speed
between victory and defeat. An engine
of 300 horsepower is in itself enormously
heavy to rise into the air; so that the rest
@ Committee on Public Information
TRUING THE AIRPLANE, ONE OF THE VITAL INTTIAL STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION
OF AMERICA’S SKY FLE
BT
A manufacturer who wanted to build flying machines for the government, but whose bid
was rejected because his plant was inadequate, was very wroth and declared scornfully that
he could whittle an airplane out of a tree in a few weeks’ time, at a cost of a few hundred
dollars.
The illustration shows one of the necessary operations which the whittler would
have overlooked—the establishment of an exact level for the key part of the fuselage, or
body.
The man to the left is watching the bubble in the spirit-level, while the other mechanic
is adjusting the supports to the required tautness.
of the machine must attain the very acme
of lightness.
That very lightness, however, entails
enormous strength and perfect adjust-
ment. Think of the strain which is ex-
erted on every wire and nut, every inch of
linen, and every bit of wood as this 300-
horsepower mechanism rushes through
the air at 150 miles an hour. Cyclones
often do not go as fast, and we can easily
picture what happens to a strongly built
house when the air strikes it at that
speed.
TREMENDOUS PRESSURES MUST
WITHSTOOD
BE
But if the strain is great simply be-
cause of high speed, what must it be
when a plane suddenly careens down-
ward, taking a tremendous pressure off
one part and hurling it upon another.
52
It is that kind of sharp, sudden, unevenly
distributed shock which allows the slight-
est tap of a knife to crack an egg or
the explosion of a depth bomb to crush
in the unprepared side of a submarine.
Obviously a plane must be built so skill-
fully and of such perfect material as to
withstand not only the pressure of its
cyclone speed, but also the added shocks
of its sudden evolutions.
The one material which gives this
double characteristic of strength with
lightness is spruce; not the ordinary
spruce, but a super-selected spruce from
the giant trees of the Pacific coast. Few
would believe that this would present
much of a problem with America’s vast
resources; but when one considers that
only a small fraction of the very bess
spruce is usable at all, and that the war
has vastly increased the demand for that,
SS
© Committee on Public Information
AMERICA’S WOMEN ARE ENLISTED IN THE AIR SERVICE OF THEIR COUNTRY
Not only in munitions factories does the skilled workwoman find her opportunity for war
service.
the difficulty will begin to appear. Let
me explain this in detail.
The ideal trees for airplane spruce are
the fine old patriarchs, scarce enough at
best, which have a girth of about 14 feet
and run up 160 feet without a branch.
Now when this splendid wood is cut 52
per cent is thrown out at once—the part
in the heart where the grain is too cir-
cular and the part at the circumference
where the grain is too coarse. Another
IO per cent is culled out for various rea-
sons and another 7% per cent lost in kiln
shrinkage. This leaves us less than one-
third of our original wood for further
selection.
Filing fittings for the wing spars of airplanes is this girl’s task.
Of this third, however, only a small
proportion is fit for the more delicate
work. Less than 1 per cent of it has the
necessary length and strength for aile-
TONS). 2. ee per Celt issute TOM une mula
beams; 4.6 per cent for the long struts,
and the same for the landing gear. The
balance can only be used for ribs and the
smaller fittings.
STRAINING AMERICA’S LUMBER
RESOURCES
These figures show why America’s vast
lumber resources are being strained to
the limit to build our air fleet. They ex-
plain also why it has been necessary for
© Committee on Public Information
WINGS FOR THE AMERICAN BIRDMAN
Upon the flawless strength of its parts may depend in some critical moment a precious piece
of information or the life of one of America’s “Aces”
the United States to take over the whole
spruce output as agent for the combined
Allied program and eliminate the ruin-
ous competition which had prevailed be-
tween the English, French, and Italian
governments.
Despite every effort, however, the sup-
ply was still inadequate. There. was
neither the labor nor the mills to get out
the necessary cut. Consequently Uncle
Sam has had to go into the forests him-
self to supplement the present private re-
sources. Lumber squadrons of several
thousand men are being recruited to get
out the trees, and additional mills are be-
ing set up to saw the overflow which the
present mills cannot handle; for the war
will not wait.
But, even with our lumber all milled,
the task is but well started, for all the
detailed cutting to standardized sizes, the
construction into base units, such as wing-
spars and ribs, and the assembling into
completed sections of a plane still remain.
Now. that planes must be built by thou-
sands, it is easy to see how vital it 1s to
simplify and standardize each part so as
54
to decrease manual labor as much as
possible. It has, indeed, been no light
task to harmonize all the conflicting sizes
and shapes and bring them down to a
few simple forms, especially when types
are changing almost daily.
FOLLOWING AN AIRPLANE WING THROUGH
ITS MANUFACTURE
Let us follow an airplane wing, for
instance, through its various steps in
manufacture. It looks simple enough
as we see it all finished, with its slightly
polished covering and its ultra-simple
lines. Little does it show, as the face
of a watch fails to show the delicate
works within, that its making has neces-
sitated the mobilization of the best work-
ers and the best materials of America.
The lumber, as we have seen, comes
to the factory roughly cut along standard
lines. Here, however, it must be rein-
spected and a large proportion thrown
out because of sap-pockets or deviations
in grain. It must also be further shaped,
reinforced in places of stress, hollowed
— Yy
,
Y Yy
Y
Y,
© Committee on Public Information
“DOPING” THE WINGS OF AIRPLANES
In the parlance of the day, “dope” suggests sluggishness and lowered vitality, but in the
manufacture of airplanes it means speed. Dope is a liquid compound with which the linen
covering the wings of a flying machine is treated to shrink the fabric and make it taut over
the framework, thus reducing its resistance to the air.
out in places of extra weight, and made
Feady as unit pieces. This is a task
for the finest woodworkers or cabinet-
makers.
Then comes the laying of the keel, as
we may call it, the putting down of the
basic wing-spars, simple enough in ap-
pearance, but so carefully selected that
their final cost is estimated at from $30
to $50 each. Next is the fitting in of the
ribs, or cross-pieces, aS many as 30 to a
wing, and themselves coming to a final
cost of about $9 each. Obviously, again,
only an expert in woodworking can se-
cure the exact setting required.
When finally all the ribs are firmly
joined, the wing remains but a skeleton
without the necessary covering to make
am sod. Linen (s the one perfect ma-
terial known for this purpose, because it
is light, strong, and will not rip, as cotton
does, when pierced with bullets. But the
supply of linen also ran short under the
tremendous war demands, especially with
that from Belgium and northern France
o1
On
cut off, and it was only when England
mobilized all her strength that the world’s
best supply center in Ireland was able to
rise to the demand. A little idea of how
much is needed for the American pro-
gram alone is found in the fact that each
of our thousands of machines requires
201 square yards.
A MAXIMUM OF STRENGTH AND
LIGHTNESS
Once secured, the linen must be cut to
size, reinforced in places of stress, and
then sewed in back and forth over each
rib to make it absolutely tight and able to
withstand a 150-mile wind pressure. This
work is mostly done by women working
in pairs, pushing a long 3-inch needle
from one side to the other. No one has
ever estimated the number of stitches
necessary for a single plane.
When the sewing is completed, our
wing 1S in.a semi-finished state. It rep-
resents the maximum of strength and
lightness which human ingenuity has as
Public Information
© Committee on
ARTICULATING THE SKELETON OF AN AIRPLANE’S FUSELAGE, OR BODY
Various parts of the framework of our flying machines and the metal fittings are made
in widely separated factories. They are then shipped to assembling factories, where the parts
are put together and wired by highly specialized workmen. ;
yet developed; but its surface is still
rough and not yet drum-tight. To effect
this, three coats of “dope” must be ap-
plied. This is a cellulose chemical prepa-
ration which was produced here only in
small quantities before the war and of
which 59 gallons are necessary for every
plane. It contracts the linen appreciably,
making it very taut and slippery, so as
to decrease wind resistance. A final ap-
plication of varnish to make the wing
water-tight renders this part of the plane
ready to be brought together with the
other parts—engine, fuselage, propeller,
controls, etc.
And so throughout the whole plane
there is not an item which has not been
built with infinite care and skill, balanced
to the finest mechanical nicety, reduced in
weight to the smallest margin of safety,
always in the continued struggle to har-
monize the antagonistic elements of light-
ness and strength. When, for instance,
we look at the gently sloping curve on
the fuselage behind the pilot, we are not
56
apt to realize that some expert engineer
has made this in place of a right angle in
order to prevent air currents trom eddy-
ing back and decreasing: the speed of the
plane several miles an hour.
Every sharp line, every superfluous
wire, every unnecessary bit of material,
adds to the weight and the wind resist-
ance of the plane and holds up its speed
through the air. Hence a continual strug-
gle is ever going on between the experts
of each army. With every enemy ma-
chine captured betterments are noted
which further tax our industrial re-
sources here and call for a higher degree
both of skill in labor and of perfection
in materials.
A DAY-AND-NIGHT RACE
I shall not repeat the story of the Lib-
erty Motor, for that is well known; but I
do want to place one question: Where has
it been possible to secure sets of the ac-
cessories needed for every one of our
thousands of machines, sets including a
—
© Committee on Public Information
PUTTING THE FINAL TOUCHES ON AN AIRPLANE PROPELLER
Like the screw of the ocean liner, the air propeller of the flying machine is the primary
medium of locomotion.
It must be able to withstand a terrific air pressure, estimated at
several tons, and must revolve with sufficient rapidity to drive the machine at incredible
speeds, up to 150 miles an hour.
These propeller blades are not made of single pieces of
timber, but of from Io to 25 pieces of walnut, mahogany, white oak, or cocoa-wood, all care-
fully laminated.
required to allow the parts to set after having been glued.
Paromicter, an air speed indicator: an
aerial compass, an inclinometer, an altim-
eter, etc., the finest kinds of implements,
practically non-existent in this country
before the war? The mere names of the
instruments and the skill which every
layman would associate with their manu-
facture open up what has been another
tremendous industrial problem in our Air
Service.
Earlier in this article I used the word
“intricate” in connection with airplane
manufacture. Perhaps the foregoing
statements will have demonstrated its
correctness; but let me add a few other
considerations. This program spells vic-
tory or continued deadlock abroad. Its
completion means thousands of lives
saved. Yet overprecipitateness means
defeat and terrible losses. The two must
be harmonized—a superhuman speed in
building up a series of new industries,
BY,
It takes ten weeks to make a propeller, three weeks of that time being
.
together with an absolutely infallible me-
chanical judgment and skill. Naturally
the strain on those responsible is great.
I only wish the country might catch the
romance of our new air industry. Itisa
day-and-night race against time along a
course only semi-lighted and full of pit-
falls. So far we have been fortunate in
that the delays, the mistakes, and the diffi-
culties have been largely offset by the
unanimous effort and good-will which
have met us on all sides. The race, how-
ever, is not yet over and will not be until
peace is signed. And until then we need
the intelligent interest of the public in the
baffling but fascinating work before us.
GREATER PROBLEMS OF
PERSON NEL
THE EVEN
If the problem of providing machines
and equipment for a great Air Army is
one to tax the industrial and natural re-
‘snojownu
d10lU UdAA die Aay] AVI] puke ddURI UT “eoLIOWY Jnoysno1y} ssoquinu Surf{dijjnu Aypider ur punof 9q 0} 91” Jaa}s pue ‘d}J9TDUOD {[eJaW JooYS JO
SIVSUPY OSUDIULU] “dINJONAYS YIN A][eMURIsqns ‘asiey[ ve SsormMbor sueyd sty nq ‘Ays Uodo dy} JopuN JO ‘Jud} & ‘Jnosnp ev UT dovj[s Av IOJEIAR UY
LOTId NVOINAWVY NV YOT ANV’IduIV-OUGAH LINVID V DNICTINGA
DAIIS OJON SMON [e1juaD Aq ydessojoy J
N
NS
YPOM V IOF ‘UOISLAJOdNS [HZYO}eM Jsour oy} ynq ‘diy
©Yy} JO uonon
MK
~Y
SRY
1}suo
8)
S)
Y} ynq ‘so}eyG
|
|
4
4
S
pou, ey} ynoy
SONIM WHHL
Ne
UCUL10.
Qa
Oo
AYL OL AGVWA LSOW IV UVM
I1OJIVJ JO SI109
M Po][P]s A[UO Jou
noiy} s
s)
a
O
ul
ul
Jind
=)
J
poiny
WO SONI
¢
OUTS [VI
oe ynueUL ou
IOJCIA
iysn
1oq
l
® dq} 0} Yop u
UL PozipeLoads
o1e
e
our APU ¥
ATUoly
JOJOYL Aysoqvy oy}
TatId Nazod V
Cs
contccrrpmapaonsesssasisastite |
IOMOUP
,
ST SOA]
JO sje
If oY} ur yurof
ISUloy} souryd
dd Snolie A,
SOOewow
59
© Underwood & Underwood
AN AIRPLANE IN THE CATERPILLAR STAGE OF ITS EVOLUTION
Before it receives its wings, the flying machine’s motor mechanism is thoroughly tested.
All the big plants where thesé craft are being made are under the protection of our soldiers,
one of whom is to be seen on guard in the foreground of this picture.
sources of the nation, and the ingenuity
and enterprise of our people, the selec-
tion and training of a matchlessly skilled
and intrepid personnel to man our sky
fleets when they are completed present
problems of perhaps even greater in-
tricacy. The task of providing men has
required not so much a broadcast recruit-
ing as a careful, intensive selection among
various isolated classes of specialists and
the upbuilding of nearly a dozen courses
of training as widely different as black is
from white.
We are apt to think of the air service
only in the terms of aviators, little realiz-
ing that for every aviator there must be
nearly a score of other men—psycholo-
gists, factory inspectors, photophysicists,
welders, expert enginemen—and so on
down through a long list. All such men
are truly specialists; they are scattered
very thinly through society, but must be
sought with the utmost care and given a
specialized course of training to adapt
their present skill to the intricacies of
aircraft work.
60
NEEDS DIFFICULT TO FORESEE
Needs for such men are most difficult
to foresee at a glance; in fact, they are
apt to become suddenly evident as the
situation unfolds. One day, for instance,
the Equipment Division will complete its
analysis of requirements and put in a re-
quest for several thousand trained fac-
tory inspectors, vitally necessary to ap-
prove the material purchases of about
$350,000,000 entrusted to this division.
Obviously, this is difficult, painstaking
work, requiring the selection of men of
experience from a field not very large.
Photophysicists may be the next neces-
sity—fast news photographers trained in
the speed of journalism and able to con-
vert a plate from an airplane into a print
ready for the General Staff within ten
minutes’ time. They must be almost
hand-picked from the newspaper offices
of the country, creating indeed a void
here, but at the same time becoming the
only authorized photographers of all.
Uncle Sam’s military operations, both for
eee
ee
ae Se a
Yn 4
Gy
LIGHT AND TRIM, BUT TOUGH AS STEEL
The strain of twenty men seated on this eggshell of an airplane body is not nearly so
great as the tremendous tension caused by a many-horse-powered motor driving the machine
through the air at twice or three times the speed of an express train.
immediate public distribution and for
“Vhe Official Pictorial History of the
War.”
Then comes the need for psychologists,
doctors, dentists, and pharmacists. Few
people realize that the air service must
have its own medical staff, first, because
our new flying fields are in themselves
large communities subject to the ordinary
sicknesses, and, second, because a most
careful check must be kept by a skilled
physician against the nervous wear and
tear of the service. Some aviators who
might slowly burn themselves out by too
steady concentration are saved by watch-
ful attention to the first signs of weak-
ness.
LIFE OF AN AIRPLANE ENGINE ONLY
100 HOURS
Very possibly the Squadrons Sections
will suddenly state a need for several
hundred mechanical engineers to carry
through all the intricate oversight of
planes in the field. We little realize that
61
the life of an airplane engine, for in-
stance, 1s hardly over a hundred hours,
and that the continual substitution of new
parts, a few at a time, often entirely re-
makes it: “Indeed, .for every plane and
engine which we ship to Europe we must
ship approximately 70 per cent of spare
parts for repairs. The judgment as to
when new parts shall be put in is the
answer to the life of the plane and must
be entrusted only to expert engineers.
Even more difficult, on account of the
very much larger number involved, has
been the supplying of skilled mechanics—
men who can take an engine or a plane
apart and put it together again; men
skilled in such work as engine-fitting,
welding, propeller - making, magnetos,
wing construction, lithography, vulcaniz-
ing, and the like. It has been necessary
to seek them out oftentimes in the by-
ways of industry, in small boat compa-
nies, for instance, where are found men
ideal for woodworking, or in garages
throughout the country, where are found
‘61€ aed ‘(Z161 ‘19qO0}IO) JOqUINN Sey ‘ANIZVOVIV
»
MHAVAION) IVNOLLVN 99S SolUNOD J9YIO JO SWo[QWlo JFeIOITL 9}
1O.f ‘pat St 1o}U9) OY, “PpEey onyq & UO azyTYM St ‘Wt Sunured st oyM
URL 2Y} UBY} Jo][v} DOURJSUT SITY} Ul “IeIs URSIIOWY oY, ‘o]qQISsod sv
oB1e] se aq ysnul uOT}eU Yoea JO souL[d SuUNYSY ay} JO ssuIM oY} UO
sug{quia dy} ‘Sapnqnye Ysiy ye s[qIuUJIISIP A[Ipeat aq 0} JapIO UT]
VIdalV NVOIWANV
NV dO SONIM HHL NO UVLIS DNIHSINONILSIG AHL ONILINIVd
aotuy) JodedsMon UtoJsaA, Aq ydeisoj0g
cerca cra gam
‘
te
je
. *(Jeo a}
JO Apod dY}) ISLTOSN}F OY} 1JOF SSulzY [LJOW JO SuLyeU oy} st soueyd
-11e JO dinjoeynueU sy} UL suUOTyetodO 9}edI[ap JsOW dy} JO su_O
AOVAd GNV AAOLOIA
MAHIHOV OL SI UV AHL AO VAVWAV S.VOINANV
Il ‘ONOULS AL LSOW JIOd AWA “TAM AT LSAW MAAOS HOV
JAOqGIOH{ W jepey Aq ydessojoyg
62
AN AVIATION SCHOOL MACHINE FLYING OVER BISCAYNE BAY, FLORIDA
Speed, handiness, and great climbing ability are three essential qualities in a warplane.
A machine admirably constructed for fighting at low altitudes but ineffective at an elevation
of two and a half miles would be worthless, for in modern air battles it frequently happens
that the scene of conflict is four miles above the trenches. The quality which a fighter most
values in his machine is “handiness,” of which speed is one of the chief factors.
63
© International Film Service
BOAT-HOUSE AND LAGOON AT THE GREAT LAKES TRAINING STATION
In training aviators for the war necessities of the hour America is also providing for
the days of peace, when the airplane will play an important role in national and international
commerce. Many questions remain to be solved—rules of the air, as compared with rules
of the road and of the sea; the right of landing; the mapping of air currents; the collection
of customs on airplane freight which may be deposited in any part of the country after a
flight over international boundaries.
Photograph by Edwin 1,evick
MINEOLA CAMP MILITARY AVIATION SCHOOL
American fliers are in training not only in this country, but also in Southern France,
and in a short time the red-white-and-blue star, distinguishing symbol of the United States
military airplane, will be “clipping the corners of the pyramids,” as our student airmen have
been invited to use Great Britain’s splendid flying school in Egypt, where the weather con-
ditions are ideal from December to December.
‘padojaaap st Joijed ysvod |elige Jo weisoid posodoid dy} Jt ‘oADMOY ‘90D O} SiIvdA DY} UI DSUdJOp [eUOTeU
JO S}USUIN.AYSUT JUL}IOdWUT JSOW INO JO DUO oq [JIM BT “ABA Jo UOdPIM JsaMoU SULL JO JUDWIdOPaAIP JUIIII AJOAT}VIedWIOD & SI sUIYORUT snoiqrydwe sy J,
‘
c
GNVW’ISI DNOIT NOLONIHSVM JwOd -AYVINVH SLI OL DNINYNIAY UNV IduIV-OUGAH V
yorAo’T urmp*y Aq ydeis0joyg
66
AV@ WNAVO
WIAO ONINVOS ANVIdvIV NV WOU
WAVW AWOALOId -OLLNV'I
sla
LV tH duivMo
WOH] “A “M Aq Y
dvisojoud
I ONIMOO'T ‘VaINOTA ‘HOVAG NOLIV JO HdVYOOwaAV NV
Y
Uy
N
dX
KS
wes
RS
Ss
WO 4
Cart
N
jy
Yj
YYW)
‘PUNOISIIOF SY} Ul IOI YOe[q oy} 9AOqe 4oof JO
spoipuny Surieos ourjdiie ue wolj apew sem ydersojoyd ayqeyieulas siyy, ‘stolgp AWIY “§ ‘fA FO JOJNIWsUI Ue Aq poyesodo
VINIOUIA ‘SMAN LXIOdMAN WHAO dOO'T-HHI-dOOT V LAG AAIG ASON V LON
poomMsopuyg ®Y pooMispuy ©)
BN 28. ama oe
Ao? BOS AR OLS
be
sulaq st suejdiq ayy,
68
‘POUIINUOS JIB SojOY,, SP IV} OS “Ysoyes st SUIAY YSU VEY} OS f4YS1U Ye yUD}SIx9-UOU A]][eO
-1y9v1d aav pure ‘step Jd}UIM UO snoOJOWNU sso] YON o1v ADT, “op & JO sUOTVADa Je PotJojUNO UD UDs9q dALY Ady} SUOOUAD}}e JOY AJoWoI}x9 UO pur
‘Joof OOO'T FO WYSroy v OF dn ouy-1OWLUNS UT punoqe ssjoy persq “jowtunyd e syx1] sdoip yt sjods ssay} JO aUO soyovod our{d Be Udy AA ‘“S}UdIIND Bur
-pudosop pur SUIPUDISe Aq posheo dinssoid MO] dWdI}XO fo eo1e UC Ie oY} ul «LOY Ppveop,, & STI JOJCIAL Jopeod oY} JO STSOWO NY Ppoepeetp Sour OU L
WUOLS AHL FO LAO
yorAo’yT urmpAy Aq ydessojoy
¥
*$}S9} JULJIOTUIT JsOUI dy} JO dUO SI SI], “poqyes
-ydnp 1vodde pjnoys suey oy} YyotyA je jurod ay} sajeoipur Jaaoy-jr4Ids
VY “Joyjo 9} 9AOqe 9uO ‘ajqnop Avoddv 0} olIeY sy} Sursnesd ‘snyeaedde
2} sjsnfpe Ayjenpeis JouTWIeXS ayy, ‘aOUvATIQUOD JeTPNDOd v Ysno.1yy
OuUIeYy V]pULI LV soydjVM o}LpIpUvD OY} Jsd} VoUL[eq opIsNUI dy} ul
LO'IId WV
NV WNOOUA OL GUNILSHC LON SI WIgnod Saas OHM NVI COaIND
uosdwoyy neg ©
MMO
‘S1ojerAe Awoud JO Yor}ye oy} ysurIeSe Jposumy
pojoid ay plnod tou “Apo}eANIIV d1Yy AtoTIVIV JoIIp jou pynoo sy OSTA
“TOYIQ “JoyJOUR ULY} PooUuRAPR JoYJIN} st Ato}eq 9UO JoyJOYM { JayJOUR
ULY} JOYS St OUTYILI DUO JOYJOYM ftdYJOUL ULY} JoIeOU st yoalqo duo
JoyPYM Ap}91109 aspnf 0} ojqe oq O} ULUIIIY dy} 1OF [eIUOSSO ST 7]
AIITIAVIT V Had GINOM SHI NOISIA
VIdODSOWMLLS AHL SSVd LON G@INOD OHM VAATASIO UNV IdULV NV
y
uosdutoy y, [neg ©
70
SHULSEISAU,, DY} SV UMOUY ST [AIA OY} WOTF S}Nsot YOIYA souLCANy
“SIP ]UNSIA oT, “Wolqo JuLysiIp V UO SoAd. SIY SNOOF 0} PO} st yuRorydde
oy}? pue poddojs Uoy} St Aivyd oy, “Spuooses A}JUBA} UL Sout} Uo} punosV
POI M ST ‘Tey SUTATOADT V_.UL po}vos ‘JURITTdde oY} ‘pasoypd soso YILAA
IASOIND, Sn IW DVALSAN
ce 33
THT HONOUHL WLVGIGNVO LOTId WIV AHL INILIOAd
uosdwoy y, [neg ©
‘JOY Je yeo1s
§ VOLO JO Jo[Id & Sv ddIAIOS JOF UOTQDIf91 10 DDURIdIDNR SIY UL S1OJOV]
SUIUIULID}9p OY} JO ouO St AVM MOJAILU PUL JYSIVIZS oy} WO’, UOTVeIADp
SI}[ ‘pivmyoeq pure pareMi0y syyem juvoiydde sy} ‘posold soso UIA,
ANTI-M’IVHO
IVUALIT V WIVM ALVCIGNVO NOILVIAV AHL ONIMNVI
uosduoy J, [neg ©)
71
‘JoAot-qiuids wv oyIT SJR YStyAM ping ve ‘YydurdT
-Opud 94} SMoY dsoy} YSnosayy, ‘soueld JUoIayIp Ul jas ‘syeued APTNIITS
-IUls$ 9914} JO S}SIsuUOD YJUTIAqL] 94} JO JIed vUG “Aka [eUII}UT 94} Jo
yyursAqe] ay} JO UOT;IUN} & siI—tunIiqiyinba Jo JeYy}—easuds Y}XIS OYJ,
LSaL ONITIVA
HHL Ol NVWUIV NVOIMANV AALLOUdSONd AHL ONILOALaas
uosdwoyy, neg ©
‘snjeredde Sururyeq $,ueut 0} xXopur dy} o1e sado oy,
‘unLIqyinba siq siaAodet oy A[yoOIND MOY 99S 0} poj}so} SI TAIIS SUL
-A]E S,eO1LIOUY JO} a}epIpued Yoo ‘Tey SUTATOADI & UT [IIYM PL Joy
“AdOOSOHLALS V FO
GVALSNI HOLVM-dOLS V SASA YWANINVXGE ‘IVOIGAN AHL AWHHM
uosduoy yy, [neg @
72
‘DIV SuIdooMs V UL PULY SAOULLULXS OY} LUO.Y
AVML ‘JYSII dy} OF ,pojutod jsvd,, puv wie sty poddoip posojd Ap YS1y
yo 9Y} Udy A
Y}EM
SoA YIM puv We JJo] SITY posted oJeprpuvog oy} ‘poddoys sv
‘SpuOdOS Ud} UL SOUT} Ud} PopIIYM Sug Joye AIsUYyoOIOF Yo] sty
‘ayepipuvrs oy,
avid ANV +
puevy SsJoUTWUeXS oY} YONO} O} SuTAIZ st ‘pasojo sofa
LSet
NOLO TONWIVE
IL ,ONILNIOd LSVd,, HHL
ANINVALAG OF,
SAINO
dO
TO USNS
uosdwoyy, jue
~y
YY Yj
Y,
WY
‘Ajsodoid uonouny Avo JouUt oY} JO sjeuLrs oy4
yy} SUIMOYS “FZo] OY} OF dOIp [JIM pvoy siy [euUsJOU st oy Jy ‘soko sly
usdo pure pvoy sIy osivt 0} po} Sl ojeprpuevs oy} Sdojs sreyd oy} Usy AA
‘SpUOIIS Ud} Ul Jo] 9Y} O} SOLWI} DAY PdATOADI st YOryM “Ireyd Suruuids
‘posojd soko pure PJIEMIOF pvoy SIy YUM
e@ UL posed st oJeprpuro oy}
VCIGNV) V
L ONITIVA
Lou
SHU SI OHM WL
HHL OL A’VIVNYON DNIGNOd
uosduoy,y, [neg ©
8)
‘uad AjySiur suros Aq popns YSnoy} se sinqoid dy} Ssosde Surydj01}s “JuUOIF OY} OF ABMjTeI B JO S]Ies 9Y} FO SodezAns poystjod
-IYJes} DY} 91e ssouqyS11q uly} JO SYRII}S OM} JY} PUY “PLOl WiepvVLU 9Y} SUOG II 9}TYM OY} pu “ONL CIO JOALI & WeI[s dNI]-JOIIIUI oY} “SpOOM oy}
Soydjed YIep 9} ‘urers Suruodi oY} MOTPIA dy} ‘Pjay ssv41s dy} SuTusyOJoq Ud9I18 9Y} “Forjat FYysrs Ur deur v jnq sv woy} 0} Jvadde ][IM Y}Iv9 oY,
Oo
[IY JuRjsip v UO Ayosy B JO SUOIJBISNIOD IqQao} dy} Sv Inq SUNS Siq Jo soysey Sul[zzep dy} pue ‘PuNoIS oY} JO ddVF OY} UO SYOVIO-pniut SB soyous.y
JO SMOI potiios ‘sjue se Sutivadde ust YY “Woy, YWwouloq YSyoI}s [IPA oul] op Suny-1ey oy, “AWoaus oy} FO JUsWaAOUT ATOAD Y}eM TIM Ady}
tie dy} ul jurod aSevjuea sy} WOL “IV dy} FO sopsva Uapjos sPooWY olodaq [IM Ady} usyM Avp oy} JoJ Sursedaid o1e spr] AYsny ssoxy,
NOO-ANIHOVW V dO AWOLVNV HHL DNIACOLS
UOIeUIOJUT SIPqng uo 99}}1WIWIOD ©
4
Z
y
4.
y
i
A
j
ye
vA
j
eg
Citta tO, siog,
thie, ni (ig
ees
‘9SIIGINS JO JUdUIITD oY} JO [eyIdeo oyu 0} SUOTHIPUOD 9S9q} JopuN J9Ad}eYM DdULYD OU sey
. oY a > 8 oy, ; 2 > . .
SH “1de} 94} UO Spavs sity YUM oles IVM sty AvTd ysnur Awous oy} pur Kavu pue AUWIe JOF OOTAIOS IIe oeNDape ue YUM «THEY 94} JO Opts sdyy0
OY} UO SEM JEYAM,,—IS O} poJUBM SALA UOJSUT]JOAA JA 99S 0} JapueUOD sIy surqeus pur Sxye joys pur joys SUIAJop ‘snsesog Uloapow v
JO SSUIAY OY} UO OJOY SUNOA dNPOSo1 v sUdAvdY IY} SSO SUIAL SOUOd 9194} AYPOT, ‘S[aoy SIy 3e sa0jz puesnoy} @ YyIm deykeur ‘Aryunod oy} ssos98
SUIdO]]VS PUL PapUNOA ‘ULUIATTVAVD oY} SvAL J sed SAVP UP "S4O}VIAV TOY} 07 oMO JUOTF OY} Je Sore oY} YOnuU MOY Id} 07 dIQISSOduE st 7]
ae ad
SONIA JO SHIMLSAW SH, INIACOALS
UONLUIOJUT OPQu_ Uo vazj1wUI0g ©
ro,
\\
WwW
© Committee on Public Information
AVIATION STUDENTS GETTING ACQUAINTED WITH THEIR AIRPLANE ENGINES
It has been said that a first-class mechanic is worth more to a training school than a first-
class pilot, and it has been found that they are harder to recruit; yet every pilot must know
his engine. He must know by its rhythm when it is running properly; he must have keenness
of ear for any unusual sound, for such sounds are danger signals, which, observed in time,
may save a machine and its precious freight. Hence, at the training schools every pilot is
given the most thorough training in the care of his engine.
STUDENT AVIATORS MASTERING THE
a
oe
yyy Vy
WW\
Y
j
Yj
© Committee on Public Information
INTRICACIES OF THE AIRPLANE MOTOR
Upon his knowledge of his machine and his ability to make a hasty temporary repair
under fire may depend the life of the airman and the information which he has gathered for
his commander.
fighter.
practical enginemen. ‘The need for this
sort of men has not now been filled and
very likely will not be as long as the war
lasts.
The troubles do not end with their en-
listment, however, for all of them must
be given a special training to adapt their
skill to the peculiar problems of air-
planes. Here the government has had
splendid cooperation from private plants,
which have admitted many such men for
a short period of practical instruction.
It behooves him, therefore, to be a master mechanic as well as a daring
AN ADMINISTRATIVE PERSONNEL MUST
BE TRAINED
All this force when organized into
squadrons will require a considerable ad-
ministrative personnel which, we are little
inclined to have in mind in thinking of
the air service. Adjutants, supply off-
cers, and disbursing officers must be se-
cured from among men of executive
ability and trained to the peculiar prob-
lems of military procedure, purchasing,
hygiene, law, and the like, in order that
A knowledge of flying
flight. Cadets at a “ground school”
one means of acquiring
i)
a
i
WORK AT A “GROUND SCHOOL”
, such as the Western Front requires, is not to be gained merely by
are’ shown here assembling the parts of an airplane,
familiarity which will make the operation of it intuitive.
© Committee on Public Information
TRAINING FOR OBSERVATION WORK AT THE FRONT
The aviation students, seated above the platform with their maps in hand, are being
drilled in the art of reporting artillery fire at the front. Below is a landscape drawn to scale,
and appearing exactly from their perches as if they were in an actual airplane 6,000 feet
above the ground the landscape represents; and while they look down on the stretch of terri-
tory thus represented the instructor below makes various-colored lights, representing various
kinds of artillery fire, according to a schedule as to order and speed. ‘The students make
full note on their own maps before them of the location of the shots and prepare the radio
messages they would send were they at the front. These are checked up and the poor observ-
ers are weeded out, so that only the best men continue on to the front.
79
fe
Photograph from Collegiate Balloon School
ADJUSTING THE VALVE OF AN OBSERVATION BALLOON BEFORE ITS INFLATION
» WITH HYDROGEN GAS
the squadron as a whole may become a
smoothly running unit of the larger
service.
So, too, men for work as observers and
bombers to accompany all aviators except
the individual fighters have had to be
most painstakingly selected from men
possessing the two-sided physical and
mental requirements necessary and in a
proportion of three to every five aviators.
The best ages have been found to be from
25 to 35; but as the reports of these men
will dictate the movements of whole army
corps, it has been necessary to put them
through a special eight-weeks’ course of
instruction to test and develop their keen-
ness of vision, power of deduction, and
ability in machine-gunnery, map-reading,
and aérial reconnaissance.
Last, before coming to the aviators
themselves, is the twin service of the bal-
loonists. This question has presented pe-
culiar problems and has made necessary
a two-months’ course of training in me-
teorology, gases, observation, instruction,
and flying. The balloonist, while not so
spectacular as the aviator, is only less im-
portant, for with his range of vision of
eight miles and his constant telephonic
communication with the ground, he is
able to keep a most accurate time sched-
ule of every enemy movement and a de-
tailed record of all gun-fire. For hours
at a time he rides calmly and patiently, a
mile in the air, noting details which the
longer-winged, but more cursory, aviator
may overlook.
MANY SPECIAL COURSES OF INSTRUCTION
All these demands for all these differ-
ent kinds of men have put Uncle Sam
into the business of instruction in a way
that we little imagine. Special courses
have had to be built up, in addition to
those of the flying fields, for observers,
for bombers, for balloonists, for radio
experts, for photographers, for adminis-
trative officers, and for enlisted men, each
solving entirely new difficulties raised by
the new sciences in aviation and the adap-
tation of old sciences.
So far, then, we have seen the need of
an intensive and specialized selection of
men for the various collateral work con-
Y
YY
Yy
© Underwood & Wriderced
ADJUSTING SAND-BAG BALLAST PREPARATORY TO THE ASCENT OF A CAPTIVE BALLOON
While not as spectacular as the aviator’s work, the aéronaut has an important role in
the “economy” of war.
The information which he is able to obtain from his perch among
the clouds often saves the lives of thousands of his fellow-soldiers who otherwise would be
sent, unsuspecting, within the range of some battery cleverly concealed from observers sta-
tioned on the ground.
nected with flying. Perhaps a truer per-
spective of the picture could be derived
from this angle than from that of the
aviator. Nevertheless, so much romance
and popular interest attaches to the latter
that a brief outline of his career would
be valuable.
The difficulty in securing aviators is
not in securing enough applicants, but in
securing the right kind of applicants. It
is too obvious for statement that the man
who is to fly several miles above the
ground and upon whose reports may de-
pend the fire of half a dozen batteries,
the shifting of the steel wall of the bar-
rage, even the success of the whole battle,
must have a peculiar combination of both
physical and mental attributes.
Some criticism has arisen as to the
Severity Of the tests; but let if ever be
remembered that a poor aviator has all
the power of harm that a good aviator
has of good. Hundreds of applicants ob-
viously unfit have had to be turned away,
SI
both for their own good and for the good
of the service, but that most emphatically
does not mean that a good man is not just
as vitally, indeed more vitally, needed
than ever.
A SENSE OF RESPONSIBILITY IS VITAL
The whole emphasis of the service now
is to secure men who, besides perfect
physique, have a full sense of the respon-
sibility of their work to the men below.
An aviator sent to get a photograph, in-
vestigate an emplacement, or drop bombs
has no other business. He must carry
out his orders and, particularly, must
avoid jeopardizing himself and his ma-
chine unnecessarily. The air service to-
day is an earnest, responsible science,
where stunts have their place only as a
means to carry out a larger mission and
where “dare-devils” and circus perform-
ers must give way before the real team-
work of the air.
Certain special physical qualifications
89 THE NATIONAL
Photograph from Collegiate Balloon School
READY FOR Al 5SOLO™ BLICHT
This type of observation balloon has one serious disadvantage:
when held captive it oscillates in the slightest breeze, making it diff-
cult for the observer in the car or basket to take accurate note of
enemy movements and day-to-day changes in fortified positions back:
of the front-line trenches.
are, of course, fundamental. The pro-
spective avatior is probably not surprised
when his chest is tapped by the medical
examiner, when he is asked to expand
his lungs, and when his arm is bound in
a tight rubber band to test his blood pres-
Slires;) otmilariy, the testingof the nose
and throat to guard against any obstruc-
tion in ventilation which might cause ver-
tigo or nausea may be unexpected, but
not startling, to a man who expects to go
through the aviator’s wide range of tem-
perature and atmospheric pressure. ‘The
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE
Jennings self -record-
ing color-sense tester
probably appears only
a little unusual, for it
is realized that per-
fect vision is essential
to observation work
from the clouds, and
that . any * defect sor
vision might prove fa-
tal in a sudden emer-
gency.
The balance test,
however, will prove a
distinct surprise, for
few people realize that
the sense of balance is
controlled by a fluid
which flows back and
forth in the labyrinth
of the inner ear, just
as the fluid in a spirit-
level flows back and
forth.- To “settare
fluid in motion and
see how quickly it re-
acts, the candidate is
seated in a revolving
chair which is spun
rapidly around. When
it is brought to a stop,
the candidate is asked
to point out certain
objects, his visual dis-
turbance is noted, and
a pretty good estimate
is made as to whether
he could bring him-
self out of a spiral or
right his machine af-
ter a falling-leaf evo-
lution.
THE MENTAL EXAMINATION IS NOT
FORMIDABLE
Next comes the mental examination,
not nearly so formidable as the phrase
implies. Its purpose is to find out from
the candidate’s records, from his history,
education, athletic ability, and generai
presence whether he has the alertness,
aggressiveness, accuracy, and sense of
responsibility desired. A good aviator
should be neither all brains and no phy-
sique nor all physique and no brains, but
‘
FOUR
© International Film Service
“SAUSAGE BALLOONS” AND A DIRIGIBLE FLYING OVER AN AMERICAN
AERONAUTICAL TRAINING STATION
Airships and balloons are known in the slang of the fighting front as “gas-bags.”
In the
British service they are frequently called “S. S.’s”’—Submarine Seekers.
should combine the two in an all-round
ability.
If accepted, the candidate becomes a
“flying cadet.” That status he holds
throughout his course of training until
he passes his reserve military aviator test
and receives his officer’s commission.
Technically he is enlisted in the Signal
Enlisted Reserve Corps at a salary of $30
a month, with quarters, uniform, and
food allowance of 60 cents daily pro-
vided by the government. At any time,
of course, he is subject to discharge if it
is obvious that he is mentally or morally
unqualified to become an aviator.
His first assignment is to a “ground”
school at one of the eight large engineer-
ing universities working in cooperation
with the government. Here there is ac-
tion and interest at once. In company
with several score other physically fit and
eager men, in an atmosphere of earnest
work, the principles of the sciences he
intends to master are unfolded.
During these crowded eight weeks he
secures a basic instruction in the princi-
ples and theory of flying, radio work,
codes and photography, the operation and
care of airplane engines, planes, and ma-
chine-guns, and the theories of coopera-
_tion between the air service, the infantry,
83
and the artillery. He is also given pri-
S
Photograph by Central News Photo Service
ON GUARD ABOVE A BATTLESHIP AT ANCHOR IN HOME WATERS
An important advantage which the airplane or captive balloon enjoys in the role of a
lookout is the fact that an observer high above the sea can easily detect the shadowy presence
of a submarine beneath the waves, whereas the sinister craft may be entirely invisible to one
on the deck of a threatened warship.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
mary instruction in meteorology and as-
tronomy and devotes considerable time to
military drill and calisthenics. From rev-
eille, at 5.30 a. m., to tattoo, at 9.30, there
is serious and interesting work.
The next step is to one of the great
new flying schools, where instruction in
actual flying is given. First comes the
dual work with the instructor, beginning
with long “hops” into the air and down
again, to accustom the pupil to the vari-
ous controls, such as the rudder, elevator,
throttle and switch, and to the general
“feel” of an airplane. Baffling enough at
first, mastery of this work affords an in-
stinctive control of the machine, so that
whatever happens later he will not lose
his head and make the wrong move.
WHEN THE CADET FIRST FLIES ALONE
Gradually, as the cadet’s skill and con-
fidence increase, he is given increasing
responsibility for the machine, though the
instructor remains with him to save him
from a slip. When at last he has demon-
strated absolute control of himself and
his plane, he is ready for the third stage,
the proud moment when he leaves the
ground alone. He is held back, however,
rather than hurried forward into this, on
the theory that it is far better to spend
a few extra days in intensive instruction
than it is to lose either a cadet or a plane,
both of which are now part of America’s
mipweapial Ihe iminequency oi - fatal
accidents in America’s great training
program has more than justified this
caution.
The next stage is known as solo work,
or flying alone. Backed by the funda-
mental training of the ground school and
the dual instruction, the cadet is fully
qualified to take the air by himself. His
every move is noted and suggestions for
improvement given on his return to earth.
Gradually, he is allowed to lengthen out
the distance and the height of his flights,
until he is easily executing 30-mile cross-
country trips and the simpler evolutions
at an altitude around 10,000 feet.
By now he has completed the require-
ments for his designation as a “reserve
military aviator,” which automatically
carries with it his first commission, that
of a second lieutenant, with a salary of
$1,700 a year. How long it has taken
Co
Ot
Photograph by Central News Photo Service
A KITE BALLOON ON OBSERVATION DUTY
OVER AN AMERICAN WARSHIP TO
WHEE kh WS AttACEED
The three round-bottom cones are air anchors,
which serve to keep the basket of the observer
stable and facilitate his careful watch for sub-
marines. ‘These canvas stabilizers constitute
the tail of the kite balloon.
86 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
depends on his skill, his adaptability, and
his attention to discipline.
THE POST-GRADUATE COURSE IN FRANCE
The finishing touches of the training
still remain, however. These are given
in advance schools in France, and com-
prise the more complex evolutions in the
air and tactical movements by wings and
squadrons. By the end of this course he
is complete master of the air, is able to
spiral, side-slip, execute the falling-leaf,
and handle radio, photography, or ma-
chine-gun, a fully trained member of
Uncle Sam’s new army, entirely at home
in this new element.
Thus is the great personnel of Amer-
ica’s air service mainly built up; so is the
appeal of the Allies being answered, to
furnish them with an unequaled force
of men; for if there was one thing that
was hoped for when the United States
entered the war, it was that we should
make from our rich resources of fearless,
adventurous, and quick-thinking young
manhood a trained air personnel to fill
the places of that corresponding class of
men among the Allies, many of whom
had been ruthlessly killed off in the
trenches before the true place of avia-
tion was realized.
THE LIFE STORY OF AN AMERICAN AIRMAN
IN FRANCE
Extracts from the Letters of Stuart Walcott, Who, Between
July and December, 1917,
Learned to Fly in French
Schools of Aviation, Won Fame at the Front,
and Fell Near Saint Souplet
at Princeton University in the win-
ter of 1916-17. In view of his ap-
proaching graduation in the spring, his
father wrote to him that he had best be-
gin to think about what he was to do
after graduation, in order that he might
get on an independent basis as soon as
practicable.
In response, under date of January 7,
he wrote:
“You spoke of my being independent
after | graduated in the spring. If I go
to Europe, as I want to, to drive an am-
bulance or in the air service, I will be
doing a man’s work and shall be doing
enough to support myself. If the work
is unpaid, it is merely because it is charit-
able work and as such is given freely.
“Tf you want to pay my way, I will
consider it not as dependence on you,
father, but as a partnership that may
S TUARYT WALCOTT was a senior
help the Allies and their cause. I will
furnish my services and you the funds
to make my services available. If not,
I will be willing to invest the small
amount of capital which has accumulated
in my name.
“T have been thinking of this work in
Furope for over a year now and am still
very strong for it. I don’t know what
the effect will be on myself, but if it will
be of service to others, I think that it is
something I ought to do.”
Being assured that the expenses would
be provided for, he then began an in-
vestigation as to the best method of pro-
cedure to obtain training as an aviator.
BELIEVED THE AVIATOR OF GREAT SERVICE
TO HUMANITY
In a letter dated January 26 he said:
“Many, many thanks for sending me
the book on the French Flying Corps, by
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 87
Winslow. I read half of it the night
that it came and stayed up late last night
to finish it. He gives a very straight,
interesting, and apparently not exagger-
ated account of the work over there,
which has made somewhat clearer to me
just what it is that I want to get into.
Now I am even more anxious than I was
before to join the service over there.
“The more that I think about it and
the more that I hear of it, the more de-
sirous I am of getting into the Flying
Corps. If a man like Winslow, with a
wife and daughter dependent on him, is
willing to take the risk involved, I see
no reason why I should not.
“You mention the Ambulance Service
im;your last note. I have thought of
that quite a little and would definitely
prefer the aviation. ‘The ambulance is
worth while, I think, in that it gives one
an opportunity to be of great service to
humanity, but not so much so as the
other. There will be a number of my
classmates who will enlist in the Amer-
can Ambulance Scrvice this spring, but
the air service appeals to me.”
He then made arrangements with the
American representatives of the Lafay-
ette Escadrille to go to France on the
completion of his college year.
January 29 he wrote:
“T will get a physical examination in
a few days. In regard to getting the
training over here first, I do not think
that it would be worth while. The in-
struction over there would be first hand,
tried, for a definite purpose, and on the
whole superior to what I could get here.
I could also be picking up the language
and the hang of the country at the same
Eine. -
On February 24 he received word that
his papers, presented with his application
for admittance to the Franco-American
Flying Corps, assured him on their face
of a welcome when he presented himself
in Paris. He was informed that if he
utilized his spare time in availing him-
self of any and every opportunity to
familiarize himself with flying, it wouid
shorten his stay in the Student Aviators
School in France.
On March 26:
“TI haven’t been able to find out any-
thing definite about the school at Mineola.
As yet, no change has been announced,
to my knowledge, in reference to hasten-
ing up the course in event of the coming
of war. Over a hundred men have left
college (Princeton) already to start train-
ing for the Mosquito Fleet and the rest
of them are drilling every afternoon.
“What do you think of the advisability
of stopping college and going to some
aviation school? Considering that it
takes several months to become at all
useful as an aviator and that war is prac-
tically inevitable now, I think it would be
wise to get started right away.”
ANXIOUS TO LEARN FRENCH METHODS
OF FLYING
Ina letter of April 3:
“T saw in the morning paper that the
American flyers in France would be
transferred to American registry immedi-
ately after the declaration of war. When
you next see Generai Squier, I wish that
you would sound him on the probability
of a force being sent to France to learn
to fly according to French methods.
That is the one thing above all others
that want to, get into. lin theresiseamy
chance of that I do not want to get in-
volved in anything else. . :
“Tt is quite certain that seniors who
leave college now, to go into military
work, will receive their degrees. I would
not object to losing the work, as it is
not my present intention to keep on with
theoretical chemistry, and that is what I
am devoting my time to this spring.
From the standpoint of education alone,
I think that my time could be more profit-
ably spent in the study of aviation.”
Leave was granted by the university,
and on April 6 B. Stuart Walcott was
appointed a special assistant to Mr. Sid-
ney D. Waldon, inspector of airplanes
and airplane motors, Signal Service at
Large. He immediately reported to Mr.
Waldon and worked with him through
April. May 1 he went to Newport News.
Virginia. May 2 he reported:
“My first trip up was this afternoon
with Victor Carlstrom. We were out 16
minutes and climbed 3,500 feet. It was
all very simple, getting up there—a little
wind and noise and some bumps and
pockets in the air—a glorious view of the
harbor.
7 ae
. [ids v sjuoAo1d pue sulydvUT 94} S}YSII ‘stoAa] [OI}UOD 9}vo1]dnNp YWM ‘10}ONIYSUT
a} SAOUL asj[eF SayeUI oy JUSWIOW dy} Inq ‘OUL{d dy} JO JoJsvUT SI OY ATJIII0D WSsTULYSIIU dy} SuTe419dO St JUOpN}s oy} sv SUC] SY “WI puryaq szs
JOJONAJSUL JY} OfIYM “Jord sv oovjd sty soyv} JUSpHjs YJ, “oury IU [OTJUOD [enp oy} FO suvot Aq st 1O}eIAe JUSpNys dy} Surures Jo poyjour suO
STOOHOS DNIA'IA NVOIWANV MAN AHL JO UNO LV GNHOSV OL ACVAN SHUNVIdalV WALVAS-OML
UOTPeUIIOJUT SIPQnNg uo dd}}1UIWIOD @
GED WELLE a
88
Poe eee
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 89
“Then we started to come down. First
I saw the earth directly below through
the planes on the left. Then the horizon
made a sudden wild lurch and Newport
News appeared directly below on my
right. This continued for a little while
and then we started down at an angle of
about 30 degrees to the perpendicular,
turning as we went. I later learned that
Carlstrom had executed a few steep
banks, or sharp turns, and then spiraled
down. It ended with a very pretty land-
ing, following with a series of banks to
check speed.
“Flying, from my first impression, is a
very fascinating game and the one I want
to stay with for a while. I have signed
up for 100 minutes in the air. While this
100 minutes will not make me a flier by
any means, I think it is well worth the
while, in that it gives me a little element
of certainty in going abroad. I will know,
if all goes well, that I am not unable to
fhy.<
The next day he wrote:
“Two flights this morning ; 25 minutes
in toto. ‘The greatest sport I ever had.
Wonderful work. I did most of the work
after we got up a safe distance.”
Having obtained a certificate of 100
minutes’ flight and passed the necessary
physical examination, he left for France,
arriving at Bordeaux May 31, and soon
reported at Avord for training.
WALCOTT’S LETTERS HOME
Escole d’ Aviation Militaire,
Avord, Cher, France,
Friday, July 13, 1917.
You see, it’s Friday, the thirteenth, my
lucky day, and I’m happy because the
work is going well. First, [ll tell you
about a smash I had a week or so ago.
The roller, or rouleur, class which I
smashed in has the same machine as those
that fly with a 45 P motor. Only it is
throttled down, and we are supposed to
keep it on the ground—just about ready
to fly, but not quite getting up—a speed
of about 30 m. p. h.
When there is the slightest wind we
cannot roll, because the wind turns the
tail around and swings the machine in a
circle—a wooden horse—cheval de bots.
I rode about the end of the list Saturday,
and the wind had come up as the day got
on. Work stops at 8.30 a. m. always, be-
cause there’s too much wind.
My first sortie, or trip, went O K, with
a considerable breeze on the tail, but on
the second there was too much wind, and
after I got going pretty fast, around she
went. The wind caught under the inside
wing and up it went. Smash went the
outside wheel and a crackle of bursting
wood. All the front framework of wood
that holds the motor was smashed—a
pretty bad break. The monitor was a bit
mad and talked to me a bit in French.
The next morning I was called in to
see the chief of the Bleriot School, St. de
Chavannes, a very nice officer. He told
me that my monitor was not satisfied
with me; that he had told me to do some-
thing (cut the motor when the machine
started to turn) three separate times, and
that each time I had intentionally dis-
obeyed; that if anything like that hap-
pened again I would be “‘radiated” (dis-
charged from the school).
That was quite the first I had ever
heard of it, and I was so mad at the
monitor that I could have kicked him in
the head. I tried to explain to the lieu-
tenant, but he never heard a word; so I
just gurgled with wrath and didn’t do
anything. But yesterday we got another
monitor, who is a different sort.
The class after rouleur is decollét; it
is the same machine, but one gets off the
ground about a meter or two, then slacks
up on the motor and settles to the earth.
It is strictly forbidden to decollét in the
rouleur class. ‘This morning I had a
sortie in the rouleur, and all of a sudden
noticed that I was in the air a bit; man-
aged to keep it straight and get out of the
air without smashing. The monitor said
nothing, so I decolléed on all the sorties.
When I got out the monitor explained
that it was strictly forbidden to go off
the ground in the rouleur class; that I
shouldn’t have done it, and then asked
me if I would like to go up to the other
class. Whereupon, consenting, I am now
in the decollét class, leaving 16 rather
peeved Americans who arrived in the
rouleur the same time I did, who can
perform in the rouleur quite as well as I
Sea eee es PL
sioziyjedurss pue sards : .<
uojnay, JO ssurtoduie} oy} Wolf} Woy} yoojo1d 0} JYySiu pue Aep poyoyea oq Jsnut Uouttte oinynF IMO FO qustwidinbs Jay}O pue souryoeut SutApy oy,
_ dWYO ‘IOOHOS NOILVIAV NVOISHNV NV LV davod V Sv GINOLLVLS SdOOdL JO SUNAL PHL WAO DNIAAAOH SAN V’'IdalV
uoIeUIOJUT SIqNg UO saz}1MIIOD ©
gy Z
y 4
2
go
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 91
can, and who will remain in the rouleur
for some time yet. They’ve no grudge
against me, however, as it was only a
streak of luck on my part.
Later in the morning I had some sor-
ties in the decolleur and got up 2 or 3
meters. The wind was too strong, so my
trips were a bit rough, but nothing was
damaged; so hurrah for Friday, the
thirteenth.
RAPID ADVANCEMENT AT THE FRENCH
SCHOOL
SUIS. MOREE
The work has been going very well
since last I wrote you, which was only
two or three days ago. I told you about
at last leaving the blessed rouleur; I
never was so relieved in my life.
The first evening in the decollét class
I was requisitioned to turn tails, and the
morning after there was too much wind
to work. The decollét is the one where
you go up 2 or 3 meters and settle down
by cutting speed. The first time I had
three sorties in the wind, bounced around
a lot, but did no damage.
The next time was first thing in the
morning. ‘Two meters up on the first—
four or five on the fifth—strictly against
orders. I even had to piqué—point the
machine toward the ground—a little,
which is not at all comme il faut in the
decollét. lf 1 had smashed while doing
more than I was told to, there would have
been a lot of trouble; as it was, no objec-
tion, and the monitor personally con-
ducted me to the piqué class with a very
nice recommendation.
Now there are two piqué classes: one
with a pisté, about one-fourth of a mile
long, in which one is supposed to do little
more than decollét, get up about 5 meters
and piqué a tout petit peu—hardly at all.
After comes the advanced piqué, with a
much longer pisté, on which one can get
up 100 meters (300 feet).
On my first sortie in the piqué, I was
told to roll on the ground all the way; so,
continuing my policy, did a low decollét.
Next I was supposed to do a 2-meter
decollét, so went up ten and piquéd. Had
ten sorties in that class one morning,
getting as high as I could—about 20 me-
ters—and went to the advanced piqué
that night—last night. Four sorties there
last night with a machine with a poor
motor, so didn’t get up over 100 feet.
And this morning I did my first real
aviating. There was a bit of a wind
blowing, so the monitor, Mr. Moses, only
let a lieutenant and me go up, as we had
gone better than the others last night.
First it was a bit rainy and always bumpy
as the deuce—air puffs and pockets which
require the entire corrective force of the
wing warp and rudder to overcome.
My last sortie was decidedly active.
The wind had developed into a bit of a
breeze, which is to a Bleriot like a rough
sea to a rowboat. Two or three times I
got a puff that tipped the machine way
over—put the controls over as far as I
could and waited. It seemed a minute
before she straightened. ‘The trouble was
that the machine was climbing and there-
fore not going very fast. If I had piquéd
it would have corrected quicker.
3
ADVANTAGES OF THE BLERIOT TRAINING
I had no trouble at all in making the
landing. Hopping out of the machine, I
saw the head monitor rushing over to Mr.
Moses on the double, shouting volubly in
French and berating him severely. I
gathered that he had been watching my
maneuvers, expecting something to fall
every instant, and that he strenuously ob-
jected to Moses’ letting me go up. Work
stopped there for the morning, and it was
very fully explained to me what the trou-
ble was. If I have some sorties there to-
night, I go to tour du piste (flying field)
in the morning. I may be on Nieuport in
two weeks.
I am now beginning to see the advan-
tages of the Bleriot training. There is a
great deal of preliminary work on or near
the ground. In all other aviation train-
ing, such as at Newport News, 90 per
cent of the work is in making landings—
in piquéing down, redressing at the
proper moment and making gradual con-
nections with the earth.
I haven’t made a really bad landing yet,
and the reason is that I have been in a
machine so much on and near the ground
that I have sort of developed a sense or
feel of it, and almost automatically re-
dress correctly and settle easily; also I
gy? THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
can tell pretty closely what is flying speed
because of the work on the rollers. It’s
the same way with all the other students,
only I know it now from my own ex-
perience.
And this morning I began to realize
that my 100 minutes at Newport News
was invaluable. I not only found out
some of the tricks of a master hand
(Carlstrom), but also developed a bit of
confidence in the air, and air sense, with-
out which I could have gotten into trouble
this morning.
My bumpy ride this morning is abso-
lutely invaluable. Tl probably never
have so much trouble in the air again, be-
cause a fast machine, or even a Bleriot
with a good motor, would hardly have
noticed those puffs. It was a bit risky, I
guess, or the head monitor would not
have been worried; but now that it’s over
I know a lot more.
A FLYER IN A BEAN PATCH
August 25, 1917.
I- started. for-my altitude test three
days ago. ‘The requirement.is one hour
above 2,000 meters. I got to 1,950 meters
and one cylinder refused to fire, so I
was forced to come down.
The next morning I tried again; got
to 900 meters and the magneto ceased to
function, thereby stopping all progress.
I glided towards home, but didn’t have
quite the height to make the piste, so had
to land in a near-by field, just dodging
a potato patch. A flock of curious sheep
came around and carefully examined the
machine, getting mixed up in the wires
of the open tail construction and leaving
considerable wool thereon.
When the mechanics eventually got
the motor going, I started off; didn’t
get quite in the air before the motor went
bad, and then I ran into a bean patch,
gathering about a bushel of beans with
the same tail wires. Yesterday morning
I tried again ; climbed to 2,000 in 14 min-
utes and to 3,500 meters (11,500 feet)
In 40 minutes.
I went up through some light clouds,
and when I got to 3,500, the top of my
recording barograph, more clouds had
formed and I was practically shut off
from the earth, nothing but a sea of
clouds below me—a very beautiful sight.
One other machine was in sight, far be-
low me, but on top of the clouds.
Not wanting to get lost, | came down
through the clouds and stayed out my
hour, just above 2,000 and below the
clouds, where the air was very much
churned up, keeping me very busy. Just
as soon as the time was up I came down,
with a pair of chilled feet, making the
2,000 meters in five minutes to the
ground. No work since then on account
of bad weather.
This morning I attended my first Cath-
olic ‘funeral, that of the commandant of
the school, who was the victim of a mid-
air collision, a very unusual accident.
The other machine got down safely,
though badly smashed. Everybody in
camp attended the funeral in the chapel
of the artillery camp next door. I under-
stood none of the service, but the music
by a tenor and a ’cello was excellent.
While the cortege was going down the
hill to the cemetery, a Nieuport circled
overhead very low for half an hour or
more and dropped a wreath. It was a
very impressive ceremony.
I expect to start on triangles and petits
voyages in a few days. When they are
done, I will be a breveted flyer in the
French army. Then comes perfectionne
work and acrobacy; so it will be quite
a while yet for me.
THE WILD MAN IN THE NIEUPORT
September I, 1917
The wild man in the Nieuport was out
again this morning giving some one a
joy ride. There is a long straight stretch
of road in front of our piste and he
came down that several times, a nasty,
puffy wind blowing which bothered him
not at all, flying only two or three feet
off the ground.
In front of the piste is a telephone wire
crossing the road. He came along the
road 100 miles an hour until almost on
top of the wire, and jumped up just in
time to clear it by a few feet—really
beautiful work. He goes all over the
surrounding country flying low, hopping
over trees and houses—sometimes turn-
ing up sideways to slip between two trees
a bit too close together to fly through—
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 93
sometimes dragging a
wine tarough) ther!
space between a cou-
ple of hangars or do-
ing vertical virages
just in front of them.
It doesn’t seem pos-
sible that any man can
be so much a part of
his machine, can be so
consistently accurate
that he never misses.
For this chap, Lu-
miere,; has never had
ae sina shai He o%
A ‘ehap named
Loughran started off
on one of his brevet
voyages a few days
before I got ready for
brevet. He got quite
a ways along, ran into
a storm, went above
it, got caught in a
cloud; ‘kept on for
quite a long way, be-
ing drifted by a strong
wind, then came down
through the clouds
and found that they
were only 4oo feet
above the ground.
Peter ay witile she
found a place to land
and came down safely.
He went to a farm-
house, got his machine
guarded and tied
down. In the mean-
time, word had spread
over the countryside
that an aviator had
come down there and
the entire population came out to look
him over.
A grand equipage drove up with a
Count who lived in a near-by chateau.
He insisted that Eddie come to the cha-
teau and accept their hospitality. There
the fortunate Eid stayed five days—the
Countess talked English, and also some
house-guests. He hadn’t brought a trunk,
so borrowed razor, etc., from the Count—
went down to see the machine every day
in the baronial barouche.
Photograph by Western Newspaper Union
SUIT IN USE BY THe UNITED) STATES ARMY AVEATORS
The airman cannot be clad too warmly. Recently in an altitude
flight an Italian aviator, Lieutenant Guido Guidi, encountered a tem-
perature of 8&9 degrees below zero at a height of 19,750 feet, but he
continued to mount another mile.
Whenever he went to the little town
in the vicinity, all the kids followed him
around the streets; and when at last he
left he was presented with a multitude
of bouquets and had to kiss each and
every donor. He brought back pictures
of the chateau—a delightful-looking old
place—and numerous addresses.
THE FIRST CROSS-COUNTRY FLIGHT
September 4, 1917.
At last the two weeks of wind and
STUDENT AND INSTRUCTING AVIATORS MAKING NOTES OF FEATS OF MEN IN THE AIR
Photograph by Edwin Levick
»
The amount of actual flying time allotted to a student aviator at a training school is
comparatively brief.
A major portion of his instruction is derived from watching the mistakes
of others and in being told how to remedy his own defects, carefully noted by experts while
he isi up.”
rain has ceased and now it is perfect
weather—a bit of a breeze and lots of
sun-for the last two days. Yesterday
morning there weren’t enough machines
to go around, so I did not work, mak-
ing the eighth consecutive day I hadn’t
stepped in a machine.
Last evening I, at last and with much
rejoicing, started out on my “maiden
voyage” to another school about 60 kilo-
meters away (37.5 miles). It was de-
lightfully easy—nothing to do but climb
2 or 3 thousand feet and just sit there
and watch the country unfold, comparing
04
the map-like surface of the earth spread
out below with the map in the machine.
In good weather it is very easy to follow,
spot roads, towns, woods, rivers, and
bridges. Railroad tracks get lost at high
altitudes and are harder to find anyway.
One has to keep an eye open for a
place to land within gliding distance in
case of a panne always; but the country
is so flat and so much cultivated around
here that it is absurdly simple. J en=
deavored always to keep some pleasant-
looking house or chateau in range in case
of trouble, for the French are proverb-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 95
ially hospitable to aviators en panne
(lying to, descending).
Coming back yesterday evening, the
sun was pretty low and the air absolutely
calm—nothing but the drone of the motor
and the wind; the only movements neces-
sary an occasional slight pressure on the
joy-stick to one side or the other to keep
the proper direction. I came very nearly
going to sleep, it was so peaceful up
there; several times closed my eyes and
swayed a bit.
NS a matter of fact) one is perfectly
safe at that altitude—anything over a
thousand feet—because the machine, at
least this particular type, won’t get into
any position from which one cannot get
it out within 200 meters at most. But
nevertheless I haven’t tried any im-
promptu falls as yet.
This morning I repeated the same
identical performance, because for some
reason we have to do two “petits voy-
ages,’ and had much the same kind of
a time as yesterday. On the way home
one cylinder quit its job and threw oil
instead, covering me from head to foot
and clouding up my goggles so I had
to wipe them off about every minute.
When I got back the mechanics decided
that that motor had died of old age and
would have to be repaired, so I am again
without a machine.
Have watched a beautiful afternoon
pass by from the barracks, when with-
out my luck I’d be working. But with
a machine and weather I can be finished
tomorrow ; two triangles to do, about 200
kilometers (125 miles) each, and I can
do one in the morning and the other in
the evening and then I’m breveted. Per-
haps by day after tomorrow [I'll start
perfectionne on Nieuport. I hope so.
FLYING IN A NIEUPORT
September 9, 1917.
Since my last to father, J have had
some very interesting times. First, I fin-
ished my brevet with very little excite-
ment, made all my voyages, and only got
lost a little bit once. Then I saw two ma-
chines on the ground in a field, made a
rather dramatic spiral and steeply banked
descent midst a crowd of villagers, and
got away with it; then found that the
ad
machines belonged to two monitors who
were bringing them from Paris and had
effected a panne de chateau.
Being demanded what I was doing, I
fortunately found a spark plug on the
burn and got that repaired, and “alley
oop!” The rest of it was very easy—a
bit of flying in the rain which stings the
face a bit, but is not bad otherwise.
Since I have been on the Nieuport.
There are three sizes of machines on
which one is trained, starting with the
larger double-command and going to the
smallest. At Pau we got another even
smaller, about as big as a half a minute.
Four times I went out without a ride—
bad weather, crowded class, and hurted
machines; the same old story.
Then last night I had my first rides
with a monitor who is rather oldish,
crabbed, and new at his job—a brand-
new aviator. As you know, when an air-
plane takes a turn, it does not remain
horizontal, but banks up—comme ca (if
you can interpret that illustration; it
shows signs of remarkable imaginative
power). Alors, one banks to
(trees), takes a turn, and uses the rudder
only a very little because the machine
turns along when banked. ‘There is a
sort of falling-out feeling the first few
times, until one becomes a part of the
machine.
To get back to the story: This monitor
does not like to bank his machine, and
sort of sidles round the corners, keeping
it quite flat and almost slipping out to the
outside of the turn. I have done many
fool things in a machine and made many
mistakes, but never have I been so scared
in anything in my life as when riding
with this monitor. A monitor is sup-
posed to let the pupil drive as much as
he is able, but this bird never let me make
a move, and when we got through told
me I was too brutal.
I was never madder in my life and
cursed nice American cuss words all the
way home. There’s a 15-kilo ride in a
seatless tractor back to camp to improve
a bad humor.
“HE MADDEST MAN I EVER SAW”
Well, this morning I saw some more
rides impending and didn’t like it, so
J6 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
asked the chef de piste to put me with
another monitor. He had to know why,
and I registered my kick, which practi-
cally said that the first monitor didn’t
know his business and couldn’t drive;
that I was scared to ride with him. The
chef was a bit sarcastic, and told me to
take two rides with another monitor to
show how J could make a virage. I did
it the way I’ve been accustomed to; made
a fairly short turn. When we got down,
thes monitor. said. Kelatante )( Anz:
“stunning’’), or something like that, to
the chef.
The chef had meanwhile communi-
cated my complaint to the first monitor,
and he was the maddest man I ever saw.
Demanded what “ce type la,’ indicating
me, wanted; said the virages I had just
made were dangerously banked (the
monitor I was with didn’t mind, though),
and then all three started arguing at once
at me and I spelled all the French I knew.
Then, of all things, the lieutenant, with-
out further remarks, said I was to con-
tinue with my first monitor. My heart
sank into my boots. I had visions of
staying in that class without rides, or
with only rides and fights, for months.
I rode no more this morning, and what
was my delight to find this evening that
my bewhiskered pal had left on permis-
SION.
I got another monitor, a fine one, who
put his hands on the side of the machine
and let me do everything, with a bit of
assistance on the landing, which is differ-
ent from what I’ve been doing on the
Caudron. Seven rides and a finish—the
23-meter tomorrow morning. I wasn’t
very good, but got by.
September 14, 1917.
Things for me are going all right.
Have made progress on the Nieuport
since last I wrote and will fly alone soon.
As regards the U. S. Army, things are at
a standstill until I get to Paris, which
will be a week or so. I hope to go to the
front in a French Escadrille and in an
American uniform. Some say it can be
done; some that it cannot. It sounds so
sensible that I am afraid there must be
some regulation against it.
THE TRUCK SALVAGES THE WRECK WHEN
A PUPIL ““CAPOTES”
September 27, 1917.
Since last I wrote a regular letter, con-
siderable has taken place. First, I am
now at Pau, having finished up Avord.
Have sent post-cards to father right
along to keep track of movements. After
brevet was over, I did not take the cus-
tomary permission of 48 hours, but went
straight to work on Nieuport D. C.
(double command). One cannot learn a
great deal riding with an instructor—only
about enough to keep from smashing in
landing, because one never knows when
the instructor is messing with the con-.
trols, when it’s one’s self.
There are five kinds of Nieuports—
differing mainly in size, the smaller being
faster and more agile in the air, better
adapted to eccentric flying. They are 28,
22, 18, 15, 13 (the Baby Nieuport) mae
Avord I had about a week of D. C. on
28 and 23 (the numbers refer to size of
wings), with several days of no work.
Then some days on 23 alone, and finally
on 18 alone.
The landings are a bit different from
those of the machines I had been flying,
as they are faster, and the machines are
quite nose-heavy. In the air the nose-
heavy feature makes them “fly them-
selves’—that is, according to the speed
of the motor the machine will rise and
climb or piqué and descend, with never a
touch from the pilot. If the weather is
not very bad, the Nieuport will correct
itself automatically from all displace-
ments.
But in landing the nose-heavy feature
causes a great many capotages. If the
landing isn’t done about right with the
tail low, over she goes on her nose or all
the way onto her back. It is a very com-
mon occurrence and has become almost
a joke. When a pupil “capotes,”’ every-
body kids him. No one hurries over to
see if he is hurt; not at all He climbs
out from under, usually cursing, and in
ten minutes the truck is out to salvage
the wreck.
‘It is astounding the way smashes are
taken as a matter of course. Yesterday
one chap in landing hit another machine,
Photograph by Edwin Levick
A TRIO OF PLANES AT A TRAINING CAMP FOR AVIATORS
In the “air colleges,” which the government has established recently, the time between
matriculation and graduation is measured in months instead of years, but if the period of
education is shorter in these schools than in regular colleges the expense is in inverse ratio.
A conservative estimate of the cost of training an aviator is from $10,000 to $20,000.
Great
tracts of land are required for ground schools; many airplanes must be kept on hand, as the
breakage is heavy, and repairs are often tedious; motor trucks and motorcycles are neces-
sary subsidiary equipment.
demolishing both, but not touching either
pilots, being worth some $15,000 or
$25,000, but no one seemed to worry—
it’s very much a matter of course. The
monitor was a little peeved because he
will be short of machines for a few days,
but that was all. I’ve seen as many as
ten machines flat on their backs, or with
tails high in the air, on one field at the
same time.
97
For myself, I haven’t capoted or busted
any wood since the Bleriot days, but I’m
knocking on the wooden table now. On
several occasions it has been only luck
that saved me, as I’ve made many rotten
landings.
Well) tol set back topthesdianya.= iter
finishing at Avord, I waited around for
two days fo get papersunxedaup, ce-
quested and obtained a permission, and
98 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
then decided not to use it and left straight
for Pau, after fond farewells to the
friends I’ve been with for 3% months.
Looking back, I didn’t have such a bad
time at Avord after all, though I did get
terribly tired of the living conditions.
DIFFICULTIES OF TRAVELING IN FRANCE
IN WAR TIME
My trip to Pau I put down to experi-
ence. I discovered one schedule not to
travel by in future. Leaving Avord at
2.15, | got to Bourges at 2.45 and found
that the train left at 7.29. Fortunately,
there was another chap from the school
on the train, Arthur Blumenthal, an old
Princeton football star, whom I have
gotten to know quite well, so we man-
aged to waste the afternoon together ;
almost made ourselves sick on candy and
then ate ourselves stupid at the hotel at
dinner time.
At 7.29 I started another half-hour’s
journey, at the end of which the time-
table said that the train ‘for Bordeaux
left at 10.20 (this is all|p. m.), At this
town there were some American engi-
neers, so I embraced the fellow-country-
men in a strange land. Finished up a
not very gay evening by attending the
movies—a most odd institution. Clouds
of tobacco smoke obscured the screen,
and most of the action was around the
bar at one side of the hall. Nobody was
drunk, but nearly every one was drink-
ing and very gay. ‘This was merely Sat-
urday night in a small town of the prov-
Incesy: NOW in ay laree.
At 10.15 I got in a first-class compart-
ment and tried to find a comfortable po-
Simonse nicl tomsleep et 2hi5) ae ms
had mussed up my clothes considerably,
lost my temper. and not slept a wink.
Then we had to change again. The rest
of the morning I sat opposite an Amer-
ican officer, a queer old fogey, and we
tried to kid each other into thinking we
were sleeping, with no success. Arrived
at Bordeaux at 7 a. m. and found that
the train for Pau left immediately, so I
missed out on breakfast, too—oh, it was
a hectic trip. My idea of a very unpleas-
ant occupation is that of a traveling
salesman in France.
_ Americans in French Escadrille.
QUARTERED WITH HEROES OF THE
LAFAYETTE ESCADRILLE
Escadrille Spa-84,
Secteur Postal 181,
Par A. C. M.—Paris.
November I, 1917.
Well, I’m here—in sight of the front
at last. To date I haven’t been out there
yet and won't for a few days more, as
they take lots of care of new pilots and
don’t feed them to the Boche right away.
Probably day after tomorrow the lieu-
tenant in command will take me out to
show me around the lines, and after that
I’ll take my place in patrols with the
others.
The work is exclusively patrolling,
establishing, as it were, a barrage against
German machines and preventing as far
as possible any incursions of the French
lines. As the big attack is over, there
is comparatively little activity. Some-
times one goes for a whole patrol with-
out being fired on and without seeing an
enemy machine anywhere near the lines.
During the three days I’ve been here
the group has accounted for several
Boches without any losses whatever.
Young Bridgeman, of the Lafayette Es-
cadrille, had a bullet through his fuselage
just in front of his chest, but suffered no
damage except from fright.
There are several escadrilles in the
group—a Groupe de Combat it is called;
all have Spads, which makes it very nice.
The Lafayette, 124, is of our group and
have adjoining barracks, which makes it
very nice (I seem to repeat) for us lone
We
drop in there far too often and the first
few nights I used the bed of the famous
Bill Thaw’s room-mate, away on per-
MISSION.
Did I write you that one morning he
brought in Whiskey to wake me up, and
my eyes no sooner opened than my head
was buried under the covers. Whiskey
is a pet—a very large lion cub—which
has unfortunately outgrown its utility as
a pet and was sent yesterday, with its
running mate, Soda, to the zoo, at Paris,
to be a regular lion.
They are a very.odd crowd—the mem-
bers of the Lafayette Escadrille—a few
nice ones and a bunch of rather rough-
© Brown & Dawson
THE TYPE OF TAUBE WHICH MADE THE’ FIRST AIR RAIDS ON PARTS
This plane, whose outspread tail and rounded wings so closely resemble those of a bird,
is too slow to contend with the 1918 type of 125-miles-an-hour machine which is now a com-
monplace of the Western Front.
It is to the latest speedster warplane what the “one-lunger”
automobile of fifteen years ago is to the 12-cylinder racer of today. This style airplane still
has its uses in the aviation schools, however.
necks. Their conversation is an eye-
opener for a new arrival. Mostly about
Paris, permissions, and the rue de Braye,
but occasionally about work and that 1s
interesting. Nonchalant doesn’t express
it. When Bridgy got shot up, as men-
tioned above, they all kidded the life out
of him, and when he got the Croix de
Guerre, they had him almost in tears—
just because he’s the kiddable kind.
But in talking about the work, for in-
stance, Jim Hall: “I piqued on him with
full motor and got so darn close to him
99
that when I wanted to open fire I was so
scared of running into him that I had to
yank out of the way and so never fired
a single shot.”
Or Lufberry just mentions in passing
that he got another Boche this morning,
but those observer people won’t give
him credit for it. He has 14 official now
and probably twice as many more never
allowed him. Some days ago during
the attack he had 7 fights in one day,
brought down 6 of them and got credit
for one; which must be discouraging.
‘ABS YIUIIT IY} Sv ,“UOIJeUISSUSse,, 9Y} IOF UOTISOd Ut 398 puv yuouOddo sty JdANaULUTINO 0} AyTIGe sry Avypdstp 0} Ayrunzioddo uv uaars st uew Sunysy
pouret} AJMou 9y} YOIY ul ‘oT}}eq WeYs v st JoO[Id pooudtiodxo uv sev PoUOISsTUIUIOD st dy a10foq IOJIAe JUapHjs &v UIAIS S$}So} [BUY 24} JO oUGQ
AMS GH NI GLVa NVAS Vv
WoqI9TT Y Ppey O
ed PA
iets
at seortrsgs
I0O
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
SEASICK IN THE AIR
November 10, 1917,
Evening.
You know November in France. I’ve
been here almost two weeks now and am
Stiles, Lentramment:"thatvis: li ihavent
started in to do any regular work yet.
Only five times have I been able to fly
in two weeks. But I’ve got my own
machine and mechanic, everything is in
order, and I’ve been assigned to a patrol
the last two mornings when it rained.
Tomorrow again at 8.50 with four
others—patrol for one hour and fifty
minutes at about 15,000 feet, back and
forth over our sector, sometimes over
our own lines, sometimes in Bochie. I’m
getting very impatient to get started. In
what few flights I’ve had, I’ve been work-
ing on acrobacy a bit and am gradually
learning a few simple things; twice I
stayed up a little too long and had to lie
down a few hours afterward, almost sea-
sick,
I like Spa 84 very much indeed. The
Frenchmen there are regular fellahs.
Wertheimer, a sergeant, is a sort of in-
formal and unadmitted chief of the sous-
officiers. It is he that speaks English and
has helped us a lot in getting settled, etc.
Very much of a. gentleman he is and
understands a bitof Anglo-Saxon customs
and eccentricities, always gay and an in-
defatigable worker.
We have all been arranging the one
big room of our barracks—dining room,
reading-room, and probably eventually
American bar. The walls are covered
with green cloth, green paper (of two
different shades and neither quite the
same as the cloth), red cloth (on top as
PCOGEOtiitieze), andrea paper The
ceiling is done in white cloth to keep in
heat and lighten the room. A monumen-
tal task it has been, especially as ma-
terials are hard to get and expensive.
FED AMAZINGLY FOR FOUR FRANCS A DAY
Wertem (as Wertheimer is called) and
Deborte have done most of the work.
Deborte is also chef de popote, which
means housekeeper, and a very efficient
man. For four francs per day we are
fed amazingly well, especially when one
realizes that we are near the front in a
101
country which has had three years of
war. Deborte hasn’t the pleasantest man-
ner in the world at times, but usually is
very agreeable, willing to tell me things
about flying or the escadrille, always
ready to work, and a dependable man in
the air.
And Verber, who rooms with Wer-
tem, he speaks a little English; has a
great deal of trouble understanding it,
but is picking up; wears a monocle all
the time, because he’s got a bum eye;
carries a stick, and has an extremely ec-
centric appearance, but withal is very
agreeable and a very valuable man. He
has the habit of taking long trips all
alone, far into Germany, just to see what
is going on.
Pinot is the name of the little roly-
poly chap everybody calls Bul-Bul, who
used to be a mechanic and now is a very
good, merry pilot. He has a great pen-
chant towards Pinard, is violently but
not at all objectionably non-aristocratic,
is forever laughing or kidding some one,
walks on his hands to amuse people, and
is the delight of all the mecanos.
Demeuldre is a very quiet sort of
school-boy type, who has been a pilot of
biplanes and reconnaissance machines for
a long time. He came to the escadrille
recently with a record of two Boches as
pilot of a biplane (that is, his machine-
gun man did the shooting and they both
get credit), and a few days ago brought
down a German in flames, his first as
pilot de chasse. ‘There are two others
away on permission, whom I don’t know
Vel
ESCAPING DESTRUCTION BY A MIRACLE
Somewhere in France,
November 13, I917.
Dear FatHEerR: Campbell was in the
Lafayette Escadrille and they are a mem-
ber of the same group as Spa 84, so I
have asked them about him. He was on
a patrol with another chap; they attacked
some Boches and when it was over the
other chap was alone. Campbell was
brought down in German territory and
so reported missing. I believe that the
chap he was with has seen and talked to
Campbell’s father or some close relative
since.
‘SUOTPVLIYIWILL IVINS SNOJIUINU YA OUT] ISI B “OUO DALY YUIAT OY} IY “sous, FO Soul] pouyop
-[J9M OM} FO S}SISUOD A[QeIIVAUT JSOW[E W9}SAS UVULIOL) OY} Fey JOR DY} WO, SOUL] USI PUR UPUIST) dy} UsIMJoq YsiInsuNsip 0} Asvo Ajjensn St
yt sydei8ojoyd jeitoe suiXpnjs uy “pur’y sueyyY ON ©}UL HO Snp usoq pey yotyM s}sod Suruozsi] AWous Jopun sour JO UOIsO;dxs oy} Aq FF] S1eOS OY}
Oo , .
aie Ady} {Sioyesd [Jays Jou s1e—ydei
.
Sojoyd oy} JO Jey JOMO] oy} Ul suOTSsoidop doop 9AY dYy}——odvosivzM Sty} JO Sainjvaz snonosidsuod jsow oy,
Lait OOf'S JO NOLLVATTA NV
Ly NAMVL HdVaOOLOHd V WONT :LNOYI NUYISHUM AHL NO SHHONUML ANT GNOOUS GNV SUM NVWYAD AHL JO MAIA V
102
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Another chap named Bulkely was
brought down in similar circumstances
about the first of September. Ten days
ago, word was received from the Amer-
ican Embassy that he had communicated
with them, a prisoner in Germany. There
are many similar cases, where men
brought down with crippled machines or
wounded, escape destruction by a miracle.
The only sure thing is when a machine
goes down in flames or is seen to lose
a wing or two.
For instance, there are two officers in
the group who are in the best of health
and daily working. Several months ago
they were on patrol together ; collided in
the air. One cut the tail rigging com-
pletely off the other and they separated,
one without a tail and the other with
various parts of a tail mixed among the
cables and struts of one side of his ma-
chine. ‘They both landed in France, one
on his wheels, followed by a capotage, or
somersault turnover, the other quite com-
pletely upside down. Then a term in
the hospital and back they are again.
THRILLING FEATS OF DARING
Kenneth Marr, an American, had the
commands of both his tail controls cut
in a combat, the rudder and elevator,
leaving him nothing but the aileron—the
lateral balance control and the motor.
He landed with only a skinned nose for
casualties and got a decoration for it.
Another chap in an attack on captive
balloons, drachens, dove for something
like 10,000 feet vertically and with full
motor on, thereby gaining considerable
speed, as you can imagine. He came
right on top of the balloon, shot, and to
keep from hitting it, yanked as roughly
as he could, flattening out his dive in the
merest fraction of a second.
Imagine the strain on the machine!
When he got home all the wires had sev-
eral inches sag in them; the metal con-
nections of the cables into the struts and
wood of the wings had bit into the wood
enough to give the sag.
Machines are built to stand immense
pressure on the under side of the wings.
In some acrobatic maneuvers I was try-
ing the other day, I made mistakes and
caused the machine to stall and then fall
103
in- such a way that the full weight was
supported by the upper surface—by the
wires, which in most machines are sup-
posed merely to support the weight of
the wings when the machine is on the
ground.
Yes, the Spad is a well-built machine—
the nearest thing to perfection in point
of strength, speed, and climbing power
I’ve seen yet. Of course, it’s heavy, and
that’s why they put 150 to 230 horse-
power in them. The other school, that
of a light machine with a light motor,
depending for its success on lack of
weight rather than excess of power, may
supplant the heavier machine in time; I
can’t tell.
WHEN DECORATIONS ARE BESTOWED
So, as any one who knows has said
right along, there is a long way to go in
the development of the J. N., or even the
little triplane, before American - built
planes get to the front. Of the bombing
game I don’t know anything at all.
Yesterday there was a revue here in
honor of Guynemer and decorations for
the pilots of the group who had won
them. Three Americans received the
Croix de Guerre—members of the La-
fayette Escadrille. Lufbery, the Amer-
ican ace, carried the American flag pre-
sented to the escadrille by Mrs. McAdoo
and the employees of the Treasury De-
partment, beside the two aviation em-
blems of France.
He was called to receive his decoration
“for having in the course of one day
held seven combats; descended one Ger-
man plane in flames and forced five
others to land behind their lines”? (which
means that he is officially credited with
one, his thirteenth, and that the other
five, though probably brought down, do
not count for him because there were not
the necessary witnesses required by the
French regulation).
Being the bearer of the flag, he was a
very worried man to know what to do
with the flag when he should go up to
get his medal, till one of the fellows in
124 (the Lafayette) came to his rescue.
For a military revue it was decidedly
amusing. Aviators are not very military.
The chief of one of the escadrille was
104
commissioned to command the mechanics
who are plain soldiers, with rifles and
steel helmets for the occasion. He is a
bit of a clown and amused the entire
gathering, kidding with the officers. The
pilots of each of the five escadrilles were
in more or less formation; most of them
with hands in their pockets, for it was
chilly, and presenting a mixture of uni-
forms unparalleled in its heterogeneity ;
every branch of the service represented
and endless personal ideas in dress.
Because of the occasion, repos has been
granted to the entire group for the after-
noon, another group taking over our
patrols; so that after the revue every one
had the afternoon to waste—a sunny day,
which is quite unusual this month.
Within a half hour every machine that
was in working order was in the air,
forming into groups and then off for the
lines, just looking for trouble—voluntary
patrol they call it—which opened my eyes
a bit to the spirit in the French aviation
service after three years of war.
Word from Paris that those Ameri-
cans in the French service who have de-
manded their release to join the U. S. A.
have obtained that release, which prob-
ably means that all we wait for now
on the commissions.
This afternoon I took another trip with
one of the old pilots to look over the sec-
tor. We stayed over France and didn’t
get into trouble, although there were lots
of Boches around. Hope to get really
started soon.
An amusing one this morning: Two
pilots from the group were on patrol and
attacked a single German about two kilo-
meters behind the German lines. They
completely outmaneuvered him; he got
cold feet and started for the French lines,
giving himself up. The funniest part
about it is that the machine gun of one of
the attackers was jammed and he couldn’t
possibly have hurt the Boche—just had
the nerve to stay and throw a bluff.
They came back to camp just before
dark this evening, one of them flying the
German machine and the other guarding
him ina Spad. The machine is an Alba-
tross monoplane (biplane), finished in
silver, with big black crosses on the wings
and tail—a really beautiful thing. It flew
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
around camp for several minutes before
landing. It is the second machine that
has been scared down since I’ve been out
here.
A MIMIC COMBAT IN THE AIR
Alt the Front,
Somewhere m France,
November 17, 1917.
At present things are hopelessly slow
on account of bad weather, so I have a
good deal of time to write and naught to
write of. I still am waiting for my bap-
tism, of active service, which is assigned
for each day and held up on account of
fog, low clouds, or rain. In the after-
noon it usually lifts a little, not enough
to fly over the lines, but sufficient to per-
mit a little vol d’entrainment—a practice
flight around the field. I’ve been taking
every chance to learn to fly—practicing
reversements, vertically banked turns, 9o-
degree nose dives, etc.
_ Two days ago we had a very interest-
ing mimic combat in the air. The Boche
machine, which has beer captured, and a
Spad, both driven by very clever pilots,
maneuvered for position during 15 or 20
minutes at 1,000 feet or less, back and
forth over the field, doing almost every
possible thing in the air—changing direc-
tion with incredible rapidity, diving,
climbing, wing- slipping, upside - down
dives—everything under the sun.
Two of them were at it again today in
two Spads—just maneuvering. What a
lot there is to learn! When I got through
acrobacy at Pau, I had the impression
that that kind of stuff was relatively
easy; now I know different. For the
present I’m working on the system of try
one thing at a time; get that fairly well
and then commence another. And small
doses—1Io or I5 minutes for an acrobatic
flight ; not more—because one can easily
get dangerously sick in a very short time.
Not that there is any particular peril in
getting ill in the air; only it’s beastly
uncomfortable.
RATHER GET A BOCHE THAN A COMMISSION
At the Front,
Somewhere in France,
November 30, 1917.
The rumor at the Lafayette E'scadrille
&
B. STUART WALCOTT, THE AMERICAN AVIATOR
this evening is that they have been at
ifse biansterted. (©r vcourse, they had
similar rumors many times before. For
myself I am becoming rather indifferent ;
Wery well Satisiied mere, except, “for
weather, and getting what I came over
tere for.
Father mentioned something about a
monitor’s job (after I had had experience
at the front). My present inclination is
decidedly against the idea. There is no
job in the world I like less to think of,
and there are plenty of people who want
to get comfortably settled in the rear; so
let them, say I, and may they enjoy it.
It is not a very pleasant job.
As a retirement after a period of serv-
ice at the front, it is another matter. Of
105
all people I can think of I have the small-
est right to an ambussé job at present;
so here I hope to stay. Whether I fly
with an American or French uniform, |
don’t care very much at the present mo-
ment. I had rather get a Boche than any
commission in the army; but one cannot
always tell about the future; perhaps
after a few good scares I'll be ready to
jump at a monitor’s job.
DAES DREINGP ES Oe ATSEAD
At the Front,
December I, 1917.
I tried to give you all some idea of the
strength of a Spad in a letter a while ago.
At home people speak of a factor of
safety, meaning the number of times
106
stronger the machine is than is necessary
for plain flying. ‘The Spad is made so
that a man can’t burst it, no matter what
he does in the air—dive as far and as
fast as he can and stop as brutally as he
Canaieestanase tie sacket. a.@lt scoutse,
motors do stop, and if it happens over a
mountain range—well, that’s just hard
luck.
Have had a few patrols since last I
wrote; one at a big height, 4,000 to 4,500
meters, considerably above the clouds,
which almost shut out the ground below,
a wonderfully beautiful sight, but beastly
cold, and a couple when the clouds were
low and solid. The patrol stays at just
the height of the clouds, hiding in them
and slipping out again to look around.
If it stays below, the enemy antti-air-
craft guns pepper it, whenever near the
lines and at a low altitude, that is rather
awkward; so the patrol shows itself as
little as possible.
It’s lots of sport to try to keep with |
the patrol; be behind the chief of patrol,
see him disappear and then bump into
a fog bank, a low-hanging cloud, and not
see a darn thing; then dive down out of
the cloud, wondering whether the other
guy is right underneath or not; shoot
out of the cloud and see him, maybe 500
yards away, going at right angles; then
bank up and turn around fast and give
her the gear full speed to catch up, and so
on; see a Boche regulating artillery fire,
start to maneuver into range, and zip!
he’s out of sight in the clouds, and the
next you see he is beating it far back of
his lines. Not very dangerous this
weather, but lots of fun.
Chalons sur Marne,
December 8, 1917.
Yesterday we were awakened at 6 and
told that we were going to move out, bag
and baggage, at 2. So, as new barracks
were not ready, we came down here last
night and have been seeing the sights of
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the town since. It is full of Americans,
ambulances, doctors, Y. M. C. A. work-
ers, everything but fighting men, which
I trust we'll see before long.
THE, LAST PLIGHT
On December 12, while on patrol, B.
Stuart Walcott met a German biplane
carrying two men. Three cable reports
agree that he shot down and destroyed
this machine about two and a half miles
within the German lines. He then started
back for the French lines and was over-
taken by three Albatross German planes.
He was overcome and his machine went
down in a nose dive within the German
lines, it being assumed that either he was
shot or his machine disabled.
There was still a hope that he might
have escaped death. Inquiries were at
once instituted through the American Red
Cross and the International Red Cross,
with the result that on January 7 a cable
came from the International Red Cross
stating that it was reported in Germany
that S. Walcott was brought down dur-
ing the afternoon of December 12 near
Saint Souplet, and that he was killed by
the fall.
On January 11 the French Government
awarded the Croix de Guerre to the fallen
flyer, with the accompanying citation:
“Corporal Walcott, an American, who
volunteered for the duration of the war,
and a young pilot of admirable spirit
and courage, on December 12, 1917, at-
tacked an enemy airplane. He pursued it
four kilometers behind the German lines,
where he brought it down. He was in
turn attacked by three other monoplanes
and was driven down.”
The medal was received on his behalf
by members of his squadron and has been
forwarded to his father, Dr. Charles D.
Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution, Washington.
Eh Ol Ore VOR AE, AER Plas
By Rear ApmMirRAL Rogpert E. Peary, U.S. Navx
for commerce and transportation
presents possibilities far beyond
anything that we can now imagine.
Sea power—amilitary and commercial—
has been for centuries an absolute essen-
tial to every great nation, insuring its
continued existence and opportunities for
legitimate growth and expansion.
We are now entering upon an era of
air power—a stupendous era—which in
the near future will be as far superior to
the greatest sea power of the present as
the unlimited ocean of atmosphere now
sweeping unbroken around the globe is
greater than the land-bordered Atlantic
or Pacific.
The beginning of this era, the opening
up of a mighty and entirely new world
for exploitation, presents to the United
States, with its unique geographical posi-
tion, its boundless resources, mechanical
and inventive ability, and its splendid
reservoir of ideal American manhood,
the opportunity to be the first air power
im the world. ‘This should be the second
article in our national creed, the first arti-
cle in that creed being the Monroe Doc-
trine.
In the midst of our great plans for
carrying the war home to Germany
through the air we must not forget to
protect our own valuable and vulnerable
coasts and coastwise shipping with air-
planes.
The eagle is our/national emblem.
‘Give us 10,000 fighting sea-eagles—far-
seeing, swift-flying, steel-taloned—to ren-
der our coasts immune from the bloody
“killers” of the sea.
Give us thousands of swift sea-going
hydro-airplanes, with capacity for carry-
ing powerful guns and bombs; perfect a
device—bomb, torpedo, or gun—that will
enable a plane three times out of five to
destroy a submarine on or just below the
surface; then drill, and drill, and pRILL
with this device until our airmen have the
deadly precision of the dead shot with his
gun, the whaleman with his harpoon, and
the cowboy with his lasso or revolver.
U TILIZATION of the atmosphere
Any one who has seen a fish-hawk or a
sea-eagle sweep over the surface of the
waves, then pause, hover for a moment,
dive like an arrow, and proceed with a
fish in its claws will understand the state-
ment that when we have ten powerfully
armed airplanes to assign to every lurk-
ing, murderous submarine, the finish of
the undersea craft will be as inevitable
as that of the fish.
This method of defense can be made
so effective by American skill and energy
as to constitute a complete protection for
our coasts, leaving our swift battle cruis-
ers and destroyers free for a far-flung
offensive in any one of the seven seas.
Not only must America depend upon
her air fleets to protect her from the ‘at-
tack of hostile sea fleets, but from air
raids upon her cities, for the rapid ad-
vancement in the science- of aviation
makes it only a question of time before
we shall be vulnerable to attack from
. above, even though the enemy be sepa-
rated from us by thousands of miles of
ocean.
AIR ADMIRALS OF THE FUTURE
The military evolution of the airplane
has advanced from the single machines,
scouting and fighting hand to hand, to the
squadron of twelve planes; then to bomb-
ing companies of thirty to forty ma-
chines; then to the formation, as in the
battle of Messines Ridge, last June, where
three strata of Allied aircraft were en-
gaged—the fighters in the upper, the ob-
servers and bombers in the middle, and
the machine-gun planes in the lower,
close to the ground. This work of the
air service really won the battle.
We are now very near the stage that I
ventured to suggest two years ago, in
which the aérial unit will be 500 to I,000
machines, and we shall have air divisions
made up of brigades, each composed of
several such units.
The air admiral of the near future will
need to know more than the possibilities
of an aero squadron. He must know
from long practice, drills, evolutions, and
107
ofl] JO ANOY Jor1siq duo OJUL popMOID d1v 9SoY} [[~—uo v9 puL ‘uedsop ‘odoy ‘1aSsuep “vay Osye !sseva suo Aq
Rg
SUI[JSIYM PUL De} S,aUO ysed SutAy IV [OOD oy} WOIF SOUIOD BLY} SUI[IIF P—JUIWI}IOX9 $ydui9}Ve 1OU poiIep SUOT}e19U06 snoraoid 1eyM Suryst{duroys
-I8 ‘p]IOM plo ]]Np oy} aptajse yo Jo Sof ayj—Aol :S8urdy ul pooustiadxo st UoT}VSUIS UMOUX AJIAyT “W90}S9 pue “OAoT ‘Ay}edurAs Sty SoPAUT 7]
‘Ivd SI O}JUI IDURYOp puL aSsevinod siodstyM pue sue OYI] SUTOA SUeL & ysnoiy} Suni {[ “ysISat Ue Mof Jey} UMO S}T FO [[eo v sey Je Pos
NOLLVINOdSNVUL WOT dIHSHILIVGA V JO SMOUd AHL OL GAHSV'T UNV IdudlV-OUGAH ‘IVAVN V
DNAIIG WII [PUOI}eUIIJUT @
a
108
EE IATIONAE GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE
experience the possibilities and the meth-
ods of handling an aero division made up
of brigades of aero squadrons.
SUBMARINE SECONDARY TO AIRPLANE
The submarine, an American invention
perfected abroad, ranks at present with
the airplane as a revolutionary device,
but in my opinion it will soon take second
place. :
The fundamental limitations of the
airplane are less than those of the sub-
marine. It possesses potentialities of
offensive in the air, on the sea surface,
and under the sea. In other words, air-
planes can attack other planes or dirigi-
bles, they can attack ships, and they can
attack submarines.
The possibilities of the submarine can
and probably soon will be confined to
under-surface offensive. The range of
the airplane is much greater than that of
the submarine. To the flying machine
seavor land is allthe same. = It can go
Whetever there isxair lin the case of
nearly all European nations, except Great
Britain, the land phase of flying will prob-
ably be the most important. With us
the reverse is the case and our geographi-
cal position and thousands of miles of
coasts make the marine phase most im-
portant to us.
It must be fully recognized, as a matter
of permanent national policy, that the
air fleets of the United States must be
both numerous and powerful enough to
patrol and protect all sea approaches to
the entire continent of North America.
AMERICA RICH IN AVIATOR MAN-AND-
WOMAN POWER
As regards aviation personnel, the
United States is uniquely favored. In
numerical strength we surpass every
other nation except Russia and China.
The Lafayette Escadrille in France has
already given the world a practical illus-
tration of the kind of aviators Amerti-
cans make.
Along our thousands of miles of coasts
there is a quantity and quality of per-
sonnel that is among the most valuable
assets of this country. It is the per-
sonnel composed of the young boatmen,
fishermen, sailors, and those who have
been brought up beside and earned their
living on and by the ocean. They con-
109
stitute the nucleus of a personnel which
is hardy, courageous, enduring; knows
the sea and its ways; has the sense of
navigation born in it, and above and be-
yond all has the quality of individual
initiative and the power of instant execu-
tion developed to the highest degree.
Take the young fellow who, from the
age of six or eight, has been handling his
own boat, and from the age of 12 or 14
has, singlehanded, driven his fishing boat
daily offshore almost out of sight of
land, made his day’s haul, and has driven
his craft back home again in the teeth
of all kinds of weather. I know this
breed well. I have cruised with them
many an hour. I can feel the salt spray
of 45 years ago upon my face and in my
eyes now. I know their capabilities—
rosy-cheeked, clear-eyed, fearless, alert,
and quick as a cat.
These youngsters can take their motors
apart and put them together again with
eyes shut, and they can keep them going
under all circumstances, in a way that
at times seems almost unbelievable.
They have been forced to this by the
supreme incentive of safety for one’s
own life. When fighting the breaking
seas of an easterly gale off the Maine
coast, if motor trouble develops the cause
of it must be determined at once and the
remedy applied instantly. If not, the
little boat broaches to, a sea comes roar-
ing aboard, and the life story of that par-
ticular youngster comes to a full period.
In considering the air personnel re-
sources of America, the patriotism, intre-
pidity of spirit, and energy of the young
women who are anxious to fly must not
be overlooked. That women can become
skilful aviatrices has been splendidly
demonstrated by the brilliant achieve-
ments of Miss Ruth Law and Miss Kath-
erine Stinson.
WAR'S BIRDMEN TO PLAY USEFUL ROLE IN
PEACE TIMES
That the young men who are training
for fliers in war service will have an
important and useful role to play in
the commercial, industrial, and scientific
growth of aviation 1s apparent.
When peace comes thousands of men
and thousands of planes will be required
tor the mail Service of the future, for
policing the air, for aérial coast patrol,
110
for aérial map-making by means of aerial
photography, for exploration, and for
rapid transit of passengers and freight.
An aérial mail service has already been
outlined tentatively in Europe by both the
Entente Allies and the enemy govern-
ments. France and England have had
committees at work for nearly 12 months
on plans for utilizing their air fleets and
air personnel after the war; Bavaria has
proposed an aerial traffic service for cen-
tral Europe, and Prussia is said to be per-
fecting arrangements for a peace-time
Hamburg-to-Constantinople mail and pas-
senger service.
How extensive may prove this after-
the-war aviation service may be surmised
from the fact that already airplanes have
been perfected which are capable of
carrying aloft 25 passengers; other ma-
chines have developed a speed of I50
miles an hour, while the record non-stop
flight to date is 1,004 miles, only 191 miles
short of the longest water gap in the
America-to-Furope air course, by way of
the Azores from Newfoundland. That
transatlantic flight is a certainty of the
next few months, no reasonable person
doubts.
British authorities have expressed the
belief that it will soon be possible to go
from London to Paris and return in one
day, or from London to Bagdad in a day
and a half; to New York in two days,
and to Ceylon in two and three-quarter
days. Air routes to India, with air cur-
rents and possible landing stages are even
now being mapped.
Every obstacle of nature has been over-
come by the airman—deserts, seas, and
mountains. The attainment of an alti-
tude of four miles is now almost com-
monplace, and the Alps have been con-
quered on numerous occasions.
AIDING THE GOVERNMENT IN TRAINING
FLYERS
That America is not waiting supinely
for peace to be declared before she makes
her preliminary preparations and experi-
ments for the age of the airplane is in-
dicated in the establishment recently of
a well-marked air route from Dayton,
Ohio, to Rantoul, Ill., as an aid to the
training of aviators.
This work has been carried forward
under the direction of Carl G. Fisher, of
Indianapolis, chairman of the Mapping
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Committee appointed by the National Ad-
visory Committee on Aéronautics.
The initial program for a marked route
consisted of serial numbers painted in
large white figures on barn roofs, with
an arrow pointing the direction where a
clear field of the proper area for safe
landing might be found, in the event an
emergency landing was necessary.
With the Indianapolis Motor Speedway
as a central point, landing field numbers
from I to 72 were painted on barn roofs
between the speedway and Dayton, at an
average distance of about two miles
apart. From the speedway to Rantoul
the field numbers ranged from I to 28;
size used, 6 to 10 feet long by 24 to 36
inches wide. ‘The distance between the
fields on this end of the route averaged
about four miles.
This campaign required the services of
two men and a specially equipped motor
truck and consumed two and one-half
months’ time. To complete the number-
ing, 111 gallons of paint and 50 gallons
of oil were used.
Following the landing field or daylight
route marking scheme, the second phase
of the work was to afford assistance in
furthering the difficult training in night
flying. A patriotic spirit and the desire
to assist the government prompted the
citizens, town authorities, and civic or-
ganizations of the various municipalities
selected for signal stations to purchase,
erect, and provide for the maintenance
of signal lighting equipment at Dayton
and Eaton, Ohio, and at Fairfield and
Wright flying fields near Dayton; Rich-
mond, Cambridge City, Knightstown,
Greenfield, Cumberland, Fort Harrison,
Indianapolis, Indianapolis Motor Speed-
way landing field, Brownsburg, James-
town, Crawfordsville, Waynetown, Veed-
ersburg, and Covington, Indiana; Dan-
ville and Champaign, Lllinois, the last-
named city being only ten miles south of
the government training field at Rantoul,
Ihnois.
Signal equipment consists of four- or
six-light projectors with red or green
lenses, equipped with lamps of 200-watt
capacity. The projectors are mounted on
an angle-iron frame four feet square,
standing three feet high. Each unit has
an automatic flasher system attached.
On the four-light frames the projectors
YW,
WY
THE FIRST WOMAN TO FLY FROM CHICAGO TO NEW YORK
Miss Ruth Law established a new American cross-country flight record when she piloted
her airplane from Chicago to New York, a distance of 832 miles, her actual flying time being
nine hours and one minute. Her longest continuous flight lap on the journey was 590 miles.
Miss Law is seen receiving the congratulations of Major General Leonard Wood upon her
arrival at Governors Island, New York.
IEA
AN AVIATOR’S SIGN-POST FOR NIGHT FLYING
“Signal equipment consists of four- or six-light projectors with red or green lenses. They
are mounted on angle-iron frames four feet square, standing three feet high. Each unit has
an automatic flasher system attached. For indicating the direct flying route from Dayton to
Rantoul, lights flash on and off at about six-second intervals.”
AN AVIATOR’S LANDING FIELD INDICATED BY HUGE NUMERALS PAINTED ON
THE ROOF OF A BARN
The initial program for a well-marked air route from Dayton, Ohio, to Rantoul, IIl.,
designed as an aid to the training of aviators, includes the painting of large white figures on
barn roofs, with arrows pointing in the direction in which the birdmen can find safe landing
places.
112
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
are set, two lamps directed east and two
west. Six-light signals read two east,
two west, one north, and one south. East
and west lights are trained ten degrees
off the direct course. All projectors on
both the four- and six-light units are set
twelve degrees above the horizontal.
For indicating the direct flying route
from the Dayton flying fields to the Ran-
toul field, lights flash on and off at about
six-second intervals. To assist the pilot
to check his location, the station at the
end of the first fifty miles west of Dayton
flashes green and red alternately. The
completion of the second fifty-mile leg is
indicated by the rapid flashing signal for
the Indianapolis Motor Speedway land-
ing field. Continuing west, the third
checking signal consists of six green
- lights flashing on and off, indicating
Crawfordsville, Indiana. Again, at Dan-
ville, Illinois, the light flashes red and
white at six-second intervals. All other
units which indicate to the pilot or his
observer that they are following the di-
rect course employ red lights flashing on
and off at the regular stated intervals.
Drifting with the air currents and
unconsciously leaving the direct flying
course will be corrected by a system of
side marking lights. At about. twenty
miles north and south of the ‘air route
and located approximately twenty miles
east to west, two fixed lights are to be
stationed. Those on the south will use
red and point directly north, while the
lamps north carry green lenses and are
directed due south; hence, should the air-
plane drift from the course, the pilot
would be reasonably sure to detect either
the stationary red or green lights and cor-
rect his direction until the flashing signals
telegraph the welcome news, “Straight
ahead.” Lamps used for side markers
are of the same type of projectors and
are to be purchased, installed, and main-
tained by the towns where stationed with-
out cost to the government.
On clear nights the radius of all lights
will be from eight to ten miles.
FOUR TRANSCONTINENTAL AIRWAYS
The details of this Dayton-Rantoul
route present in a general way the nature
of the task which the aviation sign-post
pioneers will undertake in mapping and
113
marking the four transcontinental air-
ways, proposed by the Aero Club of
America and known as the Woodrow
Wilson, the Langley, the Wright Broth-
ers, and the Bell & Chanute routes.
The last of these routes, extending
from Boston, Mass., to Seattle, Wash.,
via Albany, Syracuse, Rochester, Erie.
Buffalo, Detroit, Grand Rapids, Minne-
apolis, Bismarck, and Great Falls, will be
a richly deserved memorial to Octave
Chanute, the pioneer aéronautic engineer,
and Alexander Graham Bell, whose name
is more frequently associated with other
great gifts to humanity, but who in an
unspectacular way was a potent factor in
advancing man’s mastery of the air.
It was the financial support and per-
sonal encouragement of the inventor
of the telephone which largely enabled
Samuel P. Langley to continue his ex-
periments with heavier -than-air ma-
chines—experiments which were of in-
estimable value to Orville and Wilbur
Wright, who finally achieved success.
Alexander Graham Bell’s support was
given at a time when the foremost physi-
cist of Great Britain, Lord Kelvin (Sir
William Thompson), the foremost as-
tronomer of America, Simon Newcomb,
and the foremost business genius of this
age, Andrew Carnegie, scoffed at the
possibility of man’s flying.
The name of this airway will also be a
tribute to Mrs. Bell, whose gift of $50,000
to the Aérial Experimental Association
in 1907-1908 made possible the experi-
ments which resulted in Glenn H. Curtiss
and J. A. D. McCurdy taking an active
part in the development of aeronautics.
The Woodrow Wilson airway will ex-
tend in an airline from New York to San
Francisco, with Cleveland, Toledo, Chi-
cago, and Cheyenne the principal cities
en route.
It ts proposed that both the Langley
and the Wright Brothers routes shall
have Washington as their starting point.
The Langley line will end in Los Angeles,
passing near Wright field at Dayton and
within a few miles of St. Lottis. The
Wright Brothers airway will pursue a
more devious route through Virginia,
North and South Carolina, Georgia, Ala-
bama, Mississippi, Louisiana, ‘Texas,
New Mexico, and Arizona, and termi-
nates at San Diego.
GERMANY’S AIR PROGRAM
HILE America and her Allies
have been organizing their
wealth, natural resources, and
industrial forces to place a fleet of flying
machines above the battle lines of Europe
this spring, the fact should not be over-
looked that Germany and her vassal na-
tions are equally alive to the importance
of mastery in the air. Her highly cen-
tralized war industries are exerting every
effort to match the gigantic program of
the Entente Allies.
While no official figures have been al-
lowed to leak from Germany as to just
what is being done in preparation for the
supreme battle of the sky, the trend of
public opinion in the Teuton nations is
reflected in such reports as the following
news item (translated by a correspondent
of London Flight) which appeared re-
cently in Der Motorwagen, a Berlin jour-
nal:
NAt a recent meeting of th¢~Deutscher
Fliegerbund (German Aérial League)
the treasurer, Lieutenant Bothe, of Ber-
lin, gave some interesting details regard-
ing, the objects: and activities. of ithe
Weaciiier)
Pale first gave a very clear and com-
prehensive survey of the present position
of aeronautics in Germany, claiming that
the Germans had now really obtained the
supremacy of the air on the western
front as on other fronts, though he had
to acknowledge that at the time of the
great Somme offensive the mastery in the
air belonged to the British and French.
“This led to a reawakening in German
military circles and to a redoubling of
their efforts to regain that supremacy, and
no stones were left unturned until that
object had been successfully attained.
“The Germans had now left their ad-
versaries far behind, both in number and
quality of the aircraft being turned out,
as the English were learning to their cost.
“Lieutenant Bothe then dealt at some
length with the position of military aéro-
nautics after the present war. He fore-
told that on the cessation of the present
hostilities all the nations would at once
proceed to build up an impenetrable se-
ries of modern defensive works, extend-
ing several miles behind their frontiers,
and*which it would be beyond the power
of human beings to break through, ex-
cept by the aerial arm.
“In future wars it would be necessary
to invade the enemy’s territories by means
of tens of thousands of aéroplanes, which
by dropping hundreds of tons of explo-
sives would destroy all industrial works,
transport routes, etc., and thus delay the
advance of the troops and impede prepa-
rations for offense or defense.
“The war would be won within the first
few days of the declaration of hostilities
by the Power, or Powers, which were
thus able to throw in the largest weight of
aerial ‘frightfulness,’ and thereby para-
lyze the fighting efficiency of their op-
ponents, before even a battle had been
fought or a campaign opened.
“Where, it may be asked, are to be
found the pilots to man these tens of
thousands of aéroplanes? This would
be one of the chief duties of the German
Aerial League, an institution which was
daily growing in importance and influ-
ence.
_ “By suitable courses of training at aéro-
dromes and in the workshops, the youth
of the country would be prepared for
later service in the Flying Corps.
“The speaker urged every one interested
in this subject to give the League all the
support possible by joining a local branch
and by making its objects more widely
known.”
INDEX FOR JULY-DECEMBER, 1917, VOLUME READY.
Index for ‘Volume XXXII—July-December, 1917—will be mailed to members upon request.
114
Wom. Xx No: 2 WASHINGTON FEBRUARY, 1918
THE
NATIONAL
GEOGRAPIAICG
MAGAZINIE
THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
An Account of the Discovery and Exploration of the
Most Wonderful Volcanic Region
in the World
By Rogperr F. Griccs
DIRECTOR OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SocIETY KATMAI EXPEDITIONS OF
I9Q15, 1916, AND IQI7
Having achieved the distinction of bemg the first explorer to ascend Mt.
Katmai and study its active crater, the largest in the world, Mr. Griggs, in the
GEOGRAPHIC for January, 1917, gave a detailed account of the region in Alaska
affected by the explosion of this mountain, which was the most tremendous vol-
canic eruption since the beginning of recorded ustory. In the present article he
makes known to the members of the Society the wonders of the gigantic safety-
valve area adjacent to Mt. Katmai, which he has named the Valley. of Ten
Thousand Smokes, discovered and explored by National Geographic Society
expeditions.
HEN the members of the Kat-
\ \ | mai Expedition of the National
Geographic. Society, looking
through Katmai Pass, first beheld below
them the Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes, it was at once evident that one
of the great wonders of the world had
been discovered. ‘The first glance was
enough to demonstrate that we had found
a miracle of nature which, when known,
would be ranked with the Yellowstone,
the Grand Canyon, and other marvels,
each standing without rival in its own
class (see also pages 131 and 147).
But in spite of the certainty which pos-
sessed us of the magnitude and impor-
tance of our discovery, further investiga-
tion at that time was impossible. We had
been equipped for the definite task of ex-
ploring Katmai and reaching the crater
of the gigantic volcano from which had
come the tremendous eruption of June 6,
1912, one of the most violent in history.
For the accomplishment of this pur-
pose our outfit had proved adequate.
But the equipment was entirely insuffi-
cient to permit us to extend our lines
across to the Bering Sea side of the range
and maintain a camp in the Valley of
Ten Thousand Smokes. Moreover, the
time remaining to us was too short for
the task, even if we had been adequately
equipped.
As recounted in the GEoGRAPHIC for
January, 1917, we were.compelled, there-
fore, to turn back, with only the scantiest
evidence to substantiate the story of our
truly remarkable discovery. However,
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Clarence F. Maynard
STEAM-HEATED TENTS AT THE HEAD OF THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
y
found
for the place had been onl
ination we
On exam
deed a surprise,
is was in
Th
hed to find that the ground under our tent was decidedly warm.
We put most of our bedding under us to keep us cool
1S
“When we turned in the first night we were aston O
that a thermometer thrust six inches into the ground promptly rose to the boiling point.
recently vacated by the retreating snowbank behind us.
1?
°
2
through the generosity of the Board
of Managers of the National Geo-
graphic Society, funds for another
expedition were provided, and dur-
ing the summer months of 1917 we
were able to continue the explora-
tions of the previous year.”
THE TEN THOUSAND SMOKES A
VAST SAFETY-VALVE
When we reached Katmai Pass,
in June, 1917, I saw at once that
everything was just as it had been
the previous year. There were the
two little fumaroles which we had
first found, steaming away exactly
as they had been the year before.
This was decidedly reassuring, for
I had been tormented with the fear
that after all the time and effort
spent in preparation for the expe-
dition I might find that we had seen
only a passing stage in the declin-
ing activity, and when we arrived
we would find the valley dead, with
all its volcanoes a thing of the past.
When I got back to camp and re-
ported the conditions, I found that
some other members of the party
had been secretly entertaining the
opposite fear—that the whole val-
ley was likely to blow up suddenly
while we were in it! ©
On the contrary, all that we have
seen indicates that the activity of
this district, like that of the Yel-
lowstone Park, has reached a stable
stage, which will continue without
much change for a relatively long
* This was the fourth expedition sent
by the National Geographic Society to
investigate the stupendous eruption of
Mt. Katmai. The first was in 1912, led
by George C. Martin, of the U. S. Geo-
logical Survey, Mr. Martin’s report, with
57 illustrations, being printed in the Feb-
ruary, 1913, number; the second was in
rors and the third in 1916, both directed
by Robert F. Griggs, of the Ohio State
University, whose report was printed in
the January, 1917, number of the Na-
TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, with 52
illustrations. To appreciate the number
and magnitude of the discoveries made
by the National Geographic Society ex-
peditions, members should read again
these reports. Extra copies of these in-
teresting numbers may be obtained at 25
cents each. .
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
period. Wherever we went conditions
were the same. All the vents, big and
little, are remarkably constant in their
activity.
As long as steam continues to escape in
such quantities, there appears to be little
probability of a recurrence of any violent
explosions like those of 1912, for the
present activity of the region acts as a
safety-valve to relieve the pressure from
below and prevent its reaching the danger
point.
FIRST VIEW OF THE TEN THOUSAND
SMOKES
Last year Walter, who had been keep-
ing camp the day we discovered the val-
ley, had listened to our accounts of its
wonders with polite incredulity. I was
interested to see what the effect of really
seeing the valley might be on an unedu-
cated native with no scientific interest to
spur him on.
When we had examined the little fuma-
roles in the pass and looked at the dozen
or so of others round about, he turned to
me with an air of “Well, I thought so all
the time,” and asked, “And is this the
Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes?” “Oh!
No,” I answered; “that is over the rise
yonder.”
When we reached a point where we
could see on down the valley, his amaze-
ment was unbounded. “Why,” he ex-
claimed, “a whole big valley all full of
smoke!” |
I had planned merely to look in and
turn back, for we had come a long way—
so far that he had frequently remarked
on the way up how far we had come and
how fast I was walking, and had even
asked to rest. But once he caught sight
of the vailey, he must goon. It was my
time to call halt now, for I was thinking
of the long way back to camp. But be-
fore I could stop him he had gone a
couple of miles beyond the pass. He
came home with shining eyes, very much
excited, and though he was very tired he
kept talking to Andrean about the wonder
he had seen until late into the night. 7
How I wished I could have understood
his Russian and heard exactly what sort
of an impression the valley had made. I
am sure his description must have been
117
far more picturesque than anything I
could write.
A WONDERFUL AND AMAZING SIGHT
It. was indeed a wonderful and amaz-
ing sight that we looked upon, as we came
into the valley from between the two lava
mountains which guard the entrance.
Nor had this marvel of nature lost any
of its allurement in the interval that had
passed since the one fleeting glimpse I had
had of the phenomenon the year before.
As far as one could see down the broad
flat-floored valley, great columns of white
vapor were pouring out of the fissured
ground and rising gracefully, until they
mingled in a common cloud which hung
between the mountain walls on either side.
We could not see how far the activity ex-
tended, for about 5 miles down the valley
the smoke had entirely closed in, cutting
off any further view in that direction.
But we could look far up into the
branches, which are given off to east and
west from the head of the main valley.
To the west the columns of steam could
be seen coming out of the ground, close
up to the base of the glaciers that wind
down from the snowfields of Mt. Mageik,
some four miles away. To the east our
vision could not penetrate so far because
of the prodigious activity in that quarter,
where myriads of vents of all sizes were
pouring forth immense quantities of
smoke.
CROSSING THE MOUNTAINS AGAINST A
HAIL OF PUMICE
It was four days later before all was
in readiness for the whole party to go
over. None of those who made that trip
will ever forget it. The wind, which had
been blowing uncomfortably hard for
several days, freshened during the night
until it began to carry away our dishes.
The wind gauge in the sheltered nook we
had selected for our camp showed a ve-
locity of 25 miles per hour. Out on the
mountain it was blowing twice as hard
and directly in our faces. It was so
strong as fairly to lift us off our feet at
times ; but worse than the wind itself was
the hail of sharp pumice which it raised.
The pumice cut like a knife whenever it
struck our flesh. The others protected
Ir&
Photograph by D. B. Church
KATMAI PASS
the millions of steam jets which the exped
SUNSET IN
The two little fumaroles to be seen at the right were the first of
discovered upon entering the
ition
lley
majestic va
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
their eyes with close-fitting goggles; but
the leader could not avail himself of that
relief because of the necessity of keeping
to the trail, which in places was com-
pletely drifted over. Fortunately this
lasted only round the shoulder of Obser-
vation Mountain, and from there on the
going was comparatively easy.
We later found, however, that this was
by no means an extreme wind for this re-
gion. On another occasion the men, after
starting, were unable to make it and had
to turn back. The wind gauge at the
sheltered camp that day registered 60
miles an hour steadily, and much ees
on the gusts.
MILLIONS OF VOLCANIC VENTS
When this year’s party reached the val-
ley, the effect on the men was stupendous.
None had imagined anything nearly so
wonderful... Every one agreed that no
description could convey any conception
of its immensity or grandeur.
I found that my matter-of-fact chemist
was counting the smokes to see whether I
had been justified in asserting that there
were ten thousand of them. He soon an-
nounced that I was quite well inside the
number. There are certainly many times
ten thousand to be seen, even on a clear
day, and when the weather is moist
myriads more appear, for then the smoke
from the millions of little holes whose
gases ordinarily are invisible condense
until there are a thousand times ten
thousand. —
One member of.the party, who having
traveled considerably and found many of
the sights of the world overdrawn, was
somewhat skeptical in advance about the
Ten Thousand Smokes. When once he
felt its thrall, however, he repeated over
and over again, “Why, you couldn’t ex-
aggerate it.”” This statement is perfectly
true. While the statistics of length, area,
etc., could be falsified, the enlarged fig-
ures could no more convey any idea of
the immensity of the new wonderland
than can the real dimensions.
This is one of the greatest wonders of
the world, if not indeed the very greatest
of all the wonders on the face of the
earth. The valley cannot be described;
only after one has spent many days within
119
its confines does one begin to grasp the
proportions. All of these comments were
made on first sight. We had not yet really
seen the valley ourselves.
OVERAWED BY THE WONDERFUL VALLEY
The sensation of wonder and admira-
tion, which came first to all, soon gave
way to one of stupefaction. The magni-
tude of the phenomena simply cevercame
us. As we moved to any corner of the
valley, what we had supposed from a dis-
tance to be little fumaroles turned out
monster vents, each group more wonder-
ful a spectacle than the whole, seen in
panorama, so inconceivably vast is the
volcanic region.
No amount of experience seemed suffi-
cient to enable us to grasp proportions of
this enormous safety-valve.
For the first few days we-were over-
awed. For a while we simply could not
think or act in the ordinary way. At
night I would curse myself, as I lay in
my blankets, and make a list of the things
I wanted to do the next day; but when
the morning came I could not move my-
self to action. I could only look and
gape.
Shipley, the chemist, was easily the
most self-possessed of the crowd. But
for him we probably would have turned
around and come home without any of
the scientific material we had gone to col-
lect. After all, the whole valley is very
much of a gigantic chemical laboratory,
and perhaps that accounts for his greater
command of himself. Yet on the third
day he remarked that “he did not feel
like monkeying with his little bottles of
chemicals.”
_ X— was frankly scared to death. He
did what I told him, but except when told
to do something he sat in a dull-eyed
stupor, like one at the funeral of his
sweetheart, from which no efforts of ours
could rouse him. I can only guess the
effort it must have cost him to go up to
the fumaroles and get pictures of them.
He said himself that he expected to go
crazy before he got out again. He had
to be relieved and sent down to the lower
camp before he regained his nerve, but in
the end had as good command of himself
as any of us.
‘sypeldey pue woorq patsy ydaox9
JayOod ssajaIY Sty} UL SurpyAu Yood 0} o]qissod sv 4] “panssy ApULsuoo WLs;S YOR|A LosZ sojorcuiny oy FO So FO sn Suryeu Aq paajos 19
Zuryoos JO sanfnoyip cy} nq ‘sayoug pursnoyy, ay, JO AayeA oy} FO poy oy} ye durvs oy} WosF soppy CI uey} Jaivou pOoOM OU SeA IIo,
MYTIVA XELL TO XAOLS IVYALVN AHL NI ‘ICT OL NO WiddAs S,NOMLIGUdxXa AHL ONIWMLOd
yoinyy “g ‘q Aq Gdessojoyg
j
120
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
I was utterly unprepared for the feel-
ings which thus overcame me. In 1916 |
had not stayed long enough in the valley
to get beyond the first sensations of won-
der and admiration. I had by no means
grasped the situation sufficiently to report
it accurately. This region should have
been named “The Valley of a Million
Smokes,” for there are certainly not one,
but several millions of them all told.
FEAR OF CAVE-INS AND FUMES
A large factor in my feelings was plain
fear. Perhaps I ought in honesty to say
cowardice. The spectacle was so much
bigger than I remembered it that I was
badly scared by the job I had undertaken.
The fear which beset me was twofold:
fear of cave-ins and fear of the fumes.
As we explored the margin of the val-
ley (the worst place, as we afterward
found), we could plainly hear the ground
ring hollow beneath the tunks of our
staffs, and more than once we felt it shake
beneath our blows. What if the ground
should suddenly give way beneath our
feet and precipitate us into a steaming
caldron? . ,
A breath of the steam from a vent
blown around us for a moment by a
chance breeze gave an uncomfortable
burn. We knew that if once a man fell
into such a place he would be instantly
parboiled.
At first we roped up as for mountain-
climbing and spread out, so that if one
man went through, the others could pull
him out. But when we came better to
realize the conditions, we discarded the
ropes, for we decided that if a man once
got in it would be more merciful to leave
him than to attempt to pull him out.
We had been assured by the best au-
thority that there could be no danger
from the fumes, but I had brought along
a chemist partly for the express purpose
of warning us as to what was not safe.
I knew this valley to be different from
every other place in the world, and rea-
soned that there could be no real basis
for the assurances given me. What I
feared was carbon monoxide, that color-
less, odorless, tasteless gas, deadly even
in concentrations as small as five parts in
10,000. It is usually present in the ema.
iDAl
nations from volcanoes. ‘There is, more-
over, no simple chemical test by which its
presence may be detected. What if we
should get a dose of that before we were
aware of the danger?
But, like practically all the bugaboos
which one meets in this world, these were
proved by experience to be much less
dangerous than our imaginations had pic-
tured. Experience showed that there was
always plenty of air to breathe, and we
found no insidious gases likely to strike
one down without warning, for our noses
always gave us abundant notice of dan-
gerous places, so that we suffered no in-
jury beyond slight headaches and tem-
porary inconvenience.
LEARNING TO TRAVEL SAFELY
So also with the cave-ins. As we grew
familiar with the conditions we built up
a basis of experience that soon enabled
us to pick our way with some degree of
safety. The deposits brought up by the
fumaroles themselves so encrust their
throats and the ground round about that
a thin roof over a cavern will support
a man with safety.
The worst places were those where fis-
sures had been bridged over by ash and
mud, so as to leave nothing to indicate
their presence. After we had been in the
valley several days we had some experi-
ences with such places that probably
would have turned us back had they oc-
curred when we first arrived.
Several times, when we accidentally
put a foot through a thin place in the
crust, steam came spouting out of the
hole, forming a new fumarole. But it
was always one foot only and the owner
- did not take long to get out.
Once, while walking across a place that
looked perfectly solid, I noticed a new
hole midway between two old fissures and
on investigating found that a steaming
fissure two feet wide and ten feet deep
was roofed over for fifty feet by a layer
of mud so thin that I could perforate
it anywhere by a slight thrust with my
ice-ax.
But such experiences rapidly led us to
perfect a sort of technique like that of
the mountain-climber, which enabled us
to choose the safest paths. Moreover,
puv ‘sooatd C} payoood 10u
yoinyd ‘g ‘qd 4qt
t
de1is0}
oud
yySin' [exe ouop sAvMye svAr SUIY}AIOAyT «"poUdind JoAo Suryjou ‘YL JOSIOF O/A CUO] /AOY Joel OU
AVM Poplogd IOAD Suryjou “sulsuspuod FO jurod 9y} 3 ysnf ‘wivajs ATT FO otoydsouje ue Aq popunoiims oto sjod ay} sy,
NYIAO WVALS AHL JO AOGN AHL NO WAddAS wor ONILIVM
Y
[22
THE NATIONAL; GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the first trip over the ground was the
most dangerous. After one man had ex-
plored any area in safety, there was no
probability of accident to those who fol-
lowed.
COOKING AT A FUMAROLE
In many places the valley round about
the vents is covered with a peculiar blue
mud, thinly coated with a chestnut-brown
crust, which sometimes supports one and
sometimes gives way suddenly, letting one
down to his shoe-tops in the soft, scald-
ing mud beneath. At such times one is
apt to feel that his feet are taking hold
on hell in very verity, particularly if the
place happens to look “ticklish” other-
wise. We were surprised to find that
continued immersion of our feet in such
places did our shoes no perceptible in-
jury, for we had expected that they
would be rapidly eaten away.
We chose our camp well up on the
mountain side overlooking the valley,
close beside a melting snow-drift. Here,
although we were denied the pleasure of
a camp-fire, for not a stick of wood re-
mains anywhere in the valley, we had “all
the comforts of home.” Fifty yards be-
hind us was our refrigerator, where we
could keep everything freezing cold until
needed (see page 124).
Just in front was our cook-stove—a
mild-mannered fumarole—into which we
hung our pots to cook our food. We
were somewhat dubious beforehand as to
the feasibility of this method of cooking,
because of the noxious gases that came
off along with the steam; but the results
were more than satisfactory. We never
detected the faintest taint in any of our
food. Everything was always done ex-
actly right. Since the pots were sur-
rounded by an atmosphere of live steam,
just at the point of condensing, nothing
ever boiled away, cooked to pieces, or
burned, no matter how long neglected or
forgotten.
There was only one drawback: while
we were in the valley we had to do with-
out our old standbys, bacon and flapjacks,
for our stove would not fry. There
were, however, many vents in the valley
quite hot enough to fry bacon. ‘The va-
por from most of the more active ones
123
is so hot that the steam does not con-
dense for some distance beyond the vents
(see page 133). When a stick is poked
into these the end is quickly charred, in-
dicating a temperature considerably above
the frying point.
Our thermometers did not read high
enough to measure the temperatures of
these vents, so we were unable to ascer-
tain exactly how hot they were. But we
did not think it advisable to try bacon
and flapjacks in them, because most of
them are a little too vigorous to be alto-
gether manageable. ‘The vapor in many
cases comes out with such force that the
frying pan would have had to be held
down against the rising steam. A sudden
puff of wind from an unexpected quarter
might, moreover, have blown the steam in
the cook’s face and inflicted a serious
burn.
A STEAM-HEATED TENT
When we turned in the first night, we
were astonished to find that the ground
under our tent was decidedly warm. On
examination we found that a thermom-
eter thrust 6 inches into the ground
promptly rose to the boiling point. This
was indeed a surprise, for the place only
recently had been vacated by the retreat-
ing snowbank behind us.
We put most of our bedding under us
to keep us cool!
But before long our blankets were as
hot as the ground. Close to the snow-
drift as we were, and at an altitude of
about 2,500 feet, the air was at times
quite cold; so while we steamed on one
side we froze on the other. We had to
keep turning over and over in the effort
to equalize the temperature. We did not
sleep much the first night, and all ex-
pected to “catch our death of cold.”
