tle Re ee ad - edd Monae yee Dae MADE SET EN SY artic tO arng Saal Pa EE i ptt Mite! lm eR Po Pe Pinan gingtnd Netn ioe h EEE LE ER Se ~ hae? > Paar eel igen Pig het mn ee eae ae , aaaieettaliagh Sate ng eee? Ee a oes Yy (=>—= =a a ~*~ VOLUME XXXIV 5 Sapeer e _— I = = — ~ SSS watz 2 ry IS Say PL = ~ =f SS, \ F =e's. yi 7 fers AW 2, = i te Ss z = By é 2 é, = \ mal © GEOGRAPHIC | “MAGAZINE. INDEX Dt YD Sains Nisan San Silt hunt . rR tin Z ey nee ida t : \s M iy: we od July to December, 1918 VOLUME XXXIV PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. A ett ne r A Nad NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN GILBERT GROSVENOR | JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE 1} O. P. AUSTIN 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the Telephone J. Howarp Gore Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’l U Army GILBERT GROSVENOR Editor. of graphic Geo- National Magazine Gerorce Oris SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. Tirrmann Formerly Superintendent of Uiesin Coast and iGeodetic Survey Henry WHITE Formerly U. S$. Ambassador tow France, dtaly, ete. JOHN M. WILson Brigadier General U. 5%. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers DIRECTOR AND EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR PRESIDENT SECRETARY BOARD OF MANAGERS 1918-1920 GEARLES -J-. (BELL President \merican Security and Trust Company JoHN Joy Epson Chairman of the Board, Washington Loan & Trust Company Davin FarrcuHILp In: Charge sof I\xplorations, of Agriculture Agricultural Department C. Harr Merriam Member National Academy of Sciences OQ, P. Austin Statistician GrorcE IR. Putnam Commissioner U. S. Bureau of J,ighthouses GEORGE SHIRAS, 38D Formerly Member U. 8. Con- gress; Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photogra- pher GRANT SQUIRES Military Intelligence Divi- sicn, General Staff, .New York JOHN E. PILLSBURY JOHN JOY EDSON We GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER RALPH A, GRAVES VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER ASSISTANT EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR 19179-1921 FRANKLIN K.- Lane Secretary of the Interior Wittiam Howarp Tart Formerly President of «the United States C. M. CuHEstTER Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly oupine = Opaees: Naval Observatory F'rRepericK V. CoviLLEe Formerly President of Wash- ington Academy of. Sci- ences JoHN E. PILisBpuryY Rear Admiral U. S.- Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau ot Navigation S Rupotpi KAurrMANN Managing Editor The Even- ing Star aaa by M.- Dz, S. N. D. Nort Formerly Director U.S. Bu- reau. of Census MacponNaLbD FP Crs: To carry ott the purpose for which it was founded thirty-one years ago, namely, “the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,’ the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed: GILBERT GROSVENOR, EDITOR CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Davin FaircHILp Hucu M. SmitruH N. H. Darton Frank M. CHarpMAan A. W. GREELY C. Harr Merriam O. H. Tirtmann Rogerr Horrisrer CHAPMAN Wattrrer T. SwInGLe Copyright, 1919, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C, All rights reserved. COUN TEIN Es PAGE Acorn, a Possibly Neglected Source of Food, The. By C. Harr Merriam, Formerly Gremoiene S. Biological SUTVEY 3 ws ica ds 6 foes wd oe Vo ab Mawabeeeecesneateis 120 American People Must Become Ship-minded, The. By Epwarp N. Hurtey, Chairman, Omipeamotatess OUIppPINe BOALC sc. . oc cis nce ON ob ves die evs ev navel e Hos Ga wdewe eee esu sak 201 Bringing the World to Our Foreign-Language Soldiers: How a Military Training Camp is Solving a Seemingly Unsurmountable Problem by Using THE GrocrapHic. By CTE STONEY 2] KAS de a ge 81 Coal—Ally of American Industry: Following the Nation’s Annual Output of 735,000,000 Tons of Fuel from Prehistoric Ages to Its Arrival at Tidewater. By Wuttram esr OEME EOP AE DR Ria ts Orca fs ote Gu ee ay Raia esa o's scan ewe ne Toe then oe Maas ond. «sete 407 Way with Our boys inthe Geographic Wards, A. By Carort CoREY...............5-40% 69 ealemor Humanity s. Wounds, The. (American Red Cross)...........0....000:2000> 308 How Canada Went to the Front. By T. B. Macaunay, of Montreal.................. 207 Important New Guide for Shipping, An: Navassa Light, on a Barren Island in the West Indies, is the First Signal for the Panama Canal. By Grorck R. Putnam, Commis- SHOWMGP Giz ILC Oe ove PICT eRe ie og ea ie Bre rec a oe em a ee 401 New York—Metropolis of Mankind. By WitiiAm JosEPH SHOWALTER................ I Old Jewel in the Proper Setting, An: An Eyewitness’s Account of the Reconquest of the Holy Land by Twentieth Century Crusaders. By CHaries W. WHITEHAIR..... 225 Our Friends, the French: An Appraisal of the Traits and Temperament of the Citizens pu Otmnoisrer wepublic, By CART ITOLUIDAY + 2.42.02. 00 24 see de Peas bike e ee ede cea 345 Our Industrial Victory. By CHartrs M. ScHwas, Director General, United States Shippime. Board Emergency Fleet Corporation...........06..06c00cccceuevevewssees Aue iimemciest Aliy (San Marino). By Atick ROBE............0 000 c cece eee e ne senbe send 139 ferice or Liberty, LHe: An :Appreciation....0..0.0..)....066+.5:. cee ace ee 377 Races of Europe, The: The Graphic Epitome of a Never-ceasing Human Drama. The Aspirations, Failures, Achievements, and Conflicts of the Polyglot People of the Most Densely Populated Continent, By. Hnwin A. Grosvenor, L. H.D., LL. D..... 441 Rebirth of Religion in Russia, The: The Church Reorganized While Bolshevik Cannon Spread Destruction in the Nation’s Holy of Holies. By THomas Wuitrtemori.... 379 Recent Observations in Albania. By Brig. Gen. Georcr P. Scriven, U. S. Army....... 90 Russia’s Orphan Races: Picturesque Peoples Who Cluster on the Southeastern Border- land of the Vast Slav Dominions. By MAyNnarpD OWEN WILLIAMS................ 245 Ships for the Seven Seas: The Story of America’s Maritime Needs, Her Capabilities, cnidimlcia vonteverents, By KALPH A. GRAVES: aces cade eae ces beet wt Opa ene dees .. 165 Pegi MELE GEOGRAPHIC: LE. oc ces dee ob ce os desc sus desde cnnp tes weccuvpewss esse 434 Wiktraime, Past and Present, The. By Nevin O. WINTER.......... 000000 c ce cee see eeeeee II4 Under the Heel of the Turk: A Land with a Glorious Past a Present of Abused Oppor- punities, and a Future of Golden Possibilities. By WiniiAm H. Hat............. =a! Pemmaoue®ccaniGecogtaphys Lhe; By the-Bplmor. ..2%.c.00.. 005 C4 bees bande eules ous 230 Sitiat.tae War Has Done for Britain.. By JupSoN C. WELLIVER..........22. 0000s cues 278 i qj : Be rn Ay ns vf ; bee = 5 WASHINGTON, D.C. PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. | | TOTS (4 INDEX FOR VOL. XXXIV (Juty-Decemper), 1918 AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX Es Ned Page Apanascnivier Of Damascus... cs 0c acct anc ne Oe 67 ADbotwrAcstnen Ch sy ills cies eles es ts os V olstedee ele a cbs 364 Accadians and Sumerians, The Georgians descend TETR@NTGL EOS. 55 ees RC le be aaa Pr ae Accordion, Slavie’boy playing an, ill:..:.0....... ACORN, A POSSIBLY NEGLECTED SOURCE * OF FOOD, THE. BY C. HART MERRIAM.. 129 Acorn camps established by Indians in autumn.... 132 Acorn flour, corn meal, and wheat flour, Compara- LIVEMATIALY SESH OL casts Locke ciel eal avencoi grees di sieie-a 6 136 Acorns as a bread substitute in Kurope........... 135 Acorns in the Southern States, Use of........... 134 WNctorss joome, Prench. s-si. cc bees ees ee bees ces 363 Adam, Traditional burial place of: Jerusalem..... 342 Addison, Charles, heads Ministry of Reconstruc- CIO MMBUTAR MD TACANTA cc cjcte se o-oo cdl) wo ssle ses a°9 Se. eacsienscn 6 285 Adopted son of America, An: French orphan, ill.. 309 /Egean Sea, Influence of the: Races of Kurope.... 445 Aération plant, Ashokan Reservoir, New York.... text, sas wll 42 Aérograph of Jerusalem, ill..................... 308 stius,) the last Roman general’. ....5. 0.5.06 453 After-damp, or carbonic oxide gas: Coal mine..... 417 Agawam, Waunching the: Shipbuilding, ill........ 168 Age-old contest: Autocracy and democracy....... 281 Age’s tribute to sacrificing youth: War work..... 435 Asian, .capitaloof Croatia and Slavonia. «........ 481 Agricultural district, Kharkov, the center of a Mao MOM CGAIIIE Veh sceie cis. scslale lho Sieg Guedes aa ee wwe 121 Agricultural machinery, American: Caucasus..... 275 Agricultural possibilities in Palestine............ 343 Agricultural resources of Mesopotamia........... 65 Agricultural scenes, Georgia, Caucasus, ill., 246-248, 250 Agricultural scenes, San Marino, ill.......... I4I, 144 Agriculture: Albania—<. 62... c0 2 ee ee ee 113 Agriculture, Primitive methods of............... 65 Agriculture, Rehabilitation of: Britain........... 292 Agua Calienta, Calif., Indian woman, ill......... 132 Ahmed Aghaeff, Baku Tatar.................... 247 Sen eae traditional birthplace of John the Bap- Pepto eM spear casee mtcuey chs eter sheers oyete le oie: deyai'a ale. Malena s « 331 ae ne water’s: Ashokan aération plant, New YOOTE nis Rs chore aac cence ae text, 31; ill., 42 Airplane industry, British.................000005 291 Airplane sindustny., Canadas... .6.s seen snes eyes 304 Alchalv@asis: Turkestan; 2.0. oe cs ea es cee ee 259 Alazan Valley of Kakhetia, Wine from: Russia... 275 pees most ancient race of southeastern Eu- nll AO oa text, 91; ill., 94, 96, Tor, 106-109 Ritanianss The: Races of EKurope:.. ill., 470; text, 477 Albania declared an autonomous nation: I9QI2.... 100 PMMbyarrancmems Viral yn ee ets ech Sac c te cccns sieec as die Teter tate 95 Albania, Recent Observations in. By Brig. Gen George MRS CIAVICIN oc fier ceisler esac ec :e0 cP atesicniet ec 90 Albania, Scenes in, ill.................. 92-97, 99-112 Albania, “BROWNS OL SOUtHERI. ..005 26 scien oe ee Albania under the Austrians...............00000. 04 Alcohol, increased use of: France.............-. 367 Aldershot, England: Battalion of W. A. A. C.’s, ill. 290 Aleppo, ancient mart of exchange between Europe Aime AStEMeTIGlATNG Scie ccccls c Slee ae hes vebe date ane ts alee « Nlexandnes. Eirench !actOr.c e's c ce lube oie 6 cis lt es 363 Ali Bey,. Birthplace of: Albania.........2....... 98 Ali Pasha, Castle of: Tepeleni, Albania, ill,... 97, 105 Allenby (General), E. H. H.: Palestine..:.. ils 3305 text, 325, 331, 332, 344 Allenby, Lady: Palestine Athletic Meet, ill........ 33 Allies deny themselves to transport our troops, Our 243 Allies in 1919, Food for Our. By Herbert Hoover 242 Ally, Our Littlest (San Marino). By Alice Rohe. 139 Pwispeaviers that rise: in: the. 23 Cobbler, ill “2. si Seas een 270 Asphaltum, or mineral pitch: Albania............ 107 Assassination regarded as an amusement: Albania roo Assumption, Cathedral of: Kremlin, Moscow, ill.. 378 Astronomer, Flammarion, the: France....... Ue 357 text, 365 Athletic Association, Prague, Czecho-Slavia...ill., 488; CEXts e487, Athletic Meet, Y. M. C.’A.: Palestine; ill... 332, 333 Atmospheric pressure: Estimate..............000% 239 Atonement, Stone of: Jerusalem................. 342 Meola, Kimoeor the: Tums. fo. cic «eee lero Slots 453 Auberten,werench iantist,. all. 2.26. $sie. tee. es 31577 Aa Printemps, , isanis alle s.. soe. Ue Ee ah Tate 352 Australia, Thursday Island: Pearl-fishing boat, ill. 237 AustrianssAlbania. under the... 0 Je 5 sce sono tise 904 Austrian soldiers are lounging in the Kremlin, IND OS CO Wasaisent ayers os ciedenencuce cdo epsaciatty wi basiece einlae Bieiene: 379 Austrians, The: Races of Europe................ 489 Austria, Ukrainians in: Estimate................ 116 Autocracy and democracy, Contest between....... 281 Autoline trom Riminito San.Marino.. .. 3... 4.. 149 Automobile highway in the Holy Land, ill........ 327 Automobile industry, Shipbuilding compared with EH E's, 3, Retort ar taccee meee met caete eats Sue tuncnraaseneaahe inte 209 Automobiles: Congested traffic, New York City, TS ey emer eer cea ohana Paynive Oca aeccet mt iat spree tiene Gy sO 1k] Autonomous nation, Albania declared an: 1912... 100 Avenue problem, The: New York............... 4I foe? Babel, Jerusalem is the modern, ill..:....... 22 Asai 2a\5 Babies, Caring for the: France, ill.......... 350, 354 Bacteriological research, Pasteur, master of: Prenchychemiste ss acicre cle ele an echeer ee ee 365 Basdads Mesopotamia) oof cs ciets -tesvenels) icicle ersiols siete le 59 Bakery eublic. ySanwWarinop ose + -wppstete sterner 155 Baku) Pana Duramiamihitbenis epic ecesete) onc setencnene 247 Baku. Stomyi ots oRUSSIcl ts os) + yerseaievers c Miopersueme nicpore' 275 Baku street scene, A: Russia, ill................. 164 Baku Tatar, Ahmed Aghaeff..................6- 247 Baku, The British take: Russia................. 163 Page Balfour, Arthur James: Extract concerning the JOWS? cei ciclele Ss aos ae ao8-S 6 Win ala ee 342 . Balkan Peninsula, Races of the..... ill., 465; text, 473 Baltimore, Md.: Death rate, 1916, comparative esti- mate ad e'leie elierey drole el loldi/e + vere ait oe Vesey ee 16 Baltic ‘provinces, ‘Races’ of ‘the: /. a eee 463 “Balzac,’”’ Rodin’s: French sculpture... 4).....5. 361 Band cheering a troop train, U. S.: France, ill.... 315 Band concerts in Jerusalem, British inilitatvyen ye 335 Banffyhunyad, Transylvania, A farmer of, ill..... 503 Barefooted to save their boots, Ukrainians go.... 121 Barges, Steel: Inland waterway traffic, ill........ 221 Barley grown in Albania...) 3 ee eee 113 Baron de Larrey, Napoleon’s surgeon general.... 62 [Rate ad eae 206 Barries’ ““The First Burials’: French sculpture... 361 Baskets, Acorn: California Indians. ....~. il 130, 03r, 1255 L305) text. 129 Baskets, Bottled milk: San Marino, ill............ 138 Baskets, Grape gatherers’: France, ill............ 356 Baskets, Market: France, ills). 0 4a eee 370, 373 sasques, The: Races of Europes a] sen eee 522 Bath, Water’s air: Ashokan aération plant, New York. sieves nehatiet ale dug seats emer ated eae ill., 42; text, 31 Battleship, U. S.: Beirut Harbor, Shiga mel een Dae SG) Battle with desert thirst, British ALMLYESeE eee Ee 327 _asaces of “Pasnope soe sae ) Bayazid, a Turkish city with Russian veneer...... ae Bazaar,:.Meésv~ Turkestan, il) ).5e os ee 260-263 Bazaar, Serajevo, Bosnia, ill. 0 ee 475 Bazaars)-of ,Bokharas. ©0030.) cee 269 Beer consumed in New York a day, Amount of... 47 Beginnings of races shrouded in MOVES 5 A oon e 450 Beheading of St. John Baptist, Church of the: Kremlin, Moscow 0.0/2.5 (ose ee 379 Beirut, Syria: American warship i r bays laid p in the harbor... Belgian Relief Rund, Canada’s contributions to the Ce ee a did ent S27. Russian Church ill., 392, 39 2 AAI SMUT Clr neneenaiers us 2523935 5 exe: Bell, Mission of the fortress: San Mactae © ae fortress: Sami Miagino weet. I Bells, Glass, Growing lettuce under: British lag women, WT... ats, Siecc 8b Sac ae ee 296 Bell Tower, Kremlin, Moscow, ill.............., 378 amin, | olitan .of iRetrograd aaa oo ae ee 38 Berlioz’s ‘“‘Damnation of Faust’’?: French composi- : EL OT) ese allel dyemeneenate tenet hee Eee ce Yolen SS SEER aca ees 363 Bernard, Claude, Marvelous worker in vivisection: French 2.2 ictus see etien geet ee 365 Bernese Oberland, Switzerland: Alps, ill......... 442 Bernhardt, ‘Sarah: French actress). eee 36 sha} ois “ha ifelebolva la o> Seis Ress sit erga eee ee 6 Better tace of , Britishers, =A 32 sane eee ee Bibi-Khannum, Mosque of: Samarkand....... ill., 276: text, 272 UU Sod. s. svc tees ee te dove, aye lowe acct ce cncvtel eee eR 431 Bird: Culinary art, French restaurant, ill 346 rw, Sela ele Birthday celebration, Peterborough, England, ill.. 280 Birthplace of Ali Bey=-Albania:< <> a9. ge eee Birthplace of John the Baptist, Traditional: Ain FRA rary ei seo eed 5,3 baie, bate alee gan ee ga Birthplace, Strabo’s: Amasta.ille. 52a eee 56 Birth rate, New York City: Comparative estimate. 19 Bituminous coal, Handling...................... 421 Bizet’s “‘Carmen’”’: French composition... «oss. 363 Black diamond drills: Description and price....... 35 Blasting rock beneath New York City............ 37 Blessed Basil, Church of the: Moscow....... ill., 380; text, 383 Blind fortune-teller, Kukand Ferghana, ill....... 2a Blood: feuds: Albania. oc. -tsccctetla teen eee ene 1 On Blumenbach, father of anthropology.............. 447 Boat landing, Scutari, Albania, ill.............. 110 Boat, Native diver with: Virgin Islands, ill....... 231 Boat, Pearl-fishing: Australia, ill................ 237 Boats, Steel barges on the Mississippi, ill........ 221 Bohemian café, Artists in a: Paris, ill........... 358 Bohemians in the Volga Valley.................. 247 Bohemians, The: Races of Europe...... text, 487, 489; ill., 488, 490, 491 Boilers, Scotch marine: Shipbuilding, ill......... 192 Bokhara, Scenes in: Russia................ text, 265; ill., 257, 258, 264, 266-268, 272 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIV, 1918 Page Bolshevik Cannon Spread Destruction in Russia’s j Holy of Holies, The Church Reorganized While. By Thomas NWihittemores.:, <<. .e ok emtGe 379 Bolshevik fortress, Kremlin of Moscow has become Bhs 500.6 CiatCtai a RE I aA RoR EI a treme a he a Bolshevik literature in Georgia: Caucasus........ Sf Bones of a concrete ship, Steel allt as ek 227 Bonheur’s ‘“‘Horse Fair’’: French masterpiece..... 363 Book of Cold,” San Marino’s...).............. 163 Books, Scotch Highlanders with school, ill........ 286 Book stalls along the Seine, France, ill........... 351 Boots, Ukrainians go bare-footed to save their.... 121 Borden Pasha, first British military governor of WlerpaSaNGimicrrs cir... Ses cGlete c nucielecs Vio eve wilds Blew sas 333 Bosnians, The: Races of EKurope...............4. 486 Bosnia, Serajevo: Mosque and bazaar, ill........ 475 PostoneeVateriront vat, tlhe. 6 wR ok cc ene oe ss 224 Boundaries, asaGkashh AB mi PireSis.W scusccee ee heck ae 59 Bow plates of a freighter: Shipbuilding, ill....... 197 Boyé, Abel, Painting by: An English “girl, ill. 532 Boys, Breaker: Coal ee all Shree, eee See Cay en etn 42 Boys, New York City, ill............. 17, 22, 26, 40 Boy who discovered a spy, The: Wounded soldier. 74 BoyswiGeongiam- Caucasus, il... 2. ee ce PY Ngey AAS Birassswane Otis Okhatals 0 occa Sve ale be cle elas ovens 269 Brealey NG Ont wCOG=1AY) cies .e v Scales auc o's a ble adie efecs ee 131 Bread, Acorn flour: California Indians........... 130 Bread baked in public ovens, San Marino......... 155 Bread substitute in Europe, Acorns as a.......... 135 Brealensw Coalville at... crs thele vis wetecbve ethic aus 420-422 Breton’s ‘Return of the MHarvesters’’: French MINAS GET; WICC Crear Hn ME Se See es) ia ee led ew Gin -euete ole slige ns Slane 363 Bretons, ‘Tite: Races of Burope..............06+ 522 Bride’s trousseau, Pillows in a: Hungary, ill...... 500 Bridge, Pontoon: Constantinople, ill............. 54 IBpidgese callbariath, piles) cise weve Sie ss eh cen oe 93, 104 Bridges, Amasia: River Yeshil-Irmak, or Iris, ill. 56 Bridges of Manhattan: New York............... 41 Bridges; woeviens: Parisa ill... cee ce we eee 372 Bridge, World’s greatest suspension: Manhattan TLCS NIG WHO leans ly Sicha Syed) clan ase vallece se ee auele Bis 41 Bridge, World’s largest cantilever: East River, ING veya glaives sung es tierce <.slod brass ate secs Woe elke 43 BRINGING THE WORLD TO OUR FOREIGN- LANGUAGE SOLDIERS: HOW A _ MILI- TARY TRAINING CAMP IS SOLVING A SEEMINGLY UNSURMOUNTABLE PROB- LEM BY USING “THE GEOGRAPHIC.” BY CHIRAC OMEN Ae ORY OE O) Vaiss lee kb ade des ce Ne 81 Bristol, Pa.: Housing problem in industrial dis- TPG eM ene ens seatenct es etcchee a 2: slub aie a ot ietiane “aun leudas 189 Britain, France, and Italy aided in transport of TTOOIOS: aes S46 Boek ae) OHO a Oat OO On Rer O ea aS 201 Britain, What the War has done for. Judson (GRENVEliltig erie re tetaus, ales che: CMeRSIBE cael cece cial Soe cree ie 278 British and German passions contrasted......... 279 British army, Father of six sons in the, ill........ 280 British army in Palestine, ill.... 308, 326-330, 332-337 British captors withheld shellfire from Jerusalem.. 325 British command of the Seven Seas............. 198 Britishers, Ay better raceof i.e... ee ee ee 292 British fought for all Christianity: Palestine cam- DENGAN 6.05.6 6-0) a Ean BONS Ee crc oraStee ee EEE nT MRT a 344 British Indians guard the Mohammedan sacred Dlacesmaentsallenn’ 2). ki). EA tae wee Oele er agaeye BR British lives given to the cause, A million....... 289 British marine artist: Norman Wilkinson........ 174 British military band concerts in Jerusalem...... 335 British military governor, Jerusalem: Col. R SLOMES MIE eee ee eM wh ER ce Shoots Sele gcse kyoto ats 330 British military governor of Jerusalem, First: BO emgibra Stray aifis,'s si kls oven sac oh ova, bus eeeeus ings Evens ane 333 BIVUEISH TAKE BAKU, THE: = ...6.8.....66- 163 British, The: Races of Europe..............005. 529 British. troops-in’ Africa,/ill... 0. ke cee 283 Motor drivers of the, ill. 293 British Women’s Legion, New York City, ill. 14 Broad street, Curb market in: Broadway, Lower: New York. City, ill........... 18 Broadway, Prospective gold mine beneath: New Monlcesuilowiary,, eal eS Wess stele stares ager By weer e Ne e opeueus 36 Bronx River dam: Dimensions............... te 35 Brooklyn Bridge, Manhattan end of the: New WOR Rs cho cs ENO e Oe a es ill., 29; text, 41 Brooklyn, N. Y.: Grain elevator fire, ill.......... 5 Brythonic group: Races of Kurope............... 529 Bubonic plague bacillus, Yersin, discoverer of.... 365 Buckeye used as ecient Soci te Wena cds 137, Building a city of homes to order: Shipworkers HOWIOL. 6g ove doggone Ig csbiceoss big is eG nO Tn eee ORG Re EEN IQI Building the Catskill Aqueduct, New York....... 29 iulgarians, The: Races of Europe... ..0..0...66- 479 Bulkheads of fabricated ship: Shipbuilding, ill. 170, 174 VII Page Burden-bearers, Baku: Donkeys, ill.............. 164 Bureau of Child Hygiene, New York............ 19 Burial ceremony: California Indians............. 131 Burnand, Eugene, Painting by: “The Jewish Type,” HERON e SS cc) GARMnrabe, c2ete weeks hetertc ereictocsy we Renee 3 504 Byzantine period monument: Baku, Russia....... 164 LY Gi Caches, Acorn: California Indians, ill........... 137 Café, Artists in a Bohemian: France, ill......... oe Calais saved by the Canadians: France........... Calesthenics exhibition: Prague, Czecho-Slavia, ill. 338 California laurel nuts used as Indian food....... 137 Call for greater knowledge of the sea, The....... 230 Cameleniriver. Samarkand rall 2 0. so 5 ee eae 276 Camel race: Palestine Athletic Meet, ill.......... BRE Camel, Son of the desert with his: Bokhara, ill... 258 Camels: ‘resting: jatar Palestine, ally... 2..G¢ 40 307 Camel transport corps, British: Desert campaign. . Ue, S2Oe etext. 327 Canmion; 2; So Ar imaye cb ramce, olla. +... . 347 ese ane - 7 Chabas, Paul, painter of “September Morn’’: Eran CO. “Be eieceer eg dee castrate Sean Capate rat are rene omen No Lies 357 Chaliapine of the Russian Church, Rosov........ 383 Champacnopadistrict. se tances all \ a.m ferne eee 356 Channel ports saved by Canadian green troops.... 302 Chantemesse of anti-typhus serum fame: French SCICTICISL Mapa tik te: oierat inet nate ureteric senac en eneme Estar 365 Charity organization, San! Marinow si.7. 0st erie I55 Charts, Geographic picture: Used to teach foreign- language soldiers............. ill., 83-85, 88; text, 89 Chateau Pierrefonds: Northern France, ill....... 376 CheftPanicesllP ety pee lies savensieteloteodees emo ern 346 Chemical fire-fighting apparatus: Coal mine, ill... 428 Chicago, Harbor at, ill Chicken wire used on desert sand: British army... 327 Child chooses the regents, A: San Marino........ 151 Child Hygiene, Bureau of: New York........... 19 Children of France, Caring for the, ill...... Be acOr 354, 368 Children’s Home Finding and Aid _ Society rae TdaholesWia en wior key eats scien eae stele siete cose chops 435 Children, The dowry a trust fund for: France... 374 Child’s milk supply, Guarding the: New York.... 19 Chimara, Albania: Italian army of occupation, ill.. 112 China, French parental reverence equaled only in. 370 Chlorination plant, Kensico Reservoir: New York 37 Chmielnicki’s terrible rebellion: Ukraine......... IIS Choke-damp, or carbonic acid gas: Coal mine.... 417 “Chow Time,’’? American Military Hospital No. 1: AES eb te C @Mea Nyse hey ace feta cucl thet laseoet cigs mauaay cote nialarets bce wastes 318 Christeninew panty. Aw) San- Marinos 0) ..csess cilia 154 Christening the Quistconck, Mrs. Woodrow Wil- SOT UO erp ee WR MIM TN Go i alunieey a uote ate rele 216 Christian churches and schools in Beirut, 1914.... 57 Christian church established in Mtzkhet, 347 A. D.: CauCastisyiset eet etek se bec etaene oe oreo cleeepen tle 249 Christianity, Armenia the first nation to embrace A 59, 03 Christianity, British fought for all: Palestine cam- DEN ae! Sole Slate dod alo shu Woe ticlasd ibn Olryrebin ode 344 Christianityjaunt atl «Marita. 