After a few hours we discovered that
the ground was not merely hot, but that
invisible vapors were everywhere seeping
up through the soil. The condensation
of this steam from the ground made our
bedding first damp and then wet, so that
by morning we were in a most curious
case. The sensations that greeted us on
awakening in these warm, wet beds can
in justice be compared only with certain
distressing memories of one’s childhood
days, which they exactly paralleled.
124 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
OUR REFRIGERATOR
Just behind the tent was an ash-covered snow-drift that made an ideal refrigerator. The only
trouble was that our larder was hardly equal to the accommodations afforded.
This state of affairs worried us very
much indeed, for such conditions were
the worst possible for the films on which
we were depending to vouch for our
story. By building a sort of crib with
the walking sticks we had brought from
the lower camp, we managed to keep them
off the floor, and so reasonably cool; but
in spite of all our efforts, they showed
considerable deterioration before they
could be developed.
Our instruments also took up water
and swelled, so that we feared we should
lose everything. A tripod, which had suc-
cessfully stood the climate of a tropical-
rain forest, jammed so hard that it could
not be hammered loose. The cameras
swelled until their focal points were
shifted. A-panoramic outfit upon which
high hopes had been built refused to work
and was altogether useless for the rest of
the summer.
As I saw everything thus rapidly soak-
ing up with water, I was very much dis-
turbed over the consequences that would
ensue when we should be caught in the
rain; for, while our fumarole might be
an ideal cook-stove, it was no good to dry
clothes by. With a steamy tent there
would be absolutely no way of drying our
clothes after they were once wet. (Trans-
portation was so difficult that we had
brought no change of clothing.)
VAPORS OF THE VALLEY CURED
RHEUMATISM
But in all these fears I was most hap-
pily disappointed, for we found that while
everything soon became steamy damp in
spite of all we could do, likewise anything
that got sopping wet was soon reduced to
the same moist condition. When we came
in soaked through and chilled after a
ducking, therefore, we found that the
thing to do was to crawl into our blank-
ets, and after a while both clothes and
bedding would become as “dry” as when
we started out. }
a ~ Sage * ate
Yy
Y
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
LOOKING ACROSS THE VALLEY FROM CAMP FIVE
The cloud of white steam issuing from the vent in the background is two miles distant
125
Jed o31yM a]qeijouodu ue puTyeq Usppry si UOT}Do11Ip Aue UT Sop sAY PUOAD Sury}AIDAO Jey} VyOuISs
24} St esuap OS JO¥ “JurOd oSev}JURA QUO AU WOIF a[qIssod JIAIU SI MOIIA sjo[dWOdD & yng ‘Y}SuUa|] UL Solu UId}UDAVS UeY} 9IOU SI AdT[VA UreU oT,
NOILVYAdO AALLOV NI SAVM’IV SLaf WVALS
JO SNOTTIIN SLI HLIM ‘AX’VIVA LVAND AHL OL AONVUYLNA AHL LV “AAI dV Wout “CIYOM AHL JO VAGNOM ISU AHL JO MAIA V
SSSI “yy Jloqoy Aq ydessojoyg
EEE EEE io
3
grticneess
126
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 12
~I
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
STEAM COMING OUT ALONG THE LENGTH OF A FISSURE
“The marginal fissures usually stand open like great cracks in the surface, into which
one might fall unless careful.
If one tosses pebbles into the mouths of these vents they are
so buoyed up by the rising gases that they are either immediately spewed out again or sink
slowly down through the rising steam like feathers settling to earth” (see page 137).
In spite of the exposure to which we
were daily subjected, there was not a sign
of acold or other illness in the party, but,
on the contrary, the constant steaming
seemed a good treatment for the rheu-
matic pains which usually develop on
such expeditions. During our stay in the
valley, and for some time after we left,
we were as free from such aches as if we
Dadtaken the cure at a hot spring.
We came, therefore, “to appreciate
greatly our steam-heated tent, for we
found it always warm and cozy, and
there were times when the driving wind
and rain outside were so bitter that we
could hardly have endured the hardships
otherwise.
THE WEATHER HAS MANY EVIL MOODS IN
THE, VALLEY
It would be a mistake, however, to sup-
pose that with all our conveniences the
conditions of our life in the valley were
altogether ideal. The Alaska Peninsula
is notorious as a storm-breeder, and be-
fore the eruption Katmai Pass had a
reputation for bad weather not to be
matched elsewhere on the American con-
tinent. Now, with such enormous quan-
tities of hot steam rushing into the air
close beside the extensive glaciers and
snow-fields of the mountains, the weather
is necessarily about as bad as could be.
From the head of the valley, where
conditions made it necessary for us to
camp, we could often look out of our door
through a storm that threatened to tear
the tent from the ground and see bright
sunshine and good weather five miles
down the valley.
There was rain almost every day we
were in the valley—not the gentle mist
familiar to dwellers of southeastern
Alaska, but real rain in big drops, driven
. Suluado 94} JO ISpa 9Y} Je SuIpUe}s UdU d1e ‘sMOIIe OM} dy} Aq PozedIpuT ‘s}op
YOL]Y OM} OY} FEY} poztyeot st ft UIYM poures oq Avw “WIed}s JO spnojd TOI Ay[enjodsod YotyM WoIF ‘wivas YJIVd yeIIB sty} JO 9ZIS 9} JO Capt su0Gg
AWTIVA AHL NI SINHA LSHD9ID AHL AO ANO
SBBIIQ “yy yoqoy Aq ydeis010yg
ns
128
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
before the gusty winds that penetrated
everything, until our tent roof looked like
a basket. How we wished to study the
valley from the shelter of a house with a
real roof, where we could keep things dry
and contemplate the wonders of nature
with some degree of personal comfort!
But in the intervals between the rains
the sunshine made up for all the hard-
ships we endured. The weather here 1s
somewhat like the little girl with the curl:
“When it is bad it is undeniably horrid,
but when it is good it is so very, very
good” that one straightway forgives the
evil moods. Whenever the skies cleared
we instantly forgot the discomforts which
we had endured, and one and all gave
ourselves up to admiration of the sur-
passing beauty which surrounded us.
Having thus established ourselves in
the valley, we proceeded to prepare for
the study of the many scientific problems
presented by this unique place.
One of the first peculiar discoveries
made by us when we arrived in the valley
was the great number of dead insects
around the vents, where they had been
killed by flying into the live steam. Hine,
therefore, came up for a few days to
study the insects with the purpose of as-
certaining how they’ get into the valley
and where they breed (see page 135).
The larger animals are practically ab-
sent, but we found occasional tracks of
bears, wolves, and wolverines, which had
crossed the valley from one range to the
other.
Most of these were old, but one day I
found the tracks of a bear which had
crossed during the night. I wish I could
have watched him when his feet sank into
the patches of soft, scalding mud that lay
in his way. He must have been treated
to the surprise of his life! But however
he felt, he kept right on straight across
the valley, without making the slightest
deviation to avoid the bad places, often
ee deep into the hot mud (see page
pa).
Maynard, with one of the others for
assistant, toiled up to the summits day
after day with 30-pound packs to secure
the topographic map which is the neces-
sary basis for all our statements of areas
and sizes. His was arduous work and
129
the effort was often wasted, for the days
when the mountain summits are perfectly
clear, as is necessary for this work, are
rare around mountain passes anywhere,
and here especially so.
Sometimes the weather seemed to have
an almost fiendish power of opposing
their plans, for several times from the
valley we could watch and see a thin
cloud hanging all day to the very summit,
on which they stood shivering, while the
other mountains all around were clear.
More than once it seemed as if there
would not be enough clear days to com-
plete the obsérvations, but in the end they
succeeded in getting the data for an ex-
cellent map.
PRACTICALLY ALI, PLANT LIFE DESTROYED
The most disagreeable, as well as one
of the most difficult, tasks fell to Shipley,
who collected samples of gas from the
vents for analysis, from which it is hoped
to learn much about volcanoes in general
and those of this district in particular.
In laying out work in advance, to poke a
glass tube into a vent and pump the gas
into a collector sounds easy, but in the
field all sorts of difficulties crop up which
require great patience and resourceful-
ness to surmount. Apparatus will not do
what is expected of it; tubes clog prema-
turely or snap in the heat.
Moreover, a volcano is not an easy
customer to deal with at close range.
When, after some trouble, one is in a po-
sition where he can get his sample, and a
sudden shift of wind brings a cloud of
hot, blinding gas around him, he is placed
in a difficult, not to say dangerous, situa-
tion. More than once our gas collectors
became lost, but fortunately the precious
samples were all secured without mishap
and a considerable amount of other val-
uable chemical work done.
Only the botanists were without em-
ployment, for in the formation of the
valley all life was completely annihilated
and plants are practically absent. Not
quite so, however, for around some of the
vents moss and alge are beginning to
start where bathed by the warm breath
of the fumarole, from which they derive,
beside the constant moisture, their supply
of nitrogen in the form of ammonia,
130 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE
a
Photograph by J. W. Shipley
MOUNT CERBERUS, LYING STRAIGHT ACROSS THE HEAD OF THE VALLEY, RESEMBLES
A CROUCHING ANIMAL GUARDING THE ENTRANCE TO HADES
This mountain is practically surrounded by fumaroles emitting jets of steam (see also
page 140)
which is given off in considerable quan-
tity by the vents.
The beans we dropped on the “kitchen
floor” near our fumarole also sprouted
and grew rapidly on the warm ground,
soon making a bright spot of green; but
they were short lived, for the roots were
killed wherever they touched the acid soil.
The absence of vegetation gave me op-
portunity to spend all of my leisure in
studying the manifold geological prob-
lems of the place, which presents a re-
markable and unique exhibition of geo-
logical forces.
A COMPLICATED SYSTEM OF SMOKING
VALLEYS
The area in which the vents occur is
not a simple valley, but includes a com-
plicated system of branches, the whole
forming a tract of very irregular shape.
The main line of activity extends directly
transverse to the axis of the Alaska Pen-
insula from Katmai Pass northwestward
toward the head of Naknek Lake. In
this direction vents occur all the way
down the valley as far as the bend to the
north. There is clear evidence that when
the steam jets burst forth this line of ac-
tivity also extended straight across the
pass and down through the upper valley
of Mageik Creek to Observation Moun-
tain.
As one ascends this main valley from
the Bering Sea side, he sees lying straight
across its head a mountain resembling a
crouching animal guarding the entrance.
This mountain, which we thought appro-
priate to call Cerberus, is practically sur-
rounded by fumaroles, for a small branch
valley runs around from the pass. In
front of Mt. Cerberus the valley is very
wide, sending a short branch westward
under the glaciers of Mageik and another
longer one to the east toward the crater
of Katmai (see page 140).
janie
sUE08,
tie Ene a attest
branch the climax of
the activity of the
whole district is to be
found in the two re-
markable features de-
scribed below—Fall-
ing Mountain and
Novarupta Volcano.
We were astonished
to (hd = that. this
branch has no _ head,
but continues round
by Mt. Katmai and
back to the main val-
ley under the slopes
of Knife Peak.
The mountains, thus
surrounded by a com-
plete ring of vents,
are. so. cut -up~ : by
faults that we named
thea tne. Broken
Mountains. They are
bisected by a smaller
branch valley, also
full of vents, stretch-
ing across from No-
varupta. Activity oc-
curs in yet another
branch on the oppo-
site side of the main
valley well down to-
ward the bend. The
total length of all of
these smoking valleys
is 32 miles. The area
is 70 square miles, the
average width being 2
miles.
COMPARISON WITH THE YELLOWSTONE
PARK
With these dimensions at hand, it will
be interesting to compare the valley with
the Yellowstone Park. In the Yellow-
stone there are about 4,000 hot springs
and a hundred geysers scattered over an
area of some 3,000 square miles. The
geysers, which are the most interesting
feature, occur in several isolated geyser
basins, whose total area is hardly 20
square miles. The largest of the geysers,
which play but seldom, shoot up a column
scarcely exceeding 300 feet in height.
The column of Old Faithful, which is the
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE if
Co
if
Photograph by J. W. Shipley
EXPLORING A STEAMING FISSURE
With the steam so thick that one cannot see his way, one often
wonders where he is coming out
only geyser the tourist can count on see-
ing in action, is about 100 feet high.
In the Alaskan Valley there are in con-
stant action thousands of vents whose
columns exceed that figure. The columns
of several of the largest vents may, when
conditions are right, ascend more than
5,000 feet into the air or, under the influ-
ence of the winds which sweep the valley,
trail along the ground for two or three
miles.
WHY THERE ARE NO GEYSERS
One of the questions most frequently
asked by persons interested in the region
is whether or not there are geysers.
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
A TYPICAL MUD CANYON IN THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
These curious, twisting gorges, though only a few feet wide, were often 60 feet deep
; 132
NAN
SY ‘
SANSA
tp
NS
; Photostaph oy J. W. Shiniey
INSPECTING THE CAVERNOUS MAW OF A GAS-EMITTING VENT
The gases from these openings are transparent until they begin to condense in the at-
aaa Therefore it is frequently possible to look into the depths of the earth for many
eet.
133
134
None was observed, and the conditions
are such as to make their development
unlikely for the present. Geysers belong
to a declining stage of volcanic activity,
while the present region is in a youthful
stage. A geyser consists essentially of a
column of hot water mixed with steam,
which is periodically projected into the
air by the sudden formation of the steam
from water gradually heating up to the
boiling point.
A geyser can exist, therefore, only in
rock cool enough to permit the accumu.
lation of the water. The vents of this
steaming valley are so hot that they would
instantly vaporize any ordinary quantity
of water that might find its way into
them. One can readily see that if the
valley cools off gradually there may come
a time favorable for the formation of
geysers.
To attempt any catalogue of the indi-
vidual vents or any description of them
would be utterly futile. They vary all
the way from microscopic jets of gas to
mighty columns of smoke which overtop
the mountains. To explore*the valley
thoroughly and become acquainted with
the characters of the various vents would
require a residence of several months.
We were continually surprised to find
new and interesting features in places
with which we thought we were perfectly
familiar. ‘The smokes in general, how-
ever, may be classed as coming either
from craters or fissures.
THE CRATERS OF THE PLAIN
The craters are much less numerous
than the fissures, but include some of the
largest and most active of the vents. All
Oretmtem are: located in the Hoorn of the
valley, not around the edges. They aver-
age about 100 feet in diameter. The rims
are slightly raised above the general level,
showing that they were produced by ex-
plosive action (see page 135), but the
amount of material in these crater rings
is, in general, very much less than enough
to fill the cavity. Within they are per-
fectly conical pits, sloping down into the
throat at the bottom.
The steep sides, standing at the critical
angle, remind one of the pits which ant
lions dig in the sand. Indeed, little im-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
agination is required to picture the old
devil at the bottom waiting to devour
whatever slips over the edge; for the
sides are so nearly perpendicular that if
any one made the first slip he could never
get out again.
The smoke from these craters comes
out in such volume that often the hole is
completely filled and its outlines con-
cealed, but by waiting a few moments at
the windward side one can usually see the
inside of the crater, and sometimes for an
instant catch a glimpse of the throat at
the bottom—usually a perpendicular tube
about 10 feet in diameter leading down
into the bowels of the earth. On favor-
able occasions one may see as much as
50 feet below the surface of the plain;
but these momentary glimpses did not
give us much information as to the char-
acter of the rock at that depth. We could
not even be sure whether it differed from
the surface mud.
Many of the craters stand apart from
other vents. _ In.,other cases) they sare
grouped together in areas with few fis-
sures. In a few places the evident rela-
tions between craters and fissures furnish
perfect models of the relations generally
believed to underlie the great lines of
volcanic activity that girdle the world.
In such a place a long fissure has here
and there thrown up craters around
points of special activity, forming lines
of craters standing up out of the fissure
and locally obliterating it without con-
cealing their relations to it.
In the same way such a series of vol-
canoes as the Aleutian chain, of which
the present district is a part, are sup-
posed to be built up around the openings
from a continuous fissure in the earth’s
crust,extending for several hundred miles
throughout the length of the chain.
THE FISSURES
Much the greater part of the steam in
the valley comes to the surface, not in
these craters, but through the innumer-
able fissures. There are readily seen to
be two sets of these—bands of marginal
fissures, several together, running around
the edge of the valley in parallel lines,
and single central fissures, which criss-
cross the floor in all directions (see pages
r25-ands2@))e
ye
YY yyy
Yj
Us Y
THE MOUTH OF A VENT IN THE SIDE OF A GULLY
The entomologist with his bug net seems incongruous in such a place, but around some of
the vents there are thousands of dead insects, killed by flying into the hot steam
135
« UleJUNOU 9} FO Sadojs OO}-puesnoy}-om} dy} UMOP [OI pue
PIOY A9y} Woy pauosoo] a1v sozis ][v JO YOOI JO sosseur sv ‘soj}}vV1 puv ‘spny} ‘ssueq JO Solos snonuljuod & st diay} AJANDe wnwTxeU Jo porsod & ;
ul JO} -Aiessadou oq P|NOM Viowivd oy} JO ULY} JoyyeI Yydeisouoyd B JO psOVI1 OY} ‘UIeJUNOW Suryyey fo uorssosdun ayenbape ue Asauod OW,
NIVINNOW ONITIVA AO LOOA AHL LV SHUNSSIT JNIAOWS
yoinyy “gq ‘q Aq ydessojoyg
Rigi Ba Gee
136
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
The marginal fissures usually stand
open, like great cracks in the surface,
into which one might fall unless careful.
Sometimes the fissures were formed
merely by the cracking open of the
ground, but often they are lines of fault-
ing, one side standing higher than the
other. They are often steaming hot for
long distances without a break, and at in-
tervals contain vents from which issue
some of the biggest smokes in the valley.
While the smoke from the craters
comes out quietly, in vast, rolling clouds,
that from the fissures often is emitted
under considerable pressure, roaring and
hissing. If one tosses pebbles into the
mouths of these vents they are so buoyed
up by the rising gases that they are either
immediately spewed out again or they sink
slowly down through the rising steam like
feathers settling to earth. Such vents are
the hottest places in the valley; the gases
from them do not condense for several
yards beyond the orifice (see page 127).
They furnished some of the most satis-
factory places for the collection of gases
for analysis, because of the ease with
which the collector could assure himself
that his sample was free from contamina-
tion with the atmosphere.
The fissures of the central valley floor,
unlike those along the margin, do not
stand open, but are often recognizable
only by the lines of incrustations de-
posited along them. Although they also
contain some of the largest vents, the gas
from many of them is not visible on a
bright, hot day, and only during wet
weather does one realize, by the long
lines of little smokes he sees stretching
across the valley in every direction, how
much gas such fissures are continually
pouring out into the air.
Naturally we were anxious to find out
how deep some of these fissure were, but
we could not gratify our curiosity. To
sound some of the less active vents with
a stone tied to a rope was easy, but this
line was only 100 feet long and was too
short to reach the bottom of those we
tried.
The greater part of the gas given
off is undoubtedly steam, but even the
smaller vents contain many substances,
in addition, which must have originated
137
deep down in the earth. In many of the
larger and hotter vents the proportion
of other gases increases so greatly that
the emanation is changed in character and
does not look like steam, but takes on a
bluish cast like the smoke from the com-
bustion of a fire. In a few cases this
blueness is so pronounced as to be no-
ticeable at a distance of several miles.
The principal cause of this blue smoke
appears to be sulphur dioxide, the same
gas that is given off by burning sulphur.
Other factors probably cooperate in pro-
ducing this appearance, but in what de-
gree they are responsible cannot be de-
termined until the chemical analyses are
completed.
A BEWILDERING COMPLEX OF ODORS
The many substances rising through
these vents result in an extremely curious
combination of odors, which Dr. Shipley,
with the trained nose of a chemist, thus
describes :
“As we entered the valley along a deep,
dry, watercourse, we observed, from time
to time, a peculiar, indefinable, and not
unpleasant odor. Passing close to the
active vents, the odor of hydrochloric
acid and hydrogen sulphide could be de-
tected easily. From certain of the active
areas a disagreeable smell, unlike any
odor that we had ever encountered, arose.
It was somewhat suggestive of a pig-
sty, a horse-stable, and sewer gas, yet we
could not relate it definitely to any previ-
ously observed smell.
“Whatever the gases are, that rise from
the vents in the floor of this wonderful
valley, collectively they offer a consider-
able task to the olfactory organs in differ-
entiating the known from the unknown.
At a distance of 20 miles from the valley,
one was certain one moment that the gas
was sulphur dioxide which the wind bore
to him, the next moment it was hydrogen
sulphide, and the next, both or neither.
This same elusive uncertainty clung
throughout the whole period of our stay
in the valley. It was only in the vicinity
of a vent that the individual gases could
be identified with certainty by the sense
of smell.”
All of the vents, even the smallest,
whose fumes are too slight to be visible,
« Yiyeauaq CAR] Ud}[OW IWS dy} 0} s}uoUW
~Se1j FO 9JULUT SITY} YSNosY oq WYSiur yt rey MOY ssans A]UO Pynod aAA “S1O{OD pue ‘sadvys ‘sazIs [[e JO sjusWISe1Z JO UOISNJUOD aIqQeqIIOsapur Ue YIM
Pet9AOD SI 9VJANS S}] “BART JO Snyd Jeois eB swIOF Jt [HUN dn paysnd usaq sey sIyy, “JUOA oY} Wo1fZ LAL] Ajsed JO UOISNI}XO MOTS & SEAL dIOY} Pasead
pey A}Aov oArsojdxe Joyyy * °° “ffos} rewyeyy Aq ATWO Jort}sIp sty} UL passedins oouajoIA oAIsojdxe ue YIM uesoq ATJUOIedde vydnieAON,,
Wit WLVIO AHL NOW VIdNUVAON JO DN'Id VAV'I AHL
SBBII “y Joqoy Aq ydesrso1oyg
Ae
seca cao
138
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
incrust the mud in their vicinity with
copious deposits, giving the adjacent
ground a most fantastic appearance.
These incrustations take on all colors im-
aginable and in many places give rise to
very beautiful formations. The prevail-
ing hues are perhaps those due to the
gray and green and yellow alums, which
build out curious crystalline structures
simulating lichens growing on the ground.
DEPOSITS ALL COLORS OF THE RAINBOW
Over large areas the ground has been
burned to a bright red by the heat. The
variations in the intensity of the color
produced are extremely beautiful, includ-
ing, as they do, all shades from orange
and brick red to bright cherry reds, pur-
ples, and on down to black, with occa-
- sional contrasting streaks of blue. This
type of coloration is most pronounced in
areas originally occupied by small fuma-
roles which have burned out. In places
the ground has the appearance of having
been burned with fire for a mile at a
stretch.
Around the larger vents the ground is
more commonly colored a dull pink by a
deposit which cements the loose, sandy
particles of ash into compact masses like
concrete. In some of the largest vents
such pink and red incrustations are the
only ones developed, but more often spots
of brilliant yellow and orange also occur
in beautiful contrast with the pink ground
color.
FLOWERS OF PURE SULPHUR
These yellows are mostly due, of
course, to sulphur, which is very common.
There are some places where one can
gather crystals of sulphur, almost free
from impurities, by the bushel. And up
on the mountain side above the crater of
Novarupta is a great yellow spot of sul-
phur conspicuous for miles. Sulphur oc-
curs most often in small crystals com-
pacted into solid cakes, but occasionally
we found it lining the throat of a fuma-
role in long, branching, needle-like crys-
tals (flowers of sulphur), very beautiful
under a lens.
With the yellow sulphur are often de-
posited masses of a bright orange crys-
talline substance whose composition we
did not know. These are generally de-
139
posited in the cracks of the characteristic
blue mud that abounds around many of
the groups of fumaroles, especially in
places where there is considerable dif-
fused activity, reaching the surface
through innumerable small jets rather
than by a single large vent.
Needless to say, the color combination
presented by the orange and blue is as
beautiful as it is unusual. In similar
fumarole groups where the activity is not
quite so intense the surface of the same
blue mud is covered with a rich chestnut-
brown crust, whose varied tones would
of themselves excite the highest admira-
tion were they not eclipsed by the other
more brilliant colors.
In still other places the prevailing de-
posits are of a white, chalky character,
recalling the geyserite of the Yellowstone
Park. These white vents excel all the
others in the delicacy of their coloring,
for they are lightly tinged with yellow
and pink, giving them a creamy, flesh-
colored appearance, even more beautiful
than the brilliant masses of color else-
where developed.
In addition to all these colors, alge
have formed a deep-green incrustation
over the ground close up to some of the
vents, in places where at first sight one
would suppose the ground was too hot to
permit the activities of organisms of any
kind; but the insulating properties of the
soil are so good that great variations in
temperature may occur within a few
inches.
We much desired to make accurate
color studies of the characteristic de-
posits, but the time at our disposal was
altogether too short to permit of such de-
tailed exploration. Indeed, it should be
emphasized that there is material in this
wonderful valley to repay months of
careful study, and that all we could do
was to examine hastily the major fea-
tures, leaving thousands of important
seats of activity without even so much as
a cursory visit.
But there are a few soecial features
which cannot be passed Sy without more
detailed description.
FISSURE LAKE
Across the head of the valley stands the
three-peaked bulk of Mt. Mageik, smok-
140
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by C. F. Maynard
PANORAMA OF THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES, LOOKING FROM BROKEN MOUNTAIN
From left to right: Mt. Katmai
atmai Pass, Mt.
<
whose smoke conceals Trident and Falling Mountain (see page 141) ; I
Mt. Mageik, and Mt. Martin, whose smoke is barely visible
, Novarupta (see page 145),
Cerberus (low),
ing away continuously into the clouds far
above. Down its sides tumble three mag-
nificent glaciers broken to fragments by
the steep descent. The tongues of all
three come down to the level of the val-
ley, where they stop abruptly without
moraines, as though melted back by the
heat.
Near the foot of these glaciers occurs
the most conspicuous fissure to be found
anywhere in the valley. It is 200 to 400
feet wide, with perpendicular walls, one
of which stands about 35 feet higher than
the other. The depth could not be ascer-
tained because it is filled by a beautiful
lake of clear, green water. Standing just
at the foot of the glaciers, this fissure is
one of the most picturesque spots in the
whole valley (see page 146). Along the
sides are numerous snow-drifts, from
which miniature bergs break off and float
away in the clear water.
WARM WATER FROM SNOW-DRIFTS
Fed by the glaciers and melting snows,
Fissure Lake would be expected to be icy
cold, but on the contrary it is decidedly
tepid in spots, where heat evidently is re-
ceived from below. One of thepniess
amusing incidents of the whole trip oc-
curred when our chemist, poking his
thermometer into everything, discovered
this fact.
I was coming along a little behind, and
he, pretending to need my assistance,
asked me to tell him the temperature of
the water coming out from under the
edge of a snow-field. Willing to answer
even a foolish question, I had the words
“ice cold” on the tip of my tongue when
my fingers touched the water. The speak-
ing expression froze on my face and I
carefully dipped my hand in again. It
was actually warm! How he did laugh
at my discomfiture !
The snow-fields which surround the
valley send trickling rills down the slopes,
but these dry up and disappear long be-
fore the floor of the basin is reached.
From the glaciers, however, comes a con-
siderable stream, which runs, in spite of
all obstacles, clear through the val'ey,
dwindling to almost nothing before pass-
ing out of the hot area. These waters
thus so nearly forget to run that we
christened the stream the River Lethe.
THbe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
141
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
FUMAROLES ALONG THE RIVER LETHE
Here is a place where one could easily cook his fish without taking it off the hook—if there
were any fish to catch.
The appropriateness of this name is in-
creased not only by its course, which lies
through the center of Hades, but also be-
cause the uncanny waters, full of deep-
brown silt from the glaciers, have a most
weird aspect as they rush swirling down
the valley.
WEEE RE YOU- COULD COOK “YOUR
Woh ErOUL TAKING TORE TEE TOOK
In many places the river cuts straight
across lines of volcanic activity, and here
we see how close the antagonistic ele-
ments—‘“‘fire” and water—may approach
one another without disturbance. The
mud, which lines the banks, is so perfect
a non-conductor that within a few inches
of the cold water the ground is boiling
hot. There are places where the steam
from small fumaroles actually boils up
through the water of the river! Several
good-sized vents are located on the very
banks of the river.
Here one could catch a fish in the
TISH
In places the steam actually bubbles up through the cold water.
stream and cook it without taking it off
the hook—if only there were any fish, for
one can hardly imagine fish frequenting
this murky stream. There is, however,
no real reason why they might not occur ;
for, im spe ot the fact that the very
banks are.boiling hot, the waters main-
tain their glacial temperature of about
48° F. throughout the valley.
The climax of activity in this wonder-
ful valley occurs.in the northeast angle,
toward Mt. Katmai, where there are two
features of surpassing interest—Falling
Mountain (see page 136) and Novarupta
Volcano (see page 138).
FALLING MOUNTAIN
At first sight, Falling Mountain looks
no different from other lava mountains
near by, except that one face is a perfectly
fresh rock cliff without any covering of
ash. On account of the quantity of sur-
rounding steam, one is not apt to no-
tice that this rock face of the mountain
THE NATIONAL
Photograph by Clarence F. Maynard
PANORAMA OF THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES, FROM BROKEN MOUNTAIN, SHOWING ESPECIALLY WELL THE “wIGH MUD
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
MUD. FLOW
ay
4
MARK” AND THE GRADIENT OF THE
is steaming like the ash fissures in the
valley. As one comes up the valley,
therefore, he will give scant notice to this
mountain until his attention is forcibly
drawn to it by the big fall of rocks which
is sure to occur within a few minutes.
Then he will turn away for a minute or
two, only to have his attention brought
back again by another rock fall.
After one has spent some time near the
mountain and on repeated visits always
hears the same thunder of the continuous
rock falls, the realization gradually dawns
on him that here is a feature as remark-
able as any other in the valley ; for when
one’s interest 1s aroused to inquire as
to the cause of the phenomenon he be-
gins to see that such a continuous series
of rock falls could not be produced by
any ordinary agency.
To convey an adequate impression of
Falling Mountain, the record of the
phonograph rather than of the camera
would be necessary; for in a period of
maximum activity there 1s a continuous
series of bangs, thuds, and rattles, as
masses of rock of all sizes are loosened
from their hold and roll down the two-
thousand-foot slopes of the mountain.
Always the sound rather than the sight
draws the attention, for one often has to
look very hard before he can find the
rocks that make the noise, so high up
on the broad cliff do they start.
HUGE ROCKS SHOT FROM THE MOUNTAIN
The rocks which one is apt to see thus
in a casual visit vary in size from small
stones to boulders weighing several hun-
dred pounds, but the aggregate fall in
an hour reaches several tons.
At the base of the mountain are much
larger masses of rock which have come
down from above like the smaller ones.
The largest of these is a steep-sided con-
ical pile, measuring 500 feet in circum-
ference, which stands out in the floor of
the valley a hundred yards beyond the
end of the talus slopes. ‘There are sev-
eral others nearly as large and similarly
detached from the talus slopes, where
most of the material lodges.
As one looks at these huge piles, made
up of fragments of loose rock, dropped
as though spilled from same aérial cable-
way in this great mine of the gods, he
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 143
Photograph by Clarence F. Maynard
ILALF WAY DOWN THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES, LOOKING TOWARD KATMAI PASS FROM AN ELEVATION ON THE EASTERN SIDE
cannot fail to wonder how they could
have reached their present position. Ly-
ing, as they do, on top of the ash, they
evidently have been deposited there since
the eruption. As one looks around for
a source, he is strongly inclined to sus-
pect that these immense chunks were
shot out from the mountain directly to
their present position, without a prelimi-
nary roll down hill, which surely would
have dissipated the fragments and have
left a tremendous furrow behind, where
they rolled across the soft mud in which
they lie.
As one approaches closer to the foot
of the mountain he sees other evidence
which adds weight to this hypothesis.
Along the base of the mountain is a deep,
wide fissure, that would stop any of the
rolling stones, which, indeed, seldom
reach it. But beyond this fissure are
many rock fragments of all sizes. Among
these are also found the marks where
they struck, deep cuts into the ground.
Some of these are quite fresh, so that as
one walks among them he watches the
precipice above apprehensively, with a
view of dodging any missile which may
come his way.
STEAM ISSUES FROM SOLID ROCK
Some of these pieces are still solid
rock, but others have completely disin-
tegrated into small fragments since their
discharge from the mountain. The ap-
pearance of these fragmented rocks is
very similar to that of rocks which have
spawled under great heat or broken up
after the repeated effects of freezing and
thawing, but the disintegration is very
much more complete here than one sees
in such cases. These rocks look, there-
fore, as if they had been broken up by
forces within themselves.
When one has made this observation
he looks with renewed interest on the
steam escaping from the solid rock above
and turns to the large piles from some
of which steam is still escaping in con-
siderable volume (see page 136). An ex-
amination seems to indicate that the
steam comes from within the piles them-
selves, rather than from the ground be-
neath; but most of these are so covered
with loose fragments that it is difficult
to observe the origin of the steam. We
144
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Serene: Dy D. B. Church —
A PORTION OF THE ROCK SLIDE FROM THE SLOPES OF NOISY MOUNTAIN
| Unlike Falling Mountain, one of the phenomena of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes,
Noisy Mountain, in the upper Katmai Valley, gives off no steam, yet there is a constant rum-
ble of falling rocks from its sides.
page 143).
found places, however, on these piles
clean of all debris, where steam could be
seen issuing directly from the solid rock,
just as one sees it high up on the moun-
tain side.
If such evidence were sufficient to per-
mit one to draw positive inferences he
might conclude that Falling Mountain is
really a mild sort of explosive volcano in
which the explosions occur in solid rock
rather than in liquid lava. But the pres-
ence of a similar active mountain in upper ~
Katmai Valley (Noisy Mountain), from
which ro steam issues, would make one
hesitate in drawing such a conclusion.
A more critical study of these curious
mountains than was possible, with our
limited facilities, ought to yield valuable
results.
NOVARUPTA VOLCANO *
Directly opposite the precipices of Fall-
ing Mountain lies Novarupta, the great-
* The name suggested by Mr. Folsom is here
published for the first time.
Note the conical piles of rock in the middle distance (see
est of all the vents in the valley. This,
though newly formed at the time of the
big eruption, is one of the world’s largest
volcanoes. It is, indeed, a new volcano,
differing materially from most of the
“new” vents that appear, in that it is not
located on the top of an old volcanic
mountain, which had erupted before and
was in reality only dormant (see p. 138).
On the contrary, it burst through in a
new place along the margin of the old
volcanic complex, appearing not in igne-
ous rock, but in sedimentary sandstone
adjacent to former igneous extrusions.
This vent is located not on a mountain
top but in the bottom of a valley, which
before the eruption gave no indication of
the volcanic forces beneath.
Novarupta apparently began with an
explosive violence surpassed in this dis-
trict only by Katmai itself, for quantities
of its pumice are scattered over an area
ten miles in diameter, forming deposits
in places more than fifty feet deep (see
page 145). In these deposits cinders
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
weighing upward of a hundred pounds
are frequent, and everywhere the ejecta
are much coarser than the ash from Kat-
mai, indicating that the explosions were
less violent.
After the first violent outburst the ac-
tivity apparently gradually diminished in
intensity until most of the ejected ma-
terial was thrown only a short distance,
forming in its fall a circular crater ring
immediately surrounding the vent. This
being seven-tenths of a mile in diameter,
is one of the largest explosion craters in
the world, very much larger than Pelée
or Vesuvius, and would be a feature of
primary interest in the region were it not
dwarfed by the vast crater of Katmai.
THE GREAT LAVA PLUG OF NOVARUPTA
As the explosive period drew to a close
the lava became more and more pasty,
until among the last stones thrown out
were numerous masses of lava stiff
enough to retain their shape, yet so hot
that their surface is cracked open from
the contraction incident to cooling, giving
the characteristic “bread crust” appear-
ance. These are the only lava “bombs”
found in the Katmai district. Nowhere
are there any typical bombs formed by
masses of lava thrown out while still
liquid and assuming a rigid spheroidal
form while still in the air. Indeed, no-
guete else were even “bread crust’
bombs found.
After explosive activity had ceased
there was a slow extrusion of pasty lava
from the vent. This has been pushed
up until an immense plug of lava has been
formed 1,200 feet in diameter and 250
feet above the floor of the crater. The
surface is covered with an indescribable
confusion of fragments of all sizes,
shapes, and colors, formed by the frag-
mentation of the lava from the strains
set up by unequal contraction while cool-
ing.
We could only guess the distance
through this mantle of fragments to the
still molten lava beneath. The fact
should be noted that nowhere in the
whole district did we see any evidence of
a lava flow in connection with the pres-
ent eruption. This mass of rock, which
from the beginning was evidently very
145
in,
. \
SWWW6WOQOGQL GG Gy vl "F§§©_ —.
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
A CHUNK OD PUMICE PHROWN OUD BY
NOVARUPTA
So violent was the explosion of Novarupta
that quantities of its pumice are scattered over
an area ten miles in diameter. In these de-
posits, cinders weighing upward of a hundred
pounds are frequent (see page 144).
pasty, is the nearest approach to molten
lava to be found in this region.
That somewhere beneath the surface
of this plug the lava is still molten is
abundantly evidenced by the tremendous
quantities of smoke continuously given
off. Often this cloud fills the sky for
miles, even drifting through Katmai Pass
and obscuring considerable arcas on the
other side of the range. At other times
the smoke forms an erect column as much
as two miles high (see page 140).
Around Novarupta the earth is all shot
te nieces with more and larger steaming
fissures than are to be found elsewhere,
so that only with difficulty one finds a
path through the bewildering maze of
vents. The climb over the rim of Nova-
_ MOJOq WOIF JOY S9ATIIAI Yt a1OYA ‘s}ods ur pido} A[paproap st yt ‘AresqUOD dy} UO 4Gnq ‘plod AdT dq OF axe’] aAnsstyJ yodxo pynom ouo ‘sroroe[s Aq payT
‘JOJWM Ivayo dy} Ul ARM JeOH pue YO Yeaiq SSsoq IINJeIUIWE YSIYM WOLF S}JIIP-MOUS SNOJIWINU JIL SOPIS S}I SUO[W “JoJVM UIIIS “IeI]I JO IHR]
Injineaq ve Aq poy Si Wt asneoaq poureysoadse oq jou pynod yIdep s}{T “J9YIO dy} ULY} JdYSIYy Joos SE Jnoqe spur}s YyoIYM JO guO ‘sTTVM Ie[NoTpusd
-1od YUM ‘apIM Joo} OOF O} OOT SI}, ‘AaT[VA DY} UL dIoOYMAUL PUNO}J oq 0} dINssy snonoidsuod soul dy} Sind30 SIOIDV[S VdIY} JO JOOF 9Y} IVIN,,
ISMWI AUNNSSIA AO MNVA AHL NO WHIOUVNOAA V
Aogidiys “AQ ‘ff Aq ydessojoyg
4
146
peer
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
rupta and down beside the plug of lava
is the most fearsome adventure afforded
toothe explorer of the) valley, ‘for here
there is so much steam that he is more
than likely to be surrounded in a hot
cloud, blown by the fickle wind. Two of
the party so surrounded in this vicinity
once became completely confused, dis-
agreeing as to the way home, and finally
taking the wrong course until they were
set right by crossing the trail made by a
previous party.
VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES
WITHOUT A RIVAL
In order that the reader may justly es-
timate the status of this valley among the
wonders of the world, we ought to make
some comparisons with other similar re-
gions, but in truth there is no other region
with which the Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes can be compared. Niagara finds
a rival in Victoria Falls. The Rotorua
district of New Zealand is a competitor
of the Yellowstone. The Crater of Kat-
mai must stand comparison with Kilauea
and Crater Lake.
Not so with the Valley of Ten Thou-
sand Smokes. Itis unique. Nothing ap-
proaching tt has ever been seen by the eye
of man. To find a parallel we must
search the records of geology, for here
we have such a volcanic outburst as the
geologist finds recorded in the rocks of
the past, but never before has had an op-
portunity to observe in the world of the
present.
In the size of the vents and the quan-
tity of smoke given off the valley is so
far beyond other volcanic districts that no
other place can for a moment be com-
pared with it. Quite well within the
truth, we might say that the sum total of
the emanations from all the other volca-
noes of the American continent, from the
Aleutians to Patagonia, except during
rare periods of a dangerous eruption, is
much less than is given off within the
radius of one’s vision from the Valley of
Ten Thousand Smokes.
Indeed, if one could pick up all the
other volcanoes in the whole world and
set them down together, side by side as
close as they could stand, they would pre-
sent much less of a spectacle, always ex-
cepting a period of dangerous eruption,
147
than does the Valley of Ten Thousand
Smokes every day in the year.
THE VASE DAY IN WHh WALLEY.
I can never forget my last day in the
valley. We had been lying in our sop-
ping tents for two days, unable to stir
outside in the blinding storms. The rest
of the work was pressing, for I had al-
ready overstayed the time allotted for the
valley. In the morning I had announced
that we would move out that night, re-
gardless of the weather, and had given
orders for the equipment to go down.
We started out for some last pictures in
rain and mist which made it impossible.
to find our way around through the
steam, but after a couple of hours there
came a break.
The atmosphere cleared and disclosed
the sun shining out of a blue sky, spotted
with big cumulus clouds, with a light that
was dazzlingly bright. I never saw the
valley half so wonderful. We exposed
our films as fast as we could wind them
up, getting within a few hours many of
our best pictures. There were a dozen
showers during the day, soaking rains,
too, but we utilized such intervals to
travel from one group of vents to an-
other. We came in at 6 o’clock tired out,
but bent on taking out the big photo-
graphic outfit for the one grandest pano-
rama of all. But it was too late; because
of my own orders we found the camp
stripped of everything we needed.
There was nothing to do but follow, so
we made up our packs and reluctantly
trudged out through the pass and down
the other side. I almost wept as I turned
for one last look at the marvelous valley,
showing off now as never before, for as
we came up to the divide, which we were
perhaps never to cross again, a magical
curtain was unrolled, as a background for
the scene, in the most gorgeous sunset I
ever saw. The wonderful colors held us
almost spellbound for hours, until they
slowly faded into twilight, as we rounded
the shoulder of Observation Mountain
into Katmai Valley.
TESTIMONY OF MY ASSOCIATES
At my request various members of my
party have written a brief summary of
their impressions, as follows:
148 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAZAGINE
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
A “BUTTE” IN THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES, FORMED OF SOLIDIFIED MUD
Paul R. Hagelbarger, Assistant Bota-
nist.— ‘Bright sunshine bathed the valley
when I first saw it. Even though several
miles away, I was awe-struck by the sur-
prisingly large size and striking beauty of
the spectacle. There were so many more
steam jets than I had even hoped to see
that I could only gaze in silent admira-
tion.
“After living in the valley and work-
ing among the fumaroles, my impressions
began to change. My amazement at the
great area was intensified by the knowl-
edge gained on many trips across the val-
ley floor. The beauty of each individual
vent was even more than that of the val-
ley as a whole.
“The thing that stupefied me, however,
was the ever-present proof that some ter-
rific energy or force had only recently ex-
erted itself. Everything seemed on such
a huge scale. Our tents looked insignifi-
cant, pitched among the gaping fissures
and the roaring volcanic vents.
““As I came daily to know the area bet-
ter, | was more and more impressed by
ee i
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the titanic forces that
had been at work here.
Human endeavor and
achievement seemed
dwarfed to insignifi-
cance by comparison.
I felt out of place and
like an intruder in this
ands on the Gods:
This valley appeared
tos - be : on ~ another
planet that was in the
process of formation.
“T spent 16 days in
the valley and was
glad to leave, as will
be seen in my diary
for August 2: ‘Came
out of the steaming
walley: = for: {.¢0 od:
level 10. -get + Out.
Glad to see trees and
Serass again: {Heel like
I am just awakening
atter—-a. two. weeks’
nightmare. Valley is
-wonderful, but no
place to camp. Wal-
keme says. ots. of
steane (Elells or “a
placer bhe ar til
eee
SURPASSED HIS WiLD=
EST DREAMS
J.D. Sayre, Assist-
ant Botanist. — “My
sensation on first see-.
ing the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes
was one of wonder and astonishment. I
was astonished at the great dimensions
of the valley and at the countless num-
bers of fumaroles and fissures out of
which the steam issued, to say nothing of
the many other gorgeous and magnificent
displays of nature. Never in my wildest
dreams had I imagined anything to com-
pare with these.
“Greatest of all was my surprise that
so much energy could be released in such
an easy and quiet manner without appar-
ent injury or danger to any one or any-
thing. I experienced no sensation of fear
while staying in the valley, perhaps be-
cause my mind was so filled with aston-
Photograph by J. W. Shipley
MOODOOS IN THE SOLIDIFIED MUD, CAUSED BY FAULTING
ishment and admiration at this great mar-
vel of nature, or because I was foolhardy
and did not realize the grave dangers of
falling into one of those hot places.
“T had no hatred of the place during
my short stay there, although we were
surrounded by many discomforts, and I
said, soon after we left, that I would like
to come back some time and see the place
again. J am very proud to say that I was
a member of the expedition which over-
came the difficulties and hardships and
first explored such a wonderful place.”
THE, COMPLAINT OFT LOPOGRAPHER
Clarence I’. Maynard, Topographer.—
“To me the Valley of Ten Thousand
150
Photograph by Robert F. Griggs
OUR WARMING OVEN IN THE VALLEY
We could keep our dinner hot by setting the
pot in a hole, scooped out anywhere in the
ground.
Smokes is a stretch of country that offers
all the usual difficulties of topographic
surveying in Alaska, with a few rather
unusual ones thrown in for good meas-
ure. It is hardly a country to make the
heart of a topographer glad.
“The smokes did not impress me with
their grandeur or with their wonder as a
natural phenomenon. Their ability to
make surveying next to impossible did,
however, make a very decided impression
on me. On the occasional clear days
when the sun was shining down the valley
they seemed to be always at their best, as
Griggs would put it, but to my mind at
their worst. On these, the few rare days
when it was not raining and the wind was
not doing its best to move our camp
(rather good judgment on the part of the
wind, I should say) they would shoot
forth jets of steam which soon took the
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
form of clouds and obscured the country
we wer e trying to work.
“I finally began to believe that the
smokes were out to buck me, and became
convinced of it when, on one of the rare
fine days, I ascended to a peak which im-
mediately became enveloped in fog. This
was not unusual, but | was impressed on
returning to camp to hear from the more
fortunate members of the party that the
whole valley had been clear with the ex-
ception of the peak I occupied.
“T am not a vegetarian; furthermore,
tea cooked in a steam pit is not tea. A
tent that never sheds a drop of water is
not atent. A wool comfort placed on the
ground which was 110° Fahrenheit in the
above tent will steam beautifully. Itisa
natural phenomenon, but it is not a good
bed. I believe I mentioned that I am not
a vegetarian. I[ like bacon in the morn-
ing ; ‘T like it fried. A steam jet, in spite
of its being glorious and a natural phe-
nomenon, will not do this. J am from
New England and have decided ideas on
baked beans. Again the steam jet fell
down. It needs New England training.
Steamed beans are beyond the limit of its
capabilities.
“T should say the coming of the smokes
ruined what might otherwise have been a
perfectly good country. My opinion,
however, is probably valueless, as being
out of tobacco always colors my views.”
THE MODERN INFERNO
James S. Hine, Zodlogist.—“A hike of
miles over devastation wrought by nat-
ural disturbances in the Katmai country
naturally puts one into a peculiar state of
mind. He is deeply impressed with the
enormity of the whole affair and every-
thing seems beyond comprehension. The
unusual circumstance of summer with no
plant life and no animal life surely is a
strange realization.
“Having reached the summit of Kat-
mai Pass, the Valley of Ten ‘Thousand
Smokes spreads out before one with no
part of the view obstructed. My first
thought was: we have reached the mod-
ern inferno. I was horrified, and yet
curiosity to see all at close range capti-
vated me. Sure that I would sink be-
neath the earth’s crust at almost every
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
151
Photograph by J. W. Shipley
COLLECTING GAS FOR ANALYSIS FROM A SMALL VENT AMIDST A MAZE OF FUMAROLES
“Tn laying out work in advance it sounds easy to poke a glass tube into a vent and pump
the gas into a collector, but in the field all sorts of difficulties crop out which require great
patience and resourcefulness to overcome.
deal with at close range.”
step into a chasm intensely hot, I yet
pushed on as soon as I found myself
safely over a particularly dangerous-ap-
pearing area. I didn’t like it, and yet l
did.
Pele dike a boy atea circus, ior 1
couldn’t take time to study the attraction
before me because I suspected something —
more captivating further on. Nor was I
ever disappointed, for nothing was ex-
actly like anything else.
“The broken hills, the falling moun-
tains, the magnificent glaciers, the steam-
ing fumaroles, and the rolling streams
can all be described, but their wonderful
profusion and the manner in which they
encroached upon one another must re-
main largely in possession of him who is
fortunate enough to make a visit to the
locality where these things abound in ex-
traordinary splendor.”
Moreover, a volcano is not an easy customer to
LIKE A HUGE CHEMICAL MANUFACTURING
PLANT
L. W. Shipley, Chemist “On first
entering the valley from between the two
guardian volcanic cones, I experienced
the same sensation as the man who on
seeing a giraffe for the first time ex-
claimed, “There ain’t no such animal.’
The quiet evolution of myriads of col-
umns of vapor from the floor of a wide,
desolate valley, the encompassing moun-
tain ridges, the sequestered isolation, the
avalanches of rocks, all vividly recalled
Sinbad’s adventures in the ‘Arabian
Nights.’ It is so unreal.
“Hot streams flow from beneath banks
of snow; extensive glaciers hobnob with
steaming fumaroles, while icebergs and
hot water are found in the same little
lake. Enormous mud-flows appear to
have run uphill. tact was
looked upon, however, as only another of
the natural curiosities of the great West
and little or no attention was paid to it
because of the seemingly inexhaustible
pools of crude petroleum found elsewhere
under great areas.
In connection with its investigations
of the undeveloped mineral resources of
the country the United States Geological
Survey has recently made special studies
and tests of these oil rocks and has
brought to light two important facts:
First, that our western shales are phe-
nomenally rich in oil, and, second, that
in foreign countries, particularly Scot-
land, much inferior shales are today suc-
cessfully mined and worked as a source
of oil and other commercial products.
The industry in Scotland is 70 years old
and is still in a highly flourishing condi-
ti0N.
ONOL, JAROMMMOANB EN IDS IMOLIE IBID) FROM SHALE
IN SCOTLAND
The Scotch shales run only about 25
gallons of oil to the ton; yet the principal
operating companies competing with the
petroleum industry pay annual dividends
averaging 18 per cent. Rock producing
‘AABN SO}VIG pou, dy} 10; Ajddns [10 9}
AOS dy} Aq opise
Je Jeu}
ed
us9q sv
UISIUUO
dxo oY} Jo
JO 901nos ®& se JUoWIUIO
9198 000
10o]Od) WO
Udsdq JAP
efi joo
NST OJ,
ay} JO
ie Sd
MUOM LV SLSIDO'IO NYWNWIAOD
Q Wwo.rz ydeisojoyg
“HS ‘110
I1BO[O9
ADJAINS [eB
‘A}ISSIDIU URLUNY JO JopII 9Y} JOF paseajas oq 0} ‘edIOWIY
JO sayeys oy} Ur dn poxso] sase JO} “[IO Sursned st aEy ‘aouaros Ain}
-U9D YjoljUIM} Yonosy} ‘Os ‘SsoUIIP[IM dy} UL YOOI oY} WOI, MOP OF
J9}eM Pasnevod ‘pjO FO SJULATIS SIFT YSNOIY} ‘10}VIID JeII1S 9] SV
ONINOAM “HAIN NAAYD UVAN SGA WIVHS
TIO LVaUD AHL AO ANO DNIIGWVS NAW AATANMNS IVOIDOIOND
AIAING [BI60[094 *S “fF) Wo1F Ydessojoyg
ea Z Vea eS Oy
196
THE NATIONAL (GEOGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE
197
Photograph from U. S. Geological Survey
IN THESE WYOMING ROCKS ARE LOCKED MILLIONS OF BARRELS OF OIL
These deposits of oily rock are often massive in extent as well as in thickness. Beds were
recently reported in one Western State over an area of 1,500 square miles, averaging 20
feet in thickness and yielding at least 36 gallons to the ton.
even as low as 20 gallons of oil a ton is
yielding good dividends. ‘The shales in
the western United States are far richer
in oil than those of Scotland. Many tests
made by the Geological Survey show that
the American rocks contain 40 to 50
gallons to the ton and those in one de-
posit tested 90 gallons, or more than 2
barrels, to the ton.
To extract the oil, the rock is distilled
at a low temperature. So simple is the
process that the geologists who surveyed
the fields carried small testing retorts
around from place to place to determine
the oil content of various specimens.
In the Scotch plants the rock is heated
in retorts arranged in banks of four over
a single fire-box, and a unique feature of
the process is that the gas derived from
the shale is the fuel used for obtaining
the oil and other products. The retorts
are grouped in benches of 64 and each
retort reduces about 4 tons of rock a day.
Some 3,000,000 tons are treated annually.
The vapors pass from the retorts into
condensers in which the crude oil is de-
posited, and then on into a chamber in
which the ammonia is collected.
The Scotch shales yield gasoline, illumi-
nating, lubricating, and other oils, paraf-
fine wax, and sulphate of ammonia, be-
sides a considerable quantity of liquid ~
fuel and the gas that is used in the plants.
QUANTITY OF OIL IN AMERICAN SHALES
ENORMOUS
The total production of petroleum in
the United States up to 1918 has been
4,255,000,000 barrels, and the possible fu-
ture production, or the total reserve in
the ground—and some of it lies very
deep—is estimated by the Federal Gov-
ernment at about 7,000,000,000 barrels.
How does this petroleum compare with
the known oil-shale reserve? The quan-
tity of oil that can be extracted from the
DHE
AQ
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
é
ee
po a te
Photograph from U. S. Geological Survey
AN OULCROPV OR TRICE /OLL SHALE IN (UTA
The flexibility of the rock indicates its heavy oil content.
The oil shales of Scotland,
which have been profitably worked for 70 years, yield about 25 gallons to the ton of rock.
‘The shales of the western United States run about 4o or 50 gallons to the ton and those
of one deposit gave 9o gallons to the ton.
shale is so huge that the petroleum re-
serve becomes almost ‘insignificant by
comparison. As a result of only a par-
tial investigation, it 1s estimated that the
oil in the shale ranges of Colorado alone
amounts to 20,000,000,000 barrels. There
are mountains—indeed, ranges of moun-
tains—which for many miles carry thick
beds of rock that yield 30 to 50 barrels
of oil to the ton.
More recently the State geologist of
Colorado has reported that in northwest-
ern Colorado beds of commercially work-
able rock that average more than 20 feet
in thickness and that will yield at least
36 gallons of oil to the ton are found
in an area extending over 1,500 square
miles. ‘These figures show a content of
24,000,000 barrels of oil to the square
mile, or a total of 36,000,000,000 barrels
for the area. Either twenty billion or
thirty-six billion is sufficiently impressive.
The Geological Survey also estimates
that 300,000,000 tons of sulphate of am-
monia, worth, at before-the-war prices,
about $60 a ton, could be recovered as
a by-product in the extraction of the oil.
This by-product would be sufficient to
enrich most of the farms in the great
Mississippi Valley.
In addition to the oil rock in Colorado,
that of Utah must be considered. The
government is now investigating these
deposits in detail and has already stated
that they are probably as extensive as
those in Colorado and are equally rich in
oil. Oil shales have been examined also
in Nevada, Wyoming, California, Mon-
tana, and other States. Tests of spect-
mens from Wyoming show from 30 to
50 gallons to the ton, and samples from
Nevada have produced from 40 to 100
gallons of oil to the ton. One 10-foot
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
bed in Nevada yielded oil at the rate of
13,000,000 barrels to the square mile.
DEPOSITS IN EASTERN STATES
But the West has no monopoly of the
oil-shale resource. Deposits have been
examined by the government in Illinois,
Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania, ‘l’ennes-
see, West Virginia, and Indiana, some of
them testing out with a high oil con-
tent. An examination of the black shale
of southwestern Indiana shows that it
underlies about 16,000 square miles, and
although the oil content of much of it is
less than that of the western shales, and
some of it 1s too low in oil to be worked
commercially, the actual content for the
area in Indiana alone would be 100,000,-
000,000 barrels.
Some of the eastern shale that is very
rich in oil overlies extensive coal beds,
which are being mined by the “stripping”
method, so that the oil rock must be re-
moved in any event to get out the coal.
This shale could therefore be mined by
steam-shovels without additional cost, as
it is a necessary preliminary to the coal-
mining.
The potential value of this immense
oil resource of America is almost beyond
comprehension. Enough oil is held in
these natural reservoirs to fill many times
Oye every tank, cask, barrel can}, and
other container of every kind in the
world.
Until recently the oil shales of the
United States, particularly those of the
Western States, have been referred to by
the government geologists as a reserve
available for extraction whenever the de-
mand and the price shall become great
enough to warrant the establishment of
a new industry to supplement the supply
of petroleum from the oil fields. This
time is now at hand.
The extraordinary demands of the war
are already indicating the approaching in-
sufficiency of the output from our pe-
troleum fields, and experiments in the
utilization of oil shale are already being
made in Colorado. Plants are being
erected, oil is being distilled, processes
are being tested, and a steadily increas-
ing output is soon to be expected. So
substantial is this resource considered that
the government has set aside as a special
Om
Photogr
aph from U. S. Geological Survey
HAND DRILLING TO SECURE UNWEATHERED
SAMPLES OF OIL SHALE
The deposits of oil shale in the Rocky Moun-
tain region lie for the most part near the sur-
face and can be mined by steam-shovels. By
situating the reducing plants in the valleys,
gravity may be utilized in transporting the rock
to the distilleries.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
OLD SHALE DISTILLERY NEAR JUAB, UTAH, USED BY MORMONS A GENERATION AGO
When the oil is distilled from the impregnated shales there comes with it a great supply
of those yellowish crystals we call sulphate of ammonia—a fertilizer so rich that it would
make a garden out of an old abandoned field.
Three hundred million tons of this great soil
vitalizer lie locked in the shales of Colorado alone, waiting to be released by the key of
industry.
reserve for the American: Navy 132,000
acres of the richest oil-shale land in the
West.
BEWARE OF FAKE PROMOTERS
It is not to be understood, of course,
that any farmer or rancher who may
happen to have oil shale on his home-
stead can produce oil at a profit. Suc-
cessful oil distillation will require large
and expensive plants, well financed and
scientifically managed, as in any other
large industry.
It is by no means a poor man’s propo-
sition ; but neither, on the other hand, is
it a highly complex and involved in-
dustry, such, for instance, as beet-sugar
manufacture, while the fact that oil dis-
tii
tity
ty
Z y
Y pif. Yr
tj tijy oy,
Yi y 4 Yj J
Visti Vy Y/ Z Yh
\Yijjjij/0 Z y
Y WYO!”
Z Wy) jd
Zp 4 7 4 Ty
4 VI yYyow xO, Zy
j Le Yj Yy yy Yo Yj yyy L Z 4 oi, = < “ X NX
fy y Yj Y g by, j a. i . & ~ Sk S
Yj ‘ os \ .
Wild f . :
Photograph from U. S. Geological Survey
NEW EXPERIMENTAL OIL STILL NEAR DEBEQUE, COLORADO
No man who owns a motor-car will fail to rejoice that the United States Geological
Survey is pointing the way to supplies of gasoline which can meet any demand that even his
children’s children for generations to come may make of them. ‘The horseless vehicle’s
threatened dethronement has been definitely averted and the uninviting prospect of a motor-
less age has ceased to be a ghost stalking in the vista of the future.
202 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
WASH DAY IN A U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY "CAMP
Campers and hunters in the West long ago discovered that oil shale would burn. A few rich
samples are here supplying the heat for the camp laundry.
tillation is well established in other coun-
tries 1s tremendously to the advantage
of prospective development in the United
States.
Unfortunately the discovery of the im-
mense oil resources of America, contained
in its oil-shale deposits, will doubtless be
attended by misfortune for the unwary
those who invest carelessly in the stock
of fake or “wild-cat” oil companies, or-
ganized by get-rich-quick schemers who
are intent upon exploiting the gullible
public rather than the development of oil-
shale properties. Such schemers, like
camp-followers, appear in the wake of
every great discovery of mineral wealth
and they have always found the “oil
fields” a particularly lucrative one for
their operations.
AMERICAN OIL-SHALE INDUSTRY WILL FAR
OUTSTRIP SCOTLAND
The success attained by the oil-shaie
industry in Scotland indicates far greater’
Wald BES
Photograph from U. S. Geological Survey
RICH OIL SHALE LEDGE OUTCROPPING NEAR GRAND VALLEY, COLORADO
Although the oil reserves of the United States are greater than the amount produced in
the entire world from the birth of the industry until now, yet the output at the present time
is such that it would exhaust the reserves in 30 years. But now comes the discovery of such
an abundance of oil in American shales that all the oil produced in the whole world in the
entire history of the industry is only a drop in the bucket in comparison with the supply the
rocks offer us.
Vag
203
‘JoyjOUe SI YOI Surseaq-[lo ‘sarxoid s}t Jo 9uO St wiNsfoljoq ‘Joyjoue JO odeys duo UI Sn 0} Yoeq SauIOd Wt FO sWIOS ‘YJAIva ay} UOdN
9UIeD DM DIOJOG SN WOT] UYL} SeAL [LOI INO JO Jsowl Yonoy} ng ‘sjisodap [eUIsi10 dy} JO o1eYs JULOYIUSISUT Ue ATUO ST jf “JyoyT [vod JO JUNOUWIe VU}
SI sv years ‘suod} JO SUOTI[Id Joy}JO poling Jey} Yrs 9} JO sossoo0i1d Sutdum4d-jsnso oy} puke suo} JO suOoTIq JNO punors yey} SIOIDVLS IY} UOMO
‘UMOP pre] Ap[eULSI1O0 [LOD IY} JO VsvJUodIod ][VUs v yn juasoide1 Loy} PA pue ‘SuraMOdIIAO St VoTIOWIY JO spoq [VOD oY} JO AjisuoUUT OT J,
OdVUO'IOD ‘AWTIVA WAAIN GNVUO AML
NL ‘NVHWTIVO LNOOW :NOLLVINOdSNVYL JO YOO AVA AHL LV MOO MO HO WO SNOL FO SNOITIIN DNINIVINOOD NIVINOOW V
ADAING [PIToJOIy *S "A Wosz Ydessojpoy
204
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
success for the industry in the United
States. Not only is the oil content of
the American deposit larger than that of
the Scotch—in some cases more than
three times as large—but the American
rock can be mined more cheaply.
The Scotch shales lie far below the
surface and must be mined by hand and
hoisted through shafts like coal or hauled
up inclines. Most of the Rocky Moun-
tain shale lies from a few feet to 2,500
feet above the valley floors and much of
it can be mined in a wholesale manner
by steam-shovels and lowered by gravity
to the reducing plants.
OIL FORMERLY DISTILLED FROM SHALE IN
PENNSYLVANIA AND UTAH
The Scotch shales occur in irregular
beds which here and there thin out and
have been thrown into geologic faults and
folds that greatly increase the cost of
mining. The western shales, on the other
hand, are more uniform in thickness and
lie in a horizontal position. Despite their
handicaps, the Scotch deposits are worked
at a large profit, yet their average con-
tent of oil is only about 25 gallons to the
ton, whereas vast quantities of easily
mined American shales that lie in benches
6 to 10 feet thick will average perhaps
a hundred per cent more oil.
Oil-shale distillation is not new in the
United States; yet it is doubtful if there
are many people alive who remember
anything about the earlier industry. Be-
fore petroleum was discovered in Penn-
sylvania, about 50 small companies in the
eastern United States were crudely dis-.
tilling oil from shales; but after subter-
ranean pools were discovered these com-
panies went out of business.
Long ago the Mormons also distilled
oil from shale near Juab, Utah, where
the ruins of an old still can yet be seen.
We are now about to return to this dis-
carded industry and produce hundreds of
millions of barrels of oil where formerly
205
the output was comparable to the pro-
duction of oil from sperm whales.
AMERICA’S IMMENSE MINERAL WEALTH
The discovery of these vast deposits of
oil-bearing rock in the United States, the
petroleum content of which can be esti-
mated in nothing less than hundreds of
billions of barrels, is one more evidence
of the abounding wealth of the North
American Continent. No sooner does one
of our resources show limitations in pro-
duction and the pessimists begin to cry,
“What shall we do when our reserve is
gone?” than immense additional deposits
or satisfactory substitutes are discovered.
During the last few years petroleum,
with its most valuable constituent, gaso-
line, has become one of our most vital
resources, so than even the most cheerful
optimist might well begin to question the
immediate future prospects of the in-
dustry; but with thousands of square
miles of rock lying above ground, within
sight of trunk-line railroads and con-
stituting an unfailing oil reservoir, we
can feel assured of a supply of gasoline
for many generations to come.
The United States is indeed a country
blessed by a generous Providence. Ger-
many, to supplement its stock of pe-
troleum and gasoline, laboriously raises
potatoes from which to distil fuel alcohol;
but here in America there are mountains
of oil rock which can be blasted and
steam-shoveled and transported by grav-
ity to great retorts which will turn out
oil and fertilizer in limitless quantities.
The production of oil in this country,
instead of decreasing, will continue to
grow; it will even, because of the shale
resource, greatly increase its present im-
mense output of 340,000,000 barrels a
year and will keep pace with the enor-
mously increasing demand. No one may
be bold enough to fortell what tremend-
ous figure of production may be reached
within the next ten years.
SHOPPING ABROAD FOR OUR ARMY
IN FRANCE
By Herspert Corey
the American Army needs in France
have been bought in Europe.
I know of no more blunt and uncom-
promising way of beginning this story
of a big job. It lacks color and voltage.
It really should be illustrated by a dia-
gram showing a procession of four hun-
dred tall ships sailing into a port in
France, each loaded down to the captain’s
quarters, while a fleet of toothless U-
boats gives way to furor Teutonicus on
the side lines. That would bring home
to the reader what this achievement of
the Purchasing Board in France really
amounts to.
Each ton bought in Europe lessens by
2,000 pounds the strain on the tonnage
line that connects the American Expedi-
tionary Force with its home,base. One
might go into the dollar feature of the
situation and show that each ship will
cost the American Government not less
than $10,000 a day, and that they will
average 60 days to the round trip; but
that phase is relatively unimportant. The
essential point is that an enormous ocean
shipment, with its attendant risks and
delays, was avoided in this way.
Hivss hundred shiploads of things
SHORTAGES IN ALI DEPARTMENTS EXCEPT
THAT OF COURAGE
The 400 shiploads only include the
material bought by the Army Purchasing
Board in France. A huge quantity of
other goods has. been bought by the com-
manding officers of units, these ranging
from the day’s rations to footwear and
ready-made huts. Such purchases, how-
ever, are of the hand-to-mouth order and
only satisfy the moment’s needs. The
greater purchase may be charged to capi-
tal account. The goods were needed for
permanent equipment. They are the
shelves and counters needed for Uncle
Sam’s new business abroad.
Every one now knows the conditions
under which the American army began
operations in Europe. Some thousands
of men had been hastily gathered together,
herded on steamers, and pelted off to
France. Probably every one knows that,
thanks to our failure to take out insur-
ance before our house caught fire, this
first expeditionary force only outwardly
resembled an army. Seventy-five per
cent of the men were rookies; some of
them took their first steps before a drill
sergeant on board ship. ‘The bureau-
cratic chair-fillers at Washington, who
used to send men to Manila wearing the
clothes designed for blizzardly afternoons
on Skagway Pass, were living up to their
own best worst. ‘There were shortages
in every department except that of cour-
age.
In the United States every one became
busy—and talkative—at once. ‘The col-
ums of good news about things that were
sure to take place, if nothing happened,
must have sent thrills down the backbone
of every good American. In France,
General Pershing had no time for prog-
nostication and hurrah.
Persons who think they know com-
manding generals who have had harder
tasks than Pershing in this war are in-
vited to name their candidates. He was
not only responsible for those prelimi-
nary arrangements of a purely military
character, which will lead to victory later
on, but he was obliged to create overnight
a huge business organization. He be-
came the head of an enterprise that could
put the Standard Oil octopus in its
pocket and never feel it squirm.
SOME OF THE DIFFICULTIES OF THE
SITUATION
The American army is 3,000 water
miles away from its home base, in a
country that is increasingly feeling the
strain of more than three years of war.
The number of Americans in France was
added to each week.
206
tHE NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
es Las
© Committee on Public Information
CANNED GOODS ARE A STAPLE OF THE AMERICAN SOLDIER'S DIETARY IN FRANCE
“But ‘airtights’ take up a frightful lot of space on shipboard, and besides, there is plenty
of fruit to be had in France.
To bring American canned goods to a country where every
peasant makes a pet of a pear tree is like carrying coals to Newcastle.
So the tin is to be
brought over in sheets and made into cans in French shops, and next summer the farm women
of France will put up canned goods for American soldiers.”
With that growth of the army the
daily needs for clothing and food grew
in proportion. Reserves must be built
up to provide against possible hard times
ahead. Artillery must be furnished, for
Uncle Sam reacted with a jerk to the
discovery that the squirrel rifle of our
daddies is no longer useful, there being
few squirrels in France. Transportation
must be furnished on an unprecedented
scale. New railroads must be built and
equipped and old railroads furbished up.
Three-ton camions take the place of
mules in hauling food for a modern army ;
but mules are also needed.
As the wants increased, so did the diffi-
culties. U-boats are daily sunk in the
editorial columns, but manage to maintain
a certain liveliness on the high seas. No
particular genius was required to demon-
strate that every possible pound should
be bought on the European side of the
Atlantic, to loosen the tension on tonnage.
But genius was needed in the buying, in
order that America’s allies should not
be hampered. France and. Great Britain
and Italy are taking practically all the
Furopean market can supply, and their
troops are fighting. It would not be
good strategy to rob fighting forces to
favor an army which is practically non-
combatant as yet.
WHERE KITCHEN DIPLOMACY ENTERED
A matter of kitchen diplomacy entered
into the problem also. The moment that
American food purchases began to swell
the prices in the village markets the
French housewife would certainly pro-
test. Her budgetary curve has been
downward, for the most part, while the
cost-line of cabbage and sugar has been
steadily warping up. It would never do
to allow the deep American pocket to
¢ SOYSYAOM YSUIIT UL PoAMJOVJnuCUr oq [[IM SUId}T SNOIOSuL[I PUL IOUT dSdY} YOJIOUITT “MCI DY} UT JOAO Udye} MOU OI UOIT poziU
-eAjes puv Ul} OY} OS ‘spjoydiys Ul SiojseM-oovds sev poyNuopr o19M sued pue so]}Joy pue sjod pue sjoyonq duicd oy} ddUeIy poysvor suediioMy
94} SB UOOS SB }SOL]Y “peAvs aq ULI SUO} 9Y} MOY SI UOoTsonb jrois oy, “SAUpLMOU SUIID} ISvUUO} UL Pansy st uor}esodo ssoursnq AI9A‘,,
WONVUL UOT SHITddNAS GNV SdOOUL HLIM LIOdSNVUL V DNIGVO'T
pooMispuy~ Y pooasspuyg ©)
208
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
enter into competition with her slender
purse. It would neither be wise nor, as
Americans say, “decent.”
So a formula was worked out for the
buying. It might be stated something
after this fashion:
“Save tonnage today if we can pay
back tomorrow ; mortgage the future.
“Always give the fighting forces the
first chance.
~ Ladies first.”
Some one suffered from a constriction
of the imagination when the body that
does the buying in Europe was named
the Purchasing Board. It is libeled by
so tame and commonplace a title. Its
members make purchases, to be sure, but
that is only one phase of its activities.
Now and then it lapses into diplomacy.
It negotiates with European labor and
adjusts the American machines and ways
of doing things to continental men and
women. It is in the manufacturing busi-
ness. It is turning over every shop in
neutral Europe in search of raw material.
And it all began in the mildest way pos-
sible.
GENERAL PERSHINC’S BIG TASK
General Pershing began it, of course,
for in the army all things begin and end
with him. One reason why his job makes
such a tremendous appeal to the imagina-
tion is that it is this sort of a job. He is
not only creating an enormous business
organization, but he is catching the men
to run it. Sometimes he does not catch
the right man, and then he has to take a
few minutes off to catch the wrong man
and fire him. But an organization is
being created. When it gets on its feet
it will stand comparison with any organ-
ization in the world. It would be folly
- to say that it can stand alone today.
“T must have coal,” he told the man
who is today the chief purchasing agent.
“Go out and buy it.”
I have promised the chief purchasing
agent that I will not use his name, but it
is only fair—to the army—to say that he
was the head of a great bank in a great
mid-western city. He was a business
man, too, of the sort who is not afraid
either of money or men. When the
United States went to war he volun-
209
teered. He is still, praise be, a business
man.
When he camé into Pershing’s office he
was probably told to sit down and have
a cigar, and asked if he had seen any
U-boats on the way over, that being con-
sidered a neat conversational opening in
France nowadays, and before he could
answer he was told that the American
army needed coal and that it was up to
him to get it.
HOW THE PURCHASING OFFICER ACHIEVES
RESULTS
Well; he got the coal. - But before he
got it he negotiated with two European
governments and the heads of some
European labor. He had to find a way
to have ships commandeered, not having
any handy way to commandeer the ships
himself. There was even talk of reopen-
ing some of the coal mines that France
has temporarily abandoned on the central
plateau because of a lack of labor, but
that plan was given up for various rea-
sons.
The whole secret of the job was that
the American army had to have coal. At
the moment there were 6,000 tons on
hand; 10,000 tons were owing to the
French Government; there was none in
sight, and winter was coming on. That
was a standard condition in all lines dur-
ing the first days of the American activity
in France.
The chief purchasing officer and his as-
sistants got the things needed because
they know how to hustle. I was in his
office one day when a major, whose name
and millions have been a Sunday feature
in New York for twenty years, came in.
The outlines of the feature have not
changed materially. They consist mostly
of dollars.
“I’m out of a job,” said the major.
“Go to French headquarters,” said the
chief purchasing officer, “and get some
stuff out of storage.”
Before the major was out of the room
the stenographer was telegraphing head-
quarters that the appointment of Major
Money as liaison officer at French head-
quarters was desired. The appointment
came back by wire before the major got
to French headquarters. ‘That is the sort
«AOAO WOU} SUIYVUL YIOM O} JOS OIIM SITULYIOUL ULITIOWUIY PUL WY} PUNOF sjnods uedIIOUTY ‘sJoyeMYOe pros
‘SIvo Suriedot 10¥ o1vds 0} uous OU prey sey dUeIY }eY} SI UOTeUR[dxd sy, “puNnoy uaeq ATpoinsse
-]rer ut ABM Sed UDdq PeY sjaJop sy
‘919Y} pue aJoY PUNO} 919M SIed PRO Irey,,
aaey Ady} jnq “sO, aq pjnod 1vd peorpiel ev se Surly} & snonoidsuod os jeYy} Yury} JOU pjnom suC
dWVO DNINIVSL YOL AAO AONVUA NI SANIYVW 'S ‘“N
UOT}EULIOJUY D[qng uo 9a}}1WIMIOD ©
210
TEP NATIONAL. CHOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
of speed they are showing in the Pur-
chasing Board. The chief purchasing
officer likes to hustle—and anyhow it is
forced on him.
“The French expect us to hustle Amer-
ican fashion,” said he. “They would be
disappointed if we did not. What else
can we do?”
EVERYTHING NEEDED AT ONCE
Everything was needed at once. Cloth
for uniforms was bought in England,
along with shoes and hats and blankets.
France furnished cannon and tents, and
pots and pans, and food. The rooky
army was billeted in peasants’ cottages
until material for huts could be found
and the huts built.
Paris was drained dry of. all sorts of
office material. I doubt if there is a good
desk or filing cabinet or revolving chair
to be found there today. The American
army reached France as bare as a fish
and it had to be provided for. Naturally
enough, prices blew out of the chimney
in this forced draft of demand. Three
times the peace value was a fair price.
“T must have tents and blankets and
cots for 250 men by six o’clock,” was the
telephone message that came to one buyer
at- noon. one day. - >) ~
“There isn’t a tent nor a blanket nor
a cot in town,” said the buyer.
Usually that would have ended the con-
versation. But the man at the other end
of the telephone was in earnest.
“Then 250 men will sleep in the snow
tonight and cover themselves with a
ditch,” said he. “Don’t tell me you can’t
get that stuff. You’ve got to get it.”
NO ATTEMPT TO SAVE DOLLARS INSTEAD OF
LIVES
He got the stuff, of course. That was
General Pershing’s standing order in
those days. He did not attempt to save
dollars at the cost of lives and worry and
days. If he had tried to save money that
way, he would not have been fit for his
job. Little by little, order came out of the
original chaos. The things that were
needed before the army could set up shop
in France—before it could even open the
shop door—were bought at the best prices
possible. Then began the work of organ-
211
izing the business. The army began to
plan ahead and cut out waste.
The Purchasing Board was created. It
is composed of the purchasing officers of
the various army departments, while the
purchasing “officers~of the Y..M. C. A.
and Red Cross have a sort of collateral
. relationship to the Board, for both or-
ganizations are often in the market for
the things the army needs. At each meet-
ing the purchasing officers pool their dis-
coveries and their needs.
Scouts have ransacked France and
England and neutral Europe for deposits
of raw material. The list of needs is
made up in each department for three
months ahead.
“Seven departments want 40,000 fish-
hooks each,” it might read, it being un-
derstood that in verity no department
wants fish-hooks. “There are 192,000
fish-hooks available at the following
prices.”
WORKING IN CONJUNCTION WITH THE |
FRENCH MILITARY MISSION
The need being imperative, the pur-
chasing officers of the seven departments
are given permission by the Board to buy
the fish-hooks. But before the buying is
done, the need and the prices are placed
before the French Military Mission,
which works in conjunction with the Pur-
chasing Board. It is conceivable that the
French army needs fish-hooks, or army
shoes, or rubber blankets, or whatever
the:item may be. It has the first call on
the material available, but its officers have
shown themselves extraordinarily helpful
and generous. ‘They have always pruned
their own wants to the final hair rather
than pinch the Americans.
“T cannot say enough as to the spirit in
which we have been met,” said the chief
purchasing officer. “The French, have
placed their entire organization at our
disposal and have opened all their rec-
ords. Far from asking them to do more,
our constant feeling is that we are un-
generous in permitting them to do so
much.”
The French Mission also passes upon
the prices the American officers are will-
ing to pay. In some instances purchases
have not been made because the price was
exorbitant. Throughout all these deal-
‘USWYIOM UvISjaq Aq yinqo1 Suroq Mou o1e pue pivog SuIseysing uvoowy oy} Aq spieA yunf oy} Wooly Pondsol
Udaq IAVY SIATJOWOIO] ULISJIg AVMU}sed POIPUNY WYSVY “ULIdO 9Y} JOAO oSvUUO} SHOPoId FO SUTALS L SUVS JULI] UL S[IOA\ UO ynd st yey} 1ed AOA
SONVUA JO STTIH AHL NI QVILSIN NOILVLS AVM TIVE NVOISINV NV
UOI}EUWLIOJUT [qn uo da}j1WIWIOD ©)
212
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ings the spirit of mutual helpfulness is
evident. Sometimes the French Mission
has been able to secure better prices than
the American officers have found, and
sometimes they have revealed stocks of
material the Americans had been unable
to find. When the consent of the French
Mission is obtained the purchase is made.
In the first days of the American ex-
pedition in France purchases were made
in a scattering fashion. Then it became
obvious that if only a few tents were
needed at the moment, the day would
come when tents by the thousand would
be necessary. ‘Therefore the man who
found tents for sale—or anything else—
bought all he could find if the price was
right. Nowadays system has come into
its own. The list of requirements for the
army is made up now for three months
ahead, on the basis of requisitions fur-
nished by the officers commanding the
active units. That is known as the “uni-
form” equipment. It is apparent that a
unit of 25,000 men will always need cer-
tain things. It is equally apparent that
there is no close relation between 25,000
railroad ties and 25,000 men.’ Sometimes
the “exceptional” equipment comes into
play.
RAILROADS PLAYING A MAJOR ROLE
“We must build railroads,’ the Pur-
chasing Board was told by headquarters.
“Get the material.”
In the good old days railroads were not
of the major importance in warfare that
they are today. The Germans upset the
old rules of transportation. Fjarly in the
war they began to string little quarry
roads behind the western front. The
French followed suit. When the British
began their Somme offensive, in 1916,
they had laid more than 3,000 miles of
toad, standard and narrow gauge, behind
their comparatively narrow front. ‘The
American army’s railroad needs will also
be great. The existing roads from the
water bases must be reconstructed to take
care of the heavy traffic anticipated.
Preparations must be made for the feeder
lines behind the front, when that front
becomes an actuality.
The American army cannot take cars
and engines and cross-ties from its allies.
213
“Scout for them” was the order of the
purchasing officer.
It is at this point that the American
business men who have become officers
in the American army began to show
themselves particularly useful. The chief
purchasing officer once said a pertinent
thing: “Put a captain of industry,” said
he, “in a uniform of a captain of the
army and you have a combination that
gets results.’ These men are familiar
with all phases of. American and Euro-
pean business. ‘They know where things
may be found and how to find them and
how to buy them. They are used to do-
ing big things in a big way.
PREDICAMENTS OF SPAIN AND
SWITZERLAND
So the scouting for railroad material
was done by experts. Little jags of steel
rails were found that had been forgotten.
There were disused patches of railroads
and sidings that furnished a handful each.
Wanderers in the back blocks of Switzer-
land and Spain and Portugal found rail-
road ties. Portugal was ready enough to
sell—at a price—for she is an ally, but at
this point the Purchasing Board entered
the realms of diplomacy. Switzerland
and Spain were likewise willing to sell—
but for a consideration over and above
the purchase price.
These countries had an “internal” situa-
tion to consider. Sefior Garcia Price,.
Prime Minister of Spain, in a recently
quoted interview, declared that if the
United States did not furnish cotton to
the Barcelona mills hundreds of thou-
sands of persons would be thrown out of
work. A crisis cloud is forever banking
up on the edge of the Spanish horizon.
There has not been the least concealment
of a revolutionary party in Spain, or that
an enforced stoppage of work would
naturally strengthen the forces of discon-
tent. .
In similar fashion Switzerland is set
between a very ravenous devil and a par-
ticularly blue sea.
On the one side she must buy coal and
iron ore from Germany, or her people
would freeze in the winter and her in-
dustries would wither and blow away.
Before Germany will deliver these and °
214
other things that the Swiss must have,
she extorts her own terms. Germany re-
cently compelled certain Swiss banks, un-
officially, to take a part of a war loan, for
example, and the Swiss food reserves are
continually tapped by her.
It would be impracticable for Switzer-
land to turn over to Germany the foods
she receives from the Allies, but Swiss
cheese is about the scarcest thing in
Switzerland. The Allies appreciate the
position in which Switzerland is placed
and have tried to be as generous as pos-
sible. Most of her food-stuffs come from
France and Great Britain today.
I am not in a position to go more deeply
into the course of the diplomatic negotia-
tions which the Purchasing Board en-
tered upon. But the American railroads
in France will be set in part upon 25,000
ties bought in Switzerland, while 20,000
sleek Spanish mules have braved their
way across the mountains to enter Uncle
Sam’s service. Contracts have been let
to Swiss manufacturers to make certain
things for the Americans, too, and there
a further dalliance with diplomacy was
needed. :
The raw material must be furnished
the Swiss, for they did not have it. That
was agreed to. Then Germany became
aware of the arrangement. Germany
furnishes a greater part of the coal to
Switzerland. The mere suggestion that
-an ounce of her coal should be used to
fire boilers to make steam to run lathes to
shape shells—or other things—for the
wholly to be looked-down-upon Ameri-
cans sent the Wilhelmstrasse into a trem-
ble. So the Purchasing Board had to
arrange that coal should be furnished
these manufacturers.
RAILROAD CARS LOST AND FOUND
Railroad cars were found here and
there. One would not think that so con-
spicuous an article as a railroad car could
be lost, but they have assuredly been
found. The explanation is that France
has had no men to spare for repairing
cars, except when the repairs were vitally
necessary. Little by little, derelicts have
been cast away in railroad backwaters.
They still had the outward aspect of cars,
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
and there were wheels under them, but
that was about all that could be said. The
American scouts, prying into all stray
corners, found them, and workmen were
found—some of them belong to American
engineer regiments—and the cars were
made over again. Every car that could
be put on wheels in France meant a sav-
ing of precious tonnage over the ocean.
Then a discovery that might be called sen-
sational was reported to the Board.
“Did you know,” a scout asked, “that
there are 800 unused Belgian locomotives
in France?”
ALL THAT WAS LEFT OF BELGIUM
The tale of the locomotives is a tag
to the tragic story of Belgium. When
the Germans invaded that little State, the
dazed people saved what they could.
Most of the rolling stock was lost, but
the Belgians managed to run 1,900 en-
gines over the border into the safe land
of France. The needs of France and
England were paramount in those days,
and 1,100 engines were turned over to the
armies for service. Naturally enough,
only the best were taken. The 800 that
were left were rusted and shabby, but
they were precious in the eyes of their
Belgian owners.
“They are all we have left,” they said,
“all that is left to us of Belgium.”
Once more the purchasing officer be-
came a diplomat. ‘The Belgians had been
ruled by sentiment. For the moment
they were not thinking of the practical
side of the question. ‘The 800 old en-
gines were a symbol in their eyes. They
were useless as they were. Weeds were
growing through their fire-boxes. Many
had been sacked of spare parts that better
engines might be rebuilt. They were in-
credibly and pathetically decrepit, but
they were all that was left of Belgium.
“We're trying to help you, you know,”
said the purchasing officer. ‘“Let’s all pull
together.”
So he got the engines. Before they
could be made useful they must be re-
built. Belgian workmen were availa-
ble for the rebuilding, and there are no
better workmen in Europe ; but they were
empty-handed. The Purchasing Board’s
scouts patiently ransacked France and
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
215
© Committee on Public Information
ISSUING SUPPLIES TO TROOPS IN FRANCE
“The American army is 3,000 water miles away from its home base, in a country that is |
increasingly feeling the strain of more than three years of war”
England, hole and corner, until enough
machine tools were found for the opera-
tion. France was practically cleaned of
her spare machine tools, but somewhere
in France the rebuilding process will be
finished by the time the Belgian locomo-
tives are finished.
In England the Board’s scouts work
with the government. Manufacturing is
the great business of the country. The
British are familiar with it. Early in the
war they took steps to earmark all stocks
of raw material, so that when the Board
wants a given thing it has but to say so.
The permanent under-secretary, in
charge of three-inch screws, has but to
turn to his index to state whether he can
furnish the screws wanted and when and
how many and where. It is different in
France. The French are individual to
their heels. Instead of one large manu-
factory, they prefer many small manu-
factories for a given output. Each fac-
tory stands on its own bottom. Each
has its own supplies.
- Further, France has been so busy fight-
ing since the beginning of the war that
she has not had time to take govern-
mental charge of her deposits of raw ma-
terial. Her administrative energies have
been devoted to getting every valid man
in line and keeping him there. Coin-
cidentally, her manufacturers have been’
able to keep that line nourished with
every form of supply an army needs, but
it has been largely by private enterprise.
The individual manufacturer has found
his materials where he could and the
women have done the work. It is the
women who will do the work when the
American Army’s Purchasing Board goes
into the manufacturing business this
year.
ARMY’S BUSINESS OPERATIONS FIGURED
IN TONNAGE
Every business operation of the army
is figured in tonnage terms nowadays.
The great question is how the tons can
be saved. Almost as soon as the Amer-
it
216 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
icans reached France the camp buckets
and kettles and pots and pans were identi-
fied by some observer as space-wasters in
shipholds. Pots that will “stack” were
bearable, but too many kettles will not
stack. So the tin and galvanized iron and
what-not needed were brought over in
the raw and contracts given to any small
workshop factories in France to manu-
facture these minor and clangorous items.
The idea proved sound. France is short
of labor, but there are still women and
youngsters and exempts to be had. The
Purchasing Board began to ask itself:
“Why not make more things?”
Canned goods are a staple of the Amer-
ican soldier’s dietary. He likes to buy a
can of peaches and a can of condensed
cream and pour the milk onto the peaches
and fragrantly eat the combination. All
his life he has been used to canned goods.
Every company canteen has handled “air-
tights.” But they take up a frightful lot
of space on shipboard, and besides there
is plenty of fruit to be had in France. To
bring American canned goods to a coun-
try where each peasant makes a pet of a
pear tree is like carrying coals to New-
castle. .
FRENCH WOMEN TO CAN FOR AMERICAN
SOLDIERS
So the tin is to be brought over in
sheets and made into cans in French
shops. Next summer the farm women
of France will be supplied with tin cans
and sugar and contracts, and will furnish
what part of the canned goods for the
American army’s consumption that may
be possible. The French woman is par-
ticularly expert at jam-making, and next
winter the American boys will have jam
on their white bread. There is an annex
to this story, too. For some reason
France has never taken kindly to canning
fruit, although, oddly enough, quantities
of American canned fruits have been sold
in France. It is believed this practical
demonstration on a large scale may mean
the creation of a new industry.
If I tell the story of another of the
Board’s infinite number of manufactur-
ing activities, it is only because it even
better illustrates the care that is being
taken to cut down tonnage. Chocolate is
a standard item with every soldier. When
possible, chocolate candy is put on sale in
the canteens, and when that is not practi-
cable chocolate bars are offered him.
Cocoa beans, however, do not originate
in the United States, and there is a dem-
onstrable waste of time and space in ship-
ping them first to America and then com-
bining their essential oils with sugar and
sending the resultant goody to France;
so that now the cocoa beans are shipped
straight to France from the place of ori-
gin and the sugar sent over from the
United States. French manufacturers do
the rest. Likewise the sweet, crisp bis-
cuits the boys like are no longer being
imported. The sugar and flour are
brought in and turned over to French
bakers.
American splints are being made in
France on the same plan. In pursuance
of the army policy of getting ready for
the worst, an enormous supply of splints
was considered necessary. Splints are
awkward things to pack. ‘They come in
queer, unusual forms, and must be care-
fully boxed, because they are very frag-
ile. After the standard forms had been
decided on by the Army Splint Board,
which is in charge of this item, the order
was turned over to the Red Cross, which
had promised to supply them. Acting in
perfect harmony with the Purchasing
Board, 100 tons of the needed metal were
brought to France and the splints were
made. They would have taken up not
less than 1,000 tons of shipboard space
if shipped in the completed form.
MEN WHOSE HEARTS ARE IN THEIR WORK
When an army requisition has passed
through the Purchasing Board’s hands,
the terms of the equation are about as
follows:
“We need so many tons;
“We can buy so many tons in France;
“We can import so many tons.”
Then general headquarters passes on
the order. General headquarters is the
final arbiter on all things. Somewhere in
that mysterious region is a sheet show-
ing the number of ships which are to sail
from the United States and the tonnage
space available. There is always a need
for a great deal more space than can pos-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
© Committee on Public Information
STEAM CRANES USED IN UNLOADING AMERICAN SUPPLY SHIPS AT A FRENCH PORT
The American army’s Purchasing Board in France makes purchases, negotiates with
European labor, adjusts American machines and ways of doing things to continental men and
women—all to relieve allied shipping and French docks of as much of the transportation
burdens as possible.
sibly be secured, so that general head-
quarters goes over the list of needs with
a pruning knife. It is interesting—and
tragic—to listen to the men whose de-
partments have been pruned. They act
as if their entire future lives had been
spoiled. They are the sort of men Gen-
eral Pershing has on this sort of a job.
Their hearts are in their work.
Once the wants are compressed to the
dimensions of the can-gets, the orders
are sent to the United States for the ma-
terial that is to be shipped. On the
French side the General Purchasing
Board, through its members, is hurrying
about, getting what can be got. The
Board, as a Board, makes no purchases.
It is only a directing mechanism—a sort
of a congress of prices and supplies. The
competition between the different depart-
ments of the United States Army has
been disposed of in the session of the
Board in which each man has placed his
cards upon the table; but there is still
the competition with the French and Brit-
ish governments to be guarded against.
This guard is absolute, where goods are
to be bought in Great Britain. There the
British Government does the buying and
the United States Army settles for the
goods bought; otherwise no goods could
get out of England. Not even a Christ-
mas card could be sent to France last
winter without a special license for the
sending. In- the neutral countries: of
Europe a Franco-American Purchasing
Board handles all such purchases, except
in cases where the Inter-Allied Purchas-
ing Board assumes the right.
It is too early as yet to say what will
be the full scope of the Board’s manu-
facturing activities in France. However,
apart from the question of raw material,
it must be limited by the labor and facili- |
2?
ties available. The greater part of the
present manufacturing potentialities of
France are already absorbed by the needs
of the government and the civilian popu-
lation. It would be a comparatively easy
matter to enlarge the factories now in
being, or build more, and equip them with
American machinery, but the labor is not
at hand.
“WHY NOT IMPORT AMERICAN LABOR?”
“Why not import Americans?” I asked.
That has been carefully considered, it
appears, but the idea is not likely to be
put in effect on a large scale. Every
imported American must be fed and
clothed and provided for in France. Use
will be made of all the labor available on
the ground before the Americans will be
brought over. The Purchasing Board
once had under consideration bringing in
labor from Greece and Spain, but diplo-
matic considerations intervened. ‘This is
a story that may never be told.
Offhand one would think that many of
the things now being bought would out-
last the war. But things do not last in
war. Clothing wears out and tents go to
pieces and mules die and cars get shell-
shock. The chief purchasing officer
thought that the 1,804,000 tons which
were purchased in Europe in six months
(the total must run to more than 2,000,-
000 by the time this article appears)
would prove to be only a beginning. As
the army increases in France, so will the
218 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
purchases. The time will come, of course,
when the buying will be largely confined
to the raw materials available, but that
buying will account for practically every
pound the armies of the other allies do
not take.
To the outsider the impressive feature
of the organization, apart from the dent
that is being put in the U-boat totals by
this organized and systematic develop-
ment of assets at hand, is the perfect
teamwork that prevails. Some members
of the purchasing department are Regular
Army officers; others are business men
who have never seen an army officer be-
fore except in the Memorial Day parade.
Their methods and training and outlook
are entirely different ; yet they have dove-
tailed together perfectly.
The complexity of their tasks may be
surmised from the fact that the first two
requisitions passed on totaled up more
than 3,000 articles, but competition be-
tween departments and governments on
prices had been practically eliminated.
These men have been suddenly called
upon to handle a business ten times as
large as that of United States Steel, and
they have handled it. Some have made
good and some have failed; but most
have made good.
The chief purchasing officer remarked,
incidentally, that in his six months at the
job he had not found one case of dis-
honesty on the part of an army officer;
but he did not think that remarkable.
Vor XXX Now3
WASHINGTON
MARCH, 1918
THE
NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINIE
Eh ee Ae AND
MORALE OF AMERICA’S
CITIZEN ARMY*
Personal Observations of Conditions in Our Soldier Cities
by a Former Commander-in-Chief of the
United States Army and Navy
By WILLIAM Howarp Tarr
ARLY last winter disquieting re-
15 ports gained circulation concern-
ing the conditions in our National
Army cantonments and with regard to
the morale of the drafted men.
According to these reports, a large per-
centage of the men would be glad to
leave their camps and return to their
homes. It was said that they did not
understand the issues of the war; that
they did not think it necessary to send an
army to France.
Dr. John R. Mott, the General Secre-
tary of the Young Men’s Christian Asso-
ciation of the United States, and one of
the great men of this generation, sent
word to me of these reports, received
from agents of the Association detailed
for work among the drafted men.
While there was neither sedition nor
mutiny among the men, Dr. Mott deemed
it of the highest importance that some
one should go to them to explain why we
were in the war, why an army should be
sent to France, and why it was necessary
to fight this war through as a battle for
Christian civilization. .
* Lecture delivered before the National Geo-
graphic Society, in Washington, D. C., March
15, 1918.
He said there were sixteen canton-
ments, one of which, Camp Lewis, at
American Lake, on the Pacific coast, |
could not reach, but the other fifteen he
asked me to visit and to speak at length
on the subject, twice a day, to the soldiers
in each camp. Subsequently, Camp Dix,
at Wrightstown, N. J., was excluded
from my list because of a quarantine, and
there were substituted Camp Sheridan, a
National Guard camp, at Montgomery,
Ala., presumably because it was the Ohio
National Guard, and the naval canton-
ment at the Great Lakes, north of Chi-
cago, where 25,000 men were in the
course of preparation for the navy.
I doubted my power to attract the at-
tention of the drafted men to the issues
aud sO) COmWimce sMein Die lhe ltatanaany,
duty to go, if men like Dr. Mott and Mr.
Walliam = Sloane, “thes president Yor) tie
army branch of the Young Men’s Chris-
tian Association, thought it would be
helpful, as they said they did.
Accordingly, on New Year’s Day I vis-
ited Camp Grant, at Rockford, Ill., and
spoke four times there to audiences of
3,500 men each. Thence I went to Camp
Dodge, near Des Moines, Iowa, and spoke
there to similar audiences five times.
20 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ee agi
rare
)
DONT FORGET Gee
a wT HOHE
THE BOND BETWEEN THE BOY AND HIS HOME IS EVER PRESENT: INTERIOR OF A
Yo NM. C.yA. BUALDING AT“ FORT SNELLING, MINNESOTA
TAPE xB INR On VRE OUR
On January 24 [began a‘tour of the
camps, including: Camp Devens, Ayer,
Niass.4> ‘Camp. Wee; “Petersbure, . Va.;
Camp: Meade | near Baltimore :)) Camp
Jackson, Columbia,(s. .C.--Camp Gordon,
Atianta, Ga.; Camp Sheridan, Montgom-
ery, Ala.; Camp: .Travis; San “Antonio,
dex; Campin ipikess Witte Nock) a Nts
Camp Funston, near Junction City,
mans. Camps layion sWomcville ivy. :
Camp Sherman, Chillicothe, Ohio, and
Camp: Custer, Battle Creek, Mich.
I finished the tour at the Great Lakes
Naval Training Station, near Chicago, on
February 20, having made in all fifty
speeches, at least an hour in length and
sometimes longer.
In some instances the attendance was
voluntary ; in others there was a regular
derail but ineall cases: tie mmen van one
meeting were excluded from attendance
at another. |
This may seem to many who read it
that it was cruel and unusual punishment
and added a burden to the draft. How-
ever, on the whole, the boys stood it
fairly well and listened with apparent in-
terest and responsive attention.
In the course of my address I tried,
by illustrations and stories in a lighter
vein, to escape the somnolence that an
argument on legal topics often produces,
and I hope I succeeded in giving the boys
more than one “seventh inning” in which
to relax their mental muscles and take a
Rest
What I attempted to do in these ad-
dresses was to argue out the case of the
United States against Germany ; to show
that she forced us into the war by a viola-
tion of our national rights in attempt-
ing to fence off a part of the high seas
against our commerce, and in murdering
200 of our citizens by sinking them on
commercial ships within the zone with-
out warning, and threatening to continue
this course in the future. It involved a
reference to the principles of interna-
tional law and to a demonstration, by
precedent, of the rule which required a
belligerent, in destroying a commercial
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
221
RELAXATION OF MIND IS AS NECESSARY AS GOOD FOOD
ship of its enemy or of a neutral on the
high. seas,to secure the safety of ‘the
ship’s company of the destroyed vessel.
I pointed out that Germany left no course
to a government of honor, which pro-
fessed to defend the rights of its citizens
to life against murderous invasion, to do
other than to declare war.
THE CASE OF THE WORLD AGAINST
GERMANY
The.second part of the argument was
devoted to presenting the case of the
world against Germany, and involved a
tracing of the history of the German
people from the time when they were 28
divided States, in the nineteenth century,
to recent periods, when, through the edu-
cation of Bismarck and the Prussian mili-
tary régime, the people, following the law
of William and the Potsdam gang, had
become obsessed with the conviction that
they were supermen in war and in peace,
and were charged with what they called
a divine destiny, and which was nothing
but a lust for world power, in‘spreading
German kultur over the world; and I at-
tempted to enforce as strongly as possible
the view that, having abolished in her
rules of national living international mo-
rality, Germany, under her present lead-
ership, was a perpetual threat to the in-
tegrity of every nation, and especially of
democracies, and made a permanent peace
impossible ; that we must bring Germany
to her knees by defeating her, which
would necessarily turn the people against
their leaders and their former false ideals
and make them an amenable member of
the family of nations; that if we made
an inconclusive peace with her, only two
alternatives were open to us: One was
that of submission to the suzerainty of
Germany ; the other was the maintenance
of our nation as an armed camp to re-
sist German aggression in the future,
with a certain prospect of another war
with Germany as soon as opportunity
seemed to her at hand.
I tried to make my statement of inter-
national law and the course of the argu-
ment as simple as I could, and if I can
trust the expressed judgment of others
and separate it from the promptings of
Was THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
kindly courtesy, I think it helped
the boys by fixing in their minds
at least the logical and chrono-
logical sequence of events and in
bringing home to them the vital
concern we have in the issue of
this war.
wag writing of
oO
>
THE NECESSITY FOR PROPAGANDA
This war differs from other
wars that we have been in, in the
necessity for propaganda to ex-
plain its issues and its profound
importance to the people of the
United States. When it came
on, in August, 1914, the whole
people rejoiced that we were so
remote from the seat of war,
separated by the Atlantic Ocean,
and so barred from it by our na-
tional traditions that we would
escape the vortex of destruction
and suffering that was opening
to the European nations.
For three years we occupied
as near a judicial position as the
circumstances permitted and dis-
cussed the issues between the na-
tions with an impartial state of
mind. Then we were forced into
war through a violation of our
rights at sea. It was difficult to
arouse our people to the impor-
tance of those rights in a zone of
the high seas so far away as
Great Britain and Ireland.
The statements of the Presi-
dent properly set forth as our
object in the war certain ideals
of a world character and impor-
tance. Our material interest in
maintaining those ideals,» how-
ever, it was difficult for the peo-
ple to appreciate.
The issue was not as it was in
our Revolutionary War, at our
doors, and had not been the sub-
ject of political discussion for
half a century, as the slavery and
secession issue had been before
our Civil War. Prosperity and
money-making, high wages and
high profits, absorbed the inter-
est of our people, and it was diffi-
cult to challenge their attention
to the inevitable consequence of
German victory. Hence the con-
Photograph by U. S. Navy Department
SEMAPHORE AND WIG-WAG SIGNALING: NAVAL TRAINING STATION, NEWPORT, RHODE ISLAND
When a young American undertakes the patriotic job of becoming a fighting sailor, one of the first things he has to master at a naval training
station is his “A, B, C’s,’ for he must learn to read, not the printed or written page a few inches from his eyes, but the wi
fellow-seaman hundreds or even thousands of feet away. The radio and the wireless telephone have accomplished marvels in facilitating communi-
cation between the units of a fleet, but the semaphore and the wig-wag flag still have their place in the service.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
sciousness of the fact that we are really
in war has but slowly been stealing over
our people as a psychological fact.
The officers in command of the canton-
ments which I visited were general offi-
cers of the Regular Army. I had met
them and known them all in the Philip-
pines and in the War Office. They now
wore stars instead of the captains’ bars
or majors’ leaves which they wore in
Philippine days. They talked freely with
me about conditions, and with the in-
formation which they gave me and that
which I derived from the numerous
Y. M. C. A. secretaries, I feel that I ob-
tained fairly reliable information .as to
conditions prevailing in the camps. I
soon became satisfied that the attitude of
the men toward the war and their service
in it, as reported to Dr. Mott, which had
induced him to ask me to make the trip,
had radically changed. It must have been
that his informants had sent word to him
at a time before the men had become ad-
justed to their camp life.
THE FINEST MATERIAL IN THE WORLD FOR
THE MAKING OF AN ARMY
The men when drafted were from 21
to 31; many of them had become more
or less settled in life. Many of them
were in receipt of compensation substan-
tially greater than that which they would
receive as private soldiers. The incon-
venience and lack of comforts insepara- ,
ble from a camp life they had not grown
used to, and they naturally were at first
in a state of protest and question over
the change. When I went through the
camps, however, they had grown accus-
tomed to ecamp lite. In, the drill and
manual training and instruction they had
begun to understand the government’s
purpose and had become interested in fit-
ting themselves for their new duties.
The commanders of the camps assured
me that the drafted men were the finest
material for the making of an army they
had ever seen in any country. On the
average they were better men physically,
mentally, and morally than the average
of the National Guard or of the Regular
Army. They were a clean slate to write
upon. They did not have to unlearn any-
thing and they learned quickly. They
manifested the known adaptability of the
223
American. The difference between their
appearance when they first reached camp
and after three and four months’ training
was wonderful. Their appearance in re-
view, as they went by with their lithe
figures, their martial bearing, their mili-
tary step, their bright, healthful color,
gave one a thrill of patriotic pride. Their
response, as they sat in a great audience,
to patriotic sentiment showed that their
hearts were in the right place. They are
an object-lesson in universal military
training and a powerful argument for its
establishment.
EVERY SOLDIER MUST BE AN EXPERT
The German has so changed the art of
war that every private soldier must learn
his trade as an expert. Through disci-
pline and practice he must acquire a
knowledge of the particular duty assigned
to him, so as to make his performance of
his proper function second nature. This
is being impressed upon them by their
own officers and by the English and
French officers, of whom there are eight
to ten in every camp.
I ventured to point out in every speech
I made the importance of discipline and
practice and included a word on the ne-
cessity for the salute. The salute is said
to be descended from the salute which
one knight made to another in the days
of chivalry by lifting his visor. It is only
a‘ recognition by one member of the craft
of his association with another of the
same craft. It does not involve infert-
ority or servility. The private salutes the
officer. The officer is one of higher rank.
The salute must be returned. The duty
of initiating the ceremony is a recognition
of subordination, a relation that must
exist In an army if am army is to be an
effective military machine and not a mob.
The progress in military science has
been in the development of the machine-
like operation of the different parts of an
army. The private soldiers are cogs
working into other parts of the machine
and moving under control of their imme-
diate and higher commanders, as cogs act
with the wheels and other mechanism
with which they coordinate. The salute
is only a recognition of this relation of
association. It was interesting to watch
how the new men disregarded it and how
‘eSnewieysiyD ye sutures) Ul AraVAV Pp LT PULsIrA ISAT ‘SsvIS-a8vs pur MVI}s JO 9SvyNouLd Vv JOpuN uoroV UT UNS YOUI-901T]1 VY
QNINIVUL AAISNULNI
uostieyy apie Aq ydessoj0yg
ieee:
att Sei lees
224
AxrqUnOoS
Ps a 5 66
Aur UT UddS JoAd PRY AoY} AWIIV UL JO GUINLUT OY} IOZ [elsozvu Jsouy oy} dom UO P}FLIP OY} Jey} ol poiNsse
,
AVOONVH dWVO LV DNINIVYL NI NAW OOO‘OI :SHSIONAXA ATN-ONILLAS
UOTPVUNIOJUT IPQug_ UO daz}1WIWOD ©
S < w .
.
KXQ
-« SN
\\
‘Seapitps
S
dun
»
as
»)
ol
I
1
jo
Sd
«
pur
ULUTODS
oN,
”
225
226
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
© Committee on Public Information
A CORNER IN CORRESPONDENCE AT A SOLDIER CITY POST-OFFICE
Letters from home are vital factors in maintaining and elevating the morale of the men
in camp. The student soldier works better and learns to fight harder when encouraged and
heartened by words of cheer from those whose service to democracy lies in civilian fields of
activity.
the men with more training gave great
attention to giving it properly.
iPpxPrATNING “vik NP CESS tO8 JEnH
SALUTE
I sought to win the sympathy and con-
fidence of the boys by reference to the
fact that my own son 1s an enlisted man
in the field artillery. I think it enforced
my argument in favor of the necessity of
the salute, by pointing out that I would
not be likely to approve it if it was any
evidence of his inferiority or servility.
The freedom and independence that an
American youth enjoys make it necessary
to have the reason for such a ceremony
explained to him. His self-confidence
and his self-conceit make it irksome to
him, at first, thus to register his subordi-
nate position or to obey implicitly, as he
must, if he would be a good soldier. His
love of initiative and his intuitive lack of
discipline make it hard for him to con-
form to the rigid requirements of military
life, but after he has acquired the habit,
then his initiative, his willingness to as-
sume responsibility, his intelligence, and
his independence add greatly to his effect-
iveness as a Soldier.
It is these traits, under proper disci-
pline, that are now making our brigade
and division commanders so proud of
their drafted men.
Next in importance to the control and
influence exercised by their commanders
is the environment and opportunities for
occupying their leisure which the Young
Men’s Christian Association affords to
the men of these cantonments. In a di-
vision there are frequently as many as 50
Y. M.C. A. secretaries. They are dressed
in a neat khaki uniform, with a red tri-
angle on their arms, and they live a life
of soldierly routine. There is the prin-
cipal headquarters of the Association in
each camp and one great auditorium,
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A FIELD BAKERY AT A NATIONAL GUARD
220
© American Press Association
MOBILIZATION CAMP
“Too many cooks” may spoil the broth in civil life, but it takes 32 bakers to produce the
bread supply for one encampment.
requirements are smaller.
which will hold 3,500 men. The seats in
it are movable, so that the hall may be
used as a gymnasium and for basket ball.
At the headquarters and in the 12 or more
MM. Cc. AY branch houses, one to a
brigade or less, are local opportunities
for reading and writing and all sorts of
entertainment.
The Knights of Columbus have one
auditorium nearly as large as the large
auditorium of the Young Men’s Christian
Association, and a very comfortable place
it is. There they hold the principal re-
ligious masses of the week.
Where there are agents of the Young
Men’s Hebrew Association, they are re-
ceived by the Young Men’s Christian
Association and furnished an opportunity
to help their Hebrew brethren.
Nothing is more gratifying than the
complete cooperation among these three
institutions of differing denominational
origin. It often happens that as the camp
The capacity of a cantonment bakery is nearly 40,000
two-pound loaves every 24 hours of operation.
At the National Guard camps, of course, the
is very large, the Catholic priests ask to
use a local Y. M. C. A. branch for a mass
for the regiment near which the branch
auditorium stands, and the request is al-
ways granted. In every way there is a
brotherhood spirit between the organt-
zations which prevents duplication and
makes for effectiveness.
NO SOLDIERS’ CAMPS EVER BEFORE SO FREE
FROM DRUNKENNESS
In some of the camps there is a large
so-called Liberty theater, erected by the
Fosdick Outside Activities Association.
The theaters are well constructed and
make good auditoriums, and here vaude-
ville reigns. It 1s not too much to say,
however, that the agency upon which the
commanding generals lean in dealing with
the social side of their men and in filling
their leisure hours with useful occupation
and entertainment is the Young Men’s
Christian Association. Its organization
dee BA
sey
a aR EOS wh oh
ES
is a
& ge Ba
%
SS
ay
© Great Lakes Recruit
THE GREATEST FLAG IN THE WORLD: 10,000 BLUEJACKETS FORMING A LIVING
EMBLEM OF THE AMERICAN UNION
This animated Stars and Stripes, formed at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station,
covered an area of seven acres. The ball was composed of 250 men; the pole (not including
the ball) was 550 feet long, four feet in width at the bottom, six feet at the top, and required
700 men; 1,600 men were required for the white stripes; 1,900 for the red, 1,800 for the
stars, and 3,400 for the blue field. In order that the proportions should appear correct, many
niceties of perspective had to be solved. For example, the topmost star was composed of 65
men, in order that it might appear the same size as the star nearest the camera’s eye, with
only 12 men.
228
Yi;
Wa 4 iyo
“MOD
i
MM PUM
© Committee on Public Information
A HOSTESS HOUSE FOR BOYS IN TRAINING AT ONE OF OUR SOLDIER CITIES
Among the most effective social undertakings of the Young Women’s Christian Associa-
tion has been an arrangement whereby homes in the cities adjacent to the cantonments are
thrown open to the men in uniform. Here they may enjoy that social intercourse of which
they were suddenly deprived when they responded to the nation’s call to arms.
PoE Z 3
p
is
:
MAA ROLLE
Pe
se see A An ree AANA As
es
See
>
oe ae
sasteasatrnen se te reer
=
UY,
CTL ae
y uy g pj,
yp POY)
WLLL
num yyy
LEE,
6p yyy MOOI LO). 4 y Y
Yi
VW YWywy
Vij
jy yyy)
Y G tiie Y UY Ly
PCG A vv WM
ti
ti,
g WY WMO WHY
yy Z d WI Ly YY
iy, YOY Wy < Se
' My Wy LL. Yi ee = &
Y Yy WY] Y YY yi jj YY See SS
fy Yyy VY YY fYyyjyvy Yy yy yy) yy
Y ff—=—p— IY) y G ty .
te
Vilddbbdddddddéddld
Photograph from Burnell Poole
THE CHAMPION RACING CREW OF THE ATLANTIC FLEET
At the Great Lakes Naval Training Station, near Chicago, the navy is training 25,000
youths, most of them between the ages of 18 and 22. During the past winter they received
instruction in two great drill halls, one of which is capable of accommodating 7,000 jackies.
220
AN AMERICAN OBSERVER AT HIS LOOKOUT POST
Instruction for the Intelligence Corps is a highly specialized course, and a school where
this is taught is located at one of our cantonments. ‘The observer shown in the illustration
is a student at this school and is watching from his place of concealment the effect of his
battery's artillery fire upon the enemy.
cE - vas é : : : : : = E rn
re pasties r a
© Committee on Public Information
A KITCHEN BATTERY
Plenty of good food at the right time is one of the chief problems with which an army
head must contend, and by means of these efficient ranges our soldiers can be fed along the
line of march.
230
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
is so large and so complete and so effect-
ive that it enters into every soldier’s life.
Of course, on the other side, when we
have casualties and many wounded, the
functions of the Red Cross will assume
the greater importance; but in the train-
ing camps it is otherwise.
It is most gratifying to be able to tes-
tify, from all the information I could get,
thateno camps have ever been so; iree
from drunkenness as those in this present
national effort. In most cases the nearest
towns are dry, and the great cities where
drink may be had are so far from the
camps as not to prove a temptation. The
same thing is true of the morality of the
men, so far as I was able to learn from
the commanding officers. There were
some of the camps where the neighboring
towns were wet, but the danger of selling
liquor to soldiers as a violation of the
commercial law has proved a very excel-
lent preventive. I must think from what
I saw that the activities of the Y. M.C. A.
and these other institutions have played
a large part in maintaining decent and
proper living among the soldiers.
The sites of the camps seem to have
been very well selected, so far as drainage
and water supply were concerned. The
sanitary features have been well looked
weer some. as: at (Columbia, S: C.,
the soil is so porous that a drill can be
held without difficulty the same day after
a heavy rain.
FACH CAMP A GREAT CITY
Each camp is a great city of from 1,400
to 2,000 buildings, sufficient to house and
accommodate 40,000 men, The distance
from one end of a camp to another is
often three or four miles, and from one
side of a camp to the other some two or
three miles. There is always in the reser-
vation a place for a rifle range, though it
has not always been constructed, and in
a number of camps there is room enough
for an artillery range, though the field
guns as yet are few and far between.
The appearance of the camps is inter-
esting, but not beautiful. The buildings
are unpainted and the sites have fre-
quently had to be cleared of timber, leav-
ing stumps that don’t add to the beauty
of the landscape. I observe that the
Quartermaster’s Department has asked
231
for $2,800,000 to paint the buildings in-
side and out, and I think it would be a
saving of money to the government if
this could be done. Certainly it would
greatly add to appearance. The Young
Men’s Christian Association does paint its
buildings green, and one’s eye rests with
relief upon them in these oceans of
weather-stained yellow boarding.
The camps differ much in the roads
constructed within their limits. In many
of them within the reservation the main
roads are good, but in muddy weather in
some of the camps they are not what they
should be. It would doubtless have been
better if the roads could have been built
before the buildings had been constructed,
because the weather would then have
been good for the building of roads, and
it would have made the cost of transpor-
tation necessary in construction very
much more reasonable. The roads from
the nearest towns or cities to the camps
also differ much, and some of them in the
winter and in wet weather try cruelly the
_ springs of the automobiles and the nerves
of their occupants in going to and from
camp.
THE MEN ARE COMFORTABLY HOUSED
The men in barracks are very comfort-
ably housed. There are two methods of
heating—one by great furnace stoves and
the other by steam pipes. In the hurry
of the job, and because of the difficulty of
getting sufficient pipe, the system is not
circulatory and wastes hot water at one
end. This should be changed, and the
quartermaster has recommended it, so as
to make it a double system, which would
be a great saving in the matter of water.
It would probably offer a better oppor-
tunity for regulation. The criticism that
can be made on the system now is, be-
cause it must be turned on or off from
outside the building, it either parboils one
or leaves one frozen in cold weather.
With some actual experience, I got the
impression that the men on the whole are
comparatively more comfortable than are
the officers. There was in the beginning,
it seems to me, an unnecessary disposi-
tion on the part of the officers to deny
themselves comforts that they might just
as well have had without any great
amount of additional expense. Often, in-
UOIPBALISGO AL}
S1MATISGO ALEYYITY
eS
A
)
AIU4
‘sdojtenbpeay 0} Youg ssuipuy saloy} Suruoydayjs} pue JUowUoJULI UMO ALO} UO stomod
ULJso} 4B UU Sd40 [eUSIG dsoy} pUd SI} OJ, “UWOISIA JO Ppa Alo} UIYJIM SotOD JaAo}eYM FO QOULIYIUSIS OY} YZI[Vet JSNU
ey} MouyY Jou op Ay} YIM sSury} AULU 99s UdU “SUTUILIZ JOYITA “WUOP ULY} pres JoIsva ST | J[B MOUY ']]e 99g
ONINIVYL AONVSSION NOOWY
UOLTWIOJUT IPQng uo 3a}}1WIUIODY ©
N
|
) . . , ) > . > . ) c * > 4 r >a -
SULYLUL-oY-UL-SJoIp[OS INO Suroesye ouojsopo] vw st Ouvrd AoA ported UoHeos991 IY} Surinp puv ‘unoy oy} JO Japso OY} o1P ssuos IV M
Lid SIH SHOd ATINIVAAHO DNIS NVO OHM NVW AYMAN UNV) NI
UOTLUIOFUT qn
XN SS SS
\
UOTJEULIOJUT
)
Aep snonudjjs ¥ 1ojye
qn uo 99}}1UIIOD ©
UOI}VdIDII JO NOY SurudAod oy}
WIINS AHL NI dvia
Yj;
Ze oy ie
wit
iy
SuIAOfus UOJSUTIG Je UOoTeIAv JO [OOY IS punois oy} JO sjuepnys
Ta NVO dWVO JO LIdIdS HHL
RRS
234
‘Snipet SUISINAD Aol} ULL JIM sutivodde STOJSUOUT DUTIVUL ISOUy jo Joquinu jjvuus ou 1OF PodJUNOIIV DALY Ady pvoiqe
OY} SUIFLVQWIOD FO SUBILEE DATPIYO UL
ppPyussoy “PY wWorzy ydesisojoyg
ST °S¢
jog Yop pur sio1y pider Ssuyunou pure snoy ue sjouy Sf se ysry se
OIINVILVY 4n’Id HHL NI NOH WH ONITNOH
pur ‘vissnig jo ,,Ysy-[iAop uly,
SUIYVUL ‘JasInIo posds oJ,
235
IVA\ OY} ULM OF PIpsoU 9q AVL S}JIVA]LIS IS9Y} JO OOO‘OOO'S jeY} saAdI[Iq Je, JUSpisoig JOWIO.]
WAINLS DIG AHL YOL SHIOSAN NVOINAWVY ONINAGIVH
UUIJBULLOJUY IijYyilg UO 99}}1WIWIOD ©
- Ps
236
‘OYOUS Ul dN OS Ato}PVG ULI) V Sods IY} SUIYOIVAM JIAIOSGO UL puv ‘sIvOI UNS oY} ‘Osurs OY} UALS SI JoUUNS oy ‘oouU0 Je UL)
a sm fmp < Qh ce hd \e ‘
“LULIOFUT PotMbod oY} Soars pojsn{pe Apsodoid YA ‘sopuy-osuvt poydope ATMoU Vv JO SoLedTIJUL oY} UL poyonaysut SOUL SI S109 JO. POUOISSTUIIOD
SSU[D SITY, ‘ot Jopun sotuyjue}jo—punoy Apozvsnoow pue APpornd oq ysnuu sarjoof[qo poyojos oy} 0} uns-ppoy ayy Worg IOULISIP YJ
. ‘ . Vy
,
SSU].S-PJoy Sy U.sno.
-uoUu jo
NOILONULSNI DNIGNIA-ADNVY
VONRWUAOJUT sIPqng uo soaqqruMu40oy O)
WORN D>6D[.K ( DQ w°ww °"°' °™=i' ™” WHEN STE — y
M'DBOML’[YYWXN\ \\ YY
\ \ WW SQ, |G
ISS Qn X
S NS SN \
— RRR
AC uOYn DKRWCRK
\ MUG NS \ \\\\
WC \ NX \ MK, GG M—DBR KG
\ \ \ SK \. \ \\ \VADWN SN \
\ ]]}}]}]}h]} WW \ WN S \ \ \
CC AW Q’)LKREG \ \
\\ \ < \\\ AC
\N
WN XKER?RpR;— CC
ADTD]OoE \ \
\ K GG S
NS N
KC WSX5
GGG
\
\ VC. GG DKRP#OWM9[ \
\ \\\
AK On \
SG SG \N \
NS SS
\N MMA NS \
SSEAVAAASG
BDBERP.AQO
W?W\ACANn
D—>DR.CO0C[W
WW
SS SS
\ S\\\
S \~
NS S
N SS S
NAV AX Gace
ey
yy
yy
Yj
237
238
deed, the haste with which conveniences
were arranged indicated that no planning
had been given from the standpoint of
comfort. Certainly a woman would not
have arranged the rooms and furniture
and conveniences as they are now ar-
ranged at headquarters.
Nothing in the construction, however,
has affected detrimentally the health of
the soldiers. Very little of the illness can
fairly be attributed to insufficient cloth-
ing, because while overcoats may have
been lacking, they had sweaters and un-
dercoats that kept the men generally
warm.
THE HRALTH OF THE ARMY
Another error probably made in the
construction of the camps was the failure
to build the hospitals first; but in every
cantonment, when I visited it, was a large
base hospital, admirably equipped and
amply able to take care of all who were
likely to be ill in a full division, except
under most extraordinary circumstances.
The truth is that on the whole, consider-
ing the very great severity of the winter,
which could not have been anticipated,
the health of the troops in the canton-
ments has been excellent.
I wrote to General Gorgas, the Surgeon
General, and asked him to send me the
health statistics concerning the army. I
received from him the following letter
and table:
War DEPARTMENT,
OFFICE OF THE SURGEON GENERAL,
WASHINGTON, February 20, 1918.
Hon. Witt1AM Howarp Tart, New Haven,
Connecticut.
Dear Mr. Tart: Yours of February 15 is
acknowledged. The data which you request
concerning health statistics are inclosed. I am
very glad to furnish them. As you go around
to the various camps I would like to have you,
where you have time, to take a look into the
hospitals. The picture that the country has in
general now with regard to all hospitals is un-
favorable, and I am very desirous of having
the people know the true picture, and particu-
larly I would like to have you get the true
picture. Such a picture can best be acquired
by your seeing the hospitals in their actual
working condition.
With kindest regards and best wishes, I re-
main,
Yours very sincerely,
W. C. Goreas,
Surgeon General, U. S. Army.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
What strikes me most about these sta-
tistics is that we have done better in death
rate than did the Japanese, who hereto-
fore have been looked upon as the most
successful military sanitarians.
Annual Death Rate per 1,000, Regular Troops
in the United States
1898 1899 1900 I9OI
20.14 7.80 7278" Gree
17.45 6.56 4.83 4.68
Troops in the United States September 21,
1917, to February 8, 1918
National National
troops Regulars Guard Army
‘All causes zat nosy, 6.1 9.9 9.1
Diseases only. 8.1 eZ 9.4 8.7
Average. strength, Regular Army,
September 21, 1917, to February 8,
VOUS? syne slateioreolotec eecd oie oct Ske Cee 244,833
Number of deaths, Regular Army,
same period—all causes........... 610
Number of deaths, Regular Army,
same period—disease only......... 520
Average strength, National Army,
September 21, 1917, to February 8,
TOES! is) siee angie thea oka eae Sea eee 422,039
Number of deaths, National Army,
same period—all causes.........:. 1,501
Number of deaths, National Army,
same period—disease only......... 1,496
Average strength, National Guard,
September 21, 1917, to February 8,
TOTS vic vie, -o: wtanetn tere eae, onedeceen: Dna 375,427
Number of deaths, National Guard,
same period—all causes........... 1,515
Number of deaths, National Guard,
same period—disease only......... 1,430
Average strength, all troops, Septem-
ber 21, 1917, to February 8, 1918... 1,042,299
Total number of deaths, same period—
al Causes. Miedo a. oan tee eee 3,686
Total number of deaths, same period—
disease :Only feats Gada ae meee 3,446
Mortality from disease per 1,000
strength for all troops en-
gaged:
Chino-Japanese War.......
Spanish-American War....
Russo-Japanese War.......
14.8 (Japan)
2£-0.( Us 0H)
20.2 (Japan)
THE COST OF THE CANTONMENTS
The cost of the cantonments has been
very great, but the hugeness of the task,
the quickness with which it had to be
done, the exorbitant prices which had to
be paid under the circumstances doubtless
explain the large expenditure and the
great excess over the estimates. The esti-
mates were $3,500,000 for each camp.
As a matter of fact, the cost of the camps
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ranged from $6,700,000 to $11,000,000,
as follows:
am Pe haVIS to olsen elie eo aerate $6,700,000
CafnpyOOdMers hu. ue Bee Hie we Soe 6,800,000
CaHnepe NAvlOl ese cae ons ca ee 7,000,000
Wan GOTO. oc) eked. 7,400,000
POMP LAN tes Meee ee eh hoe 8,500,000
CELL Tic Db athe Ra ee ie a 8,500,000
RatpeCusten suc 2 Gaecaccue ue OL Sh shy 8,700,000
Panipsackson +36 20.8 cco eek 8,700,000
Camp Eunston: ..... si... BE oh) ADB GA 8,700,000
SESS Te ea coy ane ane Pele ee Res a 9,000,000
Camp Oherman ce 6.0 sek eee 9,600,000
Campy Devens i ose eon, Be Se, 9,700,000
Wamp Wieadee oii che ee ts oh 10,500,000
CaMpuVUlprOne koe: ae fede sco II,100,000
SE aN ICe ek ae ees oe eet 11,300,000
Oi course, the National Guard camps
use tentage, and the buildings there range
from $2,000,000.to $3,000,000 for a camp.
The reported high commissions earned
on these costs have not been understood.
They were called “cost plus ro per cent
contracts,” but this percentage decreased
from 10 to 6 per cent when a certain cost
was reached, and in no case could the
commission exceed $250,000. The per-
centage which was earned by the con-
tractors varied from 2 to 3 per cent.
There were two circumstances which
added to the cost above the estimate, in
addition. One was that the Surgeon
General, after the estimates were made,
insisted upon 500 cubic feet of inside
space per man instead of 365, as had been
estimated for. The other was that in
August General Pershing’s change in the
tactical organization to what are called
Pershing divisions necessitated an addi-
tion to the barracks, which added a very
large sum.
The result was that the National
Army cantonments cost, complete, about
$141,000,000 ; the National Guard camps,
$38,000,000; the embarkation camps,
$14,000,000 ; the quartermasters’ training
camps, $3,700,000; the machine-shop
units, $531,000; and the School of Artil-
lery Fire, at Fort Sill, $680,000, or a total
of nearly $200,000,000.
There was admittedly a good deal of
waste in this expenditure, due to change
of plans; but after reading the evidence
on the subject, I cannot find that there
is real ground for criticism, considering
all the circumstances.
The task was a great one. It was done
239
with much dispatch and the object in
view was well served.
JUST COMPLAINT AT DELAY IN TRAINING
The complaint in the camps, from per-
sons competent to make just complaint,
was the delay in the proper training of
the troops—due, first, to the severe winter,
which prevented any satisfactory drill in
the open in the northern camps, so that
there was no real opportunity to do any-
thing outside, except hikes through the
snow, to keep the men in good condition.
The second reason for the deficiency
in the training of the men, or its delay,
has been in the absence of tools. It took
a long time before the needed rifles were
furnished, and everywhere was lacking a
supply of machine-guns. The manage-
ment of machine-guns, entrusted to sepa-
rate companies in every regiment, is a
technical matter that needs much train-
ing, and there were neither Lewis guns
nor other guns with which this training
could be had. A third great defect was
the absence of field-guns. ‘There were
a few on hand, but wholly inadequate in
number for proper training of artillery
units.
I think it would have been wiser if all
the camps in the northern States had
been placed in southern States. Even to
a layman visiting camps, the greater op-
portunity for drill was apparent in the
marching of the men. A review of 25,-
000 men, which I was permitted to see
at Camp Travis, in San Antonio, showed
a degree of drill that could not have been
equalled, I think, in any other camp.
There I witnessed, too, bayonet drill,
bayonet charges over trenches, a sham
battle over trenches, with hand grenades,
and everything but a barrage of artillery.
The difference in progress between that
command and those in the far north could
not escape the observer.
HEALTH CONDITIONS BETTER IN
NORTHERN CAMPS
It is true that the health of the troops
in the northern camps was better than it
was in the South. The camps which suf-
fered most from pneumonia were Camp
Travis, at San Antonio; Camp Pike, at
Little Rock, and Camp Funston, near
Junction City, in Kansas, where, while
4PlAs’T urmpty Aq ydeis0j0yg
~
NS
Ne
dsinod JO ‘popnyour st Suroyds JO JAV d]}JUIS OY} Vos OY} JO WNphoLIANS oy} UT
AMOTHT OM AHM ANHHL AHH M MOUND AdOM ANO ONIMVIV JO LUV AHL DNINUVAT
S
3
$
isin
240
g
soyouol} Atuous oy} UO Yovyze uv Suroyovid yooouvyzY dured ye UOISTAIC] dUOysAdyT YIQZ OY} JO SAIYJO pouorsstwU0d-uOU JO sseId VY
Wi, LV GNV dOL AHL YXAO,, OO OL MOH ONINAVAT
VONRULIOFUT I1PQug uo soz}1UUtWO0) O)
\\
\
\
241
Photograph by Edwin Levick
SEWING SHIRTS FOR SISTER SUSIE'S SAILOR
Knitted sweaters, socks, and helmets from the folks at home are welcomed by the men
of America’s navy, but there are certain emergency domestic jobs which the hand skilled in
training a 15-inch gun has to perform with a portable sewing-machine.
© Committee on Public Intormation
BAYONET PRACTICE BY U. S. MARINES IN ‘FRANCE
242
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
they had cold weather, they had but little
snow. ‘These bad health conditions were
doubtless due to the unseasonable and
unusual conditions at these places.
At San Antonio and at Camp Funston
the high winds blew the dust, so that it
seemed to carry the germs. At San An-
tonio the prevailing trouble was influenza,
followed by pneumonia. At Camp Pike
the pneumonia came from measles. At
Camp Funston the dust was dark and al-
most black loam. When I stepped from
the train at that place a high wind was
blowing and the dust was so thick that it
darkened the faces of the regiment and
its officers, so that they, although white,
had the appearance of a colored regiment.
But, as already shown by General Gor-
gas’ report, the health conditions are so
much better than they ever have been in
the past, that while we should not abate
our effort to reduce disease, we certainly
may felicitate ourselves and the War De-
partment on the comparatively small per-
centage of deaths and illness.
As already said, at every camp there
are four to five English officers and four
to five French officers. The uniform
testimony of our commanding generals is
that these officers have been admirably
selected They are men who wear insig-
nia showing that they have been in the
trenches and in the places of danger on
the front, have been a number of times
wounded, and that they are very familiar
with the needs of this modern warfare.
They work very hard. They are admir-
able companions, they add to the enjoy-
ment of headquarters life, and they are
deeply interested in the work they are
doing. They are often discouraged by
the absence of tools, but in their lectures
to the officers and with such guns and
implements as they have had they are
entitled to the greatest credit for the
progress made.