2. ets tarts sence ce 142 Christian Sabbath observed in Georgia: Caucasus. 251 Christians in the Ottoman Empire............... 61 Christian woman, Albanian, ill.................. 470 ~ Christmas leave, British soldiers on, ill.......... 287 Chromewdeposits im) Wurkey.. ei: . ce cler see eee ceks 66 Chronometer, Quistconck’s: British manufactured UTUS ETT EUR Oe eo Sots oe ayes eloneas oeue te tereie cietons Peder! 216 Chudov Monastery: Kremlin, Moscow....... text, 3835 ill., 384 Chukchansy tribe, Indian woman of the: Califor- Tia ot Ue PP hoes ews ead Satr opatcucheto tar Mop eeneteasmemecs 130 Churches, Christian and Mohammedan: Number ATI) RSME Wess Vb NTS wires ehia tcl ed ee Map omentettc taper cntane aye 57 Churches of the Kremlin, Moscow.......... text, 379; ill., 378, 380-382, 386-388 Churches, Orthodox: Kharkov, Ukraine.......... 121 Churches Union, Anglican and Eastern Orthodox: Rirssiags: Presidente ewe wreratersrere cietkre ctronetarenate ls 395 Church EEaB A British arin vas ae conics as Giech. Be I Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem....ill., 338, 339; text, 342 Church, problem in the Wkraines.. i. ect: ome 401 Church Reorganized while Bolshevik Cannon Spread Destruction in the Nation’s Holy of Holies: Russia. By Thomas Whittemore....... 379 Church: St: Paul’s:: New York Gitv. ill. sata. T: USO Cigarette tobacco, finest of the world: Macedonia. 110 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE . . . . Page Cinnabar deposits in Konia, Asia Minor:......... . 66 Citadel, Medieval: Scutari, Albania, ill........... 99 Citizens follow the occupation of Marino: San (Marinos. aise co's alee gee o's. eagle eee 149 City Hall, New-York: At night, Whee 23 City of homes to order, Building a: Shipworkers’ TOW oe inc s cielle Baas sheseee th One nae eee IQI City, Oldest.in the world: Damascus............2 67 Civilization, New York the cosmopolis of......... $2 Civilization’s debt ‘to Britains ssgves soca 198 Classification of race is perplexing: Europe...... 447 Clermont, Fulton’s steamboat: Shipbuilding...... 168 Climate se Allbaniaaec.eescer rae Sa dic i Re eR eee ees 109 Climate of western Europe determined by the Gulf Stfeam)....0 0. 5.2 aoc eee 445 Club moss: Coal-aget: ).ciie aan eee 428 Coagulation plant near Kensico, New: York....... 35 COAL—ALLY OF AMERICAN’ INDUSTRY: FOLLOWING THE NATION'S ANNUAL OUTPUT OF 735,000,000 TONS -OF FUEL FROM PREHISTORIC AGES TO ITS AR- RIVAL AT TIDEWATER. BY WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER. joG6 ee een 407 Coal age, an amazing account of a wonderful time 425, 428 Coal deposits.in Turkey... Js s40c soe eee 66 Coal, Hight different-sizes Of ae. ate ease 419 Coal industry: United ‘States, allaseeeear 408, 410-412, 414-418, 420-432 Coal mine is. planned like a citycc=ene eee 4II Coal piers, —Newport.. News, Va, ill. sseose eee 432 Coals:The family-tree Of 7.5 ee a ee eee 429 Coast-line, EKurope’s vast.!) 25. ccs cee ee oer 445 Cobbler at work: Kokand, Ferghana, ill.......... 275 Cobbler, Persian: Askabad, ill.................5. “270 Cod eggs laid’a year: Estimate: jas. eee ela orice. 239 Coffee cups, Over the: Northern France, ill...... 349 Coffee for soldiers, American Red Cross: France, 7) NE MER EM MN NE Gale ae toes ot oo ein 319 College girls, True service by: War work......... 435 Colliery, Visiting a modern...............6: text, 409; ill.. 408, 410-412, 414-418, 420-432 Colonies established by the Jews in Palestine..... 343 Color-bearer’s dress, Georgian: Caucasus......... 251 Colors, Brilliant: Ukraine? .. nc. 2 ae ee II9 Columbus Circle, New York City: Rainy night scene, “illo. 0: So. oiece cdie e eitel ween ee eee a2 Commerce, Shipbuilding and world: Britain....... 207 Commercial advantages: Turkey................. 67 Commercial course: Washington Irving High School, “New: Worle. d.0. seecep era ere ieee Wy Commercial life: San —Marinos:: {en ae eee 154 Commercial life, The shock of New York’s....... 49 Commercial world, A reconstructed............+. 207 Commission, Port and Harbor Facilities.......... 194 Community housing, A valuable experiment in: Harriman, Pain. 5 eenceretc ieee er eee nee een neat TOI Community, Labor, Boardy.i) tayo ccc ence ene 183 Comparative analyses of corn meal, wheat flour, and ‘acorn flours ic. oc sie eens 136 Compiegne, France: Trellis built by Napoleon, ill.. 353 Composers, A: few ‘French’... %. 25. pci ue eee dans 363 Compressed-air engines used in coal mines....... 413 Compressed-air tools: Coal mine, ill......... 412, 414 Concrete lighthouse, Navassa Island, W. I., ill... 405 Concrete ships, Constructing, ill). 2 .iy ses 226, 227 Condenser, A marine: Shipbuilding, ill........... 194 Constantinople founded by the Dorians, 660 B. C. 54 Constantinople’s influence on world events....... 51 Constantinople surrounded by Mohammed the Con- QUCTOL, TASB). ois os sectreue os oe gcd clin oa teeneenoneee teas 68 Constantinople, Turkey: Daily life, ill......... 53-55, 58, 62, 46 Construction of the Catskill Aqueduct: New York. 31 Consumers’ League, San “Marinon. - arse eerre Teofes Consumption, British have learned the lesson of.. 292 Contest, An age-old: Autocracy and democracy.. 281 Continental shelf, The. so). 5 oko oc ie o ieee he erene 233 Continental shelf rising above the sea, ill........ 238 Contributions to many activities, Canada’s..... aa 104 Convalescent court, American Military Hospital No. 1: Paris, silliic.t.. sci opto econ a ee eer 72 Conventions, Reverence for: France............. 358 Cook, A beloved Red Cross: France, ill.......... 312 Gooking,- French, ill 6 Sse. om. np alsigie = GAO olla sae Cooking, Indian methods of: California.....text, 129; ill., 134, 135 Cook, Salvation Army: At the front, ill......... 436 Coolies hauling freight: Constantinople, ill....... 53 Co-operative institutions: San Marino..........-- 155 Copper deposits in Turkey...... Tee aS a ane ae Se aS ea Copper kettles in French kitchen, ill...........-. 366 it INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIV, 1918 Page Coppersmiths, the aristocrats of labor............ I71 Copt Inn, Courtyard of: Jerusalem, ill........... 337 Coquelin,Constant: French actor..........-.... 363 Corey, Carol. A Day with Our Boys in the Geo- QUGD PUTT CHAVA AGS ei iises 1c) eisielc sete sia aieWelle’e-coe oe wyateweueriers lees 69 Cork and, bottle: mine, Scranton, Pa:, ill.......... 427 Corneille: verench dramatist. . 2s. sso ses ee 363 Corn (maize) grown in Albania................. ie] Cormishs: Phe: (Races of Hurope. 2. ....c00...6.85 529 Coun andiot sMesopotamia. os. 6. ew ee 65 Corn meal, wheat flour, and acorn flour, Compara- EIMEMATIAN:SES GOL sec eae eye, vileve co's apeis ene s esl leva wens eile 136 Corot’s ‘‘Matin’’: French masterpiece............ 363 Cosmopolis of civilization, New York the........ 2 Cossacks, Restless, faithful: Races of Furope..... 463 CostJof handline: freight. 0... deere ele ee ne ne 196 Cost of Hell Gate bridge, New York...:........ 43 Cost, of shipbuilding after the war.............. 203 Costs of the continental shelf to mankind........ 233 Costumes, Albanian....text, 103; ill., 96, 106, 107, 109 Costume wAraby alle. ica eo Mews be geese eeeeles Se Cy ‘Costume-designing course: Washington Irving PicmmSckoolwiNew .Yotks.... 6. s5 cas . sds a sje secs II Costumes, Bokhara.male....text, 265; ill., 264, 266-268 Costumes, European types in native, ill.. 455, 458, 461, . 462, 465, 467, 470, 474, 476, 478, 480, 482-485, 491, 493-498, 500, 50I, 503, 514-519, 526 Costumes, Georgian parade: Caucasus............ 251 Costumes, Tekke Turkomans’, ill........ 254-256, 263 CostumessmLurnkish, alle. asi o.. css en Bick 60, O04: Costumes, Ukrainians love of bright colored. oat I1Q; : 111g; 20 Cottage scene, Characteristic: San Marino, ill.... 160 Cotton market, World’s: Ancient Mesopotamia.... 65 Cotton, Russia’s: Grown in Ferghana........... 273 Council Chamber, Church: Moscow, ill...... 392, 393 Council of the Russian Church organized: 1917... 390 Couctship among the French.....2...-......+.7-- Bal Courtship and coquetry in Switzerland, ill....... 517 Courtyard, Copt Inn: Jerusalem, ill..... Seba stae 337 Cow, Milking the: Spanish street scene, ill...... 521 Cradle to grave, From: San Marino.............. 154 ames Steels Shipbuilding, ils... ..566 66... cd ee 190 Cranes. Unloading; Great Ijakes, il. ..... 0.0.05. 225 Wreatiom OmacOallinieaerstelelg br ee cus Getavieh cay sean 423 Creation of the Mediterranean, Classic Greece was TMP melee UNat Efe le foe setae oth etait van Sete eae yc ten aes spe ho Cages 445 Critics, France the mother of....... eich Areas Go 361 Croatia, Agram the capital of Slavonia and....... 481 Croats, The: Races of Europe....... ill., 480-482, 484; text, 486 Croesus, Story of: Not an idle tale............... 65 Cross, Carved: Mt. Titanus, San Marino..... ey. tga 6 Cross, Pilgrims carrying.a huge: Jerusalem, ill... 338 Cross, ‘I‘ekke Turkoman wearing the Georgian, ill. 254 Croton Aqueduct, New York.............00e000. 29 21, 29, 48 Crowning peasant girls in a harvest ceremony: Wikraime; lle MEE eeNGUe Rect Prong. eM tyre art 127 ‘Crusaders, Reconquest of the Holy Land by Twen- fet Century oes. eke ee cles text. 225); ville 2262330 Culinary art, Masterpiece of: France, ill.......... 346 Curb market in Broad Street: New York City, ill. 14 Curb market., Onion: San Marino, ill BE ted Haas Cente 147 Curie, Pierre and Madame, discoverers of po- lonium and radium: French scientists.......... 365 Muitents, iotudy-of Ocean... 2.0. ce ce ee ce ee eee 241 Custom-house, Scutari, Albania, ill.............. 110 Customs, Peculiar: Europe, ill 496, 497, 500 ustoms, Peculiar: San Marino, ill.............. 162 Cutting machines: Coal mine, ill BE backrest tans 412 muting up whales: Norway, ill.....2........<.. 232 Czecho-Slavia, Prague: Scenes, ill............... 487 Czecho-Slovakia: Races of Europe.......... text, 489; ill., 488, 490, 401 Maceo Slovaks, Joining the. ...08)....c.ceee cee: 278 Czechs, The: Races of Europe......... text, 487, 489; ill., 488, 490, 491 STi) 22. “Dacia Felix’?: Roman colony..... Reiiroeeliay ster aueoeeks 467 Dalmatia, Ragusa: Peasant types, ill........ 478, 479 Dalmatians, The: Races of Europe......ill., 478, 470; text, 486 Dalmatian stone-cutter, founder of San Marino.. 140 Damascus, oldest city in the world.......... Leenevenien OW. Recent capture of: Palestine campaign. 344. IX Page Damascus Road, Palestine: British observation POS, WN Roky cc ee Mote nesses, 2.5 seen Gare catia ts S 336 “Damnation of Faust,’’ Berlioz’s: French compo- SUELO Me siege dees feo ce ae Reais av aignca hig ic acu nea ek 363 Dams: New York water supply, ill....:...:..... 16 Danis; sehoharte: "New, «Vor: 5 sin ease + cate caste 2 Dancer, A> Spanishecsevilles: il. ost... 3s oe eons 519 Dancing, Albanians: Delvino, ill................. 106 Danesy, (he: “Racestot= Huropes.t 0c. ss > 20m. oe 4 5.09 Dangers a miner faces: Coal mine............... 413 Dartford Hospital, Wounded Americans in: Eng- Parad OCU ie iris SRO eee, ROR C oe ah ol meee ee 285): Daughter of a race of Empire-builders, The: Eng- ES) Gi ol tes 18 Mas 2 9A le i et One nM 8 a tee 532) “Wawn, Ihe’: Anatoliay shurkey. 4 .. «..2 a. 59 Day nursery. American Red Cross: France, ill... 321 DAY WITH OUR BOYS IN THE GEOe =: GRAPHIC WARDS, A. BY CAROL, COREY. 69 Dead Sea, British fighting squadron floats on the. 342: Death of Theodoric, 526 Met lg ah we catalan ASA: Death rate, Baltimore’s 1916: Comparative esti- TMLALS chs cere, teepeucne dea ttete tone! NoMa eye ep eteene eens o/s. Rete ee I Death rate decreasing, population increasing: New OTe: oS csaudhtae- captcha ee ihe te lage eet te 17, 19 Death rate, Manhattan’s 1916: Comparative esti- HLA COs cng asaese a tate loheCen ey ser ee eoiete ote Go eA en ee 16 Death rate, Washington’s: Comparative estimate.. 16 Death of Our Lady, a miracle-working icon: Kiev, Ukraine Vallee tency dali ecsueciett seueea Renae eee Pale: iced Reo een ty) Debt. to” Britain, Civilization secve 0.4.0... se nas Declaration of Independence, 1917, Georgia’s: BUCASUS A ayiites wacoreseltes ok ele aoe e ease ticle ee 251 Delaware River, Shipbuilding along the, ill...... 215 Delvino, Albania: Natives dancing, ill........... 106 Democracy and autocracy, Contest between...... 281 Democracy, Britaim saved her... ..... 0.20 0gooe 279 Wemocracy, Real Krenchs whos: 0a... 4.,... ee, 357 Democratic assemblage in Russia, Most: Council Orme SObOre..... ner nee. ill., 392, 393; text; 3905 Department-store interior: Paris, ill............. 52 Deposition of the Robe, Church of the: Kremlin, INGOSCOW ie! bai. Sate RAE Fee scene ee ee sos 385 Depth of the sea and height of the land......... 233 Derelicts, Strange stories of: Ocean............. 235 ; 326-330, 332-337 Desert Mounted Corps in Palestine (British), ill.. 328 Desert son with his camel: Bokhara, ill.......... ie Desert thirst, British army’s battle with......... 327 Design-drawing: Washington Irving High School, New MOrky (ix oe avo d ees ee oe ane II Designer, ie Krench=eCaprllomallie. s)0.. 0. eee 59 Devil worshipers, or ‘‘Yesdi,” among the Kurds.. 59 Devonian period ef Paleozoic times: New York. cage eH Diamond drills: Description and Did Ce Aeccecrs,. eee 35 Diamonds and pearls in rubbish heap: Kremlin, Moscow cWeRoancnenoust tyer el cleted s¥elicicus'veeretaaice sae eee Bee 385 mene Indian woman: Santa Isabel, California, Lei chicsyak usta, hagas Sarictans a canele: Up ietsaefei se mMee go, occah eae Digger pine nuts used as Indian food........... oe, Diplomatic relations between Turkey and the : Winited 7 Statestaronay ccc tat ue, aoe. ee 64., Diptherial serum, Roux the discoverer of: French ie DCICIINOISE ss ctotens otsiat cit’ obs cea) sf eitys cial sais Mete ae cis ete 365: Disasters, Coal imine, ill’, 2, a. 430 es. 417, 428-430 Disciples hurrying to the Sepulchre: Jewish type, MUU. corone ede cch ever acetona leave, oeatehedrctenc. ote ge cate ais oe 2. Me oO Disorder followed the Huins everywhere: Races rs of Europe.. eMcheporsndaicle sie sine Messin chee oe 3 453 Diver; Native: Virgin Islands, af1...5.4.5...., 28 231 22,8 Fle See, ea: O80. 16) ©. (of 6 6) .8) «| lene DockswABeimut ss oviciaye lew ¢q2ssus wer eel ene 5 oan Me Docks se BOstot yale esrsactiy Wertete dct cto My be oa WN 224 Docks, Hudson? Rivers lb. vic. steers ocd e cw on ¢ 17, 24 Does a sinking ship go to the bottom?........... 2AT Doll: story, .Laeutenant! Holt’s.: 655 o.5........ wee 306 Donkey wearing trousers: France, ill............ 369 Door, 4Carvedswbokharay all). nose el oc. ee 268 2789 $0185 00,8). lene. cei (ele #0. «0 ele x THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Doughnuts, Salvation Army distributing: At the fer ONE ue MEETS al ys cero POM aston shen auc) « Miao chou a etece sttbnirece 439 Dovesmot Sant WlarinOne sees snei- ences ery ene 139 Dowry a trust fund for children: Francé........ 374 Dow’s elevator fire: Brooklyn, N. Y., ill......... Dramatists, Famous Erenchan ... sects: oe eines 363 Dressmaking course: Washington Irving High School Newse Monks. oir a5 os hrne ee es II Dralls,) Diamond: Description, and’ prices... 4)... 35 Drivers, Oxen and plowman: Georgian Military Roads call penn teen ales « toslceedelc-sety sua spawaeeneteee nate 246, 247 Drummond, Guy (Captain): Canadian army...... 301 Dubail, General: Military governor of Paris, ill.. 524 Duelling- custome venances. . sa). os cae eens ieee oe 368 Durban, South Africa: British troops, ill......... 283 Dushet, Georgian Military Road: Farm scene, ill. 246, 247 Dust carried by tramping feet into New York SUID Way S). wire et tetada chauoctelcecsrcit) eT can ei nk NPN deg ch Cametmers 2 Dust masks worn in shipbuilding plant, ill....... 189 Dust over a foot deep in the Jordan Valley, Pal- SELIM SS: a Peete mene titi eter chai, coal abies cfelsofoees ene arene 344 Dutch, The: Races of Europe..text, 509; ill., 515, 516 Duty as a privilege, Canada saw her............. 298 ha ie Easter service, Marvelous: Kremlin, Moscow..... 383 “Faster Sunday, where every Friday is’: Bokhara Moslems East side, New York: Street scene, ill........... 2 Economy and speed in handling freight in ter- TNIV ALS: cabernet ten ce tatrcatvcleay esohewenu esha Giles eres escalate ae 196 Economy, French housewife without an equal in.. 3609 Edessa of the Greeks: City of Urfa, ill.......... 50 Edinburgh Officers’ Training Camp, Officers of the, = Te ee ANS oe sot amie d res erence Wey Nralay (awit nt eae ceauntL ae aitce 2 Educational center: Kharkov, Ukraine........... 121 Educational conditions: Albania................. 93 Educational scheme, One of the most complete ever devised: Mngland.......0...006scebeceves 284 Education compulsory in San Marino............ 155 Education: Hebrew university established in Jeru- salem Education: Khaki universities for soldiers....... 304 Education: ‘Training Foreign-Language Soldiers by using THE GrocRAPHIcC. By Christina Krysto. 81 Poy pus and menusalenml tells iis 17. acl susischtitete ae ths she 68 Egypt, PostmasteraGemeral of... 05.6 .ee0 ..0 ww ot 333 Fiffel Tower, Paris: Distant view, ill........... 372 Election literature: Tiflis, Georgia............... 254 Election of the Patriarchate: Russian Church.... 390 Electrical dynamics, Ampére the investigator of.. 365 Electric locomotive: Coal mine, ill.............. 418 Electric transportation lines, New York: Compara- tive number of passengers carried annually..... I Mlectricgpumps ate wortk.oall.. 2s. cons. eens cee Elevated lines, Further extension of: New York ity heer eer pane Sea uke Ke aid aig tot lidar ay ed Ree aR Ne 39 Elevated railway, New York City, ill.......... Toe levator, Inclined-plane: Coal industry, ill....... 420 Ellis; disland) N.Y Immicrantss all.) oon 40, 49 Emery deposits.in “Lurkeys 2.7.06. 402 see 66 Emery wheels, Battery of: Shipbuilding, ill...... 189 Emigration oociety,. San Marino. 4.0. 00 ne ee 155 Employcesseohipvyard! ilo) 5022 om ka 182, 218, 219 Engineering achievements: New York, ill........ 2a Kngines, Compressed-air, used in coal mines..... 413 Engines, Snow-covered: Double header, ill....... 433 England Hlax fields of (fair, ile se ee 20 England, Peterborough: Birthday celebration, ill. 280 England; War scenes int all... 0.2.) .. 280, 284, 285, 288, 290, 293-206, 300, 303, 305 English girl, An: Painting’ by Boyé, ill.......... 532 English-speaking peoples, The: Races of Europe.. 533 English: Teaching our Foreign-Language Soldiers through THe GrocrapHic. By Christina Krysto 81 English, The: Races of Europe......... ill., 299, 531; text, 530 Epernay France: Grape gatherers, ill)..:...2...% 356 Fquipment,, limur’s army +. Turkestan...) 1... 273 Equitable Building, New York City: ‘House of a Thousands Windows, illic suey tee eee alee 38 Eshom Valley, Indian leach in, ill.............. 135 Esopus pCreekt New Voth... 2.cae ses on a ieee 31 states: Wand or large: Allbaniasrn. i.)0.2..-e eee 113 Bsther wotory, of 3 Polangy i. ci wcll ac sah pte tere aem 505 Esths, Uhe: Races of ‘Buropesc ac. ..-n' n05 ees 464 Page “Ethnic distinction, Language forms the basis of” 459 Euphrates ‘River, Iurkey.02, -.15 «ase ener 67 Europe, Acorns as a bread substitute in......... 135 Europeans. in Smyrna. .):\..).\seciueceige pie eee 64 Europe, -Jews in: Estimate.:. 2 cca .m emis ene 504 Europe, Map of the Races of (supplement)...... 4413 text, 460, 535 Europe, Most ancient race of southeastern: A\l- oye bay fe ein ee aIrOMne IOLA aco ob. o'Giol b o-d.0 lo.6 gi Europe, ‘Origin of the name sc 2. oso era 443 Europe, Physical: map Of 5.4..2p.4 ee eee 428 Ferraro (General), Military highways constructed under: Albania. oo. 0: So) eee eee rhea Féte of Saint’ Marino, The. 2]. eee CST Feudal ‘castle, France, ills... 15 2 eee 376 Feuds,.; Blood: ‘Albania®’ 22: .2.40 5. aoe ee QI Fifth Avenue, New York City, ill...... 10, 12, 33, 48 Fighters, Albanians are oper... 4.2 eee 102 Fighting man requires three tons of shipping.... 165 at the grain-elevator fire: Brooklyn, N. Y., DE sexes so cihe fe vel ela ols alte, shcelce oes ah ate a Finno-Ugrians and Turks comprise one-fifteenth of the inhabitants of Europe............. 448, 466 Finns, The: “Races of Burope- ..-. +. eee 466 Fire-damp, or marsh’ gas: Coal mine... see 417 Fire: Department: New “York../.. 105 see INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIV, 1918 Ne) Page Fire, Grain-elevator: Brooklyn, N. Y., ill........ 5 Fires a day, Average number of: New York City. 5 Firewood, Woman carrying: San Marino, ill..... 159 Fire-worshipers, Persian: Early Baku............ 164 “First Burials, The,’’ Barries’: French sculpture. 361 Fish-eggs laid a year: Estimate................- 239 Hishime in: Chicago Harbor, ilf;...........---... 228 Esie Ocean eile its neces eke ts ee 232, 236 ieishemet, wvv.oman svithya, 111.2. ee oe ee 451 Fish: Queer creatures of the sea.........+..+-.- 239 Fitting girls for life’s responsibilities: New York PUDMELSCHOOIS) <). 8. ce ee eee eter neste II Five great groups of races, The.........--+-+++- 447 Flag, Georgian Independence: Caucasus.........- 251 Flag, San Marino’s: Described............+-++55 I51 Flag, Service: New York Police Department’s, l= 27 Flags, United States: Shipyards, ill......... 213... 216 Flammarion, interpreter of astronomy: French SCLEMbIS Havens suseia Gout sds jeteiela s 2 ose a ils jem itext, 305 Flatiron Building, Madison Square: New York MGs ee CIS cialis tei ciet > adele eelvisis «ioc a, e608 les 34 Flavoring, Truffles used for: France, ill......... 374 iliac icles a tomolands, Wl seis 5 wie Loree od alee cee ees 299 Fleas shared with pilgrims: Kiev, Ukraine....... 128 Blemines\ lhe: “Races of |Hurope..........2.+-5- 827 Floats for mines, Wiring: British women, ill..... 303 “Floor” of New York Stock Exchange, ill....... 21 Flora Macdonald College: Girls’ war work....... 435 Hlounder eggs laid ‘a year: Estimate....0...6.. 6 239 Hiour Acorn. contains nut oil... 0... kee eee 129 Flower-pot, Bokhara is a mud..... ill., 257; text, 267 Kivpapermr yender of: France, ills... es oe oe ts 355 Hoch Marshal: *hrance, “ill... ca sec). 2 cee se oe 52 Folk-lore, Home of the Russian: Ukraine........ 119 cholkvot the Sea’; Painting, all... oe.).%-... /..% 451 Food and ships closely linked..................-. 243 Food eaten in New York: Estimated quantity.... 43 rogs for Great Britain: Women growing lettuce, TINE 355 dere g PG She tas use a 296 FOOD FOR OUR ALLIES IN 1919. BY HER- TRO IEE ASH OY CA Bl Renae ee Pa Bree 242 Food reservoirs, Ocean’s inexhaustible........... 239 Foodstuffs shipped to Europe: 1918............. 172 Food supply, Jerusalem’s main sources of........ 333 Food, The Acorn, a Possibly Neglected Source of. yeep lai bag NESE ATI aac) is a 2eh0 es es os 0 6 oe oie 129 Football teams organized in Jerusalem........... 341 Footgear, European types in native, ill...... 455, 458, 461, 493, 496 Mooteeat sWicrainians. ico. 6.5 ees 2h ee eee ce 121 Foreign element in New York’s school army, The PRCMOMGCKATMIL, «ct! [choles 6s «ot inis 2 0's sores ale se ote e's 8 12 Foreign-Language Soldiers, Bringing the World to Our: Through THe GrocraPrHic. By Christina IRGEWStOM ee tele cars ace ceo dps wil S eleleisie oo we @ clelel oie s 81 Forerunner, Church of the: Kremlin, Moscow... 385 Roresters. Group ot VRussian, il... 2. ketenes 123 WOTEStTS OL Albania vesicles bo ilele facets Ge Sane fase. 113 Fortitude and fraternity among wounded soldiers. 74 Fort, Medieval: Scutari, Albania, ill............ 99 ort Paulsapoet:s brance;: tl. te ok ee ewes ve 358 Fortress, Amasia: Abandoned by the Turks, ill... 56 Fortress bell, Mission of the: San Marino....... 143 Fortress, Kremlin of Moscow has become a Bol- Crews ame rp reray ese scot Gael ckete Mieitel at crovehones iaierendiotese cuore ' 379 Hptenesstot toaTelyeoi:, [tally ts.cwietee gcc shoe's sie ds a's 140 Fortress, ‘San Marino: The “‘Rocca’’........ 139) 143 Fortune-teller, Blind: Kokand, Ferghana, ill..... 275 Forty-second Street, New York City, ill.... 7, 10, 48 Foundations, Preparing the: Woolworth Building, IWiewr” Nore ie ais eee te eee ect eRe 28 Founder of San Marino, Raceéss of Buropes.,..s.... «cites os = 509 Icon received 100,000 kisses a year: Kiev, Ukraine 125 Icon shelves, Ukrainian homes have............. I2I Illiteracy, Percentage of: Ottoman Empire....... 64 Immigrants: Bringing the World to Our Foreign- Language Soldiers. By Christina Krysto...... 81 Immigrants, Ellis Island, N. Y., ill............ 40, 49 Immigrants in New York public schools.......... 