SINGING AN IMPORTANT FEATURE OF
CAMP LIFE
One thing that impresses a visitor to a
camp is the real pleasure that the men
can derive from singing. They must have
a good leader—one who is active and
rhythmic and histrionic and almost fan-
tastic. There was one at Camp Devens,
243
named McEwan, whose work with the
boys was remarkable. The songs “Over
There,” “Keep the Home Fires Burning,”
“Smile, Smile, Smile,” “Tipperary,” and
“The Long Trail” are most catching in
their air and most stirring in their effect.
I had the pleasure of addressing four
or five audiences of negro troops. I
prophesy that they are going to make a
very eltective part of our army. They
take training well and they make excel-
lent soldiers if well led. We have seen
that in the Regular Army, in the 24th
and 25th Infantry and the oth and roth
Cavalry, and in the old 48th Volunteers
in the Philippines. They are great, stal-
wart men, capable of enduring much,
loving military life, amenable to disci-
pline, and anxious to fit themselves.
THE GREAT LAKES NAVAL STATION
My last assignment, as I have said, was
the Great Lakes Naval Training Station,
north of Chicago. It was very interesting
to visit this and to compare what the navy
had done in its one great cantonment with
what the army had done. The navy had
25,000 men to drill and train, and this
cantonment is therefore about the same
size, or a little smaller, than that of the
army. There is a great permanent sta-
tion, with accommodations for some I,200
or 1,500 jackies in training, and of course
this offers conveniences that are used in
connection with the cantonment. The
buildings are somewhat more _ stoutly
built. They are painted and constructed
on somewhat different architectural lines,
both of which make them a little more
attractive to the eye. They have also
what the army has not—two very large
drill halls. They gave me a review of
7,000 jackies in one drill hall, and it was
evident that these halls in the winter sea-
son had been of great advantage for
needed training in large bodies.
Another difference was the difference
in the age of the men. The men were
really between 18 and 22, and in their
naval uniform they looked like cadets of
a high or preparatory school. They were
under excellent discipline, as one could
see. They needed no instruction as to
saluting, for that seemed a second nature
to them, from the discipline they had had.
244
They were not as well able as the older
men to withstand the test of my long ad-
dresses, and I thought I discovered a little
more somnolence among them than I did
among the drafted army. Of course, they
were not so mature, but they were very
bright, and they were certainly well
drilled in the manual of arms and in the
calisthenics with their rifles. It would be
difficult to select a site where the winter
winds have freer sweep than at this train-
ing station, but the buildings seemed to
be well heated and the command in excel-
lent health.
THE SELECTIVE DRAFT LAW VINDICATED
On the whole, the result of my trip was
to confirm me in the view that the select-
ive draft law has vindicated itself in
every way. Its democratic provisions,
reaching the rich and poor alike, its op-
portunity for selection of those who can
do better work at home, are admirable
features. It may be questioned whether
the age limit should not be reduced to 18
years and irom 31 toy 2o.4. Between 16
and 21 young men are less likely to have
become settled in life and‘are required
to make less sacrifice in becoming soldiers
than men between 28 and 31, and it is not
too much to say that men between 18 and
21 will make as good private soldiers as
men between 28 and 31. Therefore the
cost to the community in lowering the age
limit is made less.
The draft law doubtless needs amend-
ment, as defects appear in its adminis-
iranOn, butt is\a eheat tibutetto tne
self-governing capacity of the American
people that, with so little prepared and
trained machinery and so few salaried
officers, it has been possible to call upon
the body of the country for locally self-
created tribunals to administer the law
and carry it through effectively.
AN ARMY OF 5,000,000 NEEDED
The law should be amended so as to
authorize the President to increase the
army from 1,500,000 to 5,000,000 men
with the colors, or more. We must win
the war, and we should now lay our
foundations abroad so as to make that
inevitable.
Of course, airplanes, artillery, and
other instruments of war are necessary
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
in a modern campaign, and we should in-
crease the supply as far as our resources
will permit, but in the end this war, as
other wars, must be won by trained man
power. We should look forward with
large vision and make ample provision
so as to strengthen our allies, give con-
fidence to our own army, and convince
our enemies now of our determination
to win the victory.
I am frequently much concerned to
gather in perfectly loyal quarters the im-
pression that the war will be over in less
than a year. One may note in many cen-
ters of sinister influence suggestions that
peace is to be brought about by negotia-
tion with Germany. If this is the out-
come of the war, it will be most humiliat-
ing to the United States and will only
postpone further evil days for her. We
have said, through our national spokes-
man, that we can have no confidence in
a treaty made with William of Hohen-
zollern and his Prussian military régime.
This was assumed before Germany’s
treacherous defeat of Russia through the
disintegration of her army. In spite of
her phrases of high principle she has dis-
closed again her real lust for territory
and power, in placing her paw on the
valuable parts of Russia. Now, there-
fore, we should be more determined than
ever in our purpose to defeat German
militarism before we consent to close this
wat.
WHEN THE WORLD WILL BE FREE AGAIN
We can raise as fine an army and as
large an army as there is on European
soil, and if we transport it as rapidly as
we may and have it all upon European
soil within two or three years, our object
will be attained and the world will be
free again.
On the whole, the deepest impression
that is made by the camps and canton-
ments on the impartial visitor, without
technical military knowledge, is the evi-
dences on every side of the loving care
of the American people for their boys in
the service. Their food is of the best.
My own boy in the ranks has told me that
they have a tradition among the men—
and think it is sustained—that their food
is better than that of the officers. The
provision in the hospitals, in the Y. M.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
C. A., the Knights of Columbus, and
the Red Cross, the theaters, the visiting
musical, theatrical, and lecture enter-
tainments, all carry the impression of
which I have spoken. The men have to
work hard. ‘They begin early in the
morning and they continue through. Of
course, they have hours of leisure, but
one of these cantonments is no idle place
245
for any one. It is a manual training
school with long hours.
On the whole, therefore, I came away
with a conviction that we had begun
right. The draft law will win the war
through American manhood, with its na-
tive courage, independence, and adapta-
bility, instructed and trained in modern
scientific warfare.
VOYAGING ON THE VOLGA AMID WAR AND
REVOLUTION
War-time Sketches on Russia’s Great Waterway
Bye WitiAm 1 Erris
sia who has not sailed down the
Volga River — “Little Mother
Volga,” as the people affectionately call
it—the stream which unites the cold
North with the glistening sands of the
Caspian depression; which flows through
Europe and ends in Asia; which runs
from furs to cotton, and which links the
Baltic with the Caspian. To journey
down the Volga amid the ferment of war
and revolution and economic upheaval is
to have as good an opportunity as can
anywhere be found for studying the com-
position and mind of this bewildered and
bewildering nation.
Naturally, there is no tourist travel in
Russia during the war, and an “Ameri-
canski” is a marked and favored man
aboard the comfortable Volga steamers.
Since it befell that duty called me from
Petrograd and Moscow to the Caucasus,
with an obligation to observe Russia by
the way, I followed the circuitous and
slower route, in the latter part of August,
1917, thus building up, little by little, day
after day, impressions of the people that
were clearer than those obtainable in the
two chief cities.
This Volga journey is so different from
that across Siberia, which I have twice
made, that one seems in another world—
though both reveal imperial possibilities.
N° TRAVELER fully knows Rus-
bd
These experiences spell in large letters
the potentiality of the Russia that is yet
to be.
THE STORY OF THE VOLGA
Largest of Europe’s rivers, and rank-
ing high among the great streams of the
earth, the Volga follows a tortuous, lei-
surely course, through a watershed three
times as large as France, for 2,305 miles,
until it pours its waters, through a wide
delta of many mouths, into the briny
Caspian, the largest inland sea in the
world. Its rise is far up in the north,
not greatly distant from Petrograd, with
which it is connected by canals and the
River Neva, thus linking it to the Gulf of
Finland.
A large motor-boat or a yacht could
doubtless sail from America to the Baltic
Sea, and so, through the Neva and con-
necting canals, down the Volga to the
Caspian Sea and the shores of Turkestan,
thes Caucasus, ands Persia” oO tar ase
know, no adventurer has yet essayed this
romantic trip, so rich in historical asso-
ciations and in human interest.
The story of the Volga is the story of
Russia: Slav, Tatar, Mongol, and Ger-
man all have left their impress upon its
banks, not to mention the score of minor
nationalities and tribes who still fill the
eye of the traveling American. Khan
246
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Charles E. Beury
A LANDING ALONG THE VOLGA
__ “The idea of Russia’s plenty is visualized along the river.
within and without with great hampers of fruit.
Much of the fresh produce must go to waste’ (see
thousands of watermelons on display.
text, page 264).
and Mogul, the Golden Horde and the
armies of the Czars, have written their
stories about this water. ‘The tangled
tale of Russia’s people and history can
best be understood when read in the lei-
surely comfort of one of the steamers on
the Volga.
Everybody has heard of Nizhni Nov-
gorod, famous chiefly for its cosmopoli-
tan annual fair, the greatest in the world,
and for the capital place the city has long
occupied in the history of Russia. Under
normal conditions, Nizhni is only a night’s
journey in a sleeping car from Moscow.
It is the chief city on the Volga and the
beginning of navigation for the larger
steamers.
ADP SH REP DANCIN,
_ So it was at Nizhni that I began a war-
time journey down the river, after a
dreary day in the city of the great bazaar;
Upstream ships are laden
At some small ports there are literally
for now the grass grows in the fair sec-
tion of the Nizhni streets, and the rows
upon rows of shops, to the number of
about four thousand, are closed as tight
as Philadelphia markets on Sunday.
The war has, for this year at least, put
out of business the Nizhni Bazaar, to
which for centuries merchants have been
coming annually from out of the steppes
of Tartary; from the villages of far
Persia ; from the hidden towns of Arabia,
and from India, Japan, China, Turkey,
and all the lands of Europe. This mar-
ket-place has been unique in several par-
ticulars, one being that all the goods
traded in were actually present on the
spot. The annual volume of business is
given by one authority as 250 million
roubles.
Now, by those mysterious news cur-
rents which baffle understanding, the tid-
ings had run to the remotest places of
earth that there would be no Nizhni Ba-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
y
Z
Y
Z
Y
Y
Z
y
Z
Y
Y
Y
Y
wy
Photograph by Charles E. Beury
OPEN MARKET AT ASTRAKHAN, ON THE VOLGA
“Russia is huge, and inchoate, and potential.
Her people are at present adrift in their
minds, as so many of them are adrift physically. They are in the grip of a great negation.
Nevertheless, as surely as the turbid and tortuous Volga finds the shining sea, so surely will
Russia one day emerge from her muddled and wavering drifting into the clear calm of a
great and purposeful and brotherly national life’ (see text, page 265).
zaar during 1917—though I was assured
in Moscow that it was in full blast! No
action to this effect was taken by any offi-
cial body. Far from it. Nizhni, with the
prosperity of its hundred thousand people
at stake, hoped until the last. In two of
the largest fair buildings, where pathetic
trifles were sold to neighboring peasants,
brass bands blared daily, in an effort to
stimulate life and activity. Asif by some
occult agreement, the merchants simply
failed to come. The shutters of the once
busy bazaars, in the height of the historic
fair season, were turned like blind eyes
toward a world that gave no heed.
The Nizhni Fair of 1917 was one of
war's casualties. Whether this archaic
institution will ever again revive its an-
cient glories 1s a moot question. Will not
trade turn to the great city centers of the
world and to the conventional channels
and usages of purchase and sale? The
economic upheaval which has accompa-
nied the world war may easily wipé out
this picturesque survival of an ancient
order, established at the confluence of the
Oka and the Volga.
TRAFFIC ON A BUSY WATERWAY
Even though the Nizhni Fair should
pass, the traffic of the Volga is certain to
grow, with the reorganization of Russia’s
transportation system. ‘There are riches
of many kinds to be gleaned along the
banks of this imperial river, and its
waters ane rich im fish which are=the
chief source of the world’s supply of
caviar. Lumber, hides, grain, wool, fruit,
vegetables, and dairy products are among
the commonest articles offered to the
needs of the many by this productive re-
gion. Cotton, too, comes up from Persia
in great barges, while the oil fields at
248
Baku send in large, low-lying tankers
only a fraction of the amount of petro-
leum they are capable of supplying to the
upper reaches of the Volga. River craft
use no other fuel than oil.
One of the sights of the stream is the
huge rafts of lumber, many of them more
than 500 feet long, towed at an almost
imperceptible rate of speed by side-wheel
steamboats. ‘The size of these rafts is
indicated by the fact that the wash of the
big Volga boats does not have any ap-
parent effect upon them. So long is the
Volga journey for the raftsmen that they
build log houses on their rough craft, and
even occasionally raise vegetables and
flowers in miniature gardens. As these
men sit gathered about their camp-fires,
floating downstream, they afford one of
the delightful night scenes of Volga
travel. It is woodsmen’s life afloat.
As scenery, the shores of the Volga
cannot compare with those of many an
American river. Along the upper reaches
the right bank is hilly and pleasant, but
lower down the stream enters the depres-
sion that once held the larger Caspian
Sea, and here sand-dunes are common,
with occasional stretches of real desert.
These steppes are inhabited by Tatars,
whose cattle come to the river bank to
drink and whose camels give a touch of
the ancient East to the landscape. Towns
are not as numerous as might be expected
along so famous a river, although some
of the cities have occupied an important
place in Russian history.
THE BOLSHIVIK IDEA OF FREEDOM
Recently half a dozen of the Volga
cities have made more than a little trou-
ble for the central government by declar-
ing themselves independent republics and
so continuing for a few days. What does
liberty mean, reason these simple-minded
folk, if not the right to do as one pleases?
In Nizhni the soldiers rose against their
officers and slew many, so that a force
had to be sent against them from Mos-
cow. As there was no capital punishment
in existence at the time, the insurgents
were simply distributed among other mili-
tary units.
Overshadowing every mile and minute
of the Volga journey is the fact of the
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
war and the revolution. It is the topic
of private conversation and of public
discourse. ‘“Swaboda,” or ‘freedom,’
soon becomes a familiar sound, even to
alien ears. No boat is without its soldier
passengers, traveling, apparently, on in-
dividual initiative.
Immediately after the revolution, when
all sorts of radical conceptions of liberty
were abroad in the land, groups of wan-
dering soldiers would take complete con-
trol of ships, driving first-class passen-
gers from their state-rooms, on the argu-
ment, which I have since heard frequently
advanced, in somewhat similar condi-
tions, that the revolution overthrew the
rich, and that now the poor should have
the best. If the bottom does not come
to the top and the top go to the bottom,
wherein is the revolution? In one case
the soldiers decided, after traveling a day,
that they wanted to return to the port
of embarkation, so they compelled the
captain to turn the ship about and re-
trace that day’s journey!
RAW MATERIAL FOR A MATCHLESS ARMY
That these big blond fellows, in gray-
ish-brown fustian and khaki, could do
anything lawless or really vicious seems
hard to believe. They are like over-
grown, good-natured country boys. They
lie about the decks, sleeping most of the
time, and as inoffensive as so many St.
Bernard puppies. Their capacity for en-
durance seems limitless. They ask no bed
but a board, and can curl up into the
smallest space imaginable. For food they
have nothing but the soggy black bread,
which plays so great havoc with the di-
gestion of foreigners ; and often even that
is not in evidence. -Yet I have seen a
group of these hungry soldiers travel for
two days alongside great hampers of
fruit and never touch a plum.
It is unthinkable that the lawless young-
ster which is dormant in every Amer-
can soldier would not have possessed
within an hour this unguarded provender.
Thoughts of American militiamen clam-
oring for Pullmans are bound to recur
to the traveling Yankee, as he sees the
way in which Russian soldiers are herded
on cold decks or, worse, in triple tiers of
wooden bunks in box-cars.
Everywhere that one goes in Russia
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by William T. Ellis
A VOLGA STEVELORE
“They heartily bend their backs to unbelievable burdens.
sions of them going up steep gang-planks, each man bearing a packing case
Often I have watched proces-
a full-sized,
full-weight packing case, such as two draymen in America move only by turning from side
to side” (see text, page 261).
one sees soldiers. It is estimated that
there are 15,000,000 men under arms
here, though most of them are by no
means at the front. The unorganized
way in which they drift about the land
is an endless source of wonder. Seldom
are they seen by companies or regiments.
Only once, and that was in the big train-
ing camp outside of Moscow, have I
chanced to see soldiers drilling. It is
commonly said that the purpose of the old
régime in raising so large an army was to
create industrial and economic chaos, with
consequent disturbances, which would
permit Russia, according to the treaties,
to make a separate peace.
THE SEDUCTIVE INFLUENCE OF FREE
TRANSPORTATION
Whatever was the mind of the old
bureaucracy, it has wrought something
like a paralysis of industry among the
Russian peasants, who, while the women
work, are enjoying respite from toil and
the pleasures of roving from place to
place, with free transportation provided.
Evil propagandists, “exiles” returned
from America and from Germany, have
greatly demoralized the army. No more
fertile field for leadership, either good or
bad, can be found in all the world than
the Russian soldiers. Of late, however,
the leadership has been mistaken. Given
a clear vision of duty, these simple, trust-
ful men will do it to the uttermost.
Partings. of wives from soldiers are a
sad spectacle, witnessed at almost every
port of call. There are not many words,
and usually only the silent sobbing of the
women, until the boat starts, and then
there may be a violent outburst that is
heartrending to the listener. Much is
said of the moral laxity of the Russian
people and of the lightness of the mar-
riage tie, but the story of true domestic
affection is revealed in too many of these
250
Photograph by Gilbert Grosvenor
BEGGAR AT NIZHNI NOVGOROD
Russia has many beggars. But even among
them one sees, in spite of their rags, faces that
proclaim good hearts and genial souls. Better
a beggar without even a crust of black bread
than the well-fed barterer of his country’s
weal!
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
scenes of separation for the observer to
accept entirely such cynical generaliza-
tions.
Often they have their lighter side. At
one wharf it was the wife and son who
were leaving the soldier husband and
father. Into the midst of the parting
came a procession of stevedores, bear-
ing great sacks of sunflower seeds, a com-
mon Russian delicacy. One man’s bur-
den struck a snag, there was a rent in
the burlap, and forth poured a flood of
the black and white seeds. Instantly the
soldier’s cap was off and he was hold-
ing it under this stream of unexpected
bounty. What spilled to the ground other
soldiers and small boys gathered, heed-
less, as they cracked the seeds skillfully
in their teeth, of either dirt ornegernis:
Thus the strain of one separation was
relieved, for the wife, aboard the boat,
was glad to see her husband’s larder en-
riched.
WIVES TRAVEL WITH SOLDIER HUSBANDS
Occasionally, as in Mexico, the wives
accompany their soldier husbands, their
household effects wrapped in bundles and
a baby or two on their arms or clinging
to the mother’s skirt.
Only one glimpse did I have on the
Volga trip of the women soldiers, of
whom I had seen many in Petrograd
and Wiescow. “This was. at \Samaton
where a company of women soldiers were
marching through the streets, led by a
man officer. A moment before a com-
pany of male soldiers had passed, singing
lustily the unforgettable Russian march-
ing songs, which are their military music;
but these women moved in grim silence,
with set faces.
All of them were young—the youth
of the Russian women soldiers is the first
characteristic that one notices—but their
cheeks were bronzed and their uniforms,
which are the same as those of the men,
were old. Many of them did not have
puttees, and their footwear was varied,
canvas shoes predominating. All of them
wore their hair short. Clearly, for this
particular group, the stage of novelty and
enthusiasm had passed and had been suc-
ceeded by sheer resolution. Most of the
glamour of soldiering had disappeared.
They marched in good formation, but
THE NATIONAL
CAB DRIVER AT
NIZHNI
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Dad
WY
XX
QQAQQ QQ
7,
WY Wy
Y
Wy
Mf YY Yj
Gi
YY
SAS. KG :
Photograph by Gilbert Grosvenor
NOVGOROD
_ The great fair city, where once the buyers of the world journeyed for barter and trade,
is now almost as much a deserted place during the fair season as once it was in the northern
mid-winter.
rection !
with more of doggedness than abandon
or sprightliness.
All of these women soldiers belong to
the everywhere popular “battalions of
death,” who are pledged not to retreat
or surrender. Their effect upon the men
soldiers has been twofold: some regard
them as inspired saviors of the country,
a sort of Joans of Arc; while others are
inclined to jeer and make scurrilous re-
Like Russia’s martial spirit, it lies dead—perhaps beyond the hope of resur-
marks. In no instances, though, have the
men given evidence that they regard the
formation of women’s battalions as a re-
flection upon themselves.
SPRING BEDS UNKNOWN TO THE MOUJIK
But, then, these private soldiers, over
whose sleeping forms I have often stum-
bled on the dark decks and in unexpected
corners of docks and highways and sta-
‘SJUSUIJUIS YONS SUiv}19}U9 JeYyY AtJUNOD Auv UT [JaMpP JoAdU URd Aytiod
-Soid puv ‘sjuvudA0D JeUONvUIA}UI JO Suidsoy ay} 9VIOApe 0} d1VOLAJeduN pue UaptAosd aq 0} BISsny Ul MOU 9[{esOUOYsIp SI i] “SurAsejys qnq [je
ote Ady} MON ‘OpPl} JOATI YOII B WOIF []O} Sule} ‘snorsdsoid puv Ay}jeam d1aM UOISI1 VS[OA ay} FO Soro ay} JO Auvwt Aq auos sow uy
NMOL VO’'IOA ‘IVOIdAL V
SHIA “WL merit Aq sydess0j04g
‘eIS\ Ulojsea
-yynos 10} punoq sdoiny Ulojsvayjiou jo 3919 WO 94} SowWOd YIIYAM UMOP pue ‘ULjsoyIN, pue BISBONL)-SURIT, JO sjonpoird 9y} AOU YOTYM
dn opet} JO AtoJIV Jeors & st ‘ouO Aq passoio A]]eUuoIsedD0 ATUO pue ‘prosper e Aq pajatyesedun ‘eS[OA oy} ‘UeYyYeIISY O} JoIwreg pue evieweg ysed
yynos Udy} pue uezey je PUsq jeoI15 dy} 0} Ysvd JsIY “‘peisoljag JO yseoyynos jurod e WO} elssny Urodoiny usaqseo ysnoiy} UMOp SUIdIIMG
A0NH AXV SLAVa VO’IOA
Wy
THER NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
tions, are not a keenly sensitive lot. They
are used to a rough life; hardships are
no new experience for them. When I
would commiserate them for sleeping on
iron decks or on wooden shelves or on
the ground, I recall that they have never
known spring mattresses. The black
bread that makes ill those unaccustomed
to it has always been their usual fare.
A care-free, singing, sleeping—especially
sleeping—lot of boys on a holiday they
are, lacking the ebullient spirits of youth.
Only the manual laborer can under-
stand their enjoyment of respite from
- toil. Most of these men, whom our boat
so casually takes on or gives up at ports
on the way, had never, before the war,
been 25 versts from the villages in which
they were born. Now they are tasting
the irresponsibility of the open road, ad-
venturing into far places and new scenes,
earning as they go all sorts of new facts
and theories about life. By way of its
soldiers the whole of Russia has suddenly
een put through a course in cosmopoli-
tanism. These men are of themselves
unenterprising and strangely lacking in
initiative. They are not trouble-makers ;
a more inoffensive crowd of patient and
long-enduring men may scarcely be im-
agined. Perhaps the simplest explana-
tion of the absorbing phenomena of the —
Russian soldiers is to say that they are
at present merely raw material—men in
the making, but for the moment only chil-
dren. They are sorelv befuddled by the
lack of leaders and slogans and stand-
ards ; therefore they are drifting aimlessly
about the land — unorganized, undisci-
plined, undirected, and ready to follow
the mad radicalism of the first ‘““boulshe-
vik,” or extreme socialist, who gets their
ear—and the Maximalists have shown an
efficiency in propaganda that has been
their one achievement in revolutionized
Russia.
WHAT LEADERSHIP COULD ACCOMPLISH
IN RUSSIA
If, instead of the radicals, the real pa-
triots and democrats of Russia were in-
structing and inspiring the soldiers, so
that the troops would have a compre-
hensible battle cry and a simple objective,
there would be no withstanding these
physically virile fellows.
253
Quite different were the group of sol-
diers who came aboard our boat at Kazan.
Such as had uniforms seemed to be wear-
ing those of the Austrian army, as we
had come to know it from observation of
German and Austrian prisoners in many
towns and cities of Russia. ‘These men,
30 in number, were singularly alert and
well kept, their uniforms, or semi-uni-
forms, being in an admirable condition
of spruceness. Each man wore a red
and white ribbon somewhere on his coat,
and we speedily learned that they were
Czechs, or Bohemians, who had been con-
scripted into the Austrian army, and at
the first opportunity, during the battle of
Lemberg, two years before, had volun-
tarily surrendered to the Russians.
After the revolution the request of these
Czechs to fight on the side of liberty had
been partly acceded to. At the recent
debacle on the Galician front these Czechs
had behaved so valiantly that Kerensky
had given them permission to form a
separate Czech unit, and our fellow-pas-
sengers were on the way, via Samara
and Kiev, to join their compatriots on
the eastern front.
When asked what would befall if they
should be captured by the Austrians, they
cheerfully and graphically explained that
they would be hanged; but that it was
an unwritten agreement among them that
before falling into the hands of the na-
tion from whose power the Czechs seek
liberation they would do as other Czechs
had done at the time of the eastern re-
treat—shoot themselves.
THE CZECHS DESERT TO LIBERTY S ARMIES
The ardor and intelligence and patriot-
ism of these men, going smilingly to
death for the old cause of self-govern-
ment, was refreshing. When we pro-
posed photographing them, they asked
that it be beside their red and white flag,
which flew from the steamer’s top deck.
This standard bore the words, ‘‘Czech
Volunteers. Forward for Liberty!”
Every man of the thirty has relatives
among the two million Czechs, or Bohe-
mians, who have emigrated to America,
most of them being found in Pennsylva-
nia and in Chicago. There are eight mil-
lion left behind, and these, we were told,
are a unit in desiring independence.
254
In the old days decorations were widely bestowed in Russia.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
, Photograph by Gilbert Grosvenor
TWENTY-FIVE MEDALS DECORATING A POLICEMAN AT NIZHNI NOVGOROD
Almost every supporter
of the dynasty could wear one or more of them. But now who wears a badge is bourgeois
and anybody who has anything is anathema.
+)
!
name
We saw our Czech friends later, march-
ing in fine formation through Samarra,
to the music of their own weird, staccato
song, going gaily forward, buoyed up by
the greatest of purposes, to the line of
battle. They broke their discipline long
enough to salute and then cheer their
American friends—one more of the
countless moving tokens of the kinship
which all the freedom-loving people of
“Liberty, what crimes are committed in thy
earth have with the great Republic of the
West.
To be an American, anywhere among
the allied nations at the present time, is
to be the recipient of uncounted marks
of consideration. The two “American-
skis” on the Volga boat were especially
favored in every way, and telegrams evi-
dently preceded them at all points of
change or debarkation; so that, amid all
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 2009
the riot and clamor
of a congested traffic,
with the impossibility
of providing accom-
modation for those
desiring it, the Amer-
icans were cared for
aerevery step of the
. journey.
RUSSIANS LIKE THE
““AMERICANSK?”
Officials of the boats,
army officers, and pri-
vate citizens vied with
one another to show
courtesy to the Amer-
icans. While Russia
is full of stories of
the malicious efforts
of the returned radi-
cals from America—
some of them unques-
tionably paid pro-
German agents — to
fomentseaa Peel ine
against the United
States, and to attrib-
ute all sorts of sinister
motives to our efforts
to serve Russia, the
e
Sains:
Se aw,
_——————( raat ad Sc Dralt:
———————
—
SKETCH MAP OF SPAIN, SHOWING LOCATION OF ANDORRAN REPUBLIC ON THE
FRENCH BORDER
whip-popping and the shouts which ac-
companied failed to stir the leaders into
action, it was the old man’s habit to lay
aside his reins entirely and whack the
mule until the noise startled into action
the team ahead. One agreed with the
mule that this seemed hardly fair.
From time to time the items of the
human cargo changed. The home-com-
ing boy, who had worked in a restaurant
in Seville, was distressingly inquisitive.
He had a few words of French, and kept
at me until he had extracted every bit of
information that our joint vocabularies
could convey. Then he told the others.
His round, china-blue eyes stared un-
winkingly during the eight hours of our
cart companionship, but what he missed
in courtesy was more than atoned for by.
the other passengers. Not one gave me
more than a glance on entering, though
they listened to the boy’s story with
grave attention. A girl insisted on shar-
ing a basket of fruit, and a bent old
peasant woman on her way to work in
the high fields, a leather bottle across her
knees and her wardrobe in a pathetic
little basket, helped to find lunch in a
wayside inn. The pretty daughter of a
hidalgo of the countryside pointed out
the views that were revealed at each turn
as we climbed the pass.
A MOUNTAIN COUNTRY RESEMBLING
COLORADO
For the better part of sixty kilometers
to Puigcerda, we drove through a moun-
tain country familiar in every gray hill
and green valley to one who knows our
own Colorado. Sheep dotted the land-
scape, and the narrow meadows were
farmed to the last inch. Now and then
a golden ribbon wound about the dark
shoulder of a hill where grain was being
harvested. A_ terrace had been built
there and fertile earth carried in baskets
and the water from some overdaring
spring coaxed to vivify it. Some of these
little hillside fields seemed no wider than
a cradle blade is long, and wandered in
NMOL FHL INVHUIAO
Ad10Z Jsaqiayy Aq ydeisojoyg
HO
IT
M
c
-
»
a
I
(
[
I
S
N
I\
>
[
4
N
Now
a
TH
y
I
4
NO
S
al
-
»
¥
Ilat d
ct
2)
Vaud
,
1
i
¥
I
4
JNIMOH
S
‘
VUNOaGNV
-
j
WO
A
»
LI
») WH
i
‘
282
283
CHILDREN OF ANDORRA REPUBLIC, SPAIN
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE PORTALS OF THE HOTEL DE VILLE,
ANDORRA
The arms and the Republic’s motto, “Domus
Concilii, Sedes Justicias,’ are above the door.
The horses of the 24 councilmen are stabled
on the ground floor when they meet. The
deputies sleep, eat, and cook their own meals
on the second floor.
he made it Spain.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the most decorative fashion along rocky
slopes that seemed hardly fit for sheep
pasture. It was as though a mural artist
of the Titans had painted garlands on
the canyon walls.
The carrier’s cart jolted into Puig-
cerda through a country that might be
France, except that a political accident
Mountains hem in the
little valley in which this old town stands.
The trees were of that gray green to
which one is accustomed across the bor-
der. The sound of running water fills
the land. Everywhere little rills prattle
down from the mountains and are
trapped in irrigating ditches and tinkle
away over stones and under overhanging
tufts of sod in the most friendly and in-
timate fashion.
At first one wonders at the work that
has been done upon this country, in com-
paring it to some portions of our own
barb-wired and clapboarded farming
States. The fences are boulder walls and
the houses are of heavy stone; the ir-
rigating flumes and larger canals are of
rockwork that would almost withstand
an earthquake and are concreted against
‘the loss of a single drop. Then one re-
calls something of history. Men have
been at work on these farms for more
than thirteen hundred years. There was
a bishopric at Urgel, the next stop after
Puigcerda on the road to Andorra, in the
sixth century, and the same bishopric is
still there. Puigcerda was the capital of
the land of Cerdagne more than a thou-
sand years ago. There is a marble tablet
in the old church which tells of the burial
of a well-loved lady in 1310, and Puig-
cerda and the church were gray in age
even then.
WOMAN AND DONKEY TOIL TOGETHER
At first one looks with a wholly Amer-
ican contempt on plowing done by oxen
and. marketing in which an old woman
collaborates with a panniered donkey;
but this gives way to respect. The farm-
ers here make their hay with wooden
forks cut from a conveniently. molded
sapling. After the mules have trodden
out the grain they toss the wheat into the
air from wooden shovels for the wind to
winnow it, just as the Moors did before
they were driven out of Cerdagne. The
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 285
Photograph by José B. Alemany
THE BYZANTINE CHURCH OF SANTA COLOMA, ANDORRA REPUBLIC
plows never have more than one handle
and are sometimes mere crooks of wood
shod with iron. But the sheaves piled
high in the fields told of an intensive cul-
tivation that has only made these fields
more fertile in the centuries of use.
I had already learned there are two
sorts of Spaniards. At Barcelona one is
asked if one speaks Castilian or Catalan.
At Puigcerda my national pride was
somewhat abated by the discovery that
there are two sorts of Americans. Il
sought to negotiate with the soft-voiced
girl in the shop nearest the hotel for
some postcards. A question revealed my
status.
“Mother,” she cried.
is an American.”
Mother came from the dark rear of
the little establishment and smiled in a
pleasant and wholly friendly curiosity.
At first she was incredulous. Upon lis-
tening to the disjointed conversation she
made known the reason for this skepti-
cism.
“Mother, here
“The stranger,” said she, “is a French-
man. Does he not speak French?”
“He is a North American,” the daugh-
ter explained.
It was most flattering to have my
French accepted at its face value. Here-
tofore it has only passed current among
the graduates of schools of languages.
Perhaps my heavy buying of postcards
gave the girl a clue to my habitat, for
she asked me if I had ever been in New
York. Upon the admission she fairly
beamed.
“T have something here from New
York,” said. she.
She delved under the counter and pro-
duced a pasteboard box in which car-
tridges had been shipped by a firm in
New York State, and pointed out the
name to me in real pride. We turned it
over and over in our hands as though it
were a curio. She seemed to have kept
the box in much the same spirit in which
our grandmothers once kept the lac-
quered packages in which tea had been
shipped from China.
SANOLS JO LTING AYV SASNOH 'TIV :NMOL LSONNYAHLYON S VYYOANV ‘OTTINVO
Auvwlsy “gq esof uio1y ydessojoyg
286
NIvds “TTOdTM WOW AAV SVM TAVIS HHL HOIHM NI Taivo SMAIMAVO AHL
Ad10Z JIogtopFT Aq Ydeasojoyg
D.IRDRIR
WS N
COW
WW
SN
QQ@C
N
CDW
KG \
WCC
\ \\ \ VSD \ ‘ \ ‘ \ < ne 5 i Y
\ S S : : 3 é Geen i Z UY yyy vowyvwv
GG
WS
XS
VD939mW
SS GQ
\ 0DBI+RRUG .G NAN
D$5$?A
\\
\ XC
\
Ww WW WG
SN
NG
SA
WYyffyy
Wf Je
VY)
SS \
XX
S
« (QW SN
SS
W
287
BRIDGE AND CANYON OF SANT
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
iar’
ihe LEP ase
Photograph from José B.
Alemany
ANTONI, ANDORRA
It is said that on this bridge Charlemagne and the Count of Urgel signed the treaty of the
liberty and privileges of Andorra
But the old lady was not satisfied. She
had been revolving apparent discrepan-
cies inher mind, jand* when’ 1 leit’ she
asked another question:
“Do the North Americans also speak
English ?”
SPAIN, DRIES =WiITH SPIES
In war time one wanders in Spain
without the annoying formalities’ of
travel im the, belligerent ‘lands: tis
difficult to get into Spain, and much more
difficult to get out, for the country drips
with spies, and Spain’ s neighbors are in-
sistent as to the credentials of travelers.
Inside the line one wanders as he wills.
An occasional visé from a police official
is all that is required, and the police are
even willing to abet mild errancies. It
was from the host of the Hotel Europe
that this was learned. Llivia’s existence
had just become known.
“It is difficult to go there, you under-
stand,” said he. “It is a Spanish village,
true; but it is inside French territory,
and the French do not like to have stran-
gers go there. It+is true that one goes
there by a neutral road.”
The situation, séemed difficult, but Cat-
alan kindness conquered it. If the host
of the Hotel Kurope seems singled out,
it 1s only because he is typical of all
other Catalans with whom I came in con-
tact. I was traveling without other visi-
ble luggage than a camera. My pockets
bulged disreputably with the various
necessities of life. I entered his hos-
telry filmed with dust after eight hours in
~a mtle- cart, and yet he: went to infinite
pains to aid me. With that fatuity that
sometimes comes upon one, I tried to tip
him. This is a public apology. It was
he who solved the problem of getting to
Livia.
“T shall see the chief of police,” said he.
These worthies contrived a plot against
the laws of two countries. The chief
wrote out a paper which, upon transla-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
tion, seemed to be an asseveration in
Catalan that I had long been favorably
known to him as a resident of Puigcerda.
The host of the Hotel Europe enlisted
the carrier in the stratagem and drilled
him in the story he was to tell. I was to
say no word, for my pitiful incapacity
in all tongues known in the Pyrenees
would have betrayed me at once.
“The carrier will say what is necessary
if the soldiers stop you,” said the hotel
keeper. “At the worst, you will only be
inconvenienced for a few days.”
A SPANISH TOWN INSIDE THE FRENCH
FRONTIER
The chances of arrest seemed excel-
lent, but they also seemed worth taking;
for there is but one Llivia. Away back
in the seventeenth century Spain paid
for an unwise war with France by ceding
33 villages and the territory surrounding
them to the stronger power. But after
the Treaty of the Pyrenees was signed,
Spain “rued back” on a part of the bar-
cain. one yielded the 33. villages, as
agreed on, but exempted Llivia on the
plea that it was a town and not a village.
So for 250 years Llivia has remained
a Spanish town inside the French fron-
tier. It is Spanish in everything but lo-
cation. The Spanish mails go there, and
Spanish taxes are occasionally collected
there, and Spanish money is taken, and
there is a post of the Guardia Civile upon
the public square. As one jolts down the
neutral road toward Llivia in the carrier’s
cart, one could toss his hat on either side
into France. The very water that runs
in the irrigating ditches at the sides runs
in French territory.
“The principal trade of Livia,” accord-
ing to the guide-books, “is in articles of
contraband.”
At Llivia the stranger suffers from the
unjust suspicion that he is an officer of
the law. Elsewhere in Catalonia the peo-
ple are friendly and of an American self-
respect. The boy who brought the morn-
ing coffee at Seo d’Urgel shook hands af-
fectionately when we parted. The carter
of Puigcerda cheerfully perjured himself
when the French soldier abandoned his
midday drowse beneath a tree and came
to look at me. The carter said we were
friends, and later took the franc with
289
which this divagation was rewarded
rather under protest. He was understood
to say that any one would do as much for
a comrade. E,verywhere one encounters
the most open-hearted and open-handed
kindness. But at Llivia one is watched
sullenly. Too often, perhaps, smuggling
confidences have been betrayed.
So, I wandered unhappily through
Llivia’s tortuous thoroughfares, conscious
of this civic distrust. There was a little
girl who was blowing with a hand bellows
upon the coals in the bottom of what
seemed an early form of the tailor’s
goose. Ashes spurted out of vents at the
side, and the coals at last glowed a yellow
red in the hollow of the pressing iron.
All this was magnificently new to me,
and I beamed upon the girl and prepared
to take a photograph when a long arm
stretched from a doorway and girl and
iron were retrieved. Then a door that
would have withstood a battering ram
closed softly in my face.
A TOWN READY FOR A SIEGE
But perhaps this pessimism is general
and is not confined to the unvouched-for
individual. The windows are barred with
thick steel. Sometimes these bars are set
with knife-like spikes, the edges of which
have once been sharp, to catch the pred-
atory arm that sought to reach through.
When a housewife goes to the munici-
pal fountain to draw water or wash the
daily salad, she closes her great, nail-
studded door behind her and locks it with
a key that might weigh a pound or more.
If the municipal pig bothers her too
greatly, she may withdraw this huge key
from her girdle and throw it at him, so
that it clangs loudly on the uneven cobbles
in the rebound from his dusty hide.
There are overhanging balconies from
which an attacking force might be re-
sisted, and slits in some doors through
which the caller is inspected before the
bars are drawn. One might say that
Llivia could stand a siege today, if only
medieval means were used against her
medieval defenses.
Even the church seems fort as much as
sanctuary. One long old wall is pierced
by loopholes for archers and is bare of
any other window. It is defended at the
corners by loopholed bastions. One gains
Soul} URWIOY Woy paSurvyoun popusdsep svy ‘spray Joy} DAOW O} Woy} 1OF o[qissoduy W sayevur yTyM ‘usxO
“SAMOA HSINVdS HHL
Aa10c yaqsiayzy Aq ydesso0j0yg
SuISsouIeYy JO poYyjeuI Jans
si,
200)
OITANdIN VAYNOGNV -aQNNOWNMOVA [ UV SHAIVOS, ) NMOL AWTVIVA NIVW YHL GNV ATIMIA VI va
Y
Auewoeyy “gq gsof Aq ydessojoyg
WEW GGG
NX \
QYQQGQQRQOQo
EQ GK
MAX
i
2992 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
i
Photograph by Herbert Corey
DAE PUBLIC SOUARE. Of (LEIVLA
On the first floor of the house facing the square the mules are stabled, while the family lives
above; in the bitter cold gf a Pyrenean winter the arrangement has its advantages
entrance to the only vulnerable side, in
which the great old door 1s set, by climb-
ing a flight of steep stone steps, in their
turn flanked by a tower which alone re-
mains of the original defensive works.
The courtyards, in which oxen are kept
under their owners’ windows, much to
the injury of the village sanitation, are
thick-walled inclosures whose gates are
great affairs of plank, well barred against
aggression, and always overlooked by a
window from which they can be defend-
ed. The town breathes age and a state
OLvatms., One learns: to look, with dis= -
taste upon the parvenu Café del Progreso
omehne Plaza de la, Constimeion.. It isia
mere newcomer, this café, with its date
OiyOl «caved above the lntels lt as
only when one learns this marks the time
of its reconstruction that it is received
into favor.
LIFE OF LLIVIA CENTERS UPON THE
PUBLIC SQUARE
It is upon the public square that the
visible life of Llivia centers in the day-
time. Now and then a wanderer called
at the Café del Progreso for one of the
mild and sugared drinks to which the
Spaniard is partial. A man shrouded in
a great cloak and wearing a wide black
hat pulled well down over his eyes passed
and repassed. He had been a cart pas-
senger and the carter had quite gratui-
tously assured me that he was a traveler
in commerce. He was the breathing
image of an operatic conspirator.
A small boy led a pig by a cord at-
tached to a foreleg, and at intervals gra-
ciously permitted other small boys to hold
the cord while he instructed them in
the technique. A yoke of oxen swung
slowly by, hauling a cart piled high with
hay. But of the male residents of Llivia
nothing was to be seen. If one smuggles
by night, it is to be assumed that one
sleeps by day.
The town crier was making his rounds
when we returned to Puigcerda. He
seemed as wholly out of date to an Amer-
ican as though a megatherium had been
found strolling through these placid
streets. He was an old man, most lei-
surely in his movements, and with an ex-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
pression of confirmed melancholy.. At.
first I attributed this to his knowledge
that he was out of the modern picture. At
intervals he blew a long brass horn, fish- ;
monger style, so that I was entranced by
it and followed him.
I had been watching the rope-walk
under the eaves of the church, where an
old man walked slowly backward all day
long, a wad of hemp fastened to his
girdle. He spun rope yarn from the spin-
dles that were whirled by the belt from
a wheel an irritated small boy turned.
Later he twisted the yarn into rope in the
same fashion.
The crier had not recognized at all that
the time had passed for his leisurely
method of diffusing information. When
we reached the public square of Puig-
cerda, where a crowd waited the autobus
that was to carry us to Seo d’Urgel, it
became evident that his dejection had
_ been occasioned by the lack of a proper
audience. To the stranger and to the
curious small boy who had trailed the
stranger he had mumbled at intervals—
always preceded by a stirring blast upon
the trumpet—that a thrilling film of the
life and adventures of Cristoforo Co-
lombo was to be presented that very
evening at the municipal theater.
AN ART IN TOWN CRYING
But in the presence of the throng in
the public square, before that Hotel de
Ville that was built in 1400, and which
still bears the half-obliterated wheat
sheaves of Puigcerda’s arms on its walls,
he became a different person. He regis-
tered emotion, as a movie man would
say. His voice soared until it reached
an oratorical climax, and then dropped
to low and thrilling tones as he dwelt
upon the pathos of this marvelous film.
We who waited fairly hung upon his
words. There is an art in town crying.
With every revolution of the wheels
of the autobus toward Seo d’Urgel we
moved farther toward the days of the
Kknight of the Mancha. Oxen began to
wear fringed and beaded veils upon their
patient faces. Men came down from the
hillside farms, driving before them don-
keys on whose pack-saddles were racks
resembling five barred gates on which
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE NEUTRAL, ROAD TO LLIVIA
The wall at the right and the water which
chatters in the stone-lined irrigating ditch at
the left are in France, but the road is neutral.
wheat sheaves were tied. Wheeled vehi-
cles are current only on the main roads.
Pack-mules jingled with bells and wore
heavily brassed saddles on which every
form of package was securely roped.
The authentic diamond hitch was in use
everywhere, so that one saw where the
art of our Western packers was born.
Chains stretched across the roads at the
posts of the Guardia Civile stopped traffic
for examination.
On the hilltops are the remains of cas-
tles and fortified farms, reminders of the
days, not so far distant, when each man
took what he could and held what he
might. The twin inventions of repeat-
ing firearms and the Guardia Civile have
made rural life in Spain fairly safe now
and the bandit no longer roams upon
these roads. Nevertheless, the passer-by
sometimes carried a rifle in the crook of
294
A RAG-PICKER AND HIS CHARIOT FLYING
PICKERS UNION:
his arm, and the priest, who later rode
down from Andorra with me, indicated
that the knife is still a ready solvent of
difficulties.
Perhaps I misunderstood him, as we
talked by signs and scattered words,
lacking any common language; but he
shook his head sadly over the backward-
ness of his flock and pantomimed a dis-
pute in the hills in most illuminating
fashion. First the injured party shook
a petulant forefinger at his antagonist;
then there was an outburst of violent
speech; finally the priest’s hand flew to
the belt of his black cassock, withdrew
an imaginery knife, and thrust it so
swiftly at my own girdle and with such
a venomous air that I shrank coldly. He
was a good priest, though. For slow
miles he struggled with a statement until
I finally made it out:
“AMERICA WILL BE THE FRIEND OF ALL
THE .WORLD”
vilit tsicood,: said’ he; “that “America
has entered the war. For all the other
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE “LA DEFENSA” FLAG OF THE RAG-
MADRID, SPAIN
nations would seek to be masters if they
won; but America will be the friend of
all the world.”
At Seo d’Urgel a temptation was re-
sisted. The guide-books pay little at-
tention to Seo—the country folk call it
“Saao’—because it is off the beaten path.
I had no time to explore it thoroughly.
But certainly the “float,” as a prospector
would say, offered rich finds to the in-
terested digger. There is a street of
heavy, arched arcades, under loopholed
walls, through which little streets pierce
at intervals, which takes one back at a
glance to the Middle Ages.
They are for the most part two men
wide, these little streets. Some of them
are roofed over, and dim lamps twinkle
in their twisty lengths. They tell of the
days called good, when men were killed
fervently in them with axe and sword,
instead of being scientifically entered
upon the casualty list by cold-blooded
mathematicians hidden miles away be-
hind hills) and who would be helpless
without their books of logarithms.
THE NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Herbert Corey
ASBUSYEoCE NE ON DEE PLAZA DE VA CONSTIMUCION AT LEIViA, DEE SPAINISED
~TOWN IN FRANCE
The open doors of the shops afford
glimpses that tantalize the stroller. Shop-
keeping in the bishopric of Urgel seems
to run largely to the sale of pack-sad-
dles, coils of rope, and firearms, and the
fragrant scent of leather comes to the
nostrils. It was just opposite the great
pots built in a stone oven under the ar-
cade, from which bean soup is served to
travelers on market and feast days, that
I encountered the temptation.
THE SHOP OF SKIN FLASKS
There is a shop there, a cavernous,
dark, windy shop. The floor is clear of
the riffraff of rope and leather that one
sees in other business houses. In the
farthest corner a single candle is screened
against the draft from the open door, and
its tiny flame casts long, moving shadows
of objects that swing lightly from the
heavy rafters. There was a mysterious
similitude of life about these things.
They were faintly recognizable. It was
as though many of the common domestic
animals had reversed their normal habit
and had attached themselves flylike to
the half-seen ceiling.
Then came enlightenment. These were
wine sacks made of pig and goat skins,
which by the art of their maker had pre-
served a horrible likeness to their origi-
nal inhabitants. There was one small
wine sack there—it had been the earthly
integument of a tiny pig—that I coveted
with all my heart. It swung in the breeze
from the open door, the half light con-
cealing the imperfections of its present
and emphasizing the plump coquetry of
its original state. Twice I walked past
the door and twice I was redeemed from
folly. A dusty wanderer whose solvency
was only vouched for by the possession
of a camera must have added to his
handicap by the surreptitious fondling of
a wine sack that uncannily resembled a
little pig. |
Many old costumes have disappeared
from the Pyrenees. The men rarely wear
sabots, and then only when they are at
(@10 a
AURWIDTY *
I
cl
’
LT Vuxsod
eso; u
O17
NV) WVII1
yde1so,OYU
iby
4
Mane cn
UMUNOGNV AO
a
dy
nNOS T
V
a
J
4
N
‘
TO
»
a
LHL
NI
ST
o>
»
\
1)
NV
dq NV
IVLIVO ‘IVNOLLVN GE
6€
6
VNVAAVS,
J
a AW
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
work irrigating. Their footgear is usually
the rope-soled alpargatax. Some wear
a wide sash, but the crowd-color is chiefly
furnished by the velveteens, which, chosen
for their wear-resisting qualities, have
with age and patches taken on almost
Turneresque hues. Now and then one
sees the scarlet Catalan cap, which foids
longitudinally of the head and falls over
one eye in the fashion once beloved of
sea adventurers. Only on Sundays and
fete days do the girls don the short skirt
and low shoes of the artist’s peasant.
For the most part the skirt is short for
utilitarian reasons, and all beauty of line
is destroyed by their clumsy ‘shoes.
SMUGGLERS REAPING A GOLDEN HARVEST
Doubtless Andorra smuggles at the
best of times. That is the conclusion I
reached, at least, from the perfect open-
ness with which every one discussed the
free-trade proclivities of the Andorrans.
One might have thought they were talk-
ing of the spring plowing or the price of
lambs. And yet Andorran secretiveness
has become a proverb in the hills. ‘Tell
a thing to an Andorran and it is lost,” is
one form of this saying. Nowadays,
with the neighbor France in the market
for everything that Andorra can furnish,
and too busy fighting to watch her dou-
anes very carefully, the men of Andorra
are reaping a golden harvest. Scandal-
ous rumor has it that the Spanish fron-
tier guards look with a certain compla-
cency on the illegal traffic. ;
“1 have a cousin who is a frontier
guard, 92 man in Barcelona told’ me.
“He says that if the war lasts another
year he will retire. At ten dollars a mule,
he is already rich.”
The situation of this quaint little sur-
vival of lost ages favors this form of
activity. The Republic of Andorra meas-
ures about 25 miles in one direction by
20 miles in the other, and is located right
on the crest of the Pyrenees. It is as
though the little State were a wedge
driven in and dividing France and Spain
at this point. Charlemagne gave the An-
dorrans a certain measure of freedom
because of their services in the field.
They streamed down out of their hills
and helped Louis the Debonair fight
the Moors, with whom, however, they
297
had a very lively quarrel of their own.
For that he gave them a franchise.
“TT! IS A POLITICAL CURIOSITY”
Napoleon looked the little State over.
“It is a ‘political curiosity,” said he.
“It must be preserved.”
Andorra has maintained itself as a po-
litical entity for more years than has any
other republic in the world. The tiny
State of San Marino, in Italy, vies with
it in point of diminutiveness, but Andorra
was hoary with age when San Marino
was born.
It is not worth fighting for, and it
makes no trouble that a few policemen
would not quell. Nevertheless it is a
real State.
Andorrans pay almost no taxes at all.
Fach year a small tribute must be paid to
thes Prince: Bishop of Urgel andetomthe
Republic of France, and a levy is made
on the incomes of the Andorrans for the
purpose. There are almost no other costs
attached to the operation of the republic.
Fach of the six cantons in which the
little State is divided elects annually four
councilors, and the 24 select one of their
number for president. They are paid a
few sous each when they attend a meet-
ing of the council. Their horses are fed
by the State and they have their meals.
- Now and then the hall of the council
needs a new slate on the roof. ‘The an-
nual budget stops there.
he ‘carriers .cariileit s5co. dyUccel
when it was just light enough in the
morning for me to see that my neighbors
were all peasant women on their way to
St. Julian de Loria, the first Andorran
village one reaches and a famous resort
of smugglers. Not so long ago a mere
mule track connected Seo with the cap-
ital, but now a fairly good road follows
the winding course of the torrent of the
Valita, Cottee is not to be had out of
hours at a provincial Spanish inn, and we
were more than sharp set when the
carter turned us out at St. Julian and
made us walk up a grade the mules could
not negotiate with a full load.
A FETE DAY IN ST. JULIAN
It was a féte day in St. Julian, it ap-
peared. A stand in the public square,
which was a mere bulbous enlargement
of the cart road, had been decked with
298 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ee
epeer™ 77)
anger
Ne Se
egg
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE OLD ROPE-WALK: PUIGCERDA, SPAIN
greenery. A girl dressed in the fete-day
costume of the hills—a white bodice cut
modestly low, operatically short skirts,
and low shoes—ran to meet the discon-
tented little violiniste who had frowned
on us and on her peasant mother from
her place in the crowded cart. The vio-
liniste was dressed in the cheap finery of
Barcelona, with high-heeled shoes of
poor leather, badly scuffed and run over
at the heels, while around her neck she
had wound a boa that had been built of
chicken hackle. The sister was charm-
ing, but the feminine in her led her to
admire the awful tawdriness of the vio-
liniste.
“Thou art in grand tenue,’ I heard
her say.
There was time to see that the public
square was filled with men putting im-
patient feet against the ribs of rebellious
mules in the effort to pull tighter the
ropes of the diamond hitch. Loads were
going across the hills, féte day or no.
Other tired men straggled in at the heels
of tired mules, the pack-saddles empty,
alter) ay Successiul. trip “mto” Mrance:
Small boys were importantly aiding.
Girls clung to the arms of the contra-
bandista, and old women waddled about
with parcels that looked like provisions
for the departing. Then came the call
to breakfast, and the smugglers were
forgotten.
There were tiny trout served at this
one peseta breakfast, and toasted bread
and doubtful coffee; but the undoubted
piece de résistance of the table was an
automatic fly-swatter that ran by clock-
work, and which at. least made the
swarming flies respectful. Wine was
served in the two-spouted bottles from
which one pours the fluid at a distance
into a thirsty mouth, and which are such
a snare to the unaccustomed wayfarer.
The old woman who was mistress of
ceremonies hunted about behind the
counter of the tiny store which was an
adjunct to the inn and found a fly-
specked letter-head.
‘Thou shalt have this,” said shesmess
will serve to save us from forgetfulness.”
All the way to Andorra I had cher-
ished a secret hope that I might be per-
mitted to accompany the smugglers on
one of their illicit trips; but when I
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
reached the capital this vain hope was
blighted. It was not that there was the
slightest suspicion of a stranger, or that
the march over the hills was considered
too difficult for tender feet; but the
Andorrans felt they must consider the
state of the stranger if he were discov-
ered in France without a proper visé on
his passport. It was felt that he might
have the greatest trouble to explain him-
self, and that in the explanation an off-
cial and undesirable attention might be
directed toward themselves ; so I was re-
egretfully refused.
But the operations of the smugglers
were made quite clear to me. In these
Pyrenean hills a tobacco is raised by
which the rankest Connecticut second
growth might class as Havana. This
frightful stuff is labeled 1n accordance
with the tastes of the prospective victim.
One may have a Havana cigar, or one
ticketed from the Canary Islands, or
marked Carolina or Virginia or Gibral-
tar. Even the revenue stamps are coun-
terfeited, so that, so far as externals are
concerned, the elect would surely be de-
ceived. But an outraged palate would
discover the deception.
In the tobacco factory of Andorra
these cigars and cigarettes are put up
in packages, and packed in haversacks
which are just a load for one man. If
the smugglers run a haversack through
to France they are paid eighty pesetas.
If they are forced to abandon the load
en route they are still paid twenty pesetas.
The packages of cigarettes which one
buys for twenty centimes in Andorra
sell, according to the stamp upon the
package, for eighty centimes outside; so
that the smuggling profit is not to be
despised. But the most profitable trade
is in mules.
CHIEF TRAFFIC IS IN SPANISH MULES
Spain has been fairly robbed of her
mules by the needs of the Allied armies,
and so the further exportation is frowned
upon by the government. Likewise, al-
though these mules are bought for the
French army, France still maintains an
import duty upon live stock. ‘The An-
dorrans procure mules by hook and crook
from Spain, and lead them over the hills
at night by unfrequented paths into
France. The share of the gendarmes in
299
this traffic, as previously stated, is ten
dollars a mule. There is no record that
an Andorran smuggler has been recently
injured in the practice of his vocation.
There is a prosaic stability about the
business of smuggling in Andorra that
detracts from its interest to the visitor.
I turned my attention to the study of
history in Andorra, but here I was some-
what disappointed. It was possible to
get into the old council hall, in which the
horses of the councilors are stabled on
the ground floor, while the council hall
and their sleeping quarters are on the
floor above. There is a fine old fireplace
there, in which the administrative meat
is roasted, and a cupboard with six locks,
in which archives are kept that date from
the days of Charlemagne.
But each canton has a key, and the
keepers of the keys were on the hills,
smuggling or watching the cattle that
furnish the most permanent source of
income here; so that my inquiry into An-
dorra’s past was a somewhat scanty one,
TITLES ONCE OBTAINED ARE NEVER
RELINQUISHED
The total population of the republic is
about 6,000, and those men that have
arms serve in the army. ‘There are no
uniforms in the army, but this shortage
is made up by the surplusage of officers.
Artemus Ward’s regiment of brigadier
generals might well have had its inspira-
tion here. The man who once gets an
office never relinquishes the title, and as
offices seem to go somewhat by rotation,
the untitled man in Andorra must be a
poor stick indeed. Nor is there a finicky
precision in the matter of arms for the
army. The man who served lunch showed
me with pride a blunderbuss made by
Tower, in London, in the days of one of
the first Georges, and assured me that he
was a soldier in good standing. It was a
good blunderbuss, too—clean as a watch
and obviously up to anything. I did not
wonder at the pride he took in it
“It is a hard country,” said the priest
who shared the mule cart on the way
back to Seo. “The cattle begin to strag-
gle down from the hills when the snow
falls early in September. The winter is
long and very cold and my people are so
poor. But for the smuggling they would
suffer. What would you?”
milan!
XS ai OM eis
TRENCHES
As Told Over the Tea Table in Blighty—A Soldiers’
*‘Home’’
in Paris
By Carot K. Corey
AuTHOR OF “FROM THE TRENCHES 0 VERSAILLES,” ETC.
LL the long tables are ready for tea.
A The cloths are blue and white and
so are the dishes. The milk pitch-
ers; are iull’ to. running over, the jam
bowls too, and the large plates of fresh,
sweet-smelling bread and butter are just
where they ‘ought to be. And there’s
cake—the good kind, full of raisins and
currants and nuts. Why, there’s even
plenty of sugar! So, as I tie on my ab-
surd little apron I say to myself that it
doesn’t look like a war-time tea at all.
But it 1s, in the fullest sense of the
word; for in this big, cheerful, sunny
room every guest will be in uniform. He
may benaslommiy... a) .Canuck,. Jona
“Scotty.” If he’s a New Zealander he’ll
call himself a “Pig Islander,” and if he’s
Australian he’s an “Aussie” for short.
If he’s French Canadian we never ask
his name—just call him “Pierre,” at
which he smiles and shows his nice white
teeth.
Never mind, he’s a soldier on leave,
else he wouldn’t be in “A Little Corner
of Blighty.” Everybody knows. that
“Blighty” is just another name for Mem-
ory, or Courage, or Strength. Briefly,
it’s home, the beginning and end of the
soldier’s long, hard trail.
The first three to come to my table are
“Kangaroos”—tall and straight, freshly
shaven, uniforms brushed and pressed,
boots of a dazzling brilliance; happy
faces, happy laughter, happy hearts. “By
these signs ye shall know them,” for they
Bee 7 heise Talore
‘jJUSr IN’ AND WHAT TR MEANS
To be “just in” means everything for
which you have longed during twelve,
fourteen, sometimes even nineteen or
twenty months. It means Paris, with
money in your pocket. It means free-
dom from discipline. It means sleep in
the morning. If your pal’s sharing your
room, the last thing you say to him at
night is, “Call me at six,” just so you can
tell him to,“Go to,” etc. Thensyoumeaam
over again.
Often a glistening new alarm-cloclx is
carried in, hilariously wound, and curs-
ingly set for some unholy hour. And
when it attempts to fulfill that mission
for which all alarm-clocks were invented,
it is sleepily but vigorously kicked into
space to an accompaniment of “That sure
was worth the price.” It’s nice to be
USE in”
Before very long the three have learned
the name of the best theater in town, and
that of the finest and most expensive
restaurant. ‘The smiling one asks if the
circus is still on, and when informed that
it is he immediately decides for the other
two:
“We'll go there tonight, though we’re
all pretty tired from the long ride down,
and I suppose we ought to go to bed, in-
asmuch as we’ve got eight full days here.
Indulgence leave, you know, only for
good boys. And the best part of it all
is that we’re together. Two more ‘birds’
from our “‘divvy’ came to town day before
yesterday, and we’re all going to meet
here. We've heard a lot about this little
village and now we’re going to prove it.
Wright, here, didn’t want to come to tea
at all. Said he wanted to look ’em over.
My word! The girlies are scrumptious
in this old town. I’m saying to myself
as I listen to your talk, dear friend, ‘don’t
move; she might vanish’; for we haven’t
heard a lady speak English in seventeen
months.
“Last night we saw a girl; she was plow-
ing, and I don’t mind telling you she got
us going, at that. Wright hung out of
300
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the car window and gave a good old Au-
stralian ‘cooee.’ But she just shook her
head ’cause she didn’t ‘compree.’ ”
BARTY’S REQUIEM
Just here a fourth man wearing the
same divisional colors on his sleeve joins
our group to the gay shout of “Hello,
Digger,’ which is only another name for
“mate,” you know.
Then: ‘Where’s Barty?
come along with you?”
The newcomer shakes his head, and
when he is asked “Why not?” answers
simply, “Dead.” To a further question
om When? he replies, Monday. And
Barty’s only requiem from three husky
throats is, “He was a good bloke.”
As I say “Hello!” to three New Zea-
landers, I see that something is very
wrong with them, for they fairly radiate
gloom—so much so that the smiling Au-
stralian, who has just lighted a “fag,”
again takes the floor. He wants us all
to “gaze on this procession of joy-kill-
ers.” -And he goes on like this:
“Say, fellows, this is “Parus.” Don’t
you know that? And don’t you know
you’re damn lucky to be alive?”
“That’s no news to us,” says one of the
newcomers, a stretcher-bearer. “But on
the last afternoon, when in spite of our-
_ selves we feel a little down, we come in
here and a lady begins to sing ‘End of
aebertect Daye: 7
When I look at these three nice boys
facing no one knows what, in spite of all
talk about “encouraging the morale of
the men,” I can’t help saying:
“Tf you happened to steal another day,
you wouldn’t be the first.”
The big-eyed one, who is a bomb-
thrower, shakes his head mournfully as
he tells me it can’t be done, for ‘“We’ve
got to think of the other fellows who are
waiting their turn. Anyway, it’s a terri-
ble risk.”
THE UNBELIEVABLY PERFECT GIFT
And when I ask if the risk isn’t worth
the result, everybody present acknowl-
edges vociferously that it is, but—at
which the third kid, who up to now has
eaten steadily and said nothing, breaks
into the conversation with “Oh, hell, lady,
we're three days overdue now!”
Didn’t he
501
Some one touches me on the shoulder
and I turn to greet a serious, anxious-
looking soldier with whom I have a great
secret. His first words are:
“Did you get it?”
And ina stage whisper I answer, “Yes.”
Then he asks, “Is she pretty ?”
And I say:
“W onderful—really, truly curls and a
white lace dress, and all the little under-
things hand-made, with ribbon bows
everywhere. And she can be dressed and
undressed a hundred times a day, be-
cause there are regular grown-up ‘snaps’
on everything. Even her hat’s got a hat-
pin and she’s wearing gloves. And she
says, ‘Mamma’ and”’—
Here I am interrupted with, “Can she
say papa?” And I swear it.
Having kept the best till last, I tell him
that she walks. All you have to do is to
turn a little thing in her back and she
starts. She’s so cunning I almost want
to keep her for myself, though I shudder
when I think about the price.
“Price,’ ‘scorns he, “do you think I
care a hang about the price? Please re-
member that child o’ mine is four years
old now, and when I saw her she was
exactly seven months. Don’t you sup-
pose I want her to know she’s got a
daddy °”
I take advantage of the lull in the rush
of serving, and sneak him through the
kitchen, where no soldier is allowed, into
the room where we hang our coats. The
chief tea-maker begins to expostulate,
then recognizes my companion and only
smiles ; for she, too, has seen Miss Dolly.
I allow daddy to open the box. As he
lifts from the many sheets of pink tissue
paper this unbelievably perfect gift he
only gasps, “Oooooohhhhh,” but I am re-
paid.
“WARS A GOOD THING FOR A LOT OF US”
I return to the tea-room to find a hot-
headed chap storming indignantly:
“There you go again, talking about the
‘war. There ought to be a law’—
“That’s so,” interpolates his neighbor.
‘What else do we know after three years
of it? You pick a nice, new, interesting
subject and tell us about it. Why not
give us a little lecture on the mud?
That’s always interesting to the ladies.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
wee
© Committee on Public Information
WHAT BLIGHTY MEANS TO OUR BOYS
The sailors on leave from their ships and the soldiers from the trenches bring to the city
their high-hearted, indomitable youth and the motto, “This is Paris, and we’re lucky to be
alive.”
They say ‘Poor dear’ so sweetly that you
forget to tell them the one good thing
about it, which is that it keeps you warm.
ipnever, hadva cold till coraierexand
cleaned it off. And look what a ‘beaut’
[vesgot now. lI tell you; Massus, the
mud’s never hurt me. Neither has the
war. Why, I used to have asthma some-
thin’ fierce; but now it’s all ‘partee.’ If
we get home with all our arms and legs
and eyes—or just enough to get on
with—this here war’s goin’ to be a good
thing for a lot of us.
“Of course, I ain’t sayin’ it’s pleasant ;
far from it. There’s the route marches
and the everlastin’ salutin’ and the bully
beef and the bumps on the ground at
night. But there’s compensations. ‘Take
my case. I had three sisters all learning
the piano at once, and all of ’em dubs
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
at it. Yeah, it could be worse. Pass the
cake, Kid.”
Two more Australians, whom I know
only as Phil and Steve, are ready for tea.
As I pour, I ask the big one, “What’s
that you’re wearing in your hat?”
To which he replies wunsmilingly,
“Kangaroo feathers, of course.”
And when I want to know what his
friend carries that enormous knife for in
his belt, he unhesitatingly answers, “Ap-
pendicitis.” :
“Say, this is a boshter (fine) place, eh
Phil?” says the red-haired one.
Phil nods in hearty assent, though his
mouth is truly too full for utterance.
After a little while, however, he slows
up, and begins to tell me about some of
the fun they’ve been having. The best
evening was the one on which they began
by beating up a taxi driver because he re-
fused to take them five iniles into the
country.
“By thunder, lady, that bloomin’
blighter was a funny sight, wasn’t he,
Steve r”
THE AUSTRALIANS DINNER PARTY
Steve says, “Righto, especially when
his nose bled the most.”
The aunt of another pal, having dis-
covered their presence in Paris, invited
them to dinner. They left their hotel
“perfectly good citizens, at peace with —
all the world.” After they'd finished
with the chauffeur they got into his car,
pulled down their sleeves, leaned back,
and “lighted up.” Arrived close to their
destination they stopped the taxi, got out,
overwhelmed the frightened and bloody
driver by the size of the tip, and then
proceeded the rest of the way on foot,
‘cause they “had the wind up” at the
thought of eating with a lady.
"Vou tell the rest. Pete, assays) Phil
shyly.
But Pete insists that he “hasn’t brought
his music,” so Phil continues:
“You see, we really wanted to meet
Sam’s aunty, and we really wanted to eat
that dinner, but the nearer we got to her
house the scairder we got. We went past
three times, and once Pete had his foot
on the lowest step; but we got seasick
again and hurried away. Fourth time,
just as I said, ‘Let’s smoke one more be-
3()3
fore going in,’ the door opened and a
little, round lady, with nice twinkly eyes,
came out and said: “This is the house,
boys. Come right in. Dinner’s almost
ready.’
“So we did, and first thing you know,
Pete here was having a fine time, like he
always does. We both spied a big photo-
graph of Sydney harbor on the wall, and
that gave Pete something else to talk
about. As for me, well, I just couldn’t
think of a word to say, and I got to wor-
rying about what the lady must be think-
ing of me. Poor soul! . She married a
‘Froggie,’ but at that she seems happy.
“When the time came to go in to din-
ner, a lady servant with awful nice feet
looked in at the door and said: ‘Madum,
eh survy. She looked right at me, too,
and though I didn’t savvy, I winked back.
But nothing happened. Aunty just said,
‘Mercy’ (Merci), and we all ‘fell in.’ -
“Mr. Froggie was very nice and very
polite—very. Always saying ‘Pardong’
and making funny little bows. - But I
liked him at that; for of course he can’t
help his ways, now, can he? He told’us
that Madum was deelighted to have us
in ’cause she’d never gotten over being
Australian. Everything to eat was going
to be Australian, not a single satice on
nothin’.
“When we got into the mess-room, first
thing I noticed was a treemennjus bowl
of Australian wattle blossoms.”
“Youwre crazy,” bursts in Pete:
was French mimosa.”
Sollee
“MY NAME’S THE GUSHER, BUT TONIGHT
I CAN'T SAY A WORD”
SOhait was. was itt: shouts. datas
“You call it by any new-fangled French
name you want to. It’ll always be plain
old golden wattle to me. As I said be-
fore, there was a huge bunch of wattle
blossoms on the table. I gave one look
and sniffled right out loud. I just couldn't
stand it a bit longer; so I said: ‘Mrs.
Australia’—I called her that for, in the
first place, I could never pronounce her
Froggie name, and in the second place, I
think ‘Mrs. Australia’s’ mighty pretty, so
I said, ‘Mrs. Australia—most of us have
got a nickname in the army. Mine’s the
‘Gusher,’ ’cause I talk so much. . But to-
night I can’t talk at all. I’m thinking of
304 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
prey
kh
Photograph by William Brandt
THE STRASSBURG MONUMENT
Today, the Strassburg monument is more than a memorial to Alsace, more than an ex-
pression of the proud spirit of France. No longer draped in mourning, but bright with the
tri-color, it is a declaration that might does not make right.
home and I can’t say a word—not a
word.’
“Well, she just leaned over, patted me
on the shoulder, and said: ‘Then, why
try? She’s dinkum (the real thing), she
is—dinkum as they make ’em.”
' A Scotty takes a vacant chair and I go
to the kitchen for fresh tea. As I pour
it I see that it is unusually strong, and
Olen to. bring hot water, But mo; he
wants it strong, very. I say: “My good-
ness, I should think you’d be too nervous
to fight.”
And most seriously he answers, “Bee-
leeve me, sister, J am.”
A solemn-looking boy, who hasn’t said
a word during all his tea, gets up, thanks
me, and goes away. At which two of the
others burst into hearty laughter as they
inform me that “the poor boob is upset
because he can’t forget the face of the
Fritzie he ‘finished.’ ”
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
“LETS: NO TALK SHOP.
‘Everybody at the table concludes that
“he’d better wait until he’s got something
to worry about.” But, upon questioning,
most of them admit that sometimes the
things one sees are not exactly pretty.
“For example,” says one, “that time the
‘big one’ came just when sixty of us were
coming out after ‘fourteen days of it.’”
At which an elderly man speaks up:
“The saddest sight ever I saw was this
morning, in Notre Dame. A nun came
in with forty-eight children all in black.
She told me that every one had been or-
phaned by the war. :
Buc, lets not. talk shop. IWet's: talk
about the funny things one sees. Once
I was driving in a long line of transport
lorries. Suddenly, it seemed almost be-
fore I heard the shell, I saw an overcoat
sailing through the air. The sleeves were
waving wildly and I laughed till I cried.
I ran up to it and saw there was some-
thing inside; but I kept right on laugh-
ing. When I got back to my car I met
a mate, who said: ‘Say, I got a fine pair
o’ legs here. You know who owns what
goes with ’em?’”
A disheveled boy, sinking exhaustedly
into a chair, exclaims:
“Geeminy crickets, I’m tired. Paree or
no Paree, I’m going to bed right after tea.
My back aches and I’m full of bruises.”
“Too bad,” I say, “just in from line,
I suppose.”
“Line nothing,” he sneers.
learning to roller-skate.”
As I fill his cup for the second time,
a nice “homey” sort of a lad wants to
know “‘where all the pretty workers come
Eom. «Ele 20ES Ol:
“T’ve been
CHOCOLATES ALL GONE—TIME FOR THE
WAR TO END
“Now that little one in black, with all
the yellow hair, will do me. She told me
yesterday that after the twentieth of the
month you won’t be able to find a single
chocolate in all Paris. Think of that,
fellows! Just about time for this nasty
war to end, don’t you think? ‘This place
is certainly top hole, and I wrote in the
visitors’ book how I felt about it. What
did I write? Just ‘Better than a married
hier
305
“Proving, of course, that you are not
married,” I say. ;
“Proving, of course, that J am,” says
ine!
After a minute I’m asked if I’ve seen
Mack today.
“He promised to meet me at the corner
of the Roo Day Rivullay and the Roo
Fourth Day September, and I waited till
my feet got sore. I say—here he is now.
If you don’t mind too much, Mack, I’d
like to know”—
-Yes, tumes Mack, “alll had to do
was to find that corner. After I’d hunted
for it most of the afternoon I asked a
Frenchy. He began with the first verse,
which he did solo. When he got to the
second quite a crowd had collected. So
I said: ‘I’m a peaceable man myself.
Have it your way.’ And here I am.”
“Mack” seems a good sort and tells me
he likes music. From the wide, soft,
many-plaited band around his hat I know
that he likes “swank,” too. Also he likes
books and asks me if I’ve read the story
of Gallipoli, just published by an Aus-
tralian. He goes on to relate that his
mother has sent him a copy, but that it’s
“no bone” (pas bon), for the author con-
tends that every Australian is a hero.
During the shouts of derision which
follow this statement I defiantly an-
nounce that every Australian is a hero.
At which five modest youngsters rise,
make me a gallant bow, and exclaim as
with one voice, ‘We nevah contradict a
lady.”
“I KNOW IRISH EYES WHEN I SEE THEM” ~
After they have gone there is sufficient
time to permit me to clear my table and
prepare it for the next “reinforcements.”
I slip over to another part of the room,
where three “workers” are intently lis-
tening to a fourth, who is narrating
something thrilling, beginning: “And he
said”’— But I shall never know what he
said, for a glance over my shoulder shows
me that again every seat at my table is
occupied. So I hurry back.
“Why, you're all Canadians this time,
arent yous Dhats mice, lcsaye as el
busy myself about my pleasant task.
“Easy, easy, lady,” says a mischievous-
looking baby. “I'll venture to say yor.
smiled just like that at your last tableful,
306
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
°*s.- s- = = &
3
© Committee on Public Information
Y. M. C. A. BARRACKS FOR AMERICAN FIGHTERS IN PARIS
Here is a home for the soldier “just in,’
the front and enjoy freedom from discipline, hot baths, and sleep in the morning!
’
where he can realize the dreams of months at
“Freshly
shaven, uniforms brushed and pressed, boots of a dazzling brilliance, happy faces, happy
laughter, happy hearts”’—by these signs ye shall know those who are “just in.”
and that there wasn’t a Canuck amongst
them. You see, I know Irish eyes when
cecesthienis
I don’t answer because my attention
is fixed on a rough-looking individual
who is making a violent arraignment
against America and all things American.
He is saying:
AN ATTACK ON. FOOLISH AMERICAN BOYS
“They make me sick with their talk
about their umpteen million men and
their steen billion airplanes. And they
send a handful of toy soldiers to France,
and these guys sit in cafés and tell about
how, since we couldn’t finish the war our-
selves, they've come over to do it for us,
and that if they can’t wim Belgium back
dey llWNb iy) eit) back weaned) ‘tate tmemunett
fathers’ incomes could be added together
it “ud make something lhke’’—
Mere | can stand no moreso
surely you don’t hold a whole nation re-
sponsible for the talk of a few foolish
boys?” I demand as calmly as possible.
Furious at being interrupted, he wants
to know why it’s my funeral to “stick up
for the rotten Yanks:
And when I reply, “Because I happen
to be one myself,’ he only whispers,
“Well, VIl be double damned.”
As he goes out, however, he stops for
a second to hiss into the ear of the first
speaker, “You and your Irish eyes!”
An alert, middle-aged man is on my
right, seated between two clear-eyed, up-
standing boys. He introduces me, oh
how proudly, to what he terms his “off-
springs.” All three are in the same regi-
ment, and Eddie is twenty-one—cele-
brated his birthday day before yesterday,
right here in Paris. What do you know
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 307
Tcl
th.
Photograph from W. W. Rock
THE PALACE OF THE TROCADERO, SEEN. THROUGH THE ARCHES OF EIFFEL TOWER
The art treasures of Paris are clustered like jewels in a setting, and one need only turn
from masterpiece to masterpiece.
distance, is poised Mercié’s “Fame.”
On the dome of the Palace of the Trocadero, seen in the
In the beautiful park, which slopes down to the Seine
and the Bridge of Jena, are several fine statues in marble and bronze, and one wing of the
palace is occupied by a remarkable collection of sculpture, chronologically arranged for com-
parative study, with representative casts from the twelfth century forward.
about that? I*reddie is nineteen and try-
ing to raise a moustache. And isn’t it
wonderful to have leave together?
Freddie tells me it wouldn’t have been
possible except that father said he didn’t
mind ; he’d postpone his leave till the kids
got theirs. Which makes Eddie join in
with:
“But you can always count on father.
When you need him, he’s there. Why,
when Freddie got plugged in the leg’”’—
But father says, “Don’t bother about
that now, son.”
And when I tell father what a splendid
thing it is to see three such fine soldiers
from one family, he only smiles, but he
secnis pleased, . Ele explains that “Mis
partner at home has a weak heart, but
manages to keep the business going, so
there was no reason why he shouldn't
have come. And as for the boys, well,
look at ’em!”’
A BIRTHDAY DINNER, “JUST LIKE A BOOK”
Father himself, so he insists, is hard
as nails and can stand the grind better
than «either of these brats here: 7 Then
all three begin a recital of the interesting
things they’ve done, and when I tell them
of several places they haven’t visited yet,
Freddie marks them down in a little red
book.
Then Eddie, with great enthusiasm,
starts the story of the birthday dinner.
How, not knowing one word of French,
they couldn’t make the waiter understand
that they wanted oysters. When they'd
pretty nearly given it up as a bad job,
Freddie ran out into the street, return-
ing with an oyster shell taken from a
BERNOT Mb
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
aie oo Pram Se tS
Photograph by G. Frederick Atherton
A VIEW OF THE SEINE
The river has wound its silver thread through the stately, dramatic, and violent years of
Parisian history, but never through a chapter more poignant or exalted than the present,
when France has become for all civilization the symbol of heroic sacrifice.
great stack on the sidewalk. Wasn't he
clever:
And father ordered two kinds of fish,
though, of course, he hadn’t meant to.
And the only way they got nuts for des-
sert was by imitating a nut-cracker with
their hands. Even the waiter laughed,
and the proprietor gave each of them a
post-card, with a picture of the restau-
rant on it, to remember him by. Wasn’t
it just like a book?
And every night, no matter how tired,
they wrote a joint letter to mother.
“MOTHER’S THE BEST SPORT IN THE
FAMILY”
Freddie told her what they’d done
from breakfast to lunch, Eddie how
tiey d filled in the time from lunch to
dinner, and father how they’d passed the
evening. So mother wouldn’t think she
was forgotten fora minute. I guess not.
Why, every morning since they'd left
her, soon as their eyes popped open, first
thing they all did was to pull out her
Epic. qusalure and. Say, «\Gooduimorramo:
little mother.”
And guess where they carried her?
In their caps, of course.
you know.
“Gee! if she could only be along to-
night! Going to grand opera! And the
seats cost something— fifteen francs
apiece, if you please. But, shucks, mother
wouldn’t mind. Why, mother’s the best
sport in the family.% vl agree tomihar
As I pass the bread to a newcomer I
recognize an acquaintance of yesterday.
In answer to the usual question, “How
long have you got?” he had informed me
with a knowing wink and a dig in the ribs
that he might be here a “considerable”
time; for he is private chauffeur to the
colonel and “the colonel’s got his lady.”
He slips me a little bunch of violets under
the table because I “was so good to him
yesterday,” but he’d like to know why I
took so much trouble to direct him to the
“booleyvard”? He grins as he asks:
“Why didn’t you just tell me to walk
till I smelled the perfume? I) founda
all right and it cost me a pretty penny,
too. Say, I'll bet a guy could spend a
thousand francs a day in this town and
lead a righteous life. And if he lived the
other kind”—
Easy to get at,
- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 309
Grand chorus, “Ladies present.”
A jolly, fat little soldier bounces into
the room, throws his cap on the floor,
and beams all around, as he fairly ex-
plodes: “Oh, what a beautiful Thursday !”
THE SFORY OF A BATH
In answer to my unspoken question he
explains that every day in the trenches
is “like Sunday on the farm,’’ whereas
here—why, one actually remembers the
day of the week. He knows that this is
Thursday, for he got in on Saturday
night, and getting in on Saturday was the
luckiest thing that ever happened to him,
because that’s one of the two days when
there’s hot water in Paris.
50, he says, I turned 1 on and: I
stuck my head in the steam, and I filled
the tub so full that when I dived into it
I splashed all over the place. I hopped
out and wiped it up as best I could—any-
way, I had another towel. Then I slid
back with a happy sigh into that bea-u-
ti-ful boiling bath, and I soaked—just
soaked. 3
“Some one knocked at the door, and it
was the maid; but I said, ‘Not at home.
Won't be at home for quite some time.’
“Vou-sce, | can ‘parler’ a little; so
‘got her’ when she said she’d come to
prepare my bath.
“T said, ‘What? I guess I don’t need
no lady to prepare no bath for me.’ She
seemed kinda surprised, and I heard her
mumbling to herself, and I wondered
what she was doing in my room so long.
“By and by, though, after *bout an
hour, I had a dandy rub-down with a
towel that smelled clean, for I don’t mind
telling you that I’m in a real, regular
hotel, with elevators and everything.
Then I went into the other room and I
seen what Maddymoizelle had been up
to. [ laughed out loud, ’cause she’d drawn
the curtains tight—against Zeps, you
know. She’d turned down the covers of
the bed, all pink, and she’d lighted a little
lamp, which was pink too.
“I says to myself : ‘Curley, this is y-o-u,
which spells you.’ And I never was so
happy since I got my first pay envelope.
I wiggled into that bed slow and care-
ful, so’s not to disturb things too much,
and of course I hadn’t nothin’ on. Catch
‘(horses )—anyway.
me missin’ the feel of them sheets. And
I’ve got five more nights.”
WHEN HE LICKED THE SPOON
I hand the jam to a fellow who wants
to know 1f I’ve ever seen the Bairnsfather
cartoon where poor Tommy, opening an-
other tin of apple jelly, is saying long-
ingly, “When'll it be strawberry?”
I nod, but tell him not to be afraid of
this brand, because it was made by one
of the ladies. So he decides to “take a
chance.” I notice that his “chance” is
a’liberal one. As he scrapes the bowl
he volunteers the information that his
mother always used to let him lick the
spoon. At which everybody present yells;
“Kamarad,” including me.
I go to the kitchen for a fresh supply,
and when I get back there is a great dis-
cussion about last night’s air raid. A
thin, nervous, jumpy little man is saying
that he reached his room at 8 o’clock,
straight from “Hell Fire Corner,” and,
dead weary, had fallen into bed; but the
strange feeling of a mattress under him
and four walls around him had chased
away all thought of sleep; so he turned
and twisted from 9 o’clock until the first
bomb fell at 11.25.
“Then,” he concludes, “it was just like
‘Home, Sweet Home’ in my pill-box, and
I woke up this morning at 8.”
The two latest arrivals are old friends
of mine. LDve known them for a week
and two days. Today, I’m not so glad to
see them, for it’s their night to “dee-
partee,’ and I hate to say goodby; but
they are not too sad, as they put it, and
the blue-eyed one immediately begins a
description of an afternoon spent in the
“Looksumburg,”’ and finishes up with,
“Gawd knows I’ve seen enough of art.”
ONDY “DWO) SPEEDS: LO RENCE J LRARNS:
SLOW AND FULL STOP
The brown-eyed one declares, “It’ll be
good -to get back to ihe mokes:
The worst thing
about the whole business is the railroad
ride back, because in France there are
only two speeds for a train, to wit: slow
and full stop.”
We chatter on about many things until
the time comes for me to wish them the
310
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
THE PLACE VENDOME, PARIS
. The column was erected to the “Glory of the Grand Army by Napoleon the Great.”
Bronze from 1,200 cannon taken from the enemy in the campaign of 1805 was used in the
spiral band, which depicts scenes of that campaign.
Pulled down by the Communards, the
column was recast from the old,molds and re-erected in 1875.
usual “Good luck!” The blue-eyed one
begs me not to worry about him, for
“Fritzie hasn’t made the shell marked
with his number”; and the brown-eyed
one tells me not to worry about him, for
he’s. going to try to live up to the rules.
I know he means the rules of the Y. M.
Oe) awitich ares sLive-clean; berclean:
fight clean; play the game.”
We shake hands in true soldier fashion,
and I wince as the ring on my finger
presses into the flesh.
The blue-eyed one lights a “Players”
and goes out whistling, “I know that
she'll be waiting, as she promised she
would do.”
But the brown-eyed one seems to be
thinking aloud, as I hear him say, “We
who are about to die, salute you.”
When I attempt to fill the cups of three
new ones, I am stopped by an imperious
gesture and a sharp command to bring
“three whiskies, quick.”
“Oh!” I say, trying not to laugh, “we
only serve tea here, you know.” And to
a most indignant, “Talk about your rotten
places,” they stagger out.
A SUBMARINE SURVIVOR’S FIRST SPEECH
A white-faced, delicate boy in civilian
clothes, with a handkerchief around his
neck in place of a collar, his ill-fitting
coat much too small, and his painfully
new shoes squeaking as he walks to the
center of the room, begins to speak:
“Hi in’t never mide no speech before.
Hi in’t,” he commences in truest Cock-
ney accent. “But hi hintend to mike one
now, hi do. Hi and me mites was sub-
marined the other dy. It’s the fyshion
to be submarined nowadays; so you see
we hare very fashionable. Ha, ha! We
swimmed a good piece, we did. We got
picked up off the coast o’ Barcelona,
where we wuz took in by kind people.
The consul give us these nice clothes to
wear. ’F was a good cove, ’e wuz. “E
give us Our train’ fare tomere; anauee
want to say that I never was treated bet-
ter nowhere than I been treated right ’ere
in this ’ere place, and I want to give three
cheers for the ladies in Blighty, and—
and—well—Gawd sive the King!”
I know it is getting late, for the “reg-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oat
ulars” are beginning to come in. One
drags a leg, another trembles constantly,
a third has a hacking cough—gassed, you
know; but, “once you’re in this game,
you just naturally got to stay for the
finish.” Consequently, though for these
three the war is over, they are still in
uniform.
The first drives a motor transport,
which meets the ‘on leave’ men at the
trains, the second’s a batman, and the
third is in the army post-office. As their
wages are not exactly high, the teas in
Blighty help out considerably.
The coughing one comes to my table
and immediately begins a monologue.
He gives us ail the news of the day, in-
terlarded with much home-made poetry.
He goes on at such a rate that I have to
assure the others that he is perfectly
harmless, “‘it isn’t shell-shock at all.”
“THA ES SO WEAK: 11'S LIKE KISSING
SISTER”
According to him, the tea is so weak
today that to drink it is like kissing your
sister. And he wishes to know if we’ve
seen the startling news in all the papers,
that Charlie Chaplin is in first line. This
announcement falls like a 5.9 and creates
a wild storm of abusive contradiction.
Above the din I am able to make out:
“T guess that that would be a little too
much. If the Allies want to end this war
quick, just let ’em put Charlie’s feet in
danger. Why, Fritzie could make his
own terms and no one’’ud give a tinkers.”
That’s what it means to be a hero of the
screen.
The room is nearly empty now and
almost quiet. I’ve about decided to
leave when a gaunt, cadaverous person
slouches in. Apologetically he asks if he
is too late for tea. Because he looks so
wretched, I reply in the negative, just as
he notices the signs, “No tea served after
6.45.” He smiles gratefully at me, with
a smile that changes all his face. Weare
silent for a few minutes, partly because
Tm a little tired, I guess, and partly be-
cause I feel a bit timid before this most
unusual type of visitor. Suddenly, with-
out a word of warning, he informs me:
“You're right. I ama rough customer.
[I’m just out of clink” (jail).
I say, “Ha, ha! Caught with a camera,
eh”
about war and its glories.
“Worse than that,” says he.
So I guess again: “You took all the
temper out of your tin hat when you
cooked eggs in it.”
But he finds no humor in that ancient
joke. When I state positively, “You're
not the sort for an S. I. W.,” he mur-
murs sadly:
“No; it takes nerve to go in for a ‘self-
inflicted wound.’ ”’
His face is pinched and drawn, though
almost triumphant, as he finally admits
his offense: “I hit an officer.”
In. spite of myself I gasp 2 little) tor
this is serious business; but I say noth-
ing, for he has started a very flood of
talk.
THE FIRST VOLUNTEER FOR HIS TOWN
“T was the first volunteer from my
town,’ he tells me, “because then I
thought the war was right. My three
brothers came, too. One is blind and two
are dead. The littlest one was the pret-
tiest boy I ever saw—absolutely the
prettiest. I found him right after they
‘got’ him, and he looked as though he’d
just come from a party. His face hadn’t
been hit at all, and not a hair was out of
place. I helped to bury him; then I sent
the cable home. I’m forty years old, and
all my life I’ve had men under me. My
father owned a big horse ranch, where |
learned how to treat men. And when
that young, impudent whipper-snapper
dared’”’—
"MES, Wes; il loieealic” ibn.
but’— |
“You know,” laughs he. “You know
nothing. You get up in the morning, in
a steam-heated room, and you look out
of the window. If it happens to be driz-
zling, you say to yourself, ‘My, my, to-
day I'll get my little boot soles wet.’
When you’ve had to leave a mate to die
in the mud, standing up, because you
have only sufficient strength to pull your
own legs out, then you know something
Oh, but ats
cruel, that mud of the Somme! And that
night, when I’d worked in it, slept in it,
and swallowed a lot of it in my rations
for ten days, that insufferable cad, that
unmentionally odious tuppenny ha’penny
captain” —
“Can’t you forget it for a little while
10ow? Your tea will be stone cold. Be-
“IT know,
dep ae 108 tate
tea pee ty 6
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
eS sOsie LeISS SSE,
THE TOMB OF NAPOLEON
No soldier on leave from the trenches ever visits Paris without at some time visiting this
matchless monument, reared by the French in memory of the foremost captain in the history
of military science. :
sides, one of these days we're all going
home,” I say desperately.
“Maybe so,” he sighs. “But somehow,
after more than three years, we sort of
stop counting on it. You see I sailed
from Sydney on what should have been
my wedding day. Td been engaged a
long, long time, but wouldn’t marry, for
I’d bought a bit of land and wanted to
be out of debt first. For exactly a year
I lived alone in a hut. I was my own
cook, and I tell you frankly I was low
and dirty; but each month I knew I was
getting a little closer to the end, because
each month I was able to buy another
cow or two. And there wasn’t a happier
cuss in the land.
“NEVER FEAR FOR ME: GOD HELPING ME,
ILL CARRY ON”
“Then—well, the war came. So I leased
the place to a dirty slacker, and the next
week the government gave him a contract
for his whole output of milk and he’s
getting rich. As for me, all I ever asked
of life was peace and quiet. Would you
like to- know how I’ve spent most of my
leave an Paris? On a bench in) ampaes
watching the kiddies at play. If I could
just wake up in my room, with the com-
fortable old furniture and with all my
things in a drawer!
“Tf anything at all were to be gained
by my being killed, don’t you think I’d
submit to it gladly? But what’s the good
of it? All my old friends are gone, and
new ones come and are mowed down, and
the war goes on, and each day some big
brain evolves a cleverer and more ghastly
way to do the slaughtering’’—
“The little Padre is singing again,” I
softly venture, ““Visten':
“When I get home at eventide,
God will remember and provide.
999
My poor tired fighter gulps a little over
the last mouthful, rises, and, looking
down at me from his great height, says
very simply, “Never fear for me, madam ;
God helping me, V’ll carry on.”
And as I remove the last of the dishes
and. the half-faded flowers; as I scrape
up the crumbs and fold the cloth, I keep
thinking, “That’s right. God helping us,
we'll all carry on.”
VoL. XXXIII, No. 4
THE
NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINIE
WASHINGTON
APRIL, 1918
THE GEM OF THE OCEAN: OUR AMERICAN
NAW Y=
By Jos—EpHus DANIELS, SECRETARY OF THE Navy
a fighting organization. Unless it is
ready to fight and win victories, it
fails of the main purpose of its existence.
Its chief aim and object is national de-
fense. In time of peace it studies and
learns, and in time of. war it practices
the art of naval warfare.
In the naval service men are in training
I: POPULAR acceptance the navy is
for a generation to fight, perhaps, for only ©
a single day. , But such a day! as when
John Paul Jones said, “I have not yet
begun to fight,” as he boarded the enemy
ship and sailed away with his prize; or
when Lawrence won immortal fame by
his admonition to his associates, “Don’t
give up the ship”; or when Perry, in his
hour of triumph, sent the message, “We
have met the enemy and they are ours”;
or when Macdonough won the decisive
victory on Lake Champlain ; or when the
Monitor and the Merrimac ushered in
a revolution in naval construction and
warfare as they clashed in mortal com-
bat at Hampton Roads; or when Farra-
gut steamed into Mobile Bay, heeding not
the torpedoes; or when Dewey’s guns
at Manila conquered Spanish sea power
and Dewey’s diplomacy prevented Ger-
man aggression; or when a few weeks:
ago the destroyer Fanning, assisted by
the Nicholson, captured the whole crew
* Address by Hon. Josephus Daniels before
the National Geographic Society, Washington,
D. C., Friday, March 29, 1918.
and sank a German U-boat. Naval bat-
tles are always short, sharp, decisive.
It is because the tactics and the strategy
call for quickness and the battle is won
or lost in a few minutes that there is a
glamour and a fascination and a glory
in encounters at sea that appeal to the
imagination more strongly than the larger
and more sanguinary conflicts on land.
WVERY GENERATION. HAS HAD ITS WAR
There has been, on an average, one war
in every 29 years of our national life,
and in most wars the naval engagements
can be counted by minutes. Men, there-
fore, spend most of their careers getting
ready for the supreme moment. It may
never come, but woe to that officer who
lacks initiative and coolness and cour-
age in the one moment when all he has
learned and practiced is worthless unless
he can summon it to his command upon
the instant of decision!
Great generals have won renown who
were masters of the defensive, and there
are times when Fabian methods on land
Spell) victory... “But at sea, the captam
who depends upon defense is lost. Of-
fensive methods, daring attack, ability to
maneuver so as to obtain the advantage,
and to shoot quickly and hit the enemy
vessel—these are the essentials of high
command afloat. They are attained only
because the navy, in its shore establish-
ments and afloat, is maintained and oper-
314
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ee
da abe
OLA! a (Pa a aS
Senate PRBS
Photograph from U. S. Navy Department
PHYSICAL TRAINING: SHELF DRILL AT A NAVAL STATION
“In the naval service men are in training for a generation to fight perhaps for only a
single day.”
The training is mental and physical, for a battle is won or lost in a few minutes,
and each man must fit perfectly into his place in the fighting machine (see page 313).
ated for the sole purpose of increasing
the fighting efficiency of the fleet.
In times such as these, we naturally
think only of the fighting side of the
navy. But just as we need, in the con-
struction of a battleship, to apply the
work of more trades than are used in
any other single structure built by man,
so the navy, in its organization, utilizes
a very large number of the arts and sci-
ences, and produces as by-products, so to
speak, of its main work many results
which are of general interest and appli-
cation in the maritime, engineering, in-
dustrial, or purely scientific fields. Thus
the navy maintains a large number of
building and repair yards in addition to
a big gun factory which makes a major-
ity of its guns.
In other words, the navy, as one of the
largest employers of labor in the United
States, has to deal not only with the
problems incident to this, but with prob-
lems of civil and mechanical engineering,
such as must be handled in the industrial
world.
THE NAVY STUDIES INTERNATIONAL LAW
Even the Naval War College, founded
primarily for the “study of problems of
modern warfare in a manner at once sci-
entific and practical,” is one of the few
institutions of the United States where
the science and problems of international
law are carefully studied. Officers of the
navy are among our leading experts on
international law, and, indeed, they need
tO Des Or it falls to them more than to
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE aA
Yt
Photograph from U. S. Navy Department
ON THE FORWARD DECK OF A DESTROYER
The word “periscope” from the lookout brings instant action, and every, man leaps to his
appointed place. Accuracy and eternal wakefulness are making the Atlantic sea lanes safer
and safer from the submarine peril.
any other class in the country to apply the
rules and principles of this science, which
is rather neglected at present, when auto-
cratic nations regard a solemn treaty as
a mere scrap of paper.
Navigation—a special branch of astro-
nomical science—is needed for every ship
that crosses the ocean, merchant as well
as naval. For accurate navigation, there
are required correct tables of the posi-
tions of the heavenly bodies at any time,
instruments for observing the sun, moon,
and stars, chronometers for determining
correct time, and compasses for deter-
mining directions.
All work having to do with navigation
is centered, for the navy, at the Naval
Observatory in Washington, which com-
piles and publishes the Nautical Alm znac,
universally used; checks and corrects
chronometers ; studies compass problems
and naval instruments generally. All of
this work is freely given to the public
and uulized by mariners generally.
The Hydrographic Office, another
branch of the Navy Department, estab-
lished more than fifty years ago by act
of Congress, has for its purpose, in the
words of the act, “the improvement of
the means for navigating safely the ves-
sels of the navy and mercantile marine
by providing accurate and cheap
nautical charts, sailing directions, navi-
gators, and manuals of instruction . .
for the benefit of navigators generally.”
THE WORK OF THE MEDICAL CORPS
The principles of medical science apply
to men in the navy as well as others, and
the large and efficient Medical Corps of
the navy has always contributed its share
to the advancement of medical science
generally. In times of stress, such as
these, when the Medical Corps is much
more than doubled, it draws in medical
rwood
& Unde
wood
© Under
ADNAUGHT
PUTTING THE FINISHING TOUCHES UPON A DRE
In the construction of a battleship there is applied the work of more trades than are repre-
sented in any other single structure built by man
4
YY
tif
“yy hh
© Underwood & Underwood
FORWARD DECK OF THE “MISSISSIPPI”
The men on a battleship spend years of intense practice getting ready for the single hour
of a great sea fight. From early dawn until long after the shadows have deepened into dark-
ness, every man among them is on the job. Now gun drill, now “abandon-ship” practice,
now collision drill. Efficiency, more efficiency, and still more efficiency is the unceasing
demand of the navy. And if you will watch how every man is at his post and doing his
allotted task with the assurance, the precision, and the ease that come only from untiring
practice, you will understand why those who know the American Navy from the inside have
supreme confidence in its ability.
316°
The navy as a training school in peace times is a great institution.
the untrained and world views to the untraveled.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph from U. S. Navy Department
A CLASS IN ENGINEERING AFLOAT
It brings discipline to
It drives home the lesson of good citizen-
ship, creates respect for constituted authority, and fosters the improvement of head, hand,
and heart.
A little world within itself, often for weeks with only sea and sky around and
above, the personnel of a modern battleship’s crew develops an esprit de corps seldom equalled
on land.
men from civil life, with the result that
in time of war the relations between the
naval doctor and the civilian doctor are
even closer than in time of peace. Many
of the special problems which the naval
doctor has to deal with are found in civil
life, and his knowledge and results are
available for their solution.
For instance, not in the most crowded
portions of our most congested cities will
there be found so many souls living,
breathing, and having their being in a
given space as on a large naval vessel,
with its crew of more than one thousand.
Yet on battleships the health and comfort
of the crews are at a maximum.
In} the. mechanical’ teld, as) already
indicated, the navy handles many prob-
lems whose solutions are of value in civil
life. At the Experimental Model Basin,
for instance, at the Washington Navy
Yard, though devoted primarily to im-
proving the shapes and lines of naval
vessels, a large number of tests have been
made for private shipbuilding companies,
who have made free use of this plant in
the preparation of designs for merchant
vessels.
There is a Navy Experiment Station
at Annapolis, with a mechanical and en-
gineering laboratory, and just before the
war began Congress authorized a large
research laboratory which, though pri-
marily for navy use, will, of cotirse, give
much information on engineering sub-
jects generally.
BY-PRODUCTS OF NAVAL ACTIVITIES
As this partial summary indicates, the
navy as a by-product, so to speak, of its
regular work makes progress in the arts
and sciences which is of use (and made
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
use of) in civil life. Moreover, in ordi-
nary times there has been a constant out-
flow of officers from the navy who en-
gage in civilian pursuits, in many cases
with distinguished success. For example,
a very large proportion of the shipbuild-
ing industry of this country is now under
the direction of former officers of the
navy.
There is, however, another side to this:
The navy has always prided itself upon
the fact that it made free use of the civil
developments of the arts and sciences
that are of value for its purposes. Some-
thing over two years ago the Department
undertook to systematize and further de-
velop this principle by organizing the
Naval Consulting Board, in recognition
of the fundamental importance of scien-
tific work and scientific specialists to the
navy organization as a whole. The
Board is now made up of the most emi-
nent scientists and inventors of this coun-
try, with Mr. Edison as its chairman,
and two representatives of each of eleven
leading American technical societies.
These societies all chose men eminent in
their respective professions, with the re-
sult that the Board as a whole is com-
posed of men of great individual pres-
tige, and in this war has devoted itself to
the study of naval problems.
WHEN THE NAVY SPEAKS FOR ITSELF
The navy as a fighting agency, as the
embodiment of power, as the protector
of the country from aggression, is today
Mie pride and tie reliance of Ainerica.
But that navy can speak for itself, is
speaking for itself through its more than
350,000 men and more than 1,000 ships
now in active service, and will speak with
greater emphasis when the hour comes
for which all other hours have been but
preparation.
Never did a nation have more right to
be proud of its navy than America has
now, and never were fighting ships
manned by men of such skill and valor
as our fleet is today. Let us send to them
across the ocean, in their vigils and in
their perils, a message of cheer, a mes-
sage of confidence, and a message of
pride.
Once in 29 years the navy is called
upon to fight. If in all the 26 years of
317
peace, for a war usually lasts three years,
its officers and men concerned themselves
only with getting and keeping ready, the
feeling of safety such a navy affords
would be worth all that it costs.
Today we have all come to agree with
Gouverneur Morris, who, when referring
to the navy and the expense therefor,
said in the Senate: “When we have 20
ships of the line at sea we shall be re-
spected by all Europe. The expense
compared with the benefit is moderate—
nay, trifling. Whatever sums are neces-
sary to secure national independence
must be paid. If we will not pay to be
defended we must pay for being con-
quered.” Those words never sounded so
true as today. They have in them the
ring of prophecy and warning.
In the intervals between wars the navy
has not found its only occupation in prac-
tice and drill and maneuvers, in simu-
lated warfare, making ready against the
day when it would be helpless unless it
is always ready.
THE NAVY AS AN INSTITUTION IN PEACE
TIMES
In many ways it has demonstrated its
necessity aS a peace institution, and in its
contribution to the spread of knowledge,
to the extension of commerce by open-
ing new doors to hitherto unknown peo-
ples, to the discovery of new worlds, to
the charting of the seas, to pioneer work
in securing victories through diplomacy,
to the study of the stars, to decreasing
the time of ocean voyages and cheapen-
ing traffic by sea—in these and other
ways the American Navy has been a
leader, and all the world is debtor to it,
because, aside from its place as a fighting
machine, it has been a pathfinder in days
of peace.
Palmerston was not thinking only, or
even primarily, of naval warfare when
he said of English officers what is equally
true of American commanders afloat:
“When I want a thing well done in a dis-
tant part of the world,” said that typical
John Bull statesman, who incarnated all
the prejudices as well as all the virtues
of his countrymen, “when I want a man
with a good head and a good heart, lots
of pluck, and plenty of common sense, I
always send for a captain in the navy.”
‘eIUeYy 32 Joop aOYM s.AaMaq ULy} JoMOod SuNysy s1our sey sdiys Mou INO JO 9UGQ ‘aPISpeOIq YONs 9UO FO 4sOd 9Y} UY} Jos1e] 9pII1] @ ATUO st 1eah
@ 1O¥ AABN JY} JO [VIIWIpYy oy} Jo Arvyes vyy, “UOIT JYSNOIM JO Joof 9AY ddJIId pynoMm Ady} Jey} STJoys jeass oy} aaeYy A}OOJIA YONG “po8seyosip
aie ‘lopMod ssajayOus JO SUC} OM} ULY} a1OW Aq UDALIP ‘[eJIU FO SUO} JYSIO ULY} BIOU S}YSNeUpeIIP JaMOU INO JO 9UO JO opIspeoIq AJOAI FV
adiIsdvowd V ONIYIA _,aAYIHSdNVH MGN,, S *S “0
€
pooMispuy Y poomMsspuy ©
% a
‘soloys No Surudjeoiy} AwWous ue uodn uoTNAYsSop snopusdnys YI1OF.
Ypoq pue ysey & YWA Vorov oOFUT ysanq uvs nq ‘VySiu sy} JO SopyoyemM yuopIs BV soUOdaq HI ‘UMOP S908 UNS dy} SV JOUR Ye BUTTJOI AT[NJoovad *S}U9S
-aidoi drys Sunysy snowsous sty} sv juowdopaaosp v Yyons pourseur savy AyTpaey pynos ,‘AAvNY WieI}G 9Y} FO JOY T },, ‘ALIOG IIOPOUIWO?
LAISNOAS LV _VINVATASNNGd,, dIHSA TLV
WIOGIIET YN popeyy Aq ydesasojoy |
CEE - . wr . . R . Re . “ " ‘ “Wy y
WN ‘ SN GCbCoFor OAS S . AQ 2 eau ° y 4 Wy, Wi
P \\ MMA : MKQOx Sx S ‘ WR RE . S . \ RAG : ‘ wi “ “rn ‘ Wy Vp y ty Vy ay .
MQ G ~ \ S . \ \ G SS S
AK So
WGA
MSS OE 4S
\
\
S S
S x
S & WX
ES RSS
GK
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph from Ernest T. Fauroat
U. S. S. “GEORGIA” .IN A TYPHOON: PACIFIC OCEAN, NEAR JAPAN
All naval vessels operating in the war zone are equipped with boat or life-raft capacity
sufficient for every person on board. A stock of life-preservers of an improved type has
been manufactured sufficient to supply one to each officer and man on board all vessels.
He might wisely have omitted the words
“in a distant part of the world.”
THE NAVY S WORK IN SCIENCE AND
EXPLORATION
The Navy in Peace—Its Work in Sci-
ence and Exploration—let ,that be our
thought at this session of :the National
Geographic Society, while the whole
world reels in the throes of carnage on
tus eday holy tor ally Chiistians,)) For
though, through the smoke and gas and
darkening of the heavens by death-deal-
ing bombs, we may not see even its dawn-
ing, our faith looks beyond the roar of
battle to the quiet days of peace that will
once again smile upon a world made bet-
ter—let us trust and believe—by the sac-
rifice which men who love liberty have
been forced to make lest “might should
rule alone.”
I doubt not.that we shall live to see the
day when peace will once more beckon
us and we can take up again and upon a
larger scale the mighty works of discov-
ery and exploration which in other peace-
ful days have been so large a part of the
daily task of our American Navy.
But peace will not find us as we were
before the war-lords plunged the world
into blood. We shall never again be an
isolated nation, living unto ourselves,
concerned only with our own affairs,
leaving to the comparatively few men of
science and love of adventure and to the
statesmen the keen interest in all things
that concern the human race., Nor will
we come back to ancient ‘formulas, to
old shibboleths, to the adoration of the
Golden*Calf we had set up, or even to
the gods. of Pleasure and Tradition and
Gain we worshipped. We have learned
in these testing days that these gods of
ours had feet of clay.
With wide-open eyes, with larger vis-
ion and better appreciation of our re-
THE NATIONAL: GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 319
© Commander James B. Gilmer
PLUNGING INTO THE DEEP: U. S. S. “NEW YORK” IN A HURRICANE
Fighting forces on land are frequently deterred from offensive operations by storms,
but at sea it often happens that the fouler the weather the greater the possibility of a brush
with the enemy.
sponsibilities to our fellows, and with a
spirit of glorious adventure and achieve-
ment, America will in the days to come
sail every sea, chart every river, see its
flag flying above its commerce-laden ships
in the harbors of the uttermost parts of
the earth, for “no pent-up Utica will con-
tract our powers.”
THE UNIVERSE WILL BE OURS FOR HELPING
OUR FELLOW-MEN
By service we shall claim “the bound-
less universe” as ours, not by conquest,
but by opening new avenues for helping
our fellow-men. Knowing that
“There are firths beyond Pentland
And friths beyond Forth,”
we shall explore them all and leave no
resource undeveloped and no clime un-
known.
And when, with a world-wide horizon,
our America is once again happy, youth-
ful with the zest of discovery, who will
be our heroes? We will not find them
in the staid statesmen of other days, who
thought that the Alleghanies constituted
the farthest outpost of possibilities, and
that beyond the Mississippi was a coun-
try not worthy of exploration; who
hugged the chimney corners of the At-
lantic seaboard; scoffed at Jefferson for
the vision that caused him to send Lewis
and Clark to that new land “where flows
the Oregon”; or saw nothing to make
their pulses thrill in the voyages of dis-
covery which were made by Wilkes and
Perry, and Lynch and Lee, and Page and
Ringgold, and Rodgers and Hall, and
Herndon and Selfridge, and Todd and
Hodges, and Schley and Sigsbee, and
Peary, and scientific research along origi-
nal lines by Maury and Pillsbury and
other like explorers, and naval diplomats
like Perry, who in this day would be well
called “forward-looking men.”
The new world, which, with a new
heaven and a new earth, and new ideals,
320
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ab
A “MOVIE” SHOW ON A BATTLESHIP
The motion-picture screen is a medium of education in the science of warfare as well as a
means of entertaining the youths who man our warships
and new justice, and new equality, and
new brotherhood of men—which will be
born out of the war, I say—this new
world will have no place in it for men
who look backward. Reactionaries in
politics and in geography will be relegated
to museums, and the leaders of the new
America will make Charles Wilkes and
Matthew Calbraith Perry and Matthew
Fontaine Maury their exemplars, as they
go forth looking for new worlds to con-
quer, and to conquer as Wilkes and Perry
and Maury made their conquests.
NAMES THAT WILL INSPIRE THE FUTURE
NAVY
These names, which will stimulate
emprise and daring, are on the roll of
honor of the American Navy. There are
other names of equal honor in their pro-
fessions, but in explorations on the sea
the navy, naturally and properly, blazed
the way, and their careers and their deeds
will be the inspiration of the younger
men, who will leave no nook or cranny of
the world unexplored, no body of water
uncharted and no river unnavigated.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 391
pebaptonhansst itil,
Photograph by Burnell Poole
Win S: Si) | ARIZONA ATV SE A :
The business end of this great American battleship, coming head on, is a formidable
sight; broad of beam, bristling with guns, and manned by a thousand of the bravest of the
brave, and every mother’s son of them trained for his work.
These naval pioneers of the past—
whether charting the waters of China
and securing the treaty with Japan, like
Perry; discovering the Antarctic Conti-
nent and contributing more to the world’s
knowledge of geography than any other
man, like Wilkes ; or making navigation a
science, forecasting the weather, master-
ing the mysteries of the winds and cur-
rents, uncovering the knowledge of ocean
meteorology, and making the phenomena
of the Gulf Stream known to us, like
Maury—these are the types of men who
will be reincarnated in the adventurous
youth of the golden days of discovery
that challenge the intrepid and ambitious,
and who, when this war is over, will be
satisfied with no rest until all the secret
places are flooded with the light, and all
cheerless homes blessed with the com-
forts of our newer and better civiliza-
tion.
i
SUNYSY vos Ul se suol}e19do
SUIpUR, UL UONRdIONIed JO] poulesy [JOM Se IIB UIW JY} I1OJasIY} So1OYse sojNp dAeY ACUI FE yey} JOVF dy} JO JYSIS soso] JOAOU JeoYe AAvuU IY],
dOL HHL WAAO OD OL, ACVAA ONILLAID
prstpepesesisevneepiaaihe
‘poop SI4} OF ayNqi4y ev se woAHUT IY} JOAOLJSOP
Mou B poluvu ApJUdeT Sey spouLC, AIvjo1I9G “YSv} PopULOdde-jjos sry yw popphy sea ynq ‘psvoqsaro WSlo1f SHOLISUeP dy} Mosy} ‘ods ayy 07 poduinf
ot
»
‘JASSOA BY} AOMSOP P[NOM YO Jos FL YIYM ‘yop uo Soatsojdxa YySry yo AjUueND ke Fo APWUISIA OY} UL aAI4}S PjnOM Opsds0} oY} Jey} BuIzipeoI “WUeISUy
‘poods Vij}Xo JOF SuVI JopuRwwoy Fs wissyy oy} ‘sdrysprtue Jossoa sity dy144s P[NOM ofIsstu A[Pesp 9} Jey} Bulo9G ‘soNsind sz ye Opads0i e posi1eyosip
INC “Poff SULIVUUGHS op, “aseyo vAvS puv VOY VoSJOpUN 9Y} po}BO] wissD) ay} ‘Aynp josayed uo pesesuyy “oulivuqns uewsse ev Aq paopads0y usoq
SULAvY Joqye J10d 0} ATOFes JYSNoAG svM JaAO1}S9p Jey} ‘MotO PUL SIOIYJO Swissoy sy} pue wessuy y UNWIS() 9JeY S.Jouunr) folyd JO worse yduwosd
OF YONoIY TL, “ULE poystpUo UP FO LUSTOJIY IY} IIVIOWIUIUOD O} PolUvU Uddq SeY Jossaa Suryysy S9ye}G Pou) e ATOJSIY AMO Ul DUT} JSIY dy} IOV
POV a, e320 on Ol hy OM ny dev IO malo: cir p
ww
&:
te at be fas po eapey
4
yi THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A NEW ORDER OF WARRIORS WILL FARE
FORTH
When the war ends, and a stable peace,
based upon government only by “the con-
sent of the governed,’ has everywhere
been established, the men who will sail
the seas will neither go on voyages of
conquest nor for the exploitation of
peoples of other nations. ‘They will be
true knights, not going forth with that
romantic chivalry which lacked practical
knowledge and science.
These knights of our new day will
be fired not with less noble purpose, but
with more seasoned and practical ideals
than those celebrated in song and story.
These adventurous spirits will indeed ride
abroad to redress wrongs, but they will
-not carry sword and spear or be ham-
- pered with mail and burdened with clank-
ing armor. © 92,"
They will be, first of all, men of the
sea, who, noting the toll of human life
exacted by ignorance of winds, and
currents, and ocean paths, and harbors,
will make safe the navigation of all the
waters of the earth. Their weapons will
be charts, and compasses, and: buoys, and
signals, and lighthouses, to the end that
men who “go down to the sea in ships”
may do so in safety from any hidden
rock or treacherous shoal. They will
study the life of Maury and his.charts.
They will consecrate their lives to his
spirit of shortening ocean traffic and les-
sening dangers to navigation by the em-
ployment of every agency science and
study and experience afloat may make
_available.
But safe navigation with these modern
knights of sea communication will be only
the ends to the larger means, for they will
“utilize these pathways of the seas for the
-interchange of products and ideas that
will make the people of the whole: world
partners in all that man has made and all
that man has learned.
National lines will indeed remain, and
love of homeland still grip the hearts of
men of varying climes and different
tongues. The tower of Babel will not be
torn down. We will not return to one
Volapik. No knight-errantry will seek
to compel men to speak the same lan-
guage, and thereby lose to the world the
folk-lore, the traditions, the literature
that mark the growth and illustrate the
life of every nation.
LINES OF NATIONAL SUSPICION TO BE
OBLITERATED
3ut lines of national suspicion and dis-
trust of other nations will be obliterated,
as these new knights convince all to
whom they carry their faith and their
wares that no selfish ends tarnish their
invisible armor, and that their mission is
one of hastening the sway of universal
brotherhood based upon universal justice.
These modern knights of enduring
peace will be no mere dreamers. ‘They
will not expect all of a sudden that the
selfishness of human nature will be erad-
icated by raising the wand and saying,
“Be thou gone.” They will recognize that
justice alone will usher in the new era
for which they have put on their armor,
and their creed will be that the man who
would have equity must do equity, and
their religion will be that of the Man of
Galilee, who said: ‘““Whosoever will be
chief among you, let him be your servy-
ant.”
So that, as our modern Knight of the
New Era of Peace carries his cargoes to
the isles of the sea, he will open new
doors of trade by a traffic that seeks no
unfair advantage, giving from his coun-
try in fair exchange what is needed by
the country with which he trades.
But he will recognize that, no matter
how peaceful is his mission, or how hon-
orable his purpose, or how unsullied his
knighthood, the same spirit may not at
first be found in those with whom he
trades and visits. He will be warned by
Mark Twain’s story of the bad man,
Slade, on the western frontier.
SLADES AMONG THE NATIONS
In a sudden quarrel with Slade, a big
teamster drew his gun first and “had the
drop” on the bad man. Slade laughed
and said: “Ah, throw your gun away and
let’s fight it out with our fists.” The
angry giant then threw away his weapon
and started for Slade to give him a good
beating. Slade drew his gun and shot
the big simpleton through the heart.
There are Slades among nations, and
when a militant enemy says, “Let us have
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
tg
Seca ee
;
‘
329
Photograph from Burnell Poole
AMERICAN BATTLESHIPS IN COLUMN FORMATION
“The battle fleet, now twice as large as in peace times, has by no means been idle.
Ships
have been utilized as schools in gunnery and engineering to train the thousands of gunners
and engineers required for the hundreds of vessels added to the navy and the many merchant-
men furnished with arms and gun crews.”
peace; we accept your doctrine—‘no an-
nexations, no indemnities—throw away
your guns,” a people silly enough to prac-
tice the folly finds that Slade has kept
his gun and demands not only indemni-
ties, but territory and complete subserv-
lence.
We may not expect all nations to ac-
cept the just tenders of world-wide broth-
erhood in the spirit in which they will be
tendered by the twentieth century after-
the-war chivalry. Therefore, all the
peace-loving nations must enter into an
international agreement neither to throw
away their guns nor to tie up their war
ships, but to make them one common in- -
ternational peace police on land and sea,
tendering to all nations, great and small,
the High Ceurt of Arbitration for the
settlement of all differences, ready to en-
force the decrees of that tribunal and
make this police force so strong that no
war-lord will ever again dare resort to
the sword to impose his will or his coun-
try’s greed upon other nations. “
KNIGHTS OF GEOGRAPHY
These practical Knights of Peace and
Justice will master the secrets-of earth
and sea and sky for the comfort and im-
provement of the race. They will let no
water power remain unharnessed. They
will draw nitrates from the air to enrich
the earth. They will utilize present agen-.
cies of production, so that plenty will
bless mankind and unlock the secrets of
nature to increase production faster than
population makes demand for food and
raiment and comforts—aye, and luxuries,
also ; for the best is none too good for all
who labor.
Discoveries now undreamed of will re-
spond to the master touch of men and
genius, and we shall transport, without
loss, from one continent to another the
products and wares that will add to hu-
man happiness. These new knights of
324
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph from Burnell Pcole
NAVY AWIATORS WITH HYDRO-AIRPLANE
While not so swift as the smaller, lighter aircraft, designed for service over land, sea-
planes have proved of invaluable aid to the allied navies as scouts, and especially in the
detection of submerged U-boats.
science and industry the new day will
usher in, will prevent any fruits or vege-
tables going to waste in the tropics that
would please the palate of any man in
the furthermost North. Waste will be
eliminated from Pole to Pole.
Governments, instead of being required
to spend billions on arms, will raise large
sums for the creation of instrumentalities
of education and research and scientific
production until no man who labors will
lack anything that will give nourishment
or add to his happiness. Selfish individ-
ualism will be replaced by enlightened
cooperation.
DAYS WHEN PROFITEERS WILL BE DEAD
And whatever any nation produces that
is good will be made available without
profiteering to men and women in every
other nation.
Chemists and workers in ordnance and
in making munitions will be freed from
making agencies of destruction, so they
may carry on experiments and operations
to multiply all things that will sustain and
make life more abundant, instead of in-
creasing the butchery of the race.
Education of all, medical treatment
without cost, and free hospitals for the
aged and infirm—the real tests of civil-
ization—will be universal. Teachers and
physicians and preachers will be honored
above captains of wealth and exploiters
and politicians.
These will be some of the fruits of the
peace that will bless the world when “the
Parliament of Man and the Federation
of the World” comes to us. And it will
come—let no man doubt that. We shall
find this “place in the sun” not for our
country alone, but its warmth shall surely
bless all mankind. Men and women in
this gathering will see the prophecy ful-
filled in their day, when
“No one shall work for money and no one
shall work for fame,
But each for the joy of the working,”
© Underwood & Underwood
“BUSTER,” THE BOSTON BULL, MASCOT OF THE NEW “TEXAS”
A ship’s crew without its mascots is like meat without salt. Dogs, goats, bear cubs, mon-
keys, young lions, anything. And if there are any possible tricks the tars neglect to teach
these community pets, naval annals omit to record them.
Aoid $}f 10} JnNOYOO] 9Yy} UO SYIN][ ourrewqns
paren = s : oJout ‘sdiysiemM SuIAOAUOD J19 O JYOWS YOY} 9Y} pulys 9] e20u0
UNF] 94} UTIOYAM DUOZ 9Y} AjaJeS UI SUISSOIIZI PUL SUISSOID VIv S[OSSoA JURYI 1Y sutho. 194} JO oy YOY} oy} pulyosq po] @)
NAXNOS AMOWS V JNO ONIMOUHL WAOULSAGC V : VHS AHL AO ADVIANOWVO
ueWIIIeA\ “AA “OO
cae RO ARES:
Pct lee eh i Oe nach Sk eu am Bea eel OR ae ta aes a Ae eae eal ee
JLIQAIS UG SJCOG-F ULLUIDD OY} UO dAVJAVA ssofoSVId SUISLA O1V SOUTILUIGNS SwooWW “UIeWIG Joi Jo svyHoY vossopun oy YIM uOTdUNfuOD Uy
ONIOWYNANS ANINVNANS NVOIVANV NV
ppeyuosoy “PY Woszy Ydeasojoy |
=
COS y
—— A
a
\
Photograph by Edwin Levick
LE NAVY. EN PEACE
What could be more illustrative of the quiet majesty of peace-loving America than this
picture of a land-locked harbor with the nation’s outposts of the sea lying peacefully at
anchor? But the war is on and the supreme hour cannot be far away. Soon it will come,
and America need not shrink from its test.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
and for the benediction which unselfish
labor for others will give to this old
world, which will be born again.
But how will this miracle be accom-
plished? Men living in the new day we
visualize will not reach this high plane by
some new revelation or by being trans-
formed into angels. They will find their
inspiration and their stimulus 1n what
their fellow-mortals before them have
done. The miracle will be performed
when the whole people study the lives of
the three most eminent naval explorers—
Wilkes, Perry, and Maury—and trans-
late the actions of this triumvirate of
heroes into world-wide practice.
UNIVERSAL HISTORY THE HISTORY OF THE
WORLDS GREAT MEN
“Universal history,” says Carlyle, “the
history of what man has accomplished in
this world, is at bottom the history of the
great men who have worked here. They
were the leaders of men, these great
ones; the modelers, patterns, and in a
wide sense creators, of whatsoever the
general mass of men continued to do or
attain; all things that we see standing
accomplished in the world are properly
the outer material result, the practical
realization and embodiment, of thoughts
that dwelt in the great men sent into the
world; the soul of the whole world’s his-
tory, it may justly be considered, were
the history of these.”
With full understanding of the truth
expressed by the Sage of Craigenput-
tock, I invite a contemplation of the les-
sons in the lives of Wilkes and Perry and
Maury as the beacons that will guide us
into the larger and nobler world I dare
believe we are to live in and make us
worthy of these heroic souls.
“We cannot look, however imperfectly,
“pen 4 oreat iman, odeclares:-Carlyle,
“without gaining something by him. He
is the living light-fountain, which it is
good and pleasant to be near. The light
which enlightens, which has enlightened
the darkness of the world; and this not
as a kindled lamp only, but rather as a
natural luminary shining by the gift of
Heaven—a flowing light-fountain, as I
say, of native original insight, of man-
hood and heroic nobleness, in whose
325
radiance all souls feel it is well with
them.”
GREAT MEN WILL CALL US TO “CARRY ON”
The heroic naval figures, which beckon
us as students of geography and lovers
of our fellows, were men whose scien-
tific and diplomatic achievements were
equaled only by their spirit of adventure,
their love of the open sea, their quest for
the unknown, and their intrepid daring
in seeking new continents and new ex-
periences and new discoveries.
Youth is ever attracted by the careers
of those who blazed new paths. No
young man is a “standpatter” or a recluse
or a stay-at-home. The quest of new
worlds is his ideal of a life worth while.
It is because of this that the story of
Charles Wilkes has all the fascination of
romance.
“It affords me much gratification to
report that we have discovered a large
body of land within the Antarctic Circle,
which I have named the Antarctic Con-
tinent,’ was the terse, sailor-like state-
ment with which Wilkes announced the
result of an expedition which had cruised
completely around the world, discovered
a new continent, now called Wilkes
Land; determined the position of the
South Magnetic Pole, and had charted
500 islands and atolls, together with 100
harbors, accompanying them with sailing
directions and observations of tides and
currents, and charts which are still used
by navigators—the results of a voyage of
six years, from 1838 to 1844.
It has been said that no other single
American expedition ever contributed so
much to the world’s knowledge of foreign
geography. Wilkes received the gold
medal of the Royal Geographical Society
and is one of the patron saints of the
National Geographic Society.
FEW ACCIDENTS IN THE WORLD OF
DISCOVERY
There are few accidents in the world
of adventure and discovery. Wilkes was
selected to command the exploring ex-
pedition by reason of his energy and his
scientific attainments. He had served as
head of the Chart Depot, in the Navy De-
partment, where he set up the first fixed
‘ poo ee
yur a
ae DAO
a qe A
3 an : AT}
ae Ino
Inqs a
a SIL
ee [ 8 NA
Pe syun
cae 09 0
UdZ np
ayAal ee a
I}19 wanridss: A
a J
J01M4 : ote
wee IM
: 151) ty M
I
oe I] 9}U
a 2 Al
IY Jou i
10S =a
iG oe
a {| Soc
no be
; 5)
A) AO) tee
a) ACL
| “a I ou}
= Pe)
i JARO
DA oe
< al
eat [| uo
sp) fe:
se
I
Sv ’ . I It im S ) | > 34 } YS )
t n |
u >A
2 AN
}vO
A 3S e e
oy x I |
St
Sv
> I on
RA
2)
rom |
- A 1}
1)
Alo
. . | | I )
jo
5
te Udf
Le
T
|
, AITto
l }
OA
Ad
S< J
d
5) -
op
quouw
}1Iedo
Tei AA®
aN .
S ‘*qQ wo
Ij ydeis
IGO}JOU
Id
WV
S a
WTO
NO
ps6)
wl
‘TOOHOS
OW,
ON
IOD
WK
GD’)
NSS
Bo2
ashore on that island to procure sandal-
wood. English ships blockaded the Amer-
ican ships in Chinese ports, so that no
relief came to John Maury for two years.
He was befriended by the king of one
of the tribes, and when Matthew Maury
visited that island 12 years later the king
recognized him from his likeness to his
brother and offered to adopt him as his
son and heir. King of a heathen tribe
and “‘mated with a squalid savage,” could
Maury have charted the seas?
DILIGENCE BRINGS ITS PROVERBIAL
REWARD
There was no Naval Academy when
Maury entered the navy. He had been
so proficient in mathematics in the coun-
try school in Tennessee that he was called
upon by his teacher to instruct the
younger boys, and on shipboard he con-
tinued the methodical study which made
him the first scholar and scientist in the
navy.
Using a Spanish work on navigation,
he acquired a knowledge of the Spanish
language along with a mastery of a sub-
ject essential to a seafaring man. In his
watches he drilled into his mind the for-
mulas from notes made below decks.
Laying broad foundations, it was not
until his voyage around Cape Horn, when
he sought in vain for reliable informa-
tion as to the winds and currents to be
encountered and the best paths for the
vessel to follow, that this need deter-
mined the particular study to which he
would devote himself. When but 28
years old he published his treatise on
Navigation. It attracted favorable at-
tention in this country and abroad and
became the text-book of the navy.
Incapacitated for active service by a
broken leg, his ambition for command
afloat had to be abandoned, though while
on crutches he applied for sea service,
which was denied him. Writing to a
itiend= ate this time ne) saiden. lal icon=
tent myself with cultivating a few little
patches of knowledge. What shall they
be? Shall they be light and heat, storms
or currents? Ship-building or ship-sail-
ing? steam or projectiles? hollow shot or
gravitation? gases or fluids? winds or
tides P—or—?”
His “patches of knowledge” grew until
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
they almost covered the geography of the
world and all naval lore, as the waters
cover the sea. In his famous “Scraps
from a Lucky Bag,” he advocated the
adoption of steam as a motive power and
predicted a new era in naval warfare of
big guns. Did he dream of a gun that
could shoot an hundred miles?
A FORWARD-LOOKING GENIUS
He advocated a naval school for mid-
shipmen, “that they might be instructed
in the higher duties of their profession,”
and urged the use of regular text-books.
His new ideas fairly startled old sea dogs,
who basked in the glories of tradition and
regarded new things as revolutionary.
But the reforms that he proposed de-
lighted the thoughtful and ambitious, and
stimulated study and exploration and sci-
ence in the navy. ae
In 1843, he read to a distinguished
audience in Washington, composed of
the President and envoys and Congress-
men, a paper, “The Gulf Stream and Its
Causes,” and later a paper on the con-
nection of terrestial magnetism with the
circulation of the atmosphere.
In 1844, he was made head of the “De-
pot of Charts and Instruments,” and the
National Intelligencer truly declared “he
transformed the simple Depot of Charts
and Instruments into an observatory” —
the Naval Observatory—and it has grown
until its reputation is world-wide, and
other scientific organizations of the gov-
ernment covet its direction.
In late years there has been more than
one suggestion that the Naval Observa-
tory, created by Maury and developed by
other able naval officers, should be trans-
ferred from the navy. In view of such
violations of the commandment “thou
shalt not covet,” it may be well to recall
the reason that prompted Maury to ac-
cept the post.
Writing to William Blackford in 1847,
Maury said: ‘You know I did not want
the place, and only decided to keep it
when I heard that it had been promised
to a civilian under the plea that no one
in the navy was fit for it. I then went
to Mason and pronounced that the repe-
tition of a practical libel and told him he
must stand by me. I have solved
a problem that has often blistered my
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 333
DEEPA WEEE R HORSES OF “NEPTUNE: Us S: S:
“Sometimes we see a ship and sometimes we ship a sea,” wrote Ben Bos’n.
© Commander James B. Gilmer
“NEW YORK” BEGINNING TO TAKE SEAS
IN AN AUGUST HURRICANE
And when
a big battleship like the New York sticks its nose down into the trough of the sea, you may
depend upon it that it is no gentle breeze that agitates the waves.
heart and proved that naval officers are
fit for something other than scrubbing
decks and tacking ships.”
This small depot, literally transformed
by his genius, has grown under navy in-
spiration and under navy direction, and
its usefulness in the past, at this critical
period, and in the years to come is be-
yond calculation. No wonder other lead-
ers would like to take over this product
of naval vision and naval achievement.
By the same token, the navy of the future,
with more time for exploration and sci-
ence, will serve mankind by perpetuating
under its own control the valuable serv-
ice there begun by Matthew Fontaine
Maury.
A MANY-SIDED MAN WAS MAURY
Merely to state the varied achieve-
ments of this master naval scientist at-
tests his many-sided service. In addi-
tion to his purely maritime discoveries
and accomplishments, Senator Vest de-
clared “the whole signal-service system
of this country originated with the navy,
and the man in whose brain it first had
existence was M. F. Maury.” His system
of weather reports has been extended so
that on land as well as on sea he was a
benefactor, whose ideas have not only
made for safety in navigation, but have
been of inestimable value to agriculture.
Maury stands easily at the head of
naval leaders of peace, and what he ac-
complished was not for the navy alone,
not confined to his country, but became
the property of men who follow the sea,
‘as well as men of commerce all over the
world. When Maury became head of the
Depot of Charts and Instruments, he re-
moved the old log-books, which had been
stored away as rubbish in the Hydro-
graphic Office. He extracted the valua-
ble information they contained, collected
data from every possible source. He
304
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
© Underwood & Underwood
ACTIVE SERVICE IN EUROPEAN WATERS: MACHINE-GUN READY FOR BUSINESS
On May 4, 28 days after the declaration of war, American destroyers arrived at a British
port to assist in patrolling European waters.
whatever might come.
furnished new charts and sailing direc-
tions to masters of vessels bound for
foreign ports, and all captains of ships
and others who follow the sea were in-
vited to join Maury in collecting data for
making other charts and new sailing di-
rections.
He had the vision and the wisdom to
secure cooperation from all parts of the
world. Maury writes, in 1848: “The
Boston merchants were so pleased with
that Wind and Current Chart that they
offered to raise $50,000 to buy a vessel
and keep her at my orders—to try new
routes.”
In March, 1849, he wrote: “The charts
are going ahead bravely. They are quite
as much admired on the other side as on
this, and they do turn out exceedingly
rich. Some new discovery, some new
fact or law of nature, is constantly start-
ing up before us as we proceed with our
investigation.” It was a period when life
was worth living for those who shared
Maury’s enthusiasm and felt the thrill
which new discoveries impart.
The United States Navy was prepared for
A GREAT OCEAN RACE
The papers of 1852 fairly glow with
descriptions of the famous, spectacular
ocean race between the two first-class
ships, the Governor Morton and the
Prima Donna, which attracted as much
sporting interest as the deciding base-ball
game of our day. These ships sailed to-
gether from the port of New York on
the fourth day of February, crossed the
Equator in the Atlantic Ocean on the
same day, though not in the same longi-
tude ; entered the Straits of Le Maire the
same day and came out the same day;
crossed the Equator in the Pacific on the
same day and in the same longitude, and
arrived at San Francisco within three
hours of each other, after a race of
16,000 miles. This was truly a tribute to
Maury, and the San Francisco Times at
that time said: ‘These two facts demon-
strate the accuracy that has been obtained
in the science of navigation, and also
prove the reliance that can be placed upon
the Wind and Current Chart of Lieuten-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ant Maury, whose sailing directions both
vessels followed.”
What Maury did in saving life by in-
creasing the safety of ocean voyages may
not be estimated. Hunt’s Merchants’
Magazine of 1854 calculated that he had
shortened the time for voyages to South
America and the East Indies by 15 days,
and this had effected a saving of $2,250,-
ooo annually in freight charges for the
outward voyages alone.
In a report submitted in January, 1855,
the Committee on Naval Affairs stated
the immediate result of Mr. Maury’s
labors to be that “ocean voyages under
sail are shortened from 10 to 20 per cent.
Before the publication of these charts a
voyage from our eastern ports to San
Francisco, under canvas, occupied on
an average 180 days, and in several in-
stances it has been performed in half the
time formerly occupied.”
The Secretary of the Navy, Hon. James
C. Dobbin, wrote that “it is my decided
conviction that this officer, by his ability
and enthusiasm in the cause in which he
has been engaged, has not only added to
the honor of his country, but saved mil-
lions of dollars for his countrymen.”
President Fillmore, in a message to
Congress (1851), said that Lieutenant
Maury had shortened the passage from
Atlantic to Pacific ports about forty days.
WHY MEN SAY REPUBLICS ARE
UNGRATEFUL
After an illuminating statement of the
value of the labors of Lieutenant Maury,
the House Naval Affairs Committee rec-
ommended that $25,000 be appropriated,
“insignificant indeed in comparison with
his services,” as the nation’s appreciation
of the contributions made to the world
by this officer. The bill was introduced,
and its fate gave fresh evidence to those
who believe in the ingratitude of repub-
lics. Not only was no money reward
voted to him, but in the following month
the Naval Retiring Board placed Maury
on the retired list, thereby reducing his
salary to $1,500!
Maury, like Wilkes and Perry, sought
no advantage for himself or his country
which other nations might not also enjoy.
He secured such codperation that reports
coming from all sources filled more than
BoD
400 large manuscript volumes. He had
no conception of safeguarding American
ships alone. His vision and his services
looked to craft that sailed every sea.
He never secured a copyright to any
chart, never patented any idea; but all
that he learned and all that he discovered
his free government gave freely to the
whole world. It is because of his un-
selfish contributions that he is everywhere
numbered with the great men who “en-
lightened the darkness of the world” and
live forever with immortals.
He did more than obtain the hearty co-
operation which made safe the paths of
the sea. He was a “living light-foun-
tain,” in that his spirit of faith and devo-
tion caused sailors to see the Creator
whom he worshipped.
A SEA DOG'S TRIBUTE TO A COMRADE
Captain Phinny, of the American ship
Gertrude, gave expression to the new
and higher vision that codperation with
Maury brought to him and other sea
captains, Writing from Chincha Islands
to Maury in January, 1855, Captain
Phinny said:
“T am glad to contribute my mite to-
ward furnishing you with material, not
only of pointing out the most speedy
routes for ships to follow over the ocean,
but also teaching us sailors to look about
us and recognize the wonderful mani-
festations of the wisdom and goodness
of God by which we are constantly sur-
rounded. For myself I am free to con-
fess that for many years I commanded a
ship, and although never insensible of the
beauties of nature upon sea and land, I
yet feel that until I took up your work I
had been traversing the ocean blindfolded ;
I did not think, I did not know, the amaz-
ing combinations of all the works of Him
whom you so beautifully term “The Great
First Thought.’ You have taught me to
look above, around, and beneath me, and
to recognize “God’s hand in every element
by which I am surrounded.’ ”’
Maury’s whole life and service taught
that greatest of all lessons not only to
sailors, but to all mankind. And that
was his greatest contribution, because the
man is always greater than his achieve-
ments, and faith must ever be the in-
spiration to noblest endeavor.
FORERUNNERS
By FREDERIC
OF THE U. S. Foop ADMINISTRATION :
known Russian banker and econo-
mist, said that the next great war
would be won not by fighting, but by
famine. There is already much evidence
to prove the truth of this prediction.
A brief review of the cost of this war
in innocent victims shows that famine
and starvation, or food shortage, has
proved one of Germany’s most potent
weapons of conquest, and has actually
caused as many deaths as has all the
fighting in Europe during the last three
and one-half years, and far greater suf-
fering.
Moreover, it mcludes among its vic-
tims a large percentage of children and
women of the next generation and the
mothers of a nation. But, in consequence
of the lowered vitality of all the working
classes, the decreased resistance to dis-
ease, and the decline in the birth rate, the
loss suffered in this war by the nations
short of food is actually far greater than
the loss of those killed in battle.
G jeer years ago Bloch, a well-
GERMANY USES FAMINE AS A WEAPON
Furthermore, food shortage has cre-
ated in those countries conquered by the
Central Powers a condition which Ger-
many has used to her great advantage.
By the power of famine she has enforced
the deportation of the industrial peoples,
the backbone of a nation, from their na-
tive countries into Germany, thus forcibly
breaking down the family unit, causing
indescribable terror and mental an-
guish, which will be reflected in the off-
spring of these devitalized people for
generations.
Russia’s shortage of food, due to the
breaking down of transportation in the
Empire, proved one of the prime factors
and one of the inducing causes of the
Russian revolution. The bolshevik, which
has been the outgrowth of these disturb-
ances, now dominates a majority of the
Russian people.
OF FAMINE
C. WaLcoTr
AUTHOR OF “DEVASTATED POLAND”
it is representative of their social or-
ganizations and of their secret societies.
It has taken on a spiritual character, cre-
ating in the minds of its followers the
spirit of a new crusade, as in the early
days of Christianity and of Mohamme-
danism, and associating spiritual ideas
with political ideals, as in the French
Revolution.
A DANGEROUS AND CONTAGIOUS DOCTRINE
This new and dangerous political doc-
trine, if it can be called that—in reality
it is unbridled anarchy—teaches the peo-
ple to believe that no government is
needed, that law is unnecessary, that the
will of the individual is all-sufficient, and
that property and land are common to
all. In its early stages this “go-as-you-
please” bolshevism—Russian for “want-
ing much”—is popular with the Socialists
and working people all over the world.
It is very contagious, and now threat-
ens to spread to Germany, England, and
possibly the United States. Six months
or a year’s trial of it will probably bring
about in Russia a financial debacle, plung-
ing the people, industrial concerns, and
banks of Russia into absolute bankruptcy.
In the end, it may prove of benefit
through its collapse, thus demonstrating
that extreme socialism, of which it is the
embodiment, is a disastrous thing. It is
clearly our duty to build up a wall against
attack from this source—an attack which
might lead to our ultimate national down-
fall.
Russia is apparently out of the war, so
far as any effective fighting is concerned,
and until she can reorganize her body
politic and railroad transportation, she
will not be a material factor in the
world’s food supply; she will be barely
self-supporting during her reconstruction
period, unless reorganized by Germany.
But if Germany has access to the port
of Odessa, and thus, via the Black Sea,
to the grain and meat supplies of south-
336
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Aye
UNITED GY The lined rectangles repre-
AISNE Y sent the deaths by fighting.
FRANCE UY The black rectangles represent
EWALLY Li) the deaths by famine.
Y
RUSSIA Yj
POLAND ©
ss as
ROUMANIA The circle represents the
| total population of the Central
ARMENIA and Allied Powers (the United
States excepted), also territory
conquered by the Central
‘GERMANY Y Benes,
AUSTRIA- | The black area within the
HUNGARY YY circle represents deaths by
famine. The lined area, deaths
by fighting.
BULGARIA ===
TURKEY
THE TOLL OF HUMAN LIVES EXACTED BY THE SWORD AND BY STARVATION SINCE
THE WORLD WAR BEGAN
ern Russia, as she now seems to have,
then Germany may be able, in time, to
supply her principal needs in food, beef,
animal fats, and leather; for the trans-
portation system from Odessa to Lem-
berg, and thence through Galicia into
Germany, is unimpaired.
HUNGER FORCES ROUMANIA TO PEACE
The Roumanians, driven back by the
Germans into an unfertile corner of their
country, are face to face with starvation,
and are cabling to us frantically for food
and clothing. Roumania has been com-
pelled to make peace with Germany
through sheer desperation, due to food
shortage and to her being entirely sur-
rounded by enemies.
In Serbia the conquering armies are
living from the land at the expense of
the native population, as in Poland and
Roumania, the Hague Agreement to the
contrary notwithstanding; and famine
stalks those lands in consequence.
In the Turkish Empire, where the poor
are always hungry, the officers have been
allowed to speculate in foodstuffs. The
limited stocks have been bought up to
line the pockets of the gamblers, and
prices have soared beyond the reach of
338
UY
My
. \
N SS SSSSSSSS
ES RRR
yy
FOOD AND WAR
GN FAMINE CONDITIONS
SERIOUS FOOD SHORTAGE
SUFFICIENT PRESENT FOOD SUPPLY BUT FUTURE SERIOUS
Ss
SSS
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
SNe, SS
SS
SS
THE BOUNDARY LINES OF EUROPEAN NATIONS AS DRAWN BY THE GAUNT HAND
OF HUNGER
the poor, who have been reduced for
more than two years to charity rations
and starving conditions.
Added to these appalling conditions,
the Germans have stripped most of the
factories in the conquered countries of
their raw material, thus depriving the in-
dustrial classes of their sole means of
livelihood. Picture the despair created
by this paranoiac action that has first
robbed its victims of all their capital,
then, by supporting the conquering hordes
on the scant native food supplies, forced
upon the inhabitants the most hideous of
all forms of suffering—starvation—and
then used their starvation to break up
families, deporting members to reinforce
the depleted industrial ranks of the ag-
gressors; and finally has drawn around
this suffering of thirty millions of inno-
cent victims a steel curtain, so that the
world cannot look on to sympathize or
relieve, and you have a sum total of
mental and physical anguish that staggers
the senses.
THE DARKEST PAGE IN HUMAN HISTORY
Nothing to compare with it has ever
happened before in the history of the
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE
oe)
w
le)
/),Jdoqywffj
Yy
Vy,
Y
Yj
les
Uy
PRUSSIAN SOLDIERS STRIPPING POLISH HOMES OF FOOD
tn Poland the conquering armies of the Huns are living from the land at the expense
of the native population, the Hague Agreement to the contrary notwithstanding; and famine
stalks that land in consequence.”
human race; this is the havoc that black-
ens the map of Europe, and it has been
wrought deliberately by a single nation
to further its own ends. For the last
three and a half years the most powerful
weapon in Germany’s hands to complete
the abject subjugation of her victims has
been a food shortage.
It will take generations for these
famine-stricken countries to recover from
the losses suffered in this period, to say
nothing of the hopelessness of their out-
look resulting from the almost complete
destruction of their property by the Cen-
tral Powers. They have been robbed of
their homes, live stock, and their agri-
cultural implements. Their factories have
been pillaged, many destroyed, and the
raw materials shipped to Germany.
In a word, the ravages of war, as
waged under German leadership, plus the
ravages of famine, which in this case 1s
the direct result of war as waged by the
Central Powers, have well-nigh crushed
‘Boy B JO SSO] OY} JO osNedaq OWIOY PopyeAUL AuwIe YIUIIY JULTTeA dy} JO ULID}IA & UDdS SI Jo] 94} OJ, ‘uorduaper
puosaq pesearl d19M spreyotO Suriws pue ‘sjuswojdwr wey ‘sasnoy Wiefy UIYM POOY!IAT] & Sulimoas Jo suvow sjueyqeyur UPITIAID 94} paXkoljs
“op JUIWOIHeI yy Ul suNFY OY} ‘UeAIOAO ADY} YIYM ‘OUR UsOYIIOU JO s}M41Z OY} UO sapsrOY Sultanbuod sy} Suynsoddns yyM Jua}U0D JON
GQNV’I WIHHL GiddIXLs
HAVH SNOW AHL YALAV AVANT AO LSNYO V GNV YALVM JO ONL V NAAX AAVH OL SINVSVAd HONAYA NUOTYOT ASHHL AWV ALVNALYIOI
POOMI9spuy_) WY pooMiopuyg ©
tl” tilly
Yop O} podreys Us} pur p1OMs oy} Aq Posonbuod ys1y sem YoIyM pur] e Jo syrem pouvydso Aq popunosins a1
‘(SSOL) POY UBIO) UOISsIWIUOD Jory UIGIIG dy} FO JueNyg prempryy ‘sAP pur “ay ‘suelysny oy} Aq uorednso0 sz 1933 apessjogq ul oua0s Vy
GNWIAWOH YIXHL JO NOLYVNISSVSSV WH GISSaN LIM HAVH ACHOVUL LO NAUYGMIIHOS NVIaGUMas * SHH
¥ c y y v
SIAIIO SMON UPIGIOS tory YdvisojOY
S40
most of the smaller nations of Europe,
leaving the peoples of Poland, Belgium,
northern France, Serbia, Roumania, and
Armenia without capital or hope, unless
some great wealthy nation comes to their
rescue after the war.
If the war continues another year, the
belligerent nations of Europe will be so
impoverished that for the next genera-
tion there will be a wild scramble among
them to get on their own feet—a fierce,
uncompromising commercial war, for
which Germany has already laid the most
elaborate plans.
THE PART OOD PLAYS AT THE ‘PRONT
What part is food playing on the other
side of the battle lines with our associates
in the war—England, France, and Italy?
Italy, although torn by political in-
trigue, might not have lost in two weeks
all the ground her armies had gained in
two years but for the fact that there were
serious food riots in several of her prin-
cipal cities immediately preceding the re-
treat last fall. The Austrians captured
400,000 tons of wheat and several of the
most important Italian sugar refineries.
If they succeed in taking the northern
valleys before May, they will have a large
part of the sugar crop of Italy and most
of the refined sugar.
Italy is still very short of food, chiefly
sugar and wheat, in several districts, and
her needs must be supplied by imports if
she is to continue in the war. Italy’s fuel
is practically exhausted—coal is $140 per
ton—and as there is scarcely enough to
supply the railroads, an unequal distribu-
tion of the foodstuffs in the country has
resulted.
In France, the cereal crop in 1917 was
less than 40 per cent of the pre-war aver-
age ; but since before the war France was
obliged to import 30 per cent of her food,
she will require 60 per cent this year.
France, because of the abnormal uses for
her transportation facilities, shows a very
unequal distribution of foodstuffs, so that
in some districts today the people are liv-
ing from hand to mouth, practically on
cereals. France has large areas that are
entirely without native wheat, because of
the killing of the winter wheat last year.
She is also very short of animal fats and
dairy products.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
England is fortunately more nearly
self-supporting, thanks to a large potato
crop; but even England must have meat,
animal fats, sugar, and some wheat. She
is today getting 65 per cent of her total
food supply from America.
CONDITIONS IN GERMANY
In Germany, the industrial conditions
show marked deterioration. Germany is
reported as gradually failing. Her ship-
ments of coal to neutrals are only 60 per
cent of what they were a year ago, which
means that she is having difficulty in
maintaining the output of her mines.
Labor is getting more scarce. The tim-
bering for the mines is more difficult to
secure; it has come largely from Sweden
and Poland. The mining output is fall-
ing off, while the internal uses for coal
are increasing.
Judging from statistics available here,
the output of iron and steel is also falling
off. No non-essential industries are al-
lowed to run, and the quality of all manu-
factured articles that come from Ger-
many is inferior to the quality at the be-
ginning of the war. Her steel rails are
not as good as they were, because there
is a shortage of nickel; her rolling stock
and transportation equipment are visibly
breaking down.
In foodstuffs, Germany is on the whole
rather better off than a year ago. She
has more grain; she is exporting substan-
tial amounts of wheat to Sweden at the
present time. The flour ration has been
brought up from 220 grams per capita
last year to 250 grams this year. Her
potato crop, which in 1916 was well be-
low the pre-war average—a total of 28,-
000,000 tons—was last year 34,000,000
tons. Her live-stock is sufficient to carry
her through. She is well supplied with
alcohol for munition works.
There was a serious failure last season
in fodder ; consequently she must reduce
her live-stock herds and consume much
less milk than last year. Her milk pro-
duction, because of the failure of the
fodder crop, particularly hay, is only one-
third of normal. The pinch will come,
if at all, next summer, partly from lack
of animal fats, partly from shortage in
industrial commodities, such as wool,
railway equipment, and cotton. No fod-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 41
300000000) DOMESTIC
CONSUMPTION
car Less] WHEAT
DOMESTIC
ONSUMPITON’
Z//
BUSHELS
3
8
8
S
8
BUSHELS
ALLIED
REQUIREMENTS
60000000
DOMESTIC
5,000000 CONSUMPTION
0 =i
PRODUCE MORE) ry (-r-,
LAT LESS BE1 IP PRODUCE MOR,
FUE MRE, HOES
A FOOD RESOURCES BAROMETER OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
The black column on the left represents our normal domestic consumption. This is sur-
mounted by the lined column representing the amount which our Allies require. The white
column to the right represents the crop resources available to satisfy the joint demands. As
will be readily seen, in all save corn our normal consumption, plus the Allies’ vital needs, far
exceeds the supply. America is obligated to curtail consumption and increase production
until the right and left hand columns balance.
der, wool, or cotton must get out of this Private hoarding apparently cannot be
country to any neutral country that bor- checked, as detection of it disturbs the
ders on Germany or that has any way of peace of the community, which is given
reaching Germany.
as the excuse in Germany for not at-
342
tempting to enforce the law; therefore,
the rich are all hoarding, thus causing
great unrest among the poor. As already
indicated, they have rather more grain
than a year ago, more potatoes, less milk,
and, as they have killed off some of their
cattle, they have rather more meat than
a year ago.
GERMANY COUNTERFEITS RUBLES
Supplies from Russia will not be avail-
able for months, on account of the com-
plete breakdown in transportation. Gold
has practically disappeared from the
country; and Germany, when the Rus-
sians were willing to sell, began printing
counterfeit Russian money (rubles),
using counterfeit dies and the identical
paper that Russia had always used
(which they secured from Sweden).
This paper money was good for a time,
but now even the Russian peasants de-
cline to accept a paper ruble.
This spring Germany, while negotiat-
ing for peace, has adopted desperate
measures for carrying on a successful of-
fensive against England. The only im-
portant unknown factor in this strug-
gle—assuming that there will be no
serious disaffection in Germany on the
part of the working people—is the Eng-
lish and American workingman. If he
will hold and work loyally, the war can
be won and the Prussian system elim-
inated from the world. It behooves
America to wake up and act quickly.
PROBLEMS OF FOOD CONTROLLERS
The United States must export ninety
million bushels of wheat from our present
supply. We already have betweén twenty
and thirty million bushels less in this
country than we had last year. What is
our duty in this matter? We must send
to our Allies about one-quarter of all the
wheat we have left, and this must be
saved by substitution ; but substitution is
not going to save enough.
We must teach the people of the United
States actually to reduce consumption—
to eat less.
The well-to-do of this country must eat
less bread and cereals of all kinds; we
should eat practically no wheat for the
next four months. Self-denial and sac-
rifice must be our duty; they wall con-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
tribute largely to the upbuilding of Amer-
ican life.
Food control in Europe has been tried
many times, never effectively, except by
Germany. Increased wages, due to the
war, invariably result in increased food
consumption. It is the same in this
country as abroad, and is particularly
marked in Italy.
Since August 10 of last year we have
had nine months of food administration.
Germany begins to regulate prices at the
point of consumption, where the con-
sumer takes the food from the retailers
at certain fair retail prices arbitrarily set
up by the authorities, who, by deduction,
work back to the point of production.
This invariably results in a price to the
producer that is unsatisfactory and could
not be forced upon him without causing
a falling off in production, except in Ger-
many, where government control is ab-
solute.
OUR METHOD OF FIXING PRICES
In the United States we have built up
the retail price in the reverse way, by
starting at the point of production—that
is, paying the farmer the market price
and building up the price to the retailer
by adding arbitrary differentials. This
gives a price to the producer that will
increase production because it is profita-
ble, and at the same time eliminates
speculation, hoarding, and profiteering by
the middlemen, thus reaching a fair re-
tail price, which protects the consumer.
The elimination of speculation and
hoarding and the control of profiteering
by government regulation are absolutely
necessary in time of war, and probably
would prove beneficial in normal or peace
times ; but arbitrarily to control prices by
government authority, either at the source
or at the point of consumption, invaria-
bly results in decreased production.
The most effective way to stabilize
prices is to centralize buying and stimu-
late production without attempting to in-
terrupt the natural economic law of sup-
ply and demand by price-fixing. Price-
fixing has never been effective, except
possibly in Germany, and the penalties
for the pursuance of such a policy may
be cumulative; but it is to be hoped
that out of these experiments to stabilize
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the necessities of life some method, or
methods, will be found which can be
adopted as a permanent governmental
policy, and become one of the effective
and much-needed ways of protecting the
poor and mitigating the grievances that
now exist between employer and em-
ployee.
THE BURDEN OF PROFITEERING FALLS
UPON THE WAGE-EARNER
The Food Administration has no power
to fix retail prices ; but through the license
system we can control to a large extent
the sales to the retailer, and thus give
notice to both the retailer and consumer
of what the Food Administration con-
siders to be a fair price and fair profit.
The basis of “fair profit” during the
war is the pre-war profit in any given
article or business. Anything more than
this results in the discontent and the mis-
ery of the people, for in the last analysis
the burden of unfair prices of food falls
upon the working man and his family.
We have been able to support this
stabilization of prices by the embargo,
which has placed in our hands foodstuffs
that would otherwise have gone to neu-
tral nations, thence in many cases to Ger-
many. This has resulted in practically
eliminating speculation, hoarding, and
profiteering.
WHAT THE FOOD ADMINISTRATION HAS
DONE FOR US
It must always be remembered, how-
ever, that we are in an era of high wages
and high costs, and the producer must be
protected at all times. This is basic with
all successful food administration in a
democratic country, and it must never be
lost sight of.
The accomplishments of the Food Ad-
ministration during the past nine months
have been these:
First. It has fostered what we may call
the psychology of service, which is the
foundation of every great patriotic move-
ment. We have made material progress
in establishing in the minds of the public
the fact that the saving of food by sub-
stitution is a definite war service on the
part of the individual, and this service,
which comes from the individual con-
science, has in a large degree nullified
the increased consumption which natu-
343
rally would result from largely increased
wages.
Second. It has secured and made ac-
ceptable to the public a measure of govy-
ernment control—wheat and sugar form-
ing the best illustrations. The power
lodged with the Administration to buy
and sell for government account has had
a tendency to stabilize prices. The price-
fixing, in the case of wheat, has given the
producer encouragement to increase pro-
duction, and the resulting elimination of
speculation and hoarding has protected
the consumer.
Thus, in spite of a short supply—there
was a serious shortage in August, Sep-
tember, and October, 1917—the whole-
sale price of flour per barrel has been re-
duced $3, whereas without the Food Ad-
ministration flour might easily have gone
to $25, or even $30, per barrel during
this danger period.
The direct result of wheat control has
been the protection of the price of bread
by setting up arbitrary differentials, and
the price of wheat bread—the working
man’s staff of life—has been brought
down. The price of bread throughout
the United States is today 30 per cent less
than it was in July, 1917, the month be-
fore the food bill was signed, and only
30 per cent more than the pre-war price,
although the farmer is getting a price for
his wheat that is 109 per cent above the
pre-war average. Thus it will be seen
that the consumer has 79 points in his
favor as a result of the elimination of
speculation, hoarding, and profiteering—
a good result which could only have been
attained by government control.
THE HOG AND CORN RATIO 13 TO I
Third. Something has been accom-
plished in the matter of meat control.
Beef control, it is true, has not been at-
tempted, except through the encourage-
ment of voluntary effort to reduce the
consumption. When the prices of meat
go up, as they invariably do in war times,
the burden of consumption falls more
heavily on breadstuffs, which are the
cheapest form of food. Beef is now low
enough. If it goes lower, the farmer will
let his cattle be slaughtered indiscrimi-
nately because of the high price of feeds.
Hogs have been stabilized in price by es-
344
HOW OUR ALLIES’ FLOUR BARREL
WAS FILLED BEFORE THE WAR
ROM ARGENT!
nae
2 foe
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
HOW OUR ALLIES’ FLOUR BARREL
MUST BE FILLED IN 1918
1 FROM
/NOIA
AUSTRALIA
ARGENTINA
THAD EIS: PELOURIB AR Rint
Owing to the destruction of shipping, until the new American merchant fleet is constructed,
but little wheat and flour from India, Australia, and Argentina can be transported
tablishing a tentative price of $15.50 per
hundredweight—a price arrived at by
setting up the ratio between corn and hog
as thirteen to one—that is, thirteen times
the price of a bushel of corn gives the
price per hundredweight of hog.
Fourth. Sugar control has been very
marked. We gained little in balance on
our sugar supply in the six months from
AMUcish 1Ol7 1 to HMebriaiy, Ore. «lle
price, however, in spite of the famine in
sugar during the fall months of 1917, was
brought down two or three cents per
pound and held there. Congress did not
give us power in our bill to buy and sell
sugar ; therefore we had to allow the re-
finers to be the purchasers with and for
the Allies; but, in spite of this lack of
complete power, the public has been pro-
tected and France has her sugar from
our supply, sugar which we must get
along without.
CONDITIONS MUST BE FACED IN WAR
TIMES
War is a period of economic degenera-
tion, so that although government control
in the necessities of life may not be es-
sential, or even advantageous in normal
times, in war time we must choose the
lesser of the two evils; for without con-
trol then, with prices running riot, we
should face a national disaster. It is only
in this way that we can make life tolera-
ble for the working man.
Shipping is constantly diminishing. We
of the United States cannot do our share
in the fighting for another ten months,
even with good luck. Australia has an
abundance of wheat, but it takes nearly
three times as much shipping to accom-
plish a given task of transportation be-
tween Australia and Europe as between
the United States and Europe, and the
situation imperatively requires that all
shipping be confined to the shortest route.
If there is any falling down from
now on in our proposed program for
ship-building, even Argentina cannot be
reached to the degree that the needs ot
the situation demand. It is easy, essen-
tially, to create a new ship, as it were, by
taking a ship from the Argentina serv-
ice and applying it to our carrying serv-
ice to Europe. Every ship we take over
from the Argentina trade gives us es-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 345
Toe PRI GRIOEG EL OOLK 3F EYX BAIAAEL
48.00
16.00
J Sune”
ENTS EH
AE
Lee ae
py zien
ELIA MAAS)
Sy’. AUG
PEISICHART Ee LUSTRATES: HOW LEE FOOD, LAW, ENACTED: IN “AUGUST, TO17, ELAS
NOT ONLY SERVED TO STABILIZE, BUT TO LOWER, THE PRICE OF FLOUR
IN THE FACE OF AN EVER-INCREASING DEMAND
sentially an extra ship for our European
service, as the haul from Argentina to
England is twice as long as that from the
United States to England. The require-
ments of England and France in grain,
as well as beef, however, call for every
atom of exportable surplus now in Ar-
gentina.
PARING FOOD SHIPMENTS DOWN TO THE
BONE
Because of the difficulty in reaching
india and Australia, and on account of
the shortage of shipping, the Allies’ ce-
real requirements, of which they declared
the irreducible minimum to be 25,000,000
tons, were arbitrarily reduced at the Al-
red Conference in- Paris’ to 17,000,000
tons. We are planning to supply them
with these 17,000,000 tons of foodstuffs,
or approximately 25 per cent less than
the Allies themselves considered their
actual minimum requirements ; to satisfy
even this reduced schedule will tax the
people of the United States severely.
Every family in the United States with
any available land should endeavor to be-
come as nearly self-supporting as possi-
ble in foodstuffs. Thousands of acres
along railroad rights of way should be
made available for planting to those liv-
ing near, and the farmer must be pro-
tected and encouraged by State and Fed-
eral aid in prices, labor, and machinery
to make the earth yield its maximum.
We must feed our associates in the
war, their civilian population and ours,
their armies and ours, while they fight to
liberate civilization from the death gr ‘ap-
ple with a nation gone mad; and ‘after
the struggle is over ‘and all the nations of
Furope are depleted, the United States
may be the only nation able to relieve the
appalling needs of the innocent victims
of the war now being waged by the ruth-
less Hun.
We were late in entering the war; for
this reason we owe what we have saved
to those who suffered while we delayed.
Not only must we help them now, but we
must lighten their burdens of reconstruc-
tion.
Such relief could be organized and ad-
ministered in the form of huge govern-
Ajvep poy o1e wdsppIyO Vosnjor o1oyM ‘OWIITe JL 9U9IS VOY] oqnd vy
ANOS SSOND GAY NVOIVANV NI HVIVAH WAHL ONIANIVG ANIVLI JO SNOS ‘INTHLNOA
SsOID poy UBITIOWIY Woy Yde1Z0j}0qg
ty
yy
346
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE BAT,
mental building and loan associations, to
which the peoples to be relieved should
contribute their fair proportion in labor
and materials. Such relief would encour-
age, not pauperize, and, given without
hope of financial or commercial gain,
would strike a new note in the world’s
history.
We must hold firm to our ideals. We
have a present and a future obligation;
we must pay the full price ungrudgingly,
both in fighting and rebuilding. We must
demonstrate to the world the principles
of true democracy, and thus hasten the
dawn of a more perfect day. Then, in-
deed, may the hatred and bitterness of
this war give way rapidly before the light
of human kindness, and “Peace on earth,
good will to men” become a living reality
in a world where justice will reign.
AN APPEAL TO MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
To the Members of the
National Geographic Society:
You and the members of your house-
hold constitute three million thoughtful,
intelligent, patriotic Americans. ‘Tens of
thousands of you have already made su-
preme sacrifices for the cause of freedom.
Some of you have given your sons, your
brothers, your husbands, to our country
in its hour of greatest need. Others of
you have given of your wealth, your
plenty, your competency. Still others of
you have given your time and your
energy to Red Cross work, Liberty Loan
campaigns, and other activities which
have profited by your service and by your
enthusiasm.
To those of you who already have
given much there will come a special joy
in the realization that there is a new op-
portunity for helping by personal depri-
vation; to those few who have not yet
enlisted in the service of their country
there should come a sense of relief and
satisfaction that the opportunity is at
hand to prove to one’s self that his soul
is not dead to the appeal which lies in the
thought that “this is my own, my native
land.”
The opportunity which now presents
itself to each member of the National
Geographic Society is the opportunity of
pledging himself and lis household to eat
neither wheat bread, wheat cereals, nor
pastry made of wheat flour until the new
wheat crop is harvested.
You have read the preceding article by
Frederic C. Walcott, of the United States
Food Administration—a simple, concise,
unexaggerated statement showing that
famine and starvation lie ahead of our
Allies in Europe unless America is will-
ing to practice the virtue of abstinence
from that food product which is vital to
the life and health of the millions across
the seas who for nearly four years have
suffered the horrors and the devastations
of war at first hand.
America normally consumes 42,000,000
bushels of wheat each month. In order
to supply the Allies with the absolute
essentials of life, the American consump-
tion must be reduced to 20,000,000 bush-
els a month until the next harvest.
It is not enough that you, members of
the National Geographic Society, agree
to use only half the wheat which you
would normally consume. There are
thousands, millions, of Americans who
are careless, thoughtless, wasteful. They
will not and cannot be made to practice
such economy.
The obligation, therefore, rests upon
you, who realize the situation, you, who
have fortitude of purpose and the love of
humanity in your heart, to do more than
curtail your wheat consumption. It is
not merely your duty, but your oppor-
tunity, to pledge yourself to total absti-
mence from wheat bread, wheat cereals,
and wheat pastries until such time as the
critical situation is relieved.
Such abstinence does not entail priva-
tion, bodily suffering, or decreased physi-
cal efficiency. Happily, there has been a
bountiful corn crop. We in the United
_[]@ 10F oousnf pue Ajsoqiy YIAr ‘O[QISIATPUT ‘UOTeU 9UO—SpUR}s JT YIM 10F oqnday oy} 0} pure Sep Aut 0} souvisayye aspoyd J,,
AULNOOD YAH OL AONVIOATIV INIAVAMS SIACTINAdUIHS
UOI}LULIOJUT j;qng wo daz}1UIWIOD ©)
§
:
MT
Mi
4
Z Ve j
J
COLLLILLLOYLEALSLL POOP POES IP LALD ws wane
yy My
y y 4 Y
CEL
j j
Y
% LLL LLL”
G Y Yj Y Y
~~ yyy yp spss
4, yj G
exoabyprvrmpbysit
Z
y Y
Wo
Y
Y
y
MMMM yy
type ppp
4 Z Z y
Yi Y y Yi
CHEE EE EEEZ ZECCA EZEXZEZEZEZEC xxx”
YY y Yj iy
GOA yy wy ypppbyyp iy
Yj Y Y
Y
Y Y
Y 4
Y Y Y
YY Yi YY XY
Z Y Uj
lps to
‘mation
ic Info1
’ building s]
rerly
c
eon Publ
ara
C
omuiitte
“ans,
C
\C
eri
©
ive in
ull enthusiastic Am
©
c
ire
e the world safe to ]
«
Cc
but they
hs
ir part to mal
race on the globe,
Siiap
A NOONDAY PATRIOTIC MEETING AT A SHIPYARD
and doing th
ludes blood of every
Inc
bridge the Atlantic
ling faces probably
sm1l
This array of
O48
States cannot suffer for lack of bread so
‘long as this great cereal, the staff of life
for the pioneers of Colonial days, is ours
in bountiful quantities.
Already the proprietors of more than
500 of the largest hotels in America have
pledged themselves to the no-wheat
movement, and many communities have
inaugurated campaigns enlisting their
citizens in the same cause.
Will you join that movement?
This appeal is to you personally, reader
of this copy of the GEocGRAPHIC and
member of the Society. If you will
pledge your support to the United States
Government and to our Allies in this
crisis by eliminating wheat flour from
your menu, your pledge and that of
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
650,000 other members of the Society
will mean not merely that 3,000,000 loyal
Americans will consecrate themselves to
the saving of wheat for the next few
months, but your influence will be felt
and will be reflected in the attitude and
actions of millions of other Americans.
This personal sacrifice—if sacrifice it
be called—will not end with the saving
of wheat. Another large and potent pur-
pose will be achieved. The daily con-
sciousness that you are aiding in the
noblest and highest cause of modern
times will bring to you an hourly renewal
of determination that America and her
Allies must win the war.
The hour and the occasion are at hand!
Do you take the pledge?
> WHAT IS IT TO BE AN’ AMERICAN
By FRANKLIN
K. LANE
SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR
FE, ARE not gathered to speak
bitterly of others or to speak
boastfully of ourselves. We
have gathered to talk together as to the
future of America and how it can be
made a more nearly perfect nation.
We see clearly now what we have not
so clearly seen before, that a democracy
must have a self-protecting sense as well
as a creative spirit.
We have lived in the full expression
of the most liberal and idealistic political
philosophy. There has been nothing of
paternalism in our government. We have
conceived it to be our high privilege to
open this continent to those who came
seeking the advantages and the beauties
of a new land, in which the individual
mind and heart could have free and full
development.
The Statue of Liberty Enlightening the
World at the main gateway of our coun-
try has been symbolic of our national atti-
tude. We have believed, and we still be-
lieve, that liberty contains a magic heal-
ing power for many of the woes of man;
that if we can turn its rays upon those
troubles which have caused bitterness be-
tween peoples the world will be made
sweeter, safer, and saner.
But in the ecstasy of our enthusiasm
over the discovery of this curative agent
which we had thought a panacea, we have
overlooked our own responsibility. We
have thought that it was enough to say,
“This is a land of freedom and equal op-
- portunity,’ without teaching what these
terms meant. “Let us keep our hands
off ; let each man go his own way; let all
things be thought, said, and done which
each may choose to think or say or do,
and ‘sooner or later, by the conmficmaer
minds and acts, truth will prevail.” This
has been our attitude, and it is one that
in the long run is right.
AMERICANS OF NATIVE LINEAGE HAVE A
GREATS DWE
It is only in emergencies, such as that
at present, when we realize that this atti-
tude of laissez faire, of a high indiffer-
ence or of a supreme faith, is a reason
for self-reproach. The native Ameri-
cans, those men into whom the traditions
of liberty have been sunk by experience
of generations, are primarily responsible
* An address delivered before an educational conference in Washington, D. C.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 349
for whatever indifference has been shown
by this nation in the education and en-
lightenment of those whom ney have in-
vited to these shores.
If we are to have a nation that has but
one conception of national purpose, we
must have that conception in our own
souls in the first instance, and then we
must enlighten those who come here as
to what that conception is. ‘The suppres-
sion of wrong-doing is the work of the
State after the act. Courts and jails are,
after all, but poor protections to a com-
munity. As a nation, we are looking for
curatives, when we should long since
have been looking for preventives.
Modern medicine is devoting itself now
not so much to the cure of ils as to
their prevention. Modern statesmanship
should follow the same course.
The greatest disappointment of the
year has been the downfall of Russia.
And yet downfall is not the precise word
that should be used. The crumpling of
Russia is perhaps a better expression, for
I cannot believe that Russia is destroved,
and that that great nation of a hundred
and eighty million people, with 7,000
miles of straightaway territory, can be
crushed out of existence by the iron heel
of the Kaiser, like some stray beetle. A
race that is so near to its beginning can-
not be so near to its end. There will be
another Russia some day—a wiser, a
more intelligent, a better educated, a
more intensely national Russia.
The truth as we now see it is that
Russia was not a nation. She had been
long held together by the fear of the
enemy on her western border and by the
domination of a ruling class.
RUSSIA LIKE A CHILD REACHING FOR A
BUTTERFLY
She had a love of freedom, but she
had no knowledge of what freedom is.
Her revolution, from the orderly over-
throw of the Czar to the anarchy of
Lenine, has been a simple and a natural
process, because what she wanted was
not the kind of independence, liberty,
and freedom of which we know and
which we cherish. It was not political
power that her people sought and
through which they might express them-
selves. Within six months after their
revolution came they had degenerated
into a mob who believed that liberty
meant nothing less than the extreme of
individualism, without a common love
for anything excepting a desire to make
some material gain at the expense of
those who had land and lived in luxury.
Russia was like a child that reached
out of the window after the butterfly,
and reached so far that it fell to the
ground and was crushed. She aban-
doned orderly processes within her own
country and abandoned her allies on the
outside.
Because she was young, she did not
realize that it takes time and a common
purpose to make a nation, and she threw
her present chance of nationality away.
She resigned herself to the control of a
group who believed that there was but
one thing in the world worth struggling
for, and that was the establishment of a
new economic order, and this group un-
dertook to compel that order by methods
as ruthless as those that have filled Sibe-
rian prisons. Russia broke when her
constitutional convention was dissolved
by force:
RUSSIA’S UNPRECEDENTED SUFFERINGS
Russia was broken because her people
did not know that political strength is a
condition precedent to economic or social
reform.
Russia was sick of war, and it is no
wonder. She had called out twenty mil-
lion men. All of them did not go to the
front. Many of them could not be
armed. But she sent wave after wave
through Galicia and through Poland and
through East Prussia, until six million
Russians lay dead. Then her spirit
broke. The word went out that a new
day had dawned, a day in which justice
would be done—that the land was to be
free. The army resolved itself into its
individual units, turned its back upon the
front, and each individual went in search
of that piece of land which should be his
and which meant to him liberty.
Now what is the meaning of this to
us? You say that Russia was the vic-
tim of German propaganda, and that,
through the hundreds of thousands of
‘1880 1890 = 1900
} 2,900, 000
| 2,800,000
| 2,700,000
2,600,000
2,500,000
2, 200, 000| ‘white |
|
| 2,100,000 ER A AL. 2,065,003
4 2,000,000
eae
x) ested
CHART SHOWING THE RAPID SCALE AT WHICH OUR FOREIGN-
INCREASING WHILE OUR
LORN ILLITERATES HAVE BEEN
NATIVE- DOSS ILLITERATES HAVE BEEN
Illiteracy among both the native white and negro population in the of
United States has been decreasing with gratifying rapidity for 35 years,
but the number of foreign-born illiterates has been increasing alarm-
ingly, especially from I910 to IQI5.
German and Austrian prisoners, the con-
trol of Russian industries, the sympathy
of the Russian property-owning class,
through the insidious and devious means
of suggestion now being so clearly re-
vealed, there came Russia’s break-up.
This may have been true superficially,
but not fundamentally.
The cause of the Russian disaster, the
reason that she has deserted that eastern
front and has thrown the whole burden
of supporting civilization upon us in the
West, is the ignorance of the Russian
people, 80 per cent of whom cannot read
or write, none of whom, practically, had
ever participated in the affairs of their
Sy
EETEOETN i ON ER fo
i ea ces
SWEDE BS
Nee
3 ; ae
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
owncountry. They
did not know Rus-
sia as a nation.
They had followed
their leaders. They
did not know the
significance of Rus-
sia’s position in the
world. :
They did) ioe
understand what it
meant to have a
republican form
covernmenr
through which, by
their own _ intelli-
gence, energy, and
aspiration, they
could give Russia
whatever form of
life they desired she
should have.
1910 1915
a Bi aaa ee
OUT OF IGNORANCE
HAS. ‘COME SRiUSS
SIA’S IGNOMINY
Russia was the
victim of the igno-
rance of her people,
and out-of her ig=
norance has come
her ignominy. Her
people were lovable,
charitable, kindly;
they had the sense
neighborliness,
but not the sense of
nationality. The
Czar was the head
of the common church, and the Czar was
the leader of the people. When he feli
they collapsed, because they did not have
the power to visualize any other leader- ,
ship.
If they had had a Washington he might
have saved them, though I ‘doubt 1s for
behind a Washington there must be a
people who have a sense of coalescence
and a sense of conservatism which keeps
them from destroying themselves while
attempting to make themselves.
If America is not to be Russianized—
and there is no fear of that—we must
put into our own hearts a truer apprecia-
tion of the things that we believe Amer-
DECREASING
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ae
THE ABLEST EDUCATORS OF THE COUNTRY ARE NOW ENGAGED IN
QUICKEST AND EASIEST METHODS OF TE
a Tid
or i;
3
gv
j j Z
! a if 4 by
j 4, VL WHEL
Series A"
L OY, Ld WE LL Le
Y4Y, 4
Yu 4, YG Y), UY U4
Pan BALAI he
444774
4 G44
WY ee
“i
ZB
laf
pours
cooks
are
fakes
are placed
Photograph from U. S. Bureau of Education
DEVISING THE
EACHING THE IMMIGRANT
THE LANGUAGE OF THE COUNTRY OF HIS ADOPTION
“The native Americans are primarily responsible for whatever indifference has been shown
by this nation in the education and enlightenment of those whom we have invited to these
shores.”
ica to represent; and when we say repre-
sent we imply that we are not the exclu-
sive possessors of Americanism. ‘There
are men in Poland, in Russia, in Spain,
and in all the countries of Europe, in
Germany herself, who represent the spirit
of Americanism, which is, in a word, that
each man shall have his chance.
What is it to be American? We say
that it is to love the Stars and Stripes.
But a flag is no more than a symbol. It
represents hopes and fears, struggles and
achievements, something done and some-
thing yet to be done.
TES REAL, STORY OF A MERTCA
The story of America is not to be told
in the landing of the Pilgrim fathers, the
fights with the Indians, Bunker Hill and
Yorktown, Gettysburg and Appomattox,
Santiago and Manila; nor is the story
told in the advance of the pioneer from
the Atlantic to the Pacific, in the build-
ing of great railroads and the conquering
of the wilderness, in the searching of the
mountains and the establishing of great
industries, in the coming of the immi-
grant, or in the philosophy of Emerson
‘000'1Or‘z 0} paseaIOUI pel] IOqUINU ey} Joye] SIVIA DALY ‘OIOI Ul So}e1OPT][I UIOG-USIIIOF
0000SO'T 219M JIOYT, ‘aSenSury Aue url dj JO pvat O} aPqvuN oie sojze}g PUL) oY} Ul ase jo Sivak Ud} UY} 210 SUOSIad UOT]IW J[eYy e pue
¢
SNAZILIO NVOINANV AYNLAA GNV SNVOINANV MAN JO SSV’ID V OL ANHIDAH GNV
uoljeonp*y jo neaing ‘Ss "— Woy Ydeis0jJOUg
NOLLVLINVS ‘HSI’ISNA DSNIHOVAL
f
LEY is
‘diysuozijId poos fo syeuasssa yss1y 9}
JO 9uO YUM poddmbo ‘o1oyosoy? ‘ore pue AryUNOD oY} FO oSensuryT UOWUIOD 91} yeods urd Aosy} AtpoyT, ‘eoowy vo1f Ul Way} Patoyo sorruny
-10ddo oy} Aq youd 10 o}ePo1dde Jou pyNos pue sevnouryT UoWWOS OU Mou Ady} ‘BOFOY SYJUOU OUINY ‘suvoTIoWy Addey Jo ssvjo & SI otOHL
NOILLVONGH HONOUVHL UNO OLNI GHUOUAW SHLLIIVNOILVN YNOA-ALAO
uoleonpay JO nvoing *S *¢ Wlosaz Ydessojoy
DB9XQG
AS
\
O02
and of James, or the poetry of Whitman
and Poe, in the inventions of Whitney
and Edison—not even in the lives of our
great leaders.
All these are expressions of the Amer-
ican spirit of adventure, of purposeful
searching after the thing that is better.
It is an expression of a divine dissatisfac-
tion. It may be that this nation, like all
others, will come to a period of decline.
Wie cannot expect to live forever. \ But
if we do come to such a period, it will be
because we rest content.
We are trying a great experiment in
the) United States.) Caniiwe @ather'to-
gether people of different races, creeds,
conditions, and aspirations who can be
merged into one? If we cannot do this,
we will fail; indeed, we will have already
failed.
MAKING AMERICA THE GREATEST OF
NATIONS
If we do this we will produce the
greatest of all nations, and a new race
that will long hold a compelling place in
the world. It is well, therefore, that we
come together at such times of stress as
this, and we should have come together
long since, and put our heads to the prob-
lem as to what are the initial steps in
bringing about that harmony within our
country which will give it meaning, pur-
pose, and cohesion.
We should not. be moved to this by
fear, lhere is mothine to tear. | Our
wars have been fought by men of foreign
birth—Irishmen, and Germans, and
Swedes, and Scotchmen. We see their
names every day in the list of those who
are dead on the battlefields of France.
There is no such thing as an American
race, excepting the Indian. We are fash-
ioning a new people. We are doing the
unprecedented thing in saying that Slav,
Teuton, Celt, and the other races that
make up the civilized world are capable
of being blended here, and we say this
upon the theory that blood alone does not
control the destiny of man; that out of
his environment, his education, the food
that he eats, the neighbors that he has,
the work that he does, there can be a
formed and realized spirit, an ideal which
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
will master his blood. In this’sense we
are all internationalists.
SOME UNPLEASANT DISCOVERIES
Now there are several things which we
have come upon recently which seem to
be discoveries to those of us who have
not been wise.
The first is that we have a great body
of our own people, five and a half mil-
lions, who cannot read or write the lan-
guage of this country. That language is
English. And these are not all of for-
eign birth. A million and a half are na-
tive born.
The second is that we are drafting into
our army men who cannot understand the
orders that are given them to read.
The third is that our man power is de-
ficient because our education is deficient.
The fourth is that we, ourselves, have
failed to see America through the eyes of
those who have come to us. We have
failed to realize why it was that they
came here and what they sought. We
‘have failed to understand their definition
of liberty. ;
To be an American is not to be the em-
bodiment of conceit as to all things that
are fundamental in America, or to be sat-
isfied with things as they are, or to let
things drift.
We are taking a leaf out of Germany’s
book in many ways these days. Our ways
of war must conform to her processes of
destroying human life. She has made
herself a composite, compact, purposeful
nation by methods of education as well
as by authority. We can make ourselves
a composite, purposeful nation and im-
pose no authority, other than the compel-
ling influence of affection, sympathy, un-
derstanding, and education.
THE RESPONSIBILITY, Ok DERE Omie
Out of this conference should come not
a determination to make more hard or
difficult the way of those who do not
speak or read our tongue, but a determi-
nation to deal in a catholic and sympa-
thetic spirit with those who can be led to
follow in the way of this nation, and as
to those others who cannot, other proced-
ure must be applied. The keynote of this
conference is “our responsibility.”
Tite
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
CO
Cl
joe)
Uy
UY 0
Wpyyyr yy
Y Vf
WY
Photograph from U. S. Bureau of Education
PUPILS “PUNCH THE CLOCK” AT THIS EFFICIENT AMERICAN SCHOOL FOR FOREIGN-
BORN LABORERS AND MECHANICS
Each pupil has a card, and his school attendance record is kept with the same accuracy
that his “time” is kept in the factory. This system of recording the hours spent by each man
in the class-room is said to have increased the efficiency of the educational institution 100
per cent.
_ It is now a year since we entered into
this war, and our men are standing shoul-
der to shoulder with Frenchmen on their
right and Englishmen on their left, hold-
ing the line that is to save civilization.
The war is coming nearer and nearer to
us each day. Each morning we turn with
anxious and with proud eyes to read the
list of our own heroes who have made
the supreme sacrifice.
In a few days more this list will swell
from a few short inches into continuing
columns and pages. Then we will first
clearly see the horror of this war. And
then there will surge through our souls a
passion of indignation and outrage that
will close our ears-to falk of peace and
fix our will to win.
WHERE STREAMS RUN RED WITH BLOOD
For now almost four years we have
been looking afar off at a series of un-
precedented battles, in every one of which
more men were killed than all the joint
participants in either Waterloo or Gettys-
burg. There is hardly a stream in north-
eastern France, hardly a village, that has
not been given a permanent name in his-
tory as the center of a great battle.
For many days now the Germans have
been advancing upon Amiens, another of
the historic cathedral towns of France.
This time the Kaiser himself has an-
nounced to the world that he would be
present and in supreme command. ‘here
has been no such battle before. Let us
hope there may never be such another.
The determination of the Germans has
been shown in their unprecedented reck-
lessness of life. Amiens, the great rail-
road center leading from Calais to Paris,
must be seized. There never has been
greater courage shown by men than the
Germans have shown in this advance.
304
The men march in solid ranks and are
mowed down by rapid-fire guns. As the
front line falls the rear advances. As it
falls, too, another line appears to take its
place. And so by increments of death the
Kaiser wins his way.
THE WORLD'S GREATEST BATTLE, BUT NOT
THE LAST
This is the world’s greatest battle.
More men are involved, more cannon—
they say there is a gun for every 40 feet
along the western front—more airplanes,
more tanks, more lethal weapons of every
kind, more poisonous gases, and more of
hell is seen upon that 60-mile front than
the eyes of the angels have ever looked
upon) before. We? call) it) they world’s
greatest battle, but the last great battle of
this war has not been fought and cannot
be fought now.
That line may bend, but it will not
break. Remember, there are Scotchmen
there—Scotchmen from Glasgow and
from Edinburgh and from the far islands
of the north, Scotchmen who never sur-
render; and Englishmen from Liverpool
and Manchester and London, from the
Soft Lake country and from Surrey ; and
Irishmen from Killarney, the gallant
Irish, who are fighting that there may be
an Ireland saved to which will come
home rule; and men from Australia and
New Zealand; Canadians, who love war
no more than we do, but can make it just
as well. There are Frenchmen there, the
Frenchmen of Verdun. Need I say
more? No more can be said.
MORE TO LIVE AND DIE FOR THAN EVER
ARMIES HAD BEFORE
Those men do not yield. ‘They have
not fought for nearly four years that they
It iseaithin sine
may crumple up now.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
that holds the Kaiser back, but it is a
line in which there is more of spirit and
more of resolution than in any line the
world has seen, because it has more to
live for and more to die for than any
other group of men ever gathered to-
gether; and into this thin line we are
weaving our men in khaki. These are
but an assurance. More and still more
are to follow, until that thin line is made
a thick line.
Von Hindenburg said after the first
week of the offensive that the first act
was over. It is never the first act that
tells the story. The climax comes in the
closing scene, and in that closing scene
America will play her part; and it will be
a noble part. It is my solemn conviction
that. when success comes to the Allied
armies, under General Foch, it will come
because of what we do, because of our
men in the field, and the spirit and sacri-
fice of our men and women and our boys
and girls at home.
A NEW SPIRIT IN AMERICA
America has never sought to be a world
power. She does not now. But Amer-
ica has nothing to live for if Germany
becomes the one dominant power of the
world. And against that possible day
your boys and my boy must give their
lives, their ambitions, their dreams, if
need be. ,
And we who are not permitted to fight,
what shall be our part? Let it be our
resolution that when our sons return they
shall find a new spirit in America, a
deeper insight into the problems of a
striving people, a stronger, firmer, more
positive and purposeful sense of nation-
ality. We shall make America better
worth while to Americans and of higher
service to the world.
WS
Ss
QV
~
ien Jonas
5 Suc
ist.
t French arti
inen
ing by the em
From the draw
MPART OF VERDUN
THERA
‘n
qos
oO
ros
act a
n is
Ys
“HOo6
OS
ae
VEO
By o
sae
Nn
at,
os
Ud
ee een
1B) O35
Bok
Pee
a
solar
e O
leat
OV a
°
oO oN
Sg Pa
Oi) OS
oS Es
“fe! a0)
a 00, 4
or WM
Sos,
oe
Fools
heat oe
wrod:
avo...
ae”
egos
sy IO) Ua
Ie)
i e)
ny
es
iS°) SiS
asa B
Onan
cas a)
esitclochac
Sess
Oo 8)
4°)
oo
Os'5 O°
ap on
BR” h
up v
oon
om ao
Seng Db
Sas
uo
O 4
mw OG
355
S
ie
From the drawing by the eminent French artist, Lucien Jonas
ONE VOLUNTEER!
To carry an important message into the very jaws of death one man is needed. The
remnant of a shattered company spring to attention, thus voicing the spirit of France.
Which of these shall be chosen that he may give his life for his country?
eR
SS
SQA WS
WAX GQ AG
x MASS \
WN
\ NK
\
Jonas
s
in
berty-lov
“Debout,
hi
YG
Y
\N
Yj
Yj
ty
WS
WY
UY
SN
.
From the drawing by the eminent French artist, Lucien
EWE, 3D
EAD ARISEN
ist calls his drawing
The unshrouded slain of
~~
Hw
3
oO
4
SI
a)
uO
Va
Us
a>
asis|
Es
as
be
a
re
os
CES
22
ge
WY
uy
O¢
a3
O tp
3
ier
O tn
Oe)
Ge
oO
Ow
ay
Oo
Say Sy
SS
oS
Goss
aaa
roe
cs
sacred
38
cone
FORMING NEW FASHIONS IN FOOD
The Bearing of Taste on One of Our Great Food
Economies, the Dried Vegetable, Which Is
Developing Into a Big War Industry
By Davip FAIRCHILD
AGRICULTURAL EXPLORER IN CHARGE OF FOREIGN SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION,
U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
Y HEN you brand a food as not
fit to eat, how do you arrive at
that conclusion? If it is a food
that you have never eaten before, how do
you know that you are right? If it is one
with which you are familiar, how do you
know that the difficulty does not lie in the
manner of its preparation?
It is a complicated question, this seem-
ingly simple one “oi taste, and it “in-
volves the whole history of the race; and,
strangely enough, it is one with which our
big educational institutions have con-
cerned themselves very little. It has re-
quired great wars to shake people’s con-
fidence in their own fixed opinions on this
matter of taste in foods.
These habitudes, these tastes in foods,
have been great stumbling blocks in the
problem of feeding our Allies. They
could not, to begin with, use our corn-
meal, because they had never used it
and were not accustomed to making it
into corn-bread. With Madagascar and
Cochin China producing great quanti-
ties of rice, the resistance to its use in cer-
tain sections of these countries has seri-
ously interfered with the full utilization
of this source of food among the Allies.
OUR LIMITED RANGE OF FOODS
It appears to be mstinctive to ridicule
a new flavor of any kind, especially if it
is widely different from those to which
one is accustomed. During the Civil War
we learned to can fruits and vegetables.
Does any one imagine that there were
not many thousands who scorned to touch
the canned stuff? It has a different taste
from the fresh, and to condemn it as not
356
fit to eat was the fashionable and the easy
thing to do.
But how have we become accustomed
to certain flavored foods and why are we
unfamiliar with others? We eat three
meals a day and in the course of our lives
we sit down to the table, say, 75,000
times, and yet the range of foods with
which we become familiar we can most
of us count on the fingers of our hands.
Why is it?
The cook-books are filled with recipes,
and they are ponderous volumes, too, but
they are recipes for the cooking of a few
staple foods in an endless variety of
ways.
The importance of: possessing a wide
taste in foods has never appealed to us
as strongly as it should have, although
Americans have made greater progress
in this field of dietetics than most other
peoples. We have not seen any particular
advantage in it, and we have spent more
money in the education of our children
in art and music than in their instruction
in the nutritive value of different foods.
WHY DO WE EAT VEGETABLES?
But food has come to have a new mean-
ing, and one of the lines which this war
has made plain is the dried vegetable, an
old product which now has a new in-
EERESE:
Why do we eat vegetables at all? They
are expensive to transport on our rail-
ways, they are bulky things to handle in
our kitchens, they rot easily and fill our
garbage cans, and many of them require
a great deal of labor to grow.
Our showmen have exhibited to mil-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ONE OF DR. MC COLLUM’S RATS, RAISED ON A PERFECTLY SATISFACTORY DIET
Note the brightness of its eyes, the smoothness of its ears, and the general appearance of
sleekness of its hairy coat.
This is one of the 1,500 rats which compose the laboratory of
Dr. E. V. McCollum at the School of Hygiene and Public Health of Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity, where the dietary values of our common foods are being studied and where in par-
ticular the biological value of the different proteins which we eat is tested as to its fitness
to be employed by our bodies in the building up of our body cells. It is through the researches
of Dr. McCollum that the role of the unidentified dietary essentials, “fat soluble A” and
“water soluble B,” has been worked out.
lions of Americans giants and dwarfs, fat
ladies and living skeletons, but far more
inspiring and educational would be the
exhibition of some of those fine physical
specimens of humanity from southern
Italy who have lived for generations with-
out eggs, without milk or cheese, and with
meat only a few times a year. ‘These
Italian peasants, according to Lusk, have
built up these strong working bodies on
the simple diet of corn-meal, beans, olive
oil, and the leaves of the cabbage and the
beet, with garlic and Spanish peppers for
flavoring.
It is these Italian peasants who for
years have done the heavy construction
work of our railroads, getting rich be-
cause they are willing to live on their
cheap foods, while side by side with them
work the Southern darkies, who have de-
manded meat twice a day and paid any
price for it.
McCollum has shown through his rat
experiments that the matter is not so
mysterious as it was thought to be. The
secret lay in the use of green vegetables.
Rats will starve and men, too, on Indian
cornalone. They will do better, although
not really well, on corn and olive oil; but
on corn and oil, with the addition of
greens of some kind, they thrive and re-
produce.
TWO NEWLY DISCOVERED FOOD ESSENTIALS
The human machine is, after all, a sim-
ple one in many ways and can take its
fuel (energy-yielding food) as well from
cheap as from expensive foods, but it
must have all of the different kinds or it
runs down quickly. Starches, fats, pro-
teins, minerals, and water are the five
great food groups for which we are ac-
customed to planning in our diets; but
until recently we have not known about
green vegetables.
308
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
RAT WITH CHARACTERISTIC SORE EYES, CAUSED BY A LACK IN ITS DIET OF THE
“PAT SOLUBLE A”
This rat shows the effects of a diet which lacked the unidentified essential, “fat soluble
A,” which is abundant in butter fat, but is not found in any of the oils or fats derived directly
from plants.
tables.
It is present, however, in relatively small amounts in the green leaves of vege-
Large amounts of green vegetables, therefore, particularly leafy vegetables, can be
made to take the place of butter fat to a certain extent.
two others which are essential to health.
They are called respectively by research
men the “fat soluble A” and the “water
soluble B.”
The “fat soluble A” is present in the
fat of milk, the butter fat which forms
the cream and butter itself, but, curiously
enough, is not present in the vegetable
oils nor commonly in the cereals or foods
coming from the seeds of plants. It is,
however, a characteristic of green vege-
tables and is particularly abundant in the
green leaves of plants.
The “water soluble B,” on the other
hand, does occur in cereals, particularly
in their outer layers, and in green vege-
tables, as well as in a very large number
of other foods.
The South Italian peasants build up
their strong, powerful bodies, then, from
the proteins and starches of their corn
polenta and from their green vegetables.
They get their fats from the olive oil, and
their “fat soluble A” is taken from the
Their “water soluble
B” is obtained from both the corn and
vegetables, for it is present in both.
The old doctrines of “strength-giving
foods” must be analyzed from the new
standpoint of the presence of these two
newly discovered and not yet named sub-
stances, called by some the “fat soluble
unknown’”’—substances apparently as es-
sential to us as salt, but whose absence
unfortunately we cannot detect by taste
as we can the absence of sait.
THE ANALOGY OF FRESH VEGETABLES AND
FRESH CEREALS
It is plain, therefore, that we must
have vegetables; the trouble is that we
like our vegetables fresh, and in the large
cities it is becoming very difficult to have
them really fresh at a reasonable price,
especially in winter.
There was a time when we felt the same
way about our cereal foods. We wanted
them freshly ground every few days.
There are men living who remember
when we ate our corn-meal freshly
ground, taking a bag of corn to the little
mill and bringing back a bag of meal.
These people declare, and I have no
doubt they are correct, that there was a
flavor to this meal which our modern
milled product does not possess.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AE
A RAT WHOSE DIET CONSISTED TOO LARGELY OF CEREALS AND OF FAT PORK
It was brought to this condition, approaching starvation, by being restricted to the fol-
lowing list of foods: wheat flour (bolted), corn meal (made of corn from which the germ
was removed), rice, starch, corn grits, molasses, sugar, pork fat, sweet- -potatoes, cabbage, and
salt.
There was _too little of the leaf of the cabbage in the diet to “protect” the animal, as
95 per cent of it was derived from the endosperm (inner part) of seeds and pork fat.
It is
this type of diet which is widely used in regions where pellagra is prevalent.
There are some countries today where
every morning the housewife roasts the
coffee beans which she grinds for the
breakfast coffee. If you try to convince
any cook who has learned this way of
making coffee that the store-ground cof-
fee is just as good she will dispute your
claim to the bitter end.
I once visited an epicure who had in-
stalled a little mill on his place, and in it
every evening he ground selected seed
wheat of the best quality for his break-
fast cereal the following morning, and I
must say that I never ate a more delicious
breakfast dish.
But one by one these attempts to keep
close to ultra-fresh foods have broken
down under the strain of i increasing popu-
lation; whether for good or ill is still an
open question. It is no small comfort,
however, to find that the more accurate
researches of modern medicine and the
experiments of dietitians have shown that
our drift away from ultra-fresh foods is
not imperiling the health of the human
race.
OUR EXPENSIVE EPICUREAN TASTES
_ It is because we are accustomed to see-
ing lettuce on the table that we bring it
3,000 miles by train in special cars from
California. It is just because we like
fresh string-beans that we bring them,
at $8 a crate, from the very tip of Flor-
ida in February, outdoing Lucullus, who
brought his sterlets to Rome from the
Danube by relays of runners.
And yet our bodies get no more food
from string-beans at $8 a crate than they
do from dried ones at a fraction of the
cost, according to all the experience of
Arctic explorers. The food values, ac-
cording to McCollum, are not changed;
the mineral constituents are all there,
together with the “fat soluble A,” which
is not found in the grains and without
which young human bodies cannot grow
nor old ones maintain their vigor.
Old prejudices die hard, but we are
now eating some things which our fore-
fathers scorned or of which they had
never heard. They were unfamiliar with
celery and with olives. They did not
dream of the grapefruit, nor the soy-
bean, nor the wild rice of Minnesota, nor
the kaffir corn, nor the cassava melon,
nor the avocado, nor the banana, nor the
Chinese cabbage—all these and scores
more have come into our dietary within
the last generation, not to mention the ar-
rival of the whole canned fruit and vege-
360
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
TWO RATS BROUGHT TO THE VERGE OF BERI-BERI AND ONE THEN CURED THROUGH
THE USE OF DRIED CELERY LEAVES
The smaller rat was fed on a diet low in the “water soluble B,” and was near having beri-
beri. The large one was brought to the same condition and was then given 10 per cent of
dried celery leaves.
table galaxy, with its bewildering variety
of flavors and colors.
THE AMERICAN’S HABITUDES ARE
CHANGING
With every one saying it can’t be done,
the American is changing his habitudes,
his tastes in foods.
And now the supreme moment has
come to put this characteristic of the
American civilization to account.
When once we learn to like dried vege-
_tables—and if they are properly dried
and properly cooked they taste so nearly
He gained weight with phenomenal rapidity and quickly became a fine-
looking specimen, according to Dr. McCollum.
like the fresh ones as to be almost indis-
tinguishable—there will be unlocked vast
storehouses of food in the sweet-potato
areas of the South and equally vast sup-
plies of Irish potatoes in the North, now
threatened with complete or partial loss.
It is extremely difficult to predict the
course of events in any change of human
habit. Could Sir John Hawkins have
dreamed, when he introduced a Peruvian
tuber as a curiosity into Ireland, that his
great-great-great grandchild (if he has
one) would see 155,000,000 bushels of
potatoes produced in that island alone?
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
When King John of France was be-
ing taken to England after the battle of
Poitiers and one of the principal items
of his expenditure was for sugar, one of
the kingly luxuries of the day, could he
possibly have imagined that the time
would come when a descendant of a West
African slave, in a continent yet un-
discovered, would remark in the language
of his captors, “It just seems like some-
body was dead in the house to have no
sugar.” These are consequences of food
habits.
HOW THE DRIED VEGETABLE HABIT WOULD
CHANGE WORLD AGRICULTURE
To get into the habit of using dried
vegetables would result in a tremendous
change in the agriculture of the world.
It would create demands for the products
of plants which are now grown in com-
paratively restricted areas, and these
areas would extend, just as the areas of
the sugar-beet, which in Napoleon’s time
were small, have grown until they cover
vast regions of the globe—675,000 acres
in America alone. .
The sweet-potato is one of the plants
which would be affected at once, for its
limiting factor of cultivation is its poor
keeping quality and the fact that it rots
if exposed to a temperature below 45
degrees. It already ranks second among
the vegetables grown in this country, not-
withstanding its perishability.
Dried sweet-potato slices form one of
the most successful of all dried vegeta-
bles, for they “come back” when soaked,
retain their sweetness and flavor, and
can be fried or candied in a most appe-
tizing way. The longing of our South-
ern boys in France for their favorite
vegetable can be easily met by the use of
these dried sweet-potato slices.
Were adequate plants erected where
they would be able to turn this extremely
perishable food into such an imperisha-
ble one as sweet-potato flour, in a manner
comparable to the great Dutch white-po-
tato mill, which is reported to manufac-
ture into potato flour 33,000 bushels of
fresh potatoes a day, it is reasonable to
predict that our 953,000 acres devoted to
the crop in 1917 would expand until a
much larger proportion of the millions of
361
acres of cheap cut-over land in the South
suited to its cultivation would be planted
with sweet-potatoes.
. THE VIRTUES OF SWEET-POTATO FLOUR
- While the sweet-potato has not as much
protein as the white-potato, it has much
more sugar—towards the close of the
storage season it has as much as 27 per
cent, reckoned on the dry substance. It
is richer in carbohydrates, and produces
flour of such excellence that the follow-
ing comments have been gathered from
experienced cooks who have tried it: “It
makes just as good ginger-bread as any” ;
“Better muffins than Graham ones” ; when
used with corn-meal, “Delicious griddle-
cakes,” “The best I have ever tasted” ; in
whole-wheat bread, “It gave no new
flavor and saved adding so much short-
ening’; “In pastry we found it most sat-
isfactory.”
For almost a year, the director of the
Tuskegee Institute writes, the baker of
the institution has saved 200 pounds of
white flour a day by the use of sweet-
potato flour (one-third sweet-potato to
two-thirds wheat flour), and the resulting
bread has not only become the favorite
among the pupils, but among the citizens
of Tuskegee as well.
When one considers that the sweet-
potato crop takes 15 per cent less potash
fertilizer than the white-potato ; that the
seed is much cheaper; that there are two
planting seasons possible; that the yields
on poor soils with little humus are large,
as high as 100 bushels—even 700 bushels
are recorded; that it grows in the region
of our cheapest labor, and that that labor
understands its culture, and then com-
bines these facts with the experience of
those who have dried the sweet-potato
and actually made a fine flour out of it,
one is forced to the conclusion that only
a demand for the dried sweet-potato
product is necessary in order to establish
the industry firmly.
THE WHITE-POTATO SITUATION
But the white-potato situation has
proved in this present emergency an even
greater problem than that of the sweet-
potato, for the car shortage has been so
great in Colorado, Michigan, and Idaho
362
that immense quantities could not be
moved to the markets. Orders for de-
hydrated potatoes for the U. 5. Army
amounting to many thousands of tons
and the hotel demands for potato flour
have brought into existence large fac-
tories which are saving millions of
bushels. Had these been started earlier,
any considerable wastage would have
becn prevented.
Some of the best hotels in the country
have tried the dried sliced potatoes, some
of the best restaurants, some of the
most fastidious people, some of the best
cooks, and the general verdict is that
when properly processed and properly
cooked they are almost indistinguishable
from the fresh product, either as mashed
potato or when French-fried.
After most careful trials the army has
learned how to use them successfully,
and one cf the largest navy cooking
schools has reported most favorably on
them. In food value, in appearance, and
in flavor they are the equal of any but
the potato fresh from the hill. But how
many of us get them fresh from the hill?
Under these circumstances and in the
face of hundreds of analyses and dietetic
tests which have been made, is it the pa-
triotic thing to wonder and hold back
and hesitate as to whether we can learn
to use dried potatoes?
THE POTATO’S GREAT NUTRITIVE VALUE
If we let the crop rot, the moral effect
on the grower will be serious. Already
there is much grumbling, and the farmer
is not likely to plant as large an area to
potatoes again next year. Inasmuch as
the regular fluctuations of the potato
yields in normal years is 25 per cent, the
chances of a serious shortage in I919
ought to worry us into activity and start
the erection of drying plants which would
act as reservoirs, so to speak, into which
would go, as has been the case in Ger-
many, that part of the potato crop which
was not immediately salable.
Because of its great nutritive value, the
potato, in some form, should never get
beyond the reach of the poorer classes in
our cities, and the acceptance of the dried
potato is the way to insure this. By its
adoption the perfectly logical practice
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
would be inaugurated of reducing the
bulk, so that six cars of the fresh product
will make one car of the dried, before be-
ing hauled across the country to the East-
ern cities.
One hundred pounds of fresh tubers
yield about 16 pounds of dried slices,
containing I0 per cent of water, and
these, if ground into flour, take up about
one-fifth as much space as the potatoes in
their original state.
CERMANY’S USE OF THE WHITE-POTATO
It would be difficult to overestimate the
gigantic role which the dehydrated potato
has played for many years in Germany.
Before the war, even, it is reported that
more than 800,000,000 bushels were be-
ing dried each year for human and stock
food. This is more than twice the aver-
age potato crop of this country.
Great stocks of dried potatoes are be-
lieved to have been stored away by Ger-
many before the war in preparation for
it, and one of the first things that was
done when the conflict began was to in-
crease these factories for the making of
potato flakes and potato flour. Now there
are 1,350 factories devoted to potato dry-
ing alone, and practically all of the war
bread used in Germany has a high pro-
portion of potato flour in it.
Not only have the factories in Germany
been increased, but the demand for po-
tato flour has been so great that Holland
has erected gigantic factories for its pro-
duction.
Of course, there is no gluten in potato
flour to stick it together, but the calories
are there which furnish the body energy
so much needed for war work. And it
is important to remember that, so far as
calories are concerned, an acre of pota-
toes will produce on the average nearly
twice as much nutriment as an acre of
wheat.
TWO KINDS OF POTATO FLOUR
The public should understand that there
are two kinds of substances called potato
flour. One is the natural potato flour,
which is made by washing and slicing
and cooking and then drying the potatoes ©
and later grinding them and bolting the
flour, much as wheat is bolted. This
process retains all of the mineral salts.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 363
NORMAL LITTLE RAT AND STUNTED RAT
Two little rats of the same age, one normal, the other stunted by its mother’s milk,
which was of poor quality because of faulty diet.
Collum. s
The other product is known as potato
starch flour, and is made by first grind-
ing the potatoes, pumping the pulp on a
screen, which takes out the coarse fiber
and skin, and then dropping this pulp into
vats, where, by means of running water,
all of the remaining fiber and much of
the protein and mineral salts are washed
out, leaving only the pure starch.
This is the starch which prior to the
war was used by the cloth manufacturers
for the sizing of their fabrics. Now,
when wheat flour is scarce, it has come
into use for the making of high-class
pastries. It has not, of course, the nutri
tive value of the natural potato flour.
From the experimental cages of Dr. Mc-
That the stabilizing of the potato crop
is of the utmost importance has been
recognized in Germany for many years.
But in the United States the price the
farmer receives varies very greatly, ac-
cording as there is a surplus or a scarcity.
When the potato harvest is a large one,
he is apt to lose money on his crop, and,
being discouraged, next year he puts in
something else. If there is a shortage in
that year potatoes bring exorbitant prices,
and he sees big money in them, and the
following year he puts in a big acreage,
as do thousands of others, and perhaps
the year is a good one for potatoes and
the yields are 25 per cent higher, and
(g9€ o8ed ose 99s) vim}
OW pues ‘vids ‘oouvsy Ur Soruie YsHlig oy} 0} JUoWdIYsS 4OF jue uvIpeueD-quotoygo sy} ur poyespAyap Ayrep oe
smony
So[qejasoA JO suo} Aueyy
L N’IIM ONIGVOT GNV SHIAVLADNA GHOITS JO SAVUL ONIGVAYdS ANV
ONILOVdSNI :ANOLOVA ONIAUG WIGVLHOHA V NI ANAS
‘at
-
4
{
Ud QzP 1OF UOT}LA
I ) } I UY ) AI Tl U 4 I P } , | | J O DP } . [« J x | Pp J c +e } oe . x Y |
| S x x AG - neal O 2) ») 2) qv
| POU 40 v x M S) L 1 1 I l lo 2) =) I
“ i TTT C ' AVAL ONILOAdISNI
WOOU-SOOLS VOT SMONAWL ONITIIA GNV SN'TIM HH. WONT LSOLl SHIavVIaoOTA CHING AO SAVUL ON c
v
(WW
XS
~~
Ww
SSSVWQW AAV YQ QQ ~«
RG
364 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
again he is deceived and loses out finan-
cially.
A permanent market for potato flour
in the United States would stabilize po-
tato growing and make it less of a gamble
than it is now.
THE ADVANTAGES OF THE DRIED TOMATO
But the tomato offers an even stronger
argument for dried vegetables than the
sweet-potato or the white-potato, when
viewed from the newer standpoint of
food value and car space. Fifty years
ago we refused to eat the tomato because
we believed it was poisonous ; then we be-
came so fond of it that we demanded it
both in and out of season, even though
it had to be grown thousands of miles
from our markets, in the South or under
glass.. And for our epicurean tastes we
paid: exorbitant prices.
Then we learned to can this vegetable
in great factories, and because we want
our tomatoes stewed instead of as a sauce
for macaroni or rice, we insist that the
vast majority of our put-up product shall
be in form for immediate use—emer-
gency ration shape; in other words,
canned without being concentrated into
paste, which is the way the Italians use
their tomato flavor. In this dilute form
360,000,000 cans of tomatoes are shipped
over the country.
There are 2 pounds I ounce of toma-
toes in a can, or a trifle over 1.8 cents’
worth, and in a case of 24 cans, which
sells for $4, approximately 43 cents’
worth of tomatoes as picked in the field.
This not only means that we ship the
tin cans in which the canned tomatoes
are contained, but that we first ship the
same number of tin cans from the fac-
tory where they are made to the cannery
where they are filled.
We have never learned and have never
had to learn, until this war’s necessities
forced the matter to our attention, that
the tomato can be successfully sliced and
dried; that it retains its characteristic
flavor and aroma when so dried; that
when soaked in water for four or six
hours it comes back and makes a delicious
sauce or soup, slightly sweeter than the
canned tomato. For many of the ordi-
nary uses of the household the dried
tomato is as satisfactory as the canned
product.
SAVING TONS OF TRANSPORTATION
One ton of good tomatoes, after peel-
ing, trimming, and packing in cans, will
weigh approximately 2,300 pounds when
crated for shipment, whereas the same
quantity, when dried and boxed, is re-
duced to only 200 pounds, or about one-
twelfth as much. In bulk the saving
depends upon whether the slices are com-
pressed or not.
If left loose in the packages, the equiv-
alent of ten carloads of the canned toma-
toes could be packed in a single car, and
when the car space required for moving
the empty tin cans, block tin, and pack-
ing-case materials is considered, this
number of cars is practically doubled.
Likewise, cabbage and its fermented
product, sauerkraut, can be dried suc-
cessfully and brought back without losing
their flavor. Ina trial at one of the army
hospitals five pounds of dried cabbage
formed a ration for 428 men.
Dried carrots, beets, peas, and string-
beans are practically indistinguishable
from the fresh ; spinach, which is so often
tasteless when canned, turnips, onions,
cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, mushrooms,
squash, pumpkins, and parsnips—all are
successfully dried, particularly so by the
newer and better-regulated power-fan
drying processes which have been adapted
and invented by various American drying
firms.
These commercial products are more
uniform and of much more attractive
appearance than the home-dried products,
taken as a class, for the reason mainly
that they are dried more rapidly, under
more carefully controlled conditions of
moisture and heat; and when put into
water they come back to almost, if not
quite, their original dimensions and ap-
pearance.
BUT HOME CANNING MUST NOT BE-
DISCOURAGED
Luncheons in some of the big hotels of
the country have been held to test these
dried vegetables; some of the foremost
women in the country have been given a
chance to taste them, and there has been
almost universal surprise as to their pal-
atability and their superiority or equiv-
alence to the canned products.
This article is written for the purpose
of encouraging the consumption of dried
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 365
vegetables because they are economical,
but not for the discouragement of the
home canning of such vegetables as are
successfully canned. Canned vegetables,
while they will cost more, will always
have the advantage of the emergency ra-
tion; they require only to be warmed,
and for certain recipes they will be re-
quired. |
The evident advantages of purchasing
dried vegetables instead of fresh vege-
tables are that they will save the house-
holder the labor of preparation in the
kitchen, for they are all peeled and sliced
and have only to be-soaked before cook-
ing; they will lessen the weight of her
market-basket by the water that has been
taken out, which varies from 50 to 85
per cent, and also by the absence of the
peeling and tops; they will keep indefi-
nitely if protected from moisture and 1n-
sect contamination; they will lessen her
garbage; when out of season they will
cost less than the fresh and much less
than the canned at any time, and they
will insure for the children, at all times
of the year, the “fat soluble A” and the
“water soluble B,”’ both essential to
growth.
It would be fortunate if the time were
soon to come when the drying of vege-
tables by means of drying plants of suit-
able size, with adequate safeguarding ap-
pliances, should be a local industry wher-
ever vegetables are grown. The result
would be a stabilizing of prices of those
perishables which are so often grown at
a loss because of overproduction or a
faulty system of distribution.
Americans demand the best, and if the
dried vegetable program is to succeed, it
will be through the production and dis-
semination of a grade of dried food such
as the world has meyer ‘seen before.
Such quality has already been produced,
and with the development of the industry
discoveries are to be expected which will
place this new material permanently in
the grocery stores of the country.
HOME DRYING IS IMPORTANT
The above statements should not be
interpreted, however, as discouraging
home drying.
Their reduced bulk and their excellent
keeping quality should make it possible
for thousands of women experts to carry
on a paying business in their own special
brands of a superior quality of dried
vegetables, standardizing their product
and making their own reputation by do-
ing so. Once the demand for dried vege-
tables is general, the commercial field is
open just as it is now to home-canned
products.
What is needed now, however, is con-
certed effort to induce the American pub-
lic to use dried vegetables, really to want
them, and, having once tried them, con-
tinue to use them. Tle demand will
bring the product, and this product may
be expected to improve in quality and
attractiveness as the art develops, just as
has been the case with every other food
which American ingenuity has developed.
When fresh vegetables go too high for
your pocket-book, buy the dehydrated
ones, which have the same food value
and are more convenient, and as time
goes on the demand so created for a prod-
uct which is so preéminently economical
and good will become a regular part of
our diet and we will not any more ques-
tion the dried vegetable than we do today
the canned vegetables, or the dried apri-
cot, fig, apple, prune, or raisin. It should
be remembered that we produce nearly
$35,000,000 worth of dried fruits every
year, and consume them in the form of
apple sauce, apple pies, stewed prunes,
stewed apricots, and stewed peaches.
There is yet another factor which we
should consider. With the shortage of
labor skilled in the handling of dairy
herds, the rise in the price of grain, and
the cost of dairy-product distribution, it
may be necessary to cut down on the
family milk supply. This economy, how-
ever, eliminates not only one of the
cheapest sources of proteins, but reduces
for children, especially, the “fat soluble
A,” which is essential to growth. Should
the milk supply be curtailed the only sub-
stitute is to be found in the leafy vege-
tables, and to make up the deficiency we
would require, according to McCollum,
about 30 per cent dry weight of our food
to be composed of these.
Unless these vegetables are available in
dried form in the months of scarcity,
some of us are going to suffer. The
AWUV HSILING AHL WOA SNOILVOIAIONdS HSIN
GUVAGNVLS OL DNIGYODDV AGVWN—SNVAd INV ‘SVad ‘SHOLVLOd ‘SNOINO ‘SdINUAL ‘SLOWNVI—SHTAVLADAA GAING GIXIW JO NIG V
Auedwog syonpo1g uorurmog woz ydessojoyd
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
preparation for this emergency should be
made this summer and autumn when
vegetables, especially the leafy ones, like
cabbage, spinach, celery, can be had by
the ton for what we have to pay for a
case of canned vegetables in the late win-
ter months.
CARE REQUIRED IN THE COOKING OF DRIED
VEGETABLES
There is, no doubt, much to be learned
in the kitchen about the handling of dried .
products. They are not to be handled as
though they were fresh vegetables, and
they require a different treatment from
the vegetables which have stood for
months in the water of a tin can. The
moisture has been almost entirely taken
out of them, and it requires time for this
moisture to be reabsorbed. This process
takes from six to twenty-four hours, and
cannot well be hurried.
Then the cooking should be slowly
done, approximating in this respect the
process of the fireless cooker. In the
drying operation some of the flavor is
lost, but in many vegetables there is a
surplus of flavor anyway. The cabbage
and cauliflower, the turnip and carrot,
the tomato and onion, are strong enough »
to lose a little of their flavor without
detriment. But in cooking, the vessels in
which the dried vegetables are prepared
should be kept closed and as little steam
as possible allowed to escape. |
The tendency to be guarded against is
that of having the vegetable too concen-
trated—adding too little water or allow-
ing too much water to escape in the form
of steam.
The most serious difficulty which at-
tends the introduction of the dried vege-
table is not different from that which
attends the introduction of any new
food. The danger is that the first at-
tempt at cooking may be unsuccessful,
and this failure be taken as a fair trial
and the product condemned as not fit to
eat, when in reality the fault lies in its
preparation. :
BUT DON’T SHIFT FROM CANNING
The impression has been made, and
this is unfortunate, that the proposal to
use dried products means that we are
asked to shift immediately and wholly
367
from the fresh and canned vegetable diet
which we now have to one composed
entirely of dried vegetables. This is im-
practicable. What is wanted is the co-
operation of the households of the coun-
try in a country-wide experiment in the
utilization of these foods.
What the future holds for all of us no
one can tell. What economies we may
have to make are hidden by the impene-
trable veil. We must send our Allies the
concentrated foods. We are shifting to
corn in order to send them wheat. The
wholesale use of dried vegetables and of
potato flour will assist us to do this. The
production of thousands of tons of this
form of food cannot be other than a safe-
guard of the utmost importance.
How is the production to be stimu-
lated? Only by a demand for it. Let
the women experiment at once with the
different brands of dried vegétables on
the market, and demand those that they
like from the retail dealers. The supply
will be forthcoming as quickly as the
vegetables can be grown. a
Should 100,000 intelligent women order,
to be delivered C. O. D., a few dollars’
worth of these vegetables. from. the-dif-
ferent reputable dealers, an immense
stimulus to the art would be given, and
a wide test would be made which would
open the way to the permanent introduc-
tion of the modern dehydrated vegetable,
which is essentially a new and most eco-
nomical form of food.
The following firms are in a position
to furnish samples of considerable size
at cost, and will send them C. O. D. to
any one who writes for them. They can-
not afford to send them free, as the sam-
ples must be of considerable size to fur-
nish material for several tests:
American Companies
cee Dehydrating Company, Waukesha,
is. :
Anhydrous Food Products Co., 326 W. Madi-
son St., Chicago, IIl.
Harry Bentz Engineering Co., 90 West St,
New York.
California Scientific Food Corp., Los Angeles,
al.
Casnovia Dehydrating Co., Casnovia, Mich.
Dayton Evaporating and Packing Co., Dayton,
Oregon.
The Everfresh Company, Ogden, Utah.
Farm Products Company, The Dalles, Oregon.
FIELD-WORKERS IN THE WOMAN’S LAND ARMY OF FRANCE
Wherever an acre in Flanders has escaped the torch of the invader the women of France
are exerting every effort to make the farms bring forth their utmost yield. A movement is
now on foot among the women of America to emulate this example of their sister farmers
in Allied lands.
The Flanders Company, Detroit, Michigan.
J. H. Fowler Company, Westfield. Mass.
Fullard Drying Products Corporation, 119 S.
Fourth St., Philadelphia, Pa.
E. Clemens Horst Co., 235 Pine St., San Fran-
cisco, Cal.
Dr. J. F. Kelly, Pittsfield, Mass.
Luther Manufacturing Co.,
Wash.
Mark Process Drying Co., Chicago, III.
Northwest Evaporating Co., Cashmere, Wash.
Penn Yan Cider Company, Penn Yan, N. Y.
Re) Pitcher Company, Caribou, Me.
ret Fisheries and Packing Co., Neillsville,
is.
Webster Products Corporation, 90 West St.,
New York City.
The Weiser Products Co., Weiser, Idaho.
Wittenberg King Company, Portland, Oregon.
The Williams Co., Greenville, S. C. sweet-
potatoes only.
Walla Walla,
Canadian Companies
Chilliwack Evaporating & Packing Co., Chilli-
veil, 1B (Ce
Dominion Products Co., Ltd.. Vancouver, B. C.
Graham Products Co., Ltd., Bellville, Ont.
Community driers have been established, ac-
cording to Mr. C. W. Pugsley, of the Univer-
sity of Nebraska, at Lincoln, Nebraska; at
Belmont, Fremont, and University Place, Ne-
braska, and Glidden, Iowa.
It is suggested that the householders in a
community cover with their first pound orders
the whole list of manufacturers, and by com-
paring notes and samples they will soon dis-
cover which are the best for their uses.
The fact should always be kept in mind
that this dried-vegetable industry is a
new one, and that the quality of the
product produced by the different firms
varies greatly. Some are, no doubt,
doomed to failure, whereas others are so
excellent that they are bound to succeed.
To praise or condemn all makes of dried
vegetables from the sampling of a few
brands is to generalize too quickly.
368
Dan NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
IN WAR TIME
By Major-Generat A. W. Greety, U.S. Army
HE year 1917 was one of broad-
ened activities and of increased
usefulness for the National Geo-
graphic Society. Its splendid record of
an unparalleled increase in membership
to 650,000 is the surest proof of the suc-
cess which continues to attend its efforts
to stimulate a national popular interest
in the science of geography.
In its field-work, as well as in its ac-
tivities for the diffusion of geographic
knowledge, the past 12 months have been
particularly fruitful, and its expeditions,
especially the one to Mt. Katmai, the
world’s greatest volcano, and the Valley
of Ten Thousand Smokes, have been
crowned with signal success.
As an evidence of the Society’s desire
still further to enlarge its field of serv-
ice and its sphere of helpful influence,
the Board of Managers was unanimous
in the wish to extend to President Wil-
son the invitation of Honorary Mem-
bership, the highest distinction within
the gift of the organization.
It was recognized by the Board that
the unexampled responsibilities of the
present crisis in world history leave the
President small opportunity for interests
not immediately related to his executive
duties, and his acceptances of honorary
distinctions have been extremely rare.
It was hoped, however, that the activities
of the National Geographic Society along
patriotic lines might have an especial ap-
peal to the head of the government.
Happily, the President did appreciate
and approve the numerous productive
war-time activities of the Society, as well
as its normal undertakings in the in-
terest of the increase and diffusion of
geographic knowledge. He cordially ac-
cepted the proffered honorary member-
ship, which was presented to him in the
White House on December 19, 1917, by
a committee from the Board of Managers
consisting of Hon. Franklin K. Lane,
369
Secretary of the Interior; Brigadier Gen-
eral John M. Wilson, U. S$. A.; Rear Ad-
ital: Jolhnels Pills heey mde
Tittmann, President of the Society ; Gil-
bert Grosvenor, Director and Editor;
John Oliver La Gorce, Associate Editor ;
Hon. Henry White, John Joy Edson,
Grant Squires, and the writer.
UPHOLDING THE HANDS OF THOSE IN
AUTHORITY
President Wilson expressed his pleas-
ure at the honor conferred and declared
that his interest in scientific research had
not waned, even though it had been di-
verted by the critical problems of the
hour. He expressed the hope that in the
happier days. which lie before the nation
he might resume his active participa-
tion in the researches of scientists and
scholars.
In answer to an inquiry as to the best
way in which the Society, through its
650,000 members and the millions of
Americans whom it reaches regularly
through its official organ, the NATIONAT,
GEOGRAPHIC MacGazINk, could uphold
the hands of those in authority during
the war, the President clearly designated
certain lines along which the diffusion of
accurate geographic data would enlighten
the American people and ultimately prove
of concrete advantage to the whole world.
These suggestions, involving problems
of a difficult and complicated nature,
have impressed the Board of Managers
as of special importance.
In determining the best methods of ac-
complishing these patriotic ends, as well
as in carrying forward its regular work,
the Society is fortunate in having the ad-
vice and assistance of many able and dis-
tinguished Federal officials charged with
duties of the highest importance. Espe-
cially valuable to the Board of Managers
is the active cooperation of the Secretary
of the Interior, Hon. Franklin K. Lane.
‘S}JUDISOTVAUOD IY} 1OF juswuidinbs pue soljddns JO suoljeuop snosowNnu Used VARY 9194} SUOTNGII}UOD yerueuy 0} uol}Ippe Ut
pur ‘sraquiou ay} Aq poqiiosqns Wood Avy Ivak UO JO} Spaq Isay} UlvyUTeUT O} JUDIOYJNS spun ‘syooM Mof }XOU 9Y} UTYYM Poysi[qejso oq Ajqeqoid
[EM paea psy V ‘yore Spoq Ua} JO SpieM OM} Poys!][qejso sAvCy AJIIOG IYydeiSodxr) [eUOTJLNY 9Y} FO sJoquiow oy} yey} [ejdsoy Sty} UL St 4]
SIuva VIVLIdSOH SXONVINGNV NVOINXNV SV NMONM ATSANMOT ‘I ‘ON “IVLIdSOH AUVLITIN *S “A FO MATA TVAINAS
370
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DTA.
B
e+
A CONVALESCENT WARD IN THE UNITED STATES MILITARY ‘HOSPITAI, NO. I
Many of the knitted and crocheted comforts which will be used in the National Geo-
graphic Society wards of this hospital are the handiwork of the 250 young ladies employed
at the headquarters of the Society in Washington.
MR. TAFT NOW A MEMBER OF THE
SOCIETY S BOARD OF MANAGERS
The Board also feels particularly for-
tunate in the addition of Hon. William
Howard Taft, former President of the
United States, to its couneils. Mr. Taft
has for a number of years taken an active
interest in the Society’s undertakings, and
for several successive seasons has been
one of the distinguished speakers in its
course of 20 lectures given each winter
in Washington, as well as one of the fore-
most contributors to the NATIONAL GFEo-
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE. .
Mr. Taft succeeds on the Board the
late Col. Henry F. Blount, whose loss to
the Society was voiced in the following
resolutions:
“In the fullness of his years, death has
called from among us our colaborer and
friend, Henry Fitch Blount, who for
more than a quarter of a century was a
member of the Board of Managers of the
National Geographic Society, and for
fifteen years a member of the Board’s
Executive Committee.
“The Board of Managers shares with
the community of Washington at large
the sense of loss sustained in the death
of Colonel Blount. Endowed with fine
judgment and keen foresight and pos-
sessed of a ripe business experience, he
was a safe and enthusiastic counsellor in
the tasks confronting the National Geo-
graphic Society. He will long be missed,
but his lasting monument will be that he
helped to lay the foundation of the So-
ciety’s work so firmly that it will endure
even when the builders are gone.
“Resolved, That this resolution be en-
tered as a minute in the records of the
Society and published in the Magazine,
and that an engrossed copy be presented
to the family of our faithful associate.”
!
i
ol2
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
SERVING DINNER FROM A PERAMBULATING STEAM-TABLE IN A WARD OF THE
UNITED STATES MILITARY HOSPITAL NO. I, AT NEUILLY, PARIS
In the splendidly equipped building at Neuilly, one of the suburbs of Paris, the wounded
are given every care which modern science can provide and every comfort which money can
buy. It is a model base hospital.
THE SOCIETY'S RELIANCE UPON
VIDUAL MEMBERS
The Board of Managers of the Society
relies upon the continued cooperation and
support of the individual members in the
furtherance of its effective service, both
in patriotic endeavors and in the advance-
ment of human knowledge.
The deep personal interest of the mem-
bers in the Nationa, GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE, co encouragingly reflected in
thousands of letters of enthusiastic com-
mencdation and helpful constructive crit-
icisni, is a constant source of inspiration
to the Board. The Flag Number in par-
ticular has been acclaimed a monumental
achievement.
During the coming months the publi-
cation of many notable geographic, patri-
otic, and pictorial features will maintain,
if not surpass, the standard set by the
INDI-
- GEOGRAPHIC in 1917. In this connection
it is worthy of mention that the Board
of Managers, in view of the magnificent
results achieved by the four National
Geographic Society expeditions to the
Mt. Katmai volcanic region, and espe-
cially the success of the 1917 expedition,
the thrilling account of which was pub-
lished in the February, 1918, number of
the Magazine, a fifth expedition is now
being equipped, under the leadership of
Robert F. Griggs, and within a few weeks
will sail for Alaska to complete the ex-
ploration and investigation of the Valley
of Ten Thousand Smokes. For this
expedition the Society has appropriated
$8,000.
INVESTMENTS IN LIBERTY LOANS
The members of the Society will be
gratified to learn that the Board of Man-
agers has found it possible to invest
$100,000 of the organization’s reserve
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AM
“TEMPERATURE LOWER THIS MORNING, NURSE?”
The splendid courage which sustains the soldier of the Allies in the field is ever mani-
fest in the hospital, and, though the bed be one of pain, a smile greets the nurse upon her
hourly round. This is a scene in one of the military hospitals in Paris administered by the
American Red Cross.
funds in the Third Liberty Loan. The
Society invested $100,000 in the two pre-
vious Liberty Bond issues.
In the War Savings Stamp campaign
the Society not only purchased the full
amount allowed by government regula-
tions to any one institution, but also or-
ganized a National Geographic Society
Hundred-Dollar Club in the National
Capital, and more than 1,400 members
have pledged themselves to purchase one
hundred dollars’ worth of War Savings
Stamps during 1918.
It is also a source of pride to be able
to announce that the members of the So-
ciety have responded so generously to the
opportunity afforded them to equip a Na-
tional Geographic Ward in the American
Ambulance Hospital at Neuilly, Paris,
France (now known as U. S. Military
Hospital No. 1), that funds sufficient to
care for 20 beds for one year have been
subscribed, and it is believed that a third
Geographic Ward of 10 beds may soon
be assured.
Not only have there been liberal finan-
cial donations for the support of these
Geographic Wards, but many members
SIIST YSHIIg oY} IdAO say dYyooq
SSHTHLAN AHL AO
oY} JoaouoyM AYsS OY} WOIZ pourer Yyeosp oyrweUcdp oy} Wor, UdapyIYD OZ S19}JOYS JeotjoI URsURIIO}qQnNS
Sdiva wlV AHL WOU SLNHOONNI WOT YONAAY V MON ‘SYWTIOONWS AO NAG AHL ADONO
¥
SIT,
374
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
in addition have sent special gifts of
equipment and supplies for the invalided
soldiers. Among the most interesting of
the latter have been handsome knitted
and crocheted comforts, many of which
are the handiwork of the 250 young ladies
employed at the headquarters of the So-
ciety in Washington.
The Society owes the success and de-
velopment of its important war work
very largely to the energetic and well-
directed labors of its Director and Editor,
Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor. Under his in-
spiration and direction were established
and equipped the National Geographic
Society hospital wards in France. At
home, one of the Society’s buildings,
Hubbard Hall, has been transformed into
an auxiliary establishment of Red Cross
workers, while the several hundred em-
ployees in the Society’s office have been
OVO
organized into a helpful band of patriotic
workers, and the Liberty Loan and War
Stamp subscriptions have been very
large.
In an early issue of the NaAtionat Gro-
GRAPHIC MacazineE the Editor hopes to
publish a description of the National
Geographic Wards, written by Carol K.
Corey, whose recent graphic articles
from the front, “From the Trenches to
Versailles” and “Plain Tales from the
Trenches,” have won enthusiastic praise
from Geographic readers.
The months that lie ahead are preg-
nant with opportunities for national serv-
ice and for achievements in the increase
and diffusion of geographic knowledge.
With the sustaining support of each in-
dividual member, the Society cannot fail
to prove equal to and worthy of these
opportunities.
THE SYMBOL OF SERVICE TO MANKIND
The Greatest Humanitarian Movement of Modern Times
Originated in a Practical Attempt to Meet a
Practical Need with a Practical Remedy
By StocKTon Axson
NATIONAL SECRETARY, AMERICAN Rep Cross
ED CROSS originated in a prac-
R attempt to meet a practical
need with a practical remedy.
Sometimes a “movement” originates in
an idea, and develops through successive
attempts to put the idea into practice;
but Red Cross began in practice and de-
veloped its “ideas” out of practical situ-
ations. Whimsical philosophers debate
the question whether the hen or the egg
“came first,’ but there can be no ques-
tion about the precedence of practice and
ideas in the origin of Red Cross.
Red Cross is perhaps the greatest hu-
manitarian movement of modern times,
which is of course equivalent to saying
of all times, for humanitarianism is a
thoroughly modern thing; but this par-
ticular manifestation of humanitarianism
did not originate in theoretical notions of
humaneness.
It began in a hospital and on a battle-
field, with Florence Nightingale at Scu-
tari and with Henri Dunant at Solferino,
in actual nursing of sick and wounded
soldiers in a base hospital, in actual sal-
vage of wounded soldiers on a great and
bloody battlefield. There was nothing
vague or theoretical in the motive of
Miss Nightingale or M. Dunant; it was
as practical as rescuing a drowning man
or twisting a tourniquet above a severed
artery.
THE WAR CORRESPONDENT’S DISPATCH
WHICH AROUSED ENGLAND
When the special correspondent of the
London Times—he was William Howard
376 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
NATIONAL SURGICAL DRESSINGS DEPARTMENT AT ROME: SHOWING A STOCK OF
SURGICAL DRESSINGS
Each morning the masses of whiteness mount ceiling high, only to melt away like snow
by nightfall
Russell, probably the first war corre-
spondent to render a great public service
and win a conspicuous fame—sent des-
patches in October, 1854, from the front
describing the deplorable conditions of
the British troops in the Crimea, England
was startled and aroused. Said he:
“Tt is impossible for any one to see the
melancholy sights of the last few days
without feelings of surprise and indigna-
tion at the deficiencies of our medical
system. The manner in which the sick
and wounded are treated is worthy only
of the/savaces of Dahomey; *)) The
worn-out pensioners who were brought
as an ambulance corps are totally useless,
and not only are surgeons not to be had,
but there are no dressers or nurses to
carry out the surgeon’s directions and to
attend on the sick during the intervals
between his visits. Here the French are
greatly our superiors. Their medical ar-
rangements are extremely good, their
surgeons more numerous, and they have
also the help of the Sisters of Charity,
who have accompanied the expedition.”
This was in the middle of the nine-
teenth century—a century which, so far
as England was concerned, was marked
above all things by the erowth of the
democratic and humane idea. There had
been more than twenty years of conscious
reform through public agitations and
parliamentary measures; extension of
suffrage ; one parliamentary bill after an-
other providing for better working con-
ditions in the factories and in the mines;
for betterment of living conditions among
the poor, especially with respect to
women and children.
AN AGE OF “REFORMATORY” AUTHORS
A “school” of literature had sprung
up, perhaps the greatest since “the spa-
cious times of great Elizabeth,” and the
most popular of the many authors who
were already making famous the term
“Victorian Age of Literature” were those
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
DINING-ROOM OF THE RED CROSS CANTEEN AT THE GARE DE LEST, PARIS
The Stars and Stripes and the Tricolor, which decorate the walls of this boon to tired
troops, are indicative of the fact that all the canteens in Paris, as well as those at the front
and at junction points along the lines of communication, are conducted under the joint direc-
tion of the American Red Cross and the French Government or the French Red Cross.
who were most humane, most “reforma-
tory’—Dickens, Carlyle, George Eliot,
Ruskin.
Dickens in particular had captivated
all England with his humanity as well as
with his humor, equally notable as hu-
morist and humanist, and, best of all,
basing an incorrigible optimism on the
brave assumption that human misery is
not “in the nature of things’ and there-
fore unavoidable, but contrary to the na-
ture of things and therefore remediable.
In one fascinating novel after another
he had thundered this doctrine, all the
more appealing because uttered in tones
of hilarious laughter, the doctrine that if
society would bestir itself society could
cure its own evils; that where there is a
will there is a way.
Never before, and perhaps never since,
has a program of reform been so engag-
ingly and so convincingly promulgated.
Literati and statesmen, ordinary readers
and ordinary voters, all alike were con-
vinced that the world was well on its way
to a vast betterment through society’s in-
telligent determination to take charge of
its own affairs.
Then the articles in the Times broke
suddenly and rudely in on this optimism.
Here were British soldiers of the nine-
teenth century suffering like the soldiers
of the dark ages or of “savages of Daho-
mey.” England’s age-long military tra-
dition combined with her new-found hu-
manitarianism to stir the whole nation
into angry protest. Something must be
done! But what?
TWO PEOPLE SAW THE THING TO BE DONE
Fortunately alike for the immediate
crisis and for the larger future, there
were two people in England who saw
clearly the thing that should be done—
Mr. Sidney Herbert, one of the Secre-
taries of the War Department, and Miss
278 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
RECREATION ROOM OF ONE OF THE AMERICAN RED CROSS METROPOLITAN CANTEENS
FOR FRENCH SOLDIERS
Coéperating with the French Army, one of the first activities of the American Red Cross
in France was the organization of canteens, rest stations, and sleeping quarters for men on
their way to and from the fighting front.
Florence Nightingale, then thirty-four
years of age, born to considerable wealth
and surroundings of superlative culture
and refinement, but who had already de-
voted herself to the mission of develop-
ing a more intelligent system of public
nursing—a woman of extraordinary
ability, whose genius might have made
her eminent in any one of several fields
of endeavor, but who had chosen this
metier which seemed strange to some of
her friends and shocking to others.
As a young girl she had deplored the
fact that the Protestant Church made no
provision for the training of women,
comparable to that which the Catholic
Sisters of Mercy obtained, and had there-
fore welcomed an opportunity to go to
Germany and study with Pastor Fliedner
in his institute at Kaiserwerth on the
Rhine.
Pastor Fliedner was ihe sort of Ger-
man that many million other Germans
would be if they would only wake up
from their lethargy and cast off their
abominable autocracy and militarism and
give their. own. abundant better natures
“a chance’’—a kind, devoted man, seek-
ing to make himself useful by showing
others how to be useful. He had estab-
lished, in a modest, practical way, an in-
stitute for the training of deaconesses in
connection with a hospital, a penitentiary,
an orphan asylum, and a normal school
for the training of teachers. }
FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE’S NURSERY
NOVITIATE
In comparison with her own later and
so much more scientific work of training
nurses, Miss Nightingale found the
nurse-training feature of the Kaiser-
werth School crude and inadequate; but
here she found mental and spiritual stim-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 379
A CUP TO CHEER THE WOUNDED SOLDIER ON HIS ROAD TO RECOVERY
In the refreshment hall of an evacuation hospital scenes such as these are almost hourly
occurrences, as men who are not seriously wounded are dismissed. The evacuation hospital
is the institution through which the men customarily pass on their way to the base hospital.
ulation and many practical hints for her
later career.
Above all, here she found what she had
been seeking all through her passionate
and purposeful girlhood—a way to be
“of service to God” by being “of service
to man.” Intensely religious from child-
hood, she had never been satisfied with a
religion whose chief object was the sav-
ing of her own soul. Laborare est orare
might have been her motto, and here at
Kaiserwerth she found a means of trans-
lating prayer into work.
Her novitiate ended, she returned to
England and began the practical task of
hospital nursing. She encountered many
obstacles—some of the most stubborn
from loving friends still opposed to what
seemed to them the quixotic throwing
away of a dazzling social career for the
drudgery and meanness of hospital life.
That the brilliant Florence Nightin-
gale, whose social gifts fascinated people
of genius in letters and diplomacy, should
deliberately ally herself with the Mrs.
Gamps of the then humble, despised,
menial, and frequently dissipated public-
nursing service, seemed nothing less than
an atrocity. But Miss Nightingale was
as determined as she was brilliant and
pursued her way in spite of opposition.
The point which sentimental biogra-
phers of Florence Nightingale miss is,
that with all her gentler humane quali-
ties she was like the sternest men of ac-
tion in her will and purpose. Merely
being “good” and “sweet” would never
have carried her over her difficult road.
Frequently she had to be hard, in the
better way of hardness, the way of all
great leaders and organizers and agegres-
sive fighters against tradition and inani-
tion.
A REMARKABLE COINCIDENCE
She was preparing to organize a school
for nurses, modeled in part on the Kai- »
serwerth plan, when Russell’s article ap-
380 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
; B wactt hu Gare Bt *
aecouctt
SERVING A HOT MEAL TO WEARY SOLDIERS IN THE GARE DE L’EST CANTEEN, PARIS
There are three types of canteens operated or subsidized by the American Red Cross in
France. The first is known as the Rolling Canteen, just behind the front line, where hot
drinks, bouillon, lemonade, and mint are served to the men who are fighting or working close
to the firing lines.. The second class is known as the Line of Communication Canteen. In
four canteens of this class 88 American women serve 20,000 soldiers daily. The third class
of canteen is known as the Metropolitan, established in the principal railway stations of Paris.
peared in the Times. She had an inti-
mate personal acquaintanceship with Mr.
and Mrs. Sidney Herbert, as with so
many of the political, social, and literary
leaders of England, and she wrote a letter
to Mrs. Herbert to be shown to her hus-
band, saying that a “small private expe-
dition of nurses” had already been or-
ganized which she proposed to take to
Scutari, and asking if governmental au-
thority could be secured for them.
This letter crossed one from Mr. Her-
bert, inviting her to undertake this very
task for the government. It was one of
those coincidences not uncommon in the
history of thought, when the same idea
takes hold of different minds at the same
time.
In view of the momentous results of
this correspondence, it is not inappropri-
ate to compare the coincidence with Dar-
win’s and Wallace’s simultaneous exposi-
tions of the evolutionary idea. So it was
arranged that Miss Nightingale and her
band of nurses should go to the Crimea
in the autumn of 1854.
She reached Scutari ten days after the
battle of Balaclava (which made the Six
Hundred so famous) and one day before
the battle of Inkerman. She had her
hands full. Besides the wounded, there
were the sick, and they perhaps made her
chief problem.
TERRIBLE CONDITIONS IN THE HOSPITALS
The condition of the hospitals was al-
most unbelievable—floors and walls cov-
ered with filth, exposed sewers under- —
running the hospitals and emitting their
foul stench through all the wards, vermin
and rats (she became so expert in rat-
killing that she could slay a rodent over
a sleeper’s head without awakening him),
sheets of tarpaulin so thick and rough
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 381
y
WINNING THE HEARTS OF SOLDIERS BY SERVICE
Before the establishment of canteens it frequently happened that soldiers waiting for
trains at junction points would spend from 24 to 48 hours without any comforts, sleeping on
the ground and getting practically no food. Now, thanks to the cooperation of the Ameri-
can Red Cross with the French Army, the men from the front are given wholesome meals
below cost (15 cents per meal) and are provided with places to bathe and sleep.
that the poor sufferers pleaded to be left
between the blankets and spared the lux-
ury of sheets altogether.
Dysentery, typhus, and cholera were
raging, and by February, 1855, the mor-
tality had reached 42 per cent. The Brit-
ish army was in a fair way of being ex-
terminated.
She had other difficulties than wounds
and disease and unhygienic environ-
ment—the opposition of stiff conserva-
tive military officers, of the medical staff,
and of religious sectarians. Sturdy old
officers who had been wounded in the
Peninsular campaign, thrown in carts on
a bed of straw and who had recovered,
could see no sense in all this modern
flummery of ambulances and scrubbed
hospital floors.
Such feminization of the army was ab-
horrent, and they angrily asked if they
were to anticipate courts-martial held by
women as the next effete step in this
degeneracy.
WHAT FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE ACCOM-
PLISHED IN THE CRIMEA
Nor will it do to smile at this as a mere
example of “British conservatism.” A
reading of some of the reports of our
own military officers of as recent date as
the Spanish-American War will reveal
equivalent humors in the attitude of the
stiffer sort of military mind toward the
idea of women in the war zone.
What Florence Nightingale accom-
plished in the Crimea is a part of his-
tory—history too long and involved to be
summarized in this brief article. But
among the things she accomplished was
this, the setting of an example of mo-
mentous consequence for subsequent
events.
Among those inspired by her example
\SSRUILGJUOP 91T5) DY} UT Sty} SB YONS Sursoyyes & 0} JsOY FO IOI 9Y
-INWIY OY} {UOJ DY} WOLF SUIALIIL
SIUVd AO SNOILVIS AVM TIVA LVAN
uodn 10 soysu
-
a1)
oy} O} ICG ARM Ilot{} uo STOLp[Os YOuod yf jo
fk Y ¥
} sjow A]juUoNba1pUL JOU SSOIDd Pdy UvOdT
SpooU oY} 0} Jo}sruru 0} Apirewtid PoZIUeSIO IITA
) HHL JO ANO AO UVITHO AHL NI SHHONOAWA ANOZ-AYVM YOM ANddNS SSOU qdaa V
382
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
was a young Swiss gentleman of leisure,
M. Henri Dunant, like Miss Nightingale, of
gentle birth and some fortune (afterward
lost, so that his days ended in poverty).
On June 25, 1859, Dunant came upon
the battlefield of Solferino, littered with
the dead and the wounded of the Italian,
French, and Austrian armies—a total, it
is said, of 91,243 victims, including three
field marshals and nine generals—the
bloodiest battle since Waterloo and previ-
ous to the holocausts of the present bat-
tles of Europe.
Most of the medical corps of the
armies had left the field, as regulations
compelled them to, to accompany the re-
treating and pursuing armies. Dunant
organized bands of volunteer helpers and
transported the wounded to the neigh-
boring village of Castiglione, where he
housed them in hospitals and churches
and wherever shelter could be found.
Afterward he wrote a book of his ex-
periences, the most famous book in the
annals of Red Cross—Un Souvenir de
Solferino—a vivid description of what
he saw and what he and others did. His
assistants were the civilians of the neigh-
borhood—women and children and some
men.
He tells how the women of Castiglione
went about ministering to the wounded
without distinction of nationality, crying
“Tutti fratelli!” seeing all suffering men
as brothers, no matter under what stand-
ard they had fought.
The full account of all the anguish re-
lieved by Florence Nightingale and Henri
Dunant is written nowhere, unless it be
in the book of the Recording Angel, of
the thousands of dying men made more
comfortable in dying and of wounded
and sick men saved from dying.
THE RED CROSS SPIRIT BORN AT SOLFERINO
But the far-reaching consequence of
what these two did is being written daily
in the activities of the Red Cross of the
present. Every Red Cross nurse, and
ambulance driver, and canteen server,
and surgical-dressings maker, and knitter
of soldier comforts is carrying on the
work begun by these two in the 1850’s.
This article began with the assertion
that Red Cross originated in the most
practical way, but now note the supple-
089
ment to that statement. Each of these
pioneers—Nightingale and Dunant—de-
rived a great idea from practical work
accomplished and service rendered in the
exigencies and emergencies of battlefield
and military hospital.
Fach was a philosopher as well as a
practical person, and, indeed, no greatly
lasting work has ever been done or ever
will be done without some sort of phil-
osophy lying behind it or underrunning
it or growing out of it. Each of these
explorers in the field of suffering planned
for the future on the basis of their ex-
perience of the needs of suffering sol-
diers. Each might be called an advocate
of preparedness.
Miss Nightingale developed the whole
modern system of scientific nursing and
made forever impossible the atrocities
and inadequacies and absurdities which
Dickens satirized in Mrs. Gamp and
Betsy Brigg; to which Miss Nightingale
added epoch-making work in military
sanitation in her studies of the condition
of the British army in England.
THE VISION AND THE PLAN OF DUNANT
Henri Dunant originated the idea of
permanent volunteer relief societies in all
civilized countries, which in times of
peace would prepare to meet the exigen-
cies of war and in every way possible
supplement the work of the regular army
medical corps, which always has been and
always will be unable to deal with the
misery of war unsupported by volunteer
assistance.
To organize this assistance and to cor-
relate it with the army sanitary corps, in
strict and loyal subordination to the army
commanders, by means of permanent so-
cieties, was the vision and the plan of
Dunant.
The purpose of Un Souvenir de Sol-
ferino is twofold: First, to make clear
and vivid the actual horrors of war, and,
secondly, to suggest means by which per-
manent societies might be established,
always working under the authority and
with the consent of the military powers.
“Would it not be possible to found in all
the countries of Europe societies which
could give voluntary aid in time of war
to the wounded without distinction of
nationality?” so he writes.
jo Joquinu oo} 9
qual
NVOIMAWV
‘Surseoiour ApjuRjsuod st yt ynq “yeurs Ajaatjeredurod us9q SeY SUdd}JULD SIIvV_ dY} Je Poulezs9jUN SJOIpjOS URITIOWY
Ut} Juasaid ay} OF dQ “syyUOW AMOF jse] 9Y} Sulmnp poF usoq oavy sadipjos OoO‘oOO'S AjTeoU DUOTe SUIdJURI UL OdOI}IPY 94} UT
SlaVd NI SSOd
AHL AG GIZIGISHAS YO AGATIONLNOD SNAALNVO WATIML AHL TO ANO JO NAHOLIM AHL NI SYAMYOM WAALNA’IOA
384
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 38)
His two governing ideas were perma-
nence and neutrality. “Sans distinction
de nationalité” runs through the book
like a musical motif. Undoubtedly he
meant more by “neutrality” than has
proved practicable in the actualities of
warfare. Nurses and doctors cannot be
drained of their patriotism, nor is it de-
sirable that they should be, especially
when the German autocracy is the enemy.
But the neutrality idea does still pervade
Red Cross with respect to the actual
wounded.
DUNANT’S EFFORTS BEAR FRUIT AT GENEVA
American Red Cross will, of course,
render no aid whatsoever behind the Ger-
man lines, as it will permit no other
traitorous act of giving comfort to the
enemy; but when the German soldier
falls wounded within the Allies’ lines, he
gets Red Cross care, for he is no longer
an enemy; he is only a suffering man.
Dunant agitated his ideas by speech
and by visits to various courts of Europe,
and the result was that, with the cooper-
ation of the Geneva Society of Public
Utility, a humanitarian organization
which had existed since far back in the
eighteenth century, there was held in
Geneva a conference in 1863 to consider
ways and means of organizing and oper-
ating allied societies of relief in all Euro-
pean countries, functioning through a
central society with headquarters at Gen-
eva.
This was not a diplomatic convention,
but a conference of representatives of
various European powers to take counsel
as to methods of permanent provision for
the care of sick and wounded soldiers.
Ten articles were framed to govern the
organization and operation of these so-
cieties and their agents in the theater of
war, Article XIII stipulating that “they
shall wear in all countries, as a uniform
distinctive sign, the white arm badge
with a red cross on it”’—this being the
Swiss national colors in reverse.
As a result of this conference, there
was held in Geneva, in 1864, another con-
ference, this time with diplomatic au-
thority, for the purpose of dealing, not
with voluntary societies, but with the
whole question of the rights of the
wounded and of the army medical corps.
This resulted in the famous 1864 ‘“‘Con-
vention,” or “Geneva Treaty,” which
wrote the rights of wounded and of those
who succor them into the laws of nations.
The United States had had no repre-
sentative at the 1863 Conference, but was
“informally” represented at the 1864 Con-
vention. ‘The Department of State ex-
pressly stipulated that the representation
must be informal, both because of the
American tradition of non-participation
in European alliances, and especially be-
cause the United States was then engaged
in a civil war and could not submit its
affairs to what it feared might prove to
be an outside interference.
THE UNITED STATES NOT SIGNATORY TO
THE 1864 TREATY
But though the United States was not
signatory to the 1864 Treaty, and though
its representatives did not participate in
debate on the floor of the Convention, the
United States was powerful in determin-
ing the course which the Conference took
and in the character of the resultant
agreement, for the United States had in
practical operation, working under war
conditions, the first actual permanent mili-
tary relief association, the United States
Sanitary Commission.
What had been learned in experience
by this Commission was made clear to
the European delegates to the Conference
by Mr. Charles S. P. Bowles, an agent of
the Sanitary Commission, who had been
authorized to attend the Conference in
company with Mr. George W. Fogg,
United States Minister to Switzerland.
Mr. Bowles wrote an intimate account
of the extra-legal proceedings of the
Conference, of the many conversations
and colloquies held in his pleasant hotel
rooms overlooking the lake: “I availed
myself of all suitable occasions to impress
upon the members the character and ex-
tent of the great work done, and doing,
to mitigate and alleviate the sufferings of
the sick and wounded—whether friend or
foe—by the men and women of the
United States. Generally it was
admitted that our people in America have
practically solved pretty much all the
questions which this international con-
gress was met to consider.”
386 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
GENESIS OF THE UNITED STATES SANITARY
COMMISSION
And now the story returns to Florence
Nightingale and to the British Commis-
sion which followed her to the Crimea in
AMiibeeresse -. Charlies’ J.) Stille, ani his
“History of the United States Sanitary
Commission,” makes it very clear that the
Commission owed its existence to the ex-
periences of Great Britain in the Crimea!
“At that time the experience of the
Crimean War was fresh in the memory
of all. That experience was a complete
chapter by itself on sanitary science. It
taught the great truth that the ‘cause of
humanity was identified with the strength
of armies.’ We were left to no vague
conjecture as to the causes which pro-
duced the fearful mortality among the
allied troops before Sevastopol.
Public opinion in England, indignant and
horror-stricken at this frightful result,
long before the war closed, called loudly
for investigation and remedy.
“The result has been a contribution of
inestimable value to our knowledge of
everything which concerns the vital ques-
tions of the health, comfort, and efficiency
of armies. The results of these investi-
gations, both in regard to the causes of
the evil and the wonderful efficiency of
the remedies which were applied for its
removal, had been recently given to the
world in parliamentary reports, in the
works of professional men, and especially
in the invaluable testimony of Miss
Nightingale ; so that all the conditions of
the problem were perfectly known, and
its solution could be arrived at with the
exactness and certainty of a scientific
demonstration.”
PREVENTION THE WATCHWORD OF THE
SANITARY COMMISSION
As the watchword of Dunant was Per-
manence, so the watchword of the United
States Sanitary Commission was Preven-
tion. ‘The Commission originally pro-
posed to act in an advisory capacity to
the government in general matters of
sanitation, but it rapidly grew into a cen-
tral committee for most of the organiza-
tions of volunteer relief in the North; was
in fact the first organized practical Red
Cross association, though it did not bear
the name. The advice of Mr. Bowles
seems to have carried special weight with
the delegates to the Geneva Conference in
matters concerning the so-called neutral-
ization, or inviolability of the wounded
and those attending upon them.
It will interest the readers of the South
to know that General Beauregard seems
to have been the first officer in the Civil
War to suggest the systematic and in-
variable recognition of the rule that sur-
geons should be treated as non-combat-
ants and released if taken prisoner.
There seemed to be some question in
the minds of the delegates to the Geneva
Convention as to whether this so-called
principle of neutrality was practicable,
but Mr. Bowles seems to have been able
to convince them that it had proved quite
practicable in the traffic between the
armies of the North and the South.
A UNIVERSAL SIGN saDOPTED FOR THE
SANITARY CORPS
The 1864 Conference did not consider
the question of volunteer societies—that
had already been dealt with in 1863—but
it adopted a “Convention” of ten articles
looking toward the inviolability, or “neu-
trality,’ of the medical corps and the
wounded, ambulances, military hospitals,
personnel, and even the civilians within
the theater of war who should render aid
to the wounded, and it adopted a univer-
sal sign for the sanitary corps of all
armies alike—“The flag and arm badge
shall bear a red cross on a white ground.”
Hitherto each nation had had its own
sanitary corps insignia, usually unrecog-
nized by the enemy, even though the
enemy should have wanted to protect the
medical and nursing contingents.
Such, briefly summarized, is the way
Red Cross began. The history of later
conventions, developments, and modifica-
tions is too long for the purpose of this
article. What is being emphasized here
is that a practical beginning, combined
with a characteristically nineteenth cen-
tury humane idea, has led to the far-
reaching and manifold modern Red
Cross, which has been amplified until it
includes almost every conceivable activity
designed to lessen human misery, not
merely in the stress of war, but in great
natural calamities.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 387
WW
Z
\\\
Yi
UNDER THREE FLAGS IN ITALY
The Stars and Stripes and the banner of the American Red Cross hang side by side with
Italy’s ensign, which displays the cross of the House of Savoy, in the warehouse at Rome
where Red Cross supplies are stored.
“UNTIL THE GERMAN AUTOCRACY
SUDDENLY WENT MAD”
Indeed, until the German autocracy
suddenly went mad (and it is comforting
to remember the ancient adage that
“whom the gods destroy they first make
mad”), it was considered by those most
concerned with American Red Cross that
its chief function would be to relieve the
misery incident to floods, conflagrations,
earthquakes, famines, and similar nat-
ural catastrophes.
Those who were active in raising the
Red Cross Endowment Fund a few years
ago found that their chief difficulty lay in
convincing the people of America that
there was really any need of an elabo-
rately organized war-relief society, for
war seemed a remote contingency to the
American people, and it was only by em-
phasizing the value of a permanent relief
388 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
society for those emergencies due to
natural causes that the people were per-
suaded to contribute in any large sum to
Red Cross.
But we reckoned without the Hohen-
zollerns. ‘These disturbers of the world’s
peace have brought many changes to the
American mind, among them a total
change in the conception of Red Cross,
its needs, and its opportunities. The im-
mediate business of American Red Cross
ise to “monilize “the relief vagencies” of
America for the most destructive and the
most merciless of all wars.
TWO MAIN CONCEPTIONS OF THE
AMERICAN RED CROSS
In doing this it works under two main
conceptions: to relieve (and, as far as
possible, to prevent) the misery incident
to war and to assist in maintaining the
morale of the fighting forces.
To lessen the fighting man’s misery
and to keep him fighting—these seem,
superficially, contradictory motives; but
all who believe in that just peace which
can be the only lasting peace know that
it is superlatively important to keep our
own soldiers and our allies on fighting
edge until the German beast is beaten.
The world will never be habitable until
that is accomplished.
Red Cross is rooted in a humane idea;
but the world cannot be made humane
until German inhumanity has _ been
brought to a stop; and so long as those
who now control Germany remain in con-
trol, this can be done only by speaking to
them in louder tones than their own, the
only language which they comprehend—
the language of force.
After the humane nineteenth century,
we had reason to prognosticate a yet more
humane twentieth century. But Germany
has confused the horoscope; she has
made the most astounding assault on hu-
manity in the history of the world, weld-
ing to the brutishness of the Hun the
ingenuities, resources, and cruel refine-
ments of perfected science.
THE TUSKS OF THE PRUSSIAN BOAR MUST
BE DRAWN
The first business of the civilized world
is to draw the tusks of the Prussian boar,
and Red Cross is exerting its utmost en-
deavor to serve the army and the navy in
their accomplishment of that end. While
Red Cross does all it can to comfort the
wounded soldier, it adopts every device
it can conceive to make the well soldier
a better fighting man.
Hence its canteens, and rest stations,
and all its cooperation with the govern-
ment, with Y. M. C. A., and with all
other war agencies, to render the soldier
life as tolerable, as comforting, and as
heartening as possible.
But it goes back of the soldier to the
soldier’s family. If there is any outstand-
ing lesson which Red Cross has derived
from its experiences in this war as over-
topping all other lessons which it has
learned, it is this: that the morale of the
soldier depends almost as much on havy-
ing his family cared for as on having
himself cared for.
Though he be warm within and with-
out and given every known modern de-
vice for soldier comfort, he will be at
something less than his best if he is har-
assed with anxiety about the wife and
children, the old father and mother, be-
hind the fighting line, within the zone of
war or beyond it, or even across the far-
stretching Atlantic Ocean. In this con-
ception of the complete duty which the
people owe their soldiers, the Red Cross
Department of Civilian Relief has become
almost as much a war department as the
Department of Military Relief.
CIVILIAN RELIEF WORK
That the soldiers’ families may be
served intelligently as well as generously,
the Civilian Relief Department has or-
ganized its Home Service institutes,
where workers are trained by the most
modern and scientific methods to render
every conceivable kind of help that is
needed, including that most helpful and
most delicate and most difficult of all
help, the help which helps people to help
themselves.
This, of course, is nothing more than
the modern science of social service ren-
dered to people as a war measure—that
science which combines in a delicate and
intricate way the quality of mercy with
a clear understanding that mere promis-
cuous “charity” may be of all things the
least kindly in the end.
Dye
“il
Photograph from J
, AGED THREE AND A HALF, SELLING W
N
Sh eo. al
EDWARD 7. DYE
ASTER
M
e
We = VOR CEI
N
ith a band to
, Ww
1Sse
king good his promi
1S ma
1,000.00 worth and i
t
e to sell $
ra)
goin
s he is
-
Say
back him up
YL”
We
& Underwood
© Underwood
AR PAINT
EK W
DOWN, THEN TH
B-
SCRU
Silke SPB IE
FIR
al (US
one
as)
hy
Om
vo,
ak
OF
aria} As)
ee
w
ie)
vA
ps
oo
ao
ps
Os
‘2 wo
Ww
oe
I
eA
ee
aD
oO
Oe
B*
Gat
eM)
ons
gee
“a gM @
uss
gs ts Me
v
Sis
Vv
op -
- oO
ee] Ce
As eo
obo
Sa
oe
Orn
eens
Pres
Sew
ya)
Ses
ae
VS bi]
Caan
ve.
Aes
=O
OOK
w
fi
oO
co)
389
390 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
To preserve people from deteriorating
through neglect, and at the same time
to preserve them from deteriorating by
erowing dependent on the easy bounty of
others, this is, of course, the primary les-
son in all rational and responsible social
service, and this lesson must be learned
by many who would assist the families of
soldiers, not sentimentally and to their
destruction, but really and to their better-
ment. -Hence the Home Service insti-
tutes which are’ held ‘all, over) America
and in which those who really wish to be
of service can learn the difficult lesson
of acquiring science without losing their
susceptibilities to pity.
RED CROSS EDUCATIONAL WORK
This work is, of course, educational in
its most far-reaching aspect, and to this
work of education, Red Cross has added
another in its Junior Auxiliary—a plan
whereby the school children of the coun-
try are enlisted in Red Cross activity, not
for the sake of their membership fees,
because these fees are never applied to
the general purposes of Red Cross, but
are used entirely to promote the children’s
own activities; not primarily, either, for
their production of Red Cross articles,
knitted goods, etc., but primarily for the
education of the children themselves in
foundational principles of citizenship and
the application of citizenship to war con-
ditions.
So far from undertaking to exploit the
school children of America for Red Cross
activity, the Junior Auxiliary seeks rather
to make Red Cross the coordinating agent
of all their war activities, and thereby to
save the time of the school children rather
than to add an extra burden to the al-
ready too many burdens of extra-curricu-
lum activity.