12 Immigrants living in New York: Comparative ESLIMA LE Me secvepebes cisyer ee oie 1a eckareh ns sitet see tts Ale toaenoee Pea ove 2S Immogal,. Preneh (art 1s* nots. eo a ows ok cheutuals ol 363 Immortality of women in France has been exag- BE TALC, Mik yctete et oeey cae oi cnoun tgs oe ice sehoeus ai cls Cac edie 367 IMPORTANT NEW GUIDE FOR SHIPPING, AN: NAVASSA LIGHT ON A BARREN ISLAND IN” THE: WEST. INDIES, “DHE FIRST. SIGNAL. fOR. THE PAN AMA CANAL.” BY GEORGEAR, PUTNAM. . cee: 401 Iimports;, New: Work: (Roms. s..1cc sce 6s oes eiietens Teed5 Inauguration ceremony: San Marino......... ill., 146; text, I51 Independence, Georgia’s Declaration of: Caucasus, TiO TI, i eee We ana arg Sea Nauer See tet od Sie sic eee ee 251 Indian hills, Palestine: British observation post, | Dg acca tue Oe Gatlin ge ea Mapome eator cnalck cceuars poe tehets rs eee 336 Indian population of California at time of its dis- GOVEerVs (HStimiate. trendiest ors se, Wat wes oR Rceeme 129 Indians establish acorn camps in autumn........ 132 Indians, How acorns are used by the: California. text, 129; ill., 130-137 Indian soldier in U. S. Army, ill............... 314 lindo uropeans tamiily: Lhe ciis sok ¥.0.01 rete) Baie stent aee 448 Industrial army, America’s: Type of men, ill.... 182, 218, 219 Industrial arts course: Washington Irving High School): New sVionk@ ya tsten te ole feo inchs ngs fs dae Lr Industrial establishments in Baku: Russia........ 164 Industrial relations man, The responsibility of these Sihipyaedens rec. wc eles etn eck «ae 185 Industrial Victory, Our (Shipbuilding). By Charlesm Mie Seluwaby uc tein ween eie 0e adie cesse ene 212 Industry, Coal: Ally of American. By William Joseph Potro waltene cyte we the ccies see cians Se 407 Industry... W haline: INonway tl... 8.. 5 ¢ soles 232 Influence of Constantinople on world events..... 51 Influence of the Atgean Sea: Races of Europe... 445 Injustice and neglect, Price of: Turkish Empire. 52 Inland waterway traffic, United States, ill....... 221 225, 2235°.220 an, -Copts: serusalemy cil et ces osc acct cele « Soe 237) « Institutions, Codperative: San Marino........... 155 Intellectual candor a national trait: France...... 353 Intelligence is universal, In France.....:..... 4. 353 International trade center, Earth’s: New York... I intricacy of; shipbuildime.+ The.e .. 2. ..4.. 06 et 167 Invalid’s home for the poor: San Marino........ 155 Invasion ends, The period of (1066): Races of Europe Invention, The submarine an American.......... Boe Iranians; Uhe* (Races.of Muropes... 0.1.4.4 «ss «ak 469 Irish in New York: Comparative estimate........ 2 Irishman of the: “‘old :school,”? An; ili. o2.... cn 526 Trishye The- Racesson Puropes..o.<: ill., 526; text, 527 bronedepasits) ame Murkey ss .505 00 sos ee ck oe 66 Ivrigation' system: Damascus: .).¢s.c0..oeche. lak 67 Issoudun, France: United States troop train, ill.. 315 Is the Jew’s dream to be realized?: Palestine.... 342 Italian administration: Albania XIV Page Italian and Mexican pupil compared: Foreign-lan- Sagemsoldtensiu srt eres ccs oem nee ones net cua ctere 89 Italian experimental farms in Albania...ill., 1to2, 111; text, 113 een front, San Marino’s war hospital at the, TT aye Se aes re Coed ei et eae ot nt tng PE RnR A 4 OR RR a 152 Italian sector: Albania.......... text, 90; ill., 95, 112 Italians in New York: Comparative estimate..... 2 Italians, The: Races of Europe..... ill., 518; text, 511 Italy, Britain, and France aided in transport of UO O PSigtarexshepspetsmeeeher sso) lie: ste ce teliel cas oie eeReke Ree hover oreasts 201 Italy honors the little Republic in its midst: San IY Lehi a Wo estes. bs peaterans: Sec e OR MSP HS, eeg TA Bat 140 Italy: Our Littlest Ally (San Marino). By Alice FRO Ore Have ee ceCAGS ccc cbsvansia schon ce’ Ae vee an ele haga 139 Italy’s ensign, Albanians dancing around: Del- VANNO sell eaeueemntrs ch insects Gea coccce oath e het Semen OETA 106 Italy’s supremacy on the seas: After the Phceni- CLANS Hess opments oaks eg eset cce/ah seeuy oh eR ee RE 198 oe ete Jack-hammer drills used in coal mines.......ill.. 414; text, 419 Jack-of-all trades army, A: Timur the Lame...... 27.3 Jiattat Palestine sy Views allie sate. cate. Siete Sele rere ee 307 WarssaWatenseBokharas alli ?..2..%.c%0 so cee Seen ees 264 Jasper, Church floor of: Kremlin, Moscow........ 385 Jefferson, Thomas, a Welshman...........:....: 528 Jericho has nearly disappeared................. 342 Jersey docks, New York sky-line from, ill...... Tee Jerusalem and land of Egypt fell, 1517.......... 68 Jerusalem, An Old Jewel in the Proper Setting. By .CharlesmW a W hitehatrs.\.i% scenes 6 Wider 325 Jerusalem, Kaiser’s pilgrimage to: 1898.......... 331 Jerusalem of the Little Russians, Kiev the...... Tors 123, 128 Jerusalem, Scenes in, ill. 308, 329, 330, 332-340, 343 Jerusalem’s sacredness to ‘three great religions.... 325 Jewel in the Proper Setting, An Oid: Jerusalem. By) ChanlesmVWeew hitehair ass). 2... ce oe See B25 Jewish Saturday observed in Georgia: Caucasus... 251 Jew’s dream to be realized? Is the: Palestine..... 342 le WS/ iT sS mite atest ce eosin. eenas sci are eeeromea as Miners 64 Jews in the Ottoman Fmpire.................... 61 Jews, Massacre of the: Odessa, 1905............. 123 Views, Numbervots) Estimate:: 0... ..)...5,.20. em... - 504 Jews, Odessa largely in the hands of: Ukraine.... 121 Jews, The: Races of EKurope....text, 499; ill., 504, 505 Jews, Wailing place of the: Jerusalem...... text, 342; ill., 343 Nottre, Manxshalisirance, ilies 2.50) feces wns piers see 524 John the Baptist, Traditional birthplace of: Ain I GecVyeab oc Ws Gia evel eatti ce NS Hee a ER RRO ED Re cre Ai rer 331 Jordan Valley, Tortures of warfare in the Pal- SOAR DN SME Vise 3 ce h DEED. CS Hee) Tet OP REL ts RS ES 344 Judea, Wilderness of: Palestine, ill.............. 328 Jugo-Slavia: Races of Europe....... il 2474, 475,476; text, 485 hugco-SlavssWnion otvallethe? <4. sence ee 474 Jungle, Motago River, Guatemala................ 429 ck? Kaiserin Augusta Victoria Hospice on the Mount Of Oliviesa nts hae. canteen ote text. 332 i aleea'6 Kaiserism on the Mount of Olives............... 332 Kaiser’s entry into Jerusalem in 1898............ 331 Kantara) to: Jienusalem’ rathway- ss.) «2 cise eens 331 Kasbek, Georgia: Caucasus, ill.............. 22.262 Keel, plates of a steel merchant ship, ill......... 172 Keeping tab on the derelicts: Ocean............. 235 Keeping tab on the men in the coal mine......... 413 Kensico Reservoir, New York: Location and ca- PACItYV. occ eee eee ence ee eee ee eee eee 2S) OH Khaki, dm Cassock ands Brrance) ily ee. se 364 Khaki University organized in Canada........... 304 Khans: eAllbarnialiceracwnnon sistuscie © oles wna teaeeress 98 KhaneoAeiBokharaciaRisSiasedlill puss icisuee eeienere eaclense ste 257 Kharkov, Antonius, Archbishop of: Russia....... 390 Kharkov, the second city: Ukraine...ill., 116, 118, 125; COX a 21 Kherson province added to the Ukrainian Republic 121 Kiev, Ukraine: Largest city... 116, 117, 123, 125, 128 6 King Ashurbanipal: Nineveh.................... ) Kingdom of Hejaz: Soldiers of the desert, ill..... 66 “King of the Cookies,’ Thomas: Red Cross cook, Eirancensnulle kussrcmee in.tss e coral een nec go, ean ee 312 King Solomon a merchant prince.............0.. 68 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Kingston, Pa.: Coal breaker, ill.................. 421 Kis Kale, or Maiden’s Tower: Baku, Russia..... 164 Kitchen, ‘Salvation Army: At the front, ill... 438, 43 Katchens, French, lio. .s.. 2. eee 346, 366, 371 Kitchens, Open-air: California Indians, ill.... 134, 135. Kizl Irmak River, Lurkey,...%22 ase 67 Klisura, Albania: Ancient bridge, ill............. 93 Knighthood, San Marino’s order of.............. 163 Knockers, Door: San’ Marino, wlses Seen ee 138: Knowledge of the sea, The call for sreater....... 230 Kokand, Ferghana: Scenes, alll, ite. Aang 274, 275 Kokand, Russia’s cotton in... 2. soci een iene 273 Konia, Mineral resources of: Asia Minor......... Koritza, Albania: Wealthy town............... gI, 98: Krasnovodsk doorway to Turkestan.............. 256 Kremlin, Greatness and glory of the............. 388. Kremlin of Moscow has become a Bolshevik for- EGESS weiss ciate dic chai sa 0,01 oa bio. ce ohetelbentel oe eR ean nem nRe ones 379: Kremlin, Russia’s Holy of Holies, ill.. 378, 380- rs 384, 386-388, 391 Krestovi, Georgian Military Road, ill............ 248: Krysto, Christina. Bringing the World to Our Foreign-Language Soldiers...............++00- 81 Kura “River, “Caucasus: ss. ee eee 249° Kurdistan, Turkey: Province or district.......... 59 Kurds, descendants of the Cardushi.............. 59: Kurds in the’ Ottoman=Bmpine. ... 450s 61 GOP Labor, Aristocrats of: Coppersmiths............. 171 Labor Board, Community. {ee eee 183. Labor Control Office, Hog Island. iigs-e0 2. 53 see ee 186. Labor, Hermes typifying: Statues allie sees oo ieee 4 L abor Organization, Cooperative: San Marino..... 155 “La Fontaine Miraculeuse”: Painting by Guinier, BD ele rere ea ERIS cayre Sloe enclaves inl etre a a 446 ae ATDaINIG,. we ohod Qi eaten cy Mabe taps Rae a Ie ea gI Lame; Timur the: Turkestaneie nee 275 Lamps, Miner's .0) 2 oR he eee 4il Land and its people, The: Turkish Empire....... 53 Land, Height (of the ts ..% ceo eee oe Daa: Landlord crowning peasants in a harvest cere- mony: Ukraine, alli cas ak bee ieee ee ce 127 Land of large estates:> Albania ss 2. cue eee Teles Land with a Glorious Past, a Present of Abused Opportunities, and a Future of Golden Possi- bilities, Turkey. By William H. Hall.......... 51 “Language forms basis of ethnic distinction’”’ Races. of Europes. s a2. oe eee eo aoe 459 Language of San Marino is Italian.............. 158 Language of the Ukrainian: . oes eee ee 118 - Languages spoken in Jerusalem, Many........... 334 Lapps: The: Races of Europe...... ill., 462; text, 466 Larrey, Baron de: Napoleon’s surgeon general.... 62 Launching ships: United States, ill.. 168, 210, 213, 214 Law courts in ruins: Kremlin, Moscow.......... 387 Leaching acorn meal, Method of: California In- dianss Siesceece aoe ie text, 129; ill., 134, 135 Lead ‘deposits in Turkey 2.05.23) oie opens eee ere 66 Lead pencils, Graphite used to make............. 431 Lebanon Mountains, Syriac. sooo eee eee 61 Legend of Kiev: Ukraitie cn: ne eee 128 Lending grace to the hardships of life........... 349 Leo and Marino, The arrival of: Rimini, Italy... 142 Lepidodendron, a club moss of the coal age...... 428 Le Puy, France: General view, ill............... 348 Lesson of consumption, British people have learned 1b aie aren asim es ns OS 4 6 doi a's 0.5 6 292 Letter addressed to “Albamia’’ i. = ose) eee ee 104 Letter home, Writing the: Military hospital, ill... 73 Lettish soldiers are lounging in the Kremlin, A Kolo) a ae IE Sensis boo aod 5's 684 379 Letts, The: Races of Europe..\. coals eee 464 Lettuce growing under glass bells: Britain, ill.... 296 Levantines 1 Smyrna. 2). .00 ao oe ee 64 L?Hermitte, Artist: France, ili soa ae 360: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity, The price of: France 377 Liberty-loan campaign: New York, ill........... 4 Liberty, Statue of: San Miatino... 02 saqeeeemeoee 130 Librarian, Nineveh’s King appointed a........... 60 Librarian’s course: Washington Irving High School, New (York... o)ik/le) a eure ay aay II Lifeboats, Hoisting in: U. S. training ships} ill... 223 Light-giving fish... 5 ..0ise 0's, cele custo ese one eae 239 Lighthouse, Navassa, W. I.: Built to withstand earthquakesums = cine coon text, 401; ill., 403, 405 Light sweeps an area as large as Delaware, Na- vassa, West Indies:...5.) ui: 2 eee 402 Like father, like son, in Hungary, ill........... . 405 Lion of St. Mark: Vuno, Albania, ill............ 9z INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIV, 1918 Page Lion of Tepeleni, Ali Pasha the: Albania........ 97 Literature, Election: Tiflis, Georgia...........-- 254 Lithuanians, The: Races of Kurope.......-+-++--: 465 Little Russia: Scenes in the Ukraine, ill..... Ste [22-126 Little Russia: The Ukraine, Past and Present. By Nevin. O: Winter... 23.01... - cee ee eae Sete eae Ii4 Little Russians: Races of Europe.....-. ill., 458, 461; text, 463 Littlest Ally, Our (San Marino). By Alice Rohe. 139 Lloyd-George, David, a Welshman........--+++-+ 528 Loans, Canada and her victory......-.+++++eeee: 302 Locomotive, Electric: Coal mine, ill...... keene a 408 Lodgetti, Destruction of the porch of: Kremlin, INWOSCOWH raed eties Glovers 0 os soe Popiele none ater = etd iat 385 Logs, Loading: British women, riIM Le aera nero 205 London hospitals, Soldiers in, ill...... Deeper 2045. 300 Lord’s entry into Jerusalem, Humble imitation of our: Kremlin, Moscow.......----+-.++: nent ant 383 Lorrain’s ‘‘Village Féte’’: French masterpieces.... 363 Lulu Bay, Navassa Island, W. I, ill........-- Seg OA Lumberjanes, Britain’s: Women war workers, ill.. 295 Lure of the steppes: Ukraine......-+-.-eee seers 116 SONI? McAdoo, William G.: Originated the Hudson PIECE CCAIR heres tgiate © a ee ecient tes 41 Macaulay, T. B., of Montreal. How Canada Went POMC MEO Me ee Micke oc. oloysce wis sue ouGuehe Sy een sues ee 297 Machinery, American agricultural: Caucasus..... 2755 Machinery, Coal-mine, ill............+- Abi, AL2, ATA, 416, 418, 420, .428 Machinery: Electric pumps, ill............-..--- 3 Machinery, Farming: Albania, ill........ ee: 102 Machinery, Ore-unloading: Great Lakes, ill...... 225 Maclagan, Billy: Canadian army............-+-- 301 Madison Avenue, New York City: Garment-work- Shs Mana WM ei ee wen cae we eee es wee 9 Madison Square, New York City: Flatiron Build- same, TNL Fy Sacer en cece Pe 34 Madmen direct destructive shells: Kremlin, Mos- CONG Gig WG-8 A to OU ee 385 Madonna, Raphael’s Sistine, ill..........-...-.-- 449 Magyars, The: Races of Europe........... text, 497; ill., 498, 500 Maiden’s Tower, or Kis Kale: Baku, Russia..... 164 Majesty of New York City’s small things........ I Malarial fever afflicts Albania and Macedonia.... 110 Malatesta, Lowers of the: ‘San Marino.......:.. 139 Nealikemleaikie we Albariial ses, spec) ole. co scwbeleue 6 oe at oe 2 gI Maltese. The: Races’ of Burope.. 00.5.0... 008%- Big Manganese deposits in: Turkey......... 0.00546: 66 Manhattan, Bridges of: New York.............. 41 Manhattan end of the Brooklyn Bridge: New NAOT SO MnUL ny Meee epee tate E Rec aes sane: eyelet shat ote 2) Manhattan, Population: Comparative estimate.... 13 Manhattan’s death rate 1916, comparative estimate 16 Manning (Governor) has six sons in the United ALCS Me IaVIM a he woke cectictiay « CAIAU Lele geet Nhs Ler de era fae evan elias 280 Manning our new ships, The task of............ IQI “Manon,” Massenet’s: French composition....... 363 Man protected by woman: Albania.............. 2 Man’s welfare, Gift of French science to........ 365 Mantilla, Spanish dancer with a, ill............. 519 Manual-training courses: New York public schools 11 Manxmen, Ihe: Races of Europé.......4....... DG) Manzanita berries used as Indian food.......... 137 Miap,. Cartbbean-Sea: Navassa Light............. 402 IMEI German States. 11) TOTS se i. fs cus. os oe des STO Miaprebhy sical. MurOpe:..n. < bic seach cee a bes ae ols 506 Map, Races of Europe (supplement)............ 4413 text, 460, 535 Map: Russia’s orphan races, Home of........... 2, Mrapmrolketchis Albania ..0.)).cc 8 cs ce be oS le wee b 95 Map, World: Showing ocean currents........... 234 Marie Louise, Trellis built for: France, ill....... 353 Mianine boilers, Scotch: Shipbuilding, ill.......... 192 Marine camouflage not a new art..............« 173 Marine condenser, A: Shipbuilding, ill.......... 194 Marine scene: Continental shelf, ill............. 238 Marino and Leo, The arrival of: Rimini, Italy... 142 Marino, stone-cutter and founder of San Marino. 140 Maritime association, Hanseatic League: Middle GES 3h Sa Shem ee a ene en rece 198 Market, Onion curb: San Marino; ill............ 147 Wimket-place: “Lirana, Albania, ill... ..0.0.0...... IOI Miarket, Rug: Merv, Turkestan... ....0.0..- 06: 265 XV Page Market scene: Kharkov, Russia, il]..:......0.... 116 Miarket sScemess. Paris sles, 26 cies. cele > coe suede eae 37.0, 37.3 Market scenes: San Marino............-e2 se eeee 154 Marne, Artist painting on the bank of the: France, ; TL [eee ey Bi ka, oe See Mme ed ony eck a tcl tatta oa Me cememeN cian, 363 Mountaineer Georgians, Caucasus, ill....... ZI ON253 Mountaineers, Albanian: In national costume, ill. 96, 106 Mountain of Temptation, Palestine.............. 342 Mountain of the Titans, San Marino............ 139 Mountains full of valuable ore: Asia Minor...... 66 Mountains, Most famous of: Mt. Ararat, ill...... 240 Mountain villages: Albania...........-.eeeeeees 98 Mountain women, United States, ill............. 425 Mt. Anis; Le Puy: France, ill...............--- 348 Mt. Ararat, Armenia, ill............ceeeeeeeens 240 Mount of Olives: Aérograph, ill................. 308 Mount of Olives, Kaiserism on the.............. 332 Mount of Olives, British horses near the, ill..... 336 Mount Scopus, site of Hebrew University: Pales- ALTTO rte Leena ee este cel ictin de. ohovevalia’ ec veslesstenebe Cushions cones 343 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Mt. Titanus and ‘“‘Penne’’ of San Marino........ 139 “Movie” for soldiers, Red Cross: France, ill..... 322 “Movie” posters-in. Bokhara, ills.fs. 5 eee 272 Mtzkhet, Georgia was born in: Caucasus......... ‘249 Mud flower-pot, Bokhara is a....... text, 267; ill., 257 Mule stables in a coal mine........ ill., 410; text, 419 Municipal playground, New York City, ill....... 22 Munition factory, British women workers in a, ill. 300 Munition-making, How Canada turned to......... 03 Murder-trial decision, United States, Title to Na- vassa Island rests: on... 6.6 = .seeiee ees 406 Museum and Treasury, Kremlin: Moscow, ill.... 378 Museum at Geok Tepe, Steps of the Military, ill.. 254 Mush, Cooked acorn (nup-pah)...... Phe desea 131 Musical instruments: Accordion, ally. tae. 2 eee 455 Musical instruments: Stringed orchestra: Croatia, lh ee eM Hs GOSS woof oad 482 Music: Band concerts in Jerusalem............. 335 Music corner in a Red Cross canteen: France, ill. 323 Music, Debatable question of French.,.......... 363 Music: Ukrainians have songs for all occasions.. 119 Muslin derived from the name Mosul: Mesopo- TAMIA 6 os ce ened sr ace a dlchs UCR eNO EE IE eee 65 Mutual Aid Society, San Marino............... SESS Mystery, Ships Of oi... ace dee cee eee 237 Mythology and Turkey’s historic past............ i Mythology, Mountain of: San Marino........... 139 SINT 2 Napoleon I, Trellis built. by:;Brance;-lee eee ce 353 Napoleon respected San Marino’s independence in T7Q7 wiele oieie ale wo eo ece db 8) 0 ey eee aE Re eee oe 146 Napoleon’s surgeon general: Baron de Larrey.... 62 National characteristic, Politeness is a: France... 369 National debt paid with small savings: France, _ 1870 nee Se Souk Fo GG Coe ooo t 370 National defense, San Marino’s................6%. 149 National demand for coal: United States......... 407 National Geographic Society’s Wards: American Military Hospital No. 1. By Carol Corey...text, 69; i 7 tos h7 35 7 NationaL GrocGrRAPHIC MacaziIné Used to Train Foreign-Language Soldiers. By Christina Krysto. 81 National trait, Intellectual candor a: France...... 353 . Nation’s welfare, Merchant marine vital to....... 2I1 Natives appointed to office: Albania............. QI Natural features: Lebanon Mountains, Syria..... 61 Navassa Island, West Indies: Outline and area... 403 Navassa Island, West Indies, ill............. 402-405 Navassa Light, West Indies, an Important New Guide for Shipping. By George R. Putnam... 4o1 Novigation school: Gloucester skippers studying, 1 i Mn OMAN ems i ain o Bio aid bo aoc 220 Neby Samwil, Palestine: Altitudes.c meee ae 331 Neglect and injustice, Price of: Turkish Empire... 52 Negro soldier in U. 164 Population increasing, death rate decreasing: New Vor echo tes ds 65 gerd a On el ale Beaty hon eC Ree ene 17 Population in Palestine are Moslems, The ma- jority. of the s2. 2. 23 ....... 436, 438, 439 Samarkand, )@amel” driver of, alt. 3... 14. 2 ee eee os 276 Samarkand, Turkestan, Time has touched the tiles CO i ER ARS: oe Bi co eRe Career IESE NS ES ENCICCROIT: Aaron eteatree ie en de De 271 Sammarinesi, Cherished spot of the: r San Marinos. 3139 “Samson and Delilah,’ Saint-Saéns’: French com- DO SILTO 1 eweamucttten. Mebaues seth c teste tac este tate fo eo eee 363 Sand, Boat unloading: Navassa Island. ill....... 404 Sandwiches for soldiers, American Red Cross, Birata Ces oillll Mp eiaees scence debe nb cee eae ascent 210s 300 Satyeo, sMortness Or wal talys oh oo canta saeae Oe ee 140 San Leo from San Marino: A view of, ill........ I4I oan Leo, Medieval castle crowning: San Marino, TUN CAC PARRUNEE A Bice rene A Ra iis fete ee mm ERE EER OUR A. ns I Sani Marino; stall yashOmOrs. (see's. 6os . cores tlie ates ie San Marino, Our Littlest Ally. By Alice Rohe.. 139 San; Marino;=Scenes- in, “ills. 3). 138, 140, 141. 144-148) 150, 153, 156, 157, 159-162 San Marino sends her youths to war: In Italian EVIITRY1 ceee cee cee tree Sue omy Sede gtd ravlopien a Mace Lay See mi arcane, ae 158 San Marino’s influence exists today iasee eee 142 San Marino’s war hospital: Italian front, ill...... pee aoe Isabel, California: Digeno Indian woman, vA ate Oy c5. ae eve a ae Aur Ue eee ated MI SI ue 131 Santi Quaranta to Valona highway: Albania...... III Sardou-7brenchidiamatista ce sere ces enn 363 Savannah, the world’s first transatlantic steamship 168 Saviour, Gate of the: Kremlin, Moscow......... 383 Saviour in the Forest, Church of Our: Kremlin, IVE OSC OWHY eet he tects 2s io ohare oe eee ea aan Se a ee 379 Sawad, Arabic name for a region in Mesopotamia 65 Scandinavians, The: Races of “Europe Seo ls tecen ens 509 Schoharie Creek, INE WHAYGO.Tiki: Hise he cena hone es 31 Schoharie’ dams, New York..........:.e-.-c000% 29 School army, Proponderant foreign element in New Mores sere ciad, enchant tic ita ce mee teaes 12 School books, Officers on parade with their: Scot- Nari, alae pater ae eee gee nett cr tay eg nin eerie Aan 286 School boys at a municipal playground, New York, sR eR Faas ene tse yoke ink) ae each ee Oeickres sen Toe Mere tas 22 School for miveterss: -ohipbiutldiigs. ss. cc sees) os 177 School, Merchant marine: Men training, ill...... 220, School, Navigation: Gloucester skippers studying, — r DL Ao ek aN cl SE om Hai VmbeN Ary rhe as cor ruse oe 220 School of porpoises playing around a ship, ill..... 236 School’ onwheels in Prancejrll so .2 no. ee 368 Schools, Christian and Mohammedan in Beirut, TOTAL aden, (6 hc biol Sheen oom. Mame emo da Ie ot 57 Schools for skippers and seamen............... 193 Schools ine the *hrenchves ses. nee ae A eee 355 Schoolspeeublict iNew. Worlarmiee cain eee Se ones unloading sand: Navassa Island, W. I., Bs say aCe ESTA eco ities aren balance wekne Meu nin 404 Schivatt Charles M., Director General, U. S. Shipping Board Emergency Fleet Corporation: OureindustitalWVactomve wc cliceie reine 212 Schwab, Charles M., Congratulated by President Wilson, ) alla Aone tos pea as sencion oa aude arabe a a eaiatr eas 217 Sciences, France holds leadership in: Europe..... 365 Scientist, French and German contrasted......... 365 Scot, A young: Boy with his ponies, ill.......... 531 Scotch marine boilers: Shipbuilding, rH ener ee 192 Scotch, The: Races of Europe..... text, 530; ill., 531 Scotland, Edinburgh: Soldiers ou parade, ill..... 286 Scranton Pa.:Coal industny, allie: soa. cre ee Lie, (ary Screw man-of-war, The first: U. S. S. Bees 188 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Scriven, George P., Brig. Gen. U. S. Army: Re- cent Observations in Albania...............006 90. Sculpture, French: Noted works................. 361 Sculpture: Hermes typifying labor, ill........... 40 Sculpture, Rock: Lion of St Mark, Albania, ill.. 92 Sculptor, Rodin the: France, alleeh eee eee 357 Scutari, Albania: Scenes, ill........ 99, 100, 104, 110 Sea, Continental shelf rising above the} ‘ill.....;,. 238 Sea, Depth: of -thes¢ oss siete ee eee 233 “Sea, Folk of: the’: Ranting, dle cepererceer cian 451 Seamen, Schools for skippers andes ur), qin esictads 193 Seaport, Anatolia’s chief: Smyrna, illo o.-)... et ani oy Seas, British command of the Seventeen i Sos Seine River, Book stalls along the: France, ill. 351 Seine, Seven bridges over the: Paris, ill......... 372 Senorita of Seville; A, lsc. ( Sea aera eet 519 “September Morn,” Paul Chabas, painter of...... 357 Serajevo, Bosnia: Mosque and bazaar, LS Se cose ve 475 Serbians, The: Races of Hurope-. 7 .2neieer text, 4833 ill., Weck 474 Seriously wounded in Geographic Ward No. eae 77 Serravalle, San Marino: Largest of the towns. text, 1393 ill., , 140: Servant, The parable of the unprofitable 5g Mea eaats 68 Service flag, New York police department’s, ill.. 27 Seven Bridges, Perspective: Paris, ill............ 372: Seven Seas, British command of the....... Base 198 Seville, -Spain:. Dancer, ll) ea eee ence eee 519: Sewing: Turk mending his coat, Constantinople, “ te een EMM Ga bio Bin Glgyb.o colo Unb a.4 0 2 Shafts, Mime 5 2.5.006 cn S.c el clean cote ac rebe tence tee aicaoae 409 Shakh Zinda, Mausolea: Samarkand, aNntlecs tant 273 Shea (Major General): British army..........-- 331 Sheep and goats, wealth of the Albanians........ 113 Sheep, War-time shepherdess with her: England, 1 te inn AME MOA cS do ota Co bn-4 0,6 o'0.0 2904 Shepherdess, War-time: England, ill............. 294 Shipbuilding and world commerce: Britain....... 207 Shipbuilding, Canada helped in..........+2.-+-+ 304 See compared with the automobile indus- ere Nee es Se la B 209: Shipbuilding industry: United States, ill. 166, 168-170, 172-178, 181, 184, 187-190, 192, 194, 195, 197, 199, 202-206, 208, 210, 213-219, 227 Shipbuilding: Our Industrial Victory. By Charles M: ‘Schwab... os. = = ce cies ontes pee Ue eee ee Ieee Ne 212 Ship construction, Standardization of............ 215 Ship-minded, American People Must Become. By Edward Ni Hurley 2255.6 seen enciarnerretelaecaametele 201 Ship needs of peace, The cx ce seve pe ese greens eencate 179 Shipping, An Important New Guide for: Navassa Light, West Indies. By George R. Putnam. 401 Shipping Board’s great fleets ie,- -j-mearnee of ieee 181 Shipping on the Great Lakes, ill........ 225, 228, 220 Ships and food closely linkedin:) 22 qeeei oer 243. Ships, Concrete, ill... 4.2 5eico eae ene 226, 227 SHIPS FOR THE SEVEN SEAS: THE STORY OF AMERICA’S MARITIME NEEDS,. HER CAPABILITIES AND HER ACHIEVE- MENTS. BY RALPH A. ‘GRAWES a eaooent 165 Ships for those at home: Raw products.......... 167 Ships implode, "When... 2.4). \/. srs detersnauetenee Seer 242: Ships of mystery......<.2.. ss spe ai opseunede eee einen ener 237 Shipways, 50: Hog Island, Pa. mile eee eee 205 Shipworkers’ town of Harriman, Pact et eee ns Ig! Shipyard, The pace-setting.: 223....5- cui eee 183 Shock of New York’s commercial life, The a cena Re 49: Shops. and hotels, New. York’siceai otter 47 Shop to ship, From: Shipbuilding, aie ee 187 Showalter, William Joseph: Coal—Ally of Amer- idan Industry... occ 2 os eee ee 407 Showalter, William Joseph. New York—The Me- tropolis of Mankind 2% 5 ois ces eee helene eee I Shrine of the Holy Martyr, Patriarch Hermogen, Cathedral: Kremlin, Moscow.......5+:.5.-05 + 381 Shrines, Domestic: Ukraine: ... 19.5. eienocee 121 Siberia, Czecho-Slovaks in, all; eee 490: Sienkiewicz, Henryk: Polish novelist........... SLL Sigillaria, a monarch of the Carboniferous forests 428 Signboards, Painted: Kharkov, Ukraine.......... 121 Sign-post of Europe’s races, The Alps, the..text, 448; ill., 442 Silver deposits: in’ “Turkey... 33. Jay eee eee 66 Silver mines; Albaniat. 5.5... oOo eee 1090: Simplicity of living a national necessity, Greater. 244 Sinai Peninsula, Desert campaign on the......... 325 Sinking ship go to the bottom, Does a?.......... 241 Sisters in Sunday finery, Slovak, ill............. 494 Sistine Madonna, Raphael’s,-1ll: 2.4 :.aente eee 440 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIV, 1918 __ Page Sizes of coal in general use, There are eight dif- IGEGNE od 5.4 Glo Doe OURO spec e tee eee nentness AI9Q Skanderbeg, Albanian national hero.......--.--- 07 Pecictomobiaesteel Ship, ill... 6c 2. case dieeee on ee 175 Sketch map,.Albania.........25.2.-5:- fegede gece = 95 Sketch map, Caribbean Sea: Navassa Light...... 402 Skill and training essential in our merchant ma- TAIT CMEC ETAL COM Udy onc ere. Gusud flies «clos ec esys Gotievetie sin = 3% 209 Skippers and seamen, Schools for.....--..++-+-: 193 Sky-line, New York: From Jersey docks, INI Seca aan, “Skypetar,”’ Son of the Mountain Fagle: Albania, Skyscraper, Constructing a: New York City, ill.. 28 Skyscrapers, New York City, ill... 6, 14, 17, 30, 34, 38 Slate pickers: Coal industry, ill............. AZo Ace Slav, Advent of the: Races of Europe........... 457 Slav Dominions, Picturesque Peoples Who Cluster on the Southeastern Borderland of the Vast. By Maynard Owen Williams............-..+6- 245 Slavic tribes in Germany: Races of Kurope...... 508, Slavic race, Characteristics of: Races of Kurope.. text, 450, 457, 460; ill., 452, 455, ase 481 Slavonia, Agram the capital of Croatia and...... Slavonians, Ihe: Races of Furope....:.......... 489 Slav temperament in the Ukraine............. Se eke) Sleeping hero, Tribute to a: Military hospital, ill. 80 Slovaks; The: Races of Furope...........: text, 4923 ill., 488, 490, 491, 494-497 Slovenes, or Wends, The: Races of Europe...... 486 Small things, Majesty of New York City’s....... I Smiles, A gateload of: Swedish children, ill..... 512 Smiling hero, A: United States soldier, ill....... 324 Smokeless powder, Berthelot inventor of: French SCHEIMLIS CANCERS ane Ora oe aes cd aici Gleusueterel also «le one. 365 Smyrna, Native types in, il... .1.. ce eee esas 64 Snow and ice covered ships: Great Lakes, ill..... 22 Snow-covered engines: Double header, ill........ 433 Snow scene, Hog Island shipyards, ill........... 202 Soap-box orator and his auditors: New York City, FlUMMORE eT RM eG Nee Sets Siidene. Cavehe ols Goleoteraraui@ les Sobor, Council of the: Russian Church. .text, 390, 396; ill., 392, 393 Social equality is extremely wide in France...... 377 Social instinct is inherent and ancient in the piper Claman Meena Pt nye Scares als, cisnsus Bilece ase aheiee els 349 Soda water consumed in New York a day, Amount CSM ee er A SS cre hvcs rele eB eidiais yi wrecaverbb ey 47 Sokol, Gymnastic Association: Prague, Czecho- SIENA 4635 a eRe ee ee text, 487; ill., 488 Soldier and priest: Francé:.......0. 50s. cc eee ee 364 Soldiers, Arabian: Kingdom of Hejaz, ill........ 66 Soldiers, Bringing the World to Our Foreign- Language: Through THe Grocrapuic. By Chris- Ta Me etayiSE Orem acess chek sole suede see euace wa Gg swine we 81 Boidiers, ritisn, We 6. cet ks 283, 284, 286, 287 Soldiers: Czecho-Slovaks, ill................ 488, 490 Soldiers, French: Spirit of France, ill........... 347 soldiers, Polish, in procession, ill.........:..... 508 Polder s: postal, card,; lh... a ke leases 440 Soldiers, Russian, retreating from the ‘lurkish TEPOMNE: <4. G Guo See Rane Ae ea ee 246 Soldiers, San Marino’s volunteers in Italy’s army. 158 Soldiers’ schools organized: Khaki universities.... 304 Soldiers transported by the British navy......... 201 Soldiers, United States: Overseas, ill......... 310-320, 322-324 Soldiers, United States: Salvation Army kitchen, cllhe G56 ogee le EER 439 wail dlieecrts 2 SASS) Coa 528 Soldiers, Wounded: Military hospital........ text, 69; ill., 71-73, 76, 78-80 moleveges laid a year: Estimate..:...........6:% 239 Eolomion, a merchant prince......4...0..0seee0. 68 Solomon’s Temple, Site of: Jerusalem........... 342 wmesrtor alli occasions: Ukraine... . © a cena 67 Tikhon, Patriarch: Kremlin, Moscow........ text, 383, : 390, 3953 ill., 392, 393, 397 Tilework at its best in Samarkand, Turkestan.... 273 Timur the Lame: Samarkand, Turkestan......... 273 Tiradates, king of Armenia, accepted Christianity. 59 Tirana, Albania: Market-place, ill......... Pretices ek: 101 Titanus, Mount, and “Penne” of San Marino..... 139 Title to Navassa Island rests on murder-trial de- cision, United States’.....: Serer) ees ete 406 Tobacco, Cigarette: Macedonia...........-...-.- 110 Tongues, Test of: Races of Furope............ 459 Tortures of warfare in the Jordan Valley: Pal- (Assi Sea dupa bos o oe aon Ob ool 0 ak teste sees 344 Tory, H. M.: Organizer of the first Khaki Uni- Nar A Oates HOE OG acm aoe mos dG be ou Nes Oc 304 Touch of ‘Time’s loving fingers: Samarkand, Tarkestai ani ne eke ete ceesme seine ei leit: Bo Baie 27a Tower, Galata: View from Constantinople, ill.... 54 Towers, Kremlin, Moscow, ill..........-..+- 378, 380 Towers of ““Penne’: San Marino.............-- 139 Towers of San Marino, Three great, ill.... 141, 144, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - Page Towers of the Malatesta, San Marino, 4... .).0 139 Tower to withstand hurricane and earthquakes, Navassa Light a: West Indies....ill., 505; text, 403 Town-crier and bill-poster, Girl: England, ill..... 305 Town gate: Provins, France, ili Seer 365 Towns. of southern Albania. sce eee 98 Tractor plow, American: Albania; ill... serene ee 102 Trade center, Earth’s international: New York... I, Traders of ancient times, The Greeks were the BTCA oes gcse abe 6 nepiendlan ene ee ee ane 68 Trades, Representatives of 30: Shipbuilding...... 219 Trade, World’s water-borne: romaine eee 179 Traditions: mainly ‘Catholic im hrance saree 367 Trafic, Congested: New York ‘City, all, 377-10, 22, 20 Traffic, Inland waterway: Steel barges, ill....... Bei Traffic lines converge, Where ocean: Caribbean SEA loie aoe ots ediake oes ou polesenelee ele aerate aaa ea area a 402 Train, Coal-mine, ill... 4G sere eee 408, 418, 420 Training for America’s merchant marine, ill...... 220, 22222 Training camp, Officers’) Scotland, wilpe enone 286 Train on the Irans-Caspian: Railway, sulle eee 255 Train, Troops: Czecho-Slovaks in Siberia, ill..... 490 Traits and ‘Temperament of the French. By Carl Holliday w+. sia ciss cece clones Stee SoS noes oR 345 Trans-Caspian Railway, Scene on the, ill......... 255 ‘Transportation, Urban: "New Yorks. thee oe BY Transport of troops, Britain, France, and Italy aided | Tf) ychessdc6 Eb we Me Se hee ce ee ene 201 Transport work of the British navy. o.oo eee 291 Trans-Siberian Railway, Czecho-Slovaks garrison the towns alone the, allay a shee een 490 Transylvania, A farmer of Banffyhunyad, il1..... 503 Traveling Punch and Judy show: France, ill..... 369 Traveling school’ in’ Erance; ilies wee cee ie eee 368 Treasury and Museum, Kremlin: Moscow, ill.... 378 Trees, Albanian -i...5..0% sue se ee ee eee Tr} ‘Trees: Oaks number more than 50 species in the United States: .25).00 00) BAG Saree eee eee 129 Trees; Petrified: «Coal, ages emer text, 428; ill., 427 Trellis, Marie Louise’s: Compiégne, France, ill.. 353 Tribute of age to sacrificing youth: War work.... 435 Tribute to a sleeping hero: Military hospital, ill.. 80 Tribute to the Arabs from Baron de Larrey..... 62 Trio, A sturdy Dutch/all. 22% eee oe 516 “Triumph of the Republic,’ Delore’s: French SCUIlpture: ed. s a5e Sess oa anelieaet RI eee Cee ee 361 Triumphs of, Prench “antic. cee eee eee 361 Troitsa gate, Kntrance to Kremlin through the: MOSCOW * occ oe dole caeliette (ee terse ee 379 Troopship, British: Durban Harbor, South Africa, 0) er Pe arecintinrreain coo oS cis 0 b.0 O10 0 bcd\G. 28 Troop train, United States? rance mille eee oe Trousers, .Donkey: Fuxrance, all sete eae 369 Truck, Motor: United States Army, France, ill.. 320 Truffles, Value of: France, 2ulla- ee eer eee 374 Tubes, Hudson: Idea originated by William G. MEGA OO! 06 25 che execs! dhe Bale ake see ee Al ‘Tubes, Hudson: Rivers New. Youkuemere eee AI Tulipland, Demure daughters of, ill....0...<.... BmG Tunnels, idiudson= News Youle ok a eeeene ete ene 35 ‘Manmnels:. New York) illo... asso eee eee a Turbans, Bokhara theological students’, ill....... 264, 266-268 Turbans, Ukrainian women wear red............ I21 Turbine-driven vessel, First: Turbinia........... 195 Turbine engine, Straightening the blades of a: Shipbuilding; al. .o he... ee ee eee 195 Tubinia, first turbine-driven vessel...:......-...; 195 Turbot eggs laid a year: -stimates. aseemee eee. 239 ‘Turkestan, Size and extents Ofeci Gee eee 256 ‘Turkey and the United States, Diplomatic rela- tions bet weel—1014..... 0... ssi. csn eer ere 64 Turkish city, Russian veneer over a: Bayazid.... 245 Turkish mipire, Area of, .. 2.04. cicero eer ing Turkish forces launched against the Suez Canal.. 325 Turkish front, Russian soldiers retreating from the’ 224 oe sole wba fa a Sea eee 246 Turkish. invasion: Races of Puropessane. eee 457 Turkish rulers conquered by the Georgian women. 249 Tukoman humbled by the Russians, The......... 259 Turkoman takes an inferior wife, The........... 261° Turko-Tatars, The: Races of Furope........ text, 471; ill., 468 Turks and Finno-Ugrians comprise one-fifteenth of the inhabitants of Murope): 2. screen 448 Turks have discouraged attempts at development.. 67 Turks in-Smyrma: oe oc... uc se $ oe oe Cee 64 Turks in the “Ottoman | Himipite sp. 3 screen 61 Turks, The Ottoman: Races of Europe...... ext WATS: ill., 468 INDEX FOR VOLUME XXXIV, 191s Page Turk, Under the Heel of the. By William H. Betis Memes fee Stcc ick ane aiveila taro a: co) sage by ene ES CeO ae om Turk Yurdu, Editor of the: Ahmed Aghaeft...... 247 Meeaieht in Bokhara.........+.0- ss sees dee eee ees Beit Gh (ay Ukraine, Church problem in the............++-5- 4or Wikraine, Extent of-the.......--.-eeeseees eae Tome. mMKRAINE, PAST AND PRESENT, THE. B INI NEES © WINTER «5. eee ee sc cee ee 114 Wikeraine,-Scenes in the, ill......-.... 116-120, 122-128 Ukrainian and the Great Russian, Difference be- ‘OCU. PRUE Ao | Re UOT RE near eer re 118 Ukrainians in Austria: Estimate.............--- 116 Ukrainians or Little Russians: Races of Furope.. text, 463; ill., 458, 461 Ulfilas, Great apostle of the Goths.............. 454 Underground river: New York’s water system, iW 2p s Underground river: New York’s water system... 27 UNDER THE HEEL OF THE TURK: A LAND WITH.A~ GLORIOUS PAST, A PRESENT OF ABUSED OPPORTUNITIES,, AND A FUTURE OF GOLDEN POSSIBILITIES. BY Mee TONE id PAT. nce se eee ee ae 51 Uniforms for United States soldiers, Britain pro- WAGE ee Bee BRS ey Ce ee ec eee er 291 Uniforms, French soldiers, ill..........-.+---+5- 347 Wmitorms, Polish soldiers in, ill......:....-...+- 508 Wnitorms,; Scotch Highlander,:ill:...:........--- 286 Wrikorms, Welshmen. in, ill, . 0... 2-60 ee see eee 528 Winton of all the’ Jugo-Slavs......20....0s00e08- 474 Wmigue French temperament. ...++......---++-+6- 345 United States: Battleship in Beirut Harbor, Syria, ill....... yA California, Camp Kearny: ‘Teaching foreign- language ssoldiers:.......: text, 81; ill., 83-85, 88 » California, How the Indians preserve and use NGO MMS MNS a hie eas ecstst Lielene « text, 129; ill., 130-137 Coal—Ally of American Industry. By Wil- liam jiosen» Slowalter.. 22.4 css oe ena ee 407 Connecticut-born people in New York: Com- PAGaAtiVe AESUIMALC. oceiac dence oe bd eo asa 's ale ee 2 Connecticut, Stamford: Czecho-Slovak mobili- ZeMtl OMM CAT Pee Ulli epaaitce «seg sii eo che. o) sie elena 491 Tllinois, Chicago: Harbor scene, ill........... 228 Maryland, Baltimore’s death rate, 1916, com- DALAL PESLIMALCH. A stere.e ss wierje os eerie wanes 16 Massachusetts-born people in New York: Com- PaMmAeVe VESLIMMALC. was cess eee p ed se beers 2 Massachusetts, Boston: View of the water- fp ON teed lM er copes gnc! scan cua, Prck os GuStedaus @tMieiicl din Stee 224. Military Hospital No. 1: Neuilly, Paris, ill.. 79-735 79, 78°80, 318 New Jersey-born people in New York: Com- Patativies CStIMaAte.. .. tesco csc 6 wc oslo ses 2 New York daily life, ill....... 2-10. [2-"e, 20-30, 32-34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 48, 49 NEW YORK—THE METROPOLIS OF. MANKIND. BY WILLIAM JOSEPH Sel @VVENUIB EIR UD caus sats tac Sone, Grn Whenel ele ote ele a I Ohio-born people in New York: Comparative ESUIMIAL CEM was ceenetaceee Mie euciareld seve csdettain ea oils 2 Our Industrial Victory (Shipbuilding). By Chramlesy aimee S cliw.albiusee etc oc chee olsis fis 6-3 212 Pennsylvania-born people in New York: Com- Para vlVie! RES CIINA TC! <4. citkes ered tae sy Gels 2 2 Pennsylvania, Bristol: Housing problem in in- lions teret IY USERICTS cleats ove. eis are ge.s Ge caushiue. ested, « 189 Pennsylvania, Hog Island: Shipbuilding plant, Hees Nene uersyseae 200, 202-206, 208, 210, 213-217 Pennsylvania, Kingston: Coal breaker, ill.... 421 Pennsylvania’s: anthracite field......... ante 409 Pennsylvania, Scranton: Coal, ill....... 22,427 Pennsylvania, Shipworkers’ town of Harriman 191 Reviving inland waterway traffic, ill......... U. S. S. Princeton, first screw man-of-war... U.S. S. Tennessee fired on while in Smyrna EFAs) Gite ee OT Aiats, weotte ne whi easel eG Menciccast do Be 64 The American People Must Become Ship- moaded. » By Kdward N: Hurley. 3........ United States and Turkey, Diplomatic rela- Moms WEL WEEN: \LOTA. 6 cfe\oe6 4 (a's ew vslaa ves 64 United States, Jews in the: Estimate i , Jews in the: Estimate........ 504 United States title to Navassa Island rests on murder-trial GE CISION ta wu tesc cle uisaes ah as 406 Virginia, Newport News: Coal piers, ill...... 432 Ot Page Unloaders, Gigantic ore: Great Lakes, LL eRe. 226 Unmixed races after invasion, There are no...... A487 Unprofitable servant, ‘The parable Of the... .ccens 68 Ural-Altaians, The: Races of Europe......-..... 448 Urban transportation: New NOt: TIE Fert ASSET 37 Urfa, Turkey: View. of the city, ill............-. 50 Uspenski. Cathedral? Moseow,, ill... c 224.2 es 381, 382 CONT Valencia, Spain: Street milkmaid, ill............ B21 Welkom JAUlBIEIS 5 556 Soe eanoan5 oc Biteein tt as a 98 Valona,-Albania, Italian influence: in, il.<..: 102, 103 Valona derives name from the Vlores family: Al- DAN aes Rag costae cco we go cote soem eee ecckes aroeote wae Te Valona to Santi Quaranta highway: Albania..... Tr Valona to Tepeleni, 55-mile turnpike: Albania.... 111 Vanbiehl, inventor of ‘‘Rock and Rye’: France, UD Tete tce oie are Sek. ec en ue eats eee wets. Sen KOn estas 257 Vaudeville, Erenchs loves i322 waesie sec ee oe ele ner 362 Veeetation,. Coal-age. san. soe werigee + aalaee ens 425, 428 Wile becca WPA ios 7460 oh come seme a5 ae 122 Vehicle, Springless: Ferghana, ill.............-. 274 Vender, Elypaper:s Miance, dll so. os... 5. 2015 Vender, Ice-cream: New-York City, ili. ... 52.20 26 Venetian ruins: sAltbania... .4 22.25 oss se oe ee os 98 Wersinenoom, (Copia, .55 45506 n05n0e5unoGuS bos 409 Versailles, France: Fountain of Neptune, ill..... Bus Vickers-Maxim establishments in England, People EM plOye dir. we cteeicecesttan cist cde sient meen tee cul wget 291 Waicnopry Koehay (Cerne ebavel totetes 5 oa cancasachococe 302 “Village-Féte,’” Lorrain’s: French masterpiece... 363 Willases,. Mountain: sAlbania ce. cues ee as'e ee eee 98 Watacavenral, doiderayel, alll; joo een coon donGhenoooones 356 Viosa; River: Albania (Voiussa)...... text, 90; ill., 93 Virgin Islands, St. Thomas: A diver in harbor, ill. 231 Virgin, Rock of.the: Le Puy, France, ill......... 348 Vivisection, Bernard marvelous worker in: France 365 Wilachs, Colony, ,of Bindus WMioumtaries creer 95 Wiachs, The: Races» of Buropes.s.. 4... 1. nee 471 Vocational education: New York................ 9 Volga Valley, Bohemians im the ..ees40...-es 247 Vino, Alibanias etoim ot este) Ndi sulle ce eeenene 2 ENA TZ 2 Bere A. C.’s, Battalion of: Aldershot, England, IT acerer NOR EA DE TRA d Ln ue ic SEP ete SARC tie Ae Ea 290 Wailing place of the Jews: Jerusalem...... text, 342; il. ,.343 Walker .(Dr.), Phomas James: England, all.....: 280 Walloonss hes Races’ of HUrope.su. 4.55.2 «ee: ay) Walls damaged by German invectives: Kremlin, IVE OS COWS Bitcetsrer ae, Meme pene see engine ee OS Be BP 383 WVallse Isremilii ae VWOSCOwae tlle a cenacveee ee css . 378, 380 Walls, Nineveh’s? lunkey. ile. s..2..2.6s on. 60 Walls,“san: Marino s ancient, 1laost.o.5. 2.2 T5 Om nse Walnut and grape juice candy: Caucasus, ill..... Bee Wanderers on the face of the deep: Lost ships... 237 WAR AND OCEAN GEOGRAPHY, THE. BY AED, ST UO) ens ead sae eee ee ue ete eck, 2 Paves 230 War: Britishetake Balu Russiae..) ose. 163 Warfare in the Jordan Valley, Tortures of: Pales- UIT Coie euleuienas ah eueea: eoaecusiga el aiaties aie eels: cite ie ay aueuaaisue ered keno 344 Wan sarden, Britis women in all yee. ee 206 War garden, Italian: Albania....... text, 113; 11, 102 Wat Sects somes slow the vers. se eee es ne 75 War Has Done for Britain, What the. By Judson Ge WiGlaV eth oak x sencgcrak Sees Rs Ae 278 War hospital,.San.Marino’s: Italian front, ill.... 152 War loans: Canada and her Victory loans....... 302 Warner Valley, California: Indian woman, ill.... 132 Wiar-orpiane. Bianca. alles acne peel tes 2s oe 309 Wanreorphianse olay types, allasie.s va 4cbaa osu ce 452 WV aierions, Wikitaharlewea., J5o 460654544 050ne5cennuesos IIs War-time shepherdess, England, ill 204 War workers, French women, ill PMC es acnek choc Oo “Washing the feet,” Ancient ceremony of: Jeru- = Salem: pallleses 8 sgn os ees Sasemece a oamen ess ciara, 6 Sivas, a sseu) 330 Washington, D. C.: Death rate 1916, comparative SSUIMMALC tae eee sateen oes Aree pen sic t sneha meee UR ba Scrind eae 16 Washington Irving High School, New York: Vo- cational, Ed ucahiOn taal atic eet open 8 csi acta nak 11 Watch-towers, Kremlin: Moscow, ill............. 378 Water bags, American Red Cross, ill........ 210, 320 Water-borme trade, »World’s* ort... s.ecn0 sss. a: 179 Water carried beneath the Hudson: Rondout tunnel XXIV Page - Water-carrier, Réimanian- girl, al. 2... eee 467 Water carriers using American oil-cans: Constan- tio pley tals 2 BI es Foote, «len vllayashty t= claus ee = 55 Waterfront, New York’s gredt...-.....---+s5e-- 45 Waterfront AMIS OSHOMIG will’. vigvess ceaey-s siey sgenvueteeene oe aan te 224 Water is ‘“‘gassed’’: Kensico Reservoir, New York 37 Water jatsz>Boktaras’ Wl... 5 22s crete a = 264 Water piped into Jerusalem by the British. at 3413 1ll., 337 Water power: Damascus...........- Pera e 3 67 Water’s ait bath: Ashokan aération plant, New A Ong ammo Gite RENE cee OIE 00 Seo UREA SOR text, 31; ill., 42 Water supply, New York, ill.............-.--- Ak Water-supply system, New York: Comparative Ac MEME, 3 CUGTIO ES 3° G Woy Baty 6: 2g) ORTOP RONG Stalcloo t 27 Water system,*New York, ill. ..0.... J.ees- see ZY Water transported from the Nile to the British EL OOPS? wae, opie ts che a tisk oie + se feredeie e+ oN -gehehmamaeMey eho foe). > 32 Waterway traffic, United States inland, ill....... 221 Water-works, Beirut, Syria: Constructed in 1875. 57 Waves dashing against, rocks, ill...-./. 5%) /5.8%: 238 Wealthiest town of Albania: Koritza............ QI Wealth ofthe: Layraat.KiewsUikrainewaaeet.... : 126 Wealthy matron gives mount to the hermit: San INE thao) Me ee Ce RED SE eB ac CREMP. ac oy DLA cancdiclooBeD 142 Weaving Oriental rugs: Turkestan.............. 2590 Wedding procession, Croatian, ill).....+.......- 482 wWhell,; Croatian, ally 2" Saq..¢d ap. 2 Be te pee ye lee 480 Welliver, Judson C.: What the War Has Done ROIS, DO Fitaltic:. och na oo Cee eee in ces cease oe as RRR 278 “Well of the Souls,” Jerusalem....4.......5.... 342 Well,. Public: Constantinople, illin.J.).........- 55 Welsh, The: Races of Europe...... ill., 528; text, 529 Wends, Slovenes or: Races of Europe....... 486, 508 West Indies, Navassa Light an Important New Guide for Shipping. By George R. Putnam... 4o1 West Indies, Navassa Island, ill..... ales Seaman 402-405 Whales, Cutting up: Norway, Pld sSoagere's 2 pes 232 Whartome, Edith: Quotations. th ge... JF. 361 What British women have done...........2.000- 291 What New ‘Yorks eats anect ons eo. t Petsmart sl oie oll ste ls = 43 What the continental shelf costs mankind........ 233 WHAT THE WAR HAS DONE FOR BRIT- AIN. BYejUDSON “CW Hist VaR... .. . ae. . 278 Wheat flour, acorn flour, and corn meal, Compara- tive analyses Ot ete. lS. 5 ae ick, ame 136 Wiheelbasrow: ob remeliseill.. .. «<2 seuectese sm ov ouenere 360 When ships implode. a eas + artes Decay ONT: OR 243 Where “Every Friday is Easter Sunday”: .Bok- hateneMloslemisy clas meat. co hinere:: = Che cus aegeeene aatae 269 Whitehair, Charles W.: An Old Jewel in the Proper ;Setting 4C erusalenl) fo. 5. tear oe - 325 White Russians: Races of Furope............... 463 Whittemore, Thomas: The Rebirth of Religion in IRGCISCi Sheree Anais Giiarc: CPS Ciero'S oo Bo Rh OM poaiiee 379 Why Europe’s races are progressive............. 443 Wite, Turkoman takesyan,inferfor.. * B® 4aeips-.. =. 261 Wilderness of Judea, British forces in the, ill.... 328 Wilkinson, Norman: British marine artist........ 174 Williamsburg Bridge, New York................ 4l Williams, Maynard Owen. Russia’s Orphan Races 245 Wilson, President, at Hog Island, ill........ 216, 217 Wilson, President, breaks a San Marino custom.'. 158 Wilson, (Mrs.) Woodrow, christening the Quist- conch: sos island iallegy s.4. yaad. a1 oiergen aries 216 Windmill. Aneold: Ukraine, all... . 2.2) fee 88 - 126 Windmills’ everywhere: Ukraine................. 117 “Windows, House of a Thousand’: Equitable Building; News NMioek City, Wh s. eee... 38 Wine indubtmcesbraiice;, all... 2. eae ess. ss 356 Wine industry: San Marino................ text, 154; ill., 140, 156, 162 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Winged Lion of St. Mark: Ragusa, Dalmatia, Cali- Ce ee a] Wintoon Indians preserve acorns, How the: fornia 129 Wireless outfit discovered on the Mount of Olives. 332 — ill. 479 © Winter, Nevin O:: The Ukraine, Past and Present 114 ry od Wiring floats for mines, British women, ill....... 303 Woman’ protects: mani: Albania ose isce ee 12 eee 92 Woman suffrage in the Caucasus................ 253 Woman’s suffrage not in San Marino............ 148 Woman’s work, Mauket:. France, ill.:....:...2... 