“NOTHING STANDS ALONE”
These extensive educational ventures
may seem far afield from the thoughts
which Henri Dunant had in mind when
he and the women of Castiglione were
bearing bleeding and groaning soldiers
from the battle ground of Solferino, and
when the thought shot through his brain
that there should be a permanent organ-
ization for this sort of relief.
Certainly the idea could not have oc-
curred to him then that this single thing
that he was planning should develop into
so complex a matter as the modern Red
Cross, with so many ramifications and so
many unsuspected opportunities trans-
lated into far-reaching duties. But this
is merely an example of that great fact
of the universe of which all philosophers
are conscious, that nothing stands alone,
but everything exists in relationship to
something else and each in turn is re-
lated to all.
A wounded soldier 1s a very concrete
fact, but when humanity has undertaken
to care for that soldier it cannot stop until
it has done everything that will rationally
administer to his welfare. And so, step
by step, Red Cross has grown in a quite
logical way from physical service to a
wounded man into this great complex
machinery which touches the soldier’s in-
terests at every point, and which, for its
true functioning, must invade the fields
of education itself.
WASHINGTON
VObe x MXIT, Noy 5
May, 1918
THE.
NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGA ZINIE
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
By Epwarp W. NEeEtson
Cuier, U. S. Brotocicar SuRVEY
With illustrations in color from paintings by Louis Agassiz Fuertes
This series of animal biographies and natural-color portraits is a counterpart
of the series dealing with the Larger North American Mammals, published in the -
November, 1916, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MacazINneE. Together they describe and
illustrate the most interesting and characteristic types of North America’s mam-
mal life. The author of these intimate insights into animal nature, Mr. E. W.
Nelson, for forty years the friend and student of the people of the wild, brings
to GEOGRAPHIC readers a refreshing picture of their habits, their traits, and their
environment. He has studied them from northernmost Alaska to southernmost
Mexico. The paintings are by Mr. Louis Agassiz Fuertes, whose work is always
received with enthusiasm by GEOGRAPHIC readers everywhere, and the llustra-
tions of the animal tracks by our foremost American authority, Ernest Thompson
Seton.
lying north of Mexico more than
1,300 species and geographic races
of mammals are known to exist. Of
these by far the greater number, both of
species and individuals, fall into the class
of smaller mammals.
Some of the most characteristic types
which appear to have originated in North
America are the mountain - beavers,
pocket-gophers, kangaroo-rats, pocket-
mice, wood-rats, white- footed mice,
muskrats, skunks, and ring-tailed cats.
In Siberia and Europe live close coun-
terparts of our northern weasels, minks,
martens, field- mice, lemmings, north-
ern hares, conies, marmots, moles, and
others; and on our southern border the
armadillo and the hog-nosed skunk intro-
duce a faint tinge of a strange fauna
from South America.
I THAT part of North America
FURRY FRIENDS AND ENEMIES
The muskrats, minks, martens, and
skunks for many years have yielded an
enormous annual return from their furs;
the squirrels and rabbits afford sport and
a large supply of excellent flesh for food ;
the prairie-dogs and some of the ground-
squirrels existing in enormous numbers
have been excessively destructive to
crops; and others, like the porcupine and
the armadillo, have attracted particular
attention because of their strange char-
acteristics.
The smaller mammals live everywhere,
from the tropical end of Florida to the
uttermost lands of the frozen North, and
from the seashore to the limit of vegeta-
tion on the high mountains. The heav-
iest forests, open meadows, rugged moun-
tain slopes, arctic barrens, and sun-
scorched desert plains all have their small
bi}
Photograph by Howard ‘Taylor Middleton
HEREDITARY ENEMIES: A CAT WATCHING
A GRAY SQUIRREL
At one time the gray squirrel was so abund-
ant as to make ruinous inroads on the corn
and wheat crops of our pioneers. In Ohio, a
hundred years ago, there was a law requiring
each free white man to deliver 100 squirrel
scalps every year or pay a penalty of $3. To-
day the gray squirrel needs legal protection to
prevent its extermination.
four-footed habitants. Many modifica-
tions of parts and organs of the various
species have been necessary to adapt the
small mammals to specialized modes of
init:
ANIMALS THAT LEARNED TO “DIG IN”
This is strikingly illustrated in the case
of those true rodents, the, pocket-gophers,
which apparently found competition on
the surface of the ground so acute that
they took the unoccupied territory below
the surface, where they live as miners
and tunnel from place to place in search
of edible roots, with an occasional stealthy
excursion above ground to seize some of
the food available there.
Another excellent illustration is fur-
nished by the moles, which, leaving the
numerous closely related species—the
shrews—to feed upon insects above
ground, have descended and, like the
pocket-gophers, live in tunnels which they
make in the pursuit of earthworms and
insects below the surface; like the go-
phers, they, too, make occasional excur-
sions above ground i in search of food.
The mink and the muskrat, represent-
ing the carnivores and rodents, have
rivals for their food supply on land and
have become amphibious, being as much
at home in the water as on shore, one
feeding on fish and flesh and the other on
aquatic vegetation. Certain forms of the
squirrel tribe are heavy-bodied and live
in underground burrows, while other
more slender and graceful species make
_ their homes in the tree-tops.
A DEPARTURE FOR EVERY NEED
Another member of this group, the fly-
ing-squirrel, has developed an extension
of the skin uniting the front and hind
legs, so it may glide freely from tree to
tree. ‘The bats have gone still further,
and the skin uniting their lengthened
front and hind limbs and long finger
bones forms broad wings which lend
them powers of flight scarcely equaled by
those of birds.
The gophers, pocket-mice, chipmunks,
and others are provided with little cheek
pouches in the skin on each side of the
mouth, in which they may carry food
home to their store-rooms and other hid-
ing places.
The hares have developed long legs for
running on open plains, and the weasels
have long, slender bodies and an exceed-
SMALLER MAMMALS OF
NORTH AMERICA 273%
Photograph from Ernest Elva Weir
A HAND-FED KANGAROO-RAT
These curious little desert rodents have many interesting habits, one of the most fasci-
nating being their method of combat.
Sitting on their hind feet, after the fashion of kanga-
roos, the belligerents hop-around each other, sparring for an opening, finally striking out with
their long feet like game cocks.
to “take the count.”
ing quickness which enables them to fol-
low and capture their elusive prey in its
burrows and among crevices in the rocks.
The hairy coat of the mole is short and
equal to the finest velvet, while that of
the porcupine stands out in strong, sharp
spines ; the skin of the armadillo is prac-
tically hairless, but forms a bony armor
covering its upper parts.
The front feet of squirrels and most
other rodents are slender and used with
deftness as hands in manipulating food,
while those of the badger and skunk are
heavily clawed and strongly muscled for
the purpose of digging up their prey.
The tails of many species are varied
in form to serve special purposes. The
long-haired tails of tree-squirrels have a
plume-like character, which adds much to
the beauty of these attractive animals.
The long tails of the kangaroo-rats and
the jumping-mice serve as balances for
their bodies during long leaps. The ver-
tically flattened tail of the muskrat and
the broad horizontally flattened tail of
the beaver are useful as rudders. Per-
haps the oddest of all is the naked pre-
hensile tail of the opossum, which coils
about branches or other support and thus
When a kick lands fairly, the victim rolls over as if ready
is a safeguard against a possible fall, and
even permits the animal to hang sus-
pended by it alone.
STRANGE ADAPTATIONS TO MEET CONDI-
TIONS OF ENVIRONMENT AND
COMPETITION
In such ways, by thousands of adapta-
tions and modifications of the typical
four-footed mammal, are they fitted to
their varied modes of life, each so far as
possible in some special place of its own.
The effect of the pressure of environ-
ment and competition upon the various
species of mammals in any region could
not be better shown than by the kanga-
roos of Australia. ‘That continent is oc-
cupied by many species of these peculiar
mammals, some of which inhabit the
open plains like our jack-rabbits in the
West; others have learned to climb and
live arboreal lives in the tree-tops; and
still other members of this group have
become burrowers and live in dens under-
ground like some of our native rats and
mice.
From the instances mentioned above
it is evident that the mammalian organ-
ism is very plastic and has been molded
1h
374* THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
by the environment to which it has been
subjected during the ages. The larger
effects evidenced by profound modifica-
tions in the anatomy are the result of
. continued pressure extending far back in
time. The far more numerous, modern,
and superficial changes known to natu-
ralists as geographic variations are every-
where in evidence.
By the collection of great series of
specimens in North America and else-
where in the world-it has been proved
that it is common for a single species of
mammal to occupy a’great area, includ-
ing such diverse climatic conditions as
humid forested districts near the sea-.
level, sections of arid desert plains in
the interior, and high rugged mountain
slopes. In each area of differing condi-
tions it is ordinarily found that represen-
tatives of a species, under certain con-
ditions, vary from those in other areas
mainly in shades of color and in propor-
tions.
GEOGRAPHY AND COLOR
In arid areas the colors are usually dis-
tinctly paler and grayer, in the humid
districts they are darker and browner.
Other conditions also effect these changes
among members of the same species, as
is shown in some of the most arid and
desert plains of the southwestern United
States, where mammals living among
dark-colored lava beds are darker than
those found, sometimes within a few
rods, on paler adjoining soil. Complete
isolation under the same climatic and
other conditions sometimes produces
marked changes, as is well illustrated by
the difference between the Abert and
Kaibab squirrels on the two sides of the
Grand Canyon in Arizona (see page 448).
The different forms of a species oc-
cupying areas under varying conditions
are commonly termed geographic races.
They grade imperceptibly into one an-
other along the border between their
ranges, step by step with the gradations
of the climatic and other conditions which
have produced their differences.
AN INAG ICHE MIST SIGEANGE:STARCELELN LO
WATER
One of the most striking modifications
of mammalian economy by environment
rain falling.
is that shown in many small mammals of
our southwestern desert region and ad-
jacent parts of Mexico, in which such
species as the kangaroo-rats, pocket-mice,
prairie-dogs, and others are able to exist
under the most arid conditions without
drinking. ‘The liquid necessary for sup-
plying ‘their bodily needs is obtained
through chemical action in their digestive
tracts, whereby some of the starchy parts
of their food are ch: anged into water:
Over considerable areas in the water-
less deserts on the peninsula of Lower
California periods of from three to five
years sometimes pass without a drop of
In these areas the small
desert mammals named above, as well as
wood-rats, white-footed mice, cotton-
tails, and jack-rabbits, are numerous and
successfully pass these dry periods with-
out inconvenience. ‘The absolute inde-
pendence of water of these animals has
been demonstrated in southern California
in the case of pocket-mice kept for
months in captivity in a box and fed
solely upon thoroughly dried seeds with-
out their showing the slightest sign of
discomfort.
Our small mammals may be roughly
classified by their food habits into three
main groups: Rodents, or gnawing ani-
mals; carnivores, or flesh eaters, and in-
sectivores, or insect eaters.
GNAWERS MOST NUMEROUS OF MAMMALS
The rodents vastly outnumber all other
mammals and are typified by the squir-
rels, rats, and mice; their food is mainly
vegetable matter, but many of them eat
insects and meat whenever available.
The carnivores, including such species as
the weasel, mink, and marten, are mainly
flesh eaters, preying largely upon rodents,
but they also eat insects and fruits of
many kinds. ‘The insectivores include
the moles and shrews, which, with all the
bats found within our limits, are almost
exclusively eaters of worms and insects.
While rodents primarily feed on vege-
table matter, it is surprising to note the
large number of species among them
which commonly feed on insects and have
strong carnivorous propensities. This is
not so much the case with such larger
rodents as the beaver, porcupine, and
woodchuck, but most of the smaller kinds,
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
Photograph by Howard Taylor Middleton
A MILLENNIAL SCENE: A RABBIT-HOUND AND A YOUNG RABBIT ENJOYING EACH
OTHER'S SOCIETY
Here the camera records a friendship almost as remarkable as that which is to mark the
association of the lion and the lamb in the final days of the world’s history
from squirrels to mice, have been found
to be confirmed flesh eaters.
The destruction of the eggs and young
of birds, both on the ground and in the
trees, by these animals must have a far-
reaching effect in reducing the number
of insectivorous and other small birds.
Some small rodents, as the grasshopper-
mice, subsist mainly upon insects and
flesh.
The naturalist who sets traps for small
rodents in field or forest is constantly
annoyed by finding trapped animals partly
devoured by their fellows. When mice
or rats are confined together in cages and
provided with an abundance of vegetable
food, it is a common experience to find
that the stronger kill and eat the weaker
ones, until in a short time only a single
survivor remains. These cannibalistic
traits are strongly developed in the com-
mon house rat, which is notorious for
its savagery toward others of its kind.
CASES OF CONCENTRATED FEROCITY
To a certain extent the ferocity of
mammals appears to increase in propor-
tion to a decrease in their size. The
smaller members of the weasel family—
the weasels—are relatively far more ac-
tive and bloodthirsty than the minks, mar-
tens, and other larger members of the
group.
If the common weasel should be in-
creased to the bulk of a mountain-lion
and retain its nature and physical prow-
ess, it would be many times more danger-
ous than any existing carnivore and the
devastations it would commit would be
appalling. Even the tiny insect-eating
shrews are endowed with a fierce and ag-
gressive spirit scarcely equaled among
larger animals.
Rodents and insectivorous mammals
are without effective weapons of offense
or defense against the birds and beasts
376* THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Howard Taylor Middleton
A WEASEL AT BAY ON A TREE-TRUNK
smelling liquid which
is sprayed on a dan-
gerous enemy.) So
confident are skunks
in the efficacy of this
weapon that they are
extremely calm and
unhurried in their
manners and _ take
little trouble to avoid
an encounter with
man or beast. ‘Their
odorous weapon is not
used among them-
selves and appears to
be held for service
against more danger-
ous enemies.
Scent glands are
common among ro-
dents, carnivores, and
insectivores, but are
ordinarily used -for
purposes of communi-
cation with others of
their kind, sometimes
to attract the opposite
sex and sometimes
merely to give notice
of their presence ina
locality.
The hard school of
experience holding
through the ages has
taught many of our
rodents the necessity
of lying up stores of
food to meet periods
Wolves, coyotes, and foxes are the natural enemies of this fea eat scarcity. Man y
rocious little creature. In spite of its diminutive size, it is a foe to species store food in
be respected, for its attack is always aimed at a vital point—com-
monly the brain, the back of the neck, or the jugular vein of its ad-
versary.
of prey which beset them. Many, how-
ever, are surprisingly courageous when
brought to bay, and, using their front
eeth, will fight to the death with vigor
and spirit. This is especially notable of
the muskrats and their cousins, the field-
mice. Carnivores, both great and small,
have teeth and claws with which to de-
fend themselves against attack.
WHY THE SKUNK NEVER HURRIES
In addition, skunks have an even more
potent weapon in the secretion of a vile-
a desultory way when-
ever a surplus is avail-
able, but when harvest
time comes, at the close of summer, the
work is taken up as a serious occupation
during many busy hours each day or
night by the species living where the se-
vere northern winters make the stores a
necessity.
The storage instinct is possessed as well
by many of the southern desert species,
where climatic conditions permit activity
throughout the year. In such regions the
supplies serve during storms and in
periods of drought, when the yield of
plant food is limited.
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
Y
Yj
oe
Wy
Yyy
Photograph by Howard Taylor Middleton
ARMED NEUTRALITY: A DOG AND A SKUNK PREPARE FOR COMBAT
Once in a lifetime the photographer of wild life gets an opportunity such as is recorded
here. Luck was with the camera man, but not with the terrier, as a moment after this picture
was made the dog was a very nauseated and embarrassed animal, the skunk having employed
its natural weapon with overpowering odoriferous effect.
GOOD HOUSEKEEPING IN RODENT LAND
One can but marvel at the wise pre-
science with which northern rodents
gather their winter stores and hide them
away safe from the weather in secret
places in hollow trees, old logs, crevices
among the rocks, or in neat storage cham-
bers dug for the purpose adjoining under-
ground burrows. ‘The size of the stores
and the tireless industry of these little
husbandmen in gathering them might
well serve as examples worthy of emula-
tion by some of their human neighbors.
The seeds gathered are freed from chaff,
the grasses and herbs are dried as “hay,”
and roots are carefully cleaned before
being stored.
The storing habit appears to be nearly
always for purely individual benefit. The
food is usually stored in bulk, but squir-
rels and chipmunks often bury here and
there single nuts, which they are able to
recover long afterward through their ex-
traordinary powers of smell.
Stores are laid by for a single season,
and a single failure of a nut or seed crop
will cause the starvation of many small
animals, and the failure of the crops for
two or more seasons is so disastrous that
the rodents may nearly or quite all die of
famine over great areas. ‘The reverse of
this occurs during successive years of
bountiful nut and seed crops.
An abundant food supply appears to
be a powerful stimulant to the fecundity
of mammals, and the number of young
at a birth, as well as the number of litters
born during a season, are greatly in-
creased by it, until their haunts fairly
swarm with them.
THE EBB AND FLOW OF ANTAGONISTIC
SPECIES
With this stimulated increase of rodent
life goes a related increase in the number
of birds and mammals which prey upon
them. The close relationship between
the numbers of rodents and of the car-
nivores which prey upon them is shown
by the records of the Hudson Bay Com-
pany, in which with the increase or de-
crease in the abundance of varying-hare
skins secured by the fur traders goes a
corresponding increase or decrease in the
number of lynx skins taken.
After rodents become enormously
378*
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
oe
ifn
Photograph by Howard Taylor Middleton
IT IS NOT VANITY WHICH PROMPTS THIS MOUSE TO TAKE ITS OWN PICTURE
The bait is a grain of corn attached to one end of a thread; the other end operates the
camera shutter; but the pose is almost “studied”
abundant, if food becomes scarce they
sometimes make extended migrations,
during which vast numbers swarm across
the country, like the lemmings of the
North or the gray squirrels during their
historic migrations of early days in the
eastern United States. At such times vast
numbers of the wandering hordes perish;
epidemic disease also plays its part in re-
ducing their numbers. Nature thus is
self-limiting in restraining the permanent
increase of any species beyond the num-
bers needed to preserve its balance.
The advent of man in new regions with
his clearing of forests, cultivation of the
soil, and destruction of animal life for
food or other purposes, quickly upsets
the balance of nature, and some species
are much reduced in numbers or disap-
pear, while others, especially among the
smaller kinds of mammals, may greatly
benefit through added food supplies, and
then increase until they become a pest, to
‘monly end in tragic deaths.
be destroyed by the farmer as a measure
of self-protection.
ANIMALS THAT SEEK SAFETY IN DARKNESS
For some reason, perhaps owing to
their small size and defenselessness
against birds and beasts of prey, the great
majority of small mammals, including
hundreds of species and untold millions
of individuals, are nocturnal or live such
obscure and hidden lives they are un-
known except to the comparatively few
people who go much afield, with all their
powers of observation alert by day and by
night. Many of the mainly nocturnal spe-
cles pursue minor activities by day, where
shelter of one kind or another gives them
a reasonable feeling of security.
Under the revealing light of day most
small mammals, especially the rodents,
are extremely watchful and timid, lead-
ing lives filled with alarms which com-
By night
SMALLER
MAMMALS OF
NORTH AMERICA 279%
Photograph by Howard Taylor Middleton
A NEST OF YOUNG WHITE-FOOTED MICE
One form of this small animal has been found living at an elevation of from 15,000 to 16,000
feet on Mt. Orizaba, Mexico, the highest record of any North American mammal
they appear to have far greater confi-
dence; yet this also is a time of imminent
danger from the owls and many beasts
of prey then prowling about.
That the small rodents have good cause
for their timorous ways is plain when we
consider the array of enemies which en-
compass them, including owls, herons,
gulls, bears, foxes, bobcats, weasels and
their cousins, with snakes, and on occa-
sion fishes, which take endless toll from
their numbers. Fortunately for them,
these small folk live wholly in the present
and quickly forget the shadow of death
cast by the passage of a hawk or the
skulking form of a four-footed enemy.
COUNTLESS BEASTS THAT ROAM THE
NIGHT
By day the squirrels, chipmunks, wood-
chucks, and spermophiles are abroad and
unite with the birds to lend an air of
pleasant animation to forest and plain.
With the falling shades of night, near
the abodes of mankind as well as in the
remote wilderness, everywhere a count-
less multitude of small beasts come forth
and form a little, bright-eyed furry
world, clad in delicate shades of gray
and brown and characterized by rematic:
able grace and agility.
These small folk of the night swarm
out from snug nests hidden in burrows in
the earth, in crevices among the rocks, in
hollow trees, under logs or other cover,
and even from the shelter afforded by
buildings. In number and variety of
forms they far exceed anything seen by
day. The air is filled with the flitting
forms of bats, while among the trees or
on the ground, varying with the locality,
are multitudes of rabbits, flying-squirrels,
rats and mice of many kinds, lemmings,
pocket-mice, kangaroo-rats, pocket-go-
phers, shrews, and even moles.
This abundance of night life brings
forth the prowling powers of darkness in
the form of velvet-winged owls, weasels,
skunks, minks, martens, and other car-
nivores, which by scent and by keen vision
find abundant harvest. The small car-
nivores, in turn, are subject to the preda-
380* THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A MINK TAKING ITS OWN PICTURE BY FLASHLIGHT
This is one of many remarkable nature studies which have been made possible by Dr.
George Shiras 3rd’s invention and development of animal flashlight photography, with the
animals themselves as the photographers. The naturalist may have to spend hours, some-
times days, waiting in swamp or desert to study his quarry, but by means of flashlight photo-
graphs the inhabitants of the wild are revealed in their native haunts to all who read a story
told in pictures. Dr. Shiras’s notable contributions to this magazine have always won hearty
appreciation from members of the National Geographic Society.
tory law of might and are at times hunted
by the larger carnivores, as the great-
horned owls, the wolves, foxes, fishers,
bobcats, and mountain-lions.
To most people the majority of small
rodents are classed as “rats” or “mice”
and are viewed with the prejudice born
of long familiarity with those omnipres-
ent pests, the house rats and mice. The
small beasts of field and forest are com-
monly of remotest kinship to these re-
pulsive household parasites and are of
entirely different lineage, having nothing
in common but their size.
ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE AKIN TO MAN’S
When viewed with unbiased attention,
these little animals of the wilds are cer-
tain to charm the observer either by their
beauty and grace or by their varied and
interesting habits. No one can long study
mammals, large or small, without observ-
ing many traits of intelligence so akin to
his own that they awaken feelings of
friendly fellowship.
The modes of life of small mammals
are much more varied than those of the
larger species. At times radical differ-
ences in habits may be noted among dif-
ferent individuals of the same species, as
instanced by the wood-rats of Santa Mar-
garita Island, some of which live in bur-
rows dug by themselves in the ground
and others in nests built of sticks in the
tops of mangroves rising amid the waters
of a lagoon.
An even more extraordinary variation
is shown among the heavy - bodied
meadow-mice of the genus Phenacomys,
most of which live in underground bur-
rows; but one member of the group in
Oregon builds its nests in the tops of tall
SMALLER MAMMALS
conifers, sometimes at an altitude of 80
feet, and rarely or never descends to the
ground. :
_ PEEPS INTO FUR-FOLK HOMES
The homes of small mammals vary
greatly. The species living in under-
ground burrows usually excavate an oval
chamber which is filled with fine vege-
table material to form a snug retreat.
The muskrat places a conical lodge on
the border of a marshy stream or lake.
The wood-rat lives in-an underground
burrow, in a nest of sticks and trash
heaped above the ground or in a stick
nest placed among the branches of low
trees. Harvest mice build a little hollow
ball of grass blades, lined with finer ma-
terial, among the branches of bushes. sev-
eral feet above the ground. White-footed
mice may lodge in a knot-hole 50 feet or
more above ground in the trunk of a tree.
Asa rule, small mammals are of incon-
spicuous colors which harmonize so well
with their surroundings that when not in
motion, especially if lying close to the
ground, they are difficult to distinguish.
Exceptions to this rule are obvious in the
case of jack-rabbits when standing on
bare plains, or other mammals which are
apart from the usual partly concealing
growth of vegetation or other surround-
ings.
In contrast to the protective coloration
are certain markings, like the cottony
white underside of the tail of the cotton-
tail rabbit, which renders the flight of
this animal conspicuous in the gloomiest
shades of the forest, or even on the ap-
proach of night, when it is impossible to
distinguish the animal itself. The white
underside of the tail of the antelope chip-
munk is another well-defined instance of
this kind.
NEW COATS FOR BOREAS COURT
The most marked of all examples of
“directive” coloration among the small
mammals appears to be that of certain
white-sided jack-rabbits, in which the
white areas on the sides and rump are
drawn up and down as the animal runs
across the plains, giving a flashing effect,
which attracts attention to them exactly
as does the white rump-patch of the
antelope.
OF NORTH AMERICA
ayy big
In the northern part of the continent,
where snow lies for many months, several
species of hares are dusky or buffy gray
in summer and change to a pure white
coat in winter. This change is of enor-
mous protective value to these animals.
In Greenland, where the summer is short
and snow exists throughout the year, the
highest northern representative of the
hares remains permanently white, while
near the southern border of snow in the
United States the varying hares. and
white-tailed jack-rabbits, which become
pure white in the northern parts of their
range, make only a partial change.
Weasels are the only carnivores which
change from the brown of summer to a
white winter coat. Owing to their small
size; and the -néed tor ‘activity 1m =the
snowy northern regions, where they would
be peculiarly susceptible to danger from
birds of prey and larger predatory ani-
mals, their protective white coats serve
them well.
It was formerly considered that the
change of mammals from the brown of
summer to the white winter coat in the
fall, and from the white to the brown in
spring, was due to a change in the color
of the hairs, but it is now known that it
is entirely due to molt. The time of
these changes depends on the season, and
this varies several weeks, according to
whether the fall or spring is early or late.
The general shades of mammals are of
delicate tints, and the spots, stripes, and
other markings, as in the case of chip-
munks and the little spotted skunk, are
often of great beauty. —
ANIMALS THAT HAVE TO SING
Small mammals vary greatly in their
vocal powers, but the changes in intona-
tion and character of the notes and calls
indicate plainly that they are used to con-
vey a variety of meanings.
Some are practically voiceless, as in
ine case, or rabbits) amd whares, "excepe
when in an extremity of fear they utter
loud shrieks of terror. Squirrels, prairie-
dogs, and some other small mammals
bark and chatter, while mice and bats
have a variety of curious squeaking notes.
Marmots and ground-squirrels have chat-
tering notes and sharp, whistling calls.
In addition, some of the squirrels and
289% THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
many mice are known to have continuous
series of notes which are as evidently
songs as the utterances of birds. Some
of these notes, as in the case of singing
mice, have a remarkably musical char-
acter, similar to the warblings of cana-
ries. Various unrelated species of mice
have been observed singing, and a closer
study of the life habits of these small
animals may develop the fact that all are
songsters to some degree.
House rats and mice have, undoubtedly,
been parasitic about the haunts of man
from early times. From Asia they have
accompanied him through his advance in
civilization. With the growth of com-
merce they have, traveled) around: the
world, becoming transplanted to all lands
and thriving in all climates. In various
parts of America they have not only be-
come pests about human habitations, but
where climatic conditions were favorable
have reverted to the wild state and are
competing with the native species in the
fields.
Of all the small mammals none have
become modified to such an extent as the
bats. As a group these mammals are of
world-wide distribution except in the in-
hospitable polar regions. ‘They are true
mammals and present an extraordinary
variation in size, from tiny little crea-
tures, almost as small and fragile as
butterflies, to the huge fruit-bats, with a
spread of wings like that of a wild goose.
BATS WITH BULLDOG FACES
The heads of bats are strangely sculp-
tured, some being smoothly contoured
and shaped like those of little foxes;
others appear like miniature bulldogs;
and still others have curious cartilaginous
nose-leaves upright on the muzzle. Some
have the entire face molded into a hide-
ous mask repulsive to look upon.
Their habits are equally varied to meet
special conditions: Some are eaters of
fruit alone; others feed solely upon in-
sects, while others bite other mammals,
including man, for the purpose of drink-
ing the oozing blood, upon which they
subsist. All are nocturnal, but some ap-
pear late in the afternoon, before the sun
sets; most species, however, wait until
the shades of night have covered the
earth.
Throughout the world the majority of
the species of bats feed upon insects, but
there are many fruit-eaters. The teem-
ing insects and plant life of the tropics
afford a never-failing food supply, and
the center of abundance of these animals
is found there. In some localities be-
tween twenty and thirty kinds of bats
exist, with such vast numbers of indi-
viduals that the bat population far out-
numbers all other kinds of mammals com-
bined.
ANIMALS THAT PUT THEMSELVES IN COLD
STORAGE
In the northern parts of the Old and
New Worlds many mammals, including
bears, marmots, prairie-dogs, ground-
squirrels, and jumping mice, pass a large
part of the winter months in a lethargic
sleep called hibernation. While hibernat-
ing these animals have extremely slow
and slight heart action and their bodily
temperature falls far below the normal
of their active periods. During the most
profound hibernation an animal may be
awakened if brought into a warm tem-
perature, but when again put into the cold
at once returns to sleep.
Preparatory to this sleep, during the
summer and in the autumn, the hibernat-
ing mammals become exceedingly fat.
It has long been generally accepted that
the fat thus accumulated was for the
purpose of being gradually absorbed to
nourish the animals during their long
fast. As a matter of fact, durme jugs
period the bodily functions appear to be
practically suspended and the animals
may be said to be in cold storage. This
is evident from the fact that observations
have been made of ground-squirrels, and
even bears, emerging in spring, after
their long winter sleep, practically as fat
as when they retired in fall. Huibernat-
ing animals become extremely active as
soon as they come out in spring and
quickly lose the fat which should be of
special service to them, owing to the tem-
porary shortage of food they experience
at this season.
Most hibernating species do not retire
for the winter until cold weather is at
hand, in September or October, at times
remaining out until after the first snow
has fallen. The animals which retire
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH
latest, like chipmunks and _ prairie-dogs,
sometimes appear temporarily during cer-
tain warm periods in winter.
Recent observations have established
the fact that the adults of both sexes of
the Richardson ground-squirrel living in
the Northwestern States and adjacent
parts of Canada become excessively fat
by the first of July, and before the first
of August practically disappear for the
season, not appearing again until they
emerge the following March or: April.
The retirement of these squirrels for a
part of the summer is a case of imperfect
estivation, as it is termed, followed by
complete hibernation. The young of the
year enter hibernation at a considerably
later date.
DEFENSIVE AND OFFENSIVE ANIMAL
ALLIANCES
A great number of both large and small
mammals live solitary lives except for
brief periods during the mating season
or the association of the young with the
mother. Some species, however, like the
wolves and coyotes, may mate perma-
nently and show great mutual affection
and constancy. Many species have well-
developed social instincts, which appear
in some cases to combine two purposes,
self-defense and the desire for compan-
ionship.
Herds of large herbivorous mammals,
such as musk-oxen and buffalo, fre-
quently present a solid array of bristling
horns to the attacking wolves, and thus
protect the weaker members of the herd
and give an example of the usefulness
to them of the social instinct. Wolves
and some other predatory animals hunt
in couples or in packs and succeed in
pulling down prey which singly they
could not successfully attack.
Prairie-dogs living in colonies have the
advantage of community intercourse as
well as added safety through the chance
that some member of the colony will espy
an approaching enemy and by its warn-
ing cry allow a safe retreat. In other
cases, such as the flying-squirrels, which
gather in considerable numbers in hollow
trees or other shelter, and the bats, which
gather in caves, the congregation appears
to be purely from a desire for close com-
panionship.
AMERICA 282%
FOOTPRINIS OF NATURE'S WILD FOLK
BY ERNEST THOMPSON SETON
In the drawings accompanying Mr. Nelson’s
article I usually give the track of a normal
adult animal in about one inch of snow, that
being ideal for tracking. Some of the smaller
kinds are shown in fine dust. The trail goes
up or across the page at the ordinary gait of
the animal. The scale is indicated, but when
possible the topmost set is given of life size.
While there are endless variants in each kind,
I aim to give the reader at least one typical
set of each.
In all animals which bound, the hind feet
track ahead of the front ones. This is very
plainly seen in the rabbits. There are two ar-
rangements of the fore feet when bounding:
That of the rabbit (b), in which the fore feet
-are usually one behind the other, and that of
the tree-squirrel (a@),in which the fore feet are
side by side. The latter arrangement is associ-
ated with power to climb a tree. The former
means that the animal is purely terrestrial.
These, however, are true only as generaliza-
tions. There are exceptions in all species. The
ground-squirrels conform to the rabbit type.
The tracks are, of course, ideal, giving far
more detail than is usually to be seen.
384* THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
THE ANTELOPE JACK RABBIT (Lepus
alleni and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 404)
The antelope, or Allen, jack rabbit is one of
the most picturesque of American mammals.
It is larger than the common western jack
rabbit and is strongly characterized by enor-
mous ears, long, slender legs, short tail, and
contrasting +colors, 4 It 1s 'a member of. the
white-sided group of jack rabbits, which are
distinguished by the extension of the white of
the underparts well up on the sides of the body.
This group is represented in limited areas on
our southern border by two species. One of
these, the Gailliard jack rabbit (Lepus gail-
liardi), occurs on the grassy plains of extreme
southwestern New Mexico and is succeeded
by other white-sided species southward across
the Mexican tableland and through interior
Oaxaca to the Pacific coast, on the Isthmus of
Tehuantepec. The other species, the antelope
jack rabbit, occupies a considerable area in
southwestern Arizona, and with its geographic
races ranges southward through the coastal
plains of Sonora and Sinaloa to northern
Tepic.
All jack rabbits are more or less closely re-
lated to the Old World hares, the term “rabbit”
having been so generally misapplied to them by
the early settlers in the western United States
that the name is now fixed by current usage.
In Mexico and among the Mexicans of our
southwestern border the proper distinction is
made and the jack rabbit is termed liebre, or
hare, and cottontail is called conejo, or rabbit.
The white-sided species are more widely dif-
ferentiated from their Old World relatives
than the other jack rabbits and are the south-
ernmost representatives of the true hares in
America, reaching their limit in the tropics a
little beyond the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.
The extension of the white on the sides of
these species assists in producing one of the
most extraordinary examples of directive col-
oration known among mammals. I had the
pleasure of discovering this one day in May,
1895, when hunting on horseback over the
erassy plain bordering the Pacific coast of the
Isthmus of Tehuantepec. As I rode slowly
along, a big jack rabbit hopped deliberately
from its form in the grass a few yards away,
and by the contraction of a special set of mus-
cles along the back drew the dark-colored dor-
sal area forward and together so that it formed
only a narrow band on the middle of the back,
with a corresponding extension of the white
area on the rump and sides until, as the animal
moved diagonally away, it looked almost en-
tirely white.
At a distance of fifty or sixty yards it came
to a stop, and expanded and contracted the
dark dorsal area, thus producing a “flashing”
effect with the changing area of white on the
sides and rump. ‘This solved the riddle of the
mirror-like white flashes I had often seen as
jack rabbits on the tableland had dashed away
in’ the brilliant sunshine. ‘The same habit of
“flashing” the white was afterwards observed
in the species of southwestern New Mexico and
southwestern Arizona, demonstrating the ap-
propriateness of the name, “antelope jack rab-
bit,” given them by the ranchmen.
lormerly the antelope jack rabbit of Arizona
Was common on the plains about ‘Tucson,
where many were shot for rifle practice. They
are now comparatively scarce in that district,
and are never so excessively abundant as the
common species of the West now and then
becomes. They have an extraordinary appear-
ance as, with their great ears erect, they stand
poised on their long, thin legs. When alarmed,
they leap away with amazing celerity in long,
high bounds, They are usually much more
shy and alert than the common jack rabbits
and at times are far more difficult to stalk than
antelope. A peculiarly appropriate setting to
this remarkable species is found in the strange
and wonderful growth of giant cactuses, yuccas,
creosote bushes, fouquerias, palo verde, and
other desert vegetation of the plains in Arizona
and Sonora.
Like other hares, the antelope jack rabbits
occupy forms under bushes or in the shelter of
little patches of coarse vegetation. The only
exception to this rule I have seen was west of
the city of Guadalajara, on the Mexican table-
land. There one summer day, in the midst of
a lovely open valley covered with short, velvety
green grass and dotted with scattered acacia
bushes, a caracara eagle suddenly swooped
down upon a young white-sided jack rabbit. In
mortal terror the little beast dashed away at
great speed, the caracara casting at it repeat-
edly from a height of fifteen or twenty feet
and each time striking the ground just behind.
The young animal ran not less than five hun-
dred yards, straight for a little bush on a small
bank, where it vanished as by magic.
The caracara was close behind and, alight-
ing, ran round and round the trunkion
the bush, craning its neck and apparently as
surprised as myself at this sudden disappear-
ance. Riding over to investigate, I found,
partly concealed by coarse grass, the entrance
of a burrow large enough to admit an adult
jack rabbit. It extended almost horizontally
into the bank for about eighteen inches, and
then, turning abruptly to the left, ended in a
rounded chamber some fifteen inches in diam-
eter, in which the young jack rabbit lay snugly
ensconced. It appeared altogether probable
that this burrow had been made by the old
jack rabbit as a shelter for her young, one of
which in its extreme need had again sought
asylum there.
White-sided jack rabbits are frequently
found in pairs, occupying forms in close prox-
imity to one another. More rarely several
may be found in a small area. When driven
from the forms, they often run in a wide circle,
and in the course of half an hour or more
may be detected returning slyly and watchfully
from a direction nearly opposite to that in
which they departed.
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA DOOe
THE CALIFORNIA
JACK RABBIT
(Lepus californicus
and its subspecies)
(For illustration, see
page 405)
The common hares, or
gray-sided “jack rabbits”
of the Western States,
ake samone: “our best
known and most. in-
teresting mammals. They
are characterized by long,
thin necks, long ears
tipped with black, long
legs, grayish sides differ-
ing but little from the
color of the back, and a
rather long tail, black on
its upper side and dingy
gray below.
They are abundant and
generally distributed over
a vast and mainly tree-
less area in middle North
America extending from
western Missouri and
eastern Texas to the Pa-
cific coast, and from the
border of South Dakota
and the Columbia River Valley of Washington
south over the tableland of Mexico and through-
out the peninsula of Lower California. Within
this region they range from sea level up to an
altitude of over 9,000 feet. In the North they
experience severe winters with much snow, but
never show any winter whitening of their furry
coat, as do more northern hares.
The gray-sided hares over all this extended
range belong to a single species, typified by the
California jack rabbit. The area thus occupied
includes many different climatic and other
physical conditions, from the sweeping. grassy
plains of Kansas to the juniper and pine dotted
plateaus of the Rocky Mountain region, the
foggy coast of California, the hot cactus-
grown deserts of the Southwest, and the cool
elevations of the Mexican tableland.
This varying environment has worked on the
plastic organization of the species and modified
it into a considerable number of well-marked
geographic races which together make up the
gray-sided group of jack rabbits, in contrast
with the white-sided group already described.
Some of the races are very dissimilar in color,
but each merges imperceptibly into its neigh-
boring races, and the group thus forms an un-
broken chain of subspecies.
Like other hares, the jack rabbits are both
diurnal and nocturnal in habits. They do not
burrow, but make forms among dense growths
of grass or weeds, or under bushes, where they
lie hidden. It is a question whether they have
more than one litter a season, although it is
known that in some parts of their range young
are born at all times throughout the spring
The cat does not show its claws in the track.
hind foot is set exactly in the track of the front foot; this perfect
register offers many advantages and makes for a silent tread. The
track of the cat will probably be noticed more than that of any other
animal, owing to the large numbers of them in every locality.
A QUADRUPED WITH BIPED TRACK: THE COMMON CAT
In walking, the
and summer. From one to six are produced
at a time, fully clothed in fur and with their
eyes open. Within a few days they’leave the
“form” and run about like little furry balls.
Even at this early period they are amazingly
alert and skillful in evading capture by quickly
doubling and zigzagging when pursued.
Throughout its. range the gray-sided jack
rabbit is preyed upon by a host of enemies, in-
cluding wolves, coyotes, wildcats, eagles, and
several species of hawks and owls. Asa result
it has become extremely cunning and watchful.
It is a beautiful sight to observe the cautious
grace with which one that suspects danger but
thinks itself unobserved will quietly move out
of its form, pause like a statue for a few sec-
onds, then raise its body into a sitting posture
and look keenly about, its great upstanding ears
turning sensitively to one side and the other,
delicately testing the air for sound waves,
which may spell approaching peril.
If not alarmed it may then move slowly
along by a series of easy little hops, occasion-
ally varied by the single-footed gait of most
other mammals. At such times the ears are
often raised and lowered as though worked
by some mechanism. If the rabbit becomes
alarmed, however, it leaps away in quick,
springy and graceful bounds, now and then
making a high soaring leap as if to command
a better view.
These occasional high leaps mark the first -
stages of alarm. In greater stress, when pur-
sued by a coyote or other swift-footed enemy,
the jack rabbit indulges in no such showy per-
formances, but gets down to serious work, and
386*
E Linch.
. \
~O
> x
_& ¥ vY)
0 is
Oo |
v Fe
4s =
o a
% bs
:
oO
fw
nr
, Jackrabbit pz
fis ge
;
eee & Sens es
‘Ss
THE TRACKS OF THE JACK RABBIT
The tracks of the western jack rabbit re-
semble those of the cottontail (see page 390),
but the feet are seldom paired; a typical set
is seen in the lower left-hand corner. ‘The
bounds Cover, TO, 12) or even 15, fect seach.
The tail is held down, so that it leaves a mark
in the snow between each bound. Sometimes
the animal makes a spy-hop—that is, hops up
high to look around. This is seen in the track.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
developing marvelous action in a continuous
series of rapid, low stretching leaps, with ears
lying flat along the shoulders, it skims over the
ground almost as swiftly as a bird. Coursing
jack rabbits with greyhounds was for many
years a favorite sport in different parts of the
West. No other dog has much chance for suc-
cess in the open pursuit of these animals.
Ordinarily jack rabbits are mute, but when
wounded and caught they not infrequently
utter a series of long-drawn wailing shrieks
which are movingly expressive of terror and
pain.
Since the settlement of the Western States
numberless predatory animals have been killed
and at the same time the cultivation of the soil
has produced a dependable increase in the food
supply. These changes have resulted in the
sporadic increase of jack rabbits in many parts
of their range, from Texas to Oregon, until at
times they have become a serious menace to
agriculture.
During such periods of abundance they in-
vade fields and devastate grain, forage crops,
vineyards, and young orchards. In places they
sometimes actually destroy entire crops and
force settlers to abandon their locations. In
winter they swarm about haystacks and de-
stroy many tons of hay. Depredatiots of this
character were committed by them on a con-
siderable scale during 1916 in parts of Oregon,
Idaho, and Utah.
During the early development of the San
Joaquin Valley, California, jack rabbits became
such an intolerable pest that great community
drives were organized. Large woven wire cor-
rals with wing fences leading away several
miles from the entrance were built on the
open plains. The occasions of the drives were
made public holidays through all the surround-
ing region, and people gathered somettmes to
the number of from 5,000 to 8,000. A great
line of beaters was formed, miles in length,
and the jack rabbits were driven between wing
fences into corrals. Four such drives in
Fresno County in the spring.of i892 resulted in
the destruction of 40,000 jack rabbits, one drive
netting more than 20,c00 animals.
At this time the level floor of the San Joa-
quin Valley was crossed by numberless well-
worn rabbit trails six or eight inches broad and
one or two inches deep, extending in’ long
straight lines sometimes for miles.
Qn ap-'
proaching a patch of large weeds one often-
saw twenty or thirtv jack rabbits dash out and,
after hopping away a short distance, sit with
upstanding ears to look curiously at the in-
truder.
It is a general rule that when any species of
animal becomes extremely numerous it loses
its ordinary wariness and, conversely, when its
numbers are materially reduced its wariness is
greatly increased. The periods of abundance
of jack rabbits usually extend through several
years until, at the height of their increase, a
contagious malady suddenly sweeps them away
almost to the point of extinction, as in the case
of the varying hare. A period of years fol-
lows during which their numbers are slowly
recovered.
’
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA ;
Jack rabbits are specially adapted for life on
ereat plains, where speed and the ability to
subsist on almost any form of vegetation are
prime qualities. They are as grotesquely char-
acteristic of the Western States as the kan-
garoos were of Australia, and have entered
largely into the literature of the region they
occupy.
THE VARYING HARES (Lepus ameri-
canus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 405)
The varying hares, white rabbits, or snow-
shoe rabbits, as they are known, form a small
group of closely related species and geographic
races of hares peculiar to northern North
America. They sometimes attain a weight of
five pounds and are about half the size of the
arctic hares, which they resemble in form, ex-
cept that they are more heavily built and have
proportionately shorter legs and larger hind
feet.
With a single exception they become white
in winter and change to dusky or brownish in
summer. The molt from the brown summer
coat to the white winter one occurs with the
arrival of winter snows, the exact time varying
according to the season, the reverse change in
spring being governed in a similar way by the
disappearance of the snow. In the southern
part of their range the change to the white
winter coat is less complete than in the North.
There has been much controversy over the
manner of this change in color, some maintain-
ing that on the approach of, winter the hairs
turn white with the first snow. It has been
definitely proved, however, that both seasonal
changes are due to molt.
The Washington hare (Lepus washingtoni),
which remains brown throughout the year, is
the exception to the rule of white winter coats
in this group of hares. It lives in the cool,
dense forests of the humid coast belt of Wash-
ington and adjacent part of British Columbia,
where the snowfall does not affect its pelage.
In winter the large hind feet of the varying
hares and their long, spreading toes are en-
tirely covered with a heavy coat of hair, form-
ing broad snowshoe-like pads, which enable
their possessors to move about freely over the
soft snow, a peculiarity that has given rise to
one of the names in common use.
In cool, forested regions varying hares range
from Maine and extreme eastern Canada, in-
cluding Newfoundland, to the Pacific coast,
and from the stunted bushes bordering the
northern limit of trees south to the northern
border of the United States and beyond, fol-
lowing the higher Alleghenies to West Vir-
ginia, the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico,
and well down the Sierra Nevada in Cali-
fornia.
As in the case of other species, these hares
make “forms” in which they lie by day, for
they are mainly nocturnal in habits. The mat-
ing season occurs in early spring, when the
87*
OO
males become very restless, several sometimes
congregating in the same vicinity and occa-
sionally fighting and chasing one another about.
At this time, as well as at other seasons, snow-
shoe rabbits have a habit of thumping rapidly
on the ground, making a dull sound audible for
some distance. This is probably done with the
hind feet, as is known to be the case with the
European rabbit.
The thumping is apparently a signal and
may be a part of the mating display, but is
also used for warning purposes. Hunters in
northern Canada call these rabbits by making
a harsh squeaking noise with their lips. Some-
times they become so eager and excited on
hearing this call that with odd little grunting
sounds they come bounding close up to the
hunter.
The young, varying from two to seven, are
born in nests made of dry leaves, grasses, and
other suitable vegetation, warmly lined with
hair from'the mother’s body, and usually hid-
den under brush or in dense vegetation. The
young, which have their eyes open and are
fully furred at birth, within a few days leave
the nest and move freely about. Although the
mother snowshoe rabbit will defend her young
at first even at the risk of her life, when they
are half grown she leaves them to shift for
themselves. Young hares of various ages
when caught often utter shrill squealing cries
of fright and the older animals when wounded
and caught sometimes do the same.
Perhaps through living so constantly in low
ground, among swamps and along streams,
varying hares become less averse to entering
water than most of their kind. In the delta of
the Yukon River I saw many places where they
had crossed small streams in spring, their wet
tracks entering and leaving the water, thus
furnishing unmistakable evidence. Curiously
enough, when caught by a flood they will take
refuge on stumps or other support and often
remain to starve rather than swim ashore.
In summer, owing to their nocturnal habits
and the dense thickets they inhabit, varying
hares are rarely seen unless they are unusually
plentiful. In winter their presence is known
by their conspicuous tracks, leading in every
direction through their haunts. A single ani-
mal will in one night so thoroughly track the
snow in a patch of woods it gives the impres-
sion that several must have been there.
In river bottoms, among densely wooded
swamps, these rabbits frequently make definite
beaten runways in the snow; runways are also
made through thickets in their summer haunts.
This habit renders it easy to snare them, and
enormous numbers are thus captured every
winter.
They feed on a variety of small herbage in
summer and in winter depend on buds, twigs,
and the bark of shrubs and small trees. They
are specially fond of willows, and their winter
distribution in many districts is governed by
the abundance of willow thickets.
Varying hares ure one of the most important
mammals of the northern fur country. They
are generally distributed and exist in such num-
388*
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE
FOOTPRINTS OF THE VARYING HARE, OR SNOWSHOE RABBIT
The great size of the feet from which the creature is named is a strong feature of the track,
distinguishing it from that of the cottontail and others (see pages 387 and 405)
bers that they are an important source of food
supply both to the Indians and to such preda-
tory birds and mammals as the great horned
and snowy owls, the goshawk, gyrfalcon, lynx,
fox, ermine, fisher, and others. The skins are
also used by the Indians for robes.
Under favorable conditions they steadily in-
crease until they become enormously plentiful
over great areas. After this swarming abun-
dance continues for several seasons it reaches
a maximum, and then, as in the case of many
other mammals when similarly overabundant,
a mysterious malady suddenly attacks and
sweeps them off, until within a year or two they
become rare over the entire area. The people
of the fur country believe these changes in
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
numbers run in cycles of about seven years
each,
As the hares increase in numbers some of
the birds and mammals which prey upon them
increase proportionately. This is _ specially
marked with the big northern lynxes. The
skins of varying hares are gathered and sent
to the London fur market with other furs, in-
cluding those of lynxes. In the records of
sales of the Hudson’s Bay Company there are
direct increases of the numbers of Canada
lynx skins sold corresponding with the in-
creases in the sales of varying hare skins. As
the number of hare skins abruptly decreases
following the outbreak of epidemics among
them, there are correspondingly abrupt de-
creases in the numbers of lynx skins sold.
This correlation is shown in the records ex-
tending back many years and illustrates the
interdependence in nature between the vari-
ous forms of animal life. The far-reaching
tragic effect of the sudden disappearance of
the snowshoe rabbits is not confined to the
wild habitants of the forest, as it has not in-
frequently brought starvation and death into
many lonely Indian lodges in the great north-
ern wilderness.
THE ARCTIC HARE (Lepus arcticus and
its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 408)
Many parts of the northernmost circumpolar
lands are occupied by large hares, which attain
a weight of more than ten pounds, ‘They are
about the size of large jack rabbits, but are
more heavily proportioned, with much shorter
ears and shorter, stronger legs. There are sev-
eral species and geographic races of these ani-
mals, all of which are snowy white in winter
except for a small black tip on each ear. In
summer the southern arctic hares change to
a nearly uniform dull iron gray or grayish
brown. The northernmost animals of Elles-
mere Land and north Greenland, where the
summer is brief and severe arctic conditions
prevail, retain their white coat throughout the
year.
In keeping with the cold climate of their ter-
ritory, the furry coat of the arctic hares is
long and thick, especially in winter, when the
ears, legs, and even the soles of the feet, as
well as the, body, are heavily furred. The
coats of the hares of north Greenland and ad-
jacent region are so heavy and fleecelike that
during the spring molt they come off in felted
patches as the new coat is assumed, giving the
hares a curiously ragged appearance.
In the region between the areas in which the
summer coat remains wholly white and where
it is completely changed to grayish, there is a
gradual transition, with the lessening severity
of the climate, through every intermediate de-
gree between the two. As in the case of the
snowshoe rabbit, the large hind feet and long
spreading toes of its big northern relative are
so heavily covered with hair that they form
broad fluffy pads, which enable the hares to
travel lightly over the arctic snowfields.
339*
The distribution of arctic hares is confined
to the barrens or tundras beyond the limit of
trees. They range practically to the land’s end
of northern Greenland and Ellesmere Land
To the southward in North America they range
down the coast of Labrador and across to
Newfoundland, where they are limited to the
open barrens. They also occur along the
shores of Hudson Bay and follow the tundras
bordering Bering Sea to the peninsula of
Alaska.
In Ellesmere Land they are reported to be
extraordinarily numerous at times in certain
little valleys, and the fur traders on the coast
south of the Yukon Delta informed me of
similar gatherings in spring on gently sloping
hillsides. in that region. Photographs taken in
Ellesmere Land show many of these hares
scattered over a small area, each crouched in
a compact form and all heading in the same
direction to face the wind. Such gatherings,
at least those in Alaska, occur during the
mating period, after which the animals scatter
over the area they occupy.
An account of the big northern hares would
be incomplete without reference to the white-
tailed jack rabbit, the largest of all American
hares and a near relative ‘of the arctic species.
It attains a weight of twelve pounds or more
and appears like a giant of its kind. It has
longer legs than the arctic hare and a longer
tail. In summer it is grayish or buffy, with a
conspicuous pure white tail. Throughout most
of its range in winter it becomes pure white
except the black tips to the ears, but near the
southern border the change to white is not so
complete as in the North. The distribution of
the white-tailed jack rabbit extends from Min-
nesota to the Cascade Mountains and from the
Saskatchewan River, in Alberta, south to south-
ern Colorado.
Arctic hares have from one to seven young
in a litter each spring. Owing to the climatic
conditions under which they exist, it is doubt-
ful if more than a single litter is born each
year.
The manner in which animal life adapts it-
self to its environment is beautifully illustrated
by the arctic hares of north Greenland and
Ellesmere Land. ‘There the conditions are rig-
orously arctic and continuous winter night ex-
tends through a period of several months. In
all this region the scanty and dwarfed vegeta-
tion is covered with snow and ice the larger
part of the year. The hares living there are,
with little question, a geographic race of those
living farther south, but have developed into
larger and stronger animals, with heavier fur,
to meet the sterner conditions of life.
Their claws are much larger and heavier, so
that they may dig the snow from the hidden
herbage. Most marvelous of all, the anterior
ends of both jaws are lengthened and the in-
cisors set so that they project and meet at an
acute angle, thus serving, tweezerlike, more
readily to pick out the lowly vegetation im-
bedded in the snow.
In most parts of their range arctic hares are
scarce and rarely encountered. Each winter
during my residence on the coast of Bering
29 ()% THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
se Py ote
LER,
nee ape
THE COTTONTAIL RABBIT’S TRACK
The large set of four tracks at the top gives
the maximum possible of detail, which is very
rarely seen. The lower figure at the right-
hand corner is a typical track (it). At the
set marked “sitting” the tail mark is seen, and
in this only are the fore-feet tracks ahead of
the hind tracks. The cottontail has five toes on
the front feet, but only four ever show in the
track (see page 408).
Sea the Eskimos killed only a few individuals,
They were shy and watchful and the hunters
sometimes followed one on snowshoes all day
over the tundra without securing it. In the
high North they appear to be more numerous
in “places, judging from the number killed for
food by members of polar expeditions, Their
Hesh is excellent, but a ‘little dry. Their natu-
ral enemies include wolves, foxes, weasels, gyr-
falcons, and snowy owls, all of which share
their desolate haunts and join in destroying
them.
The winter skins of arctic hares have a beau-
tiful snowy white pelage, which make warm
garments and sleeping robes for the North, but
are too delicate to withstand much service,
THE COTTONTAIL RABBITS (Sylvi-
lagus floridanus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 408)
North America has several species of hares,
but no typical representative of the European
rabbit. The American cottontails and their
near relatives, the brush rabbits and others,
combine characteristics of both the hares and
rabbits, but are most like the rabbits, of which
they appear to form aberrant groups.
The cottontails are distinctly smaller than
most of the American hares and average from
two to three pounds in weight. They are
otherwise contrasted with the hares by their
short ears, proportionately shorter and smaller
legs and feet, and by the fluffy snow-white
underside of the tail, which shows so conspic-
uously as they run that it has given them
their distinctive name.
The American mammals to which the term
‘rabbit” may be properly applied include not
aie the cottontails, but numerous other species
closely similar in form and general appear-
ance, but lacking the cottony white tail. As a
eroup, these rabbits have a far greater distri-
bution in America than the hares. They range
from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific and from
the southern border of Canada south through
Central and South America to Argentina.
Their vertical distribution extends from sea
level to above timberline, attaining an altitude
of more than 14,000 feet on Mount Orizaba,
Mexico.
In the United States cottontails. are so nu-
merous and generally distributed that they are
well known to nearly every one. They inhabit
all kinds of country, from the deciduous for-
ests of the Eastern States to the grassy or
brush-grown plains and pine-clad mountain
slopes of the West and the sun-scorched des-
erts of the Southwest. As a result of this
extended distribution and the variety of con-
ditions in the areas occupied, these rabbits in-
clude numerous species and geographic races,:
which in some instances differ greatly in ap-
_ pearance.
Cottontails are especially common about the
brushy borders of cultivated lands throughout
the country, and in fertile brush-grown areas
of foothills, valleys, and river bottoms of the
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
West. They are mainly nocturnal, and in areas
where there is an abundance of natural cover
in the way of brushy thickets and dense grass
commonly make concealed “forms” in which
they lie safely hidden.
In areas where shelter is represented by scat-
tered bushes and a comparatively thin growth
of other vegetation they generally occupy bur-
rows in the ground. These may be holes de-
serted by badgers or prairie-dogs or dug by
themselves under a rock or other object. Hol-
low logs or natural cavities and crevices among
the rocks are also frequented. When pursued
by dogs, hares as a rule rely solely on their
speed for safety, while the cottontails take ref-
uge in the first hole they can reach.
Everywhere in their territory, as the shades
of night approach, the cottontails come forth
from their hiding places and skip merrily about
in open ground on the borders of thickets and
similar shelter, where they search for the ten-
der green vegetation on which they love to
feed. After it becomes too dark to distinguish
their forms, the white tail may be seen twink-
ling about in the dusk. During the night they
are often revealed in country roads by the head
lights of automobiles.
Several litters of from two to six young
usually appear during the spring and summer.
These are born blind and practically naked,
their unclad helplessness strongly contrasting
with the open-eyed, fully furred, and alert
young of the hares at the same age. This is a
conclusive indication of the close relationship
between cottontails and European rabbits, the
young of the latter being similarly, but even
more, undeveloped at birth.
The young of the cottontails are born in
nests made of dead grasses warmly lined with
fur from the mother’s body. If above ground
the nest is placed in a little depression and so
artfully concealed by a covering of dead
grasses that it can be discovered only by acci-
dent. When caught, young cottontails utter
little cries of alarm; the wounded adults some-
times shriek in terror.
From the early settlement of the United
States to the present day cottontails have been
so abundant that they have served as a valuable
source of our game food supply. They are
hunted with guns and with dogs, as well as
being snared and trapped. Enormous num-
bers, running into the millions, are killed in
this country yearly, but they are so prolific that
they hold their own in a surprising degree.
Their abundance in many places, however,
has made them a serious pest to agriculture.
They eat growing alfalfa and other forage
plants, many kinds of cultivated vegetables,
young grape vines, and nursery stock and even
kill orchard trees by gnawing the bark from
the base of the trunks. As a result those who
suffer from their depredations consider them
pests to be destroyed, while others look upon
them as desirable game animals to be protected
by law.
As game animals the cottontails furnish
some of the most delightful and interesting
sport available to American hunters. The
391
scurrying zigzag rush of a cottontail for the
nearest shelter is so full of energetic motion
that it always excites a pleasurable thrill in the
observer, and even the keenest sportsman has
so friendly a feeling for these little animals
that the escape of one of them from an unsuc-
cessful shot nearly always leaves a feeling of
humorous amusement.
_ The cottontails have a secure place in Amer-
ican literature and folklore. Who has not read
the wonder stories of the adventures of “Brer
Rabbit” and ever after had a warmer feeling
of fellowship for his kind? The presence of
cottontails is a source of pleasure to children
of all ages, and their disappearance from the
wild life of a locality creates a more deeply
felt blank than would the passing of many a
nobler animal.
THE. MARSH RABBIT (Sylvilagus palus-
tris and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 409)
The marsh rabbit, or “pontoon,” as it is
known in Georgia, is a distinctively American
species allied to the cottontails, but distin-
guished from them by its more heavily propor-
tioned body, smaller ears, shorter and slenderer
legs and feet, and shorter, nearly unicolored
tail. Its only close relative in the United
States is the swamp rabbit, known in Alabama
as the “cane-cutter.”
These two species appear to be members of a
Tropical American group of which other mem-
bers are the wood rabbits of Mexico, Central
and South America. The distribution of the
group was probably at one time continuous, but
a change to arid conditions in northeastern
Mexico and Texas isolated the two species re-
maining in this country.
The distribution of the marsh rabbit is lim-
ited to the southeastern coastal States from
Dismal Swamp, Virginia, to Mobile Bay, Ala-
bama. It is common in suitable places in Flor-
ida. Its larger relative, the swamp rabbit,
ranges west from this area to Texas and up
the Mississippi Valley to Illinois and southeast-
ern Kansas. Swamp rabbits are numerous in
the low, wooded coastal region of Louisiana.
They are larger and longer-legged than marsh
rabbits and fleeter of foot.
Among all the rabbits of the world the marsh
and swamp rabbits are the only species which
have aquatic habits. Both live mainly in
marshes, wooded swamps, and along the low
wooded courses of streams. Other rabbits and
hares are occasionally known to cross water
by swimming, but the marsh and swamp rab-
bits live about the water and take to it with
all the freedom of a muskrat or mink. The
marsh rabbit appears to be the more aquatic of
the two, as the swamp rabbit sometimes lives
in the forest, farther back from the water.
The Tropical woad rabbits are habitants of
the dense forests, where they are well hidden
under the rank undergrowth. They are not
known to enter the water, but, like their north-
ern relatives, make runways through the dense
392 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
vegetation they frequent. The marsh rabbits
live in cypress or other fresh-water swamps,
heavily wooded bottoms, and fresh water, as
well as brackish marshes. ‘They feed on a va-
riety of vegetation growing in such places and
dig up such edible roots as the wild potato and
amaryllis,
Both marsh and swamp rabbits have several
litters of from two to six young each season,
beginning in April. The young are born in
large, well- made covered nests, which are built
of ‘rushes, grasses, and leaves and lined with
hair from the parents. ‘The nests, which have
an entrance on one side, are usually located in
the midst of dense growths of vegetation or on
tussocks, in low, swampy places, and are some-
times surrounded by water. In the most fre-
quented parts of marsh and swamp these rab-
bits make well-trodden trails through the dense
vegetation.
When alarmed, marsh rabbits run for the
nearest water, into which they plunge and swim
quickly to the shelter of aquatic plants or other
cover. When cut off from escape by water
they try to avoid capture by doubling and turn-
ing, but are so short-legged that they are read-
ily overtaken by a dog. The tracks of these
rabbits in the mud differ from those of the
cottontails in showing imprints of the spread-
ing toes.
In South Carolina Bachman once found nu-
merous marsh rabbits in the thickets about re-
cently flooded rice fields and swamps. When
he beat the bushes the rabbits plunged into the
water and swam away so rapidly that some
escaped from a Newfoundland dog which ac-
companied him. Several, apparently thinking
themselves unnoticed, stopped and remained
motionless about fifteen yards from the shore,
with only their eyes and noses showing above
water. Thus concealed in the muddy water,
with ears laid flat on their necks, they were
difficult to see. When touched with a stick
they appeared unwilling to move until they saw
that they were discovered, when they quickly
swam away.
Later, when the water subsided to its regular
channels, where it was about eight feet deep,
many of the rabbits were seen swimming
about, meeting and pursuing one another as if
in sport, One which Bachman had in captivity
during warm weather would lie for hours in a
trough partly filled with water, with which the
cage was furnished.
THE PIKA, OR CONY (Ochotona prin-
ceps and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 409)
The pika, little chief hare, or cony, as it is
variously named, is among the most attractive
and interesting of our mountain animals. It
is about the size and shape of a small guinea-
pig, with a short, blunt head, broad, rounded
ears, short legs, practically no tail, and a long,
fluffy coat of fur. While most nearly related
to the hares and rabbits, it has very differert
habits.
The pikas form a group comprising many
species, much alike in general appearance and
distributed among the high mountains, from
the Urals of Russia through Asia and north-
ern North America. In Asia they occur mainly
in the mountains through the middle of the
continent south to the Himalayas. In Pleisto-
cene time they ranged across urope to Eng-
land. In North America they are limited to
the western side of the continent, from the
Mount McKinley region of Alaska down the
Rocky Mountains to New Mexico and along
the Cascades and Sierra Nevada to the Mount
Whitney region, in California.
Giving to these North American animals the
appellation “cony” is one of many instances in
which the name of an Old World animal is
brought to America to designate a totally un-
related species. Once fixed in current use, the
misapplied term is certain to persist.
Pikas are among the few mammals which
live permanently along the high crests of the
mountains, mainly above timberline, but they
also descend in rock slides among the upper
spruces, firs, and pines. The altitude of their
haunts varies with the latitude, being between
8,000 and 13,500 feet in the United States, but
in Alaska much lower.
In these cool, alpine regions the little ani-
mals live wholly within the shelter of rock
slides and among the crevices of shattered rock
masses. Their distribution is unaccountably
broken, and although abundant in many places,
they are absent from many others equally suit-
able. Their homes are in the midst of the
flower-bedecked glacial valleys and basins, the
haunts of the big marmots and mountain sheep.
They are mainly diurnal in habits, and
throughout the day may be heard their odd
little barking, or bleating note, like the sylla=
bles “eh-eh” repeated at intervals in a nasal
tone, resembling the sound made by squeez-
ing a toy dog. Occasionally they may be heard
barking at night, perhaps when disturbed by
some prowling enemy. Their notes have a cu-
riously ventriloquial quality, which renders it
difficult to locate the animals uttering them.
Owing to their dull gray or brownish colors,
the pikas blend with their background so com-
pletely that when quietly sitting on a rock they
are extremely difficult to see. Even when run-
ning about at a little distance they are not
easily noted. Their movements are quick and
they scamper over the rough surface of a rock
slide with surprising agility.
Little is known of their more intimate life
history. Their young, three or four in num-
ber, are born usually during the first half of
summer and are out foraging when less than
half-grown.
Small, bright eyes and big, rounded ears give
pikas an odd and attractive appearance, unlike
that of any other mountain animal. They are
extremely watchful and at the first alarm dis-
appear in the shelter of their rocky fortresses.
Their little bark, however, continues to come
up from their hiding places with constant itera-
tion. If the observer will sit quietly at some
good vantage point his patience will eventually
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
be rewarded by the appearance of the pika on
the top of a stone near the mouth of its retreat.
After a time, if everything is quiet, it re-
sumes its scampering about over the rocks or
may come to the border of the slide and make
little excursions across the open ground after
some of its forage plants. Skipping nimbly
from the border of the slides to neighboring
patches of vegetation, sometimes fifty or more
feet away, the pika nips off the stems of short
grasses or other plants and taking them up,
like small bundles, crosswise in its mouth, runs
back to add them to its “stacks.” ‘These sallies
are quick little runs, made as though in fear of
being long away from the safety of the rocks.
Caution is needful, however, in a world where
lurk such enemies as coyotes, lynxes, foxes,
weasels, hawks, and owls.
During late summer the pikas have the extra-
ordinary habit of gathering stores of small
herbage in piles containing sometimes a bushel
each, usually well sheltered in dry places under
the rocks where they live. Pikas are active all
winter, and these little stacks of well-cured hay,
containing a great variety of small plants,
serve them as food during the severe cold sea-
son, when at these high altitudes they are
buried under many feet of snow.
In pleasant weather, near the end of summer,
visitors to the mountains of Colorado, Glacier
National Park, the high slopes of Mount
Shasta, or of the Sierra Nevada may have the
pleasure of watching the pikas hard at work
doing their “haying.” One of their “stacks”
in the mountains of New Mexico contained
thirty-four kinds of plants, including many
flowers. No one who once becomes acquainted
with these unique and gentle little animals will
ever cease to remember them with friendly in-
terest.
THE PORCUPINE (Erethizon dorsatum
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 412)
The porcupine is one of the most grotesque
of the smaller North American mammals.
With a weight of from fifteen to twenty
pounds, its heavy body is supported on short
legs, the feet resting flat on the ground like
those of the raccoon, instead of on the toes, as
in most small animals.
Its strongest peculiarity is the specialized
development of most of the fur into rigid,
sharp-pointed spines or “quills” from half an
inch to over three inches in length. That the
spines represent the underfur of ordinary
mammals is evident from the fact that they
are overlaid by long, coarse guard hairs, some-
times several times their length.
The spiny armament usually lies flat on
the body, but when the animal is excited or
alarmed it may be raised, by special muscles
on the underside of the skin, into a bristling
array of barbed points. The spines are so
slightly attached that when their points enter
the skin of an enemy they at once become free
at the base. The points firmly set in the skin
ex
ae
we
yy
o~
et Wo,
¥YUD
D
ES
Meadow mouse
THE TRAIL OF A FIELD OR MEADOW MOUSE
When compared with that of the deermouse,
one notes the absence of the tail mark and the
rarity of the fore feet being paired (see pages
403 and 420).
of another animal, the spines can be withdrawn
only with considerable effort, and if left will
gradually work deeper and may traverse a
considerable part of the victim’s body beiore
finally becoming encysted.
When assailed the porcupine turns down its
head, arches its back, and, on firmly planted
feet with all its spines erected into a bristling
cover, awaits the enemy. The instant its body
is touched the club-shaped tail, armed with
a multitude of spines, is swung vigorously
around and the animal so incautious as to re-
ceive the blow is pierced by a host of stinging
darts which, freed from the porcupine, remain
to torment the aggressor. This swift and ef-
fective sweep of the tail has probably given
rise to the idea that the porcupine can “‘shoot”
its quills when defending itself.
Despite its defensive powers, however, the
porcupine is, on occasion, successfully attacked
by various enemies, including the mountain
lion, bobcat, fisher, and even the eagle and
great horned owl. The fisher is said habitually
to kill and feed upon them, and the encysted
quills are commonly found under its skin.
The frightful effect of an ill-judged attack
on a porcupine is shown by inexperienced dogs
O94 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
after their first encounter with this strange
beast. That such an attack is a dangerous
venture, even by the craftiest and most power-
ful of its enemies, is well demonstrated by
occasional fatalities among large carnivores
which result from the great mass of spines im-
bedded in their heads and bodies.
The North American porcupine is a north-
ern animal belonging mainly to coniferous for-
ests, and ranges from sea level to timberline.
It originally occupied nearly all the forested
parts of the continent south to West Virginia,
southern Illinois, the Davis Mountains of west-
ern Texas, and the southern end of the Sierra
Nevada in California, but was absent from the
Southeastern States and the lower Mississippi
Valley.
While characteristically a woodland animal,
at times it wanders from forest shelters and
has been found prowling about above timber-
line on high mountains, and among alder thick-
ets beyond the limit of trees in the far North.
They are usually silent, but at times utter a
curious squealing cry, and in addition have a
variety of snuffing, growling, and chattering
ncises.
In the forests of tropical America, from
Mexico to Brazil, other and _ shorter-quilled
porcupines occur, characterized by smaller size
and slenderer bodies with a long tail, the ter-
minal half of which is naked and prehensile
like that of an opossum. ‘These animals in-
habit forests where no conifers grow, and are
much more arboreal in habits than their north-
ern relatives. Still other and even more strik-
ingly different porcupines occur in Europe,
Asia, and Africa, some of the African animals
nang heavy spines more than twelve inches
ong.
All porcupines are true rodents, and the
name hedgehog is erroneously used when ap-
plied to any of them. Hedgehogs are small Old
World insect-eating mammals, which have their
backs covered with porcupine-like spines, but
are in no way related to the porcupines.
The American porcupines are mainly noc-
turnal, although they sometimes wander about
by day. While largely arboreal in habits, they
pass much of their time on the ground and
commonly have their dens in caves at the bases
of cliffs, under the shelter of large rocks, logs,
piles of brush, or in hollows at the bases of
trees. They are sluggish, stupid animals, with
poor sight, and are unable to move rapidly,
either in a tree or on the ground.
Although on the ground they are extremely
deliberate, in the treetops they are even more
sluggish and can be compared only with the
sloth. In corisequence they are _ practically
helpless in the presence of an enemy except
for the defense afforded by their spiny armor.
That in most cases this is effective is evidenced
by their continued presence throughout a large
part of their original range where forests still
exist.
Porcupines are solitary animals, totally de-
void of any qualities of good fellowship with
their kind, but the attraction of woodland
camps often brings a number together. ‘hey
are exceedingly fond of salt and persistently
return to camps to gnaw logs, boards, or any
other object having a salty flavor.
They appear to be practically omnivorous so
far as vegetable matter is concerned and feed
upon the bark and twigs of spruces, hemlocks,
several species of pines, cottonwoods, alders,
and other trees and bushes. In orchards and
gardens near their haunts they eat apples, tur-
nips, and other fruits and vegetables and visit
the shores of ponds for waterlily pads and
other aquatic plants growing within reach.
Ordinarily they eat patches of bark from the
tree trunks, but sometimes girdle the tree or at
times denude the entire trunk. They often re-
main for weeks in the top of a single tree, even
in the severest winter weather. I had a practi-
cal illustration of this on one occasion when
stormbound in a fur trader’s cabin at the head
of Norton Bay, on the north coast of Bering
Sea, where a belt of spruces reached down
from the interior. We were short of meat, and
when one of the Eskimos reported that some
time before he had seen a porcupine in a spruce
tree he was sent to look for it. A few hours
later he returned bringing the game, having
found it in the very same tree where he had
seen it many days before, although we had just
experienced a period of severe weather, with
temperatures well under 40 degrees Fahrenheit
below zero. It was on this occasion that I first
learned the palatable qualities of porcupine
flesh.
Little is known definitely concerning the
family life of these animals. The voung, from
one to four in number, are amazingly large at
birth and appear fully armed with spines.
Fiven before they are half grown they adopt
the solitary habit of the adults and wander
forth to care for themselves.
Porcupines have an intimate connection with
the romantic side of early Indian life in eastern
America. Their white quills were colored in
bright hues by vegetable dyes known to the
Indians and served to make beautiful embroid-
ery on belts, moccasins, and other articles of
aboriginal clothing until primitive art gave way
to the more tawdry effects of trade goods.
THE JUMPING MOUSE (Zapus hudsonius
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 412)
In several ways the jumping mouse is unique
umong American mammals, Its strongest char-
acteristics are a dull, rusty yellowish color, a
slender body about three inches long, a remark-
ably slender tail about five inches in length, and
long hind legs and feet, which are specially
developed for jumping, like those of a little
kangaroo. In addition it is provided with
cheek pouches, one on each side of the mouth,
in which it gathers food to be carried to its
hidden stores.
The long tail serves as a balance during its
extraordinary leaps, some of which in a single
bound cover a distance of about ten feet. If
by accident one of these animals loses its tail,
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 395
whenever it jumps it is thrown into a series of
somersaults, turning helplessly over and over
in the air.
The jumping mice form a small group of
species and geographic races closely similar in
general appearance. ‘They are the sole repre-
sentatives in North America of the Old World
jerboas and are themselves represented else-
where by a single species occurring in the inte-
rior of China. The jerboa family contains in
addition many larger and curiously diverse spe-
cies distributed over a large part of Asia,
Africa, and southern Europe. Many Old
World jerboas are desert animals, some of
them exact reproductions in shape and color of
the kangaroo rats of arid regions in the West-
ern and Southwestern States and Mexico, al-
though they are in no way related to those
animals.
Jumping mice are distributed over most of
the northern parts of North America from the
Atlantic coast of Labrador to the Bering Sea
coast of Alaska, and southward to North Caro-
lina, Illinois, New Mexico, and California.
They are nocturnal in habits and live in or near
the borders of forests, in thickets of weeds or
brushwood, and in meadows adjoining wood-
land areas or forest lakes. In prairie country
they occupy belts. of woody growth bordering
streams. In congenial locations they range
from sea level up to an altitude of 8,000 feet
or more.
For winter homes they dig burrows two or
three feet deep, in the lower parts of which
they excavate oval chambers and fill them with
fine grass and other soft material to make a
warm nest. Other chambers opening from
these burrows serve as store-rooms for berries,
seeds, and nuts of various kinds, among which
beechnuts are a favorite,
The nests occupied as summer homes are
placed in shallow burrows a few inches below
the surface of the ground, or they may be in
a hollow tree, under a piece of bark, in a dense
tussock of grass, or in other makeshift shelter.
In these nests the young, varying from two to
eight in number, are born at varying times be-
tween May and September, indicating the prob-
ability that more than one litter is produced
each season.
When suddenly startled from her nest the
female often flees with several of the young
clinging to her teats. She runs swiftly through
the grass, and if hard pressed will take a long
leap, still carrying the pendant young. It is
surprising that such delicately formed animals
can make long leaps in thickly grown places
and apparently land safely, especially when
carrying their young. In the flights of the
mother some of the young must be jarred
loose, but when the alarm is over no doubt
shé returns to find and rescue any that may
be missing.
In the northeastern States jumping mice are
common habitants of meadows. They are
equally at home in the rocky meadows of New
England, on the flower-spangled borders of
rushing trout streams in the Sierra Nevada of
California, and the boggy glades of subarctic
Alaska.
My first acquaintance with them was made
many years ago, during haying time, in north-
ern New York. Hidden under a haycock, as
the last forkful was raised one of them was
often revealed, and its startling leaps always
resulted in an exciting chase, which usually
ended in the escape of the strange little beast.
Unlike most of their small fellows of
meadow and thicket, jumping mice regularly
hibernate, occupying the nests near the bot-
toms of the winter burrows. They usually be-
come fat on the abundance of food at the end
of summer, and in September or October, with
the approach of cool weather, enter their win-
ter quarters and sink into the long, hibernat-
ing lethargy. Sometimes two of them are
found hibernating in the same nest.
During hibernation they are coiled up in
little furry balls, the nose resting on the abdo-
men, the hind feet on each side of the head,
and the tail wound around the body. The
winter sleep usually lasts until spring, but may
be broken at any time by mild weather.
When hibernating the mice appear cold and
lifeless, but if one is carried into a warm
house or even held a long time in the captor’s
hands it will slowly awaken and may become
as lively as in summer. When returned to a
low temperature, however, it soon resumes its
mysterious seasonal sleep.
THE SILKY POCKET MICE (Perog-
nathus flavus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 413)
Soft, shining fur, delicate coloring, and
eraceful form distinguish the silky pocket mice
from others of their kind. The family of
which they are members consists of rodents
peculiar to America and includes many other
species of pocket mice and kangaroo rats. All
are provided with little pouches on each side
of the mouth for gathering and carrying food,
have proportionately long tails, and hind legs
and feet more or less developed for jumping.
Only in the most remote way, however, are
they related to the jumping mice of the jerboa
family.
The silky pocket mice vary in size from the
tiny yellow species pictured on the accompany-
ing plate, which weighs much less than an
ounce, to forms considerably larger than the
common house mouse. The little yellow pocket
mouse is one of the smallest mammals in the
world, and in addition is one of the most beau-
tiful of our small species. Its bright eyes and
the delicacy of its form and color, combined
with the readiness with which, in most in-
stances, it appears to lose all fear when caught
and gently handled, render it extremely at-
tractive.
As with the majority of other pocket mice,
the silky-haired species are limited to the more
arid parts of North America, and range from
the Great Plains west of the Mississippi Val-
ley to the eastern base of the Cascades, to the
Sierra Nevada, and farther southward to the
Pacific coast, and from the Canadian border
to the Valley of Mexico. Vertically, the range
t
396 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
of these mice extends from sea level to an
altitude of more than 7,000 feet.
As with the majority of our wild mammals,
little accurate information is available concern-
ing their life history. They are habitants
mainly of desert regions, where they prefer the
areas of sandy loam, which produce an abun-
dance of scattered desert vegetation. ‘They are
nocturnal and by day are seen only when
driven from their nests. Their rather shallow
burrows are made in soft soil, the situation
varying a little with the species. Some species
burrow only under the shelter of bushes or
other vegetation; others out in the bare ground.
Each burrow commonly has grouped in a
small area several entrance holes, which lead
through tunnels to the central passageway, the
nest, and the storage chambers. Usually there
is a little pile of loose dirt thrown out on one
side of a hole, or a group of holes may be ina
little mound of earth. ‘The entrances are usu-
ally stopped from within by loose earth, and if
a person quietly thrusts in a short stick so as
to remove the earthy plug and let in the light
he may see the dirt suddenly returned to its
place in little jets, as the occupant promptly
kicks the door closed again.
The young, varying from two to six in a
litter, are born in these little dens in warm
nests of dried grasses. They have been found
at all times between April and September, thus
making it apparent that several litters are pro-
duced each season.
The silky, as well as the other kinds of des-
ert pocket mice, do not drink water, and, as
has been shown by experiments, they may be
kept for months in thoroughly dry sand and
fed on dried seeds without any resulting dis-
comfort. Through the long pressure of desert
environment they have developed the power to
produce sufficient water for their physiological
processes by chemical changes in the starch in
their food, which are effected in the digestive
tract.
Representatives of this group of mice are al-
most everywhere in the arid parts of their
range, and in many sandy localities are ex-
tremely numerous and active at night, as shown
by the multitude of little tracks in the dust at
sunrise each morning. ‘Their presence in the
desert is indicated also by the many little coni-
cal pits half an inch or an inch deep, where
they have located small seeds and dug them up.
They lie close in their burrows during cold
or stormy weather, depending on their stores
for food, but are not known to hibernate, al-
though in the northern part of their range they
are confined to their burrows for long periods.
At one of my camps in the desert of Lower
California I found the silky and other pocket
mice excessively numerous and so short of
food that they swarmed about us at night with
amazing lack of fear. My experiences with
them are given in the accompanying account of
the spiny pocket mice.
The silky and other pocket mice have many
enemies, among the worst of which are the
handsome little desert fox and the coyote.
Others which continually prey upon them are
the badger, skunk, and bobcat, as well as many
owls.
THE SPINY POCKET MICE (Perog-
nathus hispidus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 413)
Pocket mice are divided into several natural
eroups of species, all having certain characters
in common, as a pointed head, lengthened hind
feet and legs, and external cheek pouches for
carrying food. The spiny group contains nu-
merous species, the smallest of which is about
the size of a house mouse and the largest
nearly twice that size.
They are more slenderly built than the silky
species and have longer tails, with the hairs
lengthened along the terminal half, thus giving
a slightly brushy or tufted appearance. Their
most striking character is the distinctly coarser
hair with long scattered guard hairs, like small
bristles, which conspicuously overlie the fur on
the hinder parts of the body and from which
the common name is derived.
The distribution of the spiny forms, although
nearly the same as that of the silky ones, is a
little more restricted. All belong to the arid
or desert parts of the West and Southwest,
from South Dakota and middle California
southward to Michoacan, near the southern
end of the Mexican tableland, and throughout
Lower California.
Some species inhabit the scattered growth of
plants in sandy areas, but they are more gener-
ally characteristic of harder and more rock-
strewn soil, rocky mesas, and foothill slopes.
There a few species make burrows in open
eround, sometimes with a single hole, but most
of them make their nests under rocks, in crev-
ices, or in burrows sheltered by such desert
bushes as Covillea, Bursera, Olneya, Cercidium,
and mesquites.
In these shelters pocket mice make little
mounds a few inches high and ten or fifteen
inches across. The mounds have several en-
trances on different sides, one of which gen-
erally shows signs of recent use, although by
day it is kept closed from within by loose earth.
Each of the many-entranced dens is occupied -
by a single animal, Early in the morning, be-
fore the wind fills them with dust, tiny trails
are to be seen leading from these doorways
toward the nearest feeding grounds and all
about their haunts.
The spiny and the silky pocket mice, sharing
much the same arid region, have the same food
plants and are preyed upon by the same ene-
mies. The food of these mice consists mainly
of small seeds, including the wild morning
glory, wild sunflowers, wild parsnips, and a
multitude of others characteristic of the vari-
ous areas they occupy.
Pocket mice are strictly nocturnal or crepus-
cular in habits and appear by day only when
disturbed. If the plugged entrance to a bur-
row is opened, however, it will probably be
quickly stopped up again from within by the
annoyed householder.
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 397
The young, in litters of from two to eight,
are born at irregular times according to the
latitude and general weather conditions. In
the south at least several litters appear to be
born each year, the young page noted almost
every month.
When camping alone for a few days in the
desert near San Ignacio, in the middle of the
peninsula of Lower California, I had a unique
opportunity to learn something of the peculiari-
ties of the various pocket mice. Three species
were abundantly represented, including both
the silky and the spiny kinds. They quickly
learned that good hunting could be found in
and about the tents for the rice grains and
other scattered food and promptly took advan-
tage of it.
As soon as approaching darkness began to
render objects indistinct, from their burrows
among the surrounding bushes they swarmed
into camp and were busy throughout the night
minutely searching the ground under the shel-
ter tent for every particle of food. In order
to see these interesting visitors to better advan-
tage I placed a candle on a small box in the
middle of the tent.
Five or six individuals, representing three
species, often came within the circle of light at
the same time. At first all were shy and when
I made any sudden movement would leap in
every direction, like grasshoppers, and quickly
vanish. The smallest of the species, a member
of the silky group, was the shyest of all and
remained timid and reserved.
The two larger species, representing both the
spiny and the silky groups, were much more
bold and quickly became confiding and delight-
fully friendly. Their attention was promptly
attracted to rolled oats which I scattered on
the ground in a spot well lighted by the candle.
Sitting quietly close by the bait where the
visitors congregated I soon had evidence that
among themselves these little beasts are ex-
tremely pugnacious. The first to reach the
food would fiercely charge the next comer and
always try to leap upon its back, at the same
time delivering a vicious downward kick with
its strong hind feet. Occasionally the new-
comer would charge the one already at the
food.
When five or six were trying to secure sole
possession of the small food pile there was
lively skirmishing about the premises, as they
alternately attacked and pursued one another
over the sand and among the boxes and other
camp gear scattered about. Amazingly quick
in movements, they would leap now forward,
now sidewise, now straight up a foot or more
in the air, with almost equal celerity; and the
direction of their movements when attacked
was often unexpected. When running about
on the level sand they had a steady, swiftly
gliding motion, which their tracks showed was
the result of a series of little jumps.
Both the spiny and the silky pocket mice be-
came so confiding the first night that when I
put my hand on the ground palm up with a
little rolled oats in it the nearest pocket mouse
would run to it, stop for an instant to smell
the finger-tips, and then mount and sit quietly
on the palm and fill its cheek pouches.
At such times the mice showed no uneasi-
ness, even when raised in my hand to within
a few inches of my eyes in order that I might
observe their movements more closely. The
motions of their front feet when putting food
into the pouches were so rapid that it was im-
possible to follow them. The nose was held
just over the food pile, and the cheek pouches
would slowly but visibly swell as they were
filled until they stood out like little bladders
on each sile of the head.
As soon as they were full the mice became
uneasy to get away and would run from one
side of my hand to the other peering down
the abysmal depth of three feet to the ground
without daring to leap. As soon as my hand
was lowered to the ground the mouse darted
away to carry the food to its store in the
bushes twenty to thirty yards away, quickly to
return with empty pouches.
The mice soon became so tame that while
they were on my hand or on the ground I
could with one finger of the other hand stroke
gently the tops of their heads and backs and
even pick them up by their tails and suspend
them head down. When thus held they re-
mained motionless, their tiny front feet like
little closed hands held against their breasts.
When lowered and released they would imme-
diately resume the filling of their pouches as
though nothing had happened. Several indi-
viduals of the dozen or more which made free
of the tent had lost part of their tails, so that
they could be readily distinguished.
One of these little bobtails was so gentle and
confiding that I became much attached to it.
It would permit all manner of familiar treat-
ment, such as being picked up by one foot or
by the tail, or being turned on its back. With
this confidence came a sense of proprietorship
in the good things here so suddenly and myste-
riously plentiful, as was shown by his attitude
toward his fellows.
Again and again when he was filling his
pouches from a pile of rolled oats in my hand
I lowered it in a gently sloping position within
ten or fifteen inches of another mouse gather-
ing food on the ground. Thereupon the little
bobtail in my hand would invariably leave the
task of filling his pouches and without hesita-
tion leap down on the back of the one on the
ground. The surprised animal thus assailed
from an unexpected quarter always fled in
CERO
After a short pursuit the bobtailed one would
come running back and instead of going to the
equally inviting pile of food on the ground
would come straight to my hand and complete
his task. The industry of the little animals
appeared to be tireless, as working swiftly they
made trip after trip with pouchloads of food
to their stores and quickly returned. One night
I watched this strenuous work for two hours
until I retired.
The abundance and boldness of pocket mice
and kangaroo rats at this place led me to be-
lieve that there had been a former abundance
398 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Howard ‘Taylor Middleton
YOUNG RED SQUIRRELS AND THEIR NEST
highly specialized for a
peculiarly restricted mode
of life as the pocket go-
phers. They form a
strongly marked family,
the Geomyidz, which in-
cludes various genera and
many species, all very
similar in external form,
but varying from the
size of a large mouse to
a massively formed ani-
mal equalling a _ large
house rat in weight.
Without exception they
are powerfully built for
their size, the head and
front half of the body
being extraordinarily
muscled to meet the de-
mands of their mode of
life. The broad blunt
head is joined almost di-
rectly on the body. The
eyes are small and have
the restricted vision to
be expected from animals
living underground. The
ears are reduced to httle
fleshy rims about the
openings, and the short
naked tail is provided
with nerves, which ren-.
der it useful as an organ
of touch.
The front teeth are
broad, cutting chisels,
and on each side of the
mouth is a large pocket
in the skin used for gath-
ering and carrying food.
On. the front, eeieane
long claws, which, when
not being used to dig or
handle earth, are doubled
under, against the soles
These cute little chaps were found cozily at rest in their nest in of the feet, so that the
a pine. They were routed out, however, long enough to have their
portraits taken. An effort was made to include the mother, but
without success (see page 454).
of their food here, resulting in a large increase
in the rodent population, but that it was then
becoming scarce through a failure of rain to
renew the seed harvest. The invariable out-
come in such cases is for the small rodents de-
pendent on seeds and fruits to be reduced by
famine’ until they become rare, where previ-
ously they existed in great numbers. ‘This is
one of Nature’s processes whereby the danger
of the overwhelming increase of any species is
automatically prevented.
THE POCKET GOPHERS (Geomys bur-
sarius and its relatives)
(For illustration, sce page 413)
With the exception of the moles no other ex-
tensive group of American land mammals is so
gopher walks on the back
of them much as the ant-
eater walks on its folded
claws.
Peculiar to North America, pocket gophers |
occupy a great area extending from Illinois,
Florida, and the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific
coast, and from the plains of the Saskatchewan,
in Canada, southward to Panama. ‘Their ver-
tical range within these limits extends from sea
level to timber-line, at above 13,000 feet on
some of the high volcanoes of Mexico. The
family attains its greatest development in that
wonderful region of plains and volcanoes lying
about the southern end of the Mexican table-
land.
In the United States these animals are best
known as “gophers,” but in the range they
occupy in the Southeastern States they are
called “salamanders” and in Mexico are widely
known as “tuzas.’ As a rule they frequent
treeless areas, but are found also in many
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
types of forests from among the palms and
other trees of the tropical lowlands to the
oaks, pines, and firs on the mountain sides.
All members of the family live wholly un-
derground, in many-branched horizontal tun-
nels, which they are continually extending in
Ww inding and erratic courses about their haunts.
The tunnels are from two to about five
inches in diameter, according to the size of the
animal, and while usually less than six inches
below the surface, the approaches to the nest
and storage chambers sometimes drop abruptly
two or three feet below the regular working
tunnels to the level of the living quarters. At
intervals along the tunnels short side branches
are used as sanitary conveniences, thus ena-
bling the occupant to keep the main passage-
ways in a habitable condition.
The courses of the underground workings
are roughly indicated on the surface by series
of piles of loose earth brought up through
short side passages as the tunnels are ex-
tended. These little miners’ dumps of earth
vary with the size of the animal, sometimes
containing more than two bushels. The out-
lets of the passages leading to the surface are
kept plugged with loose earth. When these
animals are numerous the ground is thickly
dotted in all directions with earth piles, and
the caving caused by the network of tunnels
just below the surface renders walking diff-
cult. The penpeta industry of these rodent
miners outclasses that of the proverbial beaver.
Gophers are both diurnal and nocturnal, the
gloom of their tunnels scarcely varying except
when one of the outlets is temporarily opened.
They are averse to light, and if the plug to a
freshly made opening is removed the observer
may soon catch a glimpse of the owner as he
~ suddenly thrusts his head into view for .a mo-
ment before again plugging the door with earth.
Gophers dig their tunnels by using their teeth
and the strong claws on the front feet. The
loose earth is pushed along the tunnel by the
head, the palms of the front feet, and the
breast in little jerky movements until it 1s
ejected on the surface dump.
Owing to their poor sight, heavy bodies, and
short legs, gophers are clumsy and deliberate
in their movements and peculiarly helpless in
the open. Apparently appreciating this, they
rarely venture from their underground shelter
by day except when in grain fields or similar
sheltering vegetation. Here they sometimes
run out two or three feet to cut down a succu-
lent stalk and drag it hastily within the entrance
of the tunnel, where it is cut into short sections
and placed in the cheek pouches if to be used
as food or left on the dump if the object of
the cutting is finally to secure the seeds or
head of ripening grain.
During the mating season in.spring pocket
gophers run about clumsily from one burrow
to another and may often be seen on the sur-
face by the light of the rising sun. Most of
their short trips above ground are made at
night, when they sometimes swarm out and
wander over a limited territory. Their night
wanderings are proved in California by the
many bodies which the morning light often re-
O99
veals in the sticky crude oil on newly oiled
roads which the gophers have tried to cross.
From one to seven young are born in a litter,
but whether there is more than one litter in a
season or not is unknown. The young when
about half grown migrate to unoccupied ground
sometimes one or two hundred yards from the
home location and make tunnels of their own.
The food of pocket gophers consists mainly
of tubers, bulbs, and other roots, including
many of a more woody fiber. Whole rows of
potatoes or other root crops are cleaned up by
the extension of tunnels along them. Some-
times the animals follow a row of fruit trees,
cutting the roots and killing tree after tree. In
grain and alfalfa fields they are great pests, and
in irrigated country their burrows in ditch
banks often cause disastrous breaks.
The big tropical species sometimes exist in
such numbers as to render successful agricul-
ture very difficult. Sugar-cane planters in
many parts of Mexico and Central America are
compelled to wage unremitting war on them to
avoid ruin. I know of an instance on a plan-
tation in Vera Cruz in which thousands were
killed during a single season without stopping
the damage from these pests, which swarmed in
from the adjacent area.
The large external cheek pouches of pocket
gophers are used solely for gathering such food
supplies as seeds, small bulbs, and sections of
edible roots or plant stems and transporting
them to storage chambers located along the
sides of the tunnels. Food is placed in the
pouches by deft sidewise movements of the
front feet used like hands, and so quick are
they that the motions of the feet can scarcely
be detected. The pockets are emptied by plac-
ing the front feet on the back ends of the
pouches and pushing forward, thus forcing out
the contents. In their tunnels gophers run
backward and forward with almost equal facil-
ity, the sensitive naked tail serving to guide
their backward movements.
Pocket gophers are stupid solitary little
beasts, with surly dispositions, and fight vi-
ciously when captured or brought to bay. This
attitude toward the world is justified by the
host of enemies ever ready to destroy them.
Among their more active foes are snakes and
weasels, which pursue them into their tunnels;
and badgers, which dig them out of their run-
ways.
They are also persistently hunted day and
night by foxes and coyotes. Moreover, by day
various kinds of hawks watch for them to ap-
pear at the entrances of their dens, and by
night the owls, ever alert, capture many.
When one gopher intrudes into the tunnel of
another the owner at once fiercely attacks it.
In some places I have seen Mexicans take ad-
vantage of this characteristic pugnacity by fast-
ening the end of a long string about the body
of a captured gopher and then turning it into
an occupied tunnel, through a recently made
opening. The owner, scenting the intruder,
would immediately attack him, the combatants
locking their great incisors in a bulldog grip.
The movements of the string would give no-
tice of the encounter, and by pulling it out
400 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
steadily both animals could be drawn forth and
the enraged owner of the burrow dispatched.
In this manner [| have known an Indian to.
catch more than a dozen gophers in a few
hours.
Pocket gophers are active throughout the
winter even in the coldest parts of their range,
but in many places must rely largely on food
accumulated in their storage chambers.
Melting snow in the mountains and in the
North reveals the remains of many tunnels
made through it along the surface of the
eround. ‘These snow tunnels are often filled
for long distances with loose earth brought up
from underground, and after the snow disap-
pears in spring the curious branching earth
forms left, winding snakelike through the
meadows, are a great puzzle to those who do
not know their origin.
In a state of nature pocket gophers are con-
stantly bringing the subsoil to the surface and
burying humus. Over an enormous area they
exist in such countless thousands that their
work, like that of angleworms, is often of the
most beneficial character. On bare slopes,
however, their work is highly injurious, as it
greatly increases erosion of the fertile surface
soil and thus has its direct influence in chang-
ing world contours.
When civilized man arrives in their haunts
and upsets natural conditions with cultivated
crops the new food supply stimulates an in-
crease in the gopher population and their ac-
tivities immediately become excessively de-
structive and necessitate unremitting warfare
against them.
THE KANGAROO RATS (Dipodomys
spectabilis and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 416)
The desert regions of western North Amer-
ica have developed several peculiar types of
mammals, and among them are none hand-
somer or more interesting than the kangaroo
rats. These rodents, despite their name, are
neither kangaroos nor rats, but are near rela-
tives of the pocket mice, which share their
desert haunts.
All are characterized by a kangaroo - like
form, including small fore legs and feet, long
hind legs ‘and’ feet for jumping, and a ‘tail
longer than the body to serve as a balance.
In addition, they have large, prominent eyes and
are provided with skin pouches on each side
of the mouth for use in holding food to be
carried to their store chambers.
The color pattern, like the form, of the kan-
garoo rats is practically uniform throughout
the group. Both are well shown in the accom-
panying plate of Dipodomys spectabilis, the
largest and most strongly marked species. Its
total length is from 12 to 14 inches; most of
the other species are much smaller.
Kangaroo rats of many species are distrib-
uted over most of the arid and semiarid re-
gions of the United States and Mexico, from
Nebraska, Oklahoma, and the Gulf Coast of
Texas west to the Pacific coast, and from Mon-
tana and Washington southward to the Valley
of Mexico and throughout Lower California.
They are especially numerous in the southwest-
ern deserts, where they are the oddest and most
picturesque of animals.
Although they have no near relatives in the
Old World, some of the African and Asiatic
jerboas are externally almost perfect replicas
of the kangaroo rats in every detail of form,
color, and color pattern, even to the tail mark-
ings. This extraordinary likeness in appear-
ance of two widely separated and unrelated
animals is made doubly significant by the fact
that both live in deserts and have similar
habits.
Peculiarly desert animals, kangaroo rats live
like the pocket mice, without drinking, but ob-
tain the necessary water through their digestive
processes. They are most numerous in sandy
areas, and there the earth is sometimes so rid-
dled by their burrows as to render horseback
riding difficult.
Kangaroo rats are nocturnal and always live
in burrows dug by themselves. As a rule they
prefer soft or sandy ground, but some species
occupy areas where the earth is hard and rocky.
The burrows of some species have only one or
two entrances with a small amount of earth
thrown out, but others make little mounds with
several openings, entering usually nearly on a
level or at a slight incline. These openings
are nearly always conspicuous, and while fre-
quently near bushes, no effort appears ever to
be made to conceal them, and a little trail often
leads away through the soft earth.
The large Dipodomys spectabilis, which lives
mainly in New Mexico and Arizona, constructs
the most notable of all the dwelling places of
these animals. From its underground workings
it throws up large mounds of earth, which
gradually increase in size with the length of
time they are occupied until they are some-
times more than 3 feet high and 15 feet or
more in diameter. From three to a dozen bur-
ows enter these mounds, usually at the surface
level of the ground, but some are on the slopes
of the mound. The mounds, usually located in
open ground, with their round entrance holes
from four to five inches in diameter, are ex-
tremely conspicuous.
Although generally scattered at varying dis-
ances from one another, the mounds are some-
times grouped in colonies. Well-worn trails
three or four inches broad lead away from the
entrances, some to other mounds showing -
neighborly intercourse and others far away to
the feeding grounds, sometimes 200 or 300
yards distant. One of the openings at the side
of the mound is usually the main entrance, and
by. day this is ordinarily kept stopped with
fresh earth. Within the mound and farther
under ground are dug a series of ramifying
passages, among which are located roomy nest
chambers and store-rooms for food.
Kangaroo rats are not known to hibernate
in any part of their range. They lay up food
for temporary purposes at least and do not go
abroad in stormy or cold weather. The north-
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
ern species and those on the colder mountain
slopes must make large store against the win-
ter needs. Their food consists mainly of seeds,
leaves of several plants, and of little plants just
appearing above ground. ‘Tiny cactus plants
and the saline fleshy leaves of Sarcobatus are
often among the kinds gathered for food.
The big Dipodomys spectabilis appears to be
more social than most of its kind, as several
may be caught in a single mound, and, as al-
ready said, well-worn trails lead from mound
to mound. A little noise made just outside one
of these mounds usually brings a reply or chal-
lenge in the form of a low drumming or thud-
ding noise, no doubt made by the animal rap-
idly striking the ground with its hind feet like
a rabbit or wood rat.
When caught they at first struggle to escape,
but, like a rabbit, do not offer to bite, and soon
become quiet. They have from two to six
young, which may be born at any season.
Nothing appears to be known concerning the
number of litters in a year.
When in camp at San Ignacio, in the middle
of the desert peninsula of Lower California, I
had an unusual opportunity to learn something
of the habits of one of the smaller species of
kangaroo rat abundant there. The moon was
at its full, and in the clear desert air its radi-
ance rendered objects near at hand almost as
distinct as by day. Scattered grains of rice
and fragments of food on the ground about
the cook tent attracted many kangaroo rats and
pocket mice.
During several nights I passed hours watch-
ing at close range the habits of these curious
animals. As I sat quietly on a mess box in
their midst both the kangaroo rats and the
mice would forage all about with swift gliding
movements, repeatedly running across my bare
feet. Any sudden movement startled them and
all would dart away for a moment, but quickly
return.
Although the kangaroo rats did not become
so fearless and friendly as the pocket mice,
they were so intent on the food that at times
I had no difficulty in reaching slowly down and
closing my hand over their backs. I did this
dozens of times, and after a slight struggle
they always became quiet until again placed on
the ground, when they at once renewed their
search for food as though no interruption had
occurred.
One night, to observe them better, I spilled
a small heap of rice on the sand between my
eet. Within two or three minutes half a dozen
kangaroo rats had discovered it and were bus-
ily at work filling their cheek pouches with the
grains and carrying them away to their store
chambers.
While occupied in this rivalry for food they
became surprisingly pugnacious. If one was
working at the rice pile and another rat or a
pocket mouse approached, it immediately dart-
ed at the intruder and drove it away. The
mode of attack was to rush at an intruder and,
leaping upon its back, give a vigorous down-
ward kick with its strong hind feet. Once I
saw a pocket mouse kicked in this way. It
was knocked over and for a minute or more
401
afterwards ran about in an erratic course,
squeaking loudly as though in much pain.
Sometimes the pursuit of one kangaroo rat
by another continued for twenty yards or more.
By the time the pursuer returned another
would be at the rice pile and it would imme-
diately dash at the victor of the former fray
and drive him away. In this way there was a
constant succession of amusing skirmishes.
Sometimes an intruder, bolder than the oth-
ers, would run only two or three yards and
then suddenly turn and face the pursuer, sit-
ting up on its hind feet like a little kangaroo.
The pursuer at once assumed the same nearly
upright position, with its fore feet close to its
breast. Both would then begin to hop about
watching for an opening. Suddenly one would
leap at the other, striking with its hind feet
exactly like a game cock. When the kick
landed fairly on the opponent there was a dis-
tinct little thump and the victim rolled over on
the ground. After receiving two or three
kicks the weaker of the combatants would run
away. |
The thump made by the kick when they were
fighting solved the mystery which had covered
this sound heard repeatedly during my nights
at this camp. The morning light revealed a
multitude of [little paired tracks made by the
combatants in these battles. Such tracks in
the sand have been referred to as the “fairy
dances” of these beautiful little animals, but
the truth revealed proves them to be really
“war dances.”
THE BANDED LEMMING (Dicrostonyx
nelsoni and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 417)
Banded lemmings are unique among the
mouse tribe in their change from the rufous
brown, or gray summer coat to pure white in
winter. With the assumption of the white
winter fur a thick, horny, padlike growth de-
velops on the underside of the two middle
claws of the front feet, which is molted in
spring when the winter coat is lost. For an
animal living in the far North the usefulness
of a white coat in winter is evident, but no good
reason is apparent for these curicus claw-pads:
The summer coat varies remarkably in color
and color pattern, and many of the lemmings
in their beautiful shades of chestnut, browns,
or grays are very handsome. They are more
heavily proportioned than field mice and the
very long fluffy fur, which completely conceals
the rudimentary ears and tail, tends to exag-
gerate their size.
The banded lemmings form a_ strongly
marked group, containing a number of species
inhabiting circumpolar regions. In North
America they occur nearly everywhere in the
arctic and subarctic parts, including Greenland,
most of northern Canada, including the Arctic
islands, and a large part of Alaska, including
some of the Aleutian Islands.
They range as far northward as vegetation
affords them a proper food supply and have
been well known to many of the explorers of
402 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
those stern northern wilds. ‘To the southward
they extend into the subarctic northern for-
ests, where they usually keep to the open bar-
ren areas.
Not much is known of their life histories on
this continent. They are mainly nocturnal and
live in burrows from two to three feet long,
ending with a nest chamber four or five inches
in diameter, warmly lined with grass and moss.
Near the nest there is usually a branch burrow
a foot or more long which is used for sanitary
purposes and as a place of refuge when the
main burrow is invaded.
In the nests during early summer litters gen-
erally containing about three young are brought
forth. Ordinarily the burrows open in unshel-
tered places, but in wooded regions may be
under a log or beneath a bush or the roots of
a tree. No runways lead out from the bur-
rows as is customary with many of their rela-
tives. ‘They are active throughout the winter,
making many tunnels along the surface of the
ground under the snow, which are revealed
when it melts in spring.
These surface tunnels are their foraging
roads, safe from most of the fierce storms
which rage overhead. At times, however, the
snowy shelter is blown away or some other
cause brings the lemmings to the’surface, where
they blunder aimlessly about, soon to be cap-
tured by some enemy or to perish from the
cold. As their infrequent appearance on top
of the snow is usually during storms, the
Alaskan Eskimos have a legend that these
white lemmings live in the land above the stars
and descend in a spiral course to the earth
during snowstorms.
Although banded lemmings never become so
extraordinarily numerous over great areas as
the brown species, they become very abundant
at times in the barren grounds of Canada and
the Arctic islands and migrate from one part
of their range to another. The best observa-
tion in regard to this was made by Rae in June
at the mouth of the Coppermine River. On
the west bank of the river north of the Arctic
Circle he encountered thousands of them speed-
ing northward.
The ice on some of the smaller streams had
broken up and he was amused to see the little
animals running back and forth along the banks
looking for a smooth place in the stream, indi-
cating a slow current, where they could swim |
across. Having found such a place, they at
once jumped in and swam quickly to the oppo-
site side, where they climbed out and, after
shaking themselves like dogs, continued their
journey as though nothing had happened.
During the years I lived in northern Alaska
the advent of winter was marked by invasion
of the storehouses by many brown lemmings
and other mice, but banded lemmings rarely
appeared. When occasionally captured alive,
the old ones fought viciously, but the young
were gentle and quickly became tame and in-
teresting pets. Their skins were highly prized
by the little Eskimo girls to make garments
and robes for their walrus ivory dolls.
THE BROWN LEMMING (Lemmus
alascensis and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 417)
Few small mammals are so well known in
far northern lands as the brown lemmings.
They form a small group of species having a
close general resemblance to some of the field
mice, from which, however, they may at once
be distinguished by their much heavier propor-
tions, extremely short tails, and the remarkable
length of the hair on their backs and rumps.
They inhabit most of the arctic and subarctic
lands of both Old and New Worlds. In North
America they are known from the northern-
most lands, beyond 83° north latitude, to the
southern end of Hudson Bay, and throughout
most of northern Canada and all of Alaska,
including the islands of Bering Sea.
The extraordinary migrations of these lem-
mings have attracted attention far back in the
early history of northern Europe. At inter-
vals, through favorable conditions, they become
superabundant over a large area, and then a
sudden resistless desire to migrate in a certain
direction appears to seize the entire lemming
population. The little beasts start in a swarm-
ing horde, sometimes containing millions, and
traverse the country.
In their travels they appear indifferent to all
obstacles and with dogged and unwavering per-
sistence swim the streams and lakes encoun-
tered on their way. Similar migrations have
been observed at various points in Arctic
America, several of them in Alaska, where the
lemmings abound on the open tundras.
These migrations sometimes continue for
more than one season, the animals meanwhile
being killed in countless numbers by disease,
by accident in field and flood, and, in addition,
through the heavy toll taken from their num-
bers by their winged and four-footed foes,
which always gather in numbers to accompany
them.
The migrations sometimes wear out through
the diminution in numbers, and sometimes
when they reach the sea, as in Norway, they
are said to enter the water and swim offshore
until they perish. When one of these swarms
of rodents passes through a farming district it
cleans up the crops and other surface vegeta-
tion like a visitation of locusts.
These lemmings do not hibernate, but, active
throughout the severest winters, are abroad
almost equally by day and by night. Their
burrows consist of winding tunnels, often
many-branched and with more than one open-
ing. A dry bed of peat or a dense growth of
moss is often pierced by a network of them.
Well-defined runways often lead away from
the burrows or from the entrance of one bur-
row to that of another.
Their tunnels. run everywhere under the
snow, with occasional passages leading to the
surface. When fierce gales blow away the
snow;or a winter rain melts it, many lemmings
lose touch with their burrows and wander
about until they perish from cold or are caught
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
by some enemy. They are sometimes found
several miles from shore, where they have
strayed out on the sea ice.
In winter in the fur countries, in company
with field mice, they invade storehouses and
habitations in search of food. Among their
enemies are ravens and all northern hawks and
owls, as well as foxes, weasels, lynxes, bears,
and other beasts of prey of all degree. .
Within their underground tunnels and often
in dense vegetation on the surface lemmings
make warmly lined nests of grass and mioss in
which their young, from two to eight in num-
ber, are born. The young appear at varying
times, thus indicating several litters each year.
When taken alive, the old ones are fierce and
courageous, growling and fighting savagely; but
several half-grown young brought me during
my residence in Alaska proved to be most
amusing and inoffensive little creatures. From
the first they permitted me to handle them
without offering to bite and showed no signs
Of shear.
They were kept in a deep tin box, from
which they made continual efforts to escape.
When I extended one finger near the bottom
of the box they would stand erect on their
hind feet and reach up toward it, using their
forepaws like little ‘hands. If my finger was
lowered sufficiently they would climb up into
my hand and thence to my shoulder, showing
no sign of haste, but much curiosity, continu-
ally sniffing with their noses and peering at
everything with their bright beadlike eyes.
They were curiously expert in walking on
their hind feet, holding the body in an upright
position and taking short steps. If anything
was held just out of reach above their heads,
as the point of my finger, they would continue
in an erect position for a considerable time.
At such times they would reach up with their
front paws and often spring up on their hind
feet for half an inch above the floor trying to
touch it. When eating they sat upright on
their haunches, like little marmots, and held
the food in their front paws.
THE COMMON FIELD MOUSE, OR
MEADOW MOUSE (Microtus penn-
sylvanicus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 420)
The Pennsylvania meadow mouse is a small
species about as long in body as the house
mouse, but much more heavily proportioned.
Its head is rounded, the eyes small and bead-
like, the legs and tail are short, and the com-
paratively coarse fur is so long that it almost
conceals the short, rounded ears.
It is a typical representative of a group of
small mammals commonly known as field mice,
or “bear mice,” which includes a great num-
ber of species closely similar in general appear-
ance, but varying much in size. In England
they are termed voles, and large species living
about the water in England and northern
Europe are known as “water rats.”
Field mice are circumpolar in distribution
403
and abound from the Arctic barrens, beyond
the limit of trees, to southern Europe and the
Himalayas, in the Old World, and to the south-
ern United States and along high mountains
through Mexico and Guatemala, in Central
America. They occur in most parts of the
United States except in some of the hotter and
more arid sections.
As a rule field mice prefer low-lying fertile
land, as grassy meadows, but the banks of
streams, the rank growths of swamps and
marshes, the borders of damp woodlands, the
grassy places on Arctic tundras, or the dwarfed
vegetation of glacial slopes and valleys above
timber-line on high mountains furnish homes
for one species or another.
Two, and even three, species of field mice are
sometimes found in the same locality, but each
kind usually occupies a situation differing in
some way from that chosen by the others.
Some occupy comparatively dry ground and
others, like the European water rat, live in
marshes and are almost as aquatic as the musk-
rat. Most species living about the water are
expert in diving and in swimming, even under
water. In streams inhabited by large trout
they are often caught and eaten by the fish.
The presence of field mice is nearly always
indicated by smoothly worn little roads or run-
ways about an inch in width, which form a
network among the vegetation in their haunts.
These runways lead away from the entrances
of their burrows and wind through the vegeta-
tion to their feeding grounds. They are kept
clean and free from straws and other small
obstructions, so that the owners when alarmed
may run swiftly to the shelter of their burrows.
Fully conscious of their helplessness, meadow
mice are as cautious.as the necessities of exist-
ence will permit.
Their burrows are often in the midst of
grassy meadows, as well as under the shelter
of logs, rocks, tussocks of grass, or roots of
trees, and lead to underground chambers filled
with large nests of dry grass, which shelter the
owner in winter and often in summer. The
summer nests in many places, especially in
damp meadows or marshes, are made in little
hollows in the surface or in tussocks of grass.
In these nests several litters containing from
four to eleven young are born each year.
It is rarely that an observer is located where
he can study the every-day lives of little ani-
mals like the meadow mice and at the same
time go on with his regular occupation. At
one of my mountain camps in Mexico [J for-
tunately pitched my tent on a patch of lawn-
like grass in front of the ruins of an abandoned
hut. Runways of field mice formed a network
everywhere in the surrounding growth of grass
and weeds.
For hours at a time as I worked quietly in
the tent the many mice, unconscious of my
presence, came silently along their little roads
through the tall vegetation to the border of the
short grass. Just within the shelter of the tall
growth they would each time stop and remain
watchfully immovable for a half minute, and
then, if everything was quiet, make a swift run
os
Sh,“
pa
soi,
GS a
Masui
} “y é
| ty
ANTELOPE JACK RABBIT
Lepus alleni
404
-«.
CALIFORNIA JACK RABBIT
Lepus californicus
VARYING HARE, or SNOWSHOE RABBIT
Lepus americanus
405
406 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
two or three feet into the open, bite off a tender
little grass blade and dash back to the sheltered
road. There they would sit up squirrel-like,
holding the grass blades in their forepaws and
eating them ‘rapidly, or would sometimes carry
the food back to the burrows.
Occasionally as the mice darted into the open
I made a slight squeaking noise and perhaps
two or three in sight at the time would in-
stantly turn and dash back into the sheltered
road, sometimes not reappearing for a long
time. Again and again I saw them come into
the open for food, and before securing it sud-
denly scamper back in a panic without apparent
cause for alarm.
Eternal vigilance is the only defense such
animals have, and despite their watchfulness
myriads of them are devoured daily by a large
number of rapacious birds and mammals, in-
cluding even such huge beasts as the great
Alaskan brown and grizzly bears, which dig
them from their burrows on grassy northern
mountain sides.
Despite their numerous natural enemies field
mice are so prolific they continue among the
most destructive of agricultural pests. They
are so obscure and the damage by a single
mouse appears so insignificant, that it requires
a knowledge of their habits, their wide distri-
bution, and their enormous numbers to appre-
ciate what a serious drain they are on the
farmer’s income, even when in their normal
numbers.
In summer they feed on growing grass,
clover, alfalfa, and grain, seeds, bulbs, root
crops, and garden vegetables. In fall they con-
eregate under shocks to feed on the grain, and
in winter often do enormous injury to young
or even well-grown fruit and other trees by
enawing off the bark on the base of the trunk
and roots, sometimes in this way destroying
entire orchards and nurseries.
One species in California destroys large
quantities of raisins drying in the field by car-
rying them off to some shelter, where they cut
out the seeds and leave the rest of the fruit. I
have seen half a pound of raisins under a piece
of board, the result of the night’s work of a
single mouse.
While field mice are always destructive, at
intervals they have sudden and mysterious ac-
celerations .of increase and become so exces-
sively abundant that they are a veritable plague.
Many instances of this are on record in the Old
World, where they have become so numerous
as to call forth governmental intervention.
The most notable recent outbreak of this
kind in the United States took place in the
Humboldt Valley, Nevada, where, during the
winters from 1906 to 1908, they swarmed over
the cultivated parts of the valley and completely
destroyed 18,000 acres of alfalfa, even devour-
ing the roots of the plants. During this out-
break the mice in the alfalfa fields were esti-
mated to number as high as 12,000 to the acre.
Whenever field mice become over-abundant
notice appears to go out among their natural
enemies, and in extraordinary numbers hawks,
owls, crows, ravens, sea gulls, coyotes, foxes,
bobcats, weasels, and other animals appear to
prey upon them.
At no season of the year are they free from
their foes, for they remain active throughout
the winter, and most species apparently lay up
no winter store of food. ‘They travel to winter
feeding places through series of tunnels under
the snow, and it is mainly at this season that
they do the most serious damage to orchards
and shrubbery,
In the far North at the beginning of winter
they gather in large numbers about the fur-
trading stations and other habitations, where
they persistently invade the food supplies.
Some of the northern mice, however, gather
stores of food for winter. A species living
along the coast of the Bering Sea and else-
where on the Arctic tundra of Alaska accumu-
lates a quart or more of little bulbous grass
roots, which are delicious when boiled. ‘They
are hidden in nests of grass and moss among
the surface vegetation, and before the first
snowfall I have seen the Eskimo women
searching for them by prodding likely places
with a long stick. The roots thus taken from
the mice are kept to be served as a delicacy
to guests during winter festivals.
THE PINE MOUSE (Pitymys pinetorum
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 420)
The pine mice form a small group of species
peculiar to North America and closely related
to the field mice. They are similar in fotm to
the common field mice of the Eastern States,
but are usually smaller, with much shorter tails
and shorter, finer, and more glossy fur.
Most of the pine mice are limited to the
wooded region of the States between the At-
lantic coast and the eastern border of the Great
Plains, and from the Hudson River valley and
the border of the Great Lakes south to the
Gulf coast. Strangely enough, one species lives
in a restricted belt covered with tropical forest
along the middie eastern slope of the Cordil-
lera, which forms the eastern wall of the Mex-
ican tableland, on the border between the
States of Vera Cruz and Puebla.
Pine mice occupy the borders of thin forests
and brushy areas, from which they work out
into the open borderlands, especially in or-
chards or other places where there are scat-
tered trees amid a rank growth of weeds. In-
stead of making their runways among growing
vegetation on the surface of the ground ‘like
field mice, they live in little underground tun-
nels or burrows which extend in all direc-
tions through their haunts. These tunnels are
closely like those of the common mole except
that they are smaller and have frequent open-
ings to the surface, through which the owners
make short excursions for food. They often
utilize the tunnels of moles when conveniently
located for their purposes.
The tunnels are often so near the surface
that the ground is slightly uplifted or broken
as by a mole, or they are made under the fallen
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
leaves and other small decaying vegetable mat-
ter covering the ground under the trees. Occa-
sionally, when the surface soil becomes dry
and hard, the burrows are deeper, so that no
surface indications can be discovered. On ac-
count of the similarity of their burrows the
depredations of pine mice are commonly attrib-
uted to moles.
Several inches below the surface pine mice
excavate oval chambers to be used for nests or
for storage purposes. ‘The nest chambers have
several entrances from ramifying tunnels and
are filled with short fine pieces of grass, mak-
ing a warm nest-ball. Here the several litters
of young are born each year. Pine mice are
less prolific than field mice, however, and the
litters contain only from one to four young.
The food chambers are larger than the nest
chambers, and when full of stores are kept
closed with earth. In these are stored short
sections of green or dry grasses, bulbous grass
roots, and short sections of other edible roots.
One such store contained about three quarts of
the fleshy roots of a morning glory cut into
short sections.
Pine mice obtain much of their food from
the bark about the bases and roots of trees, in-
cluding both coniferous and deciduous species.
They kill many small trees and shrubs by gird-
ling, or by cutting the roots below the surface,
and in this way frequently inflict severe dam-
age in orchards and nurseries. Owing to their
underground habits they are much more dan-
gerous to orchards than field mice. They also
do much damage by burrowing along rows of
potatoes and other root crops, upon which they
feed.
Both pine mice and field mice are serious
pests to agriculture and only by vigilant care
can they be prevented from steadily reducing
the returns from farm and orchard. A mouse
appears so insignificant an enemy that the gen-
eral inclination among farmers is to ignore it,
but both field and pine mice exist in such enor-
mous numbers and are so generally distributed
that the aggregate annual losses from them are
great.
Clean cultivation in orchards, especially for
some distance immediately about the trees, is
an excellent protective measure against both of
these mice. The shrubbery and fruit trees of
orchards, lawns, and gardens may be protected
by the use of poisoned baits and traps as soon
as signs of pine mice or field mice are observed.
THE RED-BACKED MOUSE (Evotomys
gapperi and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 421)
With the exception of the banded lemmings
the red-backed mice are the most brightly col-
ored of the smaller northern rodents. They
are close relatives of the common field mice,
which they about equal in size, but from which
they are distinguished externally by rufous col-
oration, finer and more glossy pelage, larger
ears, and proportionately longer tails.
The red-backed mice form a group contain-
407
ing a considerable number of species distrib-
uted throughout the northern circumpolar
lands, except on the barren islands of the Arctic
sea. In North America they occur from the
Arctic tundras north of the limit of trees
southward throughout Alaska and Canada to
the northern United States. With other north-
ern species of mammals, birds, and plants they
follow the high mountain ranges still farther
southward to North Carolina, New Mexico,
and middle California.
It is true that in the far North they are nu-
merous on the moss-grown tundras, and in the
south range above timber-line on high moun-
tains. As a general rule, however, they are
woodland animals, whether among the spruces,
birches, and aspens of the North or farther
south in the United States in the cool fir and
aspen-clad slopes of mountains. They also fre-
quent old, half-cleared fields, brush-grown or
rocky areas, and similar places where cover is
abundant.
Although so closely related to the field mice,
the red-backed species are not known to be-
come excessively abundant nor seriously to in-
jure crops. One reason for their harmlessness
in this respect may be their strong preference
for forest haunts.
I once found them numerous in the grass-
grown streets and yards of an abandoned min-
ing camp in the forest at the head of Owens
River, in the Sierra Nevada, of California. The
mice were making free use of the congenial
shelter afforded by the old log cabins, and their
runways and entrances to burrows were all
about under scattered boards and similar cover.
They are abroad equally by day and by night,
and for this reason are better known to woods-
men than most of the small woodland animals.
When foraging by day among the fallen leaves
and deep green vegetation they present a most
graceful and attractive sight, now moving about
with quick and pretty ways, now pausing to sit
up squirrel-like to eat some tid-bit held in the
front paws and then on the alert to detect a
suspected danger and poised in quivering readi-
ness for instant flight.
Red-backed mice usually live in underground
burrows similar to those of field mice, but gen-
erally located with more care in dry situations,
the entrances sheltered by a stump, old log,
root of a tree, rock, or other object. Ordina-
rily they do not make such well-defined run-
ways as do many field mice, and sometimes no
trace of a trail can be found leading away from
their burrows. But where they travel about
through small dense vegetation, under logs and
about stumps and rocks they often make well-
marked trails.
Their nests are bulky and formed of a mass
of fine dry grass, moss, and other soft mate-
rial, which is sometimes located in an under-
ground chamber opening off the burrow and
sometimes in hollow stumps and logs or under
other surface shelters. But little is known
about the home life of these mice except that
they are prolific, and between April and Octo-
ber have several litters containing from three
to eight young in each.
ti
ARCHIC WARE
Lepus arcticus
COTTONTAIL RABBIT
Sylvilagus floridanus
408
eA)
Sore
Yiu
ro 19 ISSIR Gece 4
iii
ILIA I
MARSH RABBIT
Sylvilagus palustris
RSAEGQES
nest
PiicA, Clik Glib ARE. or CONY
Ochotona princeps
409
410 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
They feed upon a great variety of seeds,
fruits, roots, and succulent vegetable matter
and lay up steres for winter in underground
chambers or in hollow logs and similar places
above ground.
With the coming of winter they gather about
cabins and other habitations in their territory
and become as persistent as house mice in
searching out and raiding food supplies of all
kinds. When the more appreciated kinds of
food fail they resort to gnawing the bark from
roots and bases of trunks of small deciduous
trees of various kinds.
During my sledge journeys in the region
about Bering Strait I found the skins of many
red-backed mice among the Eskimo children.
The small boys kept them with lemming skins
as evidences of their prowess with miniature
dead-fall traps and blunt-pointed arrows, and
the little girls kept them as prized robes for the
dolls carved by their fathers from wood or wal-
rus ivory.
THE RUFOUS TREE MOUSE (Phena-
comys longicaudus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 421)
The genus Phenacomys, to which the rufous
tree mouse belongs, includes a number of spe-
cies closely similar in size and external appear-
ance to some of the well-known field mice.
The structure of their teeth, however, shows
that they form a distinct group of animals.
So far as known, the living members of the
genus are confined to the Boreal parts of North
America, where they range from the Atlantic
to the Pacific in Canada, and southward along
the mountains to New Hampshire, New Mex-
ico, and northern California. The discovery
of fossil representatives of the genus in Hun-
gary and England indicates that it was for-
merly circumpolar in distribution.
All but one species of the genus live on the
ground, inhabit burrows, make runways through
the small vegetation, and feed on grasses and
other herbage—all in close conformity with the
habits of the meadow mice.
The tree mouse, however, is a strongly aber-
rant member of the group. It differs from all
the others, and from all field mice, not only in
its rufous color and longer tail, but in its re-
markable mode of life. It is restricted to the
humid region of magnificent forests in western
Oregon and northwestern California, where it
often spends its life in the tops of such noble
trees as the Sitka spruce, the Douglas fir, and
the coast redwood. Such an amazing depar-
ture from the habits of its kind lends unusual
interest to this little animal.
Its nests are generally located high up in the
trees, sometimes 100 feet from the ground, in
forests where the branches of neighboring
trees interlace so that it can pass from one to
another and inhabit a world of its own, free
from the ordinary four-footed enemies which
prowl below.
_ The nests vary in size, structure, and loca-
tion. In Oregon they have been found only in
large trees at elevations varying from 30 to 100
feet. On the seashore near Eureka, California,
they are placed on the branches of small sec-
ond-growth myrtle and redwood trees. Far-
ther inland in the same region many are in
small trees, within a few yards of the ground,
on the border of heavy redwood forests.
The higher nests of the tree mice are often
the deserted and remodeled homes of the big
gray tree squirrel of that region (Sciurus
griseus) and contain a foundation of coarser
sticks than in the nests wholly built by the
mice. The larger proportion of the nests are
built by the mice and are usually composed of
small twigs, fragments of a netlike lichen, skel-
etons of fir, spruce, or other coniferous leaves,
and the droppings of the mice themselves.
They vary from small oval structures a few
inches in diameter, located well out on the
branches, to great masses close against and
sometimes entirely surrounding the tree trunks,
supported on several branches, and measuring
three feet long and two or three feet high.
The interior of these large structures is
pierced with numerous passageways and some-
times as many as five separate nest chambers
are scattered through. one. Tunnels run out
along each of the limbs on which the mass
rests, and if it extends all the way round one
main tunnel encircles the trunk from which
these hallways branch.
Such great nests have evidently been used
for a long period and have grown with the
steady accumulation of material. This has
gradually decayed and become a solid mass of
earthy humus. The large nests are usually the
abodes of a single female, the homes of the
males having been found to be small and more
often located away from the trunk of the tree.
The food of the red tree mouse, so far as
known, consists entirely of the fleshy parts of
fir and spruce needles and the bark from conif-
erous twigs.
Tree mice appear to breed throughout most
of the year and have from one to four young
in a litter. They are mainly nocturnal, and
when driven from their nests by day appear
rather slow and uncertain in their movements.
Those living in highly placed nests usually es-
cape by running out on the limbs, and pass
from one tree to another if necessary. Those
in small trees usually drop quickly from limb
to limb until they reach the ground, when they
run to the nearest shelter.
That these mice sometimes. descend to the
ground of their own volition is probable, but
the fact that the stomach of every individual
so far examined has contained only the fleshy
parts of coniferous leaves indicate that their
food habits have become so fixed as to make
arboreal life a necessity.
The modification of the habits of a member
of a group of ground - frequenting animals,
with a structure adapted to such an existence,
to those of a strictly arboreal animal is so
strange as to make the question of cause a
puzzling one.
In the Hawaiian Islands the introduction of
the mongoose has made the common house rat
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
arboreal in habits, and possibly in the remote
past the pressure of some ground-frequenting
enemy thus affected the lives Ol fhlewhedutnee
mouse. An animal rarely makes an abrupt
change in its habits without direct pressure
from some source, and then only as a matter
of self-preservation.
THE MUSKRAT (Fiber zibethicus and its
relatives)
(For illustration, see page 424)
The muskrat, or “musquash,” as it is widely
known in the northern fur country, is three or
four times the size of the common house rat,
to which it bears a superficial resemblance. It
has a compactly formed body, short legs, and
strong hind feet partly webbed and otherwise
modified for swimming. The long, nearly
naked, and scaly tail is strongly flattened ver-
tically and in the water serves well as a rudder.
The fur is nearly as fine and dense as that of
the beaver and, as in that animal, protects its
owner from the cold water in which so much
of its life is spent.
Muskrats are peculiar to North America,
where they exist in great numbers. Aquatic in
habits, they have a wide distribution along
streams of all sizes and among marshes, ponds,
and lakes from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and
from a little beyond the limit of trees on the
Arctic barrens south throughout most of the
United States. They reach our southern bor-
der at the delta of the Mississippi and the delta
of the Colorado, at the head of the Gulf of
California.
Within this vast area they have been modi-
fied by their environment into several species
and geographic races, none of which differ
much in appearance from the well-known ani-
mal of the Eastern States.
The nearest kin of the muskrats are the
short-tailed field mice, so numerous in our
damp meadows. Like the latter, the muskrat
has several litters of young each season. The
young are born blind, naked, and helpless, and
number from three to thirteen to a litter. This
great fecundity has enabled the muskrats to
hold their own through years of persistent
trapping.
They still occupy practically all their original
range and yield a steady toll of valuable fur
each season. In 1914 more than 10,000,000 of
their skins were sold in London, and other
millions were handled in America. The agere-
gate returns on muskrat skins are so great as
to constitute it our most valuable fur-bearer.
The furriers make its skins up in its natural
color or dress and dye it and give it the trade
names of “Hudson seal,” .“river mink,’ or
“ondatra mink.”
In suitable marshes, as on the eastern shore
of Maryland, muskrats become extremely abun-
dant and render such areas valuable as natural
“fur farms.” One Maryland marsh containing
1,300 acres has yielded from $2,000 to $7,006
worth of skins a year. Not only are the skins
of value, but the flesh is palatable, and is sold
411
readily under the trade name of “marsh rabbit”
in the markets of Baltimore,,Philadelphia, and
elsewhere.
There is little doubt that owners of favor-
ably situated marshes could derive from them
a steady revenue by keeping them stocked with
proper food plants and protecting the muskrats
from their enemies. The value of these fur-
bearers is becoming more and more appreci-
ated and many States have laws restricting the
trapping season to a period in fall and winter
when the fur is prime.
In marshes about shallow lakes or bordering
sluggish rivers muskrats build roughly conical
lodges or “houses,” three to four feet high,
with bases, usually in shallow water, several
feet broader. These houses are made of roots
and stems of plants with a mixture of mud.
An oval chamber is left in the interior, well
above the water level, to which entrance is
gained by one or more passageways opening
under water. These shelters are mainly for
winter use, but the young are sometimes born
in them as well as in large grass nests among
dense marsh vegetation.
The curious conical lodges are familiar ob-
jects about marshes in the Eastern and North-
ern States, and I remember seeing, a few years
ago, a specially well-formed muskrat house
close to the historic bridge at Concord, and
others along the Concord River. Within ten
years muskrat houses were common in marshy
ponds in Potomac Park, Washington, where
the Lincoln Memorial Building now stands.
Where the banks of streams or lakes rise
abruptly, the muskrats make their home in dry
chambers in the banks above water level at the
end of a tunnel opening either under water or
close to the water level. Worn trails lead up
the banks about such places and well-marked
runways are made through the heavy reeds
and marsh grasses in their haunts.
Muskrats are mainly nocturnal animals, but
often move about during the day. I have seen
them repeatedly swimming close to the bank of
the Potomac a short distance above Washing-
ton. They like to carry their food to slightly
elevated points where they can overlook the
water along shore, such as the top of a project-
ing log, large stone, or earthen bank, from
which they plunge headlong at the first alarm.
Many a solitary canoeman gliding silently along
the shore of stream or pond at night has been
startled by the disproportionately loud splash
made by a muskrat diving from its resting
place.
Their food consists mainly of the roots and
stems of succulent plants varied with fresh-
water clams, an occasional fish, and even hy
cultivated vegetables grown in places readily
accessible from their haunts. They store up
roots and other vegetable matter for winter
use and remain active throughout that season.
The roots of which their “houses” are built are
frequently those used for food and sometimes
serve as winter supplies.
Asa rule, muskrats keep near their homes in
winter, making excursions here and there be-
neath the ice. Sometimes the water rises and
PORCUPINE
Erethizon dorsatum
el Mae
Mohuwssg,
JUMPING MOUSE
ZLapus hudsonius
412
" Mtijyy,
Wii,
SILKY POCKET MOUSE SPINY POCKET MOUSE
Perognathus flavus Perognathus hispidus
POCKET GOPHER
Geomys bursarius
413
AJA THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
forces them out and they wander widely in
search of new locations. When encountered at
such times they show extraordinary courage
and fiercely attack man or beast. The first
muskrat I ever saw was one which a farmer
met in midwinter in a snowy road in northern
New York. As soon as the man drew near,
the animal rushed at him with bared teeth and
fought savagely until killed.
Muskrats are usually harmless animals and
their presence in marshes and along water-
courses lends a pleasant touch of primitive
wildness to the most commonplace situations.
They appear to have so adapted their habits to
the presence of men that they go on with their
affairs with curious indifference to their human
neighbors. In irrigated country or elsewhere
where banked ditches are built their habits ren-
der them serious pests, as their burrows and
tunnels drain ponds or cause destructive wash-
outs.
An interesting chapter in the history of these
animals began in 1905, when four Canadian
muskrats were introduced on a nobleman’s es-
tate in Bohemia. Since then they have in-
creased rapidly and spread over a large area
in Bohemia and beyond its borders. The
streams in the region they occupy are con-
trolled by grassy banks, and dams are built to
form ponds for fish culture, which is a large
industry there. The muskrats persistently tun-
nel into the banks and dams, causing them to
give way, thus causing heavy losses to the
owners.
They also work havoc among river crabs and
mussels, which-have great economic value, and
interfere with the fish and their spawning beds.
To cap the climax of their misdeeds, they are
reported to feed on grain and vegetables and
to destroy the eggs of domestic poultry and of
wild-fowl. It is reported also that these ex-
patriates in their foreign environment have be-
come larger animals than their ancestors, and
that their fur has greatly deteriorated in qual-
ity. The measures prescribed by the Agricul-
tural Council of the Kingdom of Bohemia for
their control are apparently without much suc-
cess. This instance is a good illustration of
the danger attending the introduction of an
animal from its native habitat into a new
region.
THE WOODRAT (Neotoma albigula and
its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 424)
In the East known as woodrats, in the West,
where much more numerous and better known,
these animals are called “mountain rats” or
“trade rats.” Despite a Certain superficial re-
semblance in size and appearance, woodrats are
not related to those exotic parasites, the house
tats, with coarse hair and bare tails, but are
far more attractive and handsome animals,
clothed in fine soft fur, delicately colored above
in soft shades of gray, buffy, or ferruginous,
while below they are usually snowy white or
buffy. The tail is fully haired and in some
species almost as broad and bushy as that of a
squirrel, Their prominent black eyes and large
ears give them an air of vivacious intelligence
which their habits appear to confirm.
Woodrats are peculiar to North America,
where they occur from Pennsylvania and Illi-
nois to the Gulf coast, spreading thence to the
Pacific and as far north as the headwaters of
the Yukon, and south through Mexico and
Central America to Nicaragua. They are not
plentiful in the southern Mississippi Valley and
eastward, where they live among cliffs and
broken ledges of rock in the deciduous forests,
and well deserve their common name. In this
region their presence is rarely suspected except
by hunters or others familiar with woodland
life.
Far more numerous and widely known in
the Western States and throughout most of
Mexico, they have adapted themselves to life
under every climatic condition, from the most
sun-scorched deserts of the southwest and the
splendid redwood forests of the humid coastal
region in northern California to the tropical
lowlands farther south.
They live nearly everywhere on the moun-
tain slopes, even to timber-line at 13,800 feet
on Mount Orizaba. They thrive in an extraor-
dinary variety of situations, not only where
they may find shelter among rocks, but also
where they must seek safety in nests made on
the surface of the ground or in burrows dug
by themselves. They are prolific animals and
each year have several litters containing from
two to five young.
The presence of woodrats is generally indi-
cated by accumulations of odds and ends filling
the crevices of the rocks about their retreats
or piled about the entrances of their burrows,
such accumulations including small sticks,
pieces of bark, leaves, cactus burrs, bones,
stones, and any other small objects which may
be found in the vicinity.
Sometimes these piles of fragments seem to
be made merely for amusement or to work off
surplus energy, as they form useless gatherings,
such as heaps of small stones, frequently con-
taining a bushel or more, piled on the rounded
tops of small protruding boulders in open des-
ert areas, or small heaps of sticks and other
material scattered aimlessly about their haunts.
In the desert where cactuses of many kinds
abound woodrats’ nests are often made at the
bases of these or other thorny plants and are
covered with such a protective coating of cac-
tus burrs as to deter the most insistent enemy.
In the heavy forests of northern California
woodrats build huge conical nests of sticks
several feet in diameter on the ground, rising
to a height of five feet or more.
In southern California and elsewhere some
species make great nests of sticks eight to
twenty feet from the ground in live oaks and
other trees. The stick-pile nests on the ground
usually have several entrances, with trails lead-
ing from them, and the underground burrows
usually have two or more openings.
As may be surmised from their habits, wood-
rats are skillful climbers, both in trees and on
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
the rough rock walls of the cliffs they inhabit.
Their only notes appear to be shrill squeaks
and squeals when quarreling among themselves
geemient. | hey also) express annoyance of
alarm by a rapid drumming on the ground
with their hind feet, just as 1s done by some
of the hares and rabbits.
On Santa Margarita Island, in Lower Cali-
fornia, I found the most curiously located
habitations of these animals I have seen, the
bulky stick nests being placed well back in the
midst of a mangrove thicket growing in a tidal
lagoon. At high tide the mangroves were 1so-
lated from shore by several rods of water, so
that only at low tide were the rats able to go
ashore. In going back and forth they followed
certain lines of nearly horizontal mangrove
stems, the discoloration on the bark plainly in-
dicating the routes which finally led to dry
land by little trampled roads across the muddy
ground bordering the shore.
Back alittle way tromeshore others of thie
same species were living in burrows guarded
by orthodox stick and trash-pile nests among
the cactuses.
Woodrats, especially in northern localities,
gather stores of pinyon or other nuts, potatoes,
corn, and any other non-perishable food avail-
able to meet the season of storms and scarcity,
concealing these supplies in cavities in the nests
either above or below the ground. They eat
many kinds of fruits, seeds, leaves, and other
parts of plants, sometimes including bark of
shrubs or small trees and even cactus pads.
As a rule each nest is occupied by a single
rat, but sometimes several may be found in
one, and the well-worn trails that so often con-
nect the entrances of neighboring nests bear
evidence that woodrats have a social disposi-
tion. In most localities woodrats are distrib-
uted sparingly, but occasionally become so
abundant in favorable places on brushy plains
that colonies containing hundreds of nests may
be found in limited areas. They sometimes be-
come so plentiful about ranches as to make
serious inroads on grain and other crops. They
also give the Forest Service much trouble by
digging up the pine seeds planted in their great
reforesting nurseries.
Woodrats are mainly nocturnal in habits and
appear to be extremely active throughout the
night. Each morning in the vicinity of their
nests the light soil shows a multitude of tracks,
and in places I have seen little roads in the
sand several hundred yards long which they had
made by repeated trips to a feeding ground.
No sooner is a cabin built in the mountains
than they move in and establish themselves
under the floor, or locate a nest near by and
use the house as their \ nocturnal resort.
Throughout the night the patter of their busy
feet may be heard as they race about on the
floor or rustle about the roof, and often over
the sleeping forms of their unwilling hosts.
Their activities are sources of mingled amuse-
ment and vexation. Small, loose articles, in-
cluding table knives, forks, and spoons, vanish
and all manner of trash, including horse drop-
pings, are brought in, thus establishing their
415
title to the cognomen of “trade rats.” If the
owner of a cabin leaves it for a few days, he
may find on his return that the rats have taken
possession and during his absence have tried
to fill it with trash of all kinds, in order to
make a comfortable home for themselves.
At one cabin in the mountains of New Mex-
ico where I lived one summer several moun-
tain rats made free of the place and at night
persistently tried to add our shoes to their nest
under the floor. An hour or so after retiring
we would hear our shoes scrape slowly across
the floor, and in the morning they would be
found stuck toe down in the broad crack where
the floor ended near the wall. In the woodrat
country when small articles are missed from
camp it is always worth the trouble to investi-
gate the nearest rats’ nests.
Woodrats are plentiful on the Mexican table-
land, making their nests under cactuses or
thorny agaves, where they are persistently
hunted as game by the natives, who prize them
as a special delicacy. I saw them regularly
sold in the markets of the cities of San Luis
Potosi and Aguas Calientes, where the method
of marketing them was unique. As soon as
they were dug from their nests, their lower
incisors were broken off close to the jaw to
render them powerless to bite, and then the
rats were placed alive in a strong sack and
carried to town.
The vendor would sit on a curb at the mar-
ket and either kill and dress thet there: or
shout his wares by telling every one who passed
that he had “country rats; very delicious; live
ones; fat ones; very delicious; very cheap.”
The natives all praised their delicate flavor and
one I had served me as a special courtesy was
really good, tasting like young rabbit.
THE HARVEST MOUSE (Reithrodonto-
mys megalotis and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 425)
In size, proportions, and color the harvest
mice, of all our American species, most closely
resembles the common house mouse. Many
of them are decidedly smaller than that animal
and they rarely, if ever, exceed it in size. They
may be distinguished from the house mouse by
their browner colors, more hairy tail and espe-
cially by a little groove which extends down
the front of each upper incisor.
The mice of this group include many species
and have a wide distribution ranging from Vir-
ginia, in the eastern United States, to the Pa-
cific, and from North Dakota, Montana, and
Washington southward through Mexico and
Central America to northern South America.
They reach their greatest development in
number and diversity of species in the region
about the southern end of the Mexican table-
land, where I have caught them from the trop-
ical lowlands, near sea level, up to an altitude
of 13,500 feet, at timber-line, on Mount Iztac-
cihuatl.
These delicately proportioned and graceful
little beasts are habitants of grassy, weed-
SRSA
SRN
ss
EAE
aS
S
ESS
SS
KANGAROO RAT
Dipodomys spectabilis
Hi 416
BANDED LEMMING (Dicrostonyx nelsoni)
Summer Winter
BROWN LEMMING
Lemmus alascensis
417
418 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
grown, and brushy locations, mainly in the open
country. They are equally at home, however,
in the beautiful grassy open forests of oak,
pine, and firs which clothe the slopes of the
great continental mountain system of Mexico
and Central America.
In general they prefer comparatively dry sit-
uations, if there is sufficient moisture to pro-
duce the needed vegetation, but some species in-
habit swamps and even salt and fresh water
marshes. Although as a rule not very numer-
ous, at times they are very abundant and make
well-worn trails through the small vegetation in
their haunts. ‘They are active throughout the
year, and in the North, like some other mice,
burrow through the winter snows along the
surface of the ground in search of food.
So far as man is concerned, most of the
harvest mice are among the least offensive of
mammals. There are exceptions, however,
and, although they rarely approach habitations
and as a rule take but slight toll from grain
fields and meadows, yet in some areas they be-
come so numerous as to do considerable dam-
age.
Their food includes a great variety of seeds,
small fruits and succulent matter mainly from
wild plants of no economic value. They lay
up stores of seeds in their nests and in little
special storage places for severe or inclement
weather,
Some of the species dig burrows in the
ground where their nests are hidden. Most
of them, however, build globular nests of grass
and other vegetable matter several inches in
diameter in dense grass close to the ground,
or up in the midst of rank growths of weeds,
or even as high as eight or ten feet from the
ground in bushes and low trees.
Sometimes they take possession of conve-
nient sites already provided, such as old wood-
pecker holes, ,cavities in. fence posts,- knot
holes, and deserted birds’ nests, including the
nests of the cactus wren and orchard oriole,
which they remodel to suit themselves. Their
nests are lined with fine downy material such
as the pappus of the milkweed or the cattail
flag, and have from one to three small open-
ings usually located on the underside. In
these neat homes they have several litters of
from one to seven young each year.
Some of their bush nests three or four feet
from the ground were found when I was hunt-
ing on El Mirador coffee plantation in Vera
Cruz. Often on approaching them, the single
occupant would dive headlong into the grassy
cover below and disappear. But sometimes
when disturbed they would come out and run
about through the tops of the bushes, leaping
from branch to branch with all the agility and
graceful abandon of pigmy squirrels. Several
times they were seen to stop and sit crosswise
on the branches with their tails hanging
straight down. When they move about among
the branches they sometimes coil the tail
around the twig as an opossum might, to give
them a more certain hold.
While harvest mice may be seen at their
nests by day, they are mainly crepuscular and
nocturnal, and so retiring in habits that their
presence may be entirely overlooked unless
special search is made to locate them. Where
found their pretty ways well repay the observer
who has the patience to spend a little time with
them.
THE GRASSHOPPER MOUSE (Ony-
chomys leucogaster and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 425)
The grasshopper mice are notable for the
delicate coloring and velvety quality of their
fur. While closely resembling some of the
white-footed mice, they may readily be distin-
guished from them by more robust form,
short, thick tail, and the character of the fur.
Only two species, each with numerous -geo-
graphic races, are known and both are peculiar
to North America. Characteristic animals of
the arid and semi-arid treeless plains, plateaus,
and foothills of the West, their known range
extends from Minnesota and Kansas west to
the Cascades and to the Pacific coast of south-
ern California, and in the North, from the
plains of the Saskatchewan southward to San
Luis Potosi, on the tableland of Mexico,
Some races live on the grassy plains west
of the Mississippi, but the majority prefer the
looser soil and sandy areas of the more arid
Great Basin and the even more desert South-
west, where the vegetation is characterized by
a scattered growth of woody plants, including
many species of cactuses, yuccas, agaves, sage-
brush, greasewood, mesquites, acacias, and
other picturesque types.
Like other: small mammals: of the open
plains, the grasshopper mice live in burrows.
When opportunity offers they evade the labor
of digging these for themselves by occupying
the deserted holes of mice, kangaroo rats,
eround squirrels, prairie dogs, badgers, and
other animals. In these retreats they have
nests of soft vegetable matter and each season
bring forth several litters containing from two
to six young.
They are active throughout the year, but
nothing appears to be known as to the kind
and amount of stores they lay up for winter
use. As many live far enough north to expe-
rience a long period of cold, with snow cover-
ing the earth, there is little doubt that they
exercise the same provision in providing stores
to meet the need as do many other small mam-
mals.
Many species of mice eat insects or meat
and even on occasion devour one of their own
kind. The grasshopper mice go far beyond
this and are often not only as fierce flesh eat-
ers as real carnivores, but make their diet, at
least during the summer season, mainly of in-
sects and other small invertebrates. Their bill
of fare includes a miscellaneous assortment of
several species .of mice, including their own
kind caught in traps, small dead birds, lizards,
frogs, cutworms, scorpions, mole crickets, ordi-
nary crickets, grasshoppers, moths, flies, and
beetles, including the “potato bug.”
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
In addition they eat many kinds of seeds,
fruit, and other vegetable matter. Where ob-
tainable, grasshoppers are one of their favorite
foods, and from this they receive their com-
mon name. In Colorado, from their fondness
for scorpions, they are sometimes called “scor-
pion mice.’
Vernon Bailey’s observations of a grasshop-
per mouse he had in captivity are illuminating
as to their habits, and indicate that their pres-
ence in numbers about cultivated land must be
of distinct economic value. When undisturbed
and well fed the captive was entirely nocturnal,
sleeping all day and becoming very active at
night. While usually quiet, sometimes jumping
with all his force he tried furiously to escape
from his small prison box. His favorite food
consisted of crickets, grasshoppers ranking
next. Among other things he ate were a black
beetle, ladybirds, a potato beetle, spiders, bugs,
and dragon flies.
In feeding he sat upright on his haunches
and held the insects in his front paws, eating
them head first. Large grasshoppers, their tails
resting on the ground, were held head up by a
paw on each shoulder. A grasshopper would
sometimes kick so vigorously as to tip the
mouse off its balance, but was never relin-
quished until decapitated.
The mouse promptly killed and ate a small
frog placed in his box and was expert at catch-
ing flies. He ate many kinds of insects, 1n-
cluding a live wasp, but appeared terror-
stricken if a few ants were put in with him,
When a dozen or more crickets and grasshop-
pers were put into his box at the same time he
at once proceeded to bite off all. their heads
before beginning to feast upon them.
A dead white-footed mouse was dropped in
and “he pounced upon it like a cat, caught it
by the side of the head near the ear, and be-
gan biting it with all the ferocity of a coon
dog.” The bones could be heard cracking and
after the little beast appeared satisfied that his
prey was really dead he ceased worrying it and
an examination showed that he had bitten
through its skull deep into the brain. After-
ward he tore off and ate fragments of flesh
from its head, neck, and shoulders. ‘The fero-
cious certainty with which he seized the white-
footed mouse by the head and bit through its
skulf indicated that in relation to small mam-
mals he, probably like all his kind, had the
predatory instincts and habits of the carnivores.
One morning he ate 12 crickets and a spider
in seven minutes and during a single day de-
voured 53 insects—2 beetles, 8 grasshoppers, 28
crickets, and 15 flies—and appeared ready to
take more.
Oddly enough, this grasshopper mouse, so
fierce toward small game, never offered to bite
when captured or when handled freely, but con-
tinued throughout his captivity to have the
same friendly confidence in his captor. Others
caught in various parts of their range have
shown the same characteristics.
At night, especially early in the evening,
grasshopper mice utter a fine shrill whistling
call note. This habit appears peculiar to them
419
among all the mice and may be likened to that
of many of the large beasts of prey in utter-
ing their hunting call as they sally forth for
the night’s foray.
THE WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE (Pero-
myscus leucopus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 428)
Few of our smaller wild mammals are so
generally known as the white-footed mice.
Usually a little larger and proportionately
shorter bodied than the house mice, they may
at once be distinguished from them by the con-
trast between the delicate shades of fawn color,
brown, or gray of the upper parts of the body,
and the snowy white feet and under parts.
Like other members of the genus, they have
cheek pouches inside the mouth for gathering
and carrying food to their stores.
Their exceedingly quick and graceful move-
ments and their beauty of form and color
would make them generally attractive were it
not for the prejudice against all their kind re-
sulting from the offensive ways of the house
mouse.
Mice of the genus Peromyscus, to which the
white-footed mice belong, are peculiar to North
and South America and include more species
and geographic races than any other American
genus of mammals. The white-footed mice are
limited to North America. Readily respon-
sive to the influences of environment, they have
developed numerous species and a large num-
ber. of geographic races.
These are spread over most of the continent
from the northern limit of trees to the tropi-
cal shores of Yucatan. One form has the
distinction of living up to an altitude of from
15,000 to 16,000 feet on Mount Orizaba, Mex-
ico, where I found its tracks in the volcanic
ashes at the extreme limit of vegetation. This
is the highest record for any North American
mammal.
White-footed mice are active throughout the
year and thrive in every variety of situation.
In winter from the Northern States to the
Arctic circle the snowshoer traversing the for-
est will note their lace-work patterns of tiny
tracks leading across the snow from log to log
or tree to tree. At sunrise on the southwest-
ern deserts their tracks made during the night
often form a fine network in the dust, but
disappear with the first breath of the morning
breeze.
They not only live everywhere in the wilder-
ness, but are prompt to swarm about camps
and other habitations, where they make free
with the food supplies. Few frequenters of
forest camps in the Northern States and Can-
ada have failed to see the bright eyes of these
pretty little animals peering at them from
some crevice, or the mice scurrying along the
log wall like little squirrels.
They ‘are industrious workers and once in a
cabin quickly locate some cozy nook in a box
or other secluded place to construct a warm
nest of any soft fibrous vegetable material
FIELD, or MEADOW, MOUSE
Microtus pennsylvanicus
PINE MOUSE
Pitymys pinetorum
420
RED-BACKED MOUSE
Evotomys gap pert
RUFOUS TREE MOUSE
Phenacomys longicaudus
421
|
A99 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
available. This completed, they set busily at
work nights to raid the food supply of the
owner and hide it in suitable storage places,
such as a crevice among boxes, an old shoe or
a pocket in a garment hung on the wall. Their
depredations usually cause so much exaspera-
tion that the camper overlooks the grace and
beauty of his visitors and makes every effort
to destroy them. If the occupants of such
camps would keep their supplies in mouse-proof
containers and would then feed their wood-
land friends, they would find them quickly re-
sponsive and most attractive guests.
In their native haunts these mice have habits
varying with varying conditions. On _ brushy
plains they burrow in the ground, while in the
woods they sometimes burrow under rocks,
stumps, and logs, or live in hollows in stuimps
and trees. As nimble in climbing as squirrels,
many live in hollow trees sometimes more than
fifty feet above the ground.
That our inability to see at night prevents
more than an occasional glimpse at the doings
of the small animals which often swarm all
about us was impressed on me at one of my
camps in the desert of Lower California. My
blankets were spread under a small leafless tree
erowing near the base of a rocky ledge, in the
crevices of which many relatives of the white-
footed mice were living. The first morning in
camp I awoke as the sky began to pale and
color with the approach of day. The dry
branches of the tree a few feet overhead be-
came sharply silhouetted against the sky, reveal-
ing several of the mice running up and down
them and leaping from twig to twig with all
the active grace of tiny squirrels.
The mice appeared to be racing about in pure
playful enjoyment of the exercise, and when
the light had increased sufficiently to render
objects on the ground distinct they suddenly
ran down the tree trunk and vanished in a
crevice in the rocks. This game was repeated
on several succeeding mornings and is no doubt
commonly indulged in where conditions are
favorable.
White-footed mice feed mainly on many
kinds of seeds and nuts and vary this diet with
snails, insects, and sometimes with the flesh of
dead birds or other mice. As they do not hi-
bernate they lay up abundant stores of grain
and seeds of many kinds in addition to a vari-
ety FOL mMuts, as) acorns, beech nuts, pine muts;
maple seeds, and others, according to the local-
ity. The stores are hidden in hollows in logs,
stumps, trees, or in the ground. When in cap-
tivity they have shown themselves expert in
catching flics, sometimes capturing them with
their teeth and again with their front paws used
with all the dexterity of little hands.
Several litters of young containing from
three to seven each are born, the first usually
appearing in spring and the last in fall. The
young are blind and helpless at birth, and in
this condition cling so tenaciously to the moth-
er’s teats that when she is frightened from the
nest they are often carried off attached to her.
Some individuals at least of the white-footed
mice, like others of the genus Peromyscus, are
known to have a prolonged and musical song,
It is a fine warbling ditty, a little like the song
of a canary. A number of good observers
have recorded these performances, but they
appear to be so infrequent that most people
with woodland experience have never heard
them.
The lives of these mice are passed in con-
stant fear of a host of enemies. Hawks and
owls, bluejays, and shrikes in the bird world
are ever on the alert to capture them, while
skunks, weasels, minks, foxes, and snakes per-
sistently seek them in their retreats.
THE BEACH MOUSE (Peromyscus polio-
notus niveiventris and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 428)
The beach mouse is a beautiful, velvety-
furred little creature about the size of a house
mouse and one of the smallest species of the
genus Peromyscus. Its back is colored with
delicate shades of pale vinaceous-buffy and its
inderparts, including the feet, are snowy white.
The species Peromyscus polionotus, of which
the beach mouse is one of several geographic
races, or subspecies, occupies a comparatively
restricted range in the lowland region of Ala-
bama and Georgia and thence through a large
part ot Florida.
It presents an unusually convincing illustra-
tion of the influence of changing environment
upon the’ physical characters) of) {animals
Among the cotton fields of Alabama and
Georgia Peromyscus polionotus is rather dark
grayish brown, but on the lighter-colored soil
of Florida the color responds and becomes
paler in perfect correspondence with the change
in soil until the white sand-dunes and beaches
of the coast are reached. There, in strong con-
trast with the color of the northern members
of the species, it is so modified that the pale
representatives of this area are recognized
under the name niveiventris, as a geographic
race, or subspecies.
Changes in environment affect both great and
small mammals in a variety of ways, sometimes
in shades of color, sometimes in relative size,
and sometimes in proportions. Exceptions to
the rule are to be found, however, and some
species of mammals have a wide range under
a great variety of conditions, with scarcely an
appreciable sign of variation.
The beach mouse is abundant on the sand-
dunes and beaches of peninsular Florida, espe-
cially from Palm Beach to Mosquito Inlet,
wherever there is a growth of sea oats (Uniola),
which appears to be its principal food plant.
It is a nocturnal animal and its nightly activi-
ties may be read, early in the morning, from
the multitude of tiny tracks which lead in all
directions and often form a network on the
sand. A single track sometimes extends for a
hundred yards or more from a burrow, and
with all its windings may aggregate several
hundred yards of travel, showing the activity
of this small worker during many hours.
Tracks are most plentiful immediately about
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
growths of sea oats, patches of saw palmetto,
or scrubby bushes. The homes of these mice
in short burrows sheltered by
are usually
growing vegetation or under fallen palm
fronds.
As in the case of many of our mammals, we
have scanty information concerning the life of
these attractive little animals, and it is sug-
gested that here lies a pleasant subject for in-
vestigation by some nature lover wintering in
Florida.
THE BIG-EARED ROCK MOUSE (Pero-
myscus truei and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 429)
The numerous species of mice of the genus
Peromyscus in North America include a great
variety of little beasts, many of which are dis-
tinguished by beauty of form and color. One
of the most striking and picturesque individ-
uaiities among these is found in the big-eared
rock mouse, which is characterized by its great
ears, a thick, soft coat of buffy brown fur, and
a long, well-haired tail. In size it exceeds the
common house mouse and even the white-
footed mice which share its haunts.
This rock mouse is indigenous to the moun-
tainous regions of the West, from Colorado
and New Mexico to the Pacific and south to
the Cape Region of Lower California, and
down the Sierra Madre of Mexico to Oaxaca.
Within this area it divides into several not very
strongly marked geographic races.
As implied by its common name, it is a char-
acteristic dweller among cliffs and ledges along
the mountain slopes or rocky canyon walls,
where it occupies the many crevices and little
caves. In California it ranges from near sea-
level up on the mountains to above 10,000 feet
altitude. Although showing a distinct prefer-
ence for rocky places, when available, some
races of this mouse adapt themselves to other
conditions and may be found on brush-grown
flats, where they live in brush heaps, old wood-
rat nests, and similar shelter.
That they make their homes in places other
than cliffs in New Mexico was evidenced by a
thick, soft nest made almost entirely of wool,
found in a hollow juniper. They have several
litters of from two to six young each year, the
breeding period extending from spring to fall.
In Arizona and New Mexico I found the
rock mouse most numerous in the belt of
junipers and pinyons and in the adjacent yel-
low-pine forest. The crevices of cliffs about
the Moki and Zuni Indian pueblos and in all
the rocky wilderness of that region, including
the Grand Canyon, are abundantly populated
with them.
They search every nook about their haunts
and often visit cabins or temporary camps for
food, but do not usually take up their abode
in them as do the white-footed mice. When
foraging their movements are quick, and when
startled they make surprisingly long leaps.
Like others of their kind, they eat a great va-
riety of seeds and small nuts, quantities of
423
which they lay up in winter stores. Pinyon
nuts, and especially juniper seeds, are their
favorite food.
While cf nocturnal habits, rock mice at times
wander forth in sheltered spots by day, and on
the few occasions I have seen them | have
been delighted with their grace and beauty,
their great ears and prominent shining black
eyes lending them an attractive air of alert in-
telligence.
Throughout their lives they are in deadly
peril from predatory foes. Hawks and owls
glide shadowlike along the faces of their rocky
homes ready to pick them up whenever they
venture into open view, while bobcats, skunks,
and weasels prowl about by night hunting their
furry victims.
THE BROWN RAT (Rattus norvegicus
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 429)
It is safe to assume that few readers need
an introduction to that world-wide pest vari-
ously known as the brown rat, house rat, wharf
rat, or Norway rat. Two European relatives,
the black rat and the roof rat, preceded the
brown rat to the New World and became
widely distributed. They resemble the brown
rat, but are much smaller and are soon killed,
driven away, or reduced to a secondary status
by their larger and fiercer cousin, which aver-
ages about sixteen inches in length, although
large individuals attain a length of more than
twenty inches and a weight of more than two
pounds. The black rat has nearly disappeared
from most of its former haunts in the United
States and the roof rat is mainly restricted to
southern localities with a mild climate.
Neither the brown, black, nor roof rat has
any near relatives among native rats of Amer-
ica, and all may be distinguished from our
native animals by their coarser hair and long,
naked tails.
The brown rat is believed to have first in-
vaded Europe from Asia in 1727, when hordes
of them swam the Volga River, and about the
same year it arrived in England on ships from
the Orient. Since then, traveling by ships and
by inland commercial routes, it has spread to
nearly all parts of the globe. In America it
is now established in human abodes through-
out the length and breadth of the continents
from Greenland to Patagonia.
Wherever it goes the fierce and aggressive
spirit with which it is endowed qualifies the
brown rat more than to hold its own against
all rivals, while its mental adroitness and its
fecundity have largely nullified the constant
warfare being waged against it by all mankind.
Not content with infesting ships, dwellings,
stores, warehouses, and even the refrigerating
rooms of cold-storage plants in many areas, it
has established itself as an extremely destruc-
tive pest in the open fields.
In towns it hides among stored merchandise,
in the hollow walls of buildings, in sewers and
other underground passages, or, as in the fields,
MUSKRAT
Fiber zibethicus
WOODRAT
Neotoma albigula
424
aponinnes nC ABS NRE
HARVEST MOUSE
Reithrodoutomys megalotis
GRASSHOPPER MOUSE
Onychomys leucogaster
425
496 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
in burrows which it digs in the ground. Its
nests are soft, warm masses of fibrous mate-
rial which is secured by raids on any available
supply of cotton, wool, or fabrics, which they
cut into shreds for the purpose.
In these retreats it has several litters a year,
averaging about ten young, but exceptional
cases of more than twenty young have been
recorded. The young begin to breed when less
than six months old.” The size and number of
litters increase with the food supply, and under
favorable conditions rats soon become intoler-
able pests.
In Jamaica and the Hawaiian Islands rats
became so numerous that sugar-cane and other
plantations were at one time threatened with
complete destruction. To save the crops the
mongoose was introduced, but after checking
the rats in Jamaica these curious little mam-
mals in turn became a pest which it appears
hopeless to control.
In the Hawaiian Islands the mongoose re-
duced the number of rats, but the survivors
promptly took up their abodes in the tree tops,
where they now live as completely arboreal
lives as squirrels, safe from their ground-in-
habiting enemy.
During a two weeks’ campaign against rats
in the sewers of Paris 600,000 were killed, and
onva rice plantation of about 1,200 acres in
Georgia 30,000 were destroyed in one season.
In Illinois 3,435 were killed on a farm in one
month,
One of the most curious chapters in the life
of this hardy beast.is now developing in the
far island of South Georgia, on the border of
the Amtarctic, east ot Cape Horns sOn) this
island, which has a cold and stormy summer
and nine months of rigorous winter, several
whaling stations have been established. For
years great numbers of whale carcasses have
drifted ashore each season and, half rotting,
half refrigerated, have furnished a never-fail-
ing food supply for brown rats that have land-
ed from the ships. With such abundant food
they are reported to have increased until they
now exist there literally in millions. They
make their nests in the tussocks of grass and
peat and swarm along well-marked trails they
have made on the mountain sides.
In- the trenches along the battle front in
France they have become extremely abundant
and troublesome, and in England have multi-
plied until the Board of Agriculture is recom-
mending efforts to destroy them as a menace
to the public welfare through their waste of
food supplies.
On farms, in addition to destroying growing
and stored crops, they kill great numbers of
young chickens, turkeys, and other poultry, and
create havoc with such ground - frequenting
game as pheasants. At all times brown rats
are more or less carnivorous, and when sev-
eral are confined in a cage the stronger will
soon kill and devour the weaker.
In city department stores and large hotels
they often cause thousands of dollars damage
yearly in single establishments. An English
organization for their destruction estimated in
1908 that, outside the towns and shipping, in
Great Britain and Ireland they caused annual
losses of about $73,000,000.
When there is a sudden diminution in the
food supply, an abundance of which has caused
a great increase in the rat population, the rats
migrate into other districts, sometimes in enor-
mous numbers. ‘These migrations usually oc-
cur at night, and many are matters of history
in Kurope and in the United States.
A witness of one of these migrations in Illi-
nois in 1903 reported that one moonlight night
as he was. passing along the roads he heard a
rustling in a field near by and soon saw cross-
ing the road in front of him a multitude of
rats extending as far as he could see. The
following year the invaders became a plague
in that district. At times of food scarcity rats
become extremely bold and aggressive. With-
out hesitation they swim streams encountered
in their wanderings and at times will even at-
tack man.
Owing to their great numbers, universal dis-
tribution, and destructiveness, brown rats are
the worst mammal pest known to mankind.
Through their habit of living in sewers, among
the offal of slaughter-houses, and in garbage
heaps, from which they invade dwellings and
storehouses, they pollute and spoil even more
foodstuffs than they eat.
In addition, they are known carriers of some
of the worst and most dreaded diseases, as
bubonic plague, trichinosis, and septic pneu-
monia; while there is little doubt that they
spread scarlet fever, typhoid, diphtheria, and
other contagious maladies. Bubonic plague is
mainly dependent upon rats for its dissemina-
tion and has been carried by them to more than
fifty countries, including the United States. In
India more than two million people have died
in one year from this rat-conveyed disease.
Although rats are abhorred by man, yet they
have been for ages so closely associated with
most of his activities that they have long had
their place in Old World literature. Among
other instances, many readers will recall Victor
Hugo’s gruesome account of Jean Valjean’s
fight with the rats in the sewers of Paris. In
England and on the continent rat catching has
been a regular trade and dogs have been spe-
cially bred for use in their pursuit.
Rats are loathsome vermin which civilized
man should eliminate with the other evils of
his semi-barbaric days which he is leaving be-
hind. One might still wish that in many places
a modern “Pied Piper of Hamelin” would ap-
pear and rid the people of these pests. This
is not necessary, however, if the public will
cease to take their presence as a matter of
course. Their exclusion from buildings and
destruction are merely matters of good house-
keeping, both personal and communal.
Rats can be banished by removing or de-
stroying trash heaps and similar harboring
places and by the simple expedient of rat-
proofing buildings, especially dwellings, gran-
aries, warehouses, and other places where food
supplies are stored.
These precautionary measures should be sup-
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
plemented by trapping or poisoning in open
places. Campaigns of this kind can be fully
successful only when engaged in ‘by the com-
munity at large. The returns from the invest-
ment for such a purpose will be large, not
only in the vast money values of property
saved, but in the reduction of the death rate and
in the great improvement of the public health.
THE HOUSE MOUSE (Mus musculus)
(For illustration, see page 429)
The familiar house mouse is of Old World
origin and may be distinguished from most of
our native mice by its proportionately slen-
derer body, long hairless tail, and the nearly
uniform color on the upper and under parts
of the body. Like the house rat, wandering
an alien from its original home in Asia, and
transported by ship and by inland commerce,
it has gained permanent foothold and thrives
in lands of the most diverse climatic condi-
tions, except those of the frigid polar regions.
For centuries the house mouse has been par-
asitic about the habitations of man, and in
many places in America has spread into the
surrounding country, where it holds its own in
the struggle for existence with many of our
native species. It is probable that its ability
to live in houses also infested by the fierce
brown rat is due wholly to its agility, and to
the small size, which enables it to retreat
through crevices too small for the rat.
In buildings it hides its warm nests in ob-
scure nooks and crannies, making them of
scraps of wool, cotton, or other soft fibrous
material, often cut from fabrics. Out in the
fields, like any other hardy vagabond, it adapts
itself to whatever cover may be available on
the surface or in crevices and the deserted
burrows of other mammals.
1 has several: litters of from four to (nine
young each year. The young are born blind,
naked, and helpless, but are soon able to run
about, often following the mother on her for-
aging expeditions. When a little more than
half grown they usually scatter from the home
nest and seek locations of their own.
Throughout most of its world-wide range
the house mouse has the same general appear-
ance, but in some localities the effect of
changed environment is developing appreciable
differences, which appear destined to result in
marked geographic races. The representatives
of these mice J caught in weedy fields on the
coast of Chiapas, near the border of Guate-
mala, have an appreciable rusty shade on the
back in place of the ordinary dull gray.
The success of both the house mouse and
the house rat in establishing themselves so suc-
cessfully in all parts of the world, in the face
of the antagonism of mankind, affords marvel-
ous examples of physical and mental adapta-
bility not equaled elsewhere among mammals.
From early days the domestic mouse has
been a familiar member of the household with
people of all degree, and the housewife has had
to match her wits against the cunning persist-
427
ence of this small marauder in order to safe-
guard the family supplies of food and clothing.
Despite the antagonism excited by its de-
structive habits the mouse is so small and often
so amusing in its ways that it has commonly
been regarded with a half hostile, half friendly,
interest. This is apparent by frequent refer-
ences to it in proverbs, nursery rhymes, fables,
and folklore, as well as in more serious litera-
tuike:
Many cases of singing house mice have been
recorded, their notes being a series of continu-
ous musical chirps, trills, and warblings, rising
and falling about an octave and slightly resem-
bling the song of a canary. It has been claimed
that this singing is due to an affection of the
songster’s breathing organs, but this can
scarcely account for its being uttered at definite
times and places and ceasing at the volition of
the performer.
In one instance the song had been heard in a
china closet and an observer sat by the open
door to locate the singer. After patient wait-
ing “a mouse peered out from behind the
plates, climbed up a little way on the brackets,
and after looking around several times, began
to sing.” This mouse continued to sing in the
same place at intervals for several weeks and
became accustomed to the presence of people
during its performances; then it suddenly dis-
appeared, probably a victim to one of the dan-
gers which constantly beset its kind.
THE MOUNTAIN-BEAVER (Aplodontia
rufa phaea and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 432)
The first adventurous fur traders who pene-
trated the Oregon wilds found the Chinook
Indians provided with robes made of skins of
the mountain-beaver. From that time until re-
cently but little accurate information has been
available concerning the habits of this curi-
ous animal. Locally it is known by several
other names, including “Sewellel,’ “mountain
boomer,” “boomer,” and, in the Olympic moun-
tains, “chehalis.”
The genus of mountain-beavers contains only
a single species with several subspecies, all hav-
ing a close superficial likeness in size and form
to a tailless muskrat, except for their coarse,
harsh fur. It is an exclusively North Amer-
ican type and, aside from a remote relationship
to the squirrel family, has no kin among liv-
ing mammals. It appears to be a sole survivor
from some former age. As with the pocket
gophers, its mode of life has developed power-
ful muscles about the head, front legs, and
forepart of the body.
The distribution of the mountain-beaver in
Tertiary times extended through the Great
Basin to North Dakota, but at present is
closely restricted to the humid region between
the crests of the Cascades and the Sierra
Nevada and the Pacific coast, and from the
lower Fraser River, British Columbia, south to
the latitude of San Francisco Bay, California.
Within this superbly forested region this ani-
WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE (Adult and Young)
Peromyscus leucopus
Sei
ee
BEACH MOUSE
Peromyscus polionotus niveiventris
428
hous! Ligases iz Ywfle
GY
ty yyy
oui
BIG-EARED ROCK MOUSE
Peromyscus truet
BROWN RAT HOUSE MOUSE
Rattus norvegicus Mus musculus
429
430 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
mal delights in locations that are cool and
oozing with water, where, under the dense
shade of an almost tropical undergrowth of
shrubs, ferns, and other herbage, it constructs
numberless tunnels and trails. These are some-
times in flats, but much more often along can-
yons and mountain slopes, among willow, “alder,
aspen, or other thickets, or even in the heavy
coniferous forest.
Veritable colonies inhabit certain areas and
the ground is honeycombed with burrows six
to eight inches in diameter and covered with
a network of surface trails. The irregular
branching tunnels are sometimes two or three
hundred feet in length and have at frequent 1n-
tervals side passages through which the earth
mined in extending the burrow may be ejected
in small dumps. ‘The tunnels appear in a large
measure built for the safety of the owner in
traveling, since they repeatedly come to the
surface at the end of a log, where an open,
neatly kept trail extends under its sheiter the
entire length, the tunnel being resumed at the
far end of the log.
All surface runways connecting tunnel en-
trances or leading through the thick surface
vegetation are well kept and free of all ob-
structions. The ground in these haunts is
commonly so saturated with water that the
tunnels form drainage channels down which
run little streams.
Nest chambers discovered by T. H. Schef-
fer in the Olympic Mountains were located in
tunnels two feet underground. They were oval
in form and one measured eighteen inches in
horizontal diameter and seventeen in height.
Here three storage chambers opened directly
from the nest chamber, one of which con-
tained two quarts or more of sections of fern
roots, which had been kept so long they were
spoiled, and another was partly filled with
freshly cut leaves of nettles and twigs of cedar
and fir. At the far end an opening dropped
six inches into a small drainage basin parily
filled with water, out of which led two pas-
sages. The roofs of the chambers were lined
with a thin layer of clay, which appeared to
have been packed in place by the owner.
In the upper and drier part of the. nest,
which was made of dried fronds of ferns,
grasses, and small twigs, were found three
young less than a week old, with coats of fine
fur, but with eyes still closed. Like burrow-
ing animals generally, the mountain-beaver is
cleanly in its housekeeping, and offal, loose dirt,
and debris of all kinds are pushed out by the
forefeet and head to the dumps at the less-used
openings.
In winter much of the mountain-beaver
country is buried under several feet of snow,
but this does not stop the activities of this
hardy animal. Between the entrances to its
burrows and out along the surface of the
ground it tunnels through the snow in various
directions in search of forage.
At this time it cuts twigs from bushes and
gnaws the bark from the trunks and roots of
the smaller trees, sometimes completely gird-
ling and killing trees more than two feet in
diameter. Its underground tunnels are also
extended at this season, the soils being pushed
up in dumps under the snow and parts of the
snow tunnels are packed full of it for same
distance, so that when the snow disappears the
curious earth-forms remain like those of the
pocket gopher.
The mountain-beaver lives a monotonous ex-
istence and correspondingly lacks the mental
vivacity of many other species which have a
greater freedom of movement. When one is
caught it shows little fear, but struggles to
escape, growling, clattering its teeth, and biting
viciously at anything within reach. Its desire
for food, however, appears to control its emo-
tions, and very soon after being captured it
will eat any green vegetation offered, as uncon-
cernedly as though free.
That the mountain-beaver possesses social in-
stincts is evident, as a pair is often found
occupying one set of tunnels, and in many fa-
vorable places a number will have their bur-
rows closely grouped and connected with a
network of communicating surface trails.
Although mainly nocturnal, the animals are
active early in the morning and late in the
afternoon, as well as throughout dark days.
Those kept in captivity would show periods of
restless activity at night and have alternating
periods of sleep and wakefulness during the
day. Sometimes they would sleep coiled with
the head turned under the body and again flat
on their backs. During these periods their
sleep is often so profound that they may be
handled without being awakened.
One captive animal is reported to have ut-
tered a curious quavering note resembling that
of a screech-owl. They have a strong musky
odor, which is very evident when they are first
caught, and which is frequently apparent about
the burrows.
Careful and repeated efforts to keep these
animals in captivity under as near normal con-
ditions as possible in regard to food and sur-
roundings in the vicinity of where they were
captured have, up to the present time, resulted
in failure. In every case the animals failed to
thrive and soon died.
The mating occurs about the middle of
March, and a month later litters of two or three
young are born. The young grow slowly, not
attaining full size for a year or more, and do
not breed until the second year, but they leave
the shelter of the home nest and scatter to
occupy burrows of their own at the end of
the first two or three months.
The mountain-beaver feeds upon nearly all
small vegetation growing in its haunts, includ-
ing, in addition to small herbage, shrubs, the
bark of trees and bushes, ferns, and fern roots.
More than thirty species of native plants have
been found among its “hay” piles at the mouths
of burrows. Since its country has become in-
creasingly occupied by farmers, it has de-
veloped a fondness for cultivated crops that,
in many places, is rendering it a pest. It ap-
pears to have a special taste for cabbage, po-
tato, and onion tops, and other garden produce.
When gathering its food it sits up squirrel-
SMALLER MAMMALS
like and grasps the plant stem with one hand,
a long projecting tubercle on the “heel” of the
hand opposing the fingers lke a thumb and
giving a good grasp, so that it can pull plants
down to be bitten off with the sharp front
teeth. Sometimes it climbs up a few feet into
a bush or small branching tree after succulent
shoots.
The mountain-beaver has the interesting
habit of gathering stores of green plant food
much like that of the cony on the mountain
tops, but appears to be more methodical in its
ways, gathering the stems of such plants as
grasses, ferns, and lupins, as well as twigs of
various bushes and carrying them in bundles
as large as can be held in the mouth, the butts
of the stems neatly laid together. These little
bundles of “hay” are placed side by side about
the entrances of the burrows, with the butts
all parallel on sticks or other support to keep
them as clear as possible from the ground.
They are left thus for a day or more to cure
before being carried into the subterranean
store-rooms.
Chief among the four-footed enemies of the
mountain-beaver are the fisher and bobcat, and
an eagle has been seen keeping close watch at
the entrance of their burrows.
THE COMMON WOODCHUCK, OR
AMERICAN MARMOT (Marmota
monax and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 432)
The woodchuck or “groundhog” is a typical
marmot, with coarse hair, heavy body, short
neck, short, bushy tail, powerful legs, and feet
armed with strong claws for digging. When
fully grown it averages about ten pounds in
weight. Its usual color is a grizzled brown,
but in some districts black, or melanistic, indi-
viduals are not uncommon.
Marmots are common to Europe, Asia, and
North America. The group contains many
species and geographic races varying in size
and color. The Alpine marmot of Europe is
probably the most familiar of the Old World
species and the woodchuck the best known in
America.
North America contains several species of
marmots, their joint territory extending from
coast to coast over the northern parts of the ~
continent and from southern Labrador, the
southern shores of Hudson Bay and Great
Slave Lake, and central Alaska southward to
northern Alabama, and along the high moun-
tains to New Mexico and the southern Sierra
Nevada of California. The common wood-
chuck is well known to every dweller in the
countryside of the Eastern States and Canada,
where it occurs from sea-level to near the tops
of the highest mountains, at altitudes of over
4,000 feet.
It is a familiar habitant of fields and grassy
hillsides, especially where bordering woodland
offers safe retreat. In such places it digs bur-
rows under stone walls, rocks, ledges, old
stumps, or even out in the open grass-grown
OF NORTH AMERICA 431
fields. It commonly ijives in the midst of the
forest, where its dens are located in a variety
of situations. The burrows are marked by lit-
tle mounds of earth at the entrances and or-
dinarily contain from twenty to forty feet of
branching galleries, one or more of which end
in a rounded chamber about a foot in diam-
eter, well lined with dry grass and leaves.
Witl hin these warm nests the females bring
forth from three to nine blind and helpless
young about the last of April or early in May.
A few weeks later the young appear about the
entrance of the burrows sunning themselves
and playing with one another, but usually
ready to disappear at the first alarm. At times,
however, they are surprisingly stupid and may
be captured with ease. Woodchucks have prac-
tically no economic value. Their flesh, while
occasionally eaten, is little esteemed, and their
coarsely haired pelts are worthless as fur.
The woodchuck is a sluggish and stupid ani-
mal, which does not ordinarily go far from its
burrow, but at certain seasons, especially in
spring, ‘wanders widely, as though looking over
its territory before locating for the summer.
It has much curiosity and often sits upright
on its hind feet to look about, remaining for
a long time as motionless as a statue. When
one is driven into its burrow, if a person ap-
proaches quietly and whistles, it will often
raise its head in the entrance and look about
to satisfy its curiosity.
Its only note is a short shrill whistle, which
it utters explosively at frequent intervals when
much alarmed. At such times it also chatters
its teeth with a rattling sound as owls some-
times clatter their beaks.
Owing to their mainly diurnal habits and
persistence in living in and about the borders
of fields, woodchucks are among the most
widely known of our smaller mammals, and
have long been the favorite game of the coun-
try boy and his dog. When cornered they will
fight savagely and with their strong incisors
inflict severe wounds.
They feed on grasses, clover, and other suc-
culent plants, including various cultivated crops,
especially vegetables in field and garden, where
they sometimes do much damage. The holes
and earth mounds they make in fields, in addi-
tion to feeding on and trampling down grasses
or grain, excite a strong feeling against them,
and farmers everywhere look upon them as a
nuisance. In New Hampshire so great was the
prejudice against them that in 1883 a law was
passed placing a bounty of ten cents each on
them: “Provided, That no bounty shall be paid
for any woodchuck killed on Sunday.”
Unlike many rodents, the woodchucks do not
lay up stores of food for winter. As summer
draws to an end they feed heavily and become
excessively fat. On the approach of cold
weather they become more and more sluggish,
appearing above ground with decreasing fre-
quency until from the end of September to the
first of November, according to locality, they
retire to their burrows and begin the long
hibernating sleep which continues “until the ap-
proach of spring.
MOUNTAIN-BEAVER
Aplodontia rufa phaea
COMMON WOODCHUCK, or AMERICAN MARMOT
Marmota monax
432
HOARY MARMOT, or WHISTLER
Marmota caligata
433
434 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Some time between February and April, ac-
cording to latitude, they come forth to resume
their seasonal activities. In the northern parts
of their range they usually come out several
weeks before the snow disappears and may be
tracked in it as they wander about searching
for food or a new location.
The prominence of the groundhog as a pop-
ular figure in the country lore of the Eastern
States is shown by his having been given a
place with the Saints on the calendar, February
2 being widely known as “Groundhog Day.”
It is claimed that on this date the groundhog
wakes from his long winter sleep and appears
at the mouth of his burrow to look about and
survey the weather. If the sun shines so that
he can see his shadow, bad weather is indicated
and he retires to resume his sleep for another
six weeks. Otherwise, the winter is broken
and mild weather is predicted. Even on the
outskirts of Washington some of the country-
men still appraise the character of the coming
spring by the weather on “Groundhog Day.”
THE HOARY MARMOT, OR WHIS-
TLER (Marmota caligata and its
relatives )
(For illustration, see page 433)
The whistler is the largest and handsomest
of the American marmots. It is similar in
proportions to the common woodchuck, but
averages nearly twice its weight. Its fur, far
thicker and of a better quality, might have a
value in the fur trade if enough of the skins
were available. As it is, the skins are used
only for robes and sometimes for clothing by
the Indians.
~ The distribution of this characteristic animal
of the northern Rocky Mountains and outlying
ranges extends from the Endicott Mountains,
fronting the Arctic coast of Alaska, and the
peninsula of Alaska, southeasterly to the Bit-
terroot Mountains of Idaho, Mount Rainier,
the Olympics of Washington, and Vancouver
Island. In the North its range extends from
above timber-line down over bare slopes and
through glacial valleys to the sea-level along
the southern coast of Alaska. ‘To the south-
ward it is limited wholly to the higher eleva-
tions, usually above timber-line.
Owing to variations in climatic conditions
and to isolation in different parts of its range,
several geographic races of the whistler have
been developed. In the mountains to the south-
ward of its range other marmots occur as far
as New Mexico and California.
When the French-Canadian voyageurs on
their fur-trading expeditions first visited the
Rocky Mountains they encountered the hoary
marmots and applied to them the name “sif-
fleur,’ or whistler, which they had already
given the common woodchuck of eastern Can-
ada. The shrill note of the hoary marmot, un-
der favorable circumstances, may be heard
more than a mile and justifies the restriction
of the name whistler to it.
The whistler lives in such remote and unfre-
quented districts that little is known of its life
history. It is diurnal in habits and loves the
free open spaces of the high mountain ridges.
There its loud, oft-repeated call note, striking
colors, together with its habit of running about
on the snowbanks, render it unusually con-
spicuous.
High in the mountains it usually inhabits
rock slides, the tumbled rock masses of glacial
moraines, or rocky points, but sometimes takes
up its abode on open earth slopes or in the bot-
toms of little glacial valleys. Ordinarily the
dens are hidden in the rock slides and broken-
down ledges, or burrows are dug under the
shelter of large boulders and even in open
ground away from any rocky shelter.
During the sunny days of summer the whis-
tler regularly frequents the top of some con-
spicuous boulder or projecting rocky point,
from which it commands a sweeping view of
all its surroundings. Its sight and hearing are
extraordinarily keen, and when perched on its
lookout it is difficult to stalk. When one has
its burrow located in an open place it often sits
upright on its haunches to look watchfully
about, and at the first alarm disappears into its
den. This watchfulness is necessary, for even
in the remote alpine highlands it occupies, the
whistler is beset by enemies. The most for-
midable of these are the great brown and
grizzly bears of the North, which dig it from
its burrow. In addition prowling wolves, Can-
ada lynxes, wolverines, and eagles tdke occa-
sional toll from its numbers.
‘Toward the end of summer, when the high
alpine slopes are thickly grown with small
flowering herbage, the whistler feeds heavily
on many of the plants and, like the woodchuck
at this season, becomes excessively fat. Before
the arrival of winter it retires to the shelter of
its den and begins the long hibernating sleep
which may last six months or more. In spring,
before the snowy mantle is gone from the
mountains, it is out, ready to welcome the ap-
proaching summer. A few weeks later the
three or four young are born. ‘They remain
with the mother throughout the season and
during their first winter may hibernate in the
home den.
The unspoiled wilderness of remote north-
ern mountain slopes and ridges where the whis-
tler lives is also the home of the mountain
sheep, caribou, and huge northern bears. As
the hardy sportsmen roam these inspiring
heights in search of game their attention is
constantly attracted to the marmots, whose
presence and shrill call notes lend a pleasing
touch of life to many an otherwise harsh and
forbidding scene.
THE PRAIRIE-DOG (Cynomys
ludovicianus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 436)
Prairie-dogs are not “dogs,” but typical ro-
dents, first cousins to the ground squirrels, or
spermophiles. As a rule, they may be dis-
tinguished from the ground squirrels by their
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
larger size, proportionately shorter and heavier
bodies, and shorter tails. In length they vary
from fourteen to over seventeen inches, and in
weight from one and one-half to more than
three pounds.
These rodents are limited to the interior of
North America and form a small group of five
species and several geographic races. Although
closely alike in general form and habits, the
species are divided into two sets: one, the
most widely distributed and best known, hav-
ing the tails tipped with black, and the other
having the tails tipped with white.
On “the treeless western plains and valleys
from North Dakota and Montana to Texas
and thence west across the Rocky Mountains
to Utah and Arizona, they are one of the most
numerous and characteristic animals. South-
ward they range into northwestern Chihuahua
and one species occupies an isolated area on
the Mexican table-land in southern Coahuila
and northern San Luis Potosi, Mexico. Their
vertical range varies from about 2,000 feet-on
the plains to above 10,000 feet in the moun-
tainous parts of Colorado and Arizona.
Owing to their diurnal habits, their exceed-
ing abundance over vast areas, and their in-
teresting mode of living in colonies, prairie-dogs
have always attracted the attention of travelers
and have become one of the most widely known
of our smaller mammals. All who have lived
in the West, or who have merely traversed the
Great Plains on the transcontinental railroads,
have had their interest excited by these plump
little animals sitting bolt upright by the mounds
which mark the entrances to their burrows, or
scampering panicstricken for shelter as), thie
train roars through their “towns.’
So strong is the ; gregarious instinct in prairie-
dogs that they customarily make their burrows
within short distances of each other, varying
from a few yards to a few rods apart. The
inhabitants of these communities, or “towns,”
as they have often been termed, vary in num-
ber from a few individuals to millions. In
western Texas one continuous colony is about
250 miles long and 100 miles wide. In the
entire State of Texas 90,000 square miles are
occupied by prairie-dogs, and the number of
these animals within this area runs into the
hundreds of millions. The extent to which
they occupy parts of their territory is well il-
lustrated by one situation in a mountain valley,
containing about a square mile, in eastern
Arizona, which by actual count contained 7,200
of their burrows.
The burrows, from four to five inches in
diameter, are usually located on flat or gently
sloping ground. They descend abruptly from
eight to sixteen feet, then turn at a sharp
angle and extend ten to twenty-five feet in a
horizontal or slightly upward course. The
tunnel at the end of the steep descending
shaft is always more or less irregular in
course, and branches in various directions, the
branches often ending in a rounded nest or
storage chamber, but sometimes forming a loop
back to the main passageway. Not infre-
,other richly nutritious forage plants.
“tion they eat any native fruits,
435
quently two entrances some distance apart lead
to these deep workings. A little niche is in-
geniously dug on one side of the steep entrance
shaft, four to six feet below the surface, to
which on the approach of danger the owner
retires to listen and determine whether it may
or may not be necessary to seek safety in the
depth of the den. It is from these vantage
points that the resentful voices of the habitants
come to an intruder in a prairie-dog “town”
as he passes.
The black-tailed prairie-dog, which is so
numerous on the Great Plains, surrounds the
entrance to its burrow with a crater-shaped
pyramid of soil varying from a few inches to
nearly two feet in height and serving perfectly
as a dike to keep out the water. The owners
keep the funnel-shaped inner slopes of the
rims about the entrances in good condition by
setting briskly to work to reshape them at the
end of a rain-storm, digging and pushing the
earth in place with their feet and molding it
into amore compact mass by pressing it in with
their blunt noses.
The white-tailed prairie-dogs pile the dirt
from their excavations out on one side of the
entrance, as in the case of most other burrow-
ing animals. Sometimes the dirt in these piles
amounts to from ten to twenty bushels, thus
indicating extended underground workings.
The vivacity and hearty enjoyment of life by
the occupants of a prairie-dog “town” is most
entertaining to an observer. With the first
peep of the sun above the horizon they are
out on the mounds at the entrances of their
burrows, first sitting ereet.on their hind feet
and looking sharply about for any prowling
enemy. If all is well they begin to run about
from one hole to another, as though to pass the
compliments of the day, and scatter through
the adjacent grassy feeding ground.
The favorite food of prairie-dogs consists of
the stems and roots of gramma grass and
In addi-
such as that
of the pear-leaved cactus (Opuntia) ands ake
extremely destructive to grain, alfalfa, and
other cultivated crops. In addition to ordinary
vegetation, they eat grasshoppers and are fond
of flesh, sometimes being caught far from their
homes in traps set for carnivores. They keep
the grass and other vegetation cut down or
entirely dug out over much of the “town” and
especially in a circle about each entrance
mound, apparently for the purpose of obtain-
ing a clear view as a safeguard against the ap-
proach of any of their many four- footed ene-
mies. This habit is exceedingly injurious to
the cattle ranges and often results in much
erosion of the fertile surface soil.
The vast numbers of pratrie-dogs over so
large a part of the grazing areas of the West
take a heavy toll from the forage and other
crops. As a consequence a campaign of de-
struction is being waged against them as the
country becomes more and more settled, and
they will eventually disappear from much of
their present range. However detrimental they
PRAIRIE-DOG
Cynomys ludovicianus
STRIPED GROUND SQUIRREL
Citellus tridecemlineatus
436
CALIFORNIA GROUND SQUIRREL
Citellus beechey:
ANTELOPE CHIPMUNK
Ammospermophilus leucurus
437
A38 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
may be from an economic point of view, they are
among our most interesting species, and when
taken young their playful disposition and intel-
ligence render them most entertaining captives.
Owing to the constant danger to which they
are subject from coyotes, foxes, bobcats, bad-
gers, and black-footed ferrets, in addition to
eagles and other birds of prey, prairie-dogs
are constantly on the alert. At any suspicious
occurrence the first to observe it runs to his
entrance mound, if the danger is not pressing,
but otherwise to the nearest mound, where he
sits up at his full height, “barking” and vibrat-
ing his tail, ready, if necessary, to disappear
instantly. At the same time the “town” is alive
with scurrying figures of the habitants rushing
panic-stricken for their homes, and the air is
filled with a chorus of their little barking cries.
When all have been frightened to cover bark-
ing continues in the burrows, but an hour or
more may pass before a “dog” will reappear.
I once stalked a solitary antelope by creep-
ing flat on the ground through a prairie-dog
“town.” As I drew near the first burrows,
the “dogs” all rushed to their mounds, sitting
there and barking at the queer and unknown
animal thus invading their precincts. The
strange sight excited as much curiosity among
them as alarm. As I approached one mound
after another the owners would become almost
hysterical in their excitement and would sit
first on all fours and then stand up at full
height on their hind feet, the tail all the time
vibrating as though worked by some mechan-
ism, while the barking continued at the intruder
as rapidly and explosively as possible. When
I came within six or eight feet the “dog” would
dive down his hole, sputtering barks from the
depths as he went, but often would pop up
again to take another look before finally dis-
appearing. In this way I passed ten or a dozen
mounds while the dozens of “dogs” off my
line of progress worked themselves into a
frenzy of curiosity and protest. When the
stalk was finished I passed back through the
“town” and my upright figure was promptly
recognized by the habitants as that of an enemy
and every one disappeared before I was within
fifty yards of the first mound.
The common note of the black-tailed prairie-
dogs is a squeaking “bark,” much like that
produced by squeezing a toy dog; in addition,
there is a rapid chattering note, often given
as the “dogs” vanish down the hole. The
white-tailed species have a shriller, more chirp-
ing note. In both species the odd vibrating
motion of the tail, held stiffly close to the back,
is characteristic.
Prairie-dogs hibernate in severe weather,
those living in high, snow-covered mountains
or in the far north sometimes sleeping through
five or six months. In many places their hiber-
nation is irregular, and near the southern
border of their range is limited to a few in-
clement days now and then. In Wyoming they
come out the last of March or early in April,
sometimes when there is a foot or two of snow
on the ground and the temperature ranges far
below zero. Under such conditions they run
about over the snow during the middle of the
day, feeding on projecting tips of vegetation
or digging to the ground.
Beginning near the southern border of their
range and proceeding north, the single litter of
the season, containing from four to six young,
are born in March, April, or May, and. a
month later, when scarcely larger than chip-
munks, may be seen playing about the entrance
mound. When danger appears the mother
sends the young helter-skelter for the refuge
of the burrow, and should any be slow about
going in she rushes at them, driving them to
cover with shrill barks of alarm. When about
half-grown the young scatter and prepare bur-
rows of their own. Sometimes as many as six
to nine of these animals may be found in a
single burrow, in which, no doubt, they have
taken refuge,-or it may be a reunion of the
season’s family.
On warm sunny days, especially at a time
when nights are frosty, these fat little animals
will often he flat on the bare ground about
their mounds, with legs outstretched, basking in
the grateful rays. As their colonies expand by
the rapid increase of their numbers, many in-
dividuals wander far in search of new loca-
tions. On the mountain plateaus of northern
Arizona I know of instances where they have
traversed several miles of pine and fir forest
to locate in an isolated mountain park, and new
colonies were established as far as six miles
from their nearest neighbors.
The flesh of prairie-dogs is not unpalatable,
and Navajo and Pueblo Indians are extremely
fond of it. The Indians take advantage of
heavy rains and turn the temporary rush of
water down the holes to drown out the “dogs,”
and thus capture many of them.
It is inevitable that many popular miscon-
ceptions should grow up about such numerous
and interesting animals as the prairie-dogs. In
the West many people believe that the burrows
go down to water. In reality, like many other
rodents, these animals have acquired the ability
by chemical action in the stomach to trans-
form the starchy food into water. I have seen
dog towns located on a few feet of soil resting
on a waterless lava bed miles in extent and
more than 100 feet thick, as shown by canyons
cut through it, thus proving the impossibility
of the prairie-dog-well legend.
Another popular belief is that the rattle-
snakes and burrowing owls living in prairie-
dog towns unite as a kind of happy family in
the burrows of the dogs. The truth is that the
owls live and breed in deserted dog holes, while
the rattlesnakes visit the occupied holes to feed
on the unfortunate occupants.
THE STRIPED GROUND SQUIRREL
(Citellus tridecemlineatus and its
subspecies)
(For illustration, see page 436)
Small size and a series of thirteen narrow,
well-defined stripes, or lines, marking the up-
perparts of the striped ground squirrel serve
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
to distinguish it from all its relatives. Its total
length is about eleven inches and its form is
nearly as slender as that of the weasel. Its
brightly colored markings blend so well with
the brown earth and plant stems in its haunts
that when quiet it is difficult to distinguish.
This protective coloration is of vital service to
a small animal sought by all the diurnal birds
of prey, as well as by coyotes, foxes, bobcats,
badgers, skunks, weasels, and snakes.
The striped ground squirrel, also known as
the “gopher” or “striped gopher,” is restricted
to middle North America, where it is dis-
tributed from southern Michigan and northern
Indiana west to Utah, and from about latitude
55 degrees in northern Alberta south nearly to
the Gulf coast of Texas.’ It ranges from near
sea level in Texas up nearly to 10,000 feet in
Colorado. Within these limits the varying
climatic conditions have modified it into several
geographic races, all having a close general
resemblance.
Like most members of the squirrel family,
the striped ground squirrels are diurnal in
habits and well known wherever they occur. I
first learned the ways of these odd little mam-
mals as a boy on the prairies outside the city
of Chicago, and later observed them in a high
mountain valley in Arizona. In both regions
they had the same habits. By preference they
occupy grassy prairies, old fields, and similar
situations. In many areas they are serious
pests, owing to their abundance and their de-
structiveness to grain crops, but where the
land is generally cultivated, the sheltering vege-
tation and their shallow burrows are-destroyed
by the plow, thus causing a decrease in their
numbers.
The lives of the striped ground squirrels are
so beset with peril that they always move
abroad with watchful hesitation, pausing to
listen, retreating toward their burrows at the
slightest suspicious sound or movement, or ris-
ing bolt upright on their hind feet and remain-
ing motionless as a small statue until satisfied
that there is nothing to fear. They call to one
another with a chirping note as well as with a
shrill trilling whistle, and when alarmed by the
presence of some enemy their warning call
notes are heard on all sides as the alarm is
passed, and all are on the alert to disappear
down their burrows at the slightest suspicious
movement.
When they have vanished their trilling notes
are often heard from the depths of their bur-
rows; but curiosity is one of their strongest
traits, and if no disturbance follows one will
almost immediately pop up its head to see the
cause of the alarm. Boys, taking advantage of
this habit, place an open slipping noose at the
end of a long string around the entrance of the
burrow, and, waiting developments, lie quietly
a few yards to one side. The ensuing silence
is too much for the ground squirrel to endure
and soon its head appears above ground, the
boy pulls the string, and the victim is dragged
forth with the noose about its neck.
The entrance to the burrow of these ground
439
squirrels is about two inches in diameter. It
is usually located in the midst of grass or
weedy growths, and has little or no fresh earth
about it. The burrow descends for several
inches almost vertically and then turns almost
horizontally in a sinuous and erratic course,
with numerous branches and side passages lead-
ing up to the surface. Most of these side
entrances are kept plugged with soit earth.
Opening off the main tunnel is a large nest
chamber filled with fine dry grasses and other
soft vegetable matter, and also one or more
large storage chambers in which the owner lays
up his garnered supplies of grain or other seeds
for use during inclement weather.
These squirrels hibernate throughout their
range, entering their long sleep in an exces-
sively fat condition the last of September or
in October. In the North they remain in a
torpid state for six months or more.
Soon after they appear in spring they mate
and the single litter of the year, containing
from five to thirteen young, is born the last of
May or early in June. The young are in an
extremely undeveloped state at birth, being
blind, hairless, and with the ears scarcely show-
ing. They develop slowly and remain with the
mother until toward fall, when, nearly grown,
they scatter to care for themselves.
The striped ground squirrels are among the
most carnivorous of rodents. Although they
devote much time to gathering grain, seeds of
various kinds, and even acorns and other nuts,
which may be eaten on the spot or carried in
their cheek pouches to their underground stor-
age rooms, in addition they are known to eat
insects and flesh whenever occasion offers. In
fact, during seasons when such insect food as
grasshoppers, caterpillars, and grubs is plenti-
ful, these ground squirrels frequently feed
mainly upon it. They are known to kill and
devour mice and young birds, and when con-
fined in a cage will sometimes kill and partly
devour their own kind. When caught they
fight fiercely, biting and struggling to escape.
In captivity they show little of the gentleness
and intelligence which are such pleasing char-
acteristics of chipmunks and true squirrels.
THE CALIFORNIA GROUND SQUIR-
REL (Citellus beecheyi and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 437)
Owing to its habits, the California ground
squirrel is known locally as the digger-, rock-,
or ground-squirrel. Its prominent ears, bushy
tail, color, and form give it the general appear-
ance of a heavy-bodied gray tree squirrel, but
in reality it is a true spermophile and close
kin to the marmots.
Spermophiles are nearly circumpolar in dis-
tribution, ranging through northern lands from
central Europe across Bering Strait to the
Great Lakes in North America. Many species
exist in North America, varying greatly in
form, size, and color. They occur mainly in
itt POPS sone
GOLDEN CHIPMUNK
Callospermophilus lateralis chrysodeirus
EASTERN CHIPMUNK
Tamias striatus
440
OREGON CHIPMUNK
Eutamtias townsendi
ae Aber le ouss Paar
PAINTED CHIPMUNE
Eutamias minimus pictus
441
442 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the western part of the continent from the
Arctic coast of Alaska to the southern end of
the Mexican table-land. Some species are rep-
resented by enormous numbers and do great
injury to cultivated crops. Among the larger
and best known of the injurious species, the
California ground squirrel, with its several geo-
graphic races, occupies most of the Pacific
coast region from Oregon to Lower California,
It has a broad vertical distribution, extending
from the seashore to about 10,000 feet altitude
on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in
California, and thrives under contrasting cli-
matic conditions, as the humid northwest coast
region and the most arid deserts of Lower
California.
In California, where they are generally dis-
tributed and extremely numerous over great
areas, these ground squirrels are most at home
among the wild oats and scattered live oaks on
the open slopes of the rocky foothills and
thence up through the dense chaparral, scrub
oaks, pifion pines, and junipers. Above this
they populate many beautiful little valleys in
colonies, as well as parts of the splendid open
forests of pine and fir. Below they spread out
from the foothills among the ranches in the
great valleys. Wherever they occur they take
heavy toll from the native forage plants, and
in cultivated areas their devastations of crops
place these spermophiles among the most seri-
ous of mammal pests.
They are omnivorous, eating insects and flesh
on occasion, but feeding mainly on seeds, fruits,
and many kinds of plants. The native vegeta-
tion in their haunts contains a wonderful
variety of food plants, from humble weeds in
the valleys to the lordly pines of the Sierra,
but most attractive to these rodents are the
rich food-bearers brought by the cultivators of
the soil. The squirrels gather in great num-
bers about farms, and in feeding upon alfalfa,
wheat, and other grains, grapes, peaches, apri-
cots, almonds, prunes, pomegranates, and a
variety of other crops, cause an annual loss to
the farmers of California probably exceeding
$20,000,000. So serious are their depredations
that great sums have been spent in attempts
to destroy them with poison. The Kern County
Pand Company, with vast holdings mm the
southern end of the San Joaquin Valley, in
IQII spent more than $40,000 for this purpose.
This company estimated that the ground squir-
rels destroyed 20 per cent of the grain crop in
ereat areas, and that twenty of them would
destroy enough forage to support a cow
through the year.
Ground squirrels by choice locate their bur-
rows among slide rock, in crevices among
cliffs, under boulders and roots of trees, in
ditch or dry creek banks, or under stone walls,
fences, or building, but in the parks of the
high Sierra, as in the foothills and lowland
valleys, they dig holes out in the open with
conspicuous mounds at the entrances much like
those of prairie-dogs.
Well-worn trails lead from one of their
burrows to another and away to a distance
through the wild oats in the foothills, or in
the grain and forage crops of the valleys, and
along these the animals travel when foraging
or paying social visits. Whenever a large rock,
stump, or other prominent object is convenient,
they spend hours on the top sunning themselves
and keeping a sharp lookout over their sur-
roundings. I[*rom these lookout points when
they suspect danger they utter a short, shrill,
whistling note which may be heard at a long
distance and which sends all their neighbors
scurrying for shelter. ‘They also have a lower
chattering note, uttered about the burrow when
resenting an intrusion or when otherwise dis-
pleased.
Ground squirrels are agile climbers on cliffs
and among rocks as well as in fruit trees, live
oaks, and other low trees, but I have never
seen them far from the ground in large trees.
When on the ground they run in a series of
bounds like tree squirrels. The long, bushy tail
is carried almost straight out behind when they
scamper off in alarm, but at other times is
curved and undulating, much as in the tree
squirrels. They gather and manipulate food
with their front paws, sitting upright on their
haunches to eat or look about. On one occa-
sion when I came to a foot-bridge over a
broad irrigating ditch across which a number
of ground squirrels were raiding an orchard,
they did not hesitate to dash at full speed into
the swiftly running water and swam quickly
across to seek refuge in their holes on the far
side.
Like other spermophiles, the California
ground squirrels hibernate for months in the
cold, snow-covered parts of their winter range,
but remain active throughout the year in the
warmer areas, where no snow falls. Through-
out their range they gather stores of seeds,
grain, and acorns and other nuts, carrying them
in their cheek pouches to underground store-
rooms for use in bad weather. In the valleys
of California they lie hidden in their burrows
for days at a time during cold winter rains, but
are out as soon as the sun reappears. One or
more litters, each containing from six to twelve
young, are born from March to late in summer,
according to the locality. The young leave
the nest and care for themselves when about
half grown.
The swarming abundance of the California
ground squirrel on foothill slopes and in fertile
valley bottoms equals the congregations of
prairie-dogs in their most populous districts.
This abundance of small animal life supports
a great variety of predatory species, as coyotes,
foxes, bobcats, several kinds of hawks, and the
golden eagle. Owing to its predilection for
ground squirrels, the golden eagle is protected
by law in California, where many of them build
their nests in low live oaks only a few yards
from the ground.
When house rats brought the bubonic plague
to San Francisco a few years ago they also
carried it across the bay and passed it on to
the ground squirrels living in the foothills back
of Oakland. Thence the disease spread among
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
these animals through parts of several sur-
rounding counties. The United States Public
Health Service and the local authorities in a
vigorous campaign stopped the spread of this
malady, but not until the potential ability of
these rodents as plague-carriers had been well
established. This fact and the wide distribu-
tion of the California and other ground squir-
rels over a large part of the continent should
not be overlooked in connection with possible
future outbreaks of the plague. Fortunately,
investigation and field experiments on a large
scale have shown that these spermophiles may
be destroyed by poison over great areas at a
relatively small cost.
THE ANTELOPE CHIPMUNK (Ammo-
spermophilus leucurus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 437)
Commonly known as the antelope, or white-
tailed, chipmunk, this handsome little mammal
is in reality a species of spermophile, or ground
squirrel. The misnomer is due, no doubt, to
its small size, striped back, and sprightly ways.
From the true chipmunks it may be distin-
guished by its heavier proportions, and from
both chipmunks and all other spermophiles by
its odd, upturned tail, carried closely recurved
along the top of the rump. This character
renders the species unmistakable at a glance
and gives it an amusing air of jaunty self-con-
fidence.
The antelope chipmunk is characteristic of
the arid plains and lower mountain slopes of
the Southwest from western Colorado through
Utah, northern Arizona, Nevada, the southern
half of California, and all of Lower California,
and down the Rio Grande Valley through New
Mexico to western Texas.
Within this area it occupies a wide variety
of situations. It inhabits the intensely hot
desert plains near sea level in Lower Cali-
fornia, where the temperature rises to more
than 125 degrees Fahrenheit in the shade and
the vegetation is characterized by such pic-
turesque forms of plant life as cactuses of
many species, yuccas, fouquerias, palo verdes,
ironwood, and creosote bushes; it is found also
above 7,000 feet altitude on the cool plateaus
and mountain slopes of Arizona and Colorado,
among sage brush, greasewood, junipers, and
pifion pines. It appears equally at home skip-
ping nimbly over rocky slopes or among slide
rock in arid canyons and scurrying through the
brushy growth on broad sandy plains devoid
of rocks.
The antelope chipmunk has the most.vivacious
and pleasing personality of all the numerous
ground squirrels within our borders. During
the many months I have camped and- traveled
on horseback in their haunts I have never lost
interest in them. They were forever skirmish-
ing among the bushes or dashing away down
trails or over the rocks of canyon slopes, their
white tails curled impudently over their backs
like flags of derision at my cumbersome ad-
vance.
443
Their burrows are dug in a variety of places.
In the open flats they enter the ground almost
vertically, and often several entrances are
grouped within a few yards. In some places a
little mound of loose dirt is heaped up at one
side of the entrance and at others there is no
trace of it. Frequently, when the ground is
soft, little trails lead in different directions
from the entrances, and often between holes
100 yards or more apart, as though they made
many social visits. The deserted burrows of
other mammals are sometimes utilized to save
the trouble of digging. The burrows are often
under the shelter of cactuses, bushes, and great
boulders or may be among crevices in the rocks.
Antelope chipmunks are extraordinarily ac-
tive and continually wander far from home in
search of food or in a spirit of restless in-
quiry. As the traveler on horseback rides
slowly along he will see them racing away in
front of him, sometimes climbing to the top of
a bush 100 or 200 yards in advance for a better
look at the wayfarer and then scuttling down
and racing on again. In this way I have seen
them keep ahead of me sometimes for several
hundred yards instead of hiding in some hole
or shelter, as they might easily do. At other
times they were so unsuspicious they would
permit me to pass within a few yards with
slight signs of alarm. They have a chirping
call, often uttered when watching from the
top of a bush, and also a prolonged twittering
or trilling note, diminishing toward the end.
In the higher and colder parts of their range,
where snow lies long on the ground, these
spermophiles hibernate for several months, but
in the warmer areas they are active throughout
the year. Wherever they occur they gather
food and carry it to their underground store-
rooms in their cheek pouches. Like most
ground squirrels, they eat many kinds of seeds
and fruits as well as flesh and insects when
occasion offers. About cultivated lands they
are sometimes abundant and destructive, dig-
ging up corn orgother grain as soon as it is
planted and also taking toll of the ripening
grain until they become a pest. In the desert
they often gather about camps to pick up the
grain scattgred*about when the horses are fed.
It is well ‘for them that they are prolific,
having one or more litters during spring and
summer, with from four to twelve in each, as
they have many enemies. Snakes and w easels
pursue them into their burrows, while foxes,
coyotes, badgers, bobcats, and many kinds of
hawks, constantly reduce their numbers.
THE GOLDEN CHIPMUNK (Callosper-
mophilus lateralis chrysodeirus and its
relatives)
(For illustration, see page 440)
The golden chipmunk, or calico squirrel, as it
is named in Oregon, is the most richly colored
of the several geographic races of a widely
known species, Callospermophilus lateralis,
abundant among the open forests of yellow
pines and firs of the western ranges, including
RED SQUIRREL
Sciurus hudsonicus
DOUGLAS SQUIRREL
Sciurus douglasi
444
~~
hh
me pCK SLI
)
GRAY SQUIRREL (and black phase
iurus carolinensis
Sc
—
(ea)
Ms
v8
-
3
nO §
x &
eu
xy
3
x S
~s
=
Be
oan
se S
Os
Ry
ans
GS
eae
~~
445
446 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the Rocky Mountains, Cascades, and Sierra
Nevada. Although commonly known as a chip-
munk, this handsome animal is a ground squir-
rel, or spermophile, distinguished from all its
kind by heavy stripes, resembling those of a
chipmunk, along the sides of its back. From
the chipmunks it may be distinguished at a
glance by its thick-set and often almost obese
proportions, which render its movements much
slower and less graceful than they are with
those nimble sprites. It occurs from north-
eastern British Columbia to New Mexico,
southern California, and even in an area in the
high Sierra Madre of southern Chihuahua,
where an isolated representative occupies a
limited range.
Their vertical distribution extends from a
moderate elevation above the sea in Oregon to
above 11,000 feet in southern California. They
are common in the Yellowstone and other
national parks, where their size, bright mark-
ings, and activities render them conspicuous.
Everywhere their habits resemble those of
the various species of true chipmunks with
which they associate. They live in burrows,
which they dig under the shelter of logs, rocks,
stumps, roots of trees, or even in open ground,
as well as in the ready-made shelter of rock
slides, with conies, at timberline. Their burrows
at times have several entrances within a small
area. Often they occupy the burrows of other
animals, including pocket gophers. ‘They ex-
cavate burrows under cabins or barns in clear-
ings, and abandoned mining camps or old saw-
mill sites frequently abound with them. Nests
and storage chambers are excavated off the
passageways. The nests are usually made of
leaves and other soft vegetable material, but
in the sheep country wool, which they find in
scattered tufts, is often used.
A camping party in their haunts is certain
to attract them, and, as about barns, it is neces-
sary to keep a watchful eye on them to prevent
their robbing grain sacks or other supplies.
When they once locate an accessible supply of
grain their industry is remarkable. I have
seen a dozen or more working throughout the
day, making continuous hurried trips, with
loaded cheek pouches, to their dens, sometimes
two hundred yards away. On approach of
autumn they become continually active, gather-
ing their winter supplies.
The length of their hibernation varies with
the severity of the climate, but is rarely under
five months. It is said to run through seven
months on the higher mountains of southern
California. They usually go into winter
quarters in September or early in October, but
occasionally one may be seen out as late as
December. At this time they have become so
fat that their movements are very sluggish.
One kept as a pet for eleven years at Klamath
Falls, Oregon, is reported to have hibernated
regularly each winter. In Montana they retire
to their dens in September and come out in
March. They mate soon after they appear in
spring and the young, four to seven in number,
are half grown the last of May.
Like true chipmunks, these spermophiles are
fond of weedy clearings or other openings in
the forest, where stumps, logs, rocks, and old
fences offer plentiful shelter and many elevated
vantage points where they may sit by the hour
watching the doings of their small world.
They have a sharp whistling or chirping call
note, usually uttered as a warning cry, but
sometimes as a social call. They do not like
gloomy or stormy weather and generally lie
hidden at such times, but on sunny days are
so actively engaged in foraging, running along
the tops of logs, or perching on the tops of
stumps and large rocks that they add greatly
to the pleasant animation of the forests where
they live. When running they usually carry
the tail elevated like a chipmunk.
They sun themselves for hours on elevated
points, sometimes lying quiescent and again
sitting bolt upright, but always watchful and
ready to disappear at the slightest alarm. This
watchfulness is necessary, for their enemies are
abroad at all hours. ‘hey are the prey of
bobcats, foxes, coyotes, weasels, snakes, and
hawks.
The golden chipmunk and its related sub-
species are omnivorous feeders. They show a
strong predilection for bacon when looting
camp stores and eat any kind of meat with
avidity. Young birds and birds’ eggs are de-
voured whenever found, as are also grasshop-
pers, beetles, flies, larvee, and many other in-
sects. The number of kinds of seeds eaten is
almost endless and includes chinquapin and pine
nuts, rhus, alfileria, violet, lupine, ceanothus,
and others. They also eat roses and other
flowers, green leaves, wild currants, goose-
berries and other fruit, and small tuberous
roots. They often climb bushes and low trees,
at least 30 feet from the ground, after nuts
and berries. The capacity of their cheek
pouches is shown by one instance, when one
animal was loaded with 750 serviceberry seeds.
The pouches of another contained 360 grains
of barley, another 357 of oats. Bold and per-
sistent camp robbers, their depredations cover
all articles 6f food, including bread and cake,
and they sometimes do considerable injury to
small mountain grain fields.
I had the pleasure of living in the mountains
of New Mexico and Arizona for several years
where these attractive ground squirrels were
numerous, and vividly remember them as
among the most interesting of the woodland
folk. Their friendliness about forest cabins is
notable and with a little encouragement they
become extremely confiding and amusing vis-
itors.
The young are playful, pursuing one another
in apparent games of “tag” over rocks, stumps,
and logs. When partly grown they have all
the heedlessness of youth and on one occasion
an observer saw the mother repeatedly push
the young back into crevices in a rock slide
with her front feet, as they persisted in trying
to come out to look at the strange intruder
in their haunts.
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
THE EASTERN CHIPMUNK (Tamias
striatus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 440)
The chipmunks are close relatives of the tree
squirrels, but live mainly on the ground, are
provided with cheek pouches for carrying food
to their hidden stores, and have many ways
similar to those of the spermophiles, or ground
squirrels. They are nearly circumpolar in dis-
tribution, ranging through eastern Europe and
northern Asia as well as from the Atlantic to
the Pacific in North America. On this con-
tinent they are far more numerous in species
and individuals than in the Old World, and
their center of abundance appears to lie in the
mountainous western half of the United States.
Their extreme range extends from near the
Arctic Circle in Canada to Durango and Middle
Lower California, Mexico.
As a group the chipmunks are widely known
for their grace, beauty of coloration, and
sprightly ways. Among the handsomest and
most familiar is the common chipmunk of
Canada and the United States east of the Great
Plains. Within this area it is divided into
several geographic races, of which the best
known is the brightly colored animal occupy-
ing all the wooded region from the Great
Lakes to Nova Scotia and New England, which
is the subject of the accompanying illustration,
Its vertical distribution extends from sea level
to the summit of Mount Washington, where
it may be seen on pleasant summer days.
The eastern chipmunks, like most of their
kind, belong to the forest and its immediate
environment. Favorite haunts are rocky ledges
covered with vines and brush, half-cleared land,
the brushy borders of old pasture fences, stone
walls, and similar situations. In early days
they were so plentiful in places that they made
serious inroads on the scanty crops of the
settlers, and bounties were offered for their
destruction.
No one who visits the woods of the eastern
States or- Canada can fail to observe with
pleasure the alert, attractive ways of these little
squirrel-like animals. They are everywhere,
including the vicinity of summer camps in the
forest, and, if encouraged, prove most attractive
and friendly neighbors. To such small beasts
the world is peopled with enemies against which
the only safeguard is eternal watchfulness.
This accounts for the hesitating advances and
retreats so characteristic of these chipmunks,
which at the first sudden movement of any
suspicious object, or loud noise, disappear like
a flash. They soon learn to recognize a friend
and in many places come regularly into camp
buildings tazxeceive food. I doubt, however, if
they ever Become quite so friendly as some
squirrels under similar conditions.
Like most of the squirrel tribe, they are en-
dowed with much curiosity, and at the appear-
ance of anything unusual, but not too alarming,
they seek some safe vantage point from which
to peer at it with every sign of interest. They
447
are extremely timid and wary, however, and
if doubtful move by little cautious runs, stop-
ping to sit up and look about, often mounting
a stump, log, or a side of a tree trunk for the
purpose, the tail all the time moving with slow
undulations. If alarmed they dash away to
the nearest shelter, the tail held nearly or
quite erect and sometimes quivering excitedly.
When running to shelter they often utter chat-
tering cries of alarm. Their principal enemies
are cats, weasels, martens, foxes, snakes, birds
of prey, and the untamed small boy with his
dog. Weasels, the supreme terror of their ex-
istence, follow them to the depths of their
burrows and kill them ruthlessly.
These chipmunks are sociable and playful,
often pursuing one another, first one and then
the other being the pursuer, as though in a
game. They race along fence tops and old
logs and up stumps and even the lower parts
of tree trunks. Lovers of bright, sunny weather,
they usually remain hidden in their burrows
during stormy days. If they venture out at
such times they are quiet and show none of
the mercurial liveliness which characterizes
them when the weather is pleasant.
Their food includes a great variety of culti-
vated and wild plants, as wheat, buckwheat,
corn, grass seed, ragweed seed, hazelnuts,
acorns, beechnuts, strawberries, blueberries,
wintergreen berries, mushrooms, and many
others. In addition they eat May beetles and
other insects and insect larve, snails, occa-
sional frogs, salamanders, small snakes, and
many young birds and eggs.
At all seasons they fill their cheek pouches
with food to be carried away to their dens, but
toward the end of summer or early fail they
work industriously laying up stores of seeds
and nuts. Sometimes these stores, hidden in
chambers excavated for the purpose or in
hollow logs and similar places, contain several
quarts of beechnuts or other nuts or seeds.
Small quantites of such food are hidden here
and there under the leaves or in shallow pits
in the ground. Store-rooms in one burrow con-
tained a peck of chestnuts, cherry pits, and dog-
wood berries, and another had a half bushel
of hickory nuts.
While at a summer camp I once saw one of
these chipmunks give an exhibition of the ex-
quisitely keen power of scent which must be
necessary to recover scattered stores. The
chipmunk had been coming repeatedly down a
wooded slope in full view for twenty-five yards
or more to the floor of the porch for food
supplied by the campers. While it was absent
carrying food to its burrow I placed a few nut
meats on the flat top of a stump about fifteen
feet to one side of the porch and farther away
than the point where the chipmunk was being
fed bread crumbs. On its return several
minutes later, instead of going as usual to the
porch, it ran directly to the stump, climbed
up it, and promptly made off with the nuts,
which it had evidently located from afar. They
sometimes climb beeches and other trees to
gather nuts even to a height of fifty or sixty
ABERT SQUIRREL KAIBAB SQUIRREL
Sciurus aberti Sciurus kaibabensts
448
FLYING SQUIRREL
Glaucomys volans
BLACK-FOOTED FERRET
igripes
Mustela n
449
450 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
feet, and are commonly seen on low limbs and
in bushes.
The entrances to the burrows are usually
under logs, roots, or rocks, or the den may be
in a hollow log, stump or base of a tree, or
even under a cabin in the woods. The burrows
in the ground are commonly a series of tunnels
some yards in length, with an oval nest and
storage chamber two or three feet under-
ground, and with branches from the main
passageway. The nest chamber, a foot or
more in diameter, is filled with fragments of
dry leaves and other soft vegetable material.
One chamber is usually used for sanitary pur-
poses. The used entrance hole is commonly
without a sign of dug earth about it, the loose
soil from the burrow and its chambers ap-
parently having been thrown out at another
opening which. appears to be used for this
purpose only and is kept plugged with earth.
Throughout most of the northern half of its
range these chipmunks usually hibernate from
some time im-October:*until March. Their
hibernation is far less profound than that of
the woodchuck and they not infrequently ap-
pear above ground during periods of mild
weather, even in midwinter. The hibernating
period is shorter in the southern part of the
range.
They vary much in numbers from year to
year and at times appear to increase suddenly
in localities where food is plentiful, indicating
a probable food migration. The young, num-
bering from four to six in a litter, are born at
varying times between the last of April and
late summer, indicating the possibility of more
than one litter a season.
The most characteristic note of this chip-
munk is a throaty chuck, chuck, which is or-
dinarily used as a call note, but which in spring
is uttered many times in rapid succession to
express the seasonal feeling of joy and well
being, thus taking on the character of a song.
Such joyful notes may be heard on -every
hand in places where the little songsters are
numerous. In addition, they have a high-pitched,
chirping note and a small churring whistle
when much alarmed.
THE OREGON CHIPMUNK (Eutamias
townsendi and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 441)
The resident species of birds and mammals
in the humid coastal region of Oregon, Wash-
ington, and southern British Columbia are
strikingly characterized by their darker and
browner colors in comparison with closely re-
lated species in more arid districts.
The Oregon chipmunk is one of the common
species showing marked response to these local
climatic conditions and is the darkest of all
the many species of chipmunks in the Western
States. This chipmunk is one of several geo-
graphic races into which the species is divided
by changing environment. The species, as a
whole, ranges along the west coast from British
Columbia to Lower California, and the races at
the extremes of the line differ much in color.
As befits a habitant of the humid forested
region, the Oregon chipmunk is robustly built
and distinctly larger than the other chipmunks
of the Western States. It is common and gen-
erally distributed throughout this region, occur-
ring from among the drift logs along the ocean
beach to above timberline on the Cascade
Mountains. Within these limits it frequents
almost every variety of situation. It occurs in
the midst of gloomy forests of giant spruces,
cedars, and firs, but is particularly fond of old
fences and brush patches on the borders of
farm clearings in the valleys as well as the
vicinity of rocky ledges, brush piles, and fallen
timber, where the low thickets offer a variety
of food- bearing plants and ready shelter.
On the mountains it is most numerous about
rock shdes and “burns” or other openings in the
forest. Several pairs usually haunt the vicinity
of old sawmills and of mountain cabins. Like
others of their kind, they are alert and viva-
cious, varying in mood from day to day, but
always interesting. At times they are exces-
sively shy and retiring, and a person might
spend a day in their haunts without seeing
or hearing one, although it is safe to say that
the intruder had been seen and every foot of
his progress noted by the chipmunks. On an-
other day, perhaps because the sun shines more
brightly and nature is in a happier mood, the
animals appear on all sides. ‘Their slowly re-
peated sociable chuck, chuck, is heard from the
depths of the brushy covert as well as from the
tops of stumps, logs, rocks, or other lookout
points where they sit to view their surround-
ings. If alarmed they utter a sharp, birdlike
chirping note as they vanish in the nearest
shelter. As one moves about in their haunts
he may now and then see one appear for a
moment above the undergrowth in a tall bush,
on top of a stump, and sometimes even mount-
ing a few yards up a tree trunk to observe the
cause of the disturbance, only to vanish quickly.
They are always skirmishing for food, and
carrying it in their cheek pouches to hidden
stores. On the approach of winter this activity
becomes very marked. A surprising variety of
fruits and seeds are eaten and stored, among
them the salmonberry, red elderberry, black-
capped raspberry, thimble berry, blackberry,
blueberry, gooseberry, thistle seed, dogwood
seed, hazelnuts, acorns, and others. They have
favorite feeding places, such as the top of a
stone or stump or the shelter of a log where
they carry nuts or other seeds. These places
are always marked by little piles of empty shells
or chaff from seeds. About ranches they raid
grain fields and other crops, sometimes in num-
bers sufficient to do considerable damage.
In sheltered spots they make underground
burrows with nest chamber and store-rooms ex-
cavated along the passages. ‘They usually re-
tire to these dens to hibernate during the last
of September or first of October, and appear
again about March or April, often long before
the snow disappears. During fall and early
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
winter they are sometimes seen running about
over newly fallen snow. One which was dug
from its winter quarters in British Columbia
the last of November would move about slowly
and sleepily if teased, but when left undis-
turbed would curl up and go to sleep again.
This indicates the difference between the light
and often broken hibernation of chipmunks and
the deep lethargy which possesses ground
squirrels in the North at this time. Toward
the southern end of their ranges neither chip-
munk nor ground squirrel hibernates. They
mate soon after they awake from their winter
sleep, and the young, two to five or six in
number, are born from April to June. Whether
more than one litter is born during a season,
is, like many other details concerning the lives
of these attractive animals, still to be learned.
THE PAINTED CHIPMUNK (Eutamias
minimus pictus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 441)
The preceding sketch tells how the Oregon
chipmunk, living under a cool, humid climate,
in a region of great forests, has responded to
its environment by developing dark colors and
a robust physique. The painted chipmunk of
the Great Basin has given an equally perfect
response to entirely different conditions. It is
one of the geographic races of a species pecu-
lia1 to the sagebrush-covered plains and hills
from the Dakotas across the Rocky Mountains
and the Great Basin region to the east slope
of the Cascades and the Sierra Nevada. Its
home is on treeless plains, in a climate, char-
acterized by brilliant sunshine and clear, dry
air. In this environment the painted chipmunk
has developed a smaller and slenderer body
than the Oregon species, and strikingly paler
colors.
These differences in physique are accom-
panied by equal differences in mental and
physical expression. These little animals are
exceedingly alert and agile, darting through
dense growths of bushes with all the easy grace
of weasels. When running they hold the tail
stiffly erect. When alarmed they utter a shrill
chippering cry, especially when darting into
shelter. They also havea chucking call, uttered
at intervals, which may be used merely as a
note of sociability or to put their neighbors on
the alert.
Although one of the most distinctive animals
of the sagebrush plains, this chipmunk also
ranges into the borders of open forests on the
mountain sides. It is most numerous on flats
and foothill slopes among heavy growths of
sage and rabbit brush. When its territory is
invaded by settlers it does not hesitate to gather.
about the borders of fields and even to raid
barns in search of grain and other food. Its
burrows are dug under large sagebrush and
other bushes and under rocks and_ similar
shelter.
As with others of their kind, painted chip-
munks habitually gather seeds of many plants
A451
and carry them in their cheek pouches to their
underground dens. In addition to seeds and
green vegetation, they eat any fruits growing in
their haunts, and also many insects, especially
grasshoppers and larve. In one locality in
Nevada during June and July more than half
their food consisted of a web worm and its
chrysalids with which the sage bushes swarmed.
The chipmunks climbed into the bushes and
pulled the larve from the webs. As half the
bushes were infested, the work of the many
chipmunks had a material effect in reducing
the numbers of this pest. The vegetable food
eaten includes the seeds of Ribes, Kuntzia,
Sarcobatus, pigweed, and many other weeds,
serviceberry, various grasses, oats, wheat, and
the seeds of small cactuses. They regularly
climb into the tops of large sage and other
bushes for their seeds and the ground beneath
is often covered with the small sections of
twigs cut by them. They climb readily and
often travel from bush to bush through tall
thickets like squirrels in tree-tops. On warm
mornings after frosty nights they may be seen
in the tops of the bushes basking in the sun.
Throughout most of their range they begin
hibernation in September or October, and re-
appear early in spring. The young appear a
month or more later, and litters containing
from two to six may be born throughout the
summer, indicating the possibility that several
litters may be born to the same pair in a sea-
son.
So alert and shy are they that even a person
in their haunts day after day will see but few
of them. Their hearing is extremely acute, and
even at a great distance the footsteps of an in-
truder sets them all on the alert. On every
side they run swiftly to cover before the ob-
server has opportunity to see them. In such
places a large setting of baited traps will re-
veal their presence in surprising numbers. In
one locality, during a brief visit, traps set
among the brush for other small mammals
yielded more than forty chipmunks.
On stormy and cloudy days, especially if-the
weather is cool, painted chipmunks remain in
their dens, but on mild sunny days they frisk
about with amazingly quick darting movements,
A horseman riding along a road leading
through a sagebrush flat will frequently see
them racing across the road often several hun-
dred yards away, the sound of the horse’s foot-
falls having alarmed the chipmunks over a
wide area. Here and there one may be seen
climbing hastily to the top of a tall bush to
take a look at the cause of alarm before finally
seeking concealment. When pursued among
the bushes they often run considerable distances
before taking refuge in a burrow. When hard
pressed they will enter the first opening en-
countered, but if it is not its own home the
fugitive soon comes out and scampers away,
apparently fearful of the return of the owner
or perhaps owing to his presence.
Apparently, as in the case of many other
desert mammals, the painted chipmunk, with its
related races, is able to subsist without drink-
Winter Summer
LEAST WEASEL
Mustela rixosa
LARGE WEASEL, or STOAT (Winter and Summer)
Mustela arcticus
452
N SABLE
MARTEN, or AMERICA
Martes americana
AMERICAN MINK
Mustela vison
453
454 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ing, since it is often seen far out on arid plains
many miles from the nearest water.
As with all its kind, the world of the painted
chipmunk is filled with imminent peril of sud-
den death. Overhead, gliding on silent pinions,
are hawks of several species, while on the
ground snakes, weasels, badgers, bobcats, foxes,
and coyotes are ever searching for them as prey.
THE RED SQUIRREL (Sciurus hudsonicus
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 444)
Every one who has visited the forests of
Canada and northeastern United States knows
the vivacious, rollicking, and frequently im-
pudent red squirrel. This entertaining little
beast, known also as the pine squirrel and
chickaree, has little of that woodland shyness
so characteristic of most forest animals. It
often searches out the human visitor to its
haunts and trom a low branch or tree trunk
sputters, barks, and scolds the intruder, work-
ing itself into a frenzy of excitement. ‘This
habit, combined with the rusty red color and
small size of the animal, about half that of
the gray squirrel, renders its identity unmis-
takable. It has distinct winter and summer
coats, but in both the rusty red prevails. The -
winter dress is distinguished, however, by small
tufts on the ears. .
The red squirrel, with its related small species,
occupying most of the wooded parts of North
America north of Mexico, forms a strongly
characterized group, with no near kin among
the squirrels of the Old World. In its geo-
graphic races it ranges through the forests of
all Alaska and Canada and south to Idaho,
Wyoming, the Dakotas, Wisconsin, northern
Indiana, all the Northeastern States to the Dis-
trict of Columbia, and along the Alleghenies
to South Carolina. Owing to its small size,
this animal, like the chipmunk, is considered
too small for game, although occasionally
hunted for sport. As a consequence its in-
crease or decrease is usually governed by the
available food supply, although man interferes
locally when it becomes too destructive.
This squirrel shows a strong preference for
coniferous forests, whether of hemlock, spruce,
fir, or pine, but may be common in woods
where conifers are few and widely scattered.
Although usually diurnal and busily occupied
from sunrise until sunset, it sometimes con-
tinues its activities during moonlight nights,
especially when nuts are ripe and it is time to
gather winter stores. During warm, pleasant
days in spring and fall, when the nights are
cool, it often lies at full length along the tops
of large branches during the middle of the day,
basking in the grateful warmth of the sun.
The nests, which are located in a variety
of situations, are made of twigs, leaves, or
moss, and lined with fibrous bark and other
soft material. Some are in knot-holes or other
hollows in.trees, others may be built outside
on limbs near the trunk, and still others are
in burrows made in the ground under roots,
stumps, logs, brush heaps, or other cover offer=
ing secure refuge. Apparently several litters
of young, containing from four to six, are
born each season, as they have been found
from April to September.
They do not hibernate, but are active through-
out the year, except during some of the coldest
and most inclement weather. To provide
against the season of scarcity, they accumulate
at the base of a tree, under the shelter of a
log, or other cover, great stores of pine, spruce,
or other cones, sometimes in heaps containing
from six to ten bushels. ‘They also hide seat-
tered cones here and there and place stores of
beechnuts, corn, and other seeds in hollows or
underground store-rooms. ‘They are fond of
edible mushrooms and sometimes lay up half
a bushel of them among the branches of trees
or bushes to dry for winter use. In the west-
ern mountains their great stores of pine cones
are often robbed by seed-gatherers for forestry
nurseries. In winter they tunnel through the
snow to their hidden stores and sometimes
continue the tunnels from one store to an-
other.
Each squirrel makes its home for a long
period in or about a certain tree. There he
carries his cones to extract the seeds, and on
the ground beneath it the accumulation of
fallen scales and centers of cones sometimes
amounts to fifteen or twenty bushels. In ad-
dition to the seeds of the various conifers, red
squirrels eat many kinds of fruits and seeds;
they also raid cornfields and orchards and even
make nests in barns and woodsheds to be near
the food supply which some farmer’s industry
has collected.
Red squirrels have the interesting habit of
voluntarily swimming streams and lakes, in-
cluding such bodies of water as Lake George
and even the broadest parts of Lake Cham-
plain. When they thus cross the water and
make their migrations, there is little doubt that
they are usually in search of a better feeding
ground.
The red squirrels and related species have the
greatest variety of notes possessed by any of
the American members of the squirrel family.
In addition to the barking, scolding, chattering
notes already mentioned, they have a real song,
which is one of the most attractive of wood-
land notes. It is a long-drawn series of musical
rolling or churring notes, varied at times by
cadences and having a ventriloquial quality
rendering it difficult to locate. These notes
never fail to awaken pleasurable emotions and
to recall to me my early boyhood in the Adi-
rondacks, where the spring songs of the chick-
arees were among the first calls which awak-
ened me to the marvelous beauties of nature.
The worst trait of the red squirrel and one
which largely overbalances all his many at-
tractive qualities is his thoroughly proved habit
of eating the eggs and young of small birds.
During the breeding season he spends a large
part of his time in predatory nest hunting, and
the number of useful and beautiful birds he
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
thus destroys must be almost incalculable. The
number of red squirrels is very great over a
continental area, and one close observer be-
lieves each squirrel destroys 200 birds a sea-
son. Practically all species of northern warb-
lers, vireos, thrushes, chickadees, nuthatches,
and others are numbered among their victims.
The notable scarcity of birds in northern for-
ests may be largely due to these handsome but
vicious marauders.
In the fur country these squirrels are much
disliked by the trappers for their constant in-
terference with meat-baited traps. Many fall
victims to their carnivorous desires, but their
places are soon taken by others.
The energy and unfailing variety in the per-
formances of red squirrels always keep the
attention of their human neighbors. Among
other interesting activities, their pursuit of one
another up and down and around the trunks
of trees, over the ground, along logs, back and
forth in the most reckless abandon, is most
entertaining to watch. These pursuits among
the young are playful and harmless, but among
the males in spring are of the most deadly
character. I have seen the victim go up and
down tree after tree, shrieking in fear and
agony and leaving a trail of blood on the snow
as he tried to escape his truculent pursuer.
Such scenes as this, combined with our knowl-
edge of its bird-killing habits, appear belied by
the exquisite grace and beauty of this squirrel
as it sits on a branch and sends its musical
cadences trilling through the primeval forest.
So confirmed are red squirrels in the destruc-
tion of bird life, however, they should not be
permitted to become very numerous anywhere
and -it may eventually become necessary to
outlaw them wherever found.
THE DOUGLAS SQUIRREL (Sciurus
douglasi and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 444)
In all details of size, form, notes, and habits
the Douglas squirrel gives testimony to its de-
scent from the same ancestral stock as the com-
mon red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicus). The
typical Douglas squirrel, represented in the ac-
companying illustration, is one of several geo-
graphic races of a species which ranges from
the Cascades and Sierra Nevada to the Pacific,
and from British Columbia south to the San
Pedro Martir Mountains of Lower California.
The home of the Douglas squirrel is amid the
wonderful coniferous forests of western Ore-
gon, Washington, and southern British Co-
lumbia. As in other mammals of this extremely
humid region, the colors of its upperparts are
dark brown, in strong contrast to the much
paler and grayer colors of the closely related
subspecies living in the clearer and more arid
climate of the ‘Sierra Nevada in California.
These squirrels are known locally by a variety
of common names, including pine squirrel, red-
wood squirrel, and “drummer.”
Although usually not quite so noisy and self-
455
assertive as the irrepressible little red blusterer
of eastern forests, the Douglas squirrel is also
notable for its rollicking, chattering character
and sometimes cannot be outdone in its amus-
ing displays of aggressive impudence. When
the animals are numerous the air at times re-
sounds with their call notes or songs, one
answering the other, now near and now far,
until the somber depths of the mighty forest
seems peopled with a multitude of these joyous
furry sprites. Their song, resembling that of
the red squirrel, is a rapid trilling or bubbling
series of notes, long drawn out and some-
times varied by cadences. It is so musical that
it seems more like the song of some strange
bird than of a mammal. When these squirrels
are not common they are much less given to
song and seem subdued and shy, as though im-
pressed by the vast loneliness of their deep
forest haunts.
At mating time, early in spring, they are
especially noisy, and again in summer when the
first litter of young are out trying their youth-
ful pipes in expression of their cheerful well
being. They frequently come down on a low
branch or on the trunk of a tree and chatter,
bark, and scold at man, dog, or other intruder,
now rushing up and down, or making little
dashes around the tree trunk, their necks out-
stretched and tails flirting with a great show
of anger and contempt highly entertaining to
see. They are restlessly active at all seasons
of the year and habitually chase one another
through the forest with an appearance of rol-
licking fun which may many times be in more
deadly earnest than appears to the casual ob-
server.
In winter their tracks in the snow lead from
tree to tree, along the tops of logs and fences,
and in all directions to hidden stores of food,
which they appear to be able to locate with
unerring certainty under the snow. An ad-
venturous spirit leads them to race away from
the forest, along fence-tops, to pay visits to
ranch buildings and even to villages and small
towns. Like their eastern relative, the Douglas
squirrels are omnivorous, feeding on the seeds
of all the conifers in their range, including
spruces, firs, pines, and redwoods, and also
upon acorns, and a great variety of other seeds,
fruits, and mushrooms, insects, birds’ eggs,
young birds, and any other meat they can find.
Owing to their habit of interfering with meat-
baited traps, they are a nuisance to trappers.
They frequently visit orchards and carry off
apples and pears, from which they extract the
seeds. They have been seen also to visit the
wounds made on a willow trunk by sapsuckers
to drink the flowing sap. Their feet and the
fur about their mouths are often much gummed
with pitch from working on pine cones.
In many places the soft, moist earth in the
woods is riddled with little pits dug by these
squirrels apparently when they are after larve
or perhaps edible roots. Throughout the sum-
mer, but especially during the last half of the
season, and in autumn Douglas squirrels work
with persistent energy to amass great stores
LitTTUY SPOMLED SKUNK
Spilogale putorius
COMMON SKUNK
Mephitis mephitis
456
HOG-NOSED SKUNK
Conepatus mesoleucus
NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO
Dasypus novemcincta
457
458
of seed-bearing cones, which they heap, some-
times bushels of them, about the bases of trees,
stumps, and the upturned roots of fallen trees
or under other shelter. Cones are also buried
here and there in the loose leaves and humus.
In winter many holes in the snow with piles
of cone scales at the entrances show where the
owners have dug down to their stores.
Some of their nests are constructed in hol-
low trees, many others on branches near their
junction with the trunks, and still others in
underground dens under roots, logs, or stumps.
In winter when alarmed these squirrels some-
times race down the tree trunks and take
refuge in holes leading through the snow to
their food caches and underground burrows.
The nests built in tree-tops are usually rather
bulky, measuring a foot or more in diameter,
and are made of small twigs, dry leaves, moss,
grass, and fibrous bark. They are commonly
lined with such soft material as feathers and
fur. The young, numbering three to seven at
a litter, are born at any time between April
and October.
The extraordinary intelligence and sense of
prevision possessed by squirrels of this group
is well illustrated by certain local food migra-
tions. ‘These have been observed in eastern
Oregon in years when the cone crop has failed
and nothing was available to lay up for winter.
Under such conditions to remain in the moun-
tain forests would mean death by starvation
before winter had fairly begun. In 1910 and
1913 failure of the cone crop occurred in east-
ern Oregon and these squirrels promptly left
the mountain forests in September and de-
scended along creek courses to the open sage-
brush plains as much as seven or more miles
from the border of their ordinary haunts. In
this open country they wintered successfully,
raiding the farmers’ grain bins, root cellars,
and other stores, and otherwise showing their
supreme fitness to survive in the struggle for
existence. With the coming again of summer
they promptly returned to their abandoned
homes in the pines. It appears to be one of
the marvels of animal intelligence that under
such circumstances as those named above the
entire body of the squirrels on the mountains
should have known what to do, especially as
a great percentage of their number could never
have had any previous experience as a guide.
THE GRAY SQUIRREL (Sciurus caro-
linensis and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 445)
The gray squirrel is so well known to everyone
in the Eastern States that it scarcely needs an
introduction. Many who have not seen it in its
native haunts are familiar with it as a graceful
and charming resident of parks in many cities.
It is about twice as large as the red squirrel
and intermediate in size between that species
and the fox squirrel. Although sharing some
of the range of both the species named, the
color of the gray squirrel at once distinguishes it.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
The gray squirrel is a North American
species with no near relative in the Old World;
on the Pacific coast, in the mountains of the
Southwest, and in Mexico are other squirrels
having much the same gray-colored body, but
with no close relationship to it. Its range
covers the deciduous forests of the Eastern
States and southern Canada from Nova Scotia
to Florida, and westward to the border of the
treeless Great Plains. Wherever they occur
these squirrels are an attractive element in the
woodland life, their barking and chattering,
their graceful forms, and their activity adding
greatly to the cheerful animation of the forest.
They are far less vociferous than red squirrels,
put their notes are varied and serve to express
a variety of meanings.
During the early settlement of the country
west of the States bordering the coast, gray
squirrels existed in great numbers and often
made ruinous inroads on the pioneer corn and
wheat fields. In 1749 they invaded Pennsyl-
vania in such hosts that a bounty of three pence
each was put on their scalps. Eight thousand
pounds sterling was paid on this account, which
involved the killing of 640,000 squirrels. In
1808 a law in force in Ohio required that each
free white male deliver 100 squirrel scalps a
year or pay $3 in cash. Records of the ravages
of these squirrels in corn fields are extant also
from Kentucky, Missouri, and other States.
Enormous migrations of gray squirrels from
one part of the country to another occurred in
those days, caused apparently by the failure of
food supplies in the deserted areas. Some im-
pulse to move in one general direction at the
same time appeared to affect the squirrels and
they swarmed across country in amazing num-
bers, carrying devastation to any farms crossed
on the way. When engaged in such move-
ments they appeared indifferent to obstacles
and without hesitation swam lakes and streams
even as large as the Hudson and the Ohio.
Amusing legends grew up concerning these
migrations, one of which avers that when the
squirrels arrived on a river bank each dragged
a large chip or piece of bark into the water
and mounting it raised its bushy tail in the
breeze and was wafted safely to the other
shore! Asa fact, many were drowned in cross-
ing large streams and others arrived exhausted
from their exertions.
The gray and fox squirrels were favorite
targets for pioneer marksmen. The early
chronicles tell of the ability of Daniel Boone
and other riflemen to “bark” a squirrel, which
meant so to cut the bark of the branch on which
the squirrel sat as to bring it to the ground
stunned without hitting the animal. With the
clearing away of the forests, the general oc-
cupation of the country, and the decrease of
larger animals, gray squirrels have been de-
prived of most of their haunts and have be-
come such desirable game that they have de-
creased to a point requiring stringent legal
protection to save them from extermination.
Gray squirrels are more thoroughly arboreal
than red squirrels and make their nests either
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
in hollow trunks or build them in the tops of
trees. These outside nests are common and
much like a crow’s nest in appearance except
that they are generally more bulky and show
more dead leaves. They are built on a founda-
tion of smali sticks with a rounded top of
leaves, and are lined with shreds of bark, moss,
and similar soft material. In the extreme
northern part of their range they live mainly
in hollow trees, but farther south many winter
in outside nests.. During severe cold and in
stormy weather they’ remain hidden, sometimes
for days at a time.
They have two litters of four to six young
a year, the first usually being born in March
or April. The old squirrel is a devoted mother
and if the nest is disturbed she will at once
carry the young to some safer retreat.
In many parts of their range black, or melan-
istic, individuals are born in litters otherwise
of the ordinary gray color. In some districts
the number of the black squirrels equals or
exceeds the gray ones.
Gray squirrels range through such a variety
of climatic conditions that their food varies
greatly. They eat practically all available nuts,
including acorns, chestnuts, beechnuts, hickory-
nuts, and pecans, besides numberless seeds,
many small fruits, and mushrooms. They raid
fields for corn and wheat, and steal apples, pears,
and quinces from macnerndls to eat the seeds.
Like most other small rodents, they aré fond of
larve and insects and also destroy many birds’
eggs and young birds. They are far less seri-
ous offenders, however, in destroying’ birds
than the red squirrel.
On the approach of winter they lay up stores
of seeds and nuts in holes in trees and in little
hiding places on the ground. Many nuts are
hidden away singly. In the public parks of
Washington, where many gray squirrels exist,
I have repeatedly seen them dig a little pit
two or three inches deep, then push a nut well
down it, cover it with earth, which they press
firmly in place with the front feet, and then
pull loose grass over the spot. One squirrel
will have many such hidden nuts, and with
nothing to mark the location it appears im-
possible that they could be recovered. That
the squirrels knew what they were doing I
have had repeated evidence in winter, even with
several inches of snow on the ground, when
they have been seen sniffing along the top of
the snow, suddenly stop, dig down and un-
earth a nut with a precision that demonstrates
the marvelous delicacy of their sense of smell.
Although mainly diurnal, they are sometimes
abroad on moonlight nights, especially when
gathering stores of food for winter.
Wherever they are, these squirrels are ex-
tremely graceful, moving along the ground by
curving bounds, the long fluffy tail undulating
as they go, or running through the tree-tops,
leaping from branch to branch with an ease
and certainty beautiful to see. When pressed
they make amazing leaps from tree to tree or
even from a high tree-top to the ground with-
out injury. They are extremely cunning at
459
concealing themselves by lying flat on top of
branches or by gliding around tree trunks, keep-
ing them interposed between themselves and
the pursuer.
Gray squirrels are so responsive to protec-
tion that they may continue to grace our re-
maining forests if we properly guard them. In
addition to their beauty, they are interesting
game animals which should continue to afford
a moderate amount of sport—sufficient to pre-
vent them from becoming overabundant and
destructive. Now introduced in many city
parks throughout the United States and in
parts of England, including London, their ready
acceptance of people as friends renders them
charming animals in such places; but natural
food is so scarce under these artificial condi-
tions that care must be taken to feed them at
all seasons, especially in winter.
THE FOX SQUIRREL (Sciurus niger
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 445)
THE RUSTY FOX SQUIRREL (Sciurus
niger rufiventer)
(For illustration, see page 445)
Three species of tree squirrels inhabit the
varied forests of eastern North America, each
having its marked individuality expressed in
color, size, and habits. All occupy a wide terri-
~ tory with varying climatic conditions, to which
each species has responded by becoming modi-
fled into a series of geographic races, or sub-
species. The red and the gray squirrels have
already been described and it remains to give
an account of the largest and in some respects
the most remarkable of the three, the fox
squirrel.
No other species of North American mam-
mal can show such an extraordinary contrast
in color among its subspecies as that between
the rusty yellowish animal of the Ohio and
upper Mississippi Valleys, and the handsome
blackish one of the Southeastern States, both
of which are pictured in the accompanying
illustration.
The distribution of the fox squirrel is limited
to the forested parts of the Eastern States.
There it ranges from the Atlantic coast to the
border of the Great Plains, and from southern
New York and the upper Mississippi Valley
southward to Florida, the Gulf coast, and across
the lower Rio Grande into extreme northeast-
ern Mexico.
Variations in the character of the haunts of
the different subspecies of this squirrel almost
equal their differences in color. In the upper
Mississippi and Ohio Valleys the rusty-colored
race frequents the upland woods, where the
nut-bearing hickory trees characterize the for-
ests. In the South the dark-colored squirrels
have more varied homes, either amid the live
oaks draped in long Spanish moss, in the mys-
terious cypress forests of the swamps, or out
in the uplands among the southern pines.
% sisies ie
3 wae
icp Ft ©
RING-TAILED CAT
Bassariscus astutus
460
OREGON MOLE
Scapanus townsendi
Y
YH
STAR-NOSED MOLE
Condylura cristata
461
462 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
~
In early days fox squirrels were plentiful,
but never equaled the numbers of the gray
squirrel. ‘They appear always to have been
more closely attached to their own district, for
we have no records of the great migrations so
notable in the other species.
Fox squirrels are not only distinguished from
gray squirrels by their color, but are also nearly
twice their size, commonly attaining a weight
of two and sometimes nearly three pounds.
They are the strongest and most heavily pro-
portioned of all American squirrels. A de-
liberation of movement going with heaviness
of body is in marked contrast to the graceful
agility of most other tree squirrels. On the
ground they walk with a curiously awkward,
waddling gait, and even when hard pressed
climb trees with none of the dashing quickness
shown by other species. They often move
about on the ground by a series of bounds, and
at such times, with broad, feathery tails undulat-
ing in the air, present a most graceful and at-
tractive sight.
Fox and gray squirrels occupy the same dis-
tricts throughout most of their ranges, but
often become so segregated locally that the
grays may be found almost exclusively along
bottom-lands and the fox squirrels on the higher
ridges, but there is no hard and fast separation
of haunts and the two forms usually share the
same woodlands.
Much time is spent by fox squirrels on the
ground searching for food. When danger ap-
proaches, in place of promptly taking refuge in
a tree, aS 1S.a common habit with most tree
squirrels, they retreat along the ground, mount-
ing a stump or log now and then, to look back
at a suspected intruder, whose footsteps they
can hear at a long distance. If the hunter is
without a dog they may run away and be lost.
A dog soon forces them up a tree and if.a
knot-hole or other hollow is available they at
once take refuge in it. Otherwise they hide
skillfully in bunches of leaves high in the top
or lie flat on a limb or against the trunk, slyly
moving to keep on the opposite side as the
hunter draws near. In the Mississippi Valley
during the crisp days when the hickory nuts
are falling and the trees are decked in all the
glories of autumn foliage, few sports afield
yield more pleasurable sensations than fox-
squirrel hunting.
The fox squirrels become fatter than most of
their kind and their flesh is not so dry, al-
though all furnish appetizing meat. Owing to
their size and the quality of their flesh, they
have been such desirable game animals that with
the constantly growing number of hunters and
the destruction of forests they have already
disappeared from large areas where formerly
abundant and are in real danger of extermina-
tion in the not-distant future. They are among
the most notable and attractive of the forest
animals in the Eastern States, and before it is
too late every effort should be made to protect
them from overshooting. With reasonable con-
servation they will continue to thrive and keep
some of the old-time primitive spirit in our
woods. [Tormerly they had the same predilec-
tion as the gray squirrel for the farmers’ corn
fields and were under the ban, but their num-
bers are now so reduced that they give little
trouble in this way. In some city parks where
they have been introduced, they soon become
tame and do well, except that in losing their
fear of man they become subject to many ac-
cidents.
Fox squirrels, like many others of their kind,
have homes both in knot-holes or other hollows
in tree trunks, and in bulky nests of sticks and
leaves high up among the branches. Both kinds
of nesting places are often located in the same
tree, the owner living in the outside nest in
warm weather and retiring to the shelter of
the hollow trunk in severe weather or to escape
an enemy. ‘The young, two to four in number,
are usually born in March or April, and it is
not definitely known whether there is a second
litter. These squirrels have a barking call as
well as several other rather deep-toned chuck-
ing notes.
They are as omnivorous as any of their kind,
eating many kinds of nuts, seeds, fruits, mush-
rooms, insects, birds, birds’ eggs, and other
flesh food when available. The principal nuts
in their haunts are hickory-nuts, beechnuts,
walnuts, pecan nuts, and the seeds of pines
and cypresses. Toward the end of summer and
in fall they work busily gathering and storing
food for winter in hollow trees, in old logs,
about the roots of trees, and in any other snug
place where it may be kept safely until needed.
Many single nuts are buried here and there in
little pits three or four inches deep dug in the
soft surface of the earth under the trees. These
scattered stores are located when needed by
the acute sense of smell which the owners
possess.
THE ABERT SQUIRREL (Sciurus aberti
and its subspecies)
(For illustration, see page 448)
THE KAIBAB SQUIRREL (Sciurus
kaibabensis )
(For illustration, see page 448)
Among the many kinds of squirrels which
lend animation and charm to the forests of
North and South America, none equal in beauty
the subjects of this sketch—the Abert and the
Kaibab squirrels. These are the only American
squirrels endowed with conspicuous ear tufts,
which character they share with the squirrels
occupying the forests in the northern parts of
the Old World from England to Japan. In
weight they about equal a large gray squirrel,
but are shorter and distinctly more heavily pro-
portioned, with broader and more feathery tails.
Their range covers the pine-forested region
of the southern Rocky Mountains in the United
States and the Sierra Madre of western Mex-
ico. The Abert squirrel and its several sub-
species is the more widely distributed, being
found from northern Colorado, south through
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
New Mexico, Arizona, Chihuahua, and Du-
rango. The Kaibab squirrel, which is even
more beautiful than its relative, shows marked
differences in appearance and yet is evidently
derived from the same species.
The typical Abert squirrel lives in the pine
forests along the southern rim of the Grand
Canyon in northern Arizona, and the Kaibab
squirrel lives in the pines visible on the north-
‘ern rim of the canyon less than 15 miles away.
It is confined to an islandlike area of pine
forest above 70 miles long by 35 miles wide, on
the north side of the canyon, on the Kaibab
and Powell plateaus, directly across from the
end of the railroad at the Grand Canyon Hotel.
The two species live under practically identical
conditions as to vegetation and climate.
In these sketches of our. mammal life I have
repeatedly noted the effect of changing environ-
ment in modifying the animals subject to it.
In the present case the change in the squirrels
on the north side of the Grand Canyon has
evidently been brought about by that powerful
factor in evolution known as isolation. - Cut off
from their fellows by the deepening canyon of
the Colorado, Kaibab squirrels have occupied
a forest island ever since, with the resulting
change in characters we now have in evidence.
The home of both the Abert and the Kaibab
squirrels is almost entirely between 6,000 and
9,500 feet altitude, on the mountain slopes and
high plateaus overgrown with a splendid open
forest of yellow pine mixed in many places
with firs and aspens. Occasionally, as food be-
comes scarce in their ordinary haunts, they
range up into the firs or down into the oaks
and pifion pines. In winter their haunts are
buried in snow, but in summer on every hand
present lovely vistas among the massive tree
trunks, varied here and there by gemlike parks.
Everywhere the ground is covered with grasses
and multitudes of flowering plants. In the
wilder parts of this fascinating wilderness
roam bears, mountain lions, wolves, deer, and
wild turkeys, and only a few decades ago still
wilder men, belonging to some of our most
dreaded Indian tribes.
Although these squirrels commonly make use
of large knot-holes or other hollows in trees,
they regularly build high up in the branches
bulky nests of leaves, pine needles, and twigs
and line them with soft grass and shredded
bark. Sometimes several full-grown squirrels
may be found occupying one of these outside
nests, probably members of one family. They
are active throughout the year, but remain in
their nests during storms and severe winter
weather. In northern Arizona I have known
them to stay under cover for a week or two at
a time in midwinter.
The young appear ‘to be born at varying
times between April and September. Although
not definitely known, it seems probable that they
have two litters of from three to four young
each season.
The seeds and the tender bark from the
terminal twigs of the yellow pine (Pinus pon-
derosa) furnish their principal food supply. Dur-
463
ing periods when pine seeds are not available
the squirrels cut the ends of pine twigs, letting
the terminal part bearing the leaves fall to the
ground, while the stem, several inches in length,
is stripped of bark. Often at times of food
scarcity the bark will be eaten for a consider-
able distance along-the outer branches, almost
like the work of porcupines. The ground under
the pines where the squirrels are at work is
sometimes almost covered with the freshly
dropped tips of branches.
The Abert squirrels also eat the seeds of
Douglas spruce, of the pifion pine, acorns, many
seeds, roots, green vegetation, mushrooms,
birds’ eggs, and young birds. Now and then
they rob cornfields planted in clearings, but
they do little damage to crops. Some years
they are extremely numerous and are in evi-
dence everywhere; again they become scarce
and so wary that it is difficult to see one, even
where its fresh workings are in evidence.
Both these squirrels have a deep churring
or chucking call, sometimes becoming a barking
note resembling that of the fox squirrel. They
also have a variety of chattering and scolding
notes when excited or angry. At times they
become almost as aggressive as the red squirrel
and come down the tree trunk or to a lower
branch, whence they scold and berate the object
of their disapproval.
When much alarmed they are expert at hid-.
ing among tufts of leaves near the ends of
branches, on tops of large limbs, or behind
trunks. They will remain hidden in this way
for an hour or more, patiently waiting for the
danger to disappear, but one is often betrayed
by the wind blowing the feathery tip of its tail
into view.
On the ground the tail is usually carried up-
raised in graceful curves. Here these squirrels
spend much time among fallen cones and in
digging for roots and other food. When they
walk they have an awkward waddling gait, but
when they are alarmed, or desire to move more
rapidly for any cause, they progress in a series
of extremely graceful bounds, which show the
plumelike tail to good advantage. When the
Kaibab squirrel is moving about on the ground
its great white tail is extraordinarily conspicu-
ous in the sunshine. This repeatedly drew my
attention to these squirrels, even at such long
distances that they would otherwise have been
overlooked.
Although so heavily built, these squirrels are
adept in leaping from branch to branch and
from tree to tree. On one occasion a branch
on which an Abert squirrel was standing near
the top of a pine tree was struck by a rifle ball;
the squirrel promptly ran to the end of a large
branch about fifty feet from the ground, and
although no tree was anywhere near on that
side, leaped straight out into the air, with its
legs outspread just as in a flying squirrel. It
came down in a horizontal position and struck
the ground flat on its under side and the re-
bound raised it several inches. ‘Without an in-
stant’s delay it was running at full speed across
a little open park and disappeared in the forest
SHORT-TAILED SHREW COMMON SHREW
Blarina brevicauda Sorex personatus
HOARY BAT RED BAG
Nycteris cinereus Nycteris borealts
464
EARED DESERT BAT
BIG
Antrozous pallidus
MEXICAN BAT
IHOMUS MEXICARUS
Nyct
465
466
on the other side. I was standing only a few
yards to one side of the falling squirrel and the
widely spread feet and legs were perfectly out-
lined against the sky. It was evident that this
squirrel and probably all of its kind appreciate
that such an attitude will help break the force
of the descent. This suggested the possibility
of a similar habit having influenced the origin
of the flying squirrel’s membranes.
One summer day in the Sierra Madre of
western Durango I sat on a mountain slope
watching for game. Below me stood the hol-
low-topped stub of an oak, the top being on a
level with my eyes and about twenty yards
away. soon after I arrived the heads of four
half-grown squirrels of the Abert family ap-
peared in a row at the upper border of the
opening, their bright eyes turning on all sides.
Suddenly a hawk elided by, one of its wing tips
almost brushing the noses of the squirrels. In-
stantly they vanished from sight and a noise of
scratching and frightened chattering continued
for several minutes, as though they were bury-
ing themselves under the nest. About twenty
minutes later the boldest of the family showed
the tip of his nose at an opening in a hollow
branch near the top of the stub, but it required
another ten minutes for him to venture forth
his head. Finally, becoming confident that no
danger threatened, he came out on the limb
and deliberately stretched: himself, yawning as
widely as his little mouth would permit, after
which he flirted his tail and frisked over to the
trunk of the stub, where he began frolicking
about with ali the abandon of a kitten at play.
When I departed his more timorous companions
were still peering fearfully out of the hole, an-
ticipating the return of the dreaded hawk.
THE FLYING SQUIRREL (Glaucomys
volans and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 449)
No one can see one of our small flying squir-
rels in life without being charmed by its deli-
cate grace of form and velvety fur, nor fail to
note the large black eyes which give it a pleas-
ing air of lively intelligence. Flying squirrels
are distinguished from all other members of
the squirrel family by extensions of the skin
along the sides, which unite the front and hind
legs, so that when the animal leaps from some
elevated point with legs outspread the mem-:
brane and the underside of the body present a
broad, flat surface to the air. This enables it
to glide swiftly down in a diagonal course
toward a tree trunk or other vertical surface
on which it desires to alight. It is able to con-
trol its movements and to turn with ease to one
side or the other, or upward before alighting.
When gliding down a wooded hillside or through
thick growths of timber, it is thus able to avoid
obstacles and alight on the desired place.
Flying squirrels are circumpolar in distribu-
tion. In the Old World they occupy forested
areas in eastern Europe, and nearly all of Asia.
In the New World they are peculiar to North
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
America, where they frequent nearly all the
wooded parts from the Arctic Circle to the
Mexican border, and in forests in Mexico along
the eastern border of the highlands as well as
through Chiapas and Guatemala. In Asia, the
center of development of these interesting ro-
dents, many extraordinary forms occur. Some
are giants of their kind, measuring nearly four
feet in total length. In America there are two
groups of species, the smaller and better known
of which, the subject of this sketch, occupies
the eastern United States and southward. The
northern and western animals are larger, some
of them more than twice the weight of the
eastern species.