273 W omien; » Albanian. ... PENNSYLVANIA ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’? Reproduced from an original painting in oils, showing a beautiful group of trees on the estate of Mr. Harry Payne Whitney, the treatment of which was entrusted to the demonstrated skill of Davey Tree Surgeons JOHN DAVEY Father of Tree Surgery DAVEY TREE SURGEG- Every real Davey Tree Surgeon is in the employ of The Davey Tree Expert Co., Inc., and the public 1s cautioned against those falsely representing themselves ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ HE real beauty cf any estate is inherent in its fine trees. A tree is a living, breathing organism, subject to disease and decay. If neglected when it needs care or if mishandled by untrained or irresponsible persons, premature death is inevitable. A Davey Tree Surgeon is made just as a good dentist or doctor is made. His skill is the product of highly capable instruction, scientific information, practical training, as well as natural adaptability and personal integrity. Davey Tree Surgery is time-proved. It has been made a definite sclence—its practice a real profession. For more than a generation it has stood the test of searching analysis and practical application on thousands of America’s finest estates. Among many distinguished Davey clients are the following: Mr. CHARLES DEERING Mr. OAKLEIGH THORNE Mr. JOHN D. ARCHBOLD Mr. GEO. W. ELKINS Judge WM. H. STAAKE Mr. FINLEY BARRELL Mr. GEORGE EASTMAN Mr. J. R. NUTT A careful examination of your trees will be made by appointment. THE Davey TREE EXPERT Co., Inc., 1507 ELm St., Kent, OuI0 Branch Offices, with telephone connections: 225 Fifth Ave., New York; 2017 Land Title. Bldg., Philadelphia 5 450 McCormick Bldg., Chicago. Write nearest office. Permanent representatives located at Boston, Newport, Lenox, Hartford, Stamford, Albany Poughkeepsie, White Plains, Jamaica, L. I., Newark, N. J., Harrisburg, Baltimore, Wash- ington, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, Cleveland, Detroit, Cincinnati, Louisville, Milwaukee, Minne- apolis, St. Louis, Kansas City. Canadian address, 252 Laugauchitere West, Montreal. ceaaeee FIRST DROP oF RAIN Obey that [Impulse Put on Your WEED TIRE CHAINS THE ONLY DEPENDABLE SAFEGUA RD AGAINST SKIDDING AMERICAN CHAIN COMPANY, INC., BRIDGEPORT, CONN. In Canada—Dowinion Chain Co., Ltd., Niagara Falls, Ontario “ ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’ Serre s ata e kee fee f it your request. igan They h where. ic Mi Iveness oO dows. ion ever and attracti ls awa In 23 ST SGT LRT ERR FC AIF OS ET — ID VE EY SES SEES EG LY SRT RE PREIS ees Y" SOT LP LOE SRT PS -F 5 ; d the elements ws Detroit, M integral part of Fenestra Sash ime an d Steel W ing, 1 Deta Grand Blvd defy t Weather 2) ae i?) 1/2) iB) S — rd swe NB! be at fT U enduring st 10n ort 95 3 e f Fenestra Soli f safety to modern construct 5) ing reasons. i lat Venti > Yet ht OLID STEEL 18 > appearance are further compell Detro h the use o s 8 L Fenestra Operators are an hrou are an added factor o ion g th and it Steel Products Company, 3919 E Protect Ten are assured t Sz Fire It identifies you.’’ ‘*Mention the Geographic All Need » Puffed Grains To Complete Them A dish of berries is twice better with thin, crisp,: flavory Puffed Grains scat- tered in it. In a bowl of milk there is nothing so good as these flimsy, toasted bubbles of orain. They are like airy nut-meats on a dish of ice cream. No other garnish is half so enticing. In soups they are ready-toasted morsels with texture as light as a snowflake. Puffed Grains are the star foods among all breakfast dainties. But nearly every meal has a place for them. And between meals, every child loves to eat them dry or doused with melted butter. Puffed Corn Puffed Rice Puffs Wheat All Bubble Grains Each 15c—Except in Far West ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ As Big As Manhattan Island Imagine a powder plant as big as Manhattan Island, the heart of New York City, and the home of nearly 3,000,000 people. —Twenty Panama- Pacific Expositions could be con- ducted at one time and without crowding on the ground occupied by such a plant. It would easily hold ten parks the size of Forest Park, St. Louis. As largea building as the Coliseum in Chicago would ap- pear a mere detail in the landscape. Yet such a plant as this, a plant covering slightly more ground than Manhattan Island, would be formed if the great Hercules Properties, scattered from the Atlantic to the Pacific, were combined in one. Large as this composite plant may seem, its size is none too great to meet Chicago Denver Hazleton, Pa. Memphis Joplin New York Pittsburg, Kan. Pittsburgh, Pa. the demands which the industrial life of the Nation puts upon it. From it come explosives with which is mined more than half of the cop- per produced by the Country. From it come explosives which play a vital part in placing at the Na- tion’s disposal such essential min- erals and metals as coal, iron, alum- inum, silver, gold, and the less well- known manganese and chrome ores. From it come explosives used ex- tensively in the building of our rail- roads, our aqueducts; the improve- ment of our harbors, and other large construction work. Finally from it come explosives which our boys over there are using so effectively to win the war. HERCULES POWDER CoO. Salt Lake City San Francisco St. Louis Wilmington, Del. ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Complete Banking and Trust Service HIS Company is an organization of two thousand people and numerous departments. It offers the facilities and services of a commercial bank, a trust company, a foreign exchange bank, an investment institution, and a safekeeping depositary. Each department is complete in itself; all work together under a single policy of service. BankING DEPARTMENT—Serves our i customers in every branch of general a PUL be ifead banking. ‘Through membership in aes iL. Pea | the Federal Reserve System, we secure ae ES! 2s the most favorable terms on discounts and acceptances. We pay interest on daily balances and on certificates of deposit. Trust DEPARTMENT—acts in every fiduciary capacity, such as executor, administrator, guardian, committee; and, for individuals and corporations, as trustee, depositary, agent, and cus- todian. ForEIGN DEPARTMENT—IiS a com- plete banking organization with fully equipped offices in London and Paris, and resident representatives and cor- respondents in important centers throughout the world. Handles direct all kinds of foreign banking transac- tions; finances exports and imports. EL eae y 1 ees — * Ce a SAAS PREIS IM ee LEIS SAI. < wie Bonp DEPARTMENT—maintains a complete service for the information of investors. Investigates, examines RON RE and underwrites bond issues; buys and | sheen Bors sells securities. Main OFFICE OF THE COMPANY We shall welcome your inquiries as y q 140 Broapway, New York City to how we can meet your needs. Guaranty Trust Company of New York 140 Broadway Firth Ave. OFrFice Mapison AVE. OFFICE LonNDON OFFICE PAR Is) (OG ECE Fifth Ave. & 43rd St. Madison Ave. & 6oth St. a2 ILombardst., fC. Rue des Italiens, 1 & 3 Capital and Surplus - $50,000,000 Resources more than - $600,000,000 ‘‘Mention. the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ FITS AIR-TIGHT CAN’T STICK This Jid seals Witt’s Can and Pail tight as a vault. Dogs can’t scatter the garbage; flies can’t breed; odors can’t get out. The Witt’s lid fits air-tight and stays tight; but it never sticks. Witt’s outlasts two ordinary cans. Made of deeply corrugated, galvanized steel—rust-proof and 29 times stronger than plain steel. Buy Witt’s for your home. It saves you money. Write for booklet and name of nearest Witt dealer. THE WITT CORNICE CO. Dept. B-2 Cincinnati, O. Look for the Yellow Label | Packed in the all-tin vean— One Two, Three and Five Pounds each.. The Unbroken Label Protects You, and is Our Guarantee, as well. _DWINELL-WRIGHT COMPANY Principal Coffee Roasters BOSTON CHICAGO THE MAP OF THE WESTERN THEATRE OF WAR Showing practically every place mentioned in the press dispatches from the Western Front The National Geographic Society’s Map of the Western Theatre of War, size 26% x 31 inches, cost $20,000.00 and six months’ labor to produce. It locates all places, forests, and river systems which are objective points in the battles for liberty being waged by our millions of soldiers and our allies. An alphabetical index, referring to the ten-mile squares into which the map is di- vided, determines the location of a place at : VIAONILNVLSNOO 54 posn AjyestoaArun d0UO ‘Kaayjod Jo sef onbsoinjord ay} Jo voejd ur ojo v}d901 Jo}VM B sv UP TIAONILNVISNOO NI ‘ITHM OITANd V 9) ]!0 ULIIIOWIY 9Y} poydope sey jsey Ivo N ?4L 55 Gy Stor wceunt loi aii Sees denis fo any Soapid, USASS. AQ PSUWEGS. €y teats aL ‘weary ayy JOPUBXSTVY FO SUIT} oY} Ul oWIeF 0} VSOr VIseUTy ‘otOY utlog sem oyM ‘oqei3S ‘1aydeis008 Yoett) oy} Aq pouojuou AjjUanDoIy st YOIyM ‘sII]T IO “YeUIT-[IysSaR JIAPY ay} Smo Az 9yy ysnolyy, “‘pauopurqe mou st ynq WOGONTSH ANILNOd HHL AO Iv Liavo HHL HONO ‘VISVINV atidéy ‘W 981095) fq ydeisojoyg "JEM dy} JO Yeotqino oy} ye spyooyds uerjsiyD 2g pu SoydinyS UeI4STIY ge €z pue sonbsowm uepsultueyoyy Cz oJoM IIIT, “WaAlog je Isa]JOFD UBITIOWTY oY} WOT 000‘0z$ “syooyE ayiysoy fo souviesdde ysiy ay} UO ,Sfapyut,, JO SUIT[IY oY} Sursin sjsotsid Wosoy JsvOd ULIIAG 9Y} UO UMO} JSOTY}[BY VY} PotapIsuod Uooq svyf ‘S491 UL SyIOM ‘Keg $,981005) “JG JO pis YNOS ay} UO pojzenys AT[NJ yng ‘ yyim posedwos Yniroq ul sjTooys skoq Urpowuleyoyy pepuewoep syinj, oy} VIOI “taquisseq f9 SUIUUISIG 94} 1V ‘JEM P[JOM dy} UL SUOTJEI}SUOWMEpP [BVVULF JO 9S OY} A]Ieo SeM FF -JoJVM JO WOTNIJsUOD oy} doUTS ‘pue “eLIAG Ul AYID [RIOIOWMIUUIOD Jory oy} St II| VUNLAULS GNV WOUUVH AHL NI dIHSYVM NVOTAANV NV VIIAS ‘LOWHIA LV SMO00G:MAHL NO 'THals 1 sSuIMUND “FL Jeucl wos ydeisojoyd 57 © Underwood & Underwood HAREMS OF CONSTANTINOPLE Not many Americans have seen the quaint, narrow streets of the residence section of the Turkish capital. The photograph presents an every-day scene. The street leads from St. Sophia’s Mosque to the Bosphorus, and each house shown has its harem. At the bay windows on the fronts of the houses the odalisques stand and gaze into the street at passers-by. The lattices effectually prevent any person on the outside from seeing the in- mates. The ever-present American oil-cans in the Near and Far Kast are to be seen in the right foreground. It is also interesting to note that a touch of appetite makes Turkish youth and Southern darky kin—observe the gusto with which these Mohammedan boys are attack- ing slices of melon. 58 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE “b9 present Ottoman Empire, not including Arabia. The boundaries are the Black Sea and Caucasus on the north, Egypt on the south, the A‘gean and Mediterranean seas on the west, and the Syrian Desert and Persia on the east. Turkey in Eu- rope is almost a negligible area, as the Balkan war stripped the Turks of all their European possessions except Con- stantinople and a narrow territory along the Bosphorus and Dardanelles, some 40 miles in width; so that when the Turkish Empire is now referred to Asiatic Tur- key is all that the term embraces except the city of Constantinople and a small amount of adjacent territory. Roughly speaking, Turkey is divided into five great provinces, or’ districts— Anatolia, Armenia, Kurdistan, Mesopo- tamia, and Sytia, Anatolia (the name is from a Turkish word meaning “the dawn’’) lies between the Black and Mediterranean seas. This district is the home of the greater part of the Turkish population, perhaps 7,000,- 000 in all. Here is a case where the peo- ple can be distinguished from the govern- ment. Even the so-called subject races have suffered but little more at the hands of the governing officials than the com- mon Turkish people. ALL GOVERNMENT IN THE HANDS OF 300 MEN When one remembers that all govern- ment of the Empire lies solely in the hands of a group of not more than 300 men, and that they impose their selfish will on Turk and Christian alike, one readily understands how a distinction can be made between people and government. In spite of a constitution having been proclaimed and a parliament summoned, the people, whether of Turkish or other race, have absolutely no voice in the affairs of the nation. Armenia, east of Anatolia, extending to the region of the Caucasus and the Persian border, is the site of the ancient Kingdom of Armenia. The population is not wholly Armenian—in fact, even be- fore the war the majority of the people were Turks and Kurds—but here the bulk of the Armenian race was found. It is a rugged land, a succession of mountains and valleys, where the people have had to contend with nature for the establishment and maintenance of their homes; but, like all highland countries, it has been the means of producing a religious, freedom-loving people. They were the first nation to embrace Christianity when, in the latter half of the third century; their king, Tiradates, accepted the new faith, and most of the nation followed him. Throughout all the succeeding centuries they have remained steadfast against wave after wave of per- secution, until this last storm of hate and fanaticism has swept the greater part from their homes and has destroyed at least a million—two-thirds of the entire people. THE LAND OF .SALADIN, THE KURD Kurdistan, a hill country north of the Tigris River, is the. home of a brave, virile, largely illiterate series of tribes and clans known as the Kurds. They are the descendants of the Cardushi, who gave Xenophon and his ten thousand so much difficulty on their march across these same hills on their way to the sea. Nominally they are Moslem in religion, but they have retained many elements of heathen worship. Some of their tribes are “Yesdi,” or devil worshipers. They are home-loving, frugal, and capable of enduring great hardships. They practice strict monogamy and their women occupy an equal place with their men in the family life. The Kurds have numoneale at least one great man to history, for Saladin, the chivalrous leader of the Saracen hosts, the -compeer ‘of -Richard Coeur de Lion, was from this people. Mesopotamia, Upper and Lower, vies with Egypt in claiming the honor of be- ing the home of ‘ancient civilization. It comprises the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Here flourished the Chaldean, Babylonian, and Assyrian em- pires. The city of Bagdad, with all its glamour of mystery and magic, is in the heart of Mesopotamia. ONCE THE RICHEST LAND IN THE WORLD This was the richest land in the world, the granary of the ancients; yet, in spite of all that it has been, it today lies largely 60 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Underwood & Underwood THE WALLS OF NINEVEH: MESOPOTAMIA, TURKEY IN ASIA Out of the past of this land, now ruled by the Turk, speaks a glory of military power, material wealth, literature and art, philosophy and religion. Centuries before the Christian era, a regularly appointed librarian had charge of the library of Nineveh’s King Ashurbanipal. That institution was open to the public, for Ashurbanipal himself recorded: “I wrote upon the tablets; I placed them in my palace for the instruction of my people.” waste, the desert sands have encroached upon the fertile fields, while the clogged canals have turned other portions into swamps and marshes. What population there is—not more than one million—is of Arab origin and the Arabic language is spoken through- out. . There is! in’ facta, very, distinct dividing line between the Arabic and the Turkish-speaking portions of the Otto- man Empire. This boundary corre- sponds with the line of the Bagdad Rail- way from the Mediterranean to the Per- sian Gulf. It is for the exploitation of this rich land of Mesopotamia that the famous Bagdad line was built. Syria, the region extending from the Taurus Mountains to Egypt and from the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 61 desert to “the Great Sea,” needs no iden- tification. It is the land of the patriarchs and prophets and apostles—‘“the Holy Land.” Its population numbers about three and a half millions, of Semitic ori- gin, speaking the Arabic language, and yet with so many races intermingled through the centuries of the various con- quests and occupations that the people cannot claim any one race as their own. Greek, Roman, and European Crusader have all blended with the ancient Semitic stock to produce the Syrians of today, whom Lord Cromer, in his Memoirs, termed “the cream of the East.” In Syria was the one green spot of Turkey—the Lebanon Mountains. In 1860, because of massacres, the European . Powers insisted that these mountains be made autonomous. And since that date this little district has been a living dem- onstration of what good government will produce and of what the people of the land are capable of becoming. The steep mountain sides have been terraced to a height of 4,000 feet: and planted to olives, figs, and vines. Taxes -have been low, safety to person and prop- erty secured, good roads built and kept in repair. The people have constructed more comfortable homes and have sent their sons to schools and college. The story of the achievements of the Lebanon and its sons during these sixty years of autonomy would be a thrilling narrative in itself. Now that autonomy has been taken away, the Lebanon is prostrate in famine. NATURAL FEATURES Practically the whole Turkish Empire is of the same surface configuration— high mountain ranges along the sea-coast, with elevated plain and plateau in the in- terior. ‘These inner plains are generally fertile, being constantly renewed by soil washed from the surrounding mountains. Where rain is sufficient, or where water can be obtained for irrigation, they pro- duce fine crops of grain. In ancient times the mountains were everywhere covered with forests. The cedars of Lebanon not only furnished timber for the building of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem, but the kings of Egypt annually floated large rafts of logs from the Syrian coast to supply the de- mands of the cities of the Nile. This constant demand from foreign lands, to- gether with the lack of any system of reforestation, has practically denuded the mountains of the whole land. Once more to cover the mountains and hills with pine and cedar and oak would be a simple task if carried on systematic- ally. The chief enemy today of refor- estation by nature is the herds of goats, which every spring roam over the whole country and devour every green thing. The little seedling trees suffer especially. POPULATION OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE The population of the Ottoman Fm- pire, not including Arabia, is about 18,- 000,000, or was before the war. In giv- ing statistics on any subject regarding Turkey one speaks in approximate terms, for only estimates can be given, as no thorough census is taken or other statis- tics systematically gathered. Among the various races this total was distributed as follows:. Turks, 7,000,000; Syrians and Arabs, 4,500,000; Kurds, 2,000,000; Ar- menians, 2,000,000; Greeks, 1,500,000; Jews, 500,000; other races, 500,000. All of these peoples can trace their his- tory back to the period when fable and legend blend with the beginnings of his- toric facts. And all, except the Turks, have inhabited, from time immemorial, the districts in which they are now found. These races represent the three great monotheistic religions, which have also originated within the boundaries of the Turkish Empire. About two-thirds of the entire population are Mohammedan, but of different sects. The Christians, also, are divided into many sects, repre- senting nearly all the great divisions of the church. The Christian races are the most pro- gressive part of the population ; they have been most responsive to education and have made some progress in establishing schools of their own. The Turks are the most backward of all; yet under proper encouragement and facilities they are capable of good progress. In competition with Greeks, Armenians, and Syrians, however, they invariably fall behind. It should be noted that of 48 Grand Viziers who have risen to prominence ee uorssoiddo Ystyiny, ysurese paj}fOAst ATJUI01 sey atdoad sty, , SUOT}eU Joyjo JO yey} 0} ‘Tenbs Ssureq ssury} J9y}0 ‘1or1adns yqnop JnOYIIM pue uordoziod [eorsAyd toy} 0} oyeuorjsz0doid sduaStyJoqur aray} : UMOIq JO[OD Joy} JuRs2J9 pue Jsnqo1 sInsy sy} e1suss UI Us JO o8es9Ae oY} PAOde OZIS Jay} ‘ojnNdeB ATO}ISINDxe asuas Fo suRSIO IY} - sueadoin’y JO Jey} UeY} JOoftod atow syoodsar [je ur st sinyons4s [eorsAyd IY T,, >Sqery 94} 0} 9}Nqi1} sty} pred sey ‘uorjrpedxe uerdg pue ueiydAésriy Sto] oY} UO [e19U96 UOISIns SuoajodeN sem oOyM ‘Karre’] ap uoieg aqIaL YHMVS INUG THL JO avav Nv sloyynsiey *q Aq yde1so0j,0yg «¢ DANINF OY} FO JWouTUOS 4}, 0} pity} e pue “Jussoid ay} JO JUZUTJUOS VY}, OF DUO (“Ysed 9} JO JuauT} “UOD 9}, OF 9SUO—SUOTIIIP 99IY} UL JNO Yoo1}s SWI VdIYT, ‘UoTIsod s1yde1s09s S}I WO} Sastre A1yUNOD siy} JO 9dINOSazI Jso}e0I8 oy} Ing PoultofFsued} PUR] IIOY} 99S P[NOM suOIjesaUIs VInjnj ‘possourey sAaTTea UreUNOUT s}t JO JaMOd-19}VM 9} YAK ‘S9oys pue YYO]O ur yoeq wos} PeAtooo1 Se pUk—sopIy PUL TOOM puUe H[Is—syeliajeUl MeI Jay peosqe peddiys sey jnq ‘K1jun09 Surmyegnuew ev udeq sdADU sey Aoyiny,, ATMUNL WIGONIINVISNOO : OOSHYT ‘IV,, ONIGNAW € XO *f Joulj10yy Aq ydessojoyg SS 62 JO URUOJUICUT oY} PUL juatuystjqe}sa 94} aridAy] “JL 281095) Aq ydeisojoyd “APULIFSIIYO oovsquia O} UOTeU JsIy SY} SBM JT “SolMoY Joy} ul d4nyeUu YPM pud}uod OF pey savy sdood oy} oLoyM SAoTTeA PUR sUTeJUNOLU FO UOFSssons v SI PIudWIy VISVWV JO LSVa “AMHYYAH AO ALIO NVINUWAV AHL ate 64 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE With the exception of Damascus, Smyrna is the largest city in Turkish Asia. Photograph by Helen E. Jacoby NATIVE STREET TYPES IN SMYRNA This, the ‘chief seaport of Anatolia, has a population of more than 200,000, of which fully one-half are Greeks, 60,000 are Turks, 20,000 Jews, 12,000 Armenians, and 15,000 Europeans and Levan- tines. In November, 1914, diplomatic relations between the United States and Turkey were strained for a time, when a Smyrna shore battery fired on a launch from the U. S. S. Ten- nessee, which had been dispatched.to European waters to assist American tourists in return- ing home. ‘Turkey’s explanation was that the shots were fired not with hostile intent, but to warn the launch that the harbor was mined. within the past four centuries, .those whose names would be in _history’s “Who’s Who,” only 12 have been Turks ; all the others were either of Greek or Armenian origin. Taking the country as a whole, the per- centage of illiteracy is between 80 and go. The government educational program is very comprehensive, but exists largely on paper. The Turk is able to dream great dreams, but amazingly unable to bring those visions to reality. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 65 THE VARIED RESOURCES All of the varied resources that con- tributed to make the nations of antiquity materially great are still available for the future enrichment of the people dwelling in those same lands. Herodotus, writing of Lower Mesopo- tamia in the noontide of its prosperity, declared: “It is far the best corn land of all the countries I know. It is so superb that the average yield is two hundred fold, and three hundred fold in the best years. But I will not state the dimen- sions (of the plants) I have ascertained, because I know that for any one who has not visited Babylonia and witnessed these facts about the crops for himself they would be altogether beyond belief.” In the days of the early Caliphate an inventory showed some 12,500,000 acres of land under cultivation; and Sir Wil- liam Wilcox in his report, “The Irriga- tion of Mesopotamia,” published in 1911, states that the Tigris-Euphrates delta is an arid region of some 12,500,000 acres, but capable of easy leveling and reclama- tion. The Arabic name for this region is Sawad, which means the black land. And northern Mesopotamia is equally rich in possibilities. In ancient days this was a district “so populous and full of riches that Rome and the rulers of Iran fought seven centuries for its possession, till the Arabs conquered it from both,” writes A. J. Toynbee. The same author points out that “in the ninth century A. D. northern Meso- potamia paid Harun-al-Rashid as great a revenue as Egypt, and its cotton com- manded the market of the world.” It is well known that our word muslin is de- rived from the name of the city Mosul, in Upper Mesopotamia. SPLENDID POSSIBILITIES ; NEGLECTED RESOURCES And why should this land not be pro- . ducing as well as ten centuries ago? The soil and the climate have not changed. The rainfall and the water for irrigation are just as abundant as in the days of old. The people are the same that lived then in the land, equally industrious and thrifty. Why have the past four cen- turies laid a blight over the fairest corn land of the east? But it is not Mesopotamia alone that offers agricultural returns in the Empire of Turkey. There are the fertile sea- coast plains of ancient Philistia, the up- lands of Moab and Ammon, the wheat fields of the Hauran south of Damascus, and the great valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, in Syria; the whole elevated plateau of central Asia Minor, with Konia (ancient Iconium) as its center. There are the fertile river val- leys and hillsides of Armenia and Kur- distan, together with the famous Cilician plain and the regions about Smyrna and Broussa. Not only grain of every kind rewards the industry of the peasant, but also fruits of every variety, semi-tropical and temperate, are easily produced. Who has not eaten of the figs of Smyrna and the dates of Bossrah or heard of the grapes of Eschol? PRIMITIVE METHODS OF AGRICULTURE The first interest of the Turkish Em- pire is agricultural. From north to south and from east to west it offers splendid opportunities to the farmer. And these lands in great part lie uncultivated. _Res- ervoirs for the storage of water and other irrigation works that might change desert acres to producing fields are not con- Stnucveds The most primitive modes of cultiva- tion are still in use—the ox-drawn plow of Bible days, the cutting of great fields of grain with the sickle, the threshing- floor, where wheat is trodden out by the hoofs of animals; the slow and painful hand labor, with clumsy instruments, that yields but a minimum of return for the effort expended. It is all a tale of splendid possibilities, but of neglected and undeveloped re- sources. Yet it is a promise to the future generation of boundless productivity and of untold wealth in store for progressive industry and a benevolent government. The marvelous resources of this Em- pire are not comprised in its agricultural possibilities alone. The story of Croesus gathering gold from the river sands is not an idle tale. Just this year an Amer- ican missionary writes: “Grains of gold are frequently found in the gravel left after the torrential floods.” 66 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from Charles K. Moser SOLDIERS OF THE DESERT These Arabs are devout Mohammedans, but their country is only nominally under Turk- ish suzerainty. been established—the Kingdom of Hejaz. Not long ago the world awoke one morning to hear that a new nation had The Grand Sherif of Mecca had revolted against Turkish rule, and with the help of men like these had thrown off the Ottoman yoke. Of course, no complete and thorough survey has ever been made of the mineral wealth of Turkey. But German maps (and who has studied Asia Minor more thoroughly than the Germans?) mark de- posits of coal, copper, iron, silver, gold, and lead, with many of the lesser min- erals, such as chrome, emery, manganese, mercury, rock-salt, and sulphur. These are not noted on the map in scarce and isolated localities, but the various de- posits occur with such frequency as easily to explain the German zeal for cultivat- ing friendship with Turkey. The American missionaries resident in the country give unanimous testimony to the mineral deposits. An American pro- fessor in one of the colleges writes: ‘The copper deposits at Arghuni Maaden are wonderfully rich and extensive. The mine now being worked contains 70 per cent of copper, of which about one-half is recovered by the crude method of smelting in use. Ore containing 30 to 50 per cent is thrown away as useless and mountains of such waste surround the mine.” An American doctor states that “the mineral resources of Konia are certainly very great. There are silver mines, lead, and some gold; there are mercury mines a few howe from IKkonia, while chrome, cinnabar, lead, emery, manganese, and rock-salt are found in the province.” THE MOUNTAINS STILL FUEL OF VALUABLE ORE The president of one of the American colleges in Asia Minor reports: “In this region there are known to be deposits of silver, coal, and copper. I once asked an old Greek up among the mountains about his mining experiences, as we were pick- ing our way together among the slag of some abandoned silver mines. He told me he had spent years under ground. J THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 67 asked him whether the mines had closed because the mineral was worked out. ‘Whew,’ he replied, with an expressive gesture, ‘the mountains are full of 10.’ He did not speak with scientific informa- tion, but he had had the experience of a practical miner.” These are a few of the statements made by trained Americans who have spent their lives in the regions of which they write. And all that they tell and more is abundantly substantiated by the reports of the German engineers who have been making extensive surveys for their government. The question arises, How has it been possible for these riches to have remained undeveloped at the very door of Europe? It does seem impossible, but the true answer is given in this sentence from one of the missionary reports: “There are hopeful indications of various other min- erals at other places also; but the Turks have always discouraged attempts at de- velopments.” PETROLEUM DEPOSITS It is well known that the extensive pe- troleum deposits along the Persian fron- tier were a principal cause of England’s desire to participate in Persian politics not many years ago, and the possession of these oil fields has been one of the chief objects of military contention be- tween the Turkish and British in their Mesopotamian campaigns. There are other rich prospects for oil in widely separated parts of the Empire. miter careful’ examination one expert reports: “German engineers have made very thorough surface examinations of this district and had great anticipation for developing large oil fields throughout Mesopotamia. ‘There have been found favorable indications for the develop- ment of petroleum areas in several parts of Asia Minor, especially in Syria and Mesopotamia. ‘The indications in Syria are perhaps as promising of rich oil de- posits as any in the world.” But here again one comes against that stone wall that has blocked all progress of development, for the report quoted above concludes: “The complete determi- nation of the petroleum supply of Asia Minor must await the return of a stable government, upon whose permanency and good faith capital can rely and which will be capable of establishing law and order throughout the territory in question.” WATER POWER The Abana, one of the rivers of Da- mascus, in beautiful cascades, falls from the Anti-Lebanon Mountains to the plain below. A few years ago these waters were gathered into conduits up among the highlands and passed over water- wheels. Now they are not only irrigat- ing the groves of apricots which surround the city, but, doing double duty, are also lighting the great mosque and the city streets and moving electric cars through the oldest city in the world. What has been done with this moun- tain stream can be repeated ‘over: and over again throughout the land. Turkey possesses an wunmeasured power that could be developed from the rivers that tush from the highlands to the sea. Often these streams are great rivers—the Tigris, Euphrates, or Kizl Irmak—flow- ing through narrow gorges, surging along with mighty force, fed by the eternal snows of Ararat, Taurus, or Lebanon. Turkey has never been a manufactur- ing country, but has shipped abroad her raw materials—silk and wool and hides— and has received them back in cloth and shoes. With this water-power harnessed in its mountain valleys the future gener- ation might see their land not only a source of agricultural and mineral prod- ucts, but also a transformer of these into forms all ready for the markets of the world. COMMERCIAL ADVANTAGES But perhaps the greatest resource, after all, of this country arises from its geo- graphic position. Three arms stretch out in three directions—one to “the continent of the past,” one to “the continent of the present,” and a third to “the continent of the future.” Can there be found anywhere else in the world a position so naturally suited for commanding the world’s trade? And in the development of the people who have been nurtured in this land this char- acteristic of trading ability has been bred. The Phoenicians sailed to the farthest 68 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE seas and made Sidon and Tyre the world centers for commerce. The Greeks, put- ting out from their islands near by the Asia Minor shore and from Ephesus and other cities of the mainland, were the great carriers and traders of ancient times. We read that King Solomon, taking ad- vantage of his location beween Egypt and Assyria, carried on a great business of mercantile exchange between these em- pires and became a merchant prince, whose renown spread to the corners of the earth. Following in the footsteps of their ancestors, the people of those lands, the Syrians and Greeks and Armenians, have established a reputation as traders the world over. The great trunk lines of commerce be- tween the north and the south and the east and the west should pass across this country. In years gone by all the nations of Europe maintained commercial repre- sentatives and warehouses in the city of Aleppo. This center was the mart of ex- change between Europe and the eastern lands. That position could easily be re- covered and surpassed, for the city lies at the natural point of meeting of the great world trade routes. SPLENDID NATURAL HARBORS There are natural harbors which with little engineering could become suitable terminals for the land routes. In con- structing the Bagdad Railway Germany had obtained a concession to construct a harbor and stores at the city of Alexan- dretta, near to the place where Alexander defeated Darius, King of Persia. Ger- many was also to have the privilege of policing this port with her own subjects. The importance of Beirut, Tripoli, and Smyrna as ports has already been recog- nized and they are destined to increase. Constantinople is perhaps the finest ‘har- bor in the world, and at this point must pass most of the trade between Europe and Asia. Asia Minor has been and still should be not the bankrupt nation, but the banker nation of three continents. With each of the topics here presented there has always been an “if” or an “ought to be” or “might become.” Turn- ing the pages of history, one reads what this country has been. Reading the daily papers, one knows what the country is. Letting imagination dwell upon the re- sources provided by nature and the capa- bilities of the people, one can form a vision of the country’s future if only one great change can be brought about. In 1453 Mohammed the Conqueror surrounded the city of Constantinople and finally caused the downfall of that city, which had stood for eight centuries as the eastern outpost of Christendom. In 1517 the city of Jerusalem and the land of Egypt also fell. The succeeding 400 years have wit-. nessed the gradual degradation of the land. The cotton and corn fields of Mes- opotamia are now deserts and swamps. The mines once worked have been aban- doned. The cities, once busy with the trade of the world, are today but bazaars for petty bargains and deceit. The peo- ple, with the history of a great past and with capacities second to none, are by in- justice and persecution driven from their homes to foreign lands or subjected to a determined plan of extermination by de- portation, massacre, and famine. The one change that must precede all others, therefore, in order to take the first steps toward realizing the possibilities of which this land and these people are ca- pable is to rid the country of its present rulers. It is not merely to “drive the Turk out of Europe,” for that has prac- tically been done already, but to deprive him of every vestige of authority. Not only have the Christian races suffered at his hand, but the common Turkish people themselves have suffered almost equal wrongs. Before all bars of judgment, because of his incapacity, his inefficiency, and his atrocities, he has forfeited every right to rule. THE PARABLE OF THE UNPROFITABLE SERVANT The parable tells of the servant who, having failed to develop the one telent entrusted to him, had this judgment passed upon him: “From him that hath not shall be taken away even that which he hath. And cast ye the unprofitable servant into outer darkness.” And there is no longer one judgment for individuals and another for governments. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 69 This one change having been made and the forfeited talent having been given to a government that has proved its ability, then the dream for these long-oppressed lands can become a reality. But this change should not mean the handing of Turkey over to be divided up into “spheres of influence” to satisfy colonial ambitions, no matter how long cherished, nor the breaking up of the country into a series of petty States, thus repeating the Balkan menace; but it should mean giving this land a good reorganizing gov- ernment backed by the much-hoped-for League of Nations. With this good government the coun- try, which has long been an unsanitary plague spot, a constant health menace to Europe, will be cleaned up; adequate schools will be provided ; courts of justice will replace those of injustice; proper means of transportation will be con- structed; industries will spring up and the resources of mountain and plain will contribute their share to the support of the world. “Then shall the wilderness blossom as the rose” and “every man shall sit under his own vine and under his own fig tree and none shall make them afraid.” A DAY WITH OUR BOYS IN THE GEOGRAPHIG WARDS By Carot Corry Avtuor oF “FROM THE TRENCHES TO VERSAILLES” AND ‘“‘PLAIN TALES FROM THE TRENCHES” The splendid work which the members of the National Geographic Society are supporting 1s described by the author, who reveals the brave and cheerful spirit in which American youths endure their wounds and faithfully records the language in which they express their appreciation of the provisions which have been made for their care and comfort. HE, first time I visited what used to be called the American Ambu- lance Hospital at Neuilly, just out- side of Paris, and what is now American Military Hospital No. 1, I lost a lot of my horror of such places. It was a glorious afternoon in early spring. On almost every street corner an old woman was selling flowers. There were marguerites and tall, graceful sprays of tiny button-roses, and a perfect wealth of lilacs. I bought a great many of the lilacs, though they were expensive, for I knew that our boys would like them better than most anything else. They’re such a homey flower. The scent of lilacs recalls the yard at home and stands for the reawakening of spring and all that that means. I told my particular old lady that the lilacs were for the American wounded, and she sniffed and said she hadn’t heard there WERE any. ‘The taxi driver de- manded an extra franc-fifty for what HE called a supplement, though I called it a hold-up. At the hospital I found less than fifty soldiers—a few slightly wounded, the rest sick only. The warm, sweet breeze was swaying the curtains, and the new leaves on the trees just outside the win- dows were sparkling after a heavy shower. ‘The nurses were reading or embroidering, and I remember one fellow said it smelled “just like fishin’ time.” Another assured me that although the Yanks had done nothing as yet, “it wouldn’t be long before Fritzie ’d know they were in it.” And it wasn’t. A few weeks later I made my second trip to Neuilly. The lilacs had long since disappeared, but I was able to take an armful of sweet peas of every color. I bought out all that one stand held, and when the little apple- cheeked vender asked me why I needed so many I told her. She insisted upon taking two francs off the bill. “I am eee seme EE JNOW AHL WOW AAINAV AHH. SV SNIVUL IVIIdSOH FHL WOUt GHGNNOM HHL ONTIYd HOIHM SHONWINGWV AO THATA SLI GNV I ‘ON ‘JIVLIdSOH AUVLVNW NVOIMAWV OL AONVYLNA AHL SSOID poy UPOTIoUIY 91} Jo Aso}1nO SeeNy S Sa oreaneaneeses TN TWAleSON AUER + poepunoM s -loypuey ‘sioddiys ‘ seweled otydeisoar) [ruone N yt Jo sarpe ALAIONOS: DIHdV. SSOID) poy UPdIIOUTY oY} Jo AsoINOD pager e ] oMey}edur WOOD: LV eollouWy JO JUoOUI}UI}UOD puL Soqoi-yyeq ° JAOJUIOD JY} O} SUIPpe oI puke ddUL sjoyoerf JUoosayvAUOD ‘s}Inb ‘sueYysfye AUP IY J, “SVaSIOAO PdATQII JOM AIZUNOD 9Y} JnNoyY AS PUe 1701112 NOILVN 4H, JO SYHATNANW AHL AD GANIV LNIVW SGYVM HHI JO ANO nd Re If UL podAlliv MOU DALY So]dT]IB JOYJO pue O Syoryo d A[prpueyds oy} Aq pozeuop soryddns oy} os10faq Udye} stam sydessoj}oyd soy J, ‘ noty} Ayoi90G L. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Courtesy of the American Red Cross ~ A SCENE IN THE CONVALESCENT COURT OF THE AMERICAN MILITARY HOSPITAL, AT NEUILLY, PARIS With its fluttering flags, its brilliant flower-beds, and its gayly awninged shelter porches, this recreation court for America’s wounded in Paris resembles the scene of a garden féte. This is the concert hour, music being furnished by a military band. poor,” said she, “but for the American soldiers, would that I could do more!” The villainous-looking individual in the fiery red vest who drove my taxi said there oUGHT to be a supplement, but in- asmuch as I was going to see the saviors of France, the least HE could do was to refuse to take it. He deposits me in front of the main entrance and | stand-at the top of ihe steps to glance about the courtyard. A dust-covered ambulance is backing in slowly and carefully. The youthful driver jumps down and calls to some one inside the building, ‘“Here’s four more fer ye. What’ll I do with ’em?” Whoever is addressed sings back, “Can they walk?’ And the answer comes, “Tl say they can’t.” Behind this ambulance comes another, and behind that one comes a third, until I count nine all told. I ask the nurse be- side me if she thinks I'll be in the way, but she smiles and says, ‘““Why, how ab- surd! This is only a handful.” A doctor steps up to supervise the un- loading. From him I learn that never has the hospital been so crowded as now. It is supposed to care for one thousand, but three hundred extra beds have been added, and “if they keep coming we'll surely have to put them on the roof.” He points out the two great tents hastily erected on the terrace and says that the operating rooms have not been empty for three days and nights. Every- body is. dead tired and consequently nervous—that is, everybody but the sol- diers. ‘They’re the best dead-game sports in the world. “But come in and see for yourself,” he adds. A CONSTANT PROCESSION OF STRETCHERS We pick our way through interminable hallways between what seem to be miles THE ONATIONAL CEOGCKAPHIC “MAGAZINE re) Courtesy of the American Red Cross DOING HER BIG BIT FOR THE ARMY A member of the American Home Communication Service, in one of the National Geo- graphic Society Wards, receiving instructions from a wounded soldier about the letter home (see page 79). of beds. On each is a suffering, bandaged boy. Sometimes it’s hard to see the boy for the bandages. Occasionally, when the wound is in the spine, the poor invalid is lying face downward, strapped to a board. Fven so, there is always the smile of thanks for the cigarette, the flower, or the magazine. We pass an endless number of open doors, through which I see many more beds and many more boys. We stand close to the wall to allow a rubber-tired stretcher to be wheeled by. It stops be- fore the operating room, and the one on it, in answer to my encouraging wave, throws mea kiss. There seems to be al- most a constant procession of stretchers, for thirteen hundred wounded require countless dressings. One husky lad in ambulance uniform walks at the head and another at the foot. All day long they lift their comrades, first from their beds to the litter, next onto the operating table, then back again into their beds. ‘This is no easy task, To do this work a man must be strong and patient and very tender. And he al- ways is all three. He will tell you that he would much prefer to be at the front, but since he has been placed here it is not for him to grumble. He will wipe the perspiration from his dripping forehead and absolutely refuse a box of smokes because he knows they’re scarce and are intended for the “blesses.” If the man on his stretcher is conscious he waits smilingly until the best-liked brand is se- lected from my supply. If the newly operated one is still in happy oblivion, he picks out what he thinks will please the sick one, promising to put it on the bed- side table. The s-Idier on the stretcher and the two at either end disappear around a cor- ner, and three more come, and after them three more. It would all be most sicken- ing if it weren’t for the thought that these are the youngsters who stopped the rush on Paris, every one of whom will tell you that he wouldn’t give up his experience for a million dollars. The third floor in this hospital is much 74 - THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the nicest. It is the sunniest, hence the cheeriest. The two Geographic wards are rather far down to one end, which makes them very quiet. And that, of course, is the best of all. There are twelve beds in each ward, and there is a battered and banged-up American soldier in each bed. It costs 600 a year to keep him there—clean, beautifully cared for, and well nourished. But that sum cannot pay for the flowers on the tables, the pho- nograph and its records, the oranges in the afternoon, and the all-too-seldom ice-cream treat. Oranges cost ten cents apiece, and as one kid put it, “One ain’t hardly worth the trouble o’ peelin’.””. That boy was full of fever. ANOTHER GEOGRAPHIC WARD FOR THE ““MTGER CATS” I am told that both of these wards are nearly, but not quite, financed for this year, and that there’s talk of the Geo- graphic Society opening a third. If that should come to pass, it would mean that twelve more of what the Germans al- ready term the “tiger cats,” heroes of Chateau-Thierry, or some other point quite as bloody, would eat and sleep in cleanliness and live or die blessing each member. “Hello, American!” calls out a musical voice. ‘Is it true that Washin’ton’s gone dry? I gotta reason foh askin’, ’cause that’s my home town.” “Such being the case,” I say, “I won- der if you noticed the sign above this door ?” “Ii-reckon -1 did’) “he assures ane: “When they rolled me up on the stretcher I kept repeatin’ those words to myself: ‘Donated by the National Geographic So- ciety of Washin’ton, D. C.,’ ’cause I had a feelin’ I was goin’ to get a shock when they shifted me onto this bed. I kept thinkin’ how all the girls in our family had helped in the donatin’, and I kept sayin’ ovah an’ ovah, ‘It’s a good hunch; you're gonna get well.’ An’ first thing I knew I was here in bed as pretty as you please. Thanks, lady; that’s my fav’rite flower. What is it?” Through the wide-open windows the bright health-giving sun pours into Geo- graphic Ward No. 1. Here the men are all ‘on the mend,” so that a visitor, espe- cially one bringing something to smoke, is mighty welcome. FORTITUDE AND FRATERNITY There is an air of real jollity, for the phonograph is blaring out that once pop- ular melody, “Waiting for the Robert E. Lee,’ and even the boy in the wheeled chair is beating time with his one foot. When I can make myself heard I ask him if he’d like to have a flower. “Say, on the level,” he chuckles, “what'd I do with it?” I like him for that, just as I like the little pale one flat on his back on the bed in the corner. I can tell that he leves flowers from the way he handles the one I give him. He is very unhappy because some of the “guys” say he bawled all night. Well, if he did, it was because he was in such agony that half the time he didn’t know he was doing it. This morn- ing he found he’d chewed his handker- chief to rags, so they needn’t say he hadn’t TRIED to be quiet. “That’s all right,” says a meionbor, “but if ’'d a had something to flatten you out with I’d a flattened you out, you bet.” “You!” scoffs the pale one. “Maybe you don’t know that I know it was you who got up outer bed, gave me the drink, and moved my leg three times.” THE BOY WHO DISCOVERED A SPY “Got any chocolate?” begs one who is able to sit up in bed. He doesn’t look more than seventeen, but insists that he’ll be nineteen next Tuesday. He’s got what he calls three “scratches,” and throws back the covers to exhibit a leg bound up like a mummy. I can’t help thinking that I’d hate to have “scratches” like his. “But, gosh! it was worth it,” asserts he.. “If you'll stay with me a minute Wl teil you about it. “T was a motor-cycle despatch bearer, so they let me carry a forty-five. I was pumping up a flat tire when I heard my captain talking to a man in French uni- form. Now, you see, I know a lot o’ Ger- man. All of a sudden this bird gets tan- gled up in his French and begins to fill in with a few Kaiser words. “Ha, Hal’ says I to myseliy) co whnars the little idea.’ I went straight up to him and I says, ‘You’re a spy, that’s what THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE (he) you are.’ Just like that! And he never denied it, but started to beat it. “The captain stood in the middle of the road, with his mouth wide open, as I started’ to run after the Dutchy. He could run some, let me tell you. When we got to the first turn there was a big military car painted just like a French one. What do you know about that? A man inside throws open the door, and then I got busy. Bing! Brine! says I, and he went down like a lump o’ dough. “The fellow in the car jumped out, hauled him in, and the chauffeur started on high. The live one stood up in the back seat, and out o’ three shots he made three hits. Whoopee! Tuis is the life!” HOW THE WAR “GETS” SOME 99 “Funny how this war ‘gets you,’” so- liloquizes a soldier young in years, but old in experience. ‘Why, when I was at home I couldn’t watch my father kill a chicken. Now? Huh! Once I was rac- ing along with some o’ my pals, when we saw a mess 0’ squareheads hiding out in a ditch. ‘All right,’ says I. Take THat fer the Lusitania, and THAT fer the Tus- cania, and THAT and THAT and THAT fer them Belgium babies! And we threw every grenade we had with us.” The man from the north of Ireland, who hasn’t been an American citizen very long, sighs and says, “Sure I like to lie here-and think o’ the sea.” And the one who tells me he was born in Damascus and can speak seven languages compares his children to “bloomin’ roses.” The red-faced fat boy yawns, “Oh fer a dip at old Coney,” and a fourth asks the nurse if it’s true that only seven died last night. ~ PATCH ME UP-QUICK, DOC” A shoulder, now almost well, is being dressed, and the surgeon’s mouth twitches ever so little as he hears, ““Patch»me up quick, Doc, and get me away from here— I’m needed somewhere else.” The funny little Frenchman who an- swers to the name of “Blondy” has com- plete charge of the phonograph. He hardly waits for one record to finish be- fore putting on another. Wondering why he should be here, I am told because he’s “got the habit.” He’s been in the hos- pital so long that no one has the heart to send him away. Anyhow, he’s sucu a help. “But you ought to see him limp when the major comes around!” “Only one thing worries me,” an- nounces a faint voice from the nearest cot. “The top of my tin hat and the top of my nut sailed away together, and if they don’t give me back that helmet I don’t care what becomes of me.” “You ought to wear your soovneer ’round your neck, like I do,’ admonishes another. He boastfully shows us what’s left of a button—really only the rim. His tunic was open when Mr. Bullet said, “Howdy!” “Pretty good work,” says he. “But not good enough.” From the pocket of what he calls his “kimona”’ a proud owner pulls out a piece of hard tack. In its center is a big chunk of shrapnel, and my attention is called to the fact that said hard tack is still intact. “And then they expect a TooTH to crack it,’ he snorts. THE GOLD-TOOTH SOUVENIR “T seem to be the only unlucky one here,’ comes from an interested listener. He has black, curly hair and is so slight that his body is hardly outlined under the blankets. “When I left old Michigan I told my girl I’d bring her a souvenir that WAS a souvenir. ‘None o’ your old Dutch helmets for me,’ says she. ‘I want some- thing o-ri-gi-nal. ‘You'll get it, sis; you'll get it,’ says I. So, after I’d croaked my first I started in. He had the hand- somest gold tooth you ever saw. And BEELEEVE ME! I worked. I pushed and I pulled and I twisted. And just when I thought I had it, I'll be doggoned if it didn’t drop down the poor boob’s neck.” “You unlucky ?” demands an indignant bystander. “What do you think of me? First they made me aM. PR.) and i couldn’t sleep nights for worrying about it.- But, 1 got out of that all right, all right. How? Well, when it came time to do the arresting, I was hard to catch, that’s all. So they dismissed me from the force:”’ Some one inquires if its true that bread is so scarce in Paris that you can be ar- rested for feeding crumbs to the birds. Another says whether it’s true or not, America’s good enough for him. As for France, well, all HE’s got to say about it 76 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Courtesy of the American Red Cross “THE FINEST SOLDIER IN ANY ARMY” A “chunk of iron” from bursting shrapnel had buried itself in the flesh so close to his heart that the surgeons said he could not survive ether, so he told them to cut away without the “knock-out drops.” is that if the Lord came on earth a second time he’d find this country just like he left it: “Oh, I don’t know,” chimes in a third. “Some parts of it ain’t so bad. You take Ix "the Pains “(Aix les) Bains), for iin stance. Some o’ my comp’ny went there for ‘leave’ and they said it’s just grand. You’re met at the depot with a automo- bile and taken to the RIGHT’ hotel. Guv’- ment car, Of Course: 7 At night you=put your shoes outside the door and next morning they’re POLISHED. And you can have your breakfast in bed if you want it. Oh, la-la, la-la!”’ “Doc, \ EP’ (=a) u By Name Though the cost of garters is small, it is greatly to your advantage to buy them by name —“‘ Boston.” You will be well repaid in personal comfort and satisfaction if you make sure that you get the Boston Garter. For real economy pay at least 35 cents. The higher grades give far greater ser- vice for the slight additional cost. GEORGE FROST CO., - MAKERS, BOSTON SaVo AIR MOISTENER FILL WITH WATER, HANG ON BACK OF ANY RADIATOR OUT OF SIGHT } Converts dry indoor air into a moist, wholesome, healthful atmosphere. Saves Health, Furniture. Pianosand whole family from Co/ds. Write for Free Booklet. SAVO Manufacturing Company 315 New York Life Building, Dept. G. Chicago, Illinois SaVo FLOWER AND PLANT BOX Self-Watering and Sub-Irrigating, For Windows, Porches and Sun Parlors Hid Leak-proof and_ rust- eo proof, You can move Savo Boxes indoors or out and have beautiful Flowers and Plants the year around. Write for Free Catalog. The All Year Round Garden SAVO MFG. CO., 315 N. Y. Life Bldg., Dept. D. Chicago, Illinois It takes labor and material to produce the articles you buy. ‘WAR SAVINGS STAMPS 1SSUED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT When you buy articles you do not need, there is that much less labor and material to produce the articles needed for our fighting forces; there is not enough for both. By saving food, fuel, and all other things not required to maintain your health and efficiency, you release labor and material for the use of the Government. If you want to win this war—SAVE—and lend your money to the Government by buying War Savings Stamps. Every $4.19 invested in August, 1918, gives you $5.00 on January 1, 1923. ‘WAR SAVINGS STAMPS ISSUED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT Buy more War Savings Stamps now! THIS SPACE CONTRIBUTED BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY e nrncoormerenncnee, ware - cotneasesirccnemarennanesoinenpesnnnsanncnarncee nnn setnnen tte cosoenesnenene Faeroe et rele chee ens eee a DEITIES | “The Utmost in Cg | ‘Rople of culture and || refinement invariably PREFER_ Deities to any other cigarette. Pi) Makers of the Highest Grade Turkish and Egyptian Cigarettes in the World ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ hy Italy came to d tham ime Italy turned first to Switzerland. Naturally, since she was a neighbor — and Swiss watches were famous. Then on to Paris and London. But the horological experts of this sunny kingdom were “time-scien- tists.” Watch-fame meant little to them — watch-beauty, even less. They had been commissioned by their government to select Italy’s official time- piece. Their sole aim, then, was to look through the surface of a watch into its works—to discover the “true reasons” ‘why some watch was the most accurate time-keeper in the world. They found at Waltham the most dependable timepiece known to science. COLONIAL A Extremely thin at no sacrifice of accuracy Maximus movement 21 jewels Riverside movement 19 jewels Because— Waltham Watches are bought for their works, not on faith. That is why the horological experts of the most progressive nations have chosen the Waltham in preference to any other watch in the world. Because — connoisseurs of watch-artistry will tell you that in the elegance of design and the re- fine eauty of their ensemble Waltham Watches are not sur- passed even by the finest time- pieces of Geneva, Londonor Paris. The Waltham jeweler is worthy of your confidence, because his business has been built on the enduring foundation of quality. Ask him to explain the exclusive advantages of Waltham Colonia! A. This beautiful masterpiece is one of the supreme triumphs of more than a half-century of watch- making experience. It has established Waltham supremacy in the achievement of extreme thinness — without the sac- rifice of that standard of accuracy which has made ALTHAM ‘*‘Mention the Geograbphic—It identifies you.’’ Writes the Instant It Touches Paper OU use a fountain pen for convenience and to save Vine If you have to bother with one, shake it and scratch around for awhile before you get it into work- ing order, you waste more time than you save and are likely to lose your temper as well. The SHEAFFER pen is always ready for action, and the last drop of ink flows as evenly and as smoothly as the first —no skipping, blotting or flooding. It automatically fills and cleans itself with the famous SHEAFFER lever-filler. Every SHEAFFER pen is Ink Tight, too. You can carry it in any position— drop it in a bag or drawer without fear of leakage. The ink tube opens only to pressure on the point of the pen. It is the practical military pen because it fits down into the soldier’s pocket and is always ready. The Sheaffer is the Pen for Universal Use $950 Up Tenn Clip Cap 25¢ 5 =. ——— Sold by Good Dealers Everywhere UNDER MONEY BACK GUARANTEE W. A. SHEAFFER PEN CO. SERVICE STATIONS Fort Madison, 203 Broadway, New York City 504 Consumers Bldg., Chicago lowa Monadnock Bldg., San Francisco Painted by Denman Fink for_Cream of Wheat Company Copyright 1909 by Cream of Wheat Company. MECN SEO SDS ER TON, PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. SHIT GEFICERS ~ IWSIGHIA | GENERAL LIEU. GENERAL MAJOR GEHERAL BRIG. GENERAL COLONEL Used by : Officers ane Men 22 HE Parker Self-filler is the pen HE will appre- ciate, because it is the only pen thatis SAFETY- SEALED. Hundreds of thousands of Parker Pens, carried by our boys overseas, form the connecting link between the heroeson the battle front and the home. SAFETY-SEALED means that in event of injury to interior mechanism, pen is not put out of com- mission, but automatically changes from a self \ filler to a non-self- filler. SAFETY-SEALED means that no ink can leak out to soil hands or uniform. The Parker Washer Clip does not slip on, nor is it riveted on; it is held in place like a washer. Cap does not protrude and pre- vent buttoning pocket flap. Fits Preccthe : : only the Parker. Button. The same exclusive advantages that make the PARKER the favorite in Parker Clip securely held the service make it equally desirable in place—holds pen to for those at home. | devel oF mockot. /Bbe Parker Ink Tablets, dissolved in wa- ter, make fluid ink. Box of 36, 10c. TEACHERS—Free for Class Room Use. Illustrated color charts showing six epochs of writing sent Free upon request, Look up the Parker dealer or write us for a catalog. Parker Pen Co., 18 Mill St., Janesville, Wis, New York Retail Store, Woolworth Building 5 a 4 THE NATIO GEO GRAPH MAGAZIN AUGUST, 1918 od aN | CONTENTS Aaa \ hea. Tal iin unica iY \ at Sy 0 ‘g MS, Ca SSS epee rsage nN Hint Bringing the World to Our Foreign-Language Soldiers With 4 Illustrations CHRISTINA KRYSTO Recent Observations in Albania With 22 Illustrations Brig. Gen. GEORGE P. SCRIVEN ~The Ukraine, Past and Present With 14 Illustrations NEVIN O. WINTER Sa, z oan | ae r The Acorn, a Possibly Neglected Source of Food With 8 Illustrations C. HART MERRIAM Our Littlest Ally With 16 Illustrations ALICE ROHE fioendiuidl icin ey The British Take Baku With 1 Illustration Mdina " U PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD ,MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. Dre bd] ef Mad | tte he FG NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, DIRECTOR AND EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE O. P. AUSTIN 1916-1918 FRANKLIN K. LANE Secretary of the Interior Wit~ttaAm Howarp Tarr Formerly President of the United States ‘C. M. CuHeEster Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly + Supt. U.*"S: Naval Observatory I’reDERICK V. CoviLie Formerly President of Wash- ington Academy of Sci- ences JoHN E. PILusspury Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation RupoLtpH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor The Even- ing Star T. L. Macponatp Ne Dee A Gs S: S. N. D. Nortu Tormerly Director U. reau of Census S. Bu- PRESIDENT SECRETARY BOARD OF MANAGERS 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. Howarp Gore Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic aa Major Gen’l U. S. Army GitBert H. GrRosvENOR Iditor of National Geo- graphic Magazine GeorcE Otis SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. Tirrmann Formerly Superintendent of U Coast and Geodetic Survey Henry WHITE Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. JoHn M. WILson Brigadier General U. S. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers JOHN E. PILLSBURY JOHN JOY EDSON . : , GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER RALPH A. GRAVES VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER ASSISTANT EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR 1918-1920 Cuarces J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company Joun Joy Epson Chairman of the Board, Washington Loan & Trust Company Davin FarrcHitp In Charge of Agricultural Explorations, Department of Agriculture C. Harr Merriam Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. AvustTIn Statistician GeorceE R. Putnam Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GeorcE Suiras, 3p Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photogra- pher GRANT SQUIRES New York To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. “the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,” All receipts from the publication the National are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage. and be addressed: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, EDITOR A. W. GREELY C. Harr Merriam O. H. Tirrmaann Rozgert HowwuisteER CHAPMAN Watrrer T. SwINGLEe Copyright, Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. C., Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Sec. October 3, CONTRIBUTING CDITORS ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Davip FarrcHILp Hvucu M. Smirn FRANK 1918, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. as Second-Class Mail Matter. 1917, authorized July 1, N. H. Darron M. CuHarpman All rights reserved. Act of 1103, 1918. Sy i} Cie ; nw YM y S cr dle NLD OO wy Ey i Llp e Dp re “ wy Oy UV; Wy SS f* SS s y aly / yj Vig) At LOCOMOBILE i The building of the Locomobile is carried out on a rather restricted SSS MSs >>3 basis numerically. SS Specializing on quality instead £; SSNS SSS BE SW of quantity is an unvarying policy adopted years ago. RRQ» : ER : py Ss. SRG N Y \ L THE LOCOMOBILE COMPANY OF yk iy Makers of Fine Motor Cars gO ql” ry Ve : 2) (pw 7 ; a **Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ How I Improved My Memory In One Evening The Amazing Experience of Victor Jones “Of course I place you! -Mr. Addison Sims of Seattle. “Tf IT remember correctly—and I do remember correctly—Mr. Burroughs, the lumberman, intro- duced me to you at the luncheon of the Seattle Rotary Ciub three years ago in May. This is. a pleasure indeed! I haven't laid eyes on you since that day. How is the grain business? And how did that amalgamation work out?” The assurance of the speaker— in the crowded corridor of the Hotel McAlpin—compelled me to turn and look at him, though I must say it is not my usual habit to: “listen in’ even in a hotel lobby. “He is David M. Roth, the most famous memory expert in the United States,” said my friend Kennedy, answering my question. before I could get it out. “He will show you a lot more won- derful things than that, before - the evening is over.” ?- And he did. As we went into the banquet room the toastmaster was introducing a long line ‘of guests to Mr. Roth. I got in line and when it came my turn, Mr. Roth asked, ‘‘What are your initials, Mr. Jones, "and your business connec- tion and telephone number?” Why he asked. this I learned later, when he picked out from the crowd -the 60 men, he had ‘met two hours before and called each by name without a mistake. What is more, he named each man’s business and ..telephone number, for good measure. I won’t tell you all the other amaz- ing things this man did except to tell how he called back, without a min- ute’s hesitation, long lists of numbers, bank clearings, prices, lot numbers, parcel post rates -and anything else the guests had given’ him in rapid order, ; * ! * * * * When I met Mr. Roth again—which you may be sure I did the: first chance I got—he rather bowled me over by saying, in his quiet, modest way: “There is nothing miraculous about my remembering anything I want to remember, whether it be names, faces, figures, facts or something I have read in a magazine. “You can do this just as easily as I do. Anyone with an average mind can learn guickly to do exactly the same things which seem so miraculous when I do them. “My own memory,” continued Mr. Roth, “was originally very faulty. Yes it was—a really poor memory. On meeting a man I woild lose his mame in thirty seconds, while. now there are probably 10,000, men and women in the United States, many of whom I have met but once, whose names I can call instantly on meeting them.” ‘to it. “That is all right for you, Mr. Roth,” I interrupted, ‘‘you have given years But how about me?”’ “Mr. Jones,” he replied, “I can teach you the secret of a good memory in one evening. This is not a guess, be- cause I have done it with thousands of pupils. In the first of seven simple lessons which I have prepared for home study, I show you the basic prin- ciple of my whole system and you will find it—not hard work as you might fear—but just like playing a fascinat- ing game. I will prove it to you.’ He didn’t have to. prove it. His Course did; I got it the very next day from his publishers, the Independent Corporation. When I tackled the first lesson, I suppose I was the most surprised man in forty-eight states to find that I had learned in about one hour—how to re- member a list of one hundred words so that I could call them off forward and back without a single mistake. That first lesson stuck. And so did the other six. Read this letter fron Cc Tone Allen, who at 32 years became president of a million dollar corporation, the Py- rene Manufacturing Company of New York, makers of the famous fire ex- tinguisher: “‘Now that the Roth Memory Course is finished, I want to tell you how much I have enjoyed the study of this most fascinating subject. Usually these courses involve a great deal of drudgery, but this has been nothing but pure Pleasure all the way through. I have derived much benefit from taking the course of instruction and feel that I shall continue to strengthen my memory. That is the best part of it. I shall be glad of an opportunity to recom- mend your work to my friends.” Mr. Allen didn’t put it a bit too strong. The Roth Course is priceless! I can absolutely count on my memory now. I can call the name of most any man I have met before—and I am getting better all the time. I can re- member any figures I wish to remem- ber. ‘Telephone numbers come to mind instantly, once I have filed them by Mr. Roth’s easy method. Street ad- dresses are just as easy. The old fear ot forgetting (you know what that is) has vanished. used to be: “‘scared stifft?? on my feet— because I wasn’t sure. I couldn’t re- member what I wanted to say. Now I am sure of myself, and con- fident and ‘‘easy as an old shoe’? when I get on my feet at the club, or ata banquet, or in a business meeting, or in any social gathering. Perhaps the most enjoyable part of it -all is that I have become a good conversationalist—and I used to be as silent as a sphinx when I got into a “crowd. of.people.who knew things, Now I can call up like a flash of lightning most any fact I want right at the instant I need ‘it most. I used to think a “hair trigger’? memory be- longed only to the prodigy and genius. Now I see that every man of us has that kind of a memory if he only knows how to make it work right. I_tell you it is. a wonderful thing, after groping around in the dark for so many years to be able to switch the big search-light on your mind and see instantly everything you want to re- member. _ This Roth Course will do wonders in your office. Since we took it up you_never hear anyone in our office say “‘I guess” or “T think it was about ,80 much’’ or salt forget that right now” or ‘I can’t re- member” or “‘I must look up his name.’ Now they are right there with the an- swer—like a shot. - Have you ever heard of *Multigraph” Smith? Real name H. Q. Smith, Di- ‘vision Manager of the Multigraph Sales Company, Ltd., in Montreal. Here is ‘just a bit from a letter of his that I saw last week: “Here is the whole thing in a nutshell: Mr. Roth has a most remarkable Memory Course. It is simple, and easy as falling offalog. Yet with one hour a day of prac- tice anyone—I don’t care who he is—can improve his Memory 100% in a week and a 000 % in six months.’’ My advice to you is don’t wait an- other minute. Send to Independent Corporation for Mr.: Roth’s amazing course and see what a wonderful mem- ory you have got. ‘Your dividends in increased earning power will be enor- mous. VICTOR JONES Send No Money So confident is the Independent Cor- poration, the publishers of the Roth Memory Course, that once you “have an opportunity to see in your own home how easy it is to double, yes, triple your memory power in. a few short hours, that they are, willing to send the course on free examination. Don’t send any money. Merely mail the coupon or write a letter and the complete course will be sent, all charges prepaid, at once. If you are not en- tirely satisfied send it back any time within five days after you receive it and you will owe nothing. On the other hand,.if you are as pleased as are the thousands of other men and women who have used the course send only $5 in full payment. You take no risk and you have every- thing to gain, so mail the coupon now before this remarkable offer is with- drawn. FREE EXAMINATION COUPON ao em net ie 8 1 om om em ee, o_o a Gndependent Vorporation Division of Business Education, Dept. 558, 119 West 40th St., New York Publishers of The Independent, “The Most Satisfactory War Journal in America.” Please send me the Roth Memory Course of seven lessons. I will either remail the coursé.;to you within five days after its receipt or send you $5. ee Nat. Geog. . It’s Child’s Play ...,.to raise or lower a car with the (Weed Chain-Jack ' To lift a car with the Weed Chain-Jack, simply give a few easy pulls on its endless chain while you stand erect—clear from springs, tire carriers and other projections. To lower a car pull the chain in opposite direction. 