In many parts of the United States flying
squirrels are common and even abundant, but
their habits are so strictly nocturnal that they
are infrequently seen. They make their homes
in woodpecker holes, knot-holes, and hollows in
limbs, and trunks of trees and stubs. In ad-
dition they take possession of many odd places
for residence, among which may be mentioned
bird-boxes, dove-cotes, attics, cupboards, boxes,
and other nooks in occupied or unoccupied
houses that are located within or at the borders
of woods.
They also make nests of leaves, lining them
with fine fibrous bark, grass, moss, fur, or other
soft material placed securely in the branches
or in forks in trees. They often remodel old
bird or squirrel nests into snug homes for
themselves. The size and construction of these
outside nests vary according to the locality and
the material available.
As a rule, the nests are small and accommo-
date only a single pair with their young, and
sometimes hold only a single individual, but nu-
merous exceptions to isis have been observed.
In southern Illinois fifty flying squirrels were
discovered in one nest in a tree; in Indiana
fifteen were found in a hollow stump; and
near Philadelphia thirty were evicted from a
martin box they had usurped.
In the southern part of their range flying
squirrels are active throughout the year, but in
the North they become more or less sluggish
if they do not actually reach the stage of real
hibernation during the severest weather.
Their food is extremely varied and includes
whatever nuts grow in their haunts, as beech-
nuts, pecans, acorns, and others, with many kinds
of seeds, including corn gathered in the field,
and buds, and fruits of many kinds. They also
eat many insects, larve, birds and their eggs,
and meat. Taking advantage of their known
liking for bird flesh, they may frequently be
caught by concealing a trap on top of a log in
the woods and scattering bird feathers over
and about it. Trappers for marten and other
forest fur-bearers are much annoyed in winter
by the persistence with which the flying squir-
rels search out their traps and become caught
in them, thus forestalling a more valued cap-
ture. Trappers in Montana who run long lines
of traps for marten through the mountain for-
ests capture hundreds of these squirrels in a
single season.
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 46
Flying squirrels have
several notes, one of
which is an ordinary
chuck, chuck, much like
that of other squirrels.
They also utter sharp
squeaks and squeals when
angry or much alarmed,
and a clear musical chirp-
ing note, birdlike in char-
acter, which is frequently
repeated for several min-
utes in succession and is
undoubtedly a song.
These beautiful little
animals hecome the most
delightful of pets, as they
are notable for extraor-
dinary playfulness and a
readiness to accept man
as a friend. Many in-
teresting accounts have
been published concern-
ing the affectionate at-
tachment they form for
their human hosts and
the amusing and tireless
activity they show at
night. By day they re-
main sound asleep, rolled
up in a 2hurry ball” in
some dark corner.
They are known to have
a litter of from two to
six young in April, and
young are born at vari-
ous times throughout the
summer, but it is still un-
settled whether there is
more than one litter a
-year. The mother is de-
voted to the young, and
if driven from them will
keep close by at the risk
of her life, showing much
anxiety and readiness to
do what she can to pro-
tect them. One instance
well illustrates this ma-
ternal care. From a nest
in a hollow stub the help-
less young were taken
and placed on the ground
at its base, while the de-
spoiler of the home stood
by to observe the result.
The mother soon _ re-
turned and not finding
her family in the nest
promptly located them on
the ground. Quickly de-
scending, she took one
in her mouth, carried it
to the top of the stub
and, launching into the
air, sailed to a tree thirty
feet away, up which she
carried her baby and
ETS,
THE TRAIL OF THE MUSKRAT
The usual gait of the muskrat on land is a slow walk. The tail
mark is always very strongly shown (see pages 411 and 424).
°7
A68 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
am
®
FO inches
Zincdées.
THE TRACKS OF A GRASSHOPPER MOUSE
__. The anatomy of the foot is fairly well shown in the track—the
insignificant thumb and the tubercles on the soles. The placing of
the fore feet, one behind the other, indicates that the creature can-
not climb a tree. The tail seldom or never shows. The original of
this was in fine dust. ‘The small tracks to the right show the style
usually seen. ‘There are many species of grasshopper mouse, but the
tracks are not distinguishable from each other. The exact species
is determined by locality, size, etc. (see pages 418 and 425).
placed it safely in a
knot-hole. The trip was
quickly repeated until the
family was reunited in
its new location.
At night the curiosity
of flying squirrels about
strange things and their
mischievous activities are
often most entertaining,
and sometimes exasperat-
ing. Whatever is ac-
cessible within their ter-
ritory is certain to be
thoroughly explored. A
large apartment building,
seven stories high, in
Washington stands on
the border of the woods
of the Zoological Park.
During one summer night
a friend occupying an
apartment on the seventh
floor of this building,
fronting the park, ob-
served some movement
on one of his window
sills and by later obser-
vation and by inquiry
among the other resi-
dents learned that flying
squirrels were habitually |
climbing all about the
high walls to the top of
this building, using it
and some of the rooms
as a nightly playground.
Several occupants of
apartments in different
parts: Olathe building
regularly placed nuts of
various kinds on _ the
window ledges for them,
and now and then were
amused to find that dur-
ing the night the squir-
rels had carried away
some of their nuts, but
had replaced them with
other kinds, sometimes
brought from a window
at a considerable dis-
tance on another side of
the building. The pres-
ence of these squirrels
was warmly welcomed
and furnished much in-
terest to their hosts.
The constant activity
of these little animals at
night enables owls and
cats to capture many, but
their small size and the
shelter of their homes
by day will prevent their
serious decrease in num-
bers so long as suitable
forests remain to supply
their needs.
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
THE BLACK-FOOTED FERRET
(Mustela nigripes and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 449)
Of all the varied forms of mammalian life
in America, the black-footed ferret has always
impressed me as one of the strangest and most
like a stranded exotic. It is about the size of
a mink, but, as the illustration shows, is entirely
different in appearance and has the general
form of a giant weasel. It has no close rela-
tive in America, but bears an extraordinarily
close resemblance in size, form, and color to
the Siberian ferret (Mustela eversmannt).
The black-footed ferret occurs only in the
interior of the United States, closely restricted
to the area inhabited by prairie-dogs, from the
Rocky Mountains eastward and from Montana
and the Dakotas to western Texas. It is
known also west of the mountains in Colorado.
Like others of the weasel tribe, it must have
a wandering disposition, since one was captured
at 9,800 feet altitude, and another was found
drowned at 10,250 feet in Lake Moraine, Colo-
FAdOs —
These ferrets exist as parasites in the prairie-
dog colonies, making their homes in deserted
burrows and feeding on the hapless colonists.
In Kansas their presence in certain localities
appears to have been effective in exterminating
prairie-dogs, and similar activities may account
for the deserted “dog towns” which are not
infrequently observed on the plains with no ap-
parent reason for the absence of the habitants.
They do not appear to be numerous in any
part of their range and little is known con-
cerning their habits. Now and then they are
seen moving about prairie-dog “‘towns,” passing
in and out of the burrows at all hours of the
day, but it is probable that they are mainly
nocturnal. This probability is strengthened by
the extreme restlessness shown at night by cap-
tive animals. With the occupation of the coun-
try and the inevitable extinction of the prairie-
dog over nearly or quite all of its range, the
black-footed ferret is practically certain to dis-
appear with its host species.
It has the same bold, inquisitive character
shown by the weasel, and when its interest is
excited will stand up on its hind legs and
stretch its long neck to one side and another
in an effort to satisfy its curiosity... When
surprised in a “dog town” it commonly retreats
to a burrow, but promptly turns and raises its
head high out of the hole to observe the visitor.
As a result ferrets are readily killed by hunters.
When one is captured it will at first hiss and
spit like a cat and fight viciously, but is not
difficult to tame.
Although mainly dependent upon prairie-dogs
for food, there is little doubt that ferrets, after
the manner of their kind, also kill rabbits and
other rodents in addition to taking whatever
birds and birds’ eggs may be secured. In one
instance a black-footed ferret lived for several
days under a wooden sidewalk in the border
town of Hays, Kansas, where it killed the rats
harboring there.
469
THE LARGE WEASELS, OR STOATS
(Mustela arcticus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 452)
The weasel family includes not only the true
weasels, but numerous other carnivores, as the
sable or marten, mink, ferret, skunk, and land
and sea otters, all of which rank among our
highly valued fur-bearers. ‘The large weasel
may be distinguished from others of its family
by the small size and the snakelike propor-
tions of the flattened and pointed head, com-
bined with a long, extremely slender neck and
body and a comparatively long tail. The best
known of these animals are the stoat of the
northern parts of the Old World (Mustela
erminea) and its close relative in northern
North America (Mustela arcticus), the winter
skins of which furnish the famed ermine, once
sacred to the trappings of royalty.
The northern weasels are strongly marked by
their habit of changing their brown coat to
one of snowy white at the beginning of winter.
To the south the change becomes less com-
plete as the winter snows decrease, and south
of the limit of snow the brown coat is retained
throughout the year. The time of change de-
pends on the coming of the snow and varies
with the year, and the time of resumption of
the brown coat in spring depends in the same
way on the season. The white winter coat of
the larger and medium-sized species is accom-
panied by a strongly contrasting jet black tip
to the tail.
Weasels are circumpolar in distribution and
occupy nearly all parts of Europe, Asia, and
North and South America, the greatest number
and variety of species occurring in North
America. Surprisingly enough, the largest of
these eminently northern animals is found in
the forests of the American tropics. The Arctic
weasel ranges to the northernmost polar lands
of North America, where its presence has been
recorded many times by ice-bound explorers.
Other species are more or less generally dis-
tributed over the remainder of the continent.
In Mexico I have found them from sea level
to above timberline, at more that 13,000 feet
altitude on the high volcanoes.
The strong personality of the weasels as a
group is based mainly on their extraordinary
celerity of movement, their courage, and their
insatiable desire to kill. They are not satis-
fed with supplying the call for food, but when-
ever opportunity arises kill from sheer lust of
slaughter.
Their slender forms enable them to follow
their prey to the remotest depths of their re-
treats, and that all rodents have an abiding
horror of them is shown by the effect of a
weasel’s appearance. Rabbits, although many
times their size, become easy victims, and in
one instance when a large rat, which had
fought its human captor viciously, was put in
a cage with a weasel, it at once lost all its
courage and permitted itself to be killed with-
out an effort at defense.
Weasels are wonderfully endowed for their
ATO THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
\
sitting
al
By
=
Deermovse
5. 7 >.
FOOTPRINTS OF A WHITE-FOOTED MOUSE
When reduced to scale, the large tracks on
the left side are life size, showing the animal
making the ordinary bounds of about 3 inches
between each set of tracks. In speeding, the
space may increase to 12 inches. The tail usu-
ally shows in the deermouse track, and this,
with the pairing of the fore paws, is a strong
characteristic (see pages 419 and 428).
predatory work and are undoubtedly the most
perfectly organized machines for killing that
have been developed among mammals. Their
keen eyes are constantly alert to observe every-,
thing about them, their ears are attuned to.
catch the faintest squeak of a mouse or cry of
any other small animal, and their powers of
scent are very great. When hunting they dart
in and out of the holes of rodents, among
crevices 1n the rocks, or through brush piles,
pausing now and then to stand upright on their
hind feet, the head swaying to and fro as they
peer about. The squeak of a mouse starts
them instantly in search of it, and like a dog
they trail rabbits and other rodents by scent.
As a rule, weasels are terrestrial, but in
vooded country they climb trees and leap from
branch to branch with all the ease of squirrels.
In most localities they are not common, but
now and then, where conditions are peculiarly
favorable, they become numerous. At one
naturalist’s camp in the upper Yukon they were
surprisingly abundent, so much so that more
than forty were caught in a few days in traps
set among broken rocks. There they were ex-
tremely bold, hunting for their prey among the
rocks within a few feet of the trappers.
The prey of weasels includes almost every
kind of small rodent and bird living within
their territory. They feed especially upon
northern hares, cottontails, conies, ground
squirrels, chipmunks, tree squirrels, wood rats,
mice, lemmings, quail, ptarmigan, spruce and
ruffed grouse, ducks, and numberless other
small species. They are also very destructive
to domestic fowl, often killing thirty or forty
in a night. They unhesitatingly attack rodents
many times their own weight.
Once when hunting on the open plain near the
southern end of the Mexican table-land, I saw
at some distance what appeared to be a brown
ball rolling about on the ground. ‘This was
soon determined to be a weasel fastened to one
of the large and powerful pocket gophers of
that region. The weasel had its teeth set in the
back of the neck of the gopher, while the latter
was blindly trying to tear itself loose. I fired
an ineffectual shot at the weasel and it vanished
like a flash in the open tunnel of the gopher.
As I drew near, the gopher, still in fighting
mood, faced me with bared teeth. Later, when
I removed its skin, I found that the weasel had
torn loose the attachment of the heavy neck
muscles to the back of the skull until only a
thin layer remained to protect the spinal
column. ‘This had been accomplished without
breaking the thin, but extremely tough, skin of
the gopher.
When a weasel is attacking an animal which
resists, like a large ground squirrel, it raises
its head and sways its long neck back and
forth, its eyes glittering with excitement as it
watches for an opening to spring forward and
seize its prey. Its attack is always aimed at
a vital point, commonly the brain, the back of
the neck, or the jugular vein on the side.
Weasels dig their own burrows under the
shelter of slide rock, ledges, stone walls, stumps,
and outbuildings, or they occupy hollow trees
and the deserted burrows of other animals. In
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
nests thus safely located they have one litter
containing an average of from four to six, but
sometimes numbering up to twelve, young a
year. They are born at any time from April
to June, according to the latitude. The number
of young in a litter is enough to render weasels
very abundant, but this is rarely the case, and
raises the question as to the influence which
holds their number in check. |
They are both nocturnal and diurnal, ap-
parently in almost equal degree, since they are
frequently observed hunting in the middle of
the day, while their nocturnal raids on poultry
houses testify to their activities at night. When
hunting they appear like sinister shadows and
are persistent in pursuit. The young commonly
remain with the female until nearly or quite
grown and follow her closely on hunting trips.
It is interesting to see a pack of these deadly
carnivores working, the mother leading and the
young skirmishing on all sides, now spreading
out, now closing in, like a pack of miniature
hounds. On these family hunting parties, how-
ever, they usually keep close to the rocks, logs,
brush, or other cover.
Themselves subject to the law of fang and
claw, weasels are killed and eaten by wolves,
coyotes, foxes, and various birds of prey. Their
very lack of fear perhaps in many cases leads
to their destruction.
These representatives of the primitive wood-
land life continue to occupy practically all of
their original range. They visit farms in all
parts of the country and I have seen them near
the outskirts of Washington.
It is well that weasels are not abundant, for
beasts with such innate ferocity and love of
killing would: otherwise be a menace to the
existence of many useful species of birds and
mammals, especially the game birds. In many
places they live almost entirely on mice, and
there they should be left unmolested; but
whenever they locate in the vicinity of a chicken
yard the owner will do well to take proper
measures for protection.
THE LEAST WEASEL (Mustela rixosus
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 452)
In addition to the larger members of the
tribe briefly described in the foregoing sketch,
the true weasels include another group of
species, so small they may appropriately be
termed the dwarfs of their kind. They vary
from a half to less than a fourth the size of
the larger weasels, but have the same char-
acteristic form and proportions, except that the
tail is very short and never tipped with black.
Like the larger species, they change their brown
summer coat for white at the beginning of
winter and back again in spring.
The least weasels are also circumpolar in
distribution, but are limited to the northern
parts of Europe, Asia, and North America.
In England and other parts of the Old World
the group is represented by the well-known
A471
species Mustela vulgaris. In North America
several species are known which, between them,
share all the continent from the Arctic coast
south to Nebraska and Pennsylvania. On the
desolate islands extending from the mainland
far toward the Pole their place seems to be
taken by the ermine.
The dwarf weasels appear to be less numer-
ous and, as a consequence, less known in most
parts of America than in England and north-
ern Europe. Our most northern species,
Mustela rixosa, sometimes called the “mouse
weasel,” occupies Alaska and northern Canada
and has the distinction of being the smallest
known species of carnivore in the world. In
this connection it is interesting to note that
in Alaska we have associated on the same
ground the least weasel and the great brown
bear, the smallest and the largest living car-
nivores.
Least weasels are characterized by the same
swift alertness and boldness so marked in the
larger species. In fact they are, if possible,
even quicker in their movements. Once when
camping in spring among scattered snowbanks
on the coast of Bering Sea, I had an excellent
opportunity to witness their almost incredible
quickness. Early in the morning one suddenly
appeared on the margin of a snowbank within
a few feet, and after craning its neck one way
and the other, as though to get a better view
of me, it vanished, and then appeared so
abruptly on a snowbank three or four yards
away that it was almost impossible to follow
it with the eye. It was beginning to take on
its summer coat of brown and was extremely
difficult to locate amid the scattered patches
of snow and bare moss of the tundra. Cer-
tainly no other mammal can have such flash-
like powers of movement.
They feed mainly on mice, lemmings, shrews,
small birds, their eggs and young, and insects.
Mice furnish a large proportion of their prey
and weasels have often been seen following the
runways of field mice. Their small size enables
them to pursue mice into their underground
workings as readily as a ferret enters a rabbit
burrow. They: also climb trees and bushes with
great agility, although nearly always seeking
their victims on the ground. The mice upon
which they prey are often so much larger than
the weasels that they cannot be dragged into
the dens. The weasels continue in full activity
throughout the winter and constantly burrow
into the snow in search of their prey. In the
snow or in the ground the holes of this animal
are about the diameter of one’s finger.
In the Old World the small weasels are re-
ported to have several litters in a season, each
containing five or six young. At Point Barrow,
Alaska, a female captured on June 12 still con-
tained twelve embryos. This indicates that
only one litter a year would be born there, and
that Mustela rivosa is more prolific than its
European representative.
In the more southern latitude least weasels
live in forests and about farms, sheltering
themselves under logs, brush piles, stone walls,
472 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
i fy
\\ hy
Vy |
t) oF
wh ba
WAY
ot,
w
Bo ag
re)
an
~
>
7S
THE COMMON BROWN RAT
The large series shows the ordinary forag-
ing gait; the smaller one, to the right, shows
the travel at low speed. In all, the tail mark
is a strong feature (see pages 423 and 420).
and similar cover. They are always restless
and filled with curiosity regarding anything of
unusual appearance. When one encounters a
man it shows no fear, but slyly moving from
one shelter to another, now advancing and
now retreating, examines the stranger care-
fully before going on its way. As they devote
practically their entire lives to the destruction
of field mice, they are valuable friends of the
farmer and should have his good will and pro-
tection. Unfortunately for these weasels, no
discrimination is shown between them and their
larger relatives of more injurious habits.
Among the natives of Alaska all weasels are
looked upon with great respect on account of
their prowess as hunters. I found this feeling
peculiarly strong among the Eskimos, whose
existence for ages has depended so largely on
the products of the chase. Among them the
capture of a weasel meant good luck to the
hunter, and to take the rarer least weasel was
considered a happy omen. ‘The head and entire
skin of the least weasel was highly prized for
wearing as an amulet or fetich. Young men
eagerly purchased them, paying the full value
of a prime marten skin in order to wear them
as a personal adornment, that they might thus
become endowed with the hunting prowess of
this fierce little carnivore. Fathers often
bought them to attach to the belts of their
small sons, so that the youthful hunters might
become imbued with the spirit of this “little
chief” among mammals.
THE AMERICAN MINK (Mustela vison
and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 453)
In the American mink we have one of the
most widely known and valuable fur-bearers of
the weasel family. It is a long-bodied animal,
but more heavily proportioned than the weasel,
and attains a weight of from one and one-half
to more than two pounds. It has short legs
and walks slowly and rather clumsily with the
back arched. When desiring to travel rapidly
it moves ina series of rapid easy bounds which
it appears able to continue tirelessly.
The minks form a small group of species
circumpolar in distribution, and well known in
Europe, northern Asia, and in North America.
The European animal is closely similar to the
North American species and all have the same
amphibious habits. The American minks include
several different geographic races, which are
distributed over all the northern part of the
continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific and
from the mouths of the Yukon and Mackenzie
Rivers to the Gulf coast in the United States.
They are absent from the arid Southwestern
States.
Few species are more perfectly adapted to a
double mode of life thanthe mink. It is equally
at home slyly searching thickets and bottom-
land forests for prey or seeking it with otter-
like prowess beneath the water. It is a restless
animal, active both by day and by night, al-
though mainly nocturnal. —
While usually having definite dens to which
they return, minks wander widely and for so
SMALLER MAMMALS
small an animal hunt over a large territory
and pass from one body of water to another.
Their wanderings are most pronounced in fall
and again during the mating in spring. They
are solitary, their companionship with one an-
other not outliving the mating period.
Mink dens are located wherever a safe and
convenient shelter is available, and may be a
hole in a bank, made by a muskrat or other
animal, a cavity under the roots of a) tree, a
hollow log, a hollow stump, or other place.
The nest is made of grass and leaves lined
with feathers, hair, and other soft material. A
single litter of from four to twelve small and
naked young is born during April or May.
The young remain with the mother through-
out the summer, and do not leave her to estab-
lish themselves until fall, when they are nearly
erown. When captured at an early age they
are playful and become attached to the person
who cares for them. When caught in a trap
they become fiercely aggressive, often uttering
squalling shrieks, baring their teeth, and front-
ing their captor with a truculent air of savage
rage. The adults have scent sacs located under
the tail like those of a skunk. When angry or
much excited they can emit from these an ex-
ceedingly acrid and offensive odor, but have
no power to eject it forcibly at an enemy.
Minks are bold and courageous in their at-
titude toward other animals, and attack and kill
for food species heavier than themselves, like
the varying hare and the muskrat. On land
they are persistent hunters, trailing their prey
skillfully by scent. They eat mice, rats, chip-
munks, squirrels, and birds and birds’ eggs of
many kinds, including waterfowl, oven-birds,
and other ground-frequenting species. About
the waterside they vary this diet by capturing
fish of many kinds, which they pursue in the
water, snakes, frogs, salamanders, insects, crus-
taceans, and mussels.
Their prowess is shown by their raids on
chicken-houses, where they often kill many
grown fowls in a night, and sometimes drag
birds heavier than themselves long distances to
their dens. A remarkable indication of the
varied menu of the mink was exhibited in a
nest found by Dr. C. H. Merriam, where the
owner had gathered the bodies of a muskrat,
a red squirrel, and a downy woodpecker.
The value of the mink’s furry coat has led
to its steady pursuit by trappers in all climes,
from the coast of Florida to the borders of
sluggish streams on Arctic tundras. Mi§illions
of them have fallen victims to this warfare
and their skins have gone to adorn mankind.
In spite of this the mink today occupies all its
original territory, and each year yields a fresh
harvest of furs.
The mink by preference is a forest animal,
living along the wooded bottom-lands of rivers
or the thicket-grown borders of small streams,
where the rich vegetation gives abundance of
shelter and at the same time attracts a wealth
of small mammals and birds on which it may
prey. From these secure coverts it wanders
through the surrounding country at night, visit-
OF NORTH AMERICA
473
ing many chicken-houses on farms and leaving
devastation behind. It is persistent and bold
in such forays and in locations near its haunts
great care must be exercised to guard against
it. Minks have repeatedly raided the enclosures
of the National Zoological Park in Washington.
Now and then, on the banks of some wild
stream, one will try to appropriate the catch
lying at the very feet of a lone fisherman. A
naturalist fishing on a stream in northern
Canada, seeing a mink making free with his
catch, sct a small steel trap on the bare ground,
and holding the attached chain in one hand
raised and slowly drew toward him the fish
upon which the mink was feeding. The mink,
without hesitation, followed the fish and was
caught in the trap.
An abundance of food may modify the pref-
erence of the mink for wooded or partly wood-
ed ccuntry. The marshy and treeless tundra
lying near sea-level in the triangle between the
coast of Bering Sea, and the lower parts of
the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers offers such
an attractive situation differing from their
usual haunts. The sluggish streams and num-
berless ponds abound with small fish four
to five inches long. Minks swarm in this area
to such an extent that the Eskimos who in-
habit the district are known among the natives
of the surrounding region as the “mink people.”
Steel traps are used there, but a primitive
method is even more successful. A wicker
fence is built across a narrow stream and a
small fyke fish-trap placed in it. In swimming
along the stream minks pass into the trap like
fish, and I knew of from 10 to I5 being thus
taken in one day.
During my residence in that region from
10,000 to 15,000 mink skins were caught in
this tundra district annually, and the supply
appeared to be inexhaustible. With the grow-
ing occupation of the continent and the increas-
ing demand for furs, however, the numbers of
the mink must surely decrease. To forestall
the shortage of furs that seems imminent, ef-
forts are now being meade to establish fur farm-
ing to replace the declining supply of wild furs
with those grown under domestication. The
mink appears to be well adapted to successful
breeding in captivity. The main question to
solve is the relation of the cost of caring for
the animals to the value of its pelt in the
market. :
THE MARTEN, OR AMERICAN SABLE
(Martes americana and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 453)
Wild animals possess an endless variety of
mental traits which endow them in many in-
stances with marked individualities. Few are
more strongly characterized in this respect than
the marten. One of the most graceful and
beautiful of our forest animals, it frequents the
more inaccessible parts of the wilderness and
retires shyly before the inroads of the settler’s
ax. Its rich brown coat, so highly prized that
AT4 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
the pursuit of it goes on winter after winter in
all the remote forests of the North, is a source
of danger threatening the existence of the
species. The full-grown animal weighs five or
six pounds and measures nearly three feet in
length.
The martens are circumpolar in distribution,
and the several species occupy northern lands
from England, Europe, and northern Asia to
North America. Of the Old World species, the
Siberian sable is best known on account of the
beauty of its fine, rich fur, which renders it
the most valued of all in the fur markets of
the world.
The North American marten is a close rela-
tive of the Siberian species, and occupies all
the wooded parts of North America from the
northern limit of trees southward in the for-
ested mountains to Pennsylvania, New Mexico,
and the southern part of the Sierra Nevada in
California.
Like other members of the weasel tribe, the
marten is a fierce and merciless creature of ra-
pine, but unlike the mink and weasel, it avoids
the abodes of man and loves the remotest
depths of the wilderness.
Martens are endowed with an exceedingly
nervous and excitable temperament, combined
with all the flashing quickness of weasels. They
are more restless than any other among the
larger species of their notably restless tribe,
and couple with this extraordinary and tire-
less vigor. This is admirably shown in cap-
tivity, when by the hour they dart back and
forth, up and down and around their cages
with almost incredible speed.
In the forest they climb trees and jump from
branch to branch: .withall the Jacility. (of “a
squirrel—in fact, they pursue and capture red
squirrels in fair chase, and have been seen in
pursuit of the big California gray squirrel
(Sciurus griseus). On the ground they move
about quickly, hunting weasel-like, under brush
piles and other cover.
Practically every living thing within their
power falls victim to their rapacity. They eat
minks, weasels, squirrels, chipmunks, wood rats,
mice of many kinds, conies, snowshoe hares,
ruffed and spruce grouse, and smaller birds of
all kinds and their eggs, as well as frogs, fish,
beetles, crickets, beechnuts, and a variety of
small wild fruits. Unlike minks and weasels,
they are not known to kill wantonly more than
they need for food.
They make nests of grass, moss, and leaves
in hollow trees, under logs, among rocks, and
in holes in the ground. Sometimes they have
been found in possession of a red squirrel’s
nest, probably after having slain and devoured
the owner.
The young, varying from one to eight in
numberwane bogmin “April oreMay., sAt. frst
they are naked and helpless, but when large
enough accompany the mother on her search
for food. This period of schooling fasts until
they are forced to take up their separate lives
with the approach of winter. Thenceforth they
are among the most solitary of animals, show-
ing fierce antagonism toward one another
whenev er they meet, and associating only dur-
ing a brief period in the mating season in
February or March. Martens show a cold-
blooded ferocity toward one another that often
renders it dangerous to put two or more in
the same cage. When placed in a cage to-
gether the male very commonly kills the female
by biting her through the skull. At times they
utter a loud, shriil squall or shriek, and in
traps hiss, growl, and sometimes bark.
Among the dense forests of spruce and lodge-
pole pine high up in the mountains of Colorado,
martens are sometimes hunted on skis in mid-
winter, an exciting and often, on these rugged
slopes, a dangerous sport. They are not wary
about traps and are readily caught by dead-
falls and other rude contrivances as well as
by steel traps. In Colorado and Montana hun-
dreds of their skins are taken by trappers every
winter.
In Siberia the sable has been exterminated
by hunting in many districts, and before the
present war began had become so scarce in
others that the Russian Government closed the
season for them for a period of years over
nearly all of their range. The same reduction
in the numbers of our marten has occurred in
most parts of Alaska and elsewhere in its range,
and its only hope against extermination lies in
stringent protection. Protective regulations are
already in force in Alaska.
During the early fur-trading days in north-
ern Canada the number of martens varied be-
tween comparative abundance and rarity. These
variations were said to occur about every ten
years. Some claimed the decrease was due to
a migration which the martens were believed
to make from one region to another, just as
was believed of the lynx, The lack of a corre-
sponding increase in surrounding districts,
where trading posts were located, effectually
disproved the migration theory. There is little
doubt that the increase of martens was due to
a reproductive response to a plentiful food
supply during years when mice or snowshoe
hares were abundant and their decrease was
due to'a lessening of the numbers of these food
animals.
Efforts are being made to domesticate mar-
tens and raise them for their skins on fur
farms. The main difficulty so far encountered
lies in the fiendish manner in which the old
males kill the females and the younger males.
Although always nervous, they are not difficult
to tame, and will be most entertaining and at-
tractive animals to rear if their savage natures
can be sufficiently overcome. 7
THE LITTLE SPOTTED SKUNK
(Spilogale putorius and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 456)
The skunks form a distinct section of the
weasel family, limited to North and South
America. The group is divided into three wells
marked sections. One of these, the little spot-
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
ted skunks, is distinguished from all other
mammals by the curious and pleasing sym-
metry of the black and white markings of the
animals. Few more beautiful fur garments are
made than those from the skins of these ani-
mals in their natural colors. These skunks are
smaller than any members of the other groups,
varying from a little larger than a large chip-
munk to the size of a fox squirrel.
Little spotted skunks include several species
and geographic races. All are limited to North
America and are rather irregularly distributed
from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific and from
Virginia, Minnesota, Wyoming, and southern
British Columbia southward to the Gulf coast,
to the end of Lower California, and through
Mexico and Central America to Costa Rica.
They inhabit a variety of climatic conditions,
from the rocky ledges high up on the slopes
of the western mountains to the hot desert
plains of the Southwest, and to partly forested
regions in both temperate and tropical lands.
In different parts of the United States they
have several other names, including “civet,”
“civet cat,” and * ‘hydrophobia skunk.”
The spotted skunks make their homes in
whatever shelter is most convenient, whether
it be clefts in rocky ledges, slide rock, hollows
in logs or stumps, holes dug by themselves in
banks or under the shelter of cactuses or other
thorny vegetation, the deserted holes of bur-
rowing owls in Florida, or the old dens of
various kinds of mammals elsewhere. Thickets,
open woods, ocean beaches, and the vicinity of
deserted or even occupied buildings on ranches
are equally welcome haunts. On the plains of
Arizona they have been known to live inside
the mummified carcass of a cow, the sun-dried
hide of which made an impregnable cover. They
have a single litter of from two to six young
each year.
Their diet is fully as varied as that of others
of the weasel kind, but is made up mainly of
insects and other forms injurious to agricul-
ture, including grasshoppers, crickets, beetles,
and larve of many kinds. They feed also on
flesh whenever possible and prey on wood rats,
mice of many kinds, small ground squirrels,
small birds and their eggs, young chickens,
lizards, salamanders, and crawfish. This car-
nivorous diet is further varied with mushrooms,
peanuts, persimmons, cactus fruit, and other
small fruits. Sometimes the animals locate
about occupied habitations in primitive com-
munities, where they give good service by kill-
ing the house rats, mice, and cockroaches on
the premises. On one occasion a spotted skunk
was detected cunningly removing the downy
chicks from under a brooding hen without dis-
turbing her.
In comparison with the other skunks these
little animals are extremely agile. They are
strictly nocturnal and when pursued at night
by dogs will climb to safety in a tree like a
squirrel. When caught in a trap they struggle
and fight far more vigorously than their big
relatives. They usually carry the tail in a
A475
Fenid
aceite ieaseanoneannactoernesenorewetns
~ \Woodchuck
£c
THE COMMON WOODCHUCK, OR AMERICAN
MARMOT (SEE PAGES 431-432)
Its track shows this animal’s kindship with
the squirrels. ‘The small series, to the left,
show the ordinary ambling pace. When speed-
ing, it sets its feet much like the little, or east-
ern, chipmunk (see page 477).
somewhat elevated position, but when danger
threatens hold it upright like a warning signal.
If the enemy fails to take heed they shoot two
little spraylike jets of liquid bearing the usual
offensive skunk odor, and the victim retires
without honor.
In writing of these skunks about the Valley
476
of Mexico, in 1628, Dr. Hernandez tells us
that “the powerful arm which they use when
in peril is the insupportable gas they throw out
behind which condenses the surrounding at-
mosphere so that, as one grave missionary
says, it appears as though one could feel it.”
That the little spotted skunk is subject to
rabies and has communicated it to many men
in the West is unquestionable. It usually bites
men who are sleeping on the ground in its
haunts, as they commonly do on the western
stock ranges.
I have personally known of several instances
in northern Arizona of men being bitten by
them. . The head, face, and hands, being un-
covered, are the points attacked. One man in
the mountains south of Winslow, Arizona, was
bitten on the top of his head in April, 1910,
but paid no attention to the slight wound until
two months later when he began to have
spasms. He then hurried to town and died in
great agony the next day. The year following
a man in the same district was bitten in the
face, and seizing the animal threw it from him
in such a manner that it fell on his brother
and bit him before he awakened. Both men
were given the Pasteur treatment and had no
further trouble.
On New Year’s night of 1906, while I was at
the village of Cape San Lucas, at the extreme
southern end of the Peninsula of Lower Cali-
fornia, a large-sized old male spotted skunk
entered the open door of a neighboring house
and bit through the upper lip of a little girl
sleeping on the floor. Her screams brought
her father to the rescue, and with a well-aimed
blow he killed the offender. The next morning
the skunk was brought to me and added to my
collection. As I left a few days later I never
learned the result of this bite, but while there
was informed that a man had died the previous
year from a similar bite. The occasional in-
stances of this kind are remembered and ap-
pear more numerous than they are in fact. For
years many men have slept in the open where
these animals abound, without being molested.
It is interesting to find that when the voyager
Duhaut-Cilly visited the Cape in 1826, the na-
tives feared these skunks because they entered
houses at night, biting people and infecting
them with hydrophobia.
The little spotted skunks have extremely ani-
mated, playful natures, as I have had several
occasions to observe. ‘Two instances serve to
illustrate this. Once at the mouth of a canyon
at the southern end of the San Joaquin Valley,
California, I camped several days at a deserted
ranch. At night I spread my blankets on the
bare floor of the house, from which the doors
were gone. Under it led several burrows of
some animal which I at first supposed to be a
ground squirrel. Each night while there I was
awakened by the sound of little footfalls pad-
ding rapidly about over the floor on which I
was sleeping, and in the dim light from the
moon could see two or three little spotted skunks
pursuing one another around me like playful
THE NATIONAL GEO
GRAPHIC MAGAZINE
kittens. At the slightest movement on my part
they dashed out the door and into their dens
under the house. As there was no food of any
kind in this room, it was evident that the little
fellows were there for a frolic on the smooth
board floor.
On another occasion in the mountains of
San Luis Potosi, on the Mexican table-land, I
found a spring to which bears were coming
for water at night. As the bears here appeared
to be strictly nocturnal. I ensconced myself in
the evening with a dark lantern, amid some
small bushes, against a large pine log which
sloped downward to the bottom of the gulch
near the spring, with the plan to welcome any
bears which might come in. An hour or more
after dark the clinking rattle of small stones
on the far side of the gulch indicated the pres-
ence of some animal. The light from the
lantern was flashed on'the spot and the rifle
lowered with exasperation as, running back and
forth, turning over stones in search of insects,
a spotted skunk was revealed. The movements
of this unwelcome visitor were extremely light
and graceful, and in my interest in watching
them, for a time I forgot the bear. Two or
three hours passed and the skunk tired of the
hillside and came down to the spring, where
he found the offal from a deer which I had
placed there for bait. This gave him more to
do, and after I had listened to him worry the
meat for awhile, I turned on the light and was
entertained by the sight thus revealed. The
skunk appeared to have a persistent desire to
drag away the offal many times his weight. He
would seize the edge of one of the lungs and
after a hard struggle would get it up on one
edge, when the burden would turn over with
a flap, whirling the skunk flat on his back each
time. Immediately scrambling to his feet, he
would give the meat a fierce shake of resent-
ment and repeat the performance.
After a long time the moon arose and the
skunk could be plainly seen running back and’
forth playfully, now biting at the meat and now
turning over stones apparently in sheer exuber-
ance of spirit. ‘Then he suddenly mounted the
lower end of the log and came galloping up it
until he was close to my shoulder. There he
stopped and, coming as near as possible, ex-
tended his nose within a few inches of my
face, and for minute or more stood trying to
satisfy himself about this strange object. Satis-
hed at last, he turned and galloped back down
the log and resumed his antics in the gulch,
finally working close to the bank three or four
yards below me. There he found many small
stones and had a fine time rattling them about
until I decided that with this disturbing pres-
ence I should have little chance for other game.
Finding a convenient stone, and locating the
skunk as well as possible from the sounds, I
tossed it over to try and frighten him away.
My aim was too true, for the characteristic
skunk retort filled the air with suffocating
fumes and I immediately lost interest in further
bear hunting.
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH
THE COMMON SKUNK (Mephitis
mephitis and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 456)
Probably no American mammal is more gen-
erally known and less popular than the skunk.
This current odium is due wholly to its posses-
sion of a scent sac of malodorous fluid, which
it distributes with prompt accuracy when an-
noyed. The possession of this method of de-
fense is common to all skunks. The term “pole-
cat,” sometimes given to all kinds of skunks, is
the misuse of a name given Old World martens
of several species and to the Cape pole-cat, a
South African animal which in form and mark-
ings, including the plumelike tail, is remark-
ably like some of our smaller skunks.
In the preceding article an account was given
of the spotted skunks, smallest of the three
groups into which these animals are divided.
The common skunk and its relatives form an-
other group, which contains some of the jiarger
species of their kind, some of them weighing
up to ten pounds or more. These are the typi-
cal skunks, so familiar in most parts of the
United States, and distinguished by the dis-
proportionately large size of the posterior half
of the body and the long, plumelike tail.
The common skunk, with its closely related
species, is generally distributed in all varieties
of country, except in deep forests and on water-
less desert plains. It ranges from the Atlantic
coast to the Pacific and from Hudson Bay and
Great Slave Lake southward to the highlands
of Guatemala. The vertical range extends from
sea-level up to above timberline in Mexico,
where I found one living in a burrow it had
dug under a rock at 13,800 feet altitude on the
€ofre de Perote, Vera. Cruz.
Skunks are most common in areas of mixed
woodland and fields, in valley bottoms, and
along the brushy borders of creeks and rocky
canyons. One of their marked characteristics
is a fondness for the vicinity of man. They
frequently visit his premises, taking up quarters
beneath outbuildings or even under the house
itself.
Any convenient shelter appears to satisfy
them for a home, and they will occupy the de-
serted burrows of other animals, small cavities
among the rocks, a hollow log, or a hole dug
by themselves. A warm nest of grass and
leaves is made at the end of the den, where the
single litter of young, containing from four to
ten, is born in April or May. As soon as the
young are old enough they follow the mother,
keeping close behind her, often in a long single
file along a trail. They are mainly nocturnal,
but in summer the mother frequently starts out
on an excursion with her young an hour or
two before sunset and they may remain abroad
all night.
The young family remains united through the
following winter, which accounts for finding at
times from eight to a dozen in a den. In all
the northern parts of their range they hibernate
during the two to four months of severest cold
AMERICA ATT
JV G 44
Lj, 4
6% 4¢
it ‘ J L,
7G Uy,
10464.
ty?
GY; y
ve
Sy
ip Se
RD
_&
eg:
Nl
~~
A>
a)
ut % a cceonenensaant’ ¥ #
: f
ge? AL
i: : ;
e © © 4
y “
2 3
cé €
Ae
4.
THE TRAIL OF THE EASTERN CHIPMUNK
The track is much like that of the fox squir-
rel, but usually the fore feet are a little, or
quite, one behind the other and, of course,
much smaller. No tail mark is ever seen (see
pages 440 and 447).
weather, coming out sometimes during mild
periods. When the season of hibernation ends
the family scatters and mating begins. One
solitary skunk was found in Canada hibernating
pom YL (ACA ¢S$ ~~
t
a
a
a Py
Fox squirrel
& fo.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
2?
¢
hes
{6 Pre
travells
THE TRACKS OF A RUSTY FOX SQUIRREL AND FOX SQUIRREL
The exaggerated pads of the squirrel foot are a strong feature of this track.
ical in the pairing of the fore feet, much more so than that of the gray squirrel.
It is typ-
There is
never a tail mark in this track (see pages 445 and 459).
in the same burrow, but in a separate chamber,
with a woodchuck, evidently an unbidden guest.
As in the case of their relatives, the common
skunks are omnivorous, but feed mainly upon
insects and rodents injurious to agriculture.
They are known to eat great quantities of
grasshoppers, besides crickets, cicadas, May
beetles, wasps, and larve of many kinds. One
killed in New Mexico had its stomach crammed
with honey bees. Wherever possible they prey
upon small rodents, as mice, wood rats, and
small spermophiles. To these may be added
ground-nesting birds and their eggs, lizards,
turtle eggs, snakes, frogs, salamanders, fish,
crustaceans, and numerous small fruits. Now
and then they visit the farmers’ chicken yards
with such disastrous consequences that in many
country districts the animals are killed at sight.
It is pleasing to record that a more intelligent
view of their real value to farmers, through
their destruction of farm pests, is rapidly gain-
ing ground, and they are now being protected
in many States. One of their worst traits is
their destructiveness to breeding game birds,
both upland species, and especially the water-
fowl.
Skunks walk on the soles of their feet in-
stead of on their toes, as do so many mammals.
The common skunks are wholly terrestrial and
move with the deliberation of one without fear
of personal violence or of having his dignity
assailed. Long experience has taught them that
the right of way is theirs. As they amble
slowly along, the tail is carried slightly elevated,
and when the owner is suspicious of attack, it
is raised and the hairs hang drooping like a
great plume, conspicuous and unmistakable. If
the disturber still refuses to take the hint, a
SMALLER MAMMALS OF
Sitting
NORTH AMERICA
A479
WE
Ws
A FULL SIZE RENDERING OF A FOX SQUIRREL TRACK
Illustrations of the arrangement of this track when the animal is foraging and, traveling are
shown on the opposite page
rear view is promptly presented and a dis-
charge made that puts most enemies to flight.
Some have thought that the odorous liquid is
scattered by the long hairs of the tail, but in
fact it is ejected in fine jets from two little
tubes connected with the scent sacs on each
side of the vent.
When mildly annoyed the big skunks stamp
their front feet on the ground and utter little
growls of displeasure. By some effort they can
be urged into a retreat which may take the
form of a clumsy gallop. They are known oc-
casionally to swim streams voluntarily, and even
to cross rivers, probably urged by the instinct
that so often forces animals of all kinds to
move to new feeding grounds.
Although usually safe from annoyance
through the protective armament, many skunks,
especially the young, each year fall victim to
natural enemies, including wolves, coyotes,
foxes, badgers, and great horned owls.
The flesh of the skunk is a favorite food
among certain tribes of Canadian Indians, and
many white men have pronounced it exceed-
ingly palatable, even claiming its superiority
over the flesh of domestic fowls. In the narra-
tive of his expedition through the Canadian
wilderness many years ago, the naturalist
Drummond recorded that when the party was
about a day’s journey from Carleton House it
had the good fortune to kill a skunk, “which
afforded us a comfortable meal.” In the Valley
of Mexico I found the natives prize the flesh
of these animals as a cure for a certain loath-
some disease.
It is well known that large skunks are often
extremely fat. The oil produced from them is
clear and is said to have unusually penetrating
qualities. For many years there was a demand
for this oil for various medicinal purposes.
During recent years the fur of skunks has
come into great demand, and good prices are
paid for prime skins. ‘The animals are so
numerous and the catch is so large that they
now rank among the most valuable of our fur-
bearers. They are gentle animals which readily
become domesticated and breed freely in con-
finement, and many efforts are being made to
establish skunk farms. Success in such farm-
ing depends wholly on the outlay for upkeep.
Skunk farming will probably pay better as a
side line, like chickens on the ordinary farm,
than to establish regular fur farms. The scent
sac may be removed by a slight surgical opera-
tion, so there need be no troubie from. that
source. Common skunks when taken young
make affectionate and entertaining pets. They
become as tame and playful as kittens, and are
vastly more intelligent and interesting.
THE HOG-NOSED SKUNK (Conepatus
mesoleucus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 457)
The third and last group of skunks contains
a number -of species showing well-marked dif-
ferences from the two groups already described.
The species vary in size, but among them is
included the iargest of all skunks. All are
characterized by comparatively short hair, es-
A480
pecially on the tail, and this appendage lacks
the plumelike appearance observed in other
skunks. The nose is prolonged into a distinct
“snout,’ naked on the top and sides and evi-
dently used for rooting in the earth after the
manner of a pig. In addition, the front feet
are armed with long, heavy claws, and the front
legs and shoulders are provided with a strong
muscular development for digging, as in a bad-
ger. This likeness has led to the use in some
places of the appropriate name ‘badger skunk”
for these animals. The single white stripe along
the back, and including the tail, is a common
pattern with these skunks, but this marking is
considerably varied, as in the common species.
The hog-nosed skunks are the only repre-
sentatives of the skunk tribe in South America,
where various species occupy a large part of
the continent. They appear to form a South
American group of mammals which has ex-
tended its range northward through Central
America, Mexico, and across the border of the
United States to central Texas, New Mexico,
and Arizona. In Mexico they range from sea-
level to above 10,000 feet altitude on the moun-
tains of the interior.
The hair on these skunks is coarse and harsh,
lacking the qualities which render the coats of
their northern relatives so valuable. Where
their range coincides with that of the common
skunks, the local distribution of the two is
practically the same. They live along the bot-
tom-lands of watercourses, where vegetation is
abundant and the supply of food most plentiful,
or in canyons and on rocky mountain slopes.
For shelter they dig their own burrows, usually
in a bank, or under a rock, or the roots of a
tree, but do not hesitate to take possession of
the deserted burrows of other animals, or of
natural cavities among the rocks. Owing to
their strictly nocturnal habits, they are much
less frequently seen than the common skunks,
even in localities where they are numerous. In
fact it is only within the last few years that
their presence in many parts of the southwest-
ern border has become known.
Although both the little spotted and common
skunks live mainly on insects, the hog-nosed
skunks are even more insectivorous in their
feeding habits. The bare snout appears to be
used constantly for the purpose of rooting out
beetles, grubs, and larve of various kinds from
the ground.
On the highlands of Mexico I have many
times camped in localities where patches of
ground were rooted up nightly by these skunks
to a depth of two or three inches as thoroughly
as might have been done by small pigs. In
such places I repeatedly failed to capture them
by traps baited with meat, the insects and grubs
they were finding apparently being more at-
tractive food. I have had similar failures in
trapping for coyotes with meat bait in localities
where they were feeding fat on swarms of
large beetles and crickets. The persistence with
which the hog-nosed skunks hunt insects ren-
ders them a valuable aid to farmers.
In addition to grasshoppers, crickets, beetles,
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
flies, grubs, and other larve, and many other
insects, they are known to eat wood rats, mice,
and the small fruit of cactuses and other plants.
The stomach of one of these skunks examined
in Texas contained about 400 beetles.
One Texas naturalist writes that he has lost
a number of young kids which had their noses
bitten off, and in one instance caught one of
these skunks mutilating a kid in this manner.
He also states that they pull down and eat corn
when it is in the “roasting-ear” stage.
Far less is known concerning the habits of
hog-nosed skunks than of the other species of
these animals. The number of young appears
to be small, judging from the record of a single
embryo found in one animal and in another
instance of two young found in a nest located
in a hollow stump. ‘They have a curiously
stupid, sluggish manner and have even less
vivacity than the somewhat sedate common
skunk. No use is made of their skins in this
country or in Mexico, but the gigantic natives
of Patagonia make robes of them which are
worn like great cloaks.
THE NINE-BANDED ARMADILLO
(Dasypus novemcincta and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 457)
Armadillos are distinguished from other
mammals by having the nearly, or quite, hair-
less skin developed into a bony armor cover-
ing the upperparts of the head and body and
all of the tail. They lack teeth in the front of
both upper and lower jaws, and are members
of the group of toothless animals which in-
cludes the ant-eaters. The insects they feed on
are licked up by the sticky surface of their
extensile tongues.
In the remote past many species of arma-
dillos, some of gigantic size, roamed the plains
of South America, and a number of small
species still exist there. These animals are
peculiar to America and have their center of
abundance in the southern continent.
The nine-banded species ranges over an
enormous territory and is subdivided into a
number of geographic races, living from south-
ern Texas through Mexico and Central Amer-
ica to Argentina. In Mexico its vertical dis-
tribution extends from sea-level up to an alti-
tude of about 10,000 feet on the mountains of
the interior. Like the hog-nosed skunk, it no
doubt originated as a member of the South
American fauna and has spread northward to
its present limits. It is one of the larger of
the living representatives of this curious group
of animals and reaches a weight of from twelve
to fifteen pounds.
As might be surmised from its appearance,
the armadillo is a stupid animal, living a mo-
notonous life of restricted activities. Its sight
and hearing are poor, and the armored skin
gives it a stiff-legged gait and immobile body.
From these characteristics, combined with the
small head hung low on a short neck, it has in
life an odd resemblance in both form and
SMALLER MAMMALS OF
motion to a small pig; it jogs along in its trails
or irom one feeding place to another with the
same little stiff trotting gait and self-centered
air. If alarmed it will break into a clumsy
gallop, but moves so slowly that it may be
overtaken by a man on foot. So poor is its
eyesight that a person may approach openly
within about thirty yards before being noticed.
When alarmed the armadillo immediately runs
to the shelter of its burrow, but may easily be
caught in one’s hands, especially if intercepted
on the way to its den. When caught it will
struggle to escape, and while it may coil up
in a ball in the presence of a dog or other
mammal foe, I never saw one try to protect
itself in this way. While presumably serving
for protective purposes, the armor is flexible
on the sides of the body, and I have found the
remains of many armadillos where they had
been killed and eaten by coyotes or other preda-
tory beasts. The armor would no doubt be suf-
ficient protection to enable them to escape to
cover from the attack of birds of prey. They
are mainly nocturnal animals, but are fre-
quently seen abroad by day and in some places
appear to be out equally by day or night.
This armadillo lives by preference amid the
cover afforded by forests, brushy jungle, tall
grass, or other vegetation. In the midst of
such shelter it usually digs its own burrow a
few yards deep in a bank or hill slope, beneath
a stump, under the roots of a tree, or a rock,
or even on level ground. It will also occupy
small caves in limestone rock. At times it
shows a piglike fondness for a mud bath, and
the prints of its armor may be found where it
has wallowed in miry spots.
Well-beaten and conspicuous trails lead from
the burrows often for half a mile or more, fre-
quently branching through the thickets in vari-
ous directions. Armadillo burrows sometimes
accommodate strange neighbors, as was shown
by one in Texas which was dug out, and in
addition to containing the owner in his den at
the end, was found to be occupied by a four-
foot rattlesnake and a half-grown cottontail
rabbit, each in a side chamber of its own.
The food of the armadillo consists almost
entirely of many species of insects, among
which ants appear to predominate. When
searching for food the animals become so in-
tent that they may be cautiously approached
and closely observed or captured by hand. They
root about among fallen leaves and other loose
vegetation and soft earth, now and then digging
up some hidden grub or beetle. At night they
visit newly plowed fields in their haunts, root-
ing in the mellow earth. They are accused of
digging up plants in gardens during their noc-
turnal wanderings, and in Texas have been
charged with robbing hens’ nests of eggs, and
of reducing the supply of wild turkeys and
quail by breaking up the nests, all of which
needs confirmation. Their method of feeding
appears to vary considerably, as they have been
seen rising on their hind legs to secure small
caterpillars infesting large weeds.
The insect food eaten by the nine-banded
armadillo in Texas, as known from examina-
NORTH AMERICA 481
Yj
Hy Y Z
Wy 4/4
Yy Y Vy;
Wy thy Z
WY Uj Z
Weasel
cS
THE TRACK OF THE WEASEL
The unusual space between the fore and
hind feet in the middle of the left series is
often seen. Sometimes the tail mark is there
and sometimes not. Sometimes the trail is
like that of a small mink. The toes seldcm
show (see pages 452 and 469).
482
Var mt:
\' by et bf
Ob} if
s oe oP
Ches
SC bana.
c
MENTS AND TAIL MARKS
The typical track of a mink is as in the bottom set at the
left, which also illustrates the tail mark. ‘Twelve to twenty-
four inches are usually cleared at each bound. ‘This illustra-
tion is greatly reduced from natural size (see opposite page
and pages 453 and 472).
tion of stomach contents, covers a wide range
of.insect and other small life, including many
species of grasshoppers, crickets, roaches, cater-
pillars, beetles, ants, spiders, centipedes, and
earthworms. As the list includes also wire-
worms and other noxious species, these inoffen-
sive animals deserve thorough protection as a
most useful aid to the farmer.
Some time from February to April each year,
litters of from four to eight young are born.
They have their eyes open at birth, and the
armor is soft and flexible like fine leather. ‘The
hardening of the skin into a bony armor is
progressive, continuing until after the animal
fully completes its growth. As soon as the
Mink
AMERICAN MINK TRACKS, SHOWING VARIOUS ARRANGE-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
young are able to travel they
trot along with the old one dur-
ace ing her foraging trips.
ign f Karly one afternoon, when
A riding along a trail in the heavy
a t forest of southern Oaxaca, ac-
companied by an Indian boy
and a pack of dogs, I suddenly
came upon an old armadillo
and eight young about two-
thirds grown. They had heard
our approach and stood motion-
less in a compact little group
half hiddenin the grass. I had
barely time to stop my horse
when the dogs spied them and
made a rush. The armadillos
darted into the undergrowth
in every direction like a litter
of pigs, and with the exception
of two caught by the dogs
gained safe refuge in their bur-
row. This we found dug in
the level ground about fifty
yards from where we en-
countered them.
The Maya Indians of the pen-
insula of Yucatan have a leg-
end that the black-headed vul-
ture (Catharista atrata) in old
age changes into an armadillo.
The tale runs, that when a vul-
ture becomes very, very old it
notifies its companions that the
time has come and alights be-
fore a hole in the ground that
resembles the den of an arma-
dillo. The other vultures bring
food and the old one remains
there for a long time. Its wings
disappear, the feathers are lost,
and when the change is com-
plete the newly created arma-
dillo enters the hole and be-
gins its new life. If skepticism
is expressed as to this meta-
morphosis, the Indians point
out as proof of the legend the
similarity between the appear-
ance of the bald pate of the
vulture and that of the arma-
dillo.
35S
THE RING-TAILED CAT (Bassariscus
astutus and its: relatives)
(For illustration, see page 460)
The mild climate and the proximity of the
Southwestern States to Mexico and the tropics
brings within our borders numerous strange
types of wild life. Of these the ring-tailed cat
is one of the most strikingly marked and in-
teresting. In the United States it is known by
several other names. including “civet cat,”
“coon cat,’ and “band-tailed cat.” . In Mexico
it still bears the old Aztec name cacomixtle,
except in Lower California, where it is the
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
“babisuri...:} Jt is*;about
the. size: of, a large .cat,
but with proportionately
longer and _ slenderer
body, shorter legs, and
longer tail. The alter-
nating bands of black
and white on the tail pro-
claim its relationship, not
to the cat, to which it
has no kinship, but to the
raccoon, which has a tail
similarly marked. Few
mammals possess such a
beautifully formed head
and face, and its large,
mild eyes give it a vivid
expression of intelli-
gence.
The ring-tailed cat oc-
cupies areas under such
differing climates as to
produce geographic races,
but none of them vary
strikingly from the typi-
cal animal here illus-
trated. They range from
Oregon, Nevada, south-
ern Utah, Colorado, and
Texas south to Costa
Rica. In Mexico they
@OCCHE tom neat sea-
level up to.an altitude of
about 10,000 feet. While
chiefly rock - inhabiting
species, they sometimes
live in the forest and as
a rule make their dens
in caves and deep crev-
ices, but sometimes in hol-
low trees or about houses.
Their young, from three
to four in number, are
born in May or June.
In the Southwest they
frequent some of the
ruined cliff dwellings,
and I have found them
haunting many of the
- ancient ruins of Mexico.
Their presence in little caves and other shel-
tered spots along cliffs and rock walls border-
ing canyons or on mountain slopes may usually
be known by an examination of the fine dust
which accumulates in sheltered places. When-
ever present their delicate cat-like tracks will
be found where they have been hunting mice
or other small game.
Strictly nocturnal, they do not sally forth
from their dens until darkness is complete.
During the night they are restless and fre-
quently wander far and wide in search of food,
and apparently at times merely to satisfy a
spirit of inquiry. Their inquisitive nature fre-
quently leads them to explore the streets of
towns and cities on the Mexican table-land,
filled though these places are with dogs. At
in each track.
433
AMERICAN MINK TRACK NEARLY NATURAL SIZE
Although this animal has five toes on each foot, only four appear
This illustration, which is practically natural size,
shows the usual arrangement of the track. The hind feet are, of
course, in advance.
opposite page (see also pages 453 and 472).
Variations of arrangement are shown on the
daybreak, tracks left in the dusty streets tell
the story of their wanderings, as they often do
also in the case of opossums.
One morning in February, 1893, soon after
sunrise, I chanced to pass through a little
wooded square in the City of Mexico and
saw a lot of boys pursue and capture one of
these animals which, having overstayed its
time, had been surprised by daybreak. This
wanderer might have had its den in some house
in the neighborhood, since one of its known
habits is to take up its abode about houses, even
in the midst of towns. A friend living in the
City of Mexico informed me that after having
been annoyed for some time by noises on the
roof at night, he investigated and discovered
a female cacomixtle with partly grown young
484
snugly located in a nest placed in a narrow
space between the tile roof and the ceiling. In
southern Texas the animals live on the brush-
grown plains under conditions very different
from those usually chosen.
Like its relative the raccoon, the cacomixtle,
with a taste for a varied fare, takes whatever
edibles come its way. It stalks wood rats,
mice, and even bats amid their rocky haunts
and birds in bushes and low trees. About the
southern end of the Mexican table-land it is
much disliked for its robberies of chicken
roosts, especially when these are located in
trees. Insects of many kinds, larve, and centi-
pedes are eaten, as well as a great variety of
fruits, including that of the pear-leaved cactus,
and dates, figs, and green corn.
Ring-tailed cats regularly locate among rocky
ledges, neighboring orchards, or other culti-
vated areas where they may gather some of
the bounty provided by man. I found them
more plentiful among the broken lava cliffs
bordering date palm orchards in Lower Cali-
fornia than in any other. place. When the
dates were ripening they prowled about under
the palms after dark with gray foxes and
spotted skunks to pick up the fallen fruit.
They sometimes uttered a complaining cry and
when caught in a trap would bark almost like
a little dog, or occasionally utter a vicious
scream of mixed fear and rage.
Being an intelligent animal, the cacomixtle is
readily tamed and makes a most interesting pet.
During the early years of gold mining in
California, when many men were living in rude
cabins in the mountains, the prevalence of mice
often attracted these “cats” to take up their resi-
dence there. Often the owner of the premises
and the mouser struck up a friendly relation-
ship and the cacomixtle, becoming as free and
friendly about the place as a real cat, kept it
entirely clear from mice. I have had first-hand
accounts of these tame individuals from miners
who had harbored them in:this way for months.
These accounts always gave the impression that
the animal was somewhat playful and mis-
chievous and most attractive to have about the
premises. All agreed that it was extremely
fond of sugar.
THE OREGON MOLE (Scapanus town-
sendi and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 461)
The effect on mammals of a narrowly special-
ized mode of life is well illustrated in the
mole. It isan expertly constructed living mech-
anism for tunneling through the earth. The
pointed nose, short neck, compactly and power-
fully built cylindrical body, with ribs strongly
braced to withstand pressure, and the short,
paddlelike hands armed with strong claws for
digging are all fitted for a single purpose. Eyes
and ears are of little service in an underground
life, so they have become practically obsolete;
the fur has been modified to a compact velvety
coat which will lie either front or back with
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
equal facility and thus relieve any friction from
the walls of the tunneled roads, no matter
which way the animal travels.
Moles are circumpolar in distribution, being
found from England to Japan in the Old
World and on both the Atlantic and Pacific
coasts of the New World, where they occur
only in North America. On this continent they
are limited mainly to the United States and
southern Canada, extending across the Mexi-
can border only in two limited areas at the
extreme east and west. Their distribution is
not continuous across the continent, but is
broken by a broad unoccupied belt formed by
the arid interior, including the Great Basin.
The home of the Oregon mole lies in the humid
area west of the Cascade Mountains in Wash-
ington, Oregon, and extreme northwestern
California. Closely related forms range from
eastern Oregon southward through California
to the San Pedro Martir Mountains in Lower
California, and others north into British Co-
lumbia.
The Oregon mole is the largest and hand-
somest member of the group in America and
perhaps in the world. Its skin, a velvety coat
of nearly black fur, often with a purplish sheen,
now brings a higher price in the market than
that of any other species. Its size and the
beauty of its dark coat distinguish it from any
other mole.
Where the soil is loose the mole practically
swims through it, urged forward by powerful
impulses of its “hands” and feet. This is the
common mode of travel near the top of the
ground, where the course is marked by the
lightly upheaved and broken surface. When
working at a greater depth and in more com-
pact soil the mole must dig its way and dis-
pose of the loose earth by pushing it along the
tunnel to an outlet at the surface through which
it is thrust to form a mound similar to the
“dumps” of that other great miner, the pocket
gopher.
On account of this similarity in mode of life,
moles and pocket gophers are sometimes con-
fused by persons not familiar with the two
animals. The resemblance ends in this ap-
parent likeness, for the pocket gophers belong
to the great order Rodentia, or gnawing ani-
mals, while the moles are of the Insectivora,
or insect-eaters.
The superbly forested region inhabited by
Oregon moles is so well watered that few
places, even on high mountain slopes, are too
dry for them to occupy. ‘These animals are
generally distributed, and their hills may be
seen in the midst of the great coniferous forests
as well as in the open valleys.
They are most abundant in open grassy areas,
especially in meadows and in the bottoms of
canyons and similar places, where the damp
rich soil affords a plentiful supply of earth-
worms, grubs, and insects on which to feed.
Like other moles, they lead lives of great activity
and almost constant hard labor. During damp
weather they work near the surface, but in
dry periods as the upper soil hardens they
SMALLER MAMMALS
follow their prey to lower levels. A hard
shower, however, always brings an outburst of
activity as they reoccupy the upper soil and
throw up:a multitude of new mounds. They
have the habit of regularly coming to the sur-
face to hunt food during the night. This is
no doubt coincident with the swarming up to
the surface of earthworms on which the moles
feed. At such times many are captured by
owls, cats, and other beasts of prey.
The runways of moles close along the sur-
face, shown by well-marked ridges, are for
hunting purposes, and the lower tunnels, from
which the earth in the mounds is brought, are
for traveling and lead to the nest chamber.
The deep tunnels of the Oregon mole sometimes
extend considerable distances along fences, or
other surface cover, which afford more or less
protection. Such tunnels are a kind of high-
way often used by several moles and also by
shrews and field mice. The system of tunnels
of the moles over a considerable area often in-
tersect and are used more or less in common.
As a result more than twenty moles have been
trapped at a single point in one of these under-
ground roads.
They make an intricate system of many-
branched tunnels, the courses of which are
usually marked by series of mounds varying
from four to ten inches high and five to twenty
inches wide: and often scattered over meadows
or other fields from two to six feet apart.
Owing to the persistence with which the moles
raise their mounds everywhere in the occupied
parts of their territory, they have become a
serious and costly pest. In meadows the knives
of mowing machines are dulled by them, and
in towns lawns are disfigured by their unde-
sirable activities. As a consequence they have
now fallen under the ban and are classed with
other mammals which have shown their lack
of ability to fit in satisfactorily with the changed
conditions brought to their ancient territory by
civilized man. Under natural conditions their
activities were undoubtedly entirely beneficial.
They appear to have but a single litter of
young, numbering from one to four, each year.
These are born in March and grow so rapidly
that by the last of May they are working in
the tunnels and are scarcely distinguishable
from the adults.
The recent discovery that the Oregon mole-
skin is valuable for its fur will give such an
incentive to trapping that there is little doubt
the boys of the State within a few years will
reduce the numbers of the animal and thus
control its injury to agriculture. The market
for the skins appears practically unlimited,
judging by trade reports, one dealer in Brook-
lyn stating that he dressed 4,000,000 ete
European moleskins in 1916.
THE STAR-NOSED MOLE (Condylura
cristata)
(For illustration, see page 461)
The star-nosed mole, known in parts of
Maine as the “gopher,” is peculiar among the
moles in having a fringe around the end of its
OF NORTH AMERICA
485
nose formed by twenty-two short fleshy ten-
tacles.. A less-marked character is in the pro-
portionately long tail, which becomes greatly
enlarged in fall and remains in this condition
during the winter months. Otherwise the ex-
ternal appearance of this species is much like
that of the common moles of America and the
Old World.
The star-nosed mole is found from southern
Labrador, the southern end of Hudson Bay,
and southeastern Manitoba south along the
Atlantic coast to Georgia and in the interior
down the Alleghenies to North Carolina and
to Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Min-
nesota. Throughout this area it ranges irreg-
ularly and much yet remains to be learned
about the details of its distribution and habits.
Ordinarily solitary, these moles at times are
so numerous in limited areas that they appear
to form colonies. Such gatherings probably
mean an unusually rich feeding ground, which
makes it unnecessary for the young to disperse
to outlying locations, as is the habit of moles
and most other mammals.
The star-nosed mole has a strong preference
for damp and even marshy or swampy loca-
tions. It frequents low-lying meadows, the
borders of streams, and grassy swamps, where
its underground burrows alternate with open
surface runways among grass roots and other
matted vegetation. It” spends far more time
above ground than the other moles, and not
infrequently swims among flooded cat-tails and
other vegetation and in winter has been seen
swimming under the ice. '
Like others of its kind, this mole is amaz-
ingly powerful in proportion to its size. It per-
sistently adds to its surface ridges, and in con-
stantly extending its deeper tunnels must dig
loose earth and dispose of it by forcing it up
through an outlet to form the mounds which
mark the course of its travels. Where the soil
is loose it readily forces it aside with its com-
pact body and paddle-shaped hands. In push-
ing up the little piles of earth and in the ridges
raised when burrowing close to the surface it
sometimes injures meadows and other culti-
vated land. Occasionally it wanders away from
the fields and invades lawns and gardens, where
the only injury it does is in the disturbance of
the soil.
Its nests are compact little balls of fine grass,
weeds, or leaves in dry underground chambers
excavated in its burrows. The nests are a foot
or two underground, but above the level of the
water, sometimes under a stump and again in
a knoll or bank. One nest containing five young
was found in Maryland in an old woodshed
under several inches of chips. This location
and its choice of a site for its nest under a
stump in a field or in a dry knoll are clear in-
dications of a kind of intelligence which even
the lowliest animals appear to have in caring
for their young.
The star-nosed mole is full of the restless
energy so necessary in a mammal which must
come across its food by more or less haphazard
tunneling through the soil. It is active both
summer and winter. In dry weather as the
486
moisture near the surface decreases the soil
hardens and earthworms and other subter-
ranean life seek deeper levels. The mole fol-
lows them, only to return with them nearer the
surface with a renewal of the moisture. In
winter it sometimes comes out and _ travels
slowly about on top of the snow, ready to bur-
row out of sight at once, however, at the sound
of approaching footsteps.
The food of the star-nose, like that of most
other moles, is made up mainly of earthworms,
white grubs, cutworms, wireworms, and other
underground insects. In captivity, before eat-
ing a worm or other flesh food offered, it first
feels of it with the little raylike organs of
touch on its nose. It is difficult to surmise the
real value of these “feelers,” for it would seem
that the acute sense of smell so common to
mammals should do better service.
Aside from its disturbance of the surface soil
by its ridges and mounds, the star-nosed mole
does no direct injury, and its life is largely
passed in the useful task of searching out and
destroying insects. Indirectly it causes some
injury to root crops, plants of various kinds,
and fruit trees, by providing tunnels along
which meadow and pine mice travel to commit
the ravages which on circumstantial evidence
are charged to the mole.
THE COMMON SHREW (Sorex per-
sonatus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 464)
Many interesting smail mammals are noc-
turnal or lead such cbscure and hidden lives
that they are rarely observed except by natural-
ists. Of these are the numerous species of
shrews, which include the smallest mammals in
the world. These tiny beasts all live among the
vegetation and debris on the surface of the
ground or in little burrows below. With the
moles they are members of the order Insec-
tivora and depend mainly on insects and meat
for food. Despite their minute size, they are
possessed of anindomitablecourageand ferocity,
which leads them without hesitation to attack
and kill mice many times their own weight.
The genus Sorex, of which the common shrew
is a member, is circumpolar in distribution, the
various species ranging through England, the
European mainland, Asia, and North America
as far south as Guatemala.
The common shrew is a purely North Amer-
ican animal, occupying all the northern part of
the continent from the Arctic shores of Alaska
and Canada south to northern Nevada, South
Dakota, Illinois, and Pennsylvania, and along
the Allegheny and high Rocky Mountains to
North Carolina and New Mexico. Its vertical
range extends from the seacoast up to timber-
line in the Rocky Mountains.
The common shrew is the smallest of the
mammals in all the northern parts of this con-
tinent, and one marvels at the possibility of
such a tiny morsel of flesh and blood with-
standing the rigors of the arctic winters. It
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
measures about four inches in total length and
weighs about forty-five grains; the body and
tail are slender, the nose long and sharp, and
the rim of the ears shows a little above the
dense velvety fur. By these characters it may
be distinguished from the larger, more heavily
proportioned (and darker-colored) short-tailed
shrews which abound with it in certain parts
of its range. Its smaller size and grayish
brown color are the main superficial differences
between it and other American members of the
same genus. ‘The climatic differences in its
wide range have developed several geographic
races, none of which, however, show strongly
marked characters.
This shrew appears to have a most catholic
taste, so far as its surroundings are concerned,
for it appears to frequent every type of situa-
tion where shelter and food can be found. It
abounds among the peat beds and sphagnum
mosses of the desolate barrens bordering on
the Arctic coast, as well as amid the rotten
stumps, old logs, fallen leaves, and other vege-
table debris on the floor of the forests farther
south. It will be found also in the rank matted
vegetation about marshes, in old fields and oc-
casional sphagnum swamps in the southern
parts of its range.
The little tunneled runways of these shrews
form a network in the beds of moss in a sphag-
num swamp near Washington. In the forest
the animals always seek the cover afforded by
fallen logs, slabs of bark, or anything else that
will give protection. On the coast of New
Jersey they live so near the sea that an extra
high tide forces them to mount the drift logs
on the salt meadows for safety. They often
make little burrows in the soft earth under the
roots of a tree, a stump, or a log.
Their nests are small balls of dry leaves,
grasses, or other soft vegetable material placed
snugly under a log or in a hollow stump, bur-
row, or other good retreat, where they appear
to have two or more litters of from six to ten
young during the summer and fall.
As in the other shrews, the food of the com-
mon species consists mainly of insects, larve,
worms, and obtainable flesh; but in winter and
possibly at other seasons many kinds of food
are eaten, including insects, meat, fat, flour,
and seeds. During the years I passed at St.
Michael, on the coast of Bering Sea, the be-
ginning of winter always brought into the store-
houses and dwellings a swarm of field mice,
lemmings, and these shrews. The food require-
ments of all appeared to be the same, and all
fed freely on the flour and other accessible
stores. Dozens of the shrews were killed in
the houses every winter.
Occasionally I caught and kept one captive
for a time to observe its habits. It would be
extremely restless and equally active by day or
night. The small eyes appeared of little serv-
ice, but the long, flexible snout was used con-
stantly and served as the main reliance of the
little beast for information as to the outside
world.
Wherever they travel these shrews utilize the
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA A487
runways of the field mice or other
small animals and make little runs
of their own only where necessary.
Aside from a faint squeak, I have
never heard them utter a_ sound,
but other observers credit them with
series of fine twittering notes ap-
parently uttered as a song.
The common shrew is a solitary
animal of so morose a disposition
that if two are placed in a cage to-
gether they almost immediately fall
upon one another with tooth and
nail, and the victor devours the body
of its companion at a single meal.
The digestion of shrews is so rapid
and the call for food so incessant
that it requires constant activity to
keep the demand satisfied.
After the winter snow arrived in
the North I found many tunnels of
these shrews running just under its
surface and raising it a little in a
slight but distinctly rounded ridge.
Such tunnels wandered widely and
on the ice of the Yukon River I
traced one of them more than a mile
and repeatedly saw them crossing the
river from bank to bank. It was sur-
prising to note the ability of the little
travelers under the surface to keep
in so nearly a direct line for long dis-
tances.
At times these little adventurers
make similar tunnels in the snow far
out on the sea ice. The mythology
of the Eskimos contains accounts of
many supernatural animals which a
lone hunter may meet and which
have the power to do him deadly
harm. Among these the “sea shrew”
is one of the most malignant.~ -Its
appearance is described as exactly
like that of the common land shrew,
but it is said to live on the ice at sea,
and if it sees a hunter to dart at him
through the air, pierce the skin, and,
after running all through the body
with incredible rapidity, to enter the
man’s heart and kill him. In con-
sequence of this belief the Eskimo
hunters were in mortal terror if they
chanced to encounter a stray shrew
on the sea ice. I knew one hunter
who suddenly meeting one on the ice
stood motionless for hours until the
shrew wandered out of sight. He
then hastened home and all the other
hunters agreed he had had a lucky
escape.
THE SHORT-TAILED SHREW
(Blarina brevicauda and its
relatives)
(For illustration, see page 464)
Several groups of species or genera
of the little mouselike animals known
as shrews are peculiar to North
YG
Xd
THE TRAIL OF THE COMMON SKUNK
The hind foot of the skunk rarely shows the claws
in the track. The diagonal set during the gallop is char-
acteristic (see pages 456 and 477).
488
E79.
LITTLE SKUNK, POLECAT, OR SPILOGALE
This trail combines the characteristics of the skunk
At first it looks like the track
of a stubby-toed squirrel, but the five-inch toe on the
The frequent pairing of the
There is no tail mark (see
with those of a squirrel.
front foot is plainly seen.
fore paws is important.
pages 456 and 474).
America. Of these one of the most numerous
and best known is the short-tailed shrew. It
is a dark-colored animal much more heavily
proportioned, larger, and with a shorter tail
than the common shrew. Its fur is so thick
and velvety that it is confused by many people
with the mole, despite its smaller size.
Paleeat
Spilogale
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
The short-tailed shrews, sometimes
called mole shrews, of the genus Bla-
rina belong to a single species with
several geographic races occupying
eastern Canada and the United States,
from Nova Scotia, southern Quebec,
Ontario, Minnesota, and North Da-
kota southward to Florida and the
Gulf coast as far as eastern Texas.
Vertically they range from sea-level
up to the tops of the Alleghenies.
Another group of American shrews,
containing numerous species belong-
ing to the genus Cryptotis, occupies
the mountains of the Western States,
and ranges south to northern South
America. In external form it is in-
distinguishable from the short-tailed
species.
Probably no mammal is more num-
erous in the eastern United States
than the short-tailed shrew. It oc-
curs everywhere—in forests, in brushy
areas, in old fields, and along grassy
banks. Within the city of Washing-
ton it is common in Rock Creek Park,
where it lives in covered runs which
it makes among the grass and fallen
leaves. These shrews drink fre-
queatly, and this may in part account
for their abundance near streams or
other water, although it may be the
desirable moist soil conditions which
draw them to such situations.
The runways of these shrews are
scarcely half an inch wide, usually
partly sunken in the mold or rotting
surface’ vegetation. These are not
made by digging, but by pushing aside
the loose mold, and they cross and re-
cross in an irregular network. They
lead to the entrances to burrows which
generally drop nearly straight down.
The burrows are sometimes amid the
leaves, but usually under the shelter
of a root, stump, old leg, or other
cover. In addition to their own run-
ways, the shrews make free use of
the runs of meadow mice and even
traverse the tunnels of the pine mice
and moles in their'restless search for
prey.
Small rounded chambers opening
off their underground runways are
filled with fine grass, pieces of leaves,
and other soft matter for a mest.
One nest examined was made en-
tirely from the hair of meadow mice,
probably the spoils of war from the
bodies of victims. As a rule, shrews
are extremely unsocial, but a pair
of this species: is sometimes found occupying
the same nest, no doubt a temporary arrange-
ment. Several litters, containing from four to
six each, appear to be born through the sum-
mer and fall, usually beginning in June.
While equally active by day and by, night,
the eyes of these shrews seem to be of little
SMALLER MAMMALS
use except to distinguish between light and
dark, but their senses of hearing and smell are
highly developed, as is also the sense of touch
in their long hairs, or “whiskers,’ about the
nose. In captivity an extreme sensitiveness is
exhibited to sudden sounds, especially such as
those of a bird’s wings, indicating an instinctive
fear born of age-long persecution by birds of
prey. Food is located by smell, and as the
flexible end of the snout is moved continually
from side to side, odors are caught which may
register conceptions as definite in the minds of
these small’ animals as sight does in more
favored beasts. All shrews are provided with
musk glands and on account of these are ap-
parently nauseous to most other animals, as
they are rarely eaten by beasts of prey. These
musky -ecretions must be of great service to
facilitate them in locating one “another.
Like other shrews and the moles, their diges-
tion appears to be very rapid and they will eat
two or three times their own weight in a day.
This necessitates great activity on their part
during much of the time in order to find the
required food. They prefer insects and meat,
but are practically omnivorous, feeding not
only upon many kinds of insects, but on earth-
worms, slow-worms, sowbugs, snails, slugs,
mice, shrews, and the young of ground-nesting
birds, as well as such vegetable food as beech-
nuts, seeds, bread, and oatmeal.
The instinct of prevision against the season
of winter scarcity appears to be developed in
them, as one in captivity buried beechnuts in
the earth, and they are known to store living
snails in small piles and to gather disabled
beetles in store-rooms in their tunnels.
The courage and blind ferocity of the short-
tailed shrews when they are placed near cap-
tive mice far larger than themselves, is amaz-
ing to all who witness their encounters. They
attack instantly, spreading their front feet to
gain a firmer footing and moving forward in
little rushes. Mice larger and much more
powerful than the shrew are persistently at-
tacked and, finally giving out, are pounced upon
and the flesh torn from their heads and necks
with ravening eagerness. One day a passing
observer heard a loud squealing on a railroad
bank where an examination revealed a short-
tailed shrew dragging away a nearly dead pine
mouse, though the mouse was much the heavier.
The notes of the shrews are a fine tremulous
squeak which becomes a longer, harsher, and
more twittering or chattering cry when they are
angry.
No cessation of their activity occurs in win-
ter. When the cold weather begins many gather
about barns and houses located near woods or
old fields, and thus with the field mice take
advantage of the garnered food supplies and
shelter. Others remain in their regular haunts,
where they frequently burrow long distances in
the snow, making networks of tunnels and
traveling long distances just below the surface,
leaving little raised ridges like the track of a
mole on the ground. Their journeys upon and
under the surface of the snow appear to be
in search of food, as they burrow down to old
OF NORTH AMERICA 489
logs and stumps which make good feeding
grounds. Their movements are very active, as
they go about either at a walk or quick trot.
These fierce and truculent little hunters are
wholly beneficial in their habits and should be
encouraged in place of being killed on sight
indiscriminately, as one of the ordinary mouse
tribe.
THE RED BAT (Nycteris borealis)
(For illustration, see page 464)
Bats reach their greatest development in the
tropics, where a marvelous variety of these
curious mammals exist. To the northward the
number of species gradually decreases, until
eventually, in northern Canada and Alaska, a
single species represents the group. The United
States, occupying the middle latitudes, has a
considerable number of different kinds. Some
of these remain throughout the year, hibernat-
ing in caves during the period of cold, when
insects are not to be had; others wing their
way southward like birds on the approach of
winter and return in spring.
All bats are nocturnal, although individuals
of some species occasionally fly about for a
time by day and many come out just before or
soon after sunset. In this country practically
all species are insectivorous, but in Mexico and
the West Indies many are fruit-eaters and a
few true vampires or blood-suckers.
As arule, bats are clothed in dull colors, but
richly tinted coats give a few a more attractive
appearance. Of these none has a more strik-
ing adornment than that presented by the soft
covering of glossy orange-red fur of the red
bat. Its large size, about four inches in total
length, with a spread of wings amounting to
twelve inches, combined with its color, suffices
to distinguish it at once from any other north-
ern species.
The range of the red bat extends from the
Atlantic coast to the Pacific and from Ontario
and Alberta in southern Canada south through-
out most of the United States to the Gulf coast
and southern California; also beyond our limits
fon Lower. Calitorma and: Costa | Rica asuie
genus to which this bat belongs ranges more
widely in other parts of North America; also
to South America and across the eastern Pacific
to the Galapagos and Hawaiian Islands.
The red bat rarely or never seeks shelter in
gloomy caves and crevices, but hangs to the
small twigs or leaf stems on trees and bushes
in the full light of the sun. One observer in
Texas on July 4 found four of them hanging
in a cluster from a twig on a peach tree, with
the sun shining full on them, although the tem-
perature in the shade was 82 degrees Fahren-
heit. I have found them in northern Illinois
in the glaring sunlight of May, hanging from
leaves in the tops of oak trees. This unusual
tolerance of light in a member of the bat tribe
is further shown by its habit of beginning to
hunt through the air for insects earlier in the
afternoon than other species in its range.
Long, narrow wings and swift, powerful flight
490 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
of migrating birds is in-
dicated by observation
on the New Jersey coast
of stray individuals com-
ing in from the sea ex-
hausted early on Septem-
ber mornings.
They are among the
most solitary of their
kind, usually being found
hanging singly on a tree
or bush, sometimes
within a few feet of the
ground. On_ occasion
they gather in clusters
as mentioned above, and
in one instance in Mary-
land more than a dozen
were hanging in a com-
pact ball, which suddenly
exploded into its winged
parts when disturbed.
One of the most un-
usual characteristics of
the red bat is found in
the number of young it
bears. Usually other spe-
cies, except the hoary
bat, have one or two
young, but at varying
dates between May and
July each year the red
bat produces from two
to four, the average be-
ing three or four. The
young when very small
are carried clinging to
the body of the mother
in her flights. She con-
tinues to take them from
place to place in this man-
ner until their combined
weight exceeds her own.
The strength of the ma-
ternal feeling in this spe-
cies is well illustrated by
an instance in Philadel-
phia where a boy caught
a half-grown red bat in
a city square and carried
it home. In the evening,
THE SHORT-TAILED SHREW, OR BLARINA three hours later, he
The curious grooved track in the snow with the tail mark is seen
on the left (see pages 404 and 487)
characterize the red bats in the air. They have
marvelous control in darting and turning here
and there, and no birds, except possibly the
chimney swifts, can equal them in their extra-
ordinary gyrations.
Red bats are known to migrate from the
northern part of their range in September or
October and to return in May. They have been
seen going south at Cape Cod the last of
August and in September; and late in October
Dr. F,. A. Mearns has recorded great flights of
them down the Hudson Valley, lasting through-
out the day. That they share the vicissitudes
crossed the same square,
carrying the young bat
in his hand, when the
old one came circling
about him and finally in her deep anxiety
alighted on his breast. Both were brought in,
the young one clinging to its mother’s teat.
The devoted mother received injuries when
she was captured, from which she died two
days later.
In the contact between mankind and bats,
man, the invariable aggressor, finds the bats
baring their teeth, biting viciously, squeaking,
and behaving altogether like little fiends. A
gentler side is sometimes exhibited, however,
and one observer who caught a partly grown
red bat found that it became tame, showed in-
Cos
SMALLER MAMMALS
telligence, and developed a friendly feeling for
its captor.
THE HOARY BAT (Nycteris cinereus)
(For illustration, see page 464)
The hoary bat is a close relative of the red
bat described above, but is larger, about five
inches long, and, as its name implies, is of a
different color. It is widely distributed over a
large part of North America, where it is known
to breed from Nova Scotia, Manitoba, and the
southern shore of Great Slave Lake south prac-
tically throughout the United States. It is one
of our larger species and is remarkable for its
power and skill on the wing. The wings are
long and narrow and carry their owner through
the air ina bewildering series of swoops, curves,
and zigzag turns remarkable even in a group
of animals so notable for their powers of flight.
With the approach of cold weather the hoary
bat migrates from the northern parts of its
range to the milder southern districts. It is a
late migrant, not leaving its northern home
until the last of September or October and re-
turning in May. Some individuals appear to
remain in the North all winter, as one has been
taken in Connecticut in December. In its south-
ern flight it wanders as far as Jalisco, near the
southern end of the Mexican table-land, to
Lower California, and to the Bermuda Islands.
To reach the Bermudas it is evident the bat
must make a continuous flight from the nearest
point on our shores of at least 580 miles—a
good tribute to its wing power.
Like the red bat, it lives in the open, hanging
from twigs and leaves in the tops of trees or
bushes in the broad light of day rather than in
the dark, stifling crevices where so many of its
kind pass their lives. It appears to hang up
indifferently on any convenient tree or bush,
including conifers, aspens, or willows. During
the day it has a curious lack of alertness, and
as it is not rarely attached to low branches or
bushes within a few feet of the ground it may
be readily approached and taken in the hand.
I once captured a fine specimen the middle of
May, in southern California, hanging on a bush
about four feet from the ground. It appeared
to be sound asleep until taken by the skin on
the back of the neck, when it became very much
alive and, struggling in a fury, uttered grating
shrieks of rage, baring its sharp, white teeth
and trying desperately to bite.
Its food is made up entirely of insects, which
it appears to hunt higher up than most bats,
sweeping over the tops of the forest and in and
out about the trees. It appears to be of even
more solitary habits than the red bat and is
nowhere so common. Another reason for our
lack of information concerning it is found in
its strictly nocturnal habits, for it rarely ap-
pears until shortly before the approaching
night hides it from view.
The hoary bat shares with the red species
the distinction of bearing from two to four
young each year. The young are born in June
OF NORTH AMERICA 491
and are carried attached to the underside of
the mother’s body until they become too heavy
a burden. They hang to the teats with the
greatest tenacity and apparently rely mainly on
this hold to prevent being dropped as they are
carried on the wild aérial hunting excursions.
With the unusual fecundity indicated by the
number of young, it is difficult to account for
the scarcity of these bats unless their habit of
hanging in the open, exposed to the elements
and to other dangers, may cause a heavy mor-
tality among them.
THE MEXICAN BAT (Nyctinomus
mexicanus and its subspecies)
(For illustration, see page 465)
Reference has been made in several preced-
ing sketches of this series to the mammals of
tropical origin which have invaded our south- ~
ern border. The Mexican bat is a notable
member of this class. It differs in many curi-
ous ways from the bats with which it associates
in temperate regions. It is smaller than any of
the other three bats treated here and is strongly
characterized by a flattening of the head and
body which enables it to creep into a surpris-
ingly narrow crevice in the rocks or elsewhere.
The ears are broad and flaring and extend for-
ward over the eyes like the visor of a cap, and
the end of the tail is not confined within the
membrane extending between the hind legs, but
projects from it. Another pronounced char-
acteristic of this bat and cne highly disagree-
able is the rank musky odor which it gives out.
This pollutes the air about its harboring places,
rendering it a most unwelcome guest.
Whoever has visited the Southern and South-
western States or Mexico must have noted
the offensive odor in many places about the
verandas of houses and especially about old
churches and other public buildings. This is
the sign of occupancy placed on the premises
by the Mexican bats. which, to the number of
a few dozens or actually by thousands, as con-
ditions permit, may lie snugly hidden in cracks
and dark openings of all kinds about the roof
and walls. No other bat in Mexico or the
United States is provided with so strong an
odor.
The Mexican bat is extremely abundant, prob-
ably exceeding in numbers any other species
within its territory. It ranges throughout the
tropical and lower temperate parts of Guate-
mala, Mexico, and across our border, through-
out most of Texas, and east as far as Florida
and South Carolina; in the West it also abounds
both in town and country in the warmer parts
of New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
Closely allied relatives of the Mexican bat
abound throughout the warmer parts of Central
and South America to beyond Brazil. The
genus to which this species belongs is repre-
sented in the warmer parts of both hemispheres.
It extends north in the Old World to southern
Europe and also is found in the Philippines.
The abundance of the Mexican bat in some
favorable places is almost incredible. At Tuc-
492
son, Arizona, I once saw them, a short time
before dark, issuing from a small window in
the gable of a church in such numbers that in
the half light they gave the appearance of
smoke pouring out of the opening. At times
they occupy houses in such numbers that their
presence and accompanying offensive odor ren-
der the places uninhabitable. At the town of
Patzcuaro, near the southern end of the Mexi-
can table-land, I saw two rooms in an old
adobe house occupied by as many of them as
could possibly hang from the rough ceiling.
The owner considered their presence a valuable
asset, as he collected and sold the guano for
more than the rooms would have brought in
rent. The bats congregate in even greater num-
bers in large caves. So numerous are they in
certain caves in Texas that the owner reports
an annual income of about $7,000 from the
. guano,
They are very plentiful by day in the thin
crevices about the roof and walls of caves in
the celebrated Ixtapalapa, or “Hill of the Star,”
beyond the floating gardens at the City of
Mexico, and I also found them living in many
of the marvelous ruins of Mexico, including
Chichen-Itza,in Yucatan. Wherever they occur
in numbers they may be heard frequently by
day shuffling uneasily about and squeaking
shrilly at one another.
When they first come out after sunset they
usually fly away in a great stream, nearly all
in the same direction, as though migrating.
This course will probably be found leading to
water, where they scoop up a drink from the
surface before beginning their wonderfully er-
ratic zigzags through the air in pursuit of in-
sects.
From the colder northern parts of their range
they migrate southward to milder climatic con-
ditions or descend to lower altitudes. In Mex-
ico, where they live up to above 8,000 feet alti-
tude, they move down from one to two thousand
feet. Their young, one at a birth, are born
from April to May.
It has been claimed that the Mexican bat
brings bedbugs to infest houses. This is un-
true of this or any other bat. These animals
have certain small parasites, some of which, re-
sembling small bedbugs, have probably given
rise to the belief mentioned. These parasites
live only on the bats.
Within a few years considerable publicity has
been given to the supposed possibility of utilizing
bats to destroy mosquitoes and thus eliminate
malaria from infested areas. One or more bat
houses have been built at San Antonio, Texas,
for the purpose of assembling bats in large
numbers, and many untenable claims have been
put forth concerning the benefit to be derived
from their services. The Mexican bat is the
species which abounds above all others at San
Antonio and is the principal species which has
occupied the bat houses near town. It is def-
initely known that bats often fly miles from
their roosts when feeding and do not concen-
trate on any one kind of insect. Examination
of the contents of the stomachs of Mexican bats
shows that they feed on beetles and numerous
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
other insects, but rarely upon mosquitoes. I
have visited many Mexican towns and villages
in which every house was haunted by numbers
of these bats and where malaria was perennial.
The evidence against these animals serving any
useful purpose in checking malaria is con-
clusive.
It may be repeated here, however, that all
of our bats are of high utility as insect-destroy-
ers and should be protected. Among the many
species of varying habits which exist in the
United States, a few make their homes about
houses in annoying numbers. In place of killing
them to abate the nuisance, it would be better
to exclude them from buildings by closing the
entrance ways promptly after all have left in
the evening, and thus by quiet eviction cause
them to find abiding places elsewhere. The
destruction of forests, and the consequent ab-
sence of the hollow trees where they formerly
lived, is mainly responsible for bats and chim-
ney swifts coming to houses for harbor.
THE BIG-EARED DESERT BAT (An-
trozous pallidus and its relatives)
(For illustration, see page 465)
ey a5)
The marvelous variations in structure of the
ears and other organs about the heads of insect-
eating bats serve probably as microphones by
which the flight of their prey may be detected
and its direction located with instantaneous
certainty. The beautiful accuracy with which
this hearing mechanism works must be evident
to any one who will take a position where he
may have the evening glow of the western sky
as a background for flights of bats. It is cer-
tain that the small and ineffective eyes these
animals possess could never locate their minute
flying game and enable them to secure it in
the whirling, zigzag courses they pursue, often
at a speed and under a control which few, if
any, birds could rival.
The great ears of the big-eared desert bats
illustrate one form of a highly developed hear-
ing apparatus and give these animals a hand-
some and strikingly picturesque appearance.
This character at once distinguishes them from
others of their kind in the United States.
The distribution of this species lies mainly in
the arid parts of the Southwestern States ‘and
Mexico. It extends from western Texas, south-
ern Colorado, Nevada, and Oregon, south to
Queretaro, on the Mexican table-land, and to
the southern end of the peninsula of Lower
California. The vertical distribution extends
from sea-level up to at least 5,000 feet altitude.
By day these desert bats live in crevices and
caves in cliffs, in old mining tunnels, hollows
in trees, and in sheltered places about the roofs
and walls of houses, barns, or other buildings.
Their presence in dark hiding places may some-
times be detected by occasional grating squeaks.
They appear to lack any musky odor which
characterizes so many bats. About the 1st of
June each year either one or two young are
born, and for a time these cling to the mother’s
SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA 493
breast and are carried during her swift flights
in pursuit of insect prey.
Often when camping at desert waterholes, I
have seen them come in just before dark to
drink, scooping up water from the surface
while in flight, and then circling back and forth
over the damp ground at an elevation of a few
yards for the capture of some of the insects
common in such places. At such times, with
the distant hills mantled with a deepening
purple haze and the pulsating heat of the day
replaced by the milder temperature of approach-
ing night, these bats could often be seen sharply
outlined against the rich orange afterglow of
the departed sun. Here and there in the still
air flickered and zigzagged multitudes of tiny
bats, like black butterflies, and among them the
occasional big-eared bats on broad wings ap-
peared huge in contrast. Their wing strokes
were slower and shorter than those of the
smaller species and impelled them forward in
a swift, gliding movement which gave their
evolutions a sweeping grace beautiful to see.
In August several years ago, during a visit
to the Indian School at Tuba, in the Painted
Desert of northern Arizona, I found these bats
living in considerable numbers about the build-
ings. Just before dark they swarmed out and
hunted about the surrounding orchards and
small fields. One evening my collector shot
at one as it circled over a potato field in a small
orchard. It continued its flight, circling low
among the apple trees as though unhurt, when
suddenly it dropped to the ground. Supposing
the bat to be wounded, it was cautiously ap-
proached and covered with a hat, when, with-
out a struggle, it permitted itself to be picked
up by the nape. It then became evident that
the bat was unhurt from the shot. The reason
for its sudden descent was revealed in the per-
son of a large, fat mole cricket (Stenopalmatus
fuscus) which it was holding firmly in its jaws,
and so ferociously intent was it in biting and
worrying its luscious prey that it paid not the
slightest attention to its captor. Finally it was
killed by having its chest compressed and died
with its bull-dog grip on its prey unbroken.
These bats, like the other members of the
tribe in the United States, are fully as bene-
ficial to the farmer as the best of our insect-
eating birds and deserve equal protection in
place of the general persecution from which
they now suffer.
INDEX TO SMALLER MAMMALS OF NORTH AMERICA
TEXT AND ILLUSTRATION PAGES
Color Track
illus- illus-
Text tration tration
Armadillo, Nine-banded..... 480 457 eee
Bat, Big-eared desert....... 492 465 ies
AS be ERO AY tha Bareceieas eae 491 464 0
A MIORICHINS Slater scene th 491 465
te ECC Od tere ccs eueva. Sano tesa 489 464
Beaver, Mountain.......... 427 432 BN cite
Cae COMMON. spoeebers ose oie cues Epis wee 385
Cat hKinged-tailedz-........% 482 460 es
Chipmunk, Antelope........ 443 437 pee
Chipmunk, Pastern........ 447 440 477
Chipmunk, Golden......... 443 440 eee
Chipmunk,-Oregon.. :...-... 450 441
Chipmunk, Painted ........ 451 441
Cony, Little chief hare, or
AM Seree (hints enc cscel toes ay ai 392 409
Ferret, Black-footed........ 469 449
Gopher Pocket. «2.325% 3 398 413
ER STMe OAT Clie tacos. coi Slee 389 408
Hare, Little chief, Cony, or
1 B91 Nea Teas Pas Poe eR ee 392 409
Hare, Varying, or Snowshoe
A) Willits a heeerete lk cee c ete eles 387 405 388
EDU AT OO GA bia \ es cisie ois oe1 ae awere 400 416 wi
Memnrne Banded. i... 2c. « 401 417
WenInMN ess BLOW...) < se ¢ 402 417
Marmot, American, or Com-
MMOMewoodehtuck: 7245.0 42 43 432 475
Marmot, Hoary, or Whistler 43 oo
Marten, or American sable. 473 453 a rihics
Mitte AIM eCnrie aes c4. 6ckcd owns 472 4538 482, 483
MOLES OrESOMs sy fas ois cksia bore 484 461 Sees
Mole Star-nosed.s 0: 5... cies 485 461
Mouse, (BOACH 252.5% 46) oir w ie 422 428
Mouse, Big-eared rock...... 423 429
Mouse, Field or Meadow.... 403 420 393
Mouse, Grasshopper........ 418 425 468
Motse Ela rvest..2 cr 344s aes 415 425 seen
MGUSe, HOUSE. fol at ee en ee 427 429
Mouse, Jumping. 2.05 o2%.4.,. 394 412
EISELE DING, 22 I: sce seg head Ce 406 420
Mouse, Red-backed......... 407 421
Mouse, Rufous tree........ 410 421
Color Track
illus- illus-
Text tration tration
Mouse, Silky pocket........ 395 413 3
Mouse, Spiny pocket....... 396 413 coe
Mouse, White-footed....... 419 428 470
Miriiskeraitee cesarean siseseh er sean 411 424 467
Nature’s wild folk......... ee ae 383
Pika, eg chief hare, or
Combe Weis tae claps ene Sea 392 409
Polecae Spilogale, or Little
SIcUribce ase eae comes ews ahs 488
PORCUPINE WA eos eee ae 393 412 ster
Brairie-doe ew. ces eicc wes teks one. 3 434 436 scot
Rabbit, Antelope jack....:. 384 404 386
Rabbit, California jack..... 385 405 386
Rabbit, Cottontail......... 390 408 390
RUC OE, IMENEN 6G God oeun oo be 391 409 ane
Rabbit, Snowshoe or Vary-
TUS SAAC pepe ah abkesaneelen ecereuels 387 405 388
Rats: Brownie seks ces cece 423 429 472
Rat Wanearoo. 2. ss ame: nae 400 416 5
Sable, American, or Marten. 473 453
Shrew, Common........... 486 464 SMe
Shrew, Short-tailed........ 487 464 490
Skunks; Commons. os. 2 se 477 456 487
Skunk, Hog-nosed.......... 479 ADT eee
Skunk, Little spotted...... 474 456 488
Squirrel, Abert.:.......... 462 448 Beek
Squirrel, California ground. 439 437
Squirrel, Douglas.......... 455 444
Squupnrelaiyiniey. see see 466 449
SGuPerele MOK st oi seis. ese 459 445 478,479
Squinnelh Grave. «036 cee 458 445
Squirrel, Kaibab........... 462 448
Squirrels Medi wc. 2.0 seh on 454 444 Pe
Squirrels RU StyshOxX ops teea. 459 445 478
Squirrel, Striped ground.. 438 436 ee
Stoat, or Large weasel..... 469 452 eens
Weasel, Large, or Stoat.... 469 452 481
Weasel, ieaisitis sd wc. as «tects 471 452 eis
Whistler, or Hoary marmot. 454 433
Woodchuck, Common, or
American marmot....... 43 432 475
WiOOGE AEN cick ahs aietelioe i ee 414 424 Par
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC
WAR-ZONE
HE MAP of the western theater
of war appearing in this issue of
the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Maca-
zINE fills a long-felt need. Existing
maps available to the casual student of
the war’s progress have scales and letter-
ings which preclude the use of more than
half of the place names in the war zone.
But it often happens that a little village
of a score of houses, which has never
attained to the dignity of mention on the
maps of general circulation, figures more
prominently in the news from the front.
than a place of several thousand popula-
tion.
Therefore the National Geographic So-
ciety decided to bring out a map in which
practically every name in the battle area,
however unimportant, might have its
place. The only maps extant answering
to this demand are the big official maps
of the French and Belgian Departments
of War, made in sections and projected
on a scale of approximately three miles
to the inch. Of course, to reproduce
them on that scale would make a map
altogether beyond the compass of con-
venience. It would cover 3,960 square
inches and would be too large even for
a wall map, as one studying it would
either have to get down on his knees or
up on a stool to read it from top to
bottom.
How to condense the information of
more than, 27 square feet of map into
a little more than five square feet without
destroying its legibility was the problem
confronting those in charge of the under-
taking. As the battle area is only about
a hundred miles wide at the widest, while
the battle line is some four hundred miles
long, another problem was so to divide
the line into two sections and so to ar-
range these sections that 400 miles of
battle line could be put into a map on a
scale of approximately seven miles to the
inch and of convenient size.
Battle lines as of specific dates have
been omitted because the line is always
changing; the map showing it is out of
date in a few weeks. But by reference
MAP
to the inset map the lines in the fall of
1914 and the spring of 1918 can be fixed.
By starting in at Dunkirk and under-
scoring each principal city along the
battle line in red—taking Ypres, Arras,
Bethune, Amiens, Montdidier, Noyon,
Laon, Rheims, Soissons, Verdun, Luné-
ville, Nancy, Toul, ete.—the general trend
of the line may be followed. If the reader
will remember that the news speaks of
this sector and that, corresponding usu-
ally to these principal names, little trouble
will be experienced in locating places.
For those who want to study the map
in detail, however, an index has been pre-
pared.
As the squares into which the map is
laid off are ten miles each way, and
therefore contain one hundred square
miles of territory, the reader can easily
estimate the terrain lost or won in any
given drive.
In this map the aim has been to com-
bine legibility with completeness, and ex-
cept in one or two sections, where names
were so thick that even with the small
lettering used they could not all be put
in, the reader will always find the place
he is looking for. Fully 95 per cent of
the names mentioned in the daily news
appear on this map.
The excellence of the map is due to the
patient perseverance of the Society’s chief
cartographer, Mr. Albert H. Bumstead,
who met and overcame many unusual
obstacles in the production of a readable
map containing a maximum of informa-
tion in a minimum of space, and to the
unusual photographic work of Mr.
Charles Martin, chief of the Society’s
photographic laboratory.
Those desiring the index can obtain it
by remitting 25 cents to the National
Geographic Society, 16th and M Streets.
Washington, D. C.
Additional copies of the map can be
obtained at 75 cents each (including in-
dex) and of a special edition, printed on
linen-back map paper, at $1.50 each (in-
cluding index). Foreign postage, 50 cents.
Additional copies of this May issue, postpaid,
75 cents each in the United States.
494
VoL. XXXIII, No. 6
WASHINGTON
JUNE, 1918
THE
NATIONAIL
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE.
COOTIES
AND. COURAGE
By. HERBERT COREY
AUTHOR OF
The “cootie”’
seriousness of this menace to the health
is not a pleasant topic to write, talk, or think about;
“Ture Monastir Roan,” “SHOPPING ABROAD FOR OuR ARMY IN FRANCE,”
“A UNIQUE REPUBLIC,”
ETC..
but the
and comfort of our soldiers—a menace
which scientists are exerting every effort to minimise—warrants the publication
of Mr. Corey's unexaggerated account
AST night I heard laughter:.as I
stumbled along a dark street in a
dark village in northern France.
Isay “dark,” but. the -word doés not
properly set forth the conditions. There
was ne moon and there were no stars.
It had been raining and in a few minutes |
it would be raining again. The street
had once been paved—about the time of
the Roman occupation, perhaps—and a
few rounded cobbles were still imbedded
in a soggy mud that sucked at one’ 's boot-
soles as one walked.
No light came from the Es One
knew that inside the houses American
soldiers were gathered about the candles,
reading or “shooting craps,” or. wonder-
ing why the Y. M: €.7A.,was’ not. per-
forming total impossibilities in getting its
chocolate-and-cigarette-laden trucks over
roads that were gummed and cluttered
with the camions of an army in-move-
ment.
The windows were biped ‘so ‘that
not the slightest gleam escaped. In this
part of France the peasants favor solid ©
wooden shutters outside the windows,
and inside the soldiers had tacked up
blankets. Hostile airplanes are always
on the hunt for villages in which soldiers
of the chief pest of all fighting men.
may be bombed. This particular hamlet
was within range .of. the Germans’ big
guns and no chances Tent be taken.
WHEN AN AMERICAN
A TOWN :;
“OUTFIT” ENTERS
Only those who have been lost in the
midst of a forest on a rainy night can
properly appreciate the utter blackness of
that street. [I ran head-on into a soldier.
“Visibility low,” he remarked, in grimly
humorous quotation from the report
_ often made by. the aérial observers.
The laughter came from the one room
in which the officers of the headquarters
company were. bedded. I knew that
room. In it the beds were laid so thickly
on the rough brick floor that they over-
lapped like “shingles on a roof. Only the
man. who slept next the door could get
to his bed without walking over the beds
of the other men. All others walked
over his bed in going and coming. They
were distinguished from each other by
the names of the owners chalked on the
dingy wall. ?
When an American “outfit” enters a
town in which it has been newly billeted,
it finds that the billeting officers have
preceded it. Upon the doors of houses
‘soo10,7 AreuonIpodxs, uedtiaury dy} JO JuowWdinbs oy} Jo yaed Aressadau v a1e syur} SIq ISoYy} PUL JULI UIDY}IOU UT SoTINxN]
9181 918 Solapunel Aivjiues puv syjeq joy jng = “Suryoyey wory s8So sjt yuaaoid pue yt [pry 0} s9dyeM Sulfiog Soye} jf fyoosur Apiey B st 913009 oy,
LSad AILOOO
AHL WOU ONIAATANS SdOOML NVOINAWV UNO JO ONIHLOID AHL ONISNVHID WOT ASN NI MON ANIHOVW OXNISNO'TAG HO HdAL V
Ad10Z JAaqiayy Aq ydesso0j0yg
tity iy
406
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
or the gates of courts such legends as
this are written:
“Company I, one officer and 12 men.”
Inside that house or that court or that
barn an officer and 12 men of Company
I are free to find such accommodations
as they may.
Sometimes the officer sleeps between
sheets and sometimes the men roll in
their blankets on clean, sweet-smelling
hay. Sometimes the lodgings are more
primitive. Not long ago I visited a major
whose bed was only divided from the
bed of the household pig by a board par-
tition, ventilated by huge cracks. An-
other officer shared a room with a sick
cow. In another house the chickens and
the men roosted together. No one com-
plained; for this is war.
It was in burlesque of these chalked
billeting orders that on the walls of the
bedroom of the headquarters company
had been written the names of the bed
owners.
THE TYPE OF AMERICAN OFFICER IN
FRANCE
I know them well. They average 24
years old, for I took a census of their
ages. One owns rich mines in Mexico.
One says he will be elected sheriff in his
county in central Tennessee when the
war is over. Another was an officer in
the Philippine constabulary and resigned
his commission to get into the greater
game. One is a six-foot-four youngster
from a clean home in Nebraska. He
does not speak of his home, but one can
always tell. Another was a Kansas City
newspaper man, and another had been in
business in Milwaukee when we declared
war. :
That is the sort of men they are—clean,
lively, energetic Americans. I wanted
to know why they were laughing, so I
fumbled my way to a dark door and
through a black hall and lifted a blanket
curtain and stepped in.
“Thus,” some one was saying in a
pompous, professorial way, “we observe,
gentlemen of the class in entomology,
that when confronted by danger even the
humblest—I might say the most despica-
ble—insect manifests a marvelous intell-
gence.”
The members of the class were stand-
497
ing on each other’s blankets. A youth
who had left college to enter the army
was giving an imitation of the instructor
he had evaded by going to war. ‘Two
men were seated on the floor. “Signals”
was picking “cooties”’ from the seams of
his clothes and depositing them on a
space that had been cleared. “Stokes”
was embalming them in drops of grease
from a guttering candle.
A dozen white blotches on the worn
red bricks told of the success of the pur-
suit. CPR:
HEROES WITHOUT GLORY
Perhaps the reader thinks there is
something repulsive and disgusting in
this tale of clean-minded young Amer-
icans picking lice out of their clothing
and killing them by drops from a burn-
ing candle. Perhaps there is. Perhaps
my mentality has been warped by almost
four years of war. To my mind the men
who can do this and still laugh—bearing
in mind their rearing and the clean years
of their youth—are almost as nearly he-
roes as those who “hop over’ when the
whistle sounds the zero hour.
The ones are called upon to keep up
their courage under a day-long and night-
long degradation—a constant, crawling,
loathsome irritation—while the others
spend themselves freely in one fine burst.
I cannot distinguish between brave men.
I call them “‘cooties” as the soldiers
do, and for precisely the same reason that
they nickname these minor, or are they
major? horrors of war. Only the sur-
geons and the surgical orderlies and the
men who run the steam cleaning ma-
chines come out bluntly with the word
“louse.” ‘They are practical men. Their
business is to deal with human ills and
weaknesses, and they are _ habitually
pressed fortime. Their talk goes straight
to.the point, like a probe. The poor devils
who are lousy always shy at the word.
Id 66 II 66 I3 66
COOLIES, .- TOTOS, . —CODDLERS. «. PANIS
RABBITS,” OR “SEAM SQUIRRELS”
The American soldiers speak of the
pest as “‘cooties.” The French fighter
talks of “totos’” and the British tell of
“coddlers.” They know it is not their
fault that they are infested, but the effect
of years of civilian training persists.
‘WILI}S DAI] JO JVI 9Y} OF Woy} Suoof[qns Aq s85o ay} JO AjIJOfF BY} SAOI}sop pue sjdasut ay} S][P] (fo pue ‘00S ‘gob sased aas)
OUIYSLLE OYJ, “OUIYIVUL SUISNOJIP OY} UL S9O00I JOF poyot} SUloq St YSIYM “SuIYyJO[I Jf9y} Jof Surjiem sAoqysnop ody} yo dnos8 v st osay puy
SSUNIIGOD OL MXAUN SI HOIHM LVHL DNIAYHSAO
Ad102 Js90qs9F7 Aq ydessojoyg
Se * PR wtp,
EE ns
Be ae Bn oe
408
THE NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
499
Photograph by Herbert Corey
AN AMERICAN ROLLING KITCHEN ON ITS WAY TO THE FRONT ON A RAINY DAY
Each company of 250 men has a mess sergeant and four cooks. Each cook has two
helpers and four kitchen police.
The “K. P.s” are seen standing at the rear wheels.
teas
their duty to find the wood and water and do the rough work. Note the tin hat slung to the
collar of one of the mules.
They still feel, against all reason, that
there is something shameful in their state.
They try to assume a joviality they do
not feel, and call the things “pants rab-
bits” and “seam squirrels” and speak of
“reading their shirts.”
“Tl meet you this afternoon,” a non-
com once told me, “down at Cootie
Parks:
Cootie Park was the grassy bank of a
streamlet on which the sun shone warm.
In the meadow was a flock of sheep
guarded by two alert dogs, while the bent
old shepherd carried the weaker lambs in
his arms. Now and then he blew upon a
brass instrument — half whistle, half
squeak—and the flock and dogs obeyed
his summons.
The disciplined sheep interested the
boys immensely, as they sat there bare to
the waist in the sunshine, going over their
seams. ‘Two discussed the shepherd and
the sheep:
“Sure,” one said, “he can blow every
order we’ve got in the manual of arms.
Last night I was watching him, and when
it came time to start home he whistled
‘Eyes right,’ and they did.”
TRUE MORAL COURAGE NEEDED TO BEAR
THIS PLAGUE
This is not a pleasant recital, if one
thinks in civilian terms of the louse as
loathsome and suspects that the men who
suffer from this plague are in some way
to blame. At the very best it cannot be
pleasant. But lately, since my own peo-
ple have come into the war, and because
I know them best and talk their language,
I have begun to realize the moral courage
that is needed to bear this plague without
whining.
Many a man has told me that to be
under fire would be a trifle if he could
but be clean. Mud and thirst and hunger
and cold can be borne with equanimity,
but the louse carries the suggestion of
degradation. Yet that, too, is sustained
bravely.
“T have only known one man who cried
because of the plague,” a surgeon once
told me. “That man went into No Man’s
Land on reconnaissance at night in as
commonplace fashion as though he were
taking the tram for the office of a morn-
ing.”
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE DOUBLE-BARRELED COOTIE CANNON IN ACTION
American youths waiting around while their cootied clothes are being cooked. As an
evidence of the stress which General Pershing puts on cleanliness, a cable from the front
announces that razors are now being issued to the enlisted men of the American Expedition-
ary Forces.
Clean faces are adjudged to be an element in morale.
In addition to a razor of
the safety type, together with extra blades as required, each man is issued a tooth-brush,
comb, hair-brush, soap, and towels.
razors have been issued.
“T don’t mind the nights on guard in
the front trench,” many say, “because the
mights are cold and theyare quiet. But
I dread the coming of the day, when I
must crawl back into my dugout and try
to sleep and know that I shall have to lie
awake and feel ‘them’ crawl. ‘They’ be-
come a torture.”
Practically all of the men in the ad-
vance areas are lousy, according to a
document that is accepted as authorita-
tive. It is impossible to tell what pro-
portion of the men in the rear and along
the lines of communication and in depots
are infested.
It is probable that the men in the
French armies suffer to a like extent, for
the conditions under which they live are
identical with those of the other armies.
During the formative period of the
This is the first time in the history of our army that
American army in France the men were
able to keep fairly clean—only fairly—
but with the opening of the year’s activ-
ity they were set upon the same footing
as their allies.
HOW THE SURGEONS WORK AFTER A GREAT
BATTLE
The great fear of the military surgeons
is the time following a battle, when the
field hospitals and clearing stations are
swamped by a flood of wounded men ly-
ing grimly silent upon their blood-soaked
litters. Then the surgeons work in teams,
each operator being accompanied by his
ether specialist and his orderlies and
nurses.
They go from table to table swathed
in white, their instruments freshly cleaned
and sterilized and glittering, their cotton
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
gloves white and new. Other men wheel
in the tables on which the wounded lie
and wheel them away again when the
operation is completed.
The operators go on without pause,
never asking after the fate of those who
have been operated on, never looking
ahead at the line of waiting tables, until
exhaustion stops them.
TRENCH FEVER AND TYPHUS TRACED TO
THE-LOUSE
Such a gorge of hurt men is the thought
that haunts the waking moments and the
dreams at night of every surgeon at the
front.
But such days are rare, while every
day the louse must be fought. It carries
with it the threat of epidemic. In the
eastern field of war the louse is a typhus
carrier, and there is no known reason
why it shouldn’t carry typhus in the west.
Trench fever has been traced home to
it. Until a comparatively short time ago
this was a mystery, with its recurrent
chills and fever and the semi-paralysis
that is an occasional result.
It is definitely known that a form of
itch is to be charged against the louse,
and a lowering of morale and a lessen-
ing. of the power of resistance is cer-
tainly produced by it. In some cases
men have been rendered so nervous by
prolonged exposure to the irritation of
the louse that they have been made unfit
for duty.
THE RAT AND FLEA PESTS
There are other trench pests, of course.
Perhaps one hears more of the trench
rat, for sufferers from rats are almost
morbidly candid in relating their experi-
ences. Rats can be disposed of, however.
Trenches can be policed into cleanliness
and officers can enforce the rules against
leaving bits of food about.
Without food rats cannot exist, and,
being highly intelligent animals, they do
not attempt life in sterile surroundings.
They may be dogged and catted and
trapped. At the most, the trench rat is
little more than an annoyance.
He does run over the faces of sleeping
men, and they waken their comrades to
relate the fact. They discuss the odor of
the rat’s feet and the uncanny coldness
501
of them. He eats leather shoe-strings
and bridles and sometimes nibbles on
boots.
The flea is the rat’s partner, and bu-
bonic and other plagues have been traced
to the rat-borne flea. The trench rat
habitually grows to an enormous and un-
precedented size, so that a cat must have
an heroic soul to tackle one of them un-
assisted, but I have yet to hear a sub-
stantiated story of a man being bitten
bya trench rat, unless. that rat was
cornered.
Sometimes one encounters a humorist
who tells his story:
“T met a rat one night in the trenches
by Zee-bray, said one-man. ~On the
level, he looked bigger than a Great Dane
dog. I stood there like a gentleman and
waited for him to give me the right of
way, but when he didn’t, I just took to
the parapet and let him go by. Sure, the
Germans were shooting, but I didn’t care.
I’d rather take a chance with a Boche
than with a rat.”
THE FLY IS DANGEROUS AT THE FRONT
There is an odd insect known as the
“spring tail” and many sorts of flies.
Ordinarily the fly is dangerous at the
front in precisely the same manner in
which flies are dangerous at home, be-
cause he contaminates food.
There is a biting fly, however, which
is especially prevalent in regions where
there has been long-continued fighting
and where the contending forces have
not had an opportunity to clean up the
battlefields. A variety of blood-poison-
ing has been traced to the bite of this
fly.
But of all the vermin of the trenches,
the chief pest is the louse. He is un-
escapable and ever present.
The primary reason is that the men
have only intermittent opportunities to
clean up. Theorctically, of course, the
men of all armies are washed and dried
and newly underclothed once a fortnight.
Sometimes glad-eyed optimists clean up
their men once a week.
hie Line STORY OF LEE LOUSE PAMiEY,
Even if that were possible, the louse
would not be disposed of. He would
manage to cling in the overlooked fold
*suoryel
Auiie dy} JO Javed & sv SioIpjOs UvdIIIOWY 0} poljddns Sutoq Mou sI ODJIVqOT, *}sO9 d[qissod jsa][euls dy} Je o[qQuIIeAe ope ‘asInod jo ‘aie soatjddns oy J,
‘QUIT} JLY} JO} Ssoja}Jo1VSIO puvL ssajo}e[OIOYS UVaq pry Ud dy} pue ‘sUOT}Ipuod JOY}JO puke PeOI JO asnedoq ‘OWI} pUTyeq SAep OM} SEM YINI} OYJ,
N2HdO OL
SHLVIOOOHOS GNV SALLAYVDIO JO WIVS AHL YOT AONVAA NI MONUL “VO CW A V AXOATA ONILIVM NAW AO ANIT ATANOd V AO LaVvd
r
A310) JANqI9FT Aq yYdesSojoyg :
502
i ig Oe Bl gi.
oop” ome ae
Se ee
a ae eS OO
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 503
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE FRIEND-IN-NEED IN USE AT THE AMERICAN FRONT
Despite their discomfort and the disgust which they feel at being infested with vermin, a
condition for which they are in no respect to blame, the American troops in France never
whimper.
With splendid fortitude they joke about that which cannot be helped.
le donnt
mind the hikes now,” said one soldier, “for all I have to do is to sort of shoo my shirt along.”
of a blanket or under the collar of an
overcoat. And by and by romance would
begin to sing in his blood, and he would
meet a lady louse and set up housekeep-
ing. Whereupon a. whole cityful of
younglings would appear, and the un-
fortunate who played the part of an un-
witting host would go back to his mo-
ments of uneasiness during the day and
his hours of sleeplessness at night.
But under army conditions the men
are almost never given a chance to clean
up so often.
Lee me tell the stony of the outmt f
have been living with for the past few
weeks, because that story is typical of a
regiment which has had a fairly good
opportunity to keep free of the pest.
For some weeks it had been kept in
the trenches, one battalion ata time. The
men “up front” had-no chance at all to
keep clean.
They did not even wash their faces.
There is no water whatever in the
trenches, except when there is too much
water, none of which is fit for use. The
little that comes to the men in line is
carried in at night, in galvanized-iron
containers, by the men who have been
told off for that duty.
Usually the “carry” is a long one.
One may say that it is practically never
less than two miles, because of the Ger-
man guns. The cans are unchancy things
to handle, and only the water absolutely
needed for drinking purposes is carried
in.
DAYS AND NIGHTS IN THE TRENCHES
During their time in the trenches most
of the men are on duty all night long.
By day they are required to stay in the
dugout, not only for the sleep they re-
quire, but to be out of sight of the enemy
and out of danger from his bombs.
A dugout is, in nine cases out of ten,
a mere dirt-roofed hole in the ground.
Sometimes it is a luxurious one, with a
board floor, on which the musty straw
is piled. Sometimes an abundance of
straw makes up for the lack of boards.
Sometimes there is no straw.
It is rarely large enough to accommo-
date the men, and if it were large enough
the chill of a damp hole, into which the
sun never shines, forces them to lie spoom
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE MASCOT OF THE MARINES, WHO MADE
HISTORY AND WON IMPERISHABLE
GLORY AT CHATEAU-THIERRY
This ant-bear has accompanied the soldiers of
the sea from the tropics to Picardy
fashion, each wrapped in his blanket,
each seeking the warmth of the other
man to add to his own comfort. It is
ideally adapted for the furtherance of all
insect plagues. No matter how scrupu-
lously scrubbed a man may be when he
enters a dugout, he usually comes out
lousy.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
When the regiment of which I speak
left the trenches the men got a chance to
clean up. Two days is always required
for that—if not more—hbecause the first
day is spent in resting. The men are ex-
hausted by the long hours and the scant
sleep and the nervous tension under
which they have been living.
The officers saw to it that each man
bathed and each man was given a fresh
suit of underwear. Then the “replace-
ments’ came:
3)
THE “REPLACEMENT” MAN A COOTIE
DANGER SOURCE
A “replacement” 18.a man: sent to a
unit to take the place of one of the men
the unit has lost. No matter from whence
he comes, in a properly handled regiment
he first goes into quarantine. A surgeon
looks him over, to see that he is not suf-
fering from a contagious disease. Then
he is examined for “cooties:-
If he has them he is sent to the guard-
house and kept there, not as a punish-
ment, but to be sure that he does not
spread his pests among other men, until
he in turn can be bathed and newly out-
imnbtede
“Tomorrow we hike” was the word
after dinner one night.
The regiment got under way at two
o'clock in the morning, and for piwe
weeks each day was too full to permit of
proper cleanliness. Sometimes we hiked.
Sometimes the day’s program called for
close-order drill, or special instruction
for almost every available hour.
BATHING AN ORDEAL IN NORTHERN
FRANCE
There were no moments left for bath-
ing, and if there were, a bath in the cold
water of the streams of northern France
presents slight attractions to the man who
has worked hard. There is always the
hope that tomorrow may be a better day.
At last we reached a billet which was
to be permanent for at least two weeks.
It was only by diplomacy and unflagging
industry that enough wood was found to
keep the fires going in the rolling kitchens.
Hereabouts the peasants cook over fires
that might almost be covered by a pocket
handkerchief. As fast as the end burns
THE NATIONAL
Y
i]
|
|
WY, Yy Uy
GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE D05
Photograph by Herbert Corey
HOW THE REFUGEES LEAVE A DEVASTATED TOWN IN FRANCE
A tiny dog-cart, piled high with odds and ends of household furniture, represents all the
possessions saved by a peasant family which must start life anew in some distant section of
France.
So suddenly does the order of evacuation come that the civilian population seldom
has time to make a choice of the things which can be saved.
off, the sticks are moved forward to pre-
sent a fresh surface to the flames. The
fires are all made of little twigs. Each
year the peasants lop off the branches of
certain trees and make them up into bun-
dles for the winter’s fuel. The season’s
provision for a farming family is unbe-
lievably small.
“There are enough stumps in my old
man’s woodlot to boil soup for all France,”
a disgusted soldier told me one day.
“Cooties” can be killed by boiling water,
if the water is hot enough and boiled long
enough. ‘The women of France rarely
use hot water for the washing of clothes.
TEE COOLIE IS Ay HARDY INSECL
In every village in the north there is a
municipal laundry, in which the women
kneel and souse the soiled linen in cold
water which trickles into a tub, and then
thresh the linen upon rough stones. The
process is repeated until the cloth takes
on at least the appearance of whiteness.
But this process does not kill the
“cooties.” The adult cootie is a fairly
hardy insect and the eggs are extraordi-
narily resistant to rough treatment. The
scientists who have been inquiring into
the louse problem among the armies of
the Western Front have found that clean
clothes may be infested from these com-
munity wash-houses. The eggs remain
upon the rough surfaces of the stones on
which the linen is scoured and are taken
up by the next armful of wet clothes.
If the scientists had their way they
would either have the clothes of the sol-
diers washed by army specialists or by
the soldiers themselves. They would
forbid the men taking their clothes to the
village blanchisseuses.
But the American soldier is a luxuri-
ous creature and has money in his pocket.
He prefers to have his laundry done by
the women, and he can hardly be blamed.
If he were to do his own week’s wash, he
would be forced to do it at the same
place and on the same stones over which
the peasant laundresses work each day.
When there is no hot water to wash
the men’s clothing there is no hot water
in which the men themselves may bathe.
It is true that one sometimes finds a mu-
Photograph by Herbert Corey
THE SMALLER FRENCH VILLAGES ARE SERVED BY TRAVELING STORES OF THE SORT
SHOWN HERE
Every necessity of French rural life is carried in them, from cap ribbons to plow-
points.
The American soldiers are looking for something to buy, for they have plenty of
money in their pockets, but the contents of the traveling store rarely appeal to their tastes.
nicipal bath-house in the tiniest villages,
but ordinarily the men are obliged to take
their baths at the edge of a stream. Even
when quarters are established for a stay
of some time, it is not always possible to
make better arrangements.
HOW THE BRITISH FIGHT THE COOTIE
The British take notably good care of
their men in this respect, yet I found only
a cold-water shower at a school for offi-
cers last winter. The water could not be
heated, and so the Britons went under
the splash and came out even pinker than
when they went in. It sends a chill down
my sensitive spine even yet to think
about it.
“I got a hot bath yesterday,” said the
colonel’s orderly. He was so extremely
set up over it that I asked for details. He
had built a small fire between bricks, fed
it with bits of twigs he had collected and
little parcels of straw and other odds and
ends, and heated water in the cup of his
canteen and used his mess tin asa bathtub.
Many cups of water were heated and
he had bathed himself by fractional parts.
But in the end he was entirely clean.
Not many men will go to such trouble,
however, and in fact he secured an es-
thetic rather than a sanitary satisfaction
from the process; for he had no way in
which his clothes might be boiled.
In the month of which I am writing
only a few lucky men of this regiment
had hot baths. This includes the officers
as well as the private soldiers. The men
did what they could by cold-water baths
and cold-water laundering to keep the
pests down, and they have been aided by
the insect powder which is distributed
from time to time. Unfortunately it has
not always been possible to get a suffi-
cient quantity of that insect powder, be-
cause of conditions into which it is un-
necessary to go.
A GASOLINE SPONGE-BATH FOR WRITHING
SOLDIERS
If ninety-nine out of every one hun-
dred men were absolutely free from
“cooties,” the hundredth man would in-
fest the ninety-nine in a week’s time
under military conditions.
Sometimes unusual methods are re-
sorted to. Ina regiment largely made up
of national guardsmen the hospital order-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
lies took charge of one platoon which,
through no fault of its own, had become
infested.
At that billet there happened to be
plenty of gasoline—a condition which
rarely exists nowadays. ‘The hospital
man managed to commandeer a quantity.
Then the men stripped and their clothes
were literally soaked with gasoline.
An unusual spectacle followed. The
hospital orderlies armed themselves with
swabs tied to the ends of sticks. They
dipped the swabs in open cans of gaso-
line. Then they swabbed the men.
“Ouch!” was the first remark made by
each man as the gasoline filtered into the
raw places where he had been scratching
himself. He rarely paused with that
exclamation; but the hospital crew was
relentless.
Potand up,”
“Whoa!”
It developed that they had immediately
before been swabbing horses with gaso-
line for the same purpose and the words
came naturally to their lips. The poor
men being swabbed danced and swore,
but they had to submit, for an under-
officer supervised the process.
Physicians tell me that it is not at all
certain that gasoline will kill the nits of
lice, but the hospital orderlies had no
doubt whatever as to the efficacy of their
process. They manifested an artistic
satisfaction in the swabbing, so that not
a single nesting place in which eggs
might be hidden was overlooked.
Later I asked the men who had been
swabbed what the result had been.
“Fine,” they said, their faces glowing.
“It’s a bully hunch. We’re going to
swipe some gasoline and go over our-
selves now and then. It sure does kill
the ‘cooties.’”’
HOW THE COOTIE STARTED
they said __ sternly.
No army in the European field has a
preéminence in cleanliness over any
other army. The most that can be said
is that some armies are worse than others.
It is assumed by those who have in-
quired into the subject that the louse ob-
tained his foothold in the early days of
mobilization, when Apaches from the
slums and ruffians from the docks were
herded into barracks along with men who
had never known what it was to be any-
507
thing but clean. So the louse spread and
propagated until now its diffusion is
general.
If every man and every stitch of cloth
in every army were to be thoroughly
freed from the pest today, in a week each
man might be infested again. Enough
“cooties’ would be left over in unsus-
pected places to make a fresh start.
With all Germany’s boasted ability to
organize, the louse has fairly ravaged
her armies. In the latter months of 1914
I visited a great prison camp near Berlin,
in which 9,000 military prisoners of war
were herded behind a high wire fence.
They had no hot water and no soap and
no bathing facilities. Those who wished
might wash themselves in an iron trough,
such as horses are watered at, which
stood in the bleak openness of the prison
parade ground.
FIGHTING THE PEST IN GERMAN PRISON
CAMPS
Only those who have felt the moist
cold of Germany penetrate through wool
and fur to the very bone can realize the
sturdy courage of the men who went to
that horse trough day after day and did
their heroic best to keep themselves clean.
Others sat in long rows on the pail-
lasses of dirty straw in the cavalry stable
tents which sheltered them, naked to the
waist, while they attempted to kill the
plagues that were driving them mad.
That was in 1914. I often wonder
what has become of those men—if they
have had the courage to live on amid
such infernal torture.
The German armies were infested, so
that one of the most popular charities
in the Empire was the “Delousing Fund,”
which furnished various insecticidal com-
pounds to the men at the front.
The Russian prisoners were infested
to the last man—infested to a degree that
no one unacquainted with army condi-
tions would believe if I were to tell the
unvarnished story—and through their
plague brought the spotted fever to Ger-
many in 1915. The Russians themselves
were fairly immune, but it is said to have
cost the Central Empires many lives be-
fore it was conquered.
Nowadays it is realized by the sci-
entists who have given their time and
508 THE NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by Herbert Corey
AMERICAN AND FRENCH SOLDIERS PAYING A SILENT TRIBUTE TO THE
AMERICAN DEAD
The flags which float above these newly made graves are the tribute of the Americans; the
wreaths are the homage of their French companions
their blood to a study of the problem, that
a high degree of heat and rigorous clean-
liness are the only means by which the
plague can be successfully fought.
NiCGT POWDER, USED AN WARLON “THE
BEASTIE
The N CI powder, supplied to all the
armies, will free the men from the beastie
if they have some little chance to keep
clean while they are using it. One ap-
plication is considered good for five days.
It is made up of naphthalene, 96 per cent ;
Creosote, 2) per) cent, and iodotorm,.2
per. cent. It would not be favored in
civilian circles, because the user of N CI
advertises that fact to the most casual
passer ; but it does the work.
Another objection to N C I is that it
causes severe smarting if used in large
quantities ; but the men seem not to ob-
ject to that. The soldier who is thor-
oughly inured to war seems to care little
for bodily pain. I have seen men at hard
work whose slight wounds had been only
partially healed, so that each movement
must have been productive of pain.
The Englishman, if asked about it,
grins and says that he must “carry on.”
The American says: “We’ve got to get
through with it.’ The Frenchman as-
sures you that it makes no difference to
him.
- There are other treatments. One is
a vermijelli ointment, with which the men
smear themselves almost from head to
foot. A preparation of crude oil and
soft paraffin melted together-sets like a
salve and is very useful when similarly
used. A mercury ointment is likewise
employed with success, but all these are
merely temporary expedients.
It is when the men come into rest
camps that the “cootie” is properly han-
dled. Heat and hot water give temporary
relief from the scourge. The method
usually followed is that of the British
army. :
THE DELOUSING ESTABLISH MENT
The men enter the first room of a
three-room bathing establishment. There
they undress and hand their soiled clothes
through a window to a receiver, who
sends the bundle to the “delousing ma-
elmer
They pass into the middle room and
take a thorough bath with plenty of soap
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
and plenty of hot water. A non-com is
at hand to see to it that the occasional
man who objects to cleanliness neverthe-
less follows the example of the others.
Then they move into the third room,
dry themselves and put on clean clothes.
These may not fit, but they are clean.
The shirts, socks,. and undergarments
have been subjected to 215 degrees of
heat in live steam for three-quarters of
an hour, or sometimes are boiled for. five
minutes. The outer garments are thor-
oughly. brushed and then ironed with a
very hot iron down every seam and in
every possible hiding. place for the
Beootie, Or the eggs.
LOUSE HABITS DURING THE WAR
When. it is not possible to arrange per-
manent cleaning-up establishments of
this sort, the men are made to bathe as
best they can, and their inner garments
are steamed in huge horse or motor
drawn “delousers,”’ which hang about the
rear of every army nowadays. Absolute
cleanliness is not secured, but the evil is
greatly reduced.
~(he-plague: may iat least be reduced
to a minimum,” remarks an English au-
imonity. Itis not so much a matter of
pure science as of common-sense man-
agement.”
Some interesting facts have been re-
vealed by the scientists who have made
an examination of louse habits during the
war. One is that dugouts and buildings
are never infested. The cold straw and
the damp walls do not present any at-
factions to the bug. Mile does not even
stay upon blankets any longer than is
necessary. His home is in clothing that
is being worn and from which he ven-
tures to feed.
In an official document it is stated that
in the British army 95 per cent of men
who have seen six months’ service are
lousy; that the average number of lice
per man is 20, and that 50 men to a bat-
falion of 1,000 are dangerous carriers;
each bearing from 100 to 300 lice.
A HIGH-RECORD SHIRT
One shirt was found to contain 10,428
lice, and more than 10,000 eggs were
found under the microscope. This prob-
ably establishes the world’s highest rec-
ord, although nurses who served through
509
the typhus epidemic in Serbia in 1915
told me that they had seen gray patches
the size of one’s two hands upon the
bodies of men brought into the hospital.
The pests were so thick in these patches
that from a little distance they presented
the appearance of a felted cloth.
The beast seems to lack intelligence.
however, for in all the experiments no
deliberate effort on his part to reach the
human body has been observed. He is a
creature of opportunity and environment.
Eggs have been hatched after a dor-
mancy away from the human body of
forty days, and single insects have lived
and flourished on good feeding grounds
for thirty days; but the longest period in
which any survived separation from its
human host was nine days.
NO ARMY IS CLEANER THAN AMERICA’S
Every effort is being made to keep the
men of the American army free from
“cooties,’ for the American surgeons
and officers fully realize the danger that
may be carried by the pests. During the
early months of our army in France the
French baths and the English delousing
machines were used, but now we are get-
ting baths and machines of our own.
Clean underwear is furnished the men
at every opportunity, and they are given
every possible insecticidal device, from
the “cootie bags” of the French to the
“navvy’s butter” of the British. It is not
too much to say that no army is cleaner
than the American.
The fact that most impresses the ob-
server, however, is the cheerful courage
with which the American soldier is bear-
ing this, as he is bearing every other dan-
ger and discomfort of the war. By pref-
erence he disguises his repugnance with
a rough form of humor.
One man told me, as he left the
trenches after a two weeks’ stay, that he
had “little cooties’” feeding on the “big
cooties” now, and another said he didn’t
mind the hikes, because “all I had to do
was to sort of shoo my clothing along.”
They never whine. They say they have
“cootied” or they have not and do not
add a comment.
Perhaps that is not the courage that
seeks a fleeting glory in the cannon’s
mouth, but it seems to me it is a fine
courage just the same.
HOSPITAL HEROES CONVICT THE “COOTIE”’
the United States Government were
to confer a special decoration upon
sixty-six young American soldiers who
have displayed unspectacular, but unsur-
passed, courage in France, a courage that
dared wasting illness, in a hospital sub-
ject to the bombardment of Hun shells,
in order that future millions who are to
make their way from our shores to the
battle front may be spared the suffering
and the disabilities of trench fever.
The courage which these sixty-six boys
have evinced differs greatly from that in-
duced by the battle call which sends men
shouting “over the top.” In volunteering
to undergo tests which have identified
trench fever as a germ disease they knew
what they were facing—months, perhaps
a year, of illness, of voluntary imprison-
ment in a hospital ward, of removal from
ally the vactivities "andiithe yexcitement) of
the soldier’s life in a foreign land, and
from the companionship of comrades in
arms. They were, necessarily, men in
perfect health, many of them wholly unac-
customed to, and therefore dreading, the
strangenessof hospital wards, of surgeons,
of medicines, of blood injections, etc.
|: WOULD be highly appropriate if
“THE INOCULATION TESTS
The knowledge which these heroic
sixty-six, by offering up their virile bod-
ies to a disease test, have enabled science
to acquire may prove the determining
factor in the world war, for it may mean
the conquest of trench fever, just as the
sacrifices of a smaller group of men 18
years ago enabled Walter Reed and his
associates to identify the mosquito as the
insect which carries yellow fever. Once
the source of the contagion was discov-
ered the fight against yellow fever was
more than half won.
The experiments conducted on Amer-
ica’s Sixty-six have fastened the guilt of
contagion-bearing upon the body louse,
the “cootie,” of which Mr. Corey writes
in the preceding pages.
The first question studied was whether
this was a germ disease. No germs could
be seen with the microscope, but the U. S.
Medical Department knew that there are
numerous germs which cannot be seen by
even the most powerful magnification.
Therefore this point had to be established
by taking blood from men with the fever
and injecting it into healthy men. Out of
34 such individuals inoculated with blood,
or some constituent thereof, taken from
seven cases of trench fever, 23 volunteers
developed the disease. Out of 16 healthy
men inoculated with whole blood from a
trench-fever case, 15 developed the dis-
ease. ‘These experiments proved that
trench fever is a germ disease, and that
the germs live in the blood of men so in-
tected:
LEARNING HOW THE DISEASE IS SPREAD
The next question was, “How is this
disease spread?” Naturally, the body
louse was to be considered first. Large
numbers of these were collected from
patients with trench fever, and also some
of the same kind were brought from Eng-
land, having been collected from healthy
men. The lice from trench-fever cases
were allowed to bite 22 men. Twelve of
these later developed the disease, while
four men bitten by lice from healthy men
remained free from the disease. FEjight
other volunteers, living under exactly the
same conditions, in the same wards, but
Kept, free from ‘lice, did not develap
trench fever. After blood inoculation the
disease developed in from 5 to 20 days.
After being bitten by infected lice the
fever required from 15 to 35 days to de-
velop.
With such data in their possession, the
medical departments of the Allies have
taken up the problem of the “cootie”’ in
its bearing upon the supreme question of
winning the war. Until recently the odious
vermin have been considered only in the
light of bodily annoyances to the troops,
in some cases having a certain effect on
their morale. Now, however, the battle
is On in earnest to rid the men) ot eiie
disease-bearers, for when a man falls a
victim to trench fever he is, in the aver-
age case, unfit as a fighter for six months.
It is a simple problem in multiplica-
tion to appreciate how tremendously
America’s Sixty-six may have contrib-
uted to the power of our blows against
the Huns by giving science the informa-
tion which will result in keeping our sol-
diers fit for service.
510
ABATE ER-GROUND OF NATURE: - THE
ATLANTIC
SEABOARD
By Joun Oniver La Gorce
AuTHor oF “‘RoUMANIA AND Its Rusicon,” “THE WARFARE ON OuR EASTERN Coast,” ETC.
HE operations of the sea assas-
Sins’ of Priissia on, Our) eastern
coast, in a futile effort to stay the
mighty blow America is beginning to
strike against despotism, brings into bold
relief that ever-changing stretch of
coastline we so proudly call our Atlantic
seaboard, which the writer outlined in
an article published in the September,
IQI15, issue of the GEOGRAPHIC.
As the crow flies, it is some sixteen
hundred miles from the _ out-harbor
waters of Eastport, Maine, to the key-
guarded shallows of Cards Sound,
Florida; but as the shore stretches south-
ward, miles lengthen into leagues, rocky
citadels give way to shifting sands, and
both yield place to coral reefs.
He who would follow the foreshore
from northern Campobello Island to
southern Largo Key has a journey that
while taxing his legs would certainly stir
his soul, for in doing so he would trav-
erse the length of a battle-front in the
most ancient, the most far-flung, the most
unremitting, uncompromising war ever
staged between puissant forces of na-
ture—the war between land and water,
with the wind as a shifting ally.
This warfare, harsh in its local results,
is yet one that by its analogies has com-
fort for suffering humanity in the present
hours of stress and crisis, for the final
results, however serious the momentary
aspects, are beneficial to mankind.
Before visiting the various sectors of
the seaboard battle-front to study the
more intimate details of the war between
the sea and the soil, let us endeavor to
get a bird’s-eye view of the great conflict
that started long before man appeared
upon the face of the earth, and which can
only end long after the planet is no longer
fit for his habitation.
Every coast-line on the globe, be it that
of a great continent or a tiny island, is a
theater of nature’s struggle, in which the
warring forces are marshaled; every
rainstorm is a vast squadron of airplanes
of the sea, a veritable Neptune’s Esca-
drille, sweeping the shock troops across
the No ‘Mans and of clit, beach, and
reef, onward to the very heart of the
land forces’ strongholds, the mountains,
where they wheel about and launch a rear
attack with swollen torrent, hail, and ice.
Fach drop of water is indeed a soldier
of the sea, doing its small part, as it de-
scends with force, in conquering the hill-
side, and its drum fire is to be reckoned
with, because each inch of rain brings
down one hundred and thirteen tons of
water upon every acre of terrain upon
which it falls.
THE AIR FLEETS OF THE SEA
As the tiny soldiers concentrate first in
rivulet regiments, then into mountain-tor-
rent divisions, and finally into big-river
armies, they madly charge the rocks and
grind them to dust by attrition and carry
the captive sands ever onward to the sea.
The vast forces of the sea which are
sent out in air fleets beggar belief. The
rainfall of the United States perhaps
averages 30 inches a year. On that basis
every acre of ground is attacked by three
thousand tons of water. And the water
atimies, marching back to-the sea ‘as
rivers, take along a hostage of well-nigh
unbelievable. proportions, since it has
been estimated that they carry some
twenty-five billion tons of captive ma-
terial with them.
The prisoners of the Mississippi might
be used for an example, because their
aggregate volume is greater every year
than the total amount of material re-
moved from the Panama Canal from the
hour de Lesseps turned the first sod to
the glorious day Goethals pronounced it
a finished undertaking, or approximately
506,000,000 tons!
It often happens, however, that the
seemingly vanquished turn on their cap-
Photograph by Charles A. Harbaugh
A BELGIUM IN NATURE'S WARFARE: WOUNDED, BUT UNBOWED
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
tors just as they come down to the dead
line of No Man’s Land and succeed in
saving themselves from the prison camps
of the sea bottom. .
In such cases they form themselves
into river deltas, like those of the Missis-
sippi, the Po, the Euphrates, and the
Ganges, although our own seaboard cap-
tives are not so fortunate, since deltas
are conspicuously absent from the river
mouths of the North American Atlantic
and Pacific coasts.
In the attacks of the sea upon the land
via the air, it is the constant endeavor of
the water forces to bring the whole dry
land area under its liquid fist. If the
sea ever succeeded in its program of
world dominion, which includes dragging
every mountain down and filling up every
ocean trench with the material graded
from the land in a leveling process, there
would be a universal ocean nearly two
miles deep over the face of the globe.
WATER S\ALLIES IN ITS AIR ATTACKS
The water has as allies ice and atmos-
pietenin tS air attacks upon the land:
Seeking out the fissures in a cliff and fill-
ing them, the water waits until the frost
comes and forms ice.
No giant of any age, no superman,
imagined or real, ever put his shoulders
against an object with such smashing in-
vincibility as is evidenced in the forming
crystals of a piece of ice, while the air, elu-
sive, unsubstantial, as it may seem when
compared with water, is yet no mean con-
federate, because with its power to attack
through chemical transformation and its
extreme mobility, it can work important
results even in a brief campaign.
Yet more to the immediate point of
this discussion is the frontal attack of
the sea against the land. With wave and
tide and wind and undertow, with coast-
wise current and ground swell, the sea
pounds perpetually at the gates of the
land fortifications.
Starting at Eastport, Maine, let us take
a mental journey along the battle-front
and watch the great drive of the sea and
the defensive tactics of the land. On
the northwestern shore of Campobello
Island, that beautiful bit of British
ground which forms the seaward wall
of Eastport harbor, stands “Old Friar,”
015
a remarkable rock, isolated and solitary,
alone with its memories of a bygone day.
It is but a different version of the
“battle” rocks that dot the granite forti-
fications for many weary miles on this
coast. These sturdy sentinels are isolated
forces which have withstood the buffeting
of the foe’s advance and are the outposts
of the land legionaries in their mortal
combat with the wave army that sweeps
the coast in relentless fury. Their sup-
porting forces have fallen back, the
watery foe has entirely surrounded them,
yet boldly they defy his onrush and pre-
sent an inspirational picture of adaman-
tine resistance, as they break up the as-
sault of the succeeding waves that rush
against the main defenses.
Enduring, inflexible, they continue to
hold where their weaker brethren yield
territory inch by inch. No Ten Thou-
sand Immortals, no Guard Regiments, no
Macedonian phalanx, ever stood their
ground more nobly than do the pulpit
rocks of the Maine coast.
THE BATTLEMENTS OF THE MAINE COAST
We have not traveled far when we dis-
cover that the Maine coast is an unbroken
series of steep battlements. Without
power to advance, without mobility to
shift their positions, these cliffs are des-
tined to a defensive plan of campaign,
while the waves possess initiative, and
their generalship is of no mean order.
Breaking relentlessly upon the eternal
rocks, the waters might still wage a vain
war, did they not succeed in capturing
from the cliffs stones and boulders which
they use as projectiles when they return
to the attack. Here hard, ungrained
granite armor-plate stands in the path of
the onrushing waves, with such uwun-
daunted and unconquerable strength that,
smash as they will, hammer as they may,
the waves retreat after their attack,
powerless to entirely reduce the defenses.
Farther along is another great mass ot
similar material, and it stands with cor-
responding might against the sea. But
between them there is a series of cliffs
made up of softer rock—the old men and
the young boys of the land forces. Their
morale is not high, their strength is not
great, and so they give ground.
The flanks hold, but the center yields,
s}jashyorsseyy JuryenN ‘yooy wdyng :o10ys oy} JO uNpsJOA & Surlpays vas ay} Fo AtaTHIV
ssVd LON ‘TIVHS AUHL,,
QUIODMON “YY *y Wor ydeisojoyg
514
q
SLIISAOHOVSSVIN FO LSVOO AML WO AVAIMAWOS NOISTAIC
WOOMAN “FT "WY Worf ydesrSojoyg
\N
XN
GNVI V 40 GNVIS ISVI AHL
515
hes
" FATHER AND SON: CAPE HENRY, VIRGINIA
i The old light tower was the first builded by the American Goyernment. The land army
has defeated the sea at this point and driven it back nearly half a mile since the old light was
established in 1791.
i 516
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
and alas, the untiring foe drives a salient
into the lines of the land and uses the
booty captured in his next drive. The
salient is a bay or cove,.and the wings are
the headlands that bound it.
If one thrust be not too bitter, or if the
retreating shore-line finally reaches a sec-
ondary line of defense on firmer ground,
the enemy is held; otherwise it drives
around the headland on all sides; and
thus do “pulpit” or “chimney rocks” be-
come lone outposts.
WHEN THE SEA ENCOUNTERS CROSS-FIRE .,
RESISTANCE
It often happens, however, that when
the thrust of the sea becomes too deep,
the flanks of the attacking forces are ex-
posed to the cross-fire resistance of the
headlands, and finally reach a degree of
penetration where they cannot maintain
communications, and their attack comes
to a standstill. In such a case we have a
deep bay where the rushing waves of the
sea lose their force before they sweep the
inner shore-line. |
One does not have to study the war-
fare waged by the sea very long before
discovering that it not only uses “pincer”
tactics, but that it also makes use of min-
ing operations. Sometimes it finds that
its most powerful onrushes are dissipated
by the resisting power of a great head-
land, as the dew is dissipated by the morn-
ing sun or the darkness by the light of
day.
With boulder and shingle the waters
drive furiously at the base of the cliff,
tearing away its foundations inch by inch
-and foot by foot until a soft spot is un-
covered, and the sea enemy finally under-
mimes entirely the great structure of
defense. Then with the hydraulic pres-
sure of an imprisoned wave it heaves for-
ward, and the rocks above have no alter-
native but to tumble helplessly into the
maw of the liquid host, to become projec-
tiles in the sea’s further assaults.
Often, too, the rushing waves find a
weak link in the armor where one ledge
of rock overlies another, with gravel or
clay between. Yard by yard they wear
out this grouting material, and a sea cave
is the result.
The ledges which constitute the roof
and the floor, respectively, have a dip to-
O17
ward the sea, and as the waves rush in
they come nearer and nearer to the sur-
face, until finally they break through at
some joint in the roof, and we have the
spouting horn—a trumpeter of Neptune
who gives the gage of further battle with
each flooding tide.
At still other places the waves drive
back the softer shore and bare a long
stretch of adamant on each flank. And
then it comes to a spot in this flinty head-
land that is weak, and cuts its way
through, making a graceful arch of a
wonderful, wave-hewn natural bridge.
The tremendous power of the sea in
utilizing the boulders it has wrested from
the land in its return to the attack sur-
passes belief. Huge rocks, weighing sev-
enty-‘ive tons or more, have been moved
by the power of the waves.
THE 42-CENTIMETER SHELLS OF THE SEA
Driving the big boulders up against the
cliffs as though from a giant catapult,
these 42-centimeter shells are finally worn
down into cobble-stones, then into peb-
bles, then into sand, and at last into silt,
which, caught up by the undertow, is
borne along and out to sea, a bit of land
forever in the prison-camp of the ocean.
As a result of the terrific grinding of
the glacial ice of ages agone and in the
following centuries under such methods
of attack as have been broadly sketched,
the Maine coast beyond Portland has be-
come a series of gulfs and bays and head-
lands, with islands and rocks without
number as the observation posts and first-
line defense against the sea.
From Portland to Newburyport the
bold cliffs gradually lower their towering
forms and beaches and broad bays ap-
pear (see page 523). From Newbury-
port to Woods Hole is about eighty-five
miles in a bee-line, but if you follow the
shore around Cape Cod Bay and down
along Nantucket Sound it is some three
hundred miles. In that stretch of coast-
line one might see fairly good types of
all the shores from Greenland to Florida.
There may not be fiords like those of the
far north or swamps like those of Vir-
ginia, Georgia, and Florida, but there are
enough shore-line features to fascinate
any pilgrim who would wander that way.
uswo’y *f [1e9 Aq ydesZ0j0yg
SANII
TILLVA AHL NAAMLYA LHDOOAVO WANVISAL LNAOONNI NV
518
SS
519
uph by H. C. Mann
«
Photogr
S
A
4
CAPE
INIA
“
1
RS ON THE BATTLE-FRONT or NATURE’S WORLD-OLD WAR! OFF THE VIRC
2ViE
—A
4
4
OBSI
RSE . ae = : 3 . Qe a ‘eee
Photograph from M. Rosenfeld
A NEUTRAL OBSERVER SURVEYS FROM ALOFT THE ETERNAL CONFLICT OF THE LAND
AND THE SEA FORCES
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
A GIBRALTAR OF THE AMERICAN SEACOAST
North of Gloucester lies Cape Ann,
with her pocket beaches. Here the waves
run high and dash themselves with un-
pitying force against the solid old rock;
but she holds firm, a Gibraltar of the
American seacoast, guarding the outer
approaches to Boston, as the wonderful
British fortress has stood watch and ward
in the path of the invader of the Medi-
terranean. So wild is the sea here that it
is said that a sharp-angled fragment of
stone as large as a steamer trunk is often
worn as round as a tennis ball in the
course of five years.
Many a brick and coal laden ship has
perished upon such shores as these, and
their scattered pieces of cargo have been
ground to bits under the incessant ham-
merings of one another under the urge
of the waves.
Marblehead, on the northern shore of
Massachusetts Bay, is worthy of its name,
and often the sea resorts to unusual tac-
tics in trying to conquer it. Shaler, the
well-known authority on geology, tells of
witnessing an attack in which the sea
used seaweed as its ammunition train.
Sometimes these plants grow in shallow
waters and wrap their roots around
boulders on the floor of the ocean. Then,
as the surging sea rolls in, it lifts the sea-
weed on its buoyant bosom, and the
plants in their turn tug at—the rocks
which their roots enmesh, until finally the
boulders are lifted clear of the bottom
and carried along into the maelstrom of
attack.
It is too hard a struggle for the sea-
weed, which is quickly torn asunder, but
the stones are driven up to the attack
again and again. As much as ten tons
of these seaweed-borne rocks are some-
times cast up upon a quarter-mile stretch
of shore-line by a single storm.
COMMUNIQUES OF NATURE'S WARFARE
Farther south, on the northern wing of
the Atlantic battle-front, lies Lynn, and
in the sea below Lynn lies Nahant Island,
which bids us hope, for here at last the
sea has lost the initiative, the land has
assumed the offensive, and in an inspir-
ing counter-attack is demonstrating its
ability to give blow for blow and to match
maneuver against maneuver.
521
Indeed, here for the first time we are
to learn, in Nature’s War Communiques,
that the hardest rocks of the northern
coast are more yielding than the softest
sands of the southern waters and, in spite
of local engagements fought with fluctu-
ating results in this or that sector, as a
whole, the land is holding its own from
Lynn to the silver sands of Alton Beach
at Miami.
In the counter-attack in the Lynn sec-
tor the land has built up a sandy beach
between Nahant Island and the mainland.
Passing the Boston sector, where com-
parative quiet has reigned for some time,
midway between Plymouth and Barnsta-
ble, where Buzzards Bay on the south
and Barnstable Bay on the north have
long seemed to conspire to tear off the
“bare, bended arm” of Massachusetts, as
Thoreau called Cape Cod, we come to the
Cape Cod Canal. According to British
charts in the Library of the United States
Coast and Geodetic Survey, thought to
date from 1715, there was once a sea-cut
channel through that neck, and Cape Cod
was an island, not a peninsula. Here,
again, the land won out in after years
and tied an island to the mainland.
ICh CAS A LAND AELY,
The Cape Cod Peninsula affords an
illustration of how the ice in geologic
times came to the aid of the land in its
war against the sea. Once glaciers swept
down from Labrador and Maine and de-
posited vast quantities of clay and bould-
ers on the floor of the sea, making a great
breakwater to the east of what is now
Cape Cod Bay. This obstruction forced
the sea to give up the stores of sand it
was carrying, and with this material the
breakwater gradually wrought itself into
a peninsula.
Passing around Cape Cod’s two shore-
lines, inner and outer, one comes next
to Chatham, at the elbow of the outer
shore. Here the sea is once more on the
offensive, driving forward into the shore-
line at the rate of a foot a year.
South of Chatham is Monomy Point,
called by De Monts, the French explorer
who nearly came to grief there in 1605,
the ‘‘graveyard of ships,” a reputation it
has lived up to for three centuries and
better. Looking southward across the
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Photograph by George R. King
WHERE PRISONERS OF WAR ARE FORCED TO FIGHT THEIR BRETHREN
A typical sector near Highland Light, Massachusetts, where the sea enemy uses captured
boulders, torn from cliffside defenses, as projectiles with which to batter down the ramparts.
Note the prisoners “left upon the wire” at the beachline.
eastern entrance to Nantucket Sound,
one sights Nantucket Island in the dis-
tance. On the south side of this island
the retreat of the cliffs is often as much
asisixerecet a seat.
Further to the west lies Marthas Vine-
yard, also an outpost of the land. Here
there are rearing ramparts of rock a hun-
dred feet high, but even they cannot en-
tirely withstand the incessant attacks of
the indomitable sea.
To the southwest of Marthas Vineyard
lies the desolate island of “No Man’s
Land,” which is well worthy the name it
bears. Gradually the sea is tearing away
its vitals, and it is predicted that by the
end of the present century it will disap-
pear beneath the waves forever.
In the case of the Cape Cod Peninsula,
we saw how the land had used the ice
of geologic times as its ally against the
sea, but when we come to Long Island
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Or
bo
TSO)
AN OBSERVATION POST ON THE FIRING LINE
The sea makes a desperate attempt to gain a foothold near Portland Head Light, Cape Eliza-
beth, Maine, but with little success
there is a different story. Here the ice
negotiated a separate peace with the sea,
and, sweeping eastward across New
York, scooped out what is now Long
Island Sound, thus enabling the enemy
to isolate the island entirely from the
mainland.
WHEN THE LAND ASSUMES THE
OFFENSIVE
On the south coast of Long Island we
find beaches and shifting sands. Here
again we get into more hopeful territory,
for the land always has an upbuilding
Oliver for every down-tearing Roland
the sea may have to offer. From Shin-
necock Bay to Fire Island, a rampart of
sand some 40 miles long has been thrown
forward off the real shore-line, and the
sea, pounding against this in its maddest
fury, encounters a buffer that throws it
back a helpless and exhausted foe. More-
over, the sea is compelled to surrender
captive sands taken up elsewhere, and
these are re-equipped and put into the
front trenches of the island’s south-shore
defenses.
Farther west on Long Island lies Rock-
away Beach, the advanced line of de-
fenses which the land has been throwing
Out to thwart the attack of the Seamar
the apex of the Jamaica Bay salient.
What was once Pelican Beach has all but
disappeared and what is left of it is now
known as Barren Island. But Rockaway
Beach has gained ground westward as
fast as Pelican Beach has been driven
eastward, and has now all but landlocked
Jamaica Bay and its islands. It advances
at the rate of two feet every three days.
SANDY HOOK AN ADVANCE GUARD
On the Jersey Coast, Sandy Hook
stands out as an advance guard of the
forces of the land, determined to cut
through the line of communications of the
sea in its drive into the Raritan Bay sa-
lient (see map, page 535).
‘9INOT UD SISRI[IA UDAD PUL s}SsotOF SuypNSuo “purjul yoiewu puv ojyeurpsoqnsur swuosoq ,{syury,, Jwais ayy ‘saunp oIsay} uayjO
‘pepypag o10 sjivdwe.l puvs osny ory M Wot} ‘vas JY} WOLF Pd}JIVXI S$
l
oynqis} AAvoy & ‘sxdIOF PUL] dy} JO AT] uv sv sjov pUIM oy] UdIYM ‘SIUTJIWOG
LSHuOT V YAO ONIONVACV ~MNVUL,, V
tury “Dd ‘TT Aq ydessoj0yg
open sct8 9
€
524
ynvsse pyIMm oy} UL Wot}
THAN QOURAPL OF “YOvog puv JO WOT, UO} ‘StouOSsLAd A9Y} 910} AWIIUD OY} IO AOF “Uorpes we Yons JO S1opudfop WITS OY} UBAIS JSot OP} St I1IY J,
|, Statute Miles SURVEY OF 1914
\) 534
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
On the other hand, the land,
attacked by chemical change,
eroded by wind and running
water, is an unending succession
of elevations and depressions, and
whenever there is a subsidence
the sea seeks out every foot of
ground below its level and oc-
cupies it.
Only the highest waves ever
lash the sea bottom beyond a
depth of 26 feet, and at 600 feet
even the ripple-marks of a gen-
tle surge disappear.
TER WINDS A BOLSHEVIK ARMY
From the Virginia capes south-
ward, one may see the same
forces at death grips that are
found on the Jersey and other
coasts. But neither at Cape Cod
nor in Jersey will one behold to
such advantage the role played by
the wind, the Bolshevik of the
land and sea war, as in the region
of the kingly capes and in the vi-
cinity of Hatteras. Nowit boldly
marshals its forces alongside
those of the water and urges on
the attack with the utmost aban-
don. And now, repentant of that
role, it steps in and helps the land
erecmeteat “barriers “ot sand,
against which the wildest sea, in
its maddest moments charges in
vain.
The winds are the makers of
dunes, the tanks in nature’s war-
SKETCH MAP OF SANDY HOOK
A little south of Sandy Hook, at
Long Branch, the highlands yield a
continuous supply of sand to the ac-
tion of the waves. ‘This is washed
up and down the beach with each ad-
vancing and retiring wave, but with
each movement it is brought down
to a place northerly of where it
started, as the waves strike the shore
obliquely and from a southerly di-
rection. So the sand is carried along
until it is deposited in deeper water,
where the wave action is not so vig-
orous, gradually building up the bot-
tom in much the same manner as a
delta is built up at the mouth of a
river. Sandy Hook is the result of
this action aided by the winds which
blow the wave-brought sands into
dunes.
HOOK BEACON
a>
FO
K[Fort Hancock
eas NG
; at “
SANDY HOOK
(0) me s 3 |
Statute Miles
£.S. STATION
SEABRIGHT
VINIDUIA ‘AUNAH AdvVO AO
ALINIOIA AHL NI WILLVYA AO ANII LNOUW AHL NO HONDTIL NOLLVOINOWNOD V HSIIAVISA OL
uurW ‘D ‘HO
INILINALLY Vas AHL
536
SWMVM NYA LAOS NI YOIUVH GALOMLONd V :40VAd GIOVOT SVIT AWYUV ANV’T GIT GMITM
uur ‘D ‘ET Aq ydes8o0j0yg
GC
WN
\
538
fare, and the humble beginnings of these
mountains of glistening sand form a re-
markable story. One who has stood on
a sandy beach during a lashing hurricane
and has felt the shining grains hurled
into his face with a sting like that of a
nettle, knows the wind’s power and can
the more easily believe the statement of
scientists that a cubic mile of churned
air may contain thousands of tons of
sand.
Anything of substance, from a piece of
wreckage to a tuft of grass, may be the
nucleus of a dune that will grow and
grow, broadening out as it rises higher,
burying a forest, engulfing a house, or
wiping out an orchard.
The trees which the sands seek to over-
whelm put up a stubborn fight for life,
but usually the dune is victor, and many
are) the places where one may walk
through a graveyard in which a forest
lies buried and only a limbless upper
trunk has been left as a ghost of a
brighter day.
Sometimes dunes migrate and the for-
est that was buried yesterday awakes to
life tomorrow, for the wind picks up the
sand it formerly laid down and drives it
still further. Cemeteries have been first
sheltered by ‘a dune, then buried by. it;
then Tesumrected jinonm it) 7 ©n! the (Care-
lina coast a human graveyard has been
despoiled by the shifting sands, and as the
dune moved onward in its migration the
very graves were opened by the force of
the wind, and the bones of those who peo-
pled them were left scattered on the soil.
WARFARE ALONG THE FLORIDA KEYS
The Carolina coast affords a striking
example of the effectiveness of the wind
as an ally of the land. Borne southward
by the sweeping shore-following currents
that come down from the north, sands
that are the remains of boulders pounded
loose from some rocky coast, have driven
a wedge through the left flank of the
ocean and have completely isolated the
attacking armies holding the salients of
the Albemarle and Pamlico sounds.
The winds have aided in the campaign
and have piled up veritable mountains of
sand against future attacks by the sea.
Thus the main battle line is straightened
out and the enemy finds itself in a cross-
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
fire, with opposing forces athwart its line
of communications.
Along the southeasternmost coast of
Florida, from Cape Florida, which guards
lovely Miami, on down to Key West, is
the beautiful key region, where the coral
polyps have established foundations upon
which the land has been able to build
first-line defenses that break up the as-
saults of the sea before they reach vital
ground.
Sometimes the water erects wonderful
natural bridges in these barriers. On the
western shore of the northern part of
Biscayne Bay, which laves the shore of
Alton Beach on one side and Miami on
the other, a little river escapes from the
Everglades to the elevated Barrier Reef
through a beautiful rock arch cut by the
water.
MAN AS A PROFITEER IN NATURES WAR
Thus having, with some little romantic
license, outlined for the nontechnical
reader the front-line trenches of nature’s
great war on our eastern coast, let us
turn aside and see how man, the innocent
bystander, the neutral, fares through it all.
In the attack of the sea via the air he
is preeminently a profiteer. Without the
water and atmosphere to weather the
rocks of the mountains he would have
no soil upon which to live, and without
the rain that gladdens valley and plain
the soil would be worthless.
But when it comes to the frontal at-
tack he has to resort to many measures
to maintain his neutrality and to prevent
both belligerents from encroaching upon
his domain. With his Lighthouse Sery-
ice he warns the mariner of dangers
ahead and directs the fleets of main and
inland waters into safe channels. With
his Coast and Geodetic Survey he plots
the pitfalls and the safe shipways, so that
the sailor may set his course without fear.
With his Coast Guard he stands unend-
ing watch to help those who, in spite of
all care, become entangled in the barb-
wire of nature’s battle-fields and would
perish but for its timely aid.
BEACONS THAT GUARD THE NEUTRAL/S
RIGHTS
The most easterly light on the shores
of the United States is that of West
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Ouaddy Head. From there to the south-
ern tip of the Florida coast there are
scores of beacons of the sea, some with
histories that warm the hearts of those
thrilled by deeds of heroism.
The one at Mt. Desert is on a bold
promontory where the pounding waves
break high, and have been known to lash
so fiercely that they moved a rock, esti-
mated to weigh 75 tons, a distance of 60
feet during the fury of a single storm.
The Matinicus Light has a thrilling
story to tell. Once the sea made a com-
plete breach in the rock. Only. the
women-folk of the keeper’s family were
there when the storm broke, but little
Abbie Burgess, fourteen, and her sisters
stood up bravely against Neptune’s out-
burst, and for four weeks kept the light
aglow, although during that entire time
there was not a moment when the gov-
ernment keeper, their father, could effect
a landing from the near-by mainland.
The Minot Ledge light, standing far
out on a lone rock, where the sea rounds
Cohasset and speeds into Massachusetts
Bay, has a striking history. For three
years men worked like Trojans to build
a lighthouse upon a barren rock. Its
beacon flared forth for the first time Jan-
uary I, 1850. A little more than a year
later, in April, 1851, a great gale swept
those seas. On the night of the 16th the
light was last seen from Cohasset at 10
o'clock, and the bell was last heard an
hour after midnight. When morning
dawned it was gone.
But that tragedy only temporarily
dimmed the light of Minot Ledge. A few
years later the government completed the
present massive stone structure, ranking
among the greatest of the sea-rock light-
houses of the world because of the en-
gineering difficulties surrounding its erec-
tion. A considerable part of the founda-
tion was below low water, and landings
could be made only at low spring tides
in a smooth sea. Work was prosecuted
for three years before one stone could
be laid upon another. No man who could
not swim was employed, and no landing
from a boat was attempted except when
convoyed by another boat. A surf boat
manned with three lifeguards was kept
constantly on duty while the workmen
were on the ledge.
OU
Je)
we)
THE NANTUCKET LIGHTSHIP
It would be interesting to recount the
stories of Cape Cod light, and of the light-
ships that mark the passage through the
shoals off Cape Cod and through the
sounds to Buzzards Bay. But whoever
thinks of lightships, thinks first of Nan-
tucket. Mr. George R. Putnam, chief
of the Lighthouse Service, in his excel-
lent book, “Lighthouses and Ljightships
of the United States,” tells this story of
the Nantucket lightship:
“On a voyage from Europe the weather
had been such that the steamer had
crossed the Atlantic without the officers
having secured a single observation after
leaving the Irish coast. A passenger
came on deck on a misty evening and
heard first faintly, and then louder, the
blasts of a steam whistle at regular inter-
vals of half a minute. Then through the
thin fog a white light eclipsed every quar-
ter of a minute, and there soon loomed
out of the mist in the dusk a little vessel
at anchor, rolling heavily in the swell,
with a red hull, and Nantucket in large
white letters on her side.
“The great liner swept by and on
toward her port, for then it was that her
master had definite knowledge that he
was 200 miles east of New York harbor.
This lightship, anchored on one of the
most exposed stations in the world, has
given this message to many thousands of
captains and has been the first signpost
of America to millions of passengers.”
WITHSTANDING THE SIEGE GUNS OF
THE SEA
The Nantucket lightship is anchored in
30 fathoms of water, 41 miles from the
nearest land, Nantucket Island. She is
135 feet long, with full propelling power
should she part her cables. She has a
crew of 15, a submarine bell, and a wire-
less outfit.
When the sea brings up its siege guns
and heavy artillery is the time of all
others for the lightship to be on its sta-
tion. It must wallow in the trough of
the sea as vest it can and ride out the
storm at a standstill, lest some hapless
master get caught in the drumfire of a
terrific offensive.
‘OSIOM SuIyjOU Jt ozisded e—a19}se
-SIp ure}I99 Jsowye sjjads soysmmbat asay} Jo Aue Jo Yor] oy, ‘98vinod yonwu pue Yuowspnf usoy Yprys qiodns saimbes Jans Advoy ve Ysno1y} Sut
-pur] JO Suryoune’] “MaID piens-jsvod & ULY} P[1OM at} UT UstU}Og Jo}jeq OU 91e o1OT} ‘Surjyeoq-Jins pue a10j-eas UL Pooypy]iys Wolf pourery,
dO AHL WHAO
ysneqiryy “y sepzeya O
= = sueiemsssencnecmm iad ~gecraagenrreecepapercany
540
THE: NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Heading inward to New York, one
might tell of the Fire Island Lightship
and Ambrose Channel: Lightship, the lat-
ter marking the beginning of the “run” to
Europe and the end of the “run” to
America.
Navesink light, built on the highland,
of the Jersey coast just below Sandy
Hook, with its seven-ton bivalve revolv-
ing lens of the lightning type, has an esti-
mated candle-power of 25,000,000, which
makes it the most powerful light in Amer-
ica, if not, indeed, in the whole world.
The curvature of the earth cuts off its
direct rays at 22 miles, but its beam has
been observed in the sky to a distance of
more than 80 land miles.
There is many an inspiring tale of the
sea connected with Barnegat light, Abse-
con light, the lights that proclaim the
canes at the mouth of the Chesapeake, and
others to the south.
Cape Hatteras light has the distinction
of being the farthest distant from the
main shore of all American lights, and it
is also the tallest lighthouse in the coun-
try. Spiral-painted like old-fashioned
stick-candy, it is visible for many miles
amid the storm-tossed waters of the
North Carolina coast.
Off Hatteras there is a lightship that
for the high seas and dangerous storms it
must ride out is a rival of Nantucket ves-
sel. It is the Diamond Shoals lightship.
Beyond Hatteras there are numerous
great lights along the Dixie shores, each
with an interesting history, each with a
long record of service performed in warn-
ing craft to steer clear of the fighting zone
between the water and the land. They,
as well as gas buoys, fog signals, and
many other warnings and guides to ship-
ping while in the battle area, invite atten-
tion.
THE, COAST AND GEODETIC SURVEY, THE
WAR CORRESPONDENT
But however attractive their story, they
must stand aside while some account is
given of the work of the Coast and Geo-
detic Survey, which is ever a neutral war
correspondent at the battle-front, chron-
icling every change in the battle-line and
keeping its position up to the minute, lest
shipping run upon a new bar without
O41
warning. With its ably-manned survey-
ing vessels it journeys up and down the
battle-front with an eye always out for
shore changes, dangerous shoals, and
such. Every skipper who sails the main
may thus know where the mine-planters
of the briny deep have been at work, and
can steer clear of such fields.
WEARERS OF THE CROSS
In spite of all the warnings of light and
bell and buoy; in spite of surveys and
charts and mapped battle-fronts, there are
still ships that will get into the danger
zone and fall victims of the heavy artil-
lery that sweeps the seas between deep
water and the dry land. Shall they be
left to perish with their crews and cargo?
Not if the helping hand of Uncle Sam’s
coast guard can rescue them.
What tales these Red Cross men of the
turbulent seas could tell! What hard-
ships they endure! What perils they
brave! To them the cry of distress in a
storm-tossed ocean never goes up in
vain. No bombardment of Neptune is
ever so fierce that they will not date it
no hope of a timely rescue is ever too
slight to spur them on. The raging bat-
tle might as well be a blissful calm, for all
its power to turn aside the life-savers
from their stern duty. Aye, they may
sink beneath the waves themselves, but to
them even such a death is a lot infinitely
preferred to life with an unheeded call
from out the angry sea as a memory.
No one who has ever watched the
sturdy life-savers man the lifeboat on an
exposed shore and, against odds that
seem insuperable, pull gallantly out into
the tempest, can fail to appreciate either
the stoutness of heart or the grandeur of
purpose of these men. Where seemingly
no boat could live, they manage to breast
the storm, ride the billows, and reach the
stranded vessel.
With a record of 1,500 instances of
the rescues of lives and ships in a single
year, it would seem invidious to single
out one over another. A Sandy Hook
station not long ago answered five calls
in one day.
A Rhode Island station some time later
saved 71 persons from the Portuguese
brigantine Est Thiago. ‘That vessel went
VdINOIA NUYAHLAOS JO SINVUNVA ANNG-GNVS UH, :CIAM-WILLIVd LPNAIONV NV
uldeys “JY e10045 Aq ydessojoyg
542
posueyoxs JO 991} JOS
9q OF JOAOU ov BLY} ‘AWIV Pur] 9Y} WOIF pojsoim ‘srouostid AuLUL FSB Itoy} Ul Suoye Arvo Ady} “YOvje [NJssooonsun uv Joye ywosjos seas oy} sy
WINVSSV SSVIT V
PPM Wey Aq ydessoj0yg
DAS YW,
LSVOD VdINOTT NYXHLNOS AHL NO VAS AHL dO MOVLLV NV LSNIVOV Gavod ONIGNVLS SWIVd JO L[SOdlNOO NV
urdeys "WW es10ay Aq ydesso0j0yg |
544
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE O45
ashore in a fog and was totally lost. A
heavy surf was running when the brigan-
tine struck, making the launching of a
lifeboat to the rescue an exceedingly diffi-
cult and perilous undertaking. More-
over, the state of the sea, once a launch-
ing was effected, was such that a boat
could not run alongside the vessel. Her
masts were gone, some of the planks of
her port side were missing, her starboard
rail was under water, and debris was
thrashing around everything on board as
well as over the side.
Both crew and passengers were in ex-
treme jeopardy, and in great panic were
calling for help. Thé commander of the
lifeboat watched his chance and in the
brief period between seas ran in under
the flying jib-boom. Following his di-
rections, those on board crawled out on
the boom.and dropped into the boat. .
The rescuers did not risk stopping long
under the boom—only long enough at a
time to get three or four persons. The
time limit of safety reached, they would
scud away with all speed, to avoid being
swamped or capsized by a breaking sea.
WORK OF THE COAST GUARD CUTTERS
Nor can one overlook the coast guard
cutter and its work. Under presidential
orders, about a dozen of these vessels
patrol assigned sections of the coastal
waters from Eastport, Maine, to Cape
Canaveral, Florida.
Provided with liberal supplies of food,
water, and fuel, they put out to sea and
cruise throughout the long winter months,
ever vigilantly looking and listening for
vessels in distress and for opportunities
to be good friends in an hour of dire
need.
One cutter covers the district between
Great Egg Harbor, New Jersey, and Cape
Hatteras.
The heavier the blows being struck by
the sea the greater the need for these
empters to. be onthe watch, Ships
aground, afire, in a collision, indeed any
S. O. S. sends the cutters full steam ahead
to the rescue. Now it may bea schooner,
like the Frederic A. Duggan, in distress
some 70 miles east of Nantucket Light-
ship, loaded with China clay, from Car-
diff, half full of water, her provisions
gone and her bottom so foul that only
a gale could give her headway. Now it
may be the Bay State on the rocks of
Hollicom’s Cove, Maine. Now the An-
tilla sends out an S. O. S. call that she is
afire 120 miles east of Norfolk, and the
Onondaga rushes to her rescue, and,
finally, with other help, gets her into port,
her cargo a total loss, but the ship saved.
Or it may be the transport Sumner, which
lost her bearings in a fog December 11,
1916, and went upon the rocks of Barne-
gat Shoals.
RED CROSS STATIONS
In viewing the Atlantic seaboard, one
finds that the opposing forces in nature’s
unrelenting campaign have at least paused
long enough to cooperate in the founda-
tion of Red Cross stations in neutral ter-
ritory. From Maine to Florida they have
established, by mutual agreement, waters
in which peace prevails—harbors where
fleets may find haven while awaiting call.
Few stretches of coast line in the world
have more of these stations. Maine with
its Eastport, Belfast, Rockland, and Port-
land harbors; New Hampshire with its
Portsmouth harbor; Massachusetts with
the harbors of Newburyport, Gloucester,
Salem, Lynn, Boston, New Bedford, and
Fall River ; Rhode Island with Newport.
Providence, and Bristol harbors; and
Connecticut with those of New London,
New Haven, and Bridgeport, give New
England many such bases of first impor-
tance.
Between the western nose of Long Is-
land and the eastern projection of Staten
Island, New York is given a harbor with
an outlet that justifies its name of “The
Narrows.” Beyond lies the Upper Bay
and above that the deep waters of the
Lower Hudson and East River, giving
the city more potential water front than
any other municipality in the world. New
Jersey has little to offer in harbors of first
importance, except the one it shares with
New York and those on Raritan Bay;
but it joins with Delaware in forming
Delaware Bay, with its ocean outlet for
Philadelphia.
Further down the coast the land sank
and invited the waters in through the
Virginia canes to form harbors at Balti-
more, Norfolk, Portsmouth, and Newport
News. At Wilmington, N. C.; Charles-
546
ton, S. C.; Savannah, Ga.; Jacksonville
and Key West, Fla., are Red Cross sta-
tions of the first order, all directly or
remotely built up by mutual consent of
the warring elements, so that man, the
innocent bystander, can seek safety when
the front-line trenches become untenable
for visitors.
THE SEA DOOMED TO DEFEAT
Such, briefly told, is the story of the
great effort of the sea to bring the land
under her dominion. |
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
It is a warfare that has its lights and
its shades, its tragedies and its joys.
Furthermore, it is a warfare with strik-
ing analogies to the great conflict of de-
mocracy against despotism, and just as
surely as the upheavals that raised the
Piedmont plains above the sea drove the
ocean back and set the American conti-
nent firm and strong, so will democ-
racy rise up in its power and successfully
vanquish its foe, however subtle, how-
ever persistent, however relentless that
foe may be.
PRUSSIANISM *
By Rozsertr LaAnsinGc, SECRETARY OF STATE
HE American people by a grad-
ual process of reasoning have
reached the firm conviction that
a German victory in the European strug-
gle would result in the greatest of perils
in this country and to those principles of
government which have been ours since
we became an independent nation. What-
ever may have been our past judgments,
we now realize the sinister character of
Prussianism which has been manifested
in this war.
And yet, with this realization of the
truth, I find that many Americans, even
among those intellectually equipped, have
but vague ideas of the perverted mental
attitude which made Prussianism possi-
ble, and of the reason why a compromise
founded upon the Prussian conception
of international rights must not even be
considered.
THE RELATION OF PRUSSIANISM TO PEACE
To a*man who thinks true in these
days when passion or hysteria distorts
opinions, Prussianism and the idea of an
enduring and just peace among nations
can never be brought into harmony.
They can no more mingle than can oil
and water. They are at the very an-
tipodes of human thought. We should,
then, comprehend the true meaning of
* An address to Union College, June 10, 1918.
Prussianism in order to understand the
great obstacle today to a return to peace
while Prussianism is still a power.
In considering the elements of Prus-
sianism which made this war inevitable,
we should also consider the relation of
Prussianism to peace, the supreme desire
of mankind, and its relation to war with
all its suffering and destructiveness. ‘The
wastes of western Europe, the ships and
corpses in the ocean’s depths, the forest
of crosses marking the graves of slaugh-
tered men, the legions of torn and crip-
pled humanity, and the wretched throngs
of unhappy women and children are sad
witnesses to the horrors of war. On
these spectacles of brutality, misery, and
desolation all civilized peoples gaze with
anguish and bitterness.
As there comes an increasing realiza-
tion of the needlessness of it all, indigna-
tion and anger burn in the hearts of
men. But in spite of the bitterness
aroused by these tragical scenes, they
hope for peace, they pray for peace, and
they look forward to that day when rest
will come to this tormented world which
has endured so much.
Yet, even as they hope and pray and
search the future with yearning eyes, the
armies and navies of democracy fight on
with a grim determination which seems
to contradict the hope and purpose of
humanity.
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
Peace the world may seek with pas-
sionate longing, but not a peace which
contains the seeds of future wars and
future suffering. When an end comes
to this great war, as it will come, it must
result in a peace that is final and en-
during.
“AN UNSTABLE PEACE WOULD BE A CURSE”
Surely mankind has not borne this bur-
den of agony for naught. After all this
woe and waste, a temporary and unsta-
ble peace would be a curse rather than a
blessing.
A firm foundation must be found and
is to be found in the frank and clear
declaration by President Wilson of the
aims which the Republic seeks in this
war and which, with. God’s help, it will
attain, whatever the cost may be. Noth-
ing less will satisfy the American people;
nothing less will content the democracies
of the world.
The conditions which prevailed prior
to August, 1914, produced this conflict.
It is not, then, in a return to the status
quo ante that lasting peace is to be found,
though that, with domination of the
Slavic peoples on their eastern borders,
appears now to be the minimum terms of
the Teutonic powers. To restore those
pre-war conditions would be to invite a
new disaster. Peace must rest on a more
substantial basis, for the world seeks to
have done with war and with conditions
which produce war.
However long it may take, however
great the sacrifice may be, physical might
uncontrolled by morality must never
again be considered a standard of inter-
national right. Justice must and will be-
come the supreme force in human affairs.
No other result will insure civilization
against the evil passions which today con-
vulse the earth.
THE BLOOD OF THE BRAVE NOT SHED
IN VAIN
I do not believe—in fact, it seems to
me to be unbelievable—that the blood of
brave and devoted hearts, so generously
poured out on land and sea in the cause
of liberty, is being shed in vain, or that
the vast treasures, wrested from the
earth by man’s enterprise and industry,
DAT
are being wasted in the support of so
sacred a cause.
But these lives and these riches have
been wasted unless from the ashes of
these sacrifices, which have been offered
on the altar of liberty, there arises a peace
which shall endure. It cannot be that
the merciful Ruler of the Universe has
permitted humanity to suffer all this
without conferring a lasting blessing.
The conditions which brought on this
war are rooted in the past and are not
of sudden or spontaneous growth. They
are the natural development of influences
which have been long at work in Prus-
sianized Germany and which the rest of
the world ought to have perceived, but
did not.
We can now with a clear vision look
back through the history of Prussia and
see the motives which inspired the con-
duct of her rulers. We can now read
the words of Prussia’s statesmen and of
the masters of recent German thought
with understanding minds.
THE CENTRAL THOUGHT OF PRUSSIANISM
We now recognize that the policies of
the Imperial Government of Germany
and the boasted “kultur” of the German
people have been concentrated on the
single purpose of expanding the territory
and power of the Prussian Emperor of
Germany until he, through the possession
of superior force, became the primate of
all the rulers of the earth. World do-
minion was the supreme object. That
was and is the central thought of Prus-
Sianism.
It excited the cupidity of the govern-
ing and wealthy classes of the Empire
and dazzled with its anticipated glories
and by its promise of a boasted racial su-
periority the German millions who were
to be the instruments of achievement.
Germans of high and low degree be-
lieved dominion over all nations to be the
destiny of their race, and with a devotion
and zeal worthy of a better cause turned
their energies into those channels which
would aid the ruling class in their plans
to attain the summit of earthly power,
Germany’s vaunted “place in the sun.”
I know that many Germans indig-
nantly deny that this ambition for su-
Photograph by A. E. Young
ALT, THE RESOURCES OF OUR REPUBLIC ARE ENLISTED IN THE STRUGGLE TO PREVENT
THE DOMINATION OF THE WORLD BY THE TEUTONIC EMPIRE
A freight steamer of the Great Lakes is doing its vital bit in transporting raw material
to the munition plants, where shell and cannon are being manufactured to blast Germany’s
ruthless ambitions for world dominion.
548
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
premacy has inspired the conduct of the
German Government or that it existed
in the minds of the German people. I
wish sincerely that it were so, for it
would make the problems of the future
far more easy of solution. But the nu-
merous utterances of German thinkers
and writers belie these defenders of Ger-
many’s purity of motive.
AN AMBITION TO BE “SUPERMEN”
It is hardly open to debate, in the light
of subsequent events, that the philosophi-
cal and political ideas which have been
taught for years from the university plat-
forms, from the pulpits, and through
the printed word to young and old in
Germany excited in them an insolent
pride of blood and infused into their na-
tional being an all-absorbing ambition to
prove themselves “‘supermen,”’ chosen by
natural superiority and by divine man-
date to be rulers of the earth.
Not only in Germany but among those
of German descent in other lands has
this pernicious belief spread, linking Ger-
mans everywhere to the “Fatherland” in
the hope that they would be considered
worthy to share in the future glory of
the masters of the world.
A few examples of the teachings
which have so molded German charac-
ter and implanted in the German mind
false conceptions of life will suffice to
show their nature and the evil influences
which they exerted on a people pecu-
liarly susceptible to flattery and possessed
by a selfishness which blunted their sense
of honor and of moral obligation.
Professor Theuden, imbued with an
astounding vanity, which is character-
istically German, declared, as the great
war began: “Germany, as the prepon-
derant power in a Pan-German League,
will with this war attain world suprem-
acy.’ And Poehlmann, in considering
the good to Germany which would result
from the conflict, wrote to his fellow-
countrymen, “We shall be an unconquer-
able people capable of ruling the world.”
A SINISTER GERMAN CONFESSION
These words but described those visions
which the German philosophers, acting
possibly under the direction, and cer-
549
tainly with the approval, of their govern-
ment, had so constantly conjured up to
allure and tempt the German people.
They were uttered before the greatPrus-
sian war machine had failed in its first
endeavor to plough its way through to
Paris and in proving itself to possess the
irresistible force in which its builders
believed.
A decade before the war Reiner, in-
spired with the imperialism of Prussia,
announced: “It is precisely our craving
for expansion which drives us into the
paths of conquest, in view of which all
chatter about peace and humanity can
and must remain nothing but chatter.”
Not less ominous to liberty are the
words of Professor Meinecke: “We want
to become a world people. Let us remind
ourselves that the belief in our mission
as a world people has arisen from our
originally purely spiritual impulse to ab-
sorb the world into ourselves.”
Observe that extraordinary phrase:
“To absorb the world into ourselves.”
To conceive such a national destiny is to
resurrect the dead ambitions of an Alex-
der ora Czesar ; to teach itas a tight to
young men is to.sow in their minds an
egotism which breeds distorted concep-
tions of individual honor and justice and
gives to them an-utterly false standard of
national life.
THE PRUSSIAN DOCTRINE: “AS WE
VV «an tce
Not alone from the lecturer and the
essayist came this idea that the Germans
are a superior race, set apart to rule the
world. It was preached in the pulpits as
a divine truth by those who even had the
effrontery to support their assertions by
references to the Holy Scriptures. Lis-
ten to some of the thoughts proclaimed
by ordained ministers of Christ to their
German congregations:
“It may sound proud, my friends, but
we are conscious that it is also in all hum-
bleness that we say it: the German soul
is God’s soul; it shall and will rule over
mankind.”
May we be spared the consequences
of German “humbleness,” which fairly
struts and swaggers and which finds fur-
ther expression in the words of another
doctor of divinity, when he declares:
550
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
© Western Newspaper Union
AMERICA’S APPEAL TO PATRIOTS WAS NOT IN VAIN
“The only way to stay the onrush of blood and desolation is to prove conclusively that
the Prussian masters of Germany do not possess the physical might to impose their will on
the human race.”
“Verily the Bible is our book. It was
given and assigned to us, and in it we
read the original text of our destiny,
which proclaims to mankind salvation or
disaster, as we will it.”
“As we will it!’ ‘There, in four words,
is the whole story of the Prussian doc-
‘trine of the “superman,” of a “place in the
sun,” of “world dominion.” What a com-
bination of sacrilege and vanity to assume
that the Almighty would confer on a
people such as the Prussians have shown
themselves to be divine powers on earth!
These are enough, though many more
might be given, to show the monstrous
ideas which have for a generation been
poured into the receptive minds of a
stolid, stubborn people, unhabituated to
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
think for themselves, who have, through
these ideas, become fairly saturated with
the belief in their invincible power, in
their racial superiority, and in God’s se-
lection ot them, or rather their rulers, to
be His partners in governing the world.
“WE ARE THE HAMMER OF GOD”
Side by side with the egotistical con-
ception of the Prussians that they have a
monopoly on the favor and power of the
Creator, there is another which is utterly
savage and unchristian. While it has
been variously expressed by the material-
ists of this generation, Felix Dahn forty
years ago uttered the naked thought,
which has since been interpreted into
action by German militarism.
Thus wrote the poet: “It is the joyous
German right with the hammer to win
land. We are of the Hammer God and
mean to inherit his empire.” ‘That is, the
earth.
This deification of brute force, with the
attendant right of the strong to be mas-
ters of the weak, touched a responsive
chord in the Prussian mind, and was by
some paradoxical process welded to the
so-called Christian philosophy of Prus-
sia’s theologians.
Thus Thor and Odin stalk again along
the shores of the Baltic summoning the
tribesmen to battle. Their blood-stained
altars have again burst into flame in the
hearts of the Prussians. Their fierce
priesthood again clamor for victims. In
the place of a god of love and mercy the
Teutons of the north have raised on high
their ancestral gods of brutality and war.
Paganism, tinctured with modern ma-
terialism and a degenerate type of Chris-
tianity, broods today over Germany.
Christian ministers have proclaimed Je-
hovah to be the national deity of the Em-
pire, a monopolized “German God,” who
relies on the physical might of His people
to destroy those who oppose His will as
that will is interpreted by His chosen
race. Thus the Prussian leaders would
harmonize modern thought with their
ancient religion of physical strength,
through brutalizing Christianity.
Minds filled with such conceptions of
the sacredness of conquest and of the
divine right of a ruler to command obedi-
ool
ence have furnished fertile soil for the
Prussian policy of acquiring territory
and mastery by brute force, regardless of
justice, morality, or the rights of others.
This strange mental slavery of a peo-
ple as highly developed intellectually as
the Germans is one of the most extraor-
dinary psychological phenomena of mod-
ern times. It is hard to analyze-it, and
even harder to find for it a plausible ex-
planation.
In such congenial environments the
ideas of the absorption of Belgium and
the Netherlands, of the Germanizing of
the Scandinavian and Slavic countries, of
Mittel-Europa, and finally of a world em-
pire greater even in relative extent than
that of Macedon or Rome, germinated
and thrived.
VAST INTRIGUE SET AFOOT
To make ready for the year and the
day when these extravagant dreams of
conquest were by force of arms to be
made realities and when all nations would
be subjugated by the imperial power of
Germany, absorbed the thought and dic-
tated the acts of the Prussians who had
so successfully subdued their Germanic
neighbors, at first physically and later
mentally, until they belonged body and
soul to their war lords.
With this vast ambition in their hearts,
the rulers of Germany sent forth swarms
of agents throughout the world to create,
in so far as they were able, conditions
favorable to the great enterprise. Some
sought to win the good will of the nations
to which they were sent; others to alien-
ate or weaken the friendships between
nations whose alliance or mutual support
the German Government feared would
constitute a possible obstacle to its great
scheme of world conquest.
Sincere and honest, the governments
against which these intrigues were di-
rected believed the Imperial German
Government to possess a character like
their own. Naturally trustful, they fell
victims to the snares set to entrap them.
There seems to have been no depths of
infamy which the Germans did not sound
in carrying out their foreign policy of
deception.
In what a new light many events of
the past appear when the truth becomes
© International Film Service
HE GOES FORTH TO FIGHT FOR THE SAFETY AND HAPPINESS OF FUTURE GENERATIONS
66
As the world hopes and prays and searches the future with yearning eyes, the armies and.
navies of democracy fight on with grim determination.”
552
dt
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DO0d
known! The “Yellow Peril’? speech of
the Kaiser, the wholly unjustified sus-
picions of imperialistic designs on the
part of the United States whispered art-
fully among nations of South America,
the financial schemes and revolutions pro-
moted secretly by Germans in the Carib-
bean countries, the encouragement of
continued turmoil and anti-American
feeling among warring factions in Mex-
ico, and the propaganda of distrust and
hostility carried on in this country and in
Japan. are among the things “made in
Germany” directly affecting the interna-
tional relations of the United States.
It is only within a comparatively re-
cent time that we were fully convinced
of their origin and gave them their true
labels. Yet, because we were so innocent
and trusting, the unpleasant truth comes
as a greater shock and excites a deeper
resentment.
In addition to these practices, which
thad been in operation long before the
great war and were preliminary to that
supreme event in the Prussian plan, I
‘might refer to the plots which, after the
war began and while this country was
still neutral, were directed, approved, or
financed by Count Bernstorff, Von Papen,
Boy-Ed, Luxburg, Von Eckhardt, and
other official representatives and secret
agents of the Berlin Government. But
the activities of these men have been ex-
-posed and their disgraceful record is com-
‘mon knowledge, arousing a just indigna-
‘tion throughout this country.
WATCH LONG KEPT ON GERMAN
CONSPIRATORS
I think that I might say, however, that
‘for a long time before it was considered
-wise to make the facts public the Amer-
ican Government, possessing evidence of
their improper conduct, kept constant
‘watch over these conspirators, who de-
‘pended upon the innocent credulity of
“those idiotic Yankees,” as Captain Von
Papen sneeringly called us.
These complacent plotters little sus-
pected how much was known of the ac-
‘tivities of the German embassy in Wash-
ington, the military agency in New York,
the consulates in various cities, and the
‘numerous spies in German employ by
‘those whom they thought they were de-
luding. These agents credited the mis-
carriage of many of their schemes to
chance, which had they known the true
cause would have given them some very
indigestible food for thought.
In view of this spirit of hypocrisy and
bad faith, manifesting an entire lack of
conscience, we ought not to be astonished
that the Berlin foreign office never per-
mitted a promise or a treaty engagement
to stand in the way of a course of action
which the German Government. deemed
expedient l>need not cite asi preot of
this fact the flagrant violations of the
treaty neutralizing Belgium and the re-
cent treaty of Brest-Litovsk. This dis-
creditable characteristic of the German
foreign policy was accepted by German
diplomats as a matter of course and as a
natural, if not a praiseworthy, method of
dealing with other governments.
AN AMAZING INSTANCE OF BAD FAITH
Frederick the Great, with cynical frank-
ness, once said: “If there is anything to
be gained by it, we will be honest. If
deception is necessary, let us be cheats.”
That is, in brief, the immoral principle
which has controlled the foreign relations
of Prussia for over a hundred and fifty
years.
It is a fact not generally known that
within six weeks after the Imperial Gov-
ernment had, in the case of the “Sussex,”
given to this government its solemn
promise that it would cease ruthless
slaughter on the high seas, Count Bern-
storff, appreciating the worthlessness of
the promise, asked the Berlin foreign
office to advise him in ample time before
the campaign of submarine murder was
renewed in order that he might notify
the German merchant ships in American
ports to destroy their machinery, because
he anticipated that the renewal of that
method of warfare would in all proba-
bility bring the United States into the
war.
How well the ambassador knew the
character of his government, and how
perfectly frank he was. He asked for
the information without apology or indi-
rection. “he very bluntness of his mes-
sage shows that he was sure that his su-
periors would not take offense at the as-
sumption that their word was valueless
Sod THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
© Committee on Public Information
“THE WORLD MUST HAVE A PEACE THAT WILL MAKE NEEDLESS THE MARSHALING
OF ARMIES”
and had only been given to gain time, and
that, when an increase of Germany’s
submarine fleet warranted, the promise
would be broken without hesitation or
compunction. What a commentary on
Bernstorff’s estimate of the sense of
honor and good faith of his own govern-
ment !
DECEIVED BY MILITARY CLIQUE OF BERLIN
Before this war began we would not
have thought any government on earth
capable of such indifference to truth.
We admit that we have been the dupes of
the military clique in Berlin, because dis-
honesty of this sort seemed to us incon-
ceivable in these days of international
honor and Christian civilization. But
I believe that the nations, and I am cer-
tain that the United States, will never
again be caught in a net of - duplicity
equal to that which was spread all over
the world by the Berlin Government. We
have learned our lesson and it has cost
us dear. We will never have to learn it
again.
In this consideration of Prussianism,
with its pagan philosophy and its perver-
sion of the German mind, I shall not
attempt to enter upon a recital of the hor-
rible brutalities perpetrated by the Ger-
man armies in the prosecution of the war.
They have been too often told to require
repetition. It would be the needless
reading of a catalogue of black deeds of
cruelty, which would sicken a tiger, by a
nation which claims not only to be moral
and possessed of humane sentiments, but
to be actually commissioned by the Su-
preme Being to carry out His will.
I only mention them here as a further
manifestation of the revival in Germany
of the adoration of brute strength and
pitiless war and of the subordination of
every noble instinct to the heartless ma-
terialism of the ruling class, who seek
only power and possessions without re-
gard to the means by which they are
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE sts
attained. In a word, to show what Prus-
sianism means when translated into ac-
tion.
COETHE’S ESTIMATE OF THE PRUSSIANS
But we ought not to be surprised at
these terrible mauifestations of frightful-
ness, in view of the past record of Prus-
sia. It was Goethe, I think, who said,
“The Prussians are naturally cruel; civ-
ilization will make them ferocious.” It
has made them ferocious. Acquired sci-
ence merely gave them increased inge-
nuity in the indulgence of their passion
for cruelty.
Let me read you an extract from an
article which appeared in the Fortnightly
Review of February, 1871; and, as I
read, remember this was written of the
German invasion of France nearly half
a century ago. It might have been writ-
ten in February, 1915, so truly does it
portray Prussianism as we know it today:
“For six months one-third of France
has been given up to fire and sword.
For 300 or 400 miles vast armies have
poured on. Every village they have
passed through has been the victim of
what is only an organized pillage. Every
city has been practically sacked, ran-
sacked on system; its citizens plundered,
its civil officials terrorized, imprisoned,
outraged, or killed. :
“The civil population has been, con-
trary to the usage of modern warfare,
forced to serve the invading armies, bru-
tally put to death, reduced to wholesale
starvation and desolation. Vast tracts
of the richest and most industrious dis-
tricts of Europe have been deliberately
stripped and plunged into famine, solely
in order that the invaders might make
war cheaply.
“Irregular troops, contrary to all the
practices of war, have been systematically
murdered, and civil populations indis-
criminately massacred, solely to spread
terror. A regular system of ingenious
terrorism has been directed against civil-
ians, as horrible as anything in the his-
tory of civil or religious wars.
“Large and populous cities have been,
not once, but twenty, thirty, forty times,
bombarded and burnt, and the women
and children in them wantonly slaugh-
tered, with the sole object of inflicting
~~)
suffering. All this has been done, not in
license or passion, but by the calculating
ferocity of scientific soldiers.”
And yet the world, in spite of this
hideous picture of Prussianism, failed to
read the truth or to profit by it. Today
the beast is again at large, devouring the
helpless victims who fall into his power.
Has not the time come to end this fiend-
ishness?
Much as enlightened mankind may re-
volt at the idea, the only way to stay this
onrush of blood and desolation, which is
the direct consequence of the mad im-
pulses which now hold sway over the
German mind, is to prove conclusively
that the Prussian masters of Germany,
though they are armed with the full
strength of the Empire and of its sub-
servient allies, do not possess the physical
might to impose their will on the human
race, that the ancient gods of the Teu-
tons are false gods, and that the philos-
ophy which has cast over the German
people a robe of superior attributes is
ease of a consuming vanity and
pride.
This idea is distasteful, as it should be,
to a world which loves peace and craves
repose, because the only instrument
which can be employed is force of arms.
It means war, unceasing war, until the
arrogant and brutal Prussians are hum-
bled, until the Kaiser and his military
chieftains despair of their ambitions.
until the German people realize that their
insolent lords are not touched by divine
fire and do not have at their command
the powers of heaven.
THE WORLD NEVER AGAIN TO BE VICTIM-
IZED BY PRUSSIAN PERFIDY
The great free nations of the globe
have the task laid upon them to destroy
the spirit of Prussianism. This they
must accomplish if they would preserve
for the future those rights of man which
it has taken centuries of struggle to wrest
from the grasp of despotism.
If the German Government as it is now
constituted should succeed to any extent
in its purposes, or even if it should not
be defeated in the present war, the doc-
trine and hopes which are now dominant
over the German people will not die.
Peace under such conditions could hardly
«SUlLINpus pue [BUY St jvy} ddvod & UT I[NSoI sn 4 “AEM L913 sIy} 0} SatOD
puo Ue Udy A, “SULoyNs o1njny puev SIM oINJNF JO spoas ay} SuTe}JUOD YSIYM odovod B jou Inq ‘SuIsuC] o}euOIssed YM Y~aas
Aew
WSINVWYHD-NVd AO WVadId AHL LUVMEL OL ONINIVYL AWUV IVNOILVN UNO JO SUXIG IOS
UOTeULIOJUT IIPQN_ Uo 99}}1WIWIOD O
P]fOM 9} dIPId,,
556
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
mean more than a brief respite from
bloodshed, an unstable truce, during
which the Prussian rulers of the Central
Powers would devote their energies to
preparing for another onslaught on de-
mocracy and liberty, for another attempt
to win world sovereignty.
It is true that the free peoples of the
earth would never again be found as
unprepared as they were before this war
to meet a militant Germany and would
never again be victimized by German in-
trigue and perfidy. Every government
would look to that. But such a state of
uncertain peace would compel the whole
world to remain under arms in antici-
pation of German aggression. The re-
sources of the nations, already so heavily
taxed by this war, would have to be fur-
ther burdened for the maintenance of
great military and naval establishments.
Peace would be in constant jeopardy be-
cause it would depend on the belief of
Germany’s rulers as to their ability to
succeed in a new essay of conquest.
It is not such a peace as that which will
satisfy the longing of the world. It seeks
ana must have a peace which will silence
for the future the clash of arms and will
make needless the marshaling of armies
and the-assembling of navies—a peace so
secure and so certain that man’s energies
may be safely devoted to the productive
and not the destructive pursuits of life.
and nations may develop without fear of
becoming the prey of foreign aggression.
This great war must end with a de-
cision which will be a blessing and not a
curse to the present generation and to
future generations. Prussianism, with
its distorted ideas, its false conceptions,
and its intolerable cruelties, must be
brought to an end. ‘The Germanizing of
other countries must cease. The dream
of “Hamburg to the Persian Gulf’ and
of an enslaved Poland and Russia must
be dispelled.
German diplomacy and intrigue, as
now practiced, must be proclaimed an in-
ternational crime and suppressed forever.
The philosophy of the “superman” and
of world mastery must die discredited.
The evil influences which have so long
poisoned the minds of the German people
must lose their potency.
DoT
Until these great objects are accom-
plished, as they will be when the war
aims stated by the President are attained,
we must go on with the war. There is
no other way. Peace without a radical
change in present conditions, or even in
those conditions preceding the war, would
be interpreted by the German people as a
vindication of Prussianism. The Ger-
man Empire would continue to accept its
doctrines and to menace the world.
We must go on with the war, intensify-
ing our efforts and expending all our en-
ergies and resources, if need be, to obtain
the great purpose for which we strive.
This task must not be left half done. We
must not transmit to posterity a legacy
of blood and misery. The world must
be made a safe place in which nations
and individuals may live free and happy
lives.
We must go on with the war until the
desire of the nations is satisfied and until
human liberty is forever freed from the
peril which will continue so long as greed
and ambition and blood lust dominate the
German Empire, so long as Prussianism
is supreme in the mind of the German
people.
A MIGHTY CRUSADE
We may in this great conflict between
civilization and savagery go down into
the valley of shadows because our foe is
powerful and inured to war. We must
be prepared to meet disappointments and
temporary reverses, but we must, with
American spirit, rise above them. With
courageous hearts we must go forward
until this war is won.
Closely associated, as I have been in
these critical days, with our great leader,
Woodrow Wilson, I have been more and
more impressed with his wise judgment,
with his stern determination to lead de-
mocracy to victory, and with his utter
confidence in the unity and splendid spirit
of the nation.
Let us, as loyal citizens of the Repub-
lic, serve in this mighty crusade against
Prussianism, confident, as our President
is confident, that the righteousness of our
cause and the courage and tenacity of
the American people will carry this war
through to victory and to peace.
‘aWeYSs Ul pay}eoys oq [[IM pue
IOUOYSIP UL UMVIP SBA JLY} PIOMS dy} JO SuvoIU Aq JYSNOS o1v Sojdood pu spur] osoy} [1V ‘(dew oy} JO uols0d papeys 94} 9aS) a[doad oo00‘o00'SiIz
pue A10ji10} JO sapiw d1eNbs OOO‘OOO'II Surppe ‘eissny [Jw FO postanbuooun sureuror yeYM pue S9}¥}G PIHUL) IY} JO UOHVUIWOpP 94} 0} o1Idse OsTe
Aoyy f{somod pur oiidwia 10} Ysny suvIssn4ig ay} JO AIO}S BOY of} [[9} JOU OP SUIvdIP P[IM Say} UsA2 Ng ‘YJIea UO aidood dy} [[e@ JO syJInoy-9014}
Aq poyiqeyut st JaA0d Aayy YIIYM AIOPIID} SIYT, “P[JOM oY} FO Vaiv puR] sy} FO F[eY-9uo ULY} 91OUI—soTTU aienbs o00‘000‘6z JO eoaie ue sodeIquD
sUuvaIp IY} JO [[Y-1o9AQ-AueUIIOr) oY} ‘stoping oiidwo oq-p[nOM pue Uoulso}e}s UeULIOL) JO suoljesidse passajoid A[uado 9Y} 0} Sulp1oo0y
@INOM AHL WIAO SLSVO WSINVWUHO-NVd JO WVvaudd AHL HOIHM MOCGVHS MOVW Id AHL
oo1 oa ov oot
ALBIOOS DIHdVH9NID TWNOILVN 1d30 d¥W NI NMVHO
‘sauidsp os7p Aupunsag yriym 02 470711121 [2
|
9D AuDuUlsag 2DY/N ee
| | -abozsa}{ 4ay sD susr079 Ajjon :
| | ai [i
axvivay//”
4 ae |
ViITVUL ony
°
— oO
| UVOSVDV!
!
Lf
i eens
VNVINO voeaae cei
VNVINS HSILIdd
BVANINS ASANO ato
A
*~ |
=
: 2D
f
N VIZ 20
= ee
NVAZIO ieeEeS
558
GERMANY’S DREAM OF. WORLD DOMINATION
By THE EDITOR
ions of all the tyrants of the past,
who attempted to “wade through
slaughter” to the throne of world empire,
compared with the vaulting ambition of
the Hohenzollerns for Prussianizing the
earth, as seriously proposed by states-
men, diplomats, and military experts of
Germany during the last few years.
Our talented Secretary of State, Mr.
Robert Lansing, in the preceding article
has revealed the mental attitude of auto-
cratic Prussia toward the remainder of
the world. Supplementary to that reve-
lation, it is worth while to recall some of
the concrete utterances of Pan-Germans
concerning their specific aspirations.
Ridiculous and grotesque would be the
claims of these apostles of Germany-
Over-All were it not for the fact that
such extravagant preachments to the
German people have brought about a de-
bauch of blood, rapine, and destruction
the like of which has never before
afflicted mankind.
The accompanying map of the world
tells the story of Germany’s all-grasping
aims. The areas in black are her own
and those lands of her neighbors which
she covets.
At the time that Germany plunged the
world into war four years ago, the area
of her empire in Europe was 208,780
square miles—larger than that of any
other nation in continental Europe save
her vassal, Austria-Hungary, and Russia.
She had a population at home of nearly
70,000,000, while her colonial empire, ex-
ceeding a million square miles, had an
additional population of more than 14,-
000,000.
But she was not content. These pos-
sessions must be but the core of the great
sphere of dominions which she would ac-
cumulate in a rolling tide of blood con-
quest !
Pes: indeed seem the domin-
GERMANY’S DREAM
Germany claims as her right (through
her spokesmen, the leading citizens of the
empire), the following:
559
All of Europe save Portugal, Spain,
the uninvaded portion of France, the
British Isles, and the as yet unconquered
portions of Russia. In brief, she wants
in Europe 1,196,000 square miles of the
total continental area of 3,872,000 square
miles and 270,000,000 of the 464,000,000
inhabitants.
All of South America save the two
inconsequential colonies of British and
French Guiana. Her aspirations in this
sphere include more than 7,400,000
square miles of the total continental area
of 7,570,000 square miles and 55,421,200
of the total population of 55,779,000.
In Africa her modest claims embrace
6,840,000 square miles of the total area
of 11,622,000 square miles, leaving iess
than 5,000,000 square miles, largely des-
ert, for her sister nations. The territory
which Germany claims in this part of the
world maintains a population of 85,000,-
000 inhabitants, compared with only
57,000,000 for the remainder of the conti-
nent.
Considering the extent of the conti-
nent, Germany’s Asian aspirations would
seem amazingly conservative for her,
were it not that much of the land to which
she waives claim is, like that in Africa,
an unproductive waste. With Russian
Turkestan, India, China, vassal Turkey,
and the Mohammedan realms of Persia
and Afghanistan—the areas which she
wants—the Central Empire would have
5,062,000 square miles of this continent,
sustaining a population of approximately
775,000,000. And there should be added to
these figures the Dutch East Indies, Ger-
many’s by right of the might of larger
nations over smaller neighbors—735,000
square miles and 48,000,000 people.
All of Australia, with an area of
2,974,581 square miles and a population
of nearly 5,000,000. ‘Teuton expecta-
tions in this continent have been revealed
very recently in the unblushing confes-
sions of Herr Thysson, who is quoted
elsewhere in this article.
‘LIRA UL pays Suioq st ‘Ajai, JO osNvo oY} Ul Vos puv PUL] UO 4NO poinod A[snojoues Os ‘sjivoy poJoAop puke david jo pool oY} 3&4} 9[qeAdijaqun st jj,
‘e . . . . . . , I
MOLLSAL GNV ALINVNOH JO WVAd GIXOM FO SWIdIOSIG ;VOIMANWV JO SAHId’IOS
VIIAIIS Ul] peuotyeusopuy O
ae
Sp Lee
CNM iipyyss
560
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 561
ASPIRATIONS IN NORTH AMERICA
Of North America the Pan-Germans
profess to covet only Cuba, Central
prmerica,s and Canadayrat the present
time, but some of her futurists see “the
American people conquered by the vic-
torious German spirit, so that in a hun-
dred years the United States will present
an enormous German Empire.” How-
ever, Cuba, the Central American repub-
lics, and the British Dominion would
add 13,500,000 to the population of Ger-
many-Over-All and an area equal to
more than 18 times her European empire
at the outbreak of the world war.
Thus it will be seen that the lands and
peoples which German statesmen and
would-be empire builders actually claim
as their right equal 29,000,000 square
miles, or more than one-half of the
earth’s surface, and 1,245,000,000 inhab-
itants—three-fourths of all the people on
the globe.
If we should add to these figures the
United States, concerning which certain
bold Teutonic spirits have already ex-
pressed themselves, and the Russian Em-
pire, which Germany undoubtedly will
subjugate unless America and the En-
tente Allies crush her, the grand total of
Kulturland would be 40,000,000 square
Mates more than 70. per cent of. the
earth’s land area, and 1,459,000,000 peo-
ple, all the human beings who breathe
save 237,000,000.
What a Gargantuan structure com-
pared with the pigmy Roman Empire in
its most extensive hour, under Trajan,
when its subjects numbered a hundred
million and the word of its Emperor was
law over 1,971,000 square miles! And
how Alexander would have wept with
chagrin at the puny confines of his 2,170,-
000 square miles of territory in the light
of this Brobdingnagian German dream of
conquest !
THE KAISER’S WORSHIP OF RUTHLESS
CONQUERORS
And by far the most diabolical aspect of
this craving for world power is the fact
that it has never occurred to the Prussian
mind to acquire influence through help-
fulness to others. Always it is the sword
of the conqueror which beckons the Kai-
ser. This assertion is not inferential: it
is based on the avowed statement of the
German war lord himself, who boasts
thus:
“From childhood I have been influ-
enced by five men—Alexander the Great,
Julius Cesar, Theodoric II, Frederick
the Great, and Napoleon. Each of these
men dreamed a dream of world empire.
I have dreamed a dream of German
world empire and my mailed fist shall
succeed.”—From Ambassador Gerard’s
“Face to Face with Kaiserism,” page 16.
Each of those paragons of power,
which Wilhelm II keeps enshrined in his
heart, had as his sole object in life the
glorification of self at the expense of
mankind. and the attitude of each toward
justice and moral law was the same as
that of German leaders today, as so
shamelessly admitted by Prince von Bue-
low in an address before the Reichstag
on December 13, 1900, when he declared,
“I feel no embarrassment in saying here,
publicly, that for Germany right can
never be a determining consideration.”
Here are the words of her statesmen,
captains of industry, and publicists,
which prove the iniquity of Germany’s
all-embracing covetousness:
HERR THYSSON’S AMAZING CONFESSION
“IT was personally promised a free
grant of 30,000 acres in Australia and a
loan from the Deutsche Bank of £150,-
000, at 3 per cent, to enable me to de-
velop my business in Australia. Several
other firms were promised special trad-
ing facilities in India, which was to be
conquered by Germany, be it noted, by
the end of 1915. A syndicate was formed
fOn the exploitation or | Canadas = = I his
syndicate consisted of the heads of 12
great firms; the working capital was fixed
at £20,000,000, half of which was to be
found by the German Government.
“Not only were these promises made
by the chancellor; they were confirmed
by the Emperor, who on three occasions
addressed large private gatherings of
business men in Berlin, Munich, and
Cassel in 1912 and 1913. I was at one
of these gatherings. The Emperor’s
speech was one of the most flowery ora-
tions I have listened to, and so profuse
562 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
were the promises he made that, were
even half of what he promised to be ful-
filled, most of the commercial men in
Germany would become rich beyond the
dreams of avarice.
“The Emperor was particularly enthu-
siastic over the coming German conquest
Otmindiasssindia, shetsaid., 1s ‘occupied
by the British. It is in a way governed
by the British, but it is by no means com-
pletely governed by them. We shall not
merely occupy India; we shall conquer
it, and the vast revenues that the British
allow to be taken by Indian princes will,
after our conquest, flow in a golden
stream into the Fatherland. In all the
richest lands of the earth the German
flac will fly over every other flag. 7—
Herr Avucust. THysson, Germany’s
greatest steel manufacturer, in a pamph-
let wherein he confesses his complicity
in an Imperial plot formulated in 1912
to plunge the world into war for Ger-
many’s profit.
TANNENBERCG’S FORECAST
“Holland, together with her royal
family, her European possessions, and
her colonies in South America, the Indian
Islands, and Australasia, must become
the ally of Germany.
“Tt would form the nucleus of a colo-
nial world empire, if to East Africa, the
Cameroons, and southeast Africa we
could add Angola and the Congo. Asa
connecting link with the Cameroons, the
French Congo might also be included—
7,500,000 square miles, in addition to our
2,265,560. This might justly be called a
world empire rich in the productions of
tropical flora; the Congo, one of the
largest rivers in the world—a colonial
possession comparable to England’s five
a beginning, by means of which the Ger-
man nation may finally attain the position
to which it is entitled by reason of its
importance in the Council of Nations.
“Germany must also have a share in
this worship of greatness, and will, under
the guise of economic exploitation and
protection, win back to ‘Kultur’ the Asi-
atic possessions of Turkey, both for her
own benefit and the good of the natives.
“To Germany falls, in southeast Asia,
yet another possession, namely, the
islands of the Indian Ocean, which, next
to British India, form the most valuable
colony in the world.
“In order to maintain the balance of
power, Germany will be compelled to
bring under her sway the largest possible
stretch of land in the basins of the two
Chinese rivers—the Hwangho and the
Yangtsze-kiang.
“In Central America we Germans have
let slip the opportunity for obtaining
Cuba.
“T have touched upon these incidents
in South Africa merely to enforce the
point for our future guidance in South
America, that it will but be a blessing for
the peoples of the republics when they
pass from the effects of their Portuguese-
Spanish heritage under German rule.
“Germany must lay hands upon Central
Africa, from the mouth of the Orange
River to Lake Chad, from the Cameroons
Mountains to the mouth of the Rovuma;
she must seize Asia Minor and the Malay
Islands, in southeast Asia, and, lastly, the
southern half of South America.
“These regions (Asia Minor, Syria,
and Mesopotamia) might become for us
what Egypt is for England—that is to
say, not only an important outlet for the
products of our national industry, but
also a starting point from which we may
extend toward eastern Asia and Afri-
ca.’—TANNENBERG, in Gross Deutsch-
land.
“PLANT OUR FOOT WHERE IT APPEARS
IMPORTANT”
“Should it be necessary to increase our
territory in order that the greater body
of the people should have room to de-
velop, then in that case we will take as
much land as would appear to be neces-
sary. We will also plant our foot where
it appears important to us on strategic
grounds to do so in order to maintain our
impregnable strength. Thus if it is of
any use to our position of strength in the
world, we will establish stations for our
fleet—for example, Dover, Malta, and
Suez.” —WERNER SOMBART.
“We must create a Central Europe,
which will guarantee the peace of the en-
tire continent from the moment when it
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 563
shall have driven the Russians from the
Black Sea and the Slavs from the south
and shall have conquered large tracts to
the east of our frontiers for German
colonization.”—PAuL DE LAGARDE, in
Deutsche Schriften.
“Denmark, as commanding the ap-
proaches to the Baltic, is of great mili-
tary importance to us.’—General von
BERNHARDI, in Germany and the Next
War.
“Our Central Europe enlarges and se-
cures the northern countries by sea-
power and secures and enlarges the
southern countries by land power; and
unites both parts, Orient and Occident,
in one vital, manifold, single organism,
thanks to imperative geographical law.” —
ERNST JACKH, in Deutsche Politik (June
HO 10716):
(a3
the supreme importance to us
of keeping open, at all costs, the passage
through the Sound and the Great Belt.
The command of these straits will not
only secure the Baltic basin for us, but
also keep open the sally ports for our
offensive operations against the English
blockading fleet.’—General von BERN-
HARDI, in. Germany and the Next War.
*Pan- Germanism absorbs also - the
Scandinavians.” ERNST HasSsSB, in
Zwanzig Jahre Alldeutscher Arbert.
“We require those new Dutch terri-
tories, already fertilized by German
blood, for the indispensable expansion of
our economic dominion. On the Rhine,
which has become German to the mouth,
we need a free traffic, which the silent
resistance of Holland now hampers.”’—
Fritz Biry, quoted by Andler, Pan-
Germanism.
“ALL FOREIGN
EUROPE
INFLUENCE IN MIDDLE
MUST BE ELIMINATED”
“The future territory of German ex-
pansion, situated between the territories
of the Eastern and Western Powers,
must absorb all the intermediate regions;
it must stretch from the North Sea to the
Baltic; from the Netherlands, taking in
Luxembourg and Switzerland, down to
the islands of the Danube and the Balkan
Peninsula, and would include Asia Minor
as far as the Persian Gulf. All foreign
influence must be eliminated.”—Ernsr
HasseE, in Weltpolitik.
“We will annex Denmark, Holland,
Belgium, Switzerland, Livonia, Trieste,
Venice, and the north of France from
the Sombre to the Loire. This program
which we propose is not the work of a
madman, nor is this empire which we
wish to found a Utopia. We have al-
ready in our hands the means of realizing
it.’—General BRonSART VON SCHELLEN-
porF, former Minister of War.
“Decrepit States like the Argentine
and Brazilian republics, and more or less
all those beggarly States of South Amer-
ica, would be induced either by force or
otherwise to listen to reason.”—FRIED-
RICH LANGE, in Reines Deutschtum.
“Should Belgium take part in the war,
it must be struck off the map.”—Ruv-
DOLPH THEUDEN, in Was muss uns der
Krieg bringen.
“Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy,
bound together by economic interests in
Central Europe, form a great domain
which would be very happily rounded off
by the adhesion of Switzerland, Belgium,
and Holland in the West and of Poland
and Lithuania in the East.”—-PauL
DEHN, in Deutschland unter der Orient.
“It is sad to reflect that neither Para-
guay nor Argentina belongs, even in part,
to Germany today.’ — Professor Jo-
HANNES UNOoLp, of Munich.
“A MAGNIFICENT FIELD FOR GERMANY”
“The East is the only territory in the
world which has not passed under the
control of one of the ambitious nations
of the globe. Yet it offers the most mag-
nificent field for colonization ; and if Ger-
many does not allow this opportunity to
escape her, if she seizes this domain be-
fore the Cossacks lay hands upon it, she
will have secured the best share in the
partition of the earth. The German Em-
peror would have the destinies of Nearer
Asia in his power if some hundreds of
thousands of armed colonists were culti-
vating these splendid plains; he might
and would be the guardian of peace for
ali Asia.”’—A. SPRENGER, in Babylonien
AvpO} YIIYM suorssed [IAI ay} Jsurese uOoNezyIAI dansut III
« YUjlea OY} OSp~NAUOD
M }[NSol 194}O ON
‘Slieye uewny Ul 99
WAMOd OILVAOOLAV LV MOI V GNV AOVYOONAG OL GIV NV SI VOIYAWV JO SN
[[e3419qoIn “ay Aq ydessojoyg
1O¥ 9WoIdNs dy} 9WIOdq [[IM pue ysnuT ddYsNf,,
TdYNS GOOA AHL NI ASVAYONI AWHAA
564
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 56D
das reichste Land in der Vorseit und das
lohnendste Kolonisationsfeld fur die Ge-
genwart.
“All Morocco in the hands of Ger-
many; German cannon on the routes to
Egypt and India; German troops on the
Algerian frontier—this would be a goal
Ww orthy of great sacrifices.’ '__MAxIMIL-
IAN HARDEN, in Zukunft, July 29, 1911.
“note STORM FLAG OF THE EMPIRE’
“Now we know what the war is for.
It is to hoist the storm flag of the em-
pire on the narrow channel that opens
and locks the road into the ocean. ?
We shall remain in the Belgian Nether-
lands, to which we shall add the thin strip
of coast up to the rear of Calais.
From Calais to Antwerp, Flanders, Lim-
burg, Brabant, to behind the lines of the
French forts—Prussian. The southern
triangle with Alsace-Lorraine and Lux-
emburg.- We need land for our indus-
tries, a road into the ocean. . Never
was there a war more just. It shall, it
must, it will conquer new provinces
for the majesty of the noble German
spirit.”-—MAxIMILIAN HARDEN, in Zu-
kunft, December, 1914.
“Tf Central Europe comes to nothing,
then we shall indeed have Central Africa.
Central Europe, on the other hand, with-
out Central Africa cannot be contem-
plated for a moment.”—Dr. Pauy Lrut-
WEIN (son of a former Governor of
Southwest Africa), in Ewropaische
Staats-und Wirtschafts-Zeitung.
“Germany’s requirements come to this:
it must stick to the position it has won
at the southwest entrance of the North
Sea (Antwerp) and must acquire the
Suez Canal.”—Vice-Admiral HERMANN
KIRCHHOFF, in same journal.
“DHE GIFT OF A’ VICTORIOUS WAR’
“We must think of a way, if we are to
maintain ourselves as one among the
world nations. This way has already
been found in process of the war. It 1s
called Association (Genossenschaft )—
political, national, military, economic As-
sociation. The original nucleus of the
Association is Central Europe (Germany
plus Austria-Hungary) ; Poland, too, be-
longs to it by nature. The Near East is
brought in to supply us both with (1)
foodstuffs and (2) raw materials. A
connecting bridge is also needed between
Central Europe and the Near East. And
there it is—Bulgaria.”— Pau, RouRBACH
(of German Colonial Office), in Deutsche
Folnk, May 10, 1o16:
“A victorious war . . . would give
us the Belgian Congo, the French Congo,
and, if Portugal continues to translate
her hostile intentions toward us into ac-
tions, would also give us the Portuguese
colonies on the east and west coasts of
Africa. We should then have a colonial
empire of which our fathers, who used
to smile slyly at our first essays in coloni-
zation, could never have dreamt. But
the most important factor in this prob-
able partition of the African world is that
we should have thereby put an end to the
English attempts at dominion from the
Cape to Cairo. Between Egypt, which is
still English, and Anglo-Boer South Af-
rica would stretch the immense band of
our colonial possessions, extending from
the Indian ‘Ocean’ to: the Atlantic) Still
English, we say advisedly of northeast
and South Africa; for who can tell what
may happen when the words of the poet
are realized: “One day Germanism will be
the salvation of the world.’ ”’—Kreuszei-
tung des Ostheeres (official publication
issued by German Commander at Lodz
on the occasion of German Emperor’s
birthday, Jantiary 27, 1915).
A MATTER OF GERMAN “HONOR” TO HOLD -
: ON TO BELGIUM
“In our opinion, it is radically neces-
sary to improve our whole Western front
from Belfort to the coast. Part of the
North French Channel coast we must ac-
quire if possible.
“On Belgium we must keep firm hold.
On no point are the masses more
united, for without the slightest possible
doubt they consider it a matter of honor
to hold on to Belgium.
“Our friends, Austria-Hungary and
Turkey, will open to us the Balkans and
Asia Minor, and thus we shall assure our-
selves of the Persian Gulf against the
pretensions of Russia and Great Britain.
“We need liberty of the seas, which
lusiuvissnig jsuieSe sojdoad da1j [Je JO pue pur] UMO JTOY} JO JyeYyoq ur sue dn ayv} O} O51]
UIJIAID WOIJ Pa[eo oq 0} UW JsIy dy} poy voIIAUIW JO Sa}VIgG Pa}UL dy} Jo AALNY pue AwIY dy} FO foly-ul-topurwmwoy) oy} onusAYy eiueAyAsuuog df)
SYOIOD AHL OL GUTVIV) WAM ADVADOLAV
NVINUAD LSNIVOV UVM AHL NI SHAILOWIAS LSU AHL NAHM CTXH AdVAVd AHL JO GVAH AHL LV DNIHOYVW NOSTIM INAUCISHAd
siIoy}o1g yoo’J Aq ydeis0j04g
iy}
ies =
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
was the real cause of war between Eng-
land and Germany. To obtain it we must
have Egypt.’—From the Manifesto of
German Professors, October, 1914.
“POSSESSION OF NORTHERN FRANCE IS
WA
“So far as regards France, the posses-
sion of the coastal districts bordering on
Belgium as far as the neighborhood of
the Somme must be regarded as a vital
matter for our future position at sea.
The ‘hinterland,’ which must be acquired
- with them, must be so delimited that the
complete use of the canal ports which we
gain, both for industrial and strategic
purposes, must be secured. All further
acquisitions of French territory, apart
from the necessary annexation of the
mining district of Briey, must be deter-
mined purely according to military and
strategical considerations. After the ex-
periences of this war, it must be regarded
as a matter of course that we must not in
the future leave our frontiers open to
hostile invasion, as we should do if we
left to our opponents those fortified posi-
tions which threaten us, and in particular
Verdun and Belfort and the part of the
western slopes of the Vosges which lies
between them. With the acquisition of
the line of the Meuse and the French
coast to which the canals lead and the
mining districts of Briey, which have
been mentioned, the possession of the
canal districts in the Department of the
Nord and the Pas de Calais is necessarily
included.
“The necessity of strengthening the
agricultural basis of our nation requires
a considerable extension of the Imperial
and Prussian frontiers in the East by an-
nexation of at least parts of the Baltic
provinces and of those territories which
lie to the south of it.
“The reconstruction of East Prussia
requires the better security of its fron-
tiers by placing in front of them consid-
erable districts, and also West Prussia,
Posen, and Silesia must not remain fron-
tier marches exposed to danger as they
are now.
“The security of the German Empire
imperatively requires the possession of
the whole adjoining territory of Luxem-
burg and Lorraine, including the fortifi-
O67
cations of Longwy.’—From the Mani-
festo of Six Industrial Associations,
May, IQIS.
CONQUEST OF INDIA AND CHINA WITH
TURKEY'S AID
“With the help of Turkey, India and
China may be conquered. Having con-
quered these, Germany should civilize and
Germanize the world, and the German
language would become the world ian-
guage.” —THEODOR SPRINGMAN, Deutsch-
land und der Orient, 1915.
“In a hundred years the American
people will be conquered by the victorious
German spirit, so that it will present an
enormous German Empire. Whoever
does not believe this lacks confidence in
the strength of the German spirit.”—
Ropert TuiemM, Alldeutsche Blatter,
1902.
“At the present moment the center of
German intellectual activity is in Ger-
many; in the remote future it will be in
America. Germans only need to
grasp the situation and the future is
theirs. Let them show that they mean to
maintain Deutschtum, and then emigra-
tion may be directed to America with
impunity.”—HUBBE-SCHLEIDEN, in All-
deutsche Blatter, 1903.
“Not only North America, but the
whole of America must become a bul-
wark of Germanic Kultur, perhaps the
strongest fortress of the Germanic races.
That is every one’s hope who has freed
himself from his own local European
pride and who places the race feeling
above his love for home. Also South
America must and can easily become a
habitation for German or Germanoid
races !’—Kriaus WAGNER, Krieg, 1906.
James ~W.) Gerard, -rommer United
States Ambassador to Germany, in his
account of his experiences at the Imperial
Court, declares: ‘An official (German)
declared (in 1915) that they had tried to
get England to interfere, together with
them, in Mexico,: and Germans ‘Gott
strafe’ the Monroe Doctrine in their daily
prayers of hate. Every night fifty million
Germans cry themselves to sleep because
all Mexico has not risen against us.”
ACES AMONG
ACES
By Laurence LA Touretre Driccs
IR duels were unknown four years
ago. Boys of 18 or 20, untaught
and inexperienced in the art, have
flown aloft and mastered it—mastered it
so thoroughly that less prudent antago-
nists have fallen before them, sometimes
six in one day. At least a score of such
duels have been reported where the victor
won by the expenditure of a single bullet!
uthery ton America, Guymemenr) 101%
France, Bishop for Great Britain, and
von Richthofen for Germany have tow-
ered “above. their comrades; from the
popular viewpoint because of their con-
spicuous successes in this new art of
aeroplane dueling.
To promote this new and spectacular
branch of warfare, the rival air. forces
of the belligerents have constructed the
swiftest and. deadliest types of aéro-
planes, to be manned by their air duel-
ists—expert sharpshooters and pilots—
whose duty it is both to attack the heavy
bombing and reconnaissance planes of
the enemy and to defend their own slower
aeroplanes from chasing aviators.
Fach belligerent nation has collected
the cream of its sharpshooters into one
squadron, or escadrille, where as one unit
they can be hurled into a threatened area
with every prospect of success over less
skilled antagonists.
THE PREMIER ESCADRILLE
France has her Cigognes (‘‘Storks”),
the celebrated Spad 3, to which belong
Fonck, Heurteaux, Pinsard, Deullin,
Gond, Herrison, the Americans Baylies
and Parsons, and those who have made
the sacrifice supreme—Guynemer, Au-
ger, René Dorme, and de la Tour.
America has her Escadrille Lafayette,
which was commanded by Major Luf-
bery and which stands third among all
the fighting escadrilles of France in the
number of enemy aéroplanes shot down.
The British have R. F. C. Squadron
No. 1, which is commanded by Captain
Fullard and which brought down 200
German aéroplanes in a short six months.
568
And the Germans entrusted their hopes
to the famous Tango Circus, so nick-
named by the English pilots by reason of
the close formation in which the gaudily
painted aeroplanes of this enemy unit
flew. ‘The victories claimed by this band
amount to more than double those ac-
corded to any single squadron of the
Allies. And the commander of this
Jagdstaffel No. 11 holds the world rec-
ord in air dueling, for he lived to conquer
80 enemy machines.
FONCK, OF THE-CIGOGNES
The most polished aérial duelist the
world has ever seen is René Fonck, aged
23, now flying with the Cigognes, Spad 3.
This is the famous fighting escadrille that
was commanded by Guynemer at the time
of his disappearance, September IT, 1917.
Curiously enough, Lieutenant Fonck,
who was then a member of Escadrille
N. (Nieuport) 103, was Guynemer’s
avenger. Heshot down on September 21
the German pilot, Lieutenant Wissemann,
who had written home to his mother in
Cologne, boasting that he had been vic-
torious over Guynemer and now need
fear no one. As no proof of Guynemer’s
death has yet been found, the truth of
Wissemann’s claim is doubted.
Consider the details of Fonck’s record. ©
Up to April 3, 1918, he had shot down
officially 32 enemy aircraft, engaged in
upward of 200 combats, flown over 1,000
hours above the enemy’s lines, yet had
never received a bullet hole in his aéro-
plane! Now he has 45 enemy planes on
his tablet and is the French ace of aces.
Most of his combats are against for-
mations of five or more enemies. While
delivering the coup de grace to one he
must prevent a surprise from the others.
How he succeeds in this could never be
satisfactorily explained, yet that he does
succeed is beyond question. Such incred-
ible perfection in maneuvering and such
rapid and infallible accuracy of aim have
never been equalled by any other fight-
ing pilot.
oe
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 569
LIEUTENANT RENE FONCK ON THE MACHINE WITH WHICH HE DESTROYED SIX
GERMAN PLANES IN ONE DAY
Lieutenant Fonck, of the Cigognes, the most famous of French escadrilles, is the world’s
most polished aerial duelist.
He had shot down 32 enemy aviators, had flown more than 1,000
hours above the enemy lines, and had taken part in 200 combats before receiving a single
bullet-hole in his own machine. It was Fonck who shot down Wissemann, the German aviator
who is reputed to have killed Guynemer.
Lieutenant Dorme, of the same esca-
drille, who had 23 on his score at the
time of his mysterious disappearance
May 25, 1917, had shot down to of this
number before he received more than
two bullets in his own machine. He was
nicknamed “the Unpuncturable”’ by his
comrades for this superb skill and good
luck. Guynemer returned daily with his
plane, and even his clothing, riddled with
bullet holes. One can but wonder at the
miraculous record made by Fonck.
FONCK REVEALS HIS SECRET
Let Fonck him-
In an interview with
But ist a..miraclee
self tell the secret.
570
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
ig
Photograph by Press Illustrating Service
THE AMERICAN ACE, MAJOR RAOUL LUFBERY, AND HIS NIEUPORT
Note the gun on the engine hood, synchronized to fire through the propeller.
machine at the rear a Lewis gun is shown mounted on the top plane.
On the
Major Lufbery was
killed in an air fight on May 109, 1918. His record of official victories over the Huns was 18.
La Guerre Aerienne, of Paris, recently
he made the following observations con-
cerning his preparations for combat:
“One must be in constant training, al-
ways fit, always sure of oneself, always
in perfect health. Muscles must be in
good condition, nerves in perfect equilib-
rium, all the organs exercising naturally.
“Alcohol becomes an enemy—even
wine, All abuses must be avoided. It is
indispensable that one goes to a combat
without fatigue, without any disquietude,
either physical or moral.
“It must be remembered that combats
often take place at altitudes of twenty to
twenty-five thousand feet. High altitudes
are trying on one’s organisms. This in-
deed is, at bottom, the reason that keeps
me from flying too continuously. And I
never fly except when in perfect condi-
tion. I am careful to abstain when I am
not exactly fit. Constantly I watch my-
self.
“Tt is necessary to train as severely for
air. combats as for any other athieme
contest, so difficult is the prize of victory.
Yet if one finds oneself in prime condi-
tion, all the rest is play.”
And these precepts come not from a
Sunday-school teacher, but from a youth
who has demonstrated his theory with as
thorough a test as can be imagined.
“All the rest” may be play, yet there is
in that little play of Fonck’s a secret of
quickness and anticipation that is almost
superhuman.
HOW HE DESTROYED SIX MACHINES IN
ONE DAY
Lieutenant Fonck is the only French-
man who has brought down six enemy
aircraft in one day. He went up back of
Soissons with his patrol on May 9g last
and encountered three two-seater ma-
chines of the enemy. ‘Two of these he
destroyed in less than ten seconds and
a
*
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE BA
Wl
Photograph from
AMONG LIVING AVIATORS HE HOLDS THE WORLD'S RECORD FOR VICTORIES
Major William A. Bishop, V.C., D.S.O., M.C., premier ace of Great Britain’s Royal
Flying Corps, is a Canadian, 23 years of age.
the skill of this master airman.
Seventy-two Hun planes have fallen before
Major Bishop came to America on furlough last winter and
while in Washington, D. C., visited the headquarters of the National Geographic Society,
where he wrote “Tales of the British Air Service,” published in the January, 1918, number of
the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE.
the third fell five minutes later. That
afternoon he ran onto a formidable for-
mation of five of the new Pfalz fighting
machines working in contact with five
Albatros scouts—all single-seaters. He
dived into them and sent down three, one
after another, the remainder breaking up
and escaping before he could catch them.
These six machines were shot down with
an expenditure of ten cartridges per ma-
chine!
THE STORY OF RAOUL LUFBERY
Raoul Lufbery, the boy who ran away
from his home in Wallingford, Conn.,
when he was 17, who wandered half the
world over, working at odd jobs until his
curiosity was satisfied and his purse re-
plenished, who enlisted as a regular sol-
dier in 1907, and went to the Philippines
for two years, where he won all the prizes
of his regiment as the best marksman on
the range, and who entered aviation in
France, his mother’s country, mainly to
avenge the death of his friend and patron,
Marc Pourpe—this same Major Raoul
Lufbery met his death on Sunday morn-
ing, May 19 last, with a record of 18
German aeroplanes shot down, which is
the highest score held by any American.
Not a newspaper in our land but told of
his loss. This runaway boy died leaving
his name as well known to his country-
men as is that of Pershing or Sims.
Among the last heroic survivors of the
old school of war-fliers, Lufbery was
revered and is mourned most keenly by
the group of our young airmen who were
under his tutelage in the Escadrille La-
fayette, tie opad 1242 (One on these;
DiZ THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
%
e-
f
Courtesy of Capt. Jean Richard
ACES AMONG ACES: SOME OF THE MOST FAMOUS AIRMEN WHO HAVE FLOWN FOR
FRANCE AND HUMANITY
From right to left: Capt’ Albert Heurteaux, Capt. Alfred Auger, Commander Hogrel,
Capt. Georges Guynemer, Lieut. Albert Deullin, Lieutenant Andre, Lieut. René Dorme, and
Lieutenant Raymond.
David FE. Putnam, has already surpassed
his chief in one day’s chase, having
brought down five enemy machines on
June 10, according to a dispatch from
France.
This places Sergeant Putnam in the
proud position of America’s ace of aces,
with a total score of 13 aéroplanes shot
down. Forty-two other young American
pilots have won one or more victories
over their opponents. Ten of them have
won their fifth and with it the title of ace.
THE HIGH=SCORE ACE OF THE ROYAL
FLYING CORPS
“The King has been graciously pleased
to approve the award of the Victoria
Cross to Second Lieutenant (temporary
Captain) James Byford McCudden, who
already possesses the Distinguished Serv-
ice Order, the Military Cross, the Mili-
tary Medal, the General List, and Royal
Flying Corps, for most conspicuous
bravery, exceptional perseverence, keen-
ness, and very high devotion to duty.”
So reads a communique of recent date
from the British War Office. Captain
McCudden has brought down 54 enemy
aeroplanes, which gives him the highest
score among the British pilots, Philip F.
Fullard coming next, with 48, and Wil-
liam A. Bishop, the Canadian, who vis-
ited the United States during last winter,
standing third, with 47 victories.
(Since the above was written an un-
official report states that Major Bishop
has added 25 more victories to his score
of 47, making a total of 72; stage
further that he has retired from air fight-
ing to instruct his freshmen pilots in the
art of air dueling. Bishop has now but
one competitor for the world’s record in
the number of aircraft destroyed—Cap-
tain von Richthofen. )
a
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
FRENCH HEROES WHO ARE
EARTH, AIR, AND WATER
After a plunge in the Somme, three French airmen and their squad physician brave the
camera. The tall officer, with the cap and cane, is Lieutenant Benois, now in America attached
to the French military mission. The officer on the extreme right is Capt. Jean Richard, for-
merly of the Storks Escadrille, but now detailed to artillery and stationed in Washington tem-
porarily. Lieutenant Raymond stands next to the physician, who wears the black bathing suit.
Capt. Albert Ball, the conqueror of
Germany’s star air fighter, Immelmann,
was himself killed in combat with Lieut.
von Richthofen a year ago, after having
amassed 43 official successes, at that time
the world’s record.
Not only does the British champion,
McCudden, surpass all his countrymen at
the front since Bishop’s retirement, but
he leads the highest score in France, that
of Georges Guynemer, who went out for
the last time on September 11, 1917, hav-
ing at that time accounted for 53 German
aeroplanes.
WHAT. CONSTIDULES TCONSPICUOUS
BRAVERY
Let us see what constitutes “conspicu-
ous bravery,” in the opinion of the un-
emotional custodians of the Victoria
Crosses in England.
On two occasions McCudden has to-
tally destroyed four two-seater machines
on the same day; on the last occasion all
four of such two-seaters were destroyed
within one hour and 30 minutes—costing
Germany some $250,000, as the value of
aeroplanes and trained pilots is com-
puted, for this hour and a half of young
McCudden’s time.
On December 23, 1917, whenmeadine
his patrol, he attacked eight hostile aéro-
planes. Two of them he shot down, the
others he drove deep into their own lines,
returning home himself only when his
Lewis gun ammunition was exhausted and
the belt of his Vickers gun had broken.
The citation says: “As a patrol leader
he has at all times shown the utmost gal-
lantry and skill not only in the manner
in which he has attacked and destroyed
the enemy, but in the way he has during
re
several fights protected the newer mem-
bers of his flight, thus keeping their cas-
ualties down toa minimum. (The italics
are my own.) ‘This officer is considered
by the record which he has made, by his
fearlessness, and by the great services
which he has rendered to his country,
deserving of the very highest honor.”
It requires bravery truly to bring down
54 armed aéroplanes. But that bravery
becomes conspicuous and deserving of
the very highest honor when it includes
shielding from danger the little fellows
who are devotedly following their daring
leader.
THE CAREER OF CAPTAIN VON RICH THOFEN
Manfred von Richthofen, favorite of
the Kaiser, a brilliant fighter, a chivalrous
gentleman, and the pride of the German
army, was the celebrated commander of
the enemy air squadron officially known
as Judgstaffel No. 11, but familiar to all
airmen as the Tango Circus. Of aristo-
cratic birth, he was.a lieutenant of Uhlans
before the outbreak of the war. The
former air champion, Captain Boelke, in-
duced him to enter the Air Service in
1915, and his first victory was won in
September, 1916. In seven months the
flying squadron which he led shot down
200 aéroplane antagonists.
In less than fifteen months active fly-
ing, von Richthofen personally brought
down 70 aeroplanes and 10 observation
balloons, mostly British. He flew the
swiftest type of aéroplanes that German
constructors could build, and he mounted
upon them two Spandau machine-guns
that fired straight ahead between the
blades of the propeller. His machine he
painted a bright red, and for the past
eight months his menacing presence thus
courted identification from his enemies
with a self-confidence and audacity truly
admirable.
He was shot down April 21, 1918, over
the Somme River, at the Amiens front,
and his. new Fokker triplane, a personal
gift to him from Fokker himself, fell into
the British lines. This machine flew 140
miles per hour and climbed 15,000 feet
Mme ammtes:)) Orders found jin iis
pockets indicated that the enemy army
commanders desired this sector cleared
of British aeroplanes on the morning of
574 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
April 21 at all costs. But it is doubtful
whether the fall of Amiens itself would
have compensated Germany for the cost
she paid in the loss of this great ace.
GENEROUS TRIBUTE TO THE ENEMY ACE
The following generous tribute to an
enemy airman is written by C. G. Grey,
of London:
“The greatest of our enemies in the
air, Rittmeister Freiherr Manfred von
Richthofen, is dead. The Royal Flying
Corps, his particular foes, will hear the
news with mixed feelings. They will re-
joice that he is out of action, but will re-
gret sincerely the death of a gallant gen-
tleman who fell bravely doing his duty.
“Only a few days ago one of the best
of our airmen expressed the hope that. he
and von Richthofen might survive the
war, so that they might compare notes.
Some few months ago a dinner was given
to another of our renowned fighting
pilots by his squadron, in honor of his
winning the Distinguished Service Order.
In returning thanks, the hero of the
evening, as gallant a lad as ever flew,
stood up and proposed the health of von
Richthofen. And the fighting pilots of
the squadron arose and duly honored an
enemy whom they respected. Both the
proposer of the toast and his enemy are
now dead. One hopes that beyond the
shadows they have met, as gallant ene-
mies do when they have fought a good
fight and peace has come to them.
“These two incidents indicate, one be-
lieves, the feelings of the Royal Flying
Corps toward Rittmeister von Richtho-
fen. There is not one in the corps who
would not gladly have killed him. But
there is not one who would not equally
gladly have shaken hands with him had
he been brought down without being
killed or who would not so have shaken
hands if brought down by him.
“His death is bound to have a depress-
ing effect upon the German Flying Serv-
ice, for obviously the younger and less
brave pilots will argue that if a von
Richthofen cannot survive their chances
must be small. Equally, his death is an
encouragement to the younger Allied
pilots who can no longer imagine that
every skillful German who attacks them
is von Richthofen himself.
a pears mn
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
“However, Manfred von Richthofen
is dead.’ He was a brave man and a clean
fighter. May he rest in peace.”
Who can now say the day of chivalry
is past? Our great enemy ace was buried
with fuli military honors, in French soil,
on April 22, and his personal effects were
sent home to his family.
A MEAN AND BITTER EPILOGUE
Ee woulds be: pleasanter to leave) tie
story of von Richthofen’s gallant death
and funeral thus; but an interesting,
though contemptible, epilogue is thrust
upon our attention from the land of the
fallen hero. It is penned by the notori-
ous Count Reventlow, and appears in the
May I issue of the Deutsche Tagezeitung
to poison the mind of the Boche and in-
flame it into greater hatred against the
foc lt says:
“These honors are nothing butethe
manifestation of British self-advertise-
ment of their ‘chivalry.’ We once heard
much of the chivalrous treatment ac-
corded by the English to Captain von
Muller, of the Emden, but as soon as he
was able to speak we found that instead
of chivalrous treatment he had received
nothing but deliberate vileness, contempt,
and torture from his captors.
“For our part we cannot consider the
honors given to the remains of von
Richthofen as sincere. The English
press is full of them, and with character-
istic blatancy blares about British mag-
nanimity. But they say nothing about the
huge prizes in money that were offered
to the pilot who could kill Richthofen.
In fact, these must have amounted to an
enormous sum. And this explains the
bitter and ‘noble’ controversy which
raged around the corpse of the fallen
pilot, for there was cash waiting for the
one who inflicted the fatal wound and
brought the German machine to earth.
The officials themselves who buried our
hero were all fortunate money-makers.
Thus this spectacle takes on a thoroughly
disgusting aspect.”
To which Mare Antony might well
have said: “Oh Judgment! Thou hast
fled to brutish beasts, and men have lost
their reason!”
In truth, the official reports have ind1-
cated that it is in doubt as to whether
570
von Richthofen fell from a shot from the
air or from the ground. Many aéro-
planes were engaged in a “dog fight” at
very low levels at the time and machine-
guns from the British lines took part in
the fray. Suddenly Richthofen’s gaudily
painted triplane darted into the ground
and smashed. Investigation disclosed a
bullet through his heart, but from whence
it came could not be ascertained.
Subsequently the Toronto Globe an-
nounced that von Richthofen’s conqueror
was Capt. Roy Brown, of Carleton Place,
Ontario, who was one of the fighting
pilots participating in the combat.
THE ROLL OF ACES OF ALL BELLIGERENTS
Having described their methods and
peculiarities and studied their character-
istics, which account for their proved su-
periority both over their enemies and in
comparison with their comrades, let us
look at the complete score of the aces of
aviation of all the belligerent countries.
This score I have been tabulating since
thenwar in’ the ain began, andsit 1s.0n-
iieially correct up tothe date oF une sus.
1918, with the exception of the list of
British aces, whose records are not made
public until His Majesty is graciously
pleased to confer upon them the Victoria
Cross or the Distinguished Service Order
for some extraordinary and brilliant per-
formance of duty. Many British aces
must, therefore, be omitted from the fol-
lowing table.
THE SCORE OF THE LIVING ACES OF FRANCE
Fifty-five French aces, living, have
brought down 547 enemy aeroplanes, as
follows:
bnew, Ikea Wome, pcnsnvocodbocc ede ooo ag0OSooS 435
Lieut. Charles Nungesser...............---.---- 36
ILalibtey (Geos IWiGloinos oc odeongoca coccosopuecse 34
Capt eAllbertullieuiteausc cree eto eet 21
IN Ait ea Guenity nome cee cee Chor ae 2I
ieuteeD eullinieme eee Cerrone gsces 19
(Cayne, vrsoneravel levaceinlc goccodaascocscos ose sces> 18
IientaWiautice bOyae = cs oe ack eee 18
ibmentr, Ge IWigilchteso co occooc concn coo oo agoeooesecs 13
Wieute Marcela tlie hese camer retina tree re
PNG. eV etemeis mao Gro e waco as Goer omaccdas Ac coe 12
Teieut: iv opie ha 13
apt Gilbert Ware (Greene ae. 5.5.5 a. its. e sielel ese tere 9, “Pteut: Hanza: oo nce ee xg
g i “ieut.; Panza oi.ie . s/s tie !a wets usar tecenete aia ean
roe He ie teu ey Pastas Sacer sae 3 sae Mieisete w'elal Deve isi ales sie) eel"eubie-e piehot otal a nel maaan "8
Sorat Mean I: Tae A IN NN cae an a NA Lh 9 Leuts:!Parmis: (occas ole) sve ais'et bg telson ier ae an 7
PientecBoyd Samuel Breadner.S.).\/1. 0.06. 0 ee 8 Sergt. POLL be eee sence ec eecn este ee ceawee begin 6
icmp nnd new pe WMICIKee Vere retire aie qieliciae a)s] 2) oie 8 eae Ceres nO Tes Ta 5 SM al eine ea .
Lieut, Fionel B. Jones. 100000000 : Lieut) Arrigoni |... h:5.0.s000s. 0) ap ar
LETER CA Oop CHEPNETG eel nar ea deata viele weiepoiee
iient: James, Dennisn Payne ii.) fir sot td steele cious j Fourteen Italian aces have totalled
7 ed 193
Hererits) Go. Eb aN Bylo ye. ie hilseersie cies (ieee eaten ine 7 t
Cape At GeEWStehNOSKE a Sluere vo fie cay bholciamere ens 7 victories.
apt. Mago a ihe Uae AST au Rn aR SRM” Ler NCTA 7
Capt. Frank Ouigley {(alltin onevday)<.. «0. 6 4 A CI J .
Capt. G. E. ibe mice its (aviator e Ecwiaete i Beat aia 6 Se Ee Ee es 60 VICTORIES
Capt Wancelot ils Richardson ti) vic miele oe ame ote 6 Adjt. Coppens) 21 onc 2 dee eee 13
Heieuita Cecil sROymNtchandss vate ccd a alma) an mio ne 6: Lieut.’ Thiefiry., (killed Februarysizs> 1918) ee 10
Lieutamtlowardy scant. bie ppb tie gs Se cu clic se ole elouebe 6 Wieut. ide Mealemeester...% 3% a0 + es sere. Seen 10
Mieut. Ered) Jom Gibbsye each et: 5. ace t eae 6» Lieut. Jan Olieslagerss,..-':-2ce:) "= 9.
Lieut. Ce WisiCuddentoret: 4 eke c ak oe en ae 6 Adjt. Beulemest <- 2yi/ 5:5 os cies cached hence ee eee 6
Wiens, Walliarniilye wisi iW ells iac.5. 0% Geen eee Bn
Tes. WW. Gace te ne les a init AG ieut. von Bulow......... 2.0. eee e ee eee eee 28
(Com, TL OS, Wisin (Grormuledd i g, 8). eS Lieut. Troll eck BK ieuzrecgy Rein oe eee ee 28
Tree eacaieey Crole See Ros go mee Sea Ne Iieuts WV testhofie.< .ch sats (caer Gelatin 27
Teese Robert No UMass een ve Wieut. Udet. on. 3 erase «ote 2) iee- opine enone 27
Tisue David Sidney FL lteas cha ceca peo ne eA ine iG Lieut. Lowenhardt ...........-.-.s-e esse ee eee 27
Tene MM. J Z Be Tereute sAmier, Austria. cc: ss ster o's stab einstein 26
Tientmec. rms ie cimrine Sack pes on eke ee Lieut. Peutter .......-0-2 +2 eee eee ee eee eevee 25
TCM Le ordanes Oa eee e be Lieut. Link Crawford, Austria..:...........eee- 23
miect Ml! Eunice.) ou nen AE SMa Rin 2 Capt, Baumer... 22. 32).0- 22 --i ateeies see 23
Tet BaRilleys joc cee aie leet Tisiistrin te eae 23
Lieut, Klein ....:/)2..ise es ie
BRITISH DEAD OR RETIRED ae Windiseh CER: Ot aaa a
Capt= PAlbertMBall iy i.Faicussiesetaise ches eke aual gore bree AG reve ere See ee Te ot oh a ae ea oY oe
Capt, Brunwin Halesij. so. .6.u0 ses ee sec ee 27° “Tieut Reinhardts.ci. co. d ee
Capt. Erancist McCubbont.i. sso, one ee 23 Lieut: ‘Kissenberth: «i face. os See ee eee “17
Capt uGeoree nc homsotnic:. «cia icdet ll eruneetels 21 Lieut. ‘Schmidt oe ooh, or ic. sid eae ee 15
Capt.Je al: Mrollope (six in one! day)...52 00 18 TAU. 5 EMESS rc oh, oath Spans: aney's: sh ohiepetioneieatteMeneneoh em teen emenes 13
Lieut. Leonard M. Barlow RR Owes Ua Cd aN Ue PaI SEM ee 8 17 Lieut. Muller EY Ch. EOL O CEO CRGO: DICLO nO Gu cio eS 13
Wieutu@tivye ES Colletti: ance ume otan® tg ivleuts Goettsch 05.6. si) ee eee 13
CoA ane GAl CORE OE RNNE E, Keei ds aah ee 13 Lieut, (Goering visi.) Seas tree © keto ee ee 10
AOU DEW WE ViebD) kisses oe eee es Lieut. Banfield, Austria MASE Sly & H.a0 dc oad 9
WOME Dard. ccs neds gO :
ieut. von AUS eran to igre 56. a tone fof clay Dh oman
Capt. Henry G. Luchford.......---++++++++eeeee 7 Lie: pesweln Re ME ns 6
s é tetut, “Walz, {ieee ie dod.sie is ea ee, See eee 6
stimating “many as at least five, the” Liew Hchae: sane ee 6
known list of the British aces accounts Git geuden 001000000
for at least 950 enemy aéroplanes with Lieut. Brauneck ..........++-++-20ssessteereee 5
Tieuts Ullmer. scteie/se ci vist ers oasie weenie ke een 5
the above named’86 members. Undoubt-* -ricut, Rote 24. 125.55:9572 1 ae 3
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
a719
Photograph by International Film Service
A TYPE OF NIGHT-FLYING AIRPLANE NOW IN USE
Note the four rockets on each side and the machine-gun protruding over the bow of the
boat-shaped fuselage.
The radiators for the motor are on each side of the fuselage.
Below
the lower plane of the machine is a battery of three searchlights controlled, of course, by
wired levers within reach of the pilot.
head at the bow.
Forty-eight German aces, dead or re-
tired, have brought down 923 aéroplanes.
(Date when activities ceased is indicated in paren-
theses.)
Capt. von Richthofen (killed April 21, 1918).... 80
Lieut. Werner-Voss-Crefeld (killed Oct. 8, 1917). 49
CAPE OAS OCIK exer sic). Steeles) MEE atblets toa whee Wasa 40
Lieut. Gontermann (November 3, 1917).........- 39
Pacuta Max Muller (January: 05, 1918)\..05-:.-..- 38
Lieut. Bongartz (wounded March 3, 1918)...... 36
Efemta Cont. W.Olk. oe occ o5 sedlecs ela alas Bee 33
Rte LIE SON ACHEE £5.5, 00 sgn er ene oye oleae ae ed 30
WPT AINE MIT OEM CLs as s/o hen sce ote Be Sees Oe elk tee 30
Lieut. von, Richthofen, wounded......... ¢ ste0s.00- 0% 29
Capt. von Tutscheck. (March 17, 1918)........... 27
Wieut= Vacrnet (October: 13) 1017)’. «6.4.66 ss0 et as, 27
Pieut- 2 Dosler “(vanuary*a, TOUS) iets eh ec eles 26
Lieut. Erwin Boehm (December 1, 1917)........ 24
Lieut. von Tschwibon (November 22, 1917)...... 20
Piet svone Wschwegens 2. < ee 5 nda oe anie 2 lapreterss 20
iieut, Bethge (March 17, 1998) 2.65.0 wc ale once os 20
CADE ETIEN Scherer ok ie eRe a ate okoegest 19
Demian Cth. 2 2s oe As an et oe eee aha aes 19
ieuts. bal tannts sclerosis ce eens 18
iets Wilttt eens ty". Says Pee ene testee oe ee ais ns 18
WreutaiMramlceltss 52s cetates ee tcc see hak wove 2 17
Picts Geigel OMay 14,2 1Ol 8) cela a od «slots oe oars ave 15
Wiets SCHNEIMeTe sake ee res oslo 15
Wreat:- Eninrelmatitie ss css cote Gio oe eee oe os ms
Metents Napianall es fis orcs, een te a eho 14
Mast.) Dassenbach, ic Ae woh Eee Oe hie he ee 14
Wier Bestel, 12 tes Ake 2? cm aiie es mis teelejsbe rs ¢ie oo 12
ACE EL CLL CL os. eois's meee o's o gic D tise sient tie hehe 12
WISTIPURUATISCIIAUE. 201 he» 2 6, < ore eon 8 euntonevene Nas nt dvesidss 12
Lieut. Hohndorf (October 13, 1917).....0.+:.. AAR
Wircrie mW heESCHAAt 085s theiid cordinelg as ooo oe 12
MBPSSS 135014 C1 Pele ek ee Le 12
EAC g VOMNIGCAMAW er. a. cia cece 6 oye era6. Sale bs oie It
EAC MAGI ALC oles sce 5 clk te BR tr eis eh oe Be II
EActieawibemlerg opiate: co. carclect a cieisle dave bee cicavei ne ae II
Lichts ELetniaimSeriert. cies Serc coi c.s ste ete ees as ThE
A touch of humor is supplied in the manikin figure-
Lieut.
Lieut.
Lieut.
lieveutwrhanschate tuscise ace wes eects een eee
WB retits Sch mbingy ee ose eso asl eelc, os aoe eMac cueteweees See
Lieut. Immelmann
Lieutokahilbusch, ews ce ee Re eo eee
Lieut.
Lieut.
Lieut.
Lieut.
i
Rosenkranz
1B (ER pose pao TR TERY 5 IME RS Pi ny nos enemas f
UMnUUG AOWO OO
Thus, 88 German aces have shot down
1,670 aeroplanes of the Allies. On July
26, 1017, Germany- claimed a total of
2,387 enemy aircraft destroyed since the
beginning of the war. Since that time
more than 1,000 have been added to this
list.
TURKISH ACE
CaptsPochetz 7.5 55 Ss .,accsig el setae ere stanes eoers 8 successes
ALLIES LIVING ACES, 157; HUNS,’ 40
Summarizing the foregoing table of
the aces and their victories, we find that
88 Germans have brought down 1,670
hostile aircraft since the beginning of the
war, while 193 Allied aces have consid-
erably exceeded this score, with 2,041
enemy aircraft shot down. The startling
feature in this comparison is the dis-
580
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE
closure that German tactics in the air
have permitted our enemy to destroy
four-fifths as many aéroplanes with one-
half the number of aces.
Cowardly as those tactics are, un-
sportsmanlike as the enemy pilots must
admit themselves to be, the German
method of air fighting has proved its su-
periority over the more daring and gen-
erous tactics of the Allies, both in econ-
omy in the use of man power and ma-
chines and in efficiency.
But another conclusion can also be
drawn from these figures. Our enemy
has but 40 pilots of the ace class remain-
ing, while the Allies have 157. The dead
or retired in the enemy list number 48.
with 923 victories, as against the 40 still
fighting, with 747 victories.
So, not only have our aérial duelists
put hors de combat the majority of the
enemy’s star fighters, but in accomplish-
ing this feat we have increased rather
than lessened our own supply of expert
duelists.
Photograph from Laurence La Tourette Driggs
AEROPLANE STRUCK IN MID-AIR BY A SHELL WHICH CARRIED AWAY ONE CYLINDER
OF THE ROTARY MOTOR WITHOUT DESTROYING THE MACHINE
Add to this indication of ultimate su-
premacy the fact that the allied nations
are now producing three or four times as
many aeroplanes as Germany, and that
the flying schools of the United States
are crowded with eager lads impatiently
waiting for their fighting mounts, and we
begin to feel that the dueling days of
Germany’s 40 aces will soon be over.
THE TASK OF THE ALLIED ACES
And this 40 must be swept from the
skies before our machines of reconnais-
sance and photographing can operate to
perfection. Until the fighting planes of
the enemy are suppressed our bombing
machines are constantly menaced in their
raids over enemy lines. One week’s free-
dom from this menace would permit our
bombing squadrons so to destroy the
enemy’s railroads and highways that the
German forces at the front would be
wholly deprived of food, ammunition,
supplies, and reinforcements. Either re-
tirement or surrender must ensue.
wale: ei «
f ran i Cheha §
£7 a x as, . ae
c+]
Vy
isin
ere 3 908
, eyvyyrrEeFr ind Vey .
. za evrrrres v : . cara eea oud hens eee eer ; Arps aa oe '
$s" wp) Ow 4 . . F , *e eo te rae ‘ ‘ id pe 4 i) ' ' LAd oh!
ie + . ' ts eas reeeere tees 7
aes, ipo percent 7 ay cee i SMITHSO
‘ rt a ‘ Aa SG F. J Peerrereonees Cee eaneene + Ih al rocenre@eeeenne
; vw, . te . rae ' pa
f * Fa a” . % ¢ eee Ceveecuuece e ever s ereves ’
os * By E ’ % ne P eee eee ees e ' stots a
a fy he : . .°', ee cee eens onee oo : M tees tare y .
Pe So es 7 ae . e F Pee eereere whe sate ‘ eer
nae at r Bs f et epee fee eros A ‘it ere onenr 7 . . ’ *
A ? w 4 d ‘ verecenets ee rae ¢ t pete ’
gi tts te : . Ser | ‘ bine oes whee penne Or ebe i eri Oheere vere
’ ¢ ee on ‘ vee reves
J a ale . RA Bae “ ‘ Veevereeeeees anata te , '
a. 4 “Se wee ore ae’ te ‘4 5 veeeee a *
- ‘ @ebeas eure 7 7 eeetee . eee ee ’ q
4 vs - eee eh eee eee ‘ be ereeee ’ . sees a
‘ er ¢ r peetee tt vote t he aa cade ene
> ae serene
, ee eee
, ? ’ ‘ Cverereee
is s] ‘ ‘ e wee e