10 Days’ Trial If your dealer does not have them, send $7.50 for any size for pas- ZB : re $ The Jack senger cars, or $15.00 for the Truck size, and we will send you one, That Saves all charges prepaid. For delivery in Canada send_$8.50 for any - size for passenger cars or $16.00 for the Truck size. Try it 10 days. Your Back (Tf not satisfied, return it to us and we will refund your money. MADE IN. FOUR SIZES Height When Height When |Height When Raised Lowered Raised With Aux. Step Up ay a) a aaa er ee 8 inch 8 inches 12 1-2 inches 14 1-2 inches $7.50 10 inch 10 inches 15 3-8 inches 17 3-8 inches 7.50 12 inch 12 inches 1S daz inches No Aux. Step 7.50 91-4 inc 12 in. Truck 12 inches inches No Aux. Step The 8 inchand 10 inch sizes are made with an aux- iliary step as illustrated. When in operative position \. this step adds two inches to the height of the jack. é Lie, SS ZG , S | 4 MERICAN “SS. S ee WQWSSEY [we = : = (Ss z WS —S> SSE =< =Ss —_ HAIN COMPANY, SSiSs = Bridgeport, Connecticut. In Canada-DOMINION CHAIN CO.,Ltd., Niagara Falls, Ontario. LARGEST CHAIN MANUFACTURERS IN THE WORLD ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Save the Thoughtless ollars “I got the sweetest hat today. And, my dear, of course, I didn’t really need it, but—” * * * * “What if it is only a few blocks? Here, taxi!” * * * * “I know I'd feel a lot better if I ate less, but I simply must have a big order of—” * & e * Over there in the Picardy mud, pock-marked with significant craters and ‘‘plum-caked” with unspeakable things that once were men, our soldiers. can’t hear all that some of us are saying. Good that they can’t, isn’t. it? It wouldn’t make it any easier to stand firm: against those blood-crazed, grey hordes who come on wave after wave because they believe their Kaiser is “God’s anointed shepherd of the German people.” * * * + It isn’t that we Americans are a selfish people. We have simply been thoughtless. Moncey is needed to win this war—let’s give it. So far, "0 i 7”... °e e °°. y E66 °° . . w”” QQ GW "”}F'Féhp WN wu °° ° = 7’ 7™° = '"l°e?: ty '"/-.Qy»]]|1w}1}} YY Midd MW CMM ger | GAN NN NSN Wd ddd Vdd MMMM dda “Uist Udi MMMM dd I Wllddddddddd Y WY liditiibitithdddddsttititdddd az -) CINCINNATI & GAMBLE CO Wherev COPYAR'GHT 1918 BY THE PROCTEA NN SNS 33 r1- Ivory Our ing to er among those present is as unchangeable a part of Ame ¢ ws the flag follo 1t 1S America goes, *s use fe as the pract fact Ivory can | VORY SOAP NAAN WH NS \ OMONMNMNOM\OMNMMMO®W, NANA N NNN aon n~n~nnnnnnnyg~oonwewennnenennewi~»hh Opp AH EET NAAT ANE ET RMIT ER EIA NT HERR RAHHIAHRAKHRAAGHAHHANRTATTTE SSSA HANWHA HELEN NARADA AEE S EBSA SURREAL AEN UAANARINRESISIN ADD DNBSNNNAAAD AWN AANNUTAAADNNNNNAAAARRAAAAANADDEADAAANNAADNAKAAANAARANARNTIBADIDA}AANAA ATAU SAAANAASSET ETT the front clean clothes and 1V iness. f livi d from joy o 1eve ice of cleanl recreation, the very they are rel for rest a bath b in 1 Soap 1s, Boys when ines ] WSC OMIA SSSA Ss ~ d »~ IVORY SOAP VEE We Wit. NNN N NAA NAAN SSS 990% PURE WSN NN IT FLOATS NINININY NNN ZGGY 4444 WLLL WLLL Z Z te Z Ze eee ALLLILLLLLLLIPOLLELILILLELELLLLELILLELELEDLELELLELEZTITTTIDOOLUPOOLTOOTITIPUITLLLILIED Witt tty % ILMLLLLLLLILLLLEEL of Z SSS ONY Ns QA SSS NG SANNA NNN SSO YZ ZZ NWN YN Ws NAS NNN NINN NN HNIN NNER NNN NNN NNN NNN BLN NAAN NNN NNER NNN NNN NNN NNSI\SN NNIASN NNENNN NNN NNN NNSA Saws SSNS NNN NA NA NN ULLILLLILILLLLILLLLE LLU LILLL LILLIE LL ELILEILLL ie Le Vsp000 ella ddd ddd ELLE ddd edd deeded ddd WIM HIYEAA YL Gann ¢ ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Vow, XXXIV, No. 2 WASHINGTON AUGUST, 1918 THE NATIONAIL GIEOGIRAPIHIC MAGAZINIE BRINGING THE WORLD TO OUR FOREIGN- LANGUAGE SOLDIERS How a Military Training Camp is Solving a Seemingly Unsurmountable Problem by Using the Geographic By CurisTiInA KrystTo* HIS is a story of adventure. We know that this is so, because when the word adventure came up in class for definition some days ago the mild-eyed Norwegian on the end of the bench said, thoughtfully, in his uncertain English, “Adventure is something new and we like it.” Teaching English to the foreign sol- alters here in Camp Kearny, California, is new and we like it. We like it even when we have to write our spelling words on planks because there are no blackboards; we like it even when a major and a cap- tain together come to visit our classes just as we are calling on our dullest pupil; we do not lose faith even when those classes are taken from us in a body and put on dire KP.’ and we‘are left, with a beautifully prepared lesson and some- times a whole piece of chalk, pilfered somewhere, to stare at empty benches. * Miss Krysto, a member of the staff of the Bureau of Immigrant Education, of the State Commission of Immigration and Housing, of California, was designated by this organiza- tion to assist the United States Government in the education of foreign-language soldiers at Camp Kearny. In the following article she tells how this work was pursued. To be sure, we were properly launched in the work. Other camps might boast of a better school organization, of a better teaching force—might easily boast of better equipment. but to Camp Kearny belongs the distinction of having had the shortest, most comprehensive, and—tak- ing into account its aim and purpose— the most successful normal course in the teaching of English to foreigners which has ever been given in any camp or—we think we are safe in asserting 1t—any- where else in America. A SIX-WEEKS COURSE IN THREE DAYS Camp Kearny detailed its teachers to teach even as it detailed its pupils to learn; and then, through the efforts of the Commission of Immigration and Housing of California, the only woman who — to quote herself — was ‘‘mad enough to try the thing’ came down to camp and, with just three days at her dis- posal, gave her six-weeks’ normal course. It was an attempt which was destined from the start to fail and which suc- ceeded, as such things sometimes succeed when one is “mad” enough to try them. The Superintendent of Immigrant Edu- 82 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE cation in Los Angeles, Miss Ruby Baugh- man, may forget many things among the thousands with which she must charge her mind, yet she will never forget the roomful of sergeants, corporals, and pri- vates, detailed to teach, who sat through her lectures four hours of each day for three days, and every day at the end of the four hours had to be ordered from the room because they would not leave voluntarily! In their turn those sergeants, corporals, and privates will not forget the clear- featured, clear-eyed woman who talked to them through all those hours and laid before them, in all its hopeless intricacies and with all its unending heartaches, the entire foreign problem of the American Army. No one knew how she did it; perhaps she herself did not quite know. She talked of school-rooms and lessons and methods of approach. She taught, some- how, the story of the foreigner. Men who would have left the room had she tried by a word to convert them stayed and were won over to her faith. THE MISSION OF THE KHAKI-CLAD TEACHERS Normal course—always the words will mean just this to us: a low-ceilinged, stuffy room, with the merciless glare from the hot world beating against the windows, the ceaseless droning of a graphophone in the adjoining hall, the continuous rumble of heavy wagons on the paved road just outside the door, the strangely mournful clatter of cavalry trotting’ past. And, above it alla great truth being told, the truth of silent suf- fering or, worse still, the apathy which follows upon suffering on the part of those who have ears and cannot hear, who have tongues and yet are dumb, who understand neither the commands of their officers nor the chatter of their mess companions, who do not know why they are, where they are, wand: what sit 15 all about. Between these men of foreign tongue— the silent, discouraged horde—and en- lightenment stands that roomful of khaki- clad men—sergeants, corporals, and pri- vates detailed to teach. Something very fine rose and grew in that room in those three days—something which found expression two weeks later in the glowing plans of two of the teach- ers who had been ordered to France. Eager to go, triumphant, they still found time to plan—not any glory for them- selves, not any heroic deeds, but a school “over there” for the non-English-speak- ing soldiers who might be within their reach when they were “settled” overseas. To hope that their plans will find sub- stance is, perhaps, to put an impossible strain upon the nature of soldiers of 19 and 20, and yet we are awaiting with impatience our first letters from France. PROBLEMS OF QUARTERS AND HOURS All too soon the three days had gone; normal school closed its doors; Miss Baughman left us to our fate, and we, the khaki-clad roomful of “permanents” and a few outsiders who were given the privilege of assisting, scattered through the various units of the huge, sun-baked, dusty camp and took stock of our sur- roundings. Quarters? The Y. M. C. AMecture halls, with the eternal graphophone grind- ing in the next room; dim, empty mess- halls, and, out at the remount station offices, a saddle shop the door of which somebody was forever forgetting to un- lock on time. , Hours? Classes met after supper, the men dull and tired after a day of trench digging and drill and scorching sun; the classes met in the afternoon unless other duties interfered, and other duties, it seemed, were always calling. In some of the units, through the tire- less efforts of the chaplains, the learning of English was put on an equal basis with drill, and men marched into the mess- halls, cheerful and alert, ready for this extra branch of soldiering; and we won- dered, as we talked with these chaplains, whether they knew how thoroughly fraught with importance was their work of pioneering. Equipment? Here and there a black- board; here and there a piece of chalk, an eraser, wrapping paper for note- books; for the most part a few long benches, a table, the teacher’s two bare hands, and that intangible something which had had its beginning in those first THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 83 Photograph by Christina Krysto “IN THE HANDS OF A COMPETENT TEACHER, THE CHART BECOMES AN INEX- HAUSTIBLE SOURCE OF INFORMATION” Without photographs the study of geography in connection with the war would be a difficult matter for men who have not learned the trick of imagination three days and which took from the camp classes the taint of the “Mex” and the “Wop” and the “Squarehead” and made them all plain fellow-men—Americans. Is it not, after all, a little strange to speak of forcigners in the American Army? PATHETIC INADEQUACY OF PRIMARY TEXT-BOOKS But we could not teach on that alone. We looked through the supply of books to be had, the discarded readers of public schools, and we put them back into their boxes. First-grade readers! We had visions of six-foot Juan Lopez intoning, “Run with me To the tree,’ while he ached for a fuller understanding Of. tent, and rite, and cuard, “and “bayonet.” We could hear our advanced pupil, Gus Nelson, trying to satisfy his “1999 OY} APOHUYOP AJIA SEM oY YIymM fo “PULL AL pussy tb U4uL je pLUsoy Isey VY} JU ssbjy Uelpe}] SLY popjom yaeris -oj0yd siy} Ur URE}, SuNoA oy, ‘syidnd ay} wos osuodsad JoIpeat B SPUY sse[I oy} Se Aj[euOT}eU oles oY} FO Jaye} oY} “SkeMTe JOU YSnoy} ‘UFO _HOVaL OF AOL V GNV ANVW OF AOL V SVM SIHdVaN0HD AHL Wodd Adv oyshIy] CUTYSIIYDS Aq ydessojoyg 6 LAVHO UNILSHIVd HHL 39 Jaquinu Sept oy} pue ‘roquinu oHnRIAY oy} ‘sioqiunu pig oy} JO sUO PayNusp! oq AvUL d19Y} ‘PossoIsus s1v LyeYy UL SAOG 9Soy} YSIYM UL OIMdVADONL) OY} JO Sonsst oy} suo WIASLI ANIZVOVW AHL AUL OL ACVAN SILI ‘SOIHAVUOOND UIVNOILVN AHL JO Saad Id AHL WOW AGVW SLYVHO AHL HLIM UVITINVA ATHONOYOHL ANON SVH SUHIGIOS ADVONONV'I-NOIAAOT FO SSV'IO V WALAv oysAIY eurstiyy Aq ydeisojoyg wnetsitestete 86 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE craving for a knowledge of aeroplanes with the story of Aladdin’s lamp. We wondered where those paper-bound pam- phlets of fables and myths would fit in. We reached joyfully for the histories and found them built about the tales of the Crusades. One world map,—that was a glorious find—one world map upon which to build our empire! To be sure, as time went on we found use even for Aladdin’s lamp and sent for more discarded Fourth Readers. But that was when we ourselves discovered the connection between that lamp and aéroplanes. At the start we set about the manufacturing of our own “books.” Charts were not new to us. Standard- ized Peter Roberts charts and leaflets, dealing with military terms, camp. eti- quette, the care of the clothing, could be had feady.4imade- and: were excellent. Lessons based on the vocabulary of the General Orders,—some day perhaps a tragedy will be written on the non-Eng- lish-speaking soldier and his General Orders—these, too, had their place. But they were not enough. FIRST STEP—CONVERSATION All beginning lessons of immigrant edu- cation must center about conversation. Much as he longs for the book and easily as ‘he ‘learns’ to read, the — foreigner, whether. in military camp or factory, needs, first of all, to understand and to be understood. There is nothing more difficult than to make a foreign pupil talk, for the cour- age which is his when his hands grasp a book and his eyes are glued to its page forsakes him when hands and eyes lose their support. And between straight reading and straight speaking comes the picture chart. The subject - matter for beginners’ charts centered about such words as peun, “<= Shoot, rm soldiet.. . omieen. fimarch. = anil, saben ss teate as ian« “hear,” “see,” and we thought that they would be easy to make until we tried to find appropriate pictures for our illus- trations. The “intermediate” charts were easier, and they were determined by a few brief questions in class. We take so easily for granted the sol- dier’s—any soldier’s—knowledge of the tools of warfare. We somehow believe that even though he has neither news- papers nor magazines, neither lectures nor casual war conversation, he still, by virtue of his months in a military camp, acquires military information through the pores of the skin, as it were. Which is true perhaps of the care of his gun and the hours for mess. THEY LACK PRIMARY CONCEPTIONS What is a tank? What is a submarine? What is a howitzer? Out of what are aeroplanes made? What is a transport? What is a destroyer? What 6) ved Cross? It is not that many of these for- eign soldiers lack the English words to tell us. There is no concept of the things themselves. We gathered photographs and more photographs from the magazines in the camp library store-room. We procured huge sheets of wrapping paper. With these and with a stamping press, and scissors, and inkpads, and glue we made our charts—the tank and the aéroplane and the ships in the process of construc- tion, at rest, in action, with appropriate words and legends printed under the pho- tographs. All these were, primarily, for the less advanced classes, though we who made them gathered much new knowl- edge as we worked. “HOW DO WE GO TO FRANCE?” The geographic charts came later. It was Corporal Pickett who raised the question. Corporal Pickett—he is Pri- vate Pickett now, for he learned that only privates were wanted for the last con- tingent which went across—taught a class in the 160th which met in the evenings stupid with weariness. Truly, this class needed a bright and stirring lesson. The magic word “France” was in the air, and Corporal Pickett asked a question, think- ing of a lesson in transportation: “How do we go to France ?” The class, to a man, looked him over indifferently and said no word. “Aw, come on now, fellows; how do we goto France?” A very baffled teacher he was, face sunblistered, hair upstand- ing, despair in his eyes. “José Cano, don’t you know how we go to France?” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE S7 “We go,” said José Cano, laboriously, “on train. Bimeby, maybe, we walk.” Those men left for France the follow- ing week. “FROM NEW MEXICO TO THE UNITED STATES; We held a council of war that evening. A. fellow-teacher from the remount sta- tion joined us, coming with the light of a stupendous discovery in his face. “What do you think I’ve run across ?” We could not guess. “Romero was having a time with his words. I asked him how long he had been in the United States. “Seven months,’ he said. “ “How long in Camp Kearny ?” “Seven months.’ “Where did you live before that?’ “Mexico.” “T don’t know what made me ask the next question: ““Old Mexico?” a Noy New Mexico.’ ”’ in ~New. Mexico. all his life, in the United States seven months! An Amer- ican citizen by virtue of his birthplace, and America to him was a military camp set in the middle of a desert! Later we ceased to be astounded. There were many from New Mexico. And we found not a few among them who, when they left New Mexico, came to the United States. So the geographic charts really had to be, and, much as the beginners liked them, it was among the more advanced classes that they found their true appreciation. When war is so much a matter of geography, it is inconceivable that a lec- ture or recreation room in any camp building can be considered even partially equipped without a world map on the Brai, ( However determined and loyal a sol- dier may be, it is hard for him to wax enthusiastic over a war which is being waged somewhere off in space. And it is no less difficult for him to have a no- tion of the part which various countries have played and are playing in this war unless he knows something of the coun- tries themselves. ‘‘Allies” is, at best, a hazy word, unless one can tie it down to some sort of a picture or a printed page. THE RAID ON THE GEOGRAPHICS Back in the camp library, scissors in hand, we smiled our way past the dubious librarian and slipped into the alluring store-room. “Anything but the Nationat Gro- GRAPHIC MAGAZINES,” he cautioned. “Nothing but the GrocraPHics,”’ we assured him, and held firmly to our point. Belgium, France and Italy, England and Holland, Mexico and the British Em- pire—we made charts on all of these and then found Palestine, and the Palestine series was a joy to make and a joy to teach. The rich, glowing colors of the illustrations, the stirring appeal of the recent Jerusalem campaign—nothing but the initial stand of Belgium touched those classes as did the war story of the Holy Land. THE NORTH AMERICAN MAMMALS NUMBER Presently we deviated from our geo- graphic path. We came upon the North American Mammals number of the maga- zine. It took us long to make the three charts which exhausted those pictures. Over the bears, especially, we lingered, with our fingers in the gluepot. We rather ex- pected a cheerful welcome for that chart, but the shout of joy from our most stolid beginners surpassed our greatest hopes. “Little white baby swim,” said Pablo Moreno, cautiously enunciating his words, as he stared at the tiny Polar bear which was being towed by the mother. “Big brown bear look under rock for lizar’,”’ added Pedro Ramirez, not to be outdone. It was an unexpected sentence, and yet, who knows, perhaps that is just what the big brown bear is looking for. The chart on trees was hardly less ef- fective, especially at the remount station, which very soon will be the Paradise of the camp, because its major believes that trees are the beautifiers of the earth, and acts upon his belief. ‘The remount sol- diers may not know how to dig trenches, but surely holes for trees have no terrors for them. With the photographs of the giant redwoods we combined those of forest fire and let the class draw its own INIZVOV OIHdVUDON) IVNOLLVN 94} JO Sotdod WO1F opeUr SYOOd-}x0o} ainjoid fo pre oy} YJIM od1;9vId OJUL aSpo[MOUy As9y} Jnd usyy pue skep 991Y} UI 9SINOD JOOYIs [eUIOU SYIIM XIS B Posq1osqe OYA SJoIpfos Auleoy duedy jo penbs Vy SIVA LOId—SIUVHO AOVOONV'! ‘IVSYHAINO ONISON AG SYHIGTIOS AOVOONWI-NOIMYOT YOO HOVAL AYHL ojsf1y euljstiyg Aq ydeisojoyg THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 89 conclusions, which it did, quite satisfac- torily, as follows: “Big fire start with cigar; we fight with wet sacks.” HOW -brte PTCYURE CHARTS ARE USED Left to themselves, the pupils read the legends stamped under the photographs, look at the photographs themselves, and clamor for another chart. But in the hands of a competent teacher, the chart becomes an inexhaustible source of in- formation. ‘Tacked up on the wall be- side a map, it gives use to an endless con- versation, whenever the teacher insists that the answers to his questions be given in full. “Where is Holland?” “What are the countries around it?” “What do we call the people of Hol- and?” “Is Holland at war?” “What are the products of Holland?” “Why would she be an important ally?” “What is meant by ‘below sea-level’ ?” “How are Holland’s low fields pro- tected?’ “What happens when a dike breaks ?” “How could dikes be used in warfare ?” “What did the Belgians do with their dikes when the Germans overran the Bel- gian lowlands?” “Tf Holland is neutral, why do we see so many cannons in the photograph ?” “What other country uses dogs to pull loads ?”- The list of questions is without end. Most of the answers are found in the photographs attached; some come from the map; some rise unexpectedly out of a bit of vague, half forgotten informa- tion; still others have to be supplied by the teacher. At first glance, the questions may ap- pear difficult. One would suppose that men who could answer them were in no need of immediate instruction. But the weakness of those “advanced” classes lies just here; that the men who under- stand fairly well talk haltingly, timidly, with countless errors of pronunciation and sentence structure. Yet their minds, in their native language, if one may use Pie. term, are reaching out fora tuller understanding of the war itself, and the craving must be satisfied. THE CHART OF THE UNITED STATES We waited for a time before making a chart of the United States, though we held our photographs in readiness. Per- haps we were beginning at the wrong end when we taught the countries of Europe first; and yet Camp Kearny is already a part of the war and the war is in France. But when Mr. Olsen, of that “crack” class which holds three Mexicans, two Italians, one Greek, one Austrian, one Pole, one Russian, one Dane, and Mr. Olsen, asked for a chart of America, we had it ready for the next afternoon. It was a chart from which might be taught a lesson of the opportunities of- fered by the United States. A city street there was, and several factories, a model farm, a railroad through a seemingly hopeless ravine, an artificial lake, Niagara Falls—queerly enough not one of the class had ever heard of Niagara Falls— the redwoods of California, the jungles of Florida, the snows of the North. They had a good time with that chart. They peopled the office buildings with professional and business men, they built the dam from canyon wall to canyon wall, they quarreled over the railroad bed. We discovered that “in the old country” our Polish friend had tried his hand at -en- gineering, that Mr. Pappas had once walked from one end of Florida to the other, seeing “many snakes, long and some Short’; -that.cenor Ljuna’s brother had recently struck gold on the slopes of a desert mountain in Arizona. Not many questions were needed that afternoon to stimulate conversation. And when the hour came to an end, the excited Lipnitzky was. quarreling with Sefor Chavez over the advantages of turbine wheels and getting the best of the argu- ment. THE MEXICAN AND THE ITALIAN PUPIL COMPARED It is customary to believe that the Mex- ican is indifferent to learning English and the Italian is eager for the opportunity, vet some of the finest pupils in Camp Kearny are -Mexicans..> Phe ditterence lies chiefly in the method of attack. The Mexican, quite unconsciously, plays at indifference, yet is disappointed 90 | THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE if the lesson is not thrust upon him. The Italian reaches out for information. A Mexican, in studying a chart, will answer stolidly and reluctantly, and then, after class, will stand long and thoughtfully before it. An Italian begins to talk be- fore the chart is really in place and, given a chart of Italy and an Italian class, the passers-by out in the street will stop to listen to the result. The question of who learns the more quickly is easily answered. But we can- not dispose so easily of the question which deals with the wish to learn. And, indeed, after. a very few days with our charges, we stopped wondering whether or not the foreigner wants to learn his English. The terrible pity of it is that we do not always realize in time just how much he wants to learn. There was a man out at the remount station who was pointed out to us as sulky and indifferent. ‘The typical Mex- ican,” so the introduction ran. The teacher took him in hand. He was coaxed and prodded and “encouraged” for days, and with each lesson grew more silent, less responsive, more ill at ease. And then one day, when a question too many had been hurled at him, suddenly and without warning,—unless one choose to take as warning his “stubbornness,” his “unresponsiveness,” his “stupidity’— his head went down into his arms. And in the silence which followed, as pupils and teacher looked away from his shak- ing shoulders, there rose a dreadful accu- sation, which reached far beyond the boundaries of Camp Kearny. It was, after all, very simple. The class was getting away from him; he could not keep up with the work and he felt himself being left behind. He, too, had come from New Mexico into the United States. AFTER THE WAR After the war, whatever else may be, the world will become a smaller place. Geography will become a more friendly, more intimate thing, more closely con- nected with the every-day opportunities of man. In those opportunities the foreigner at home will have a share; the “foreign”’ soldier will come “home” to them. What- ever aid he may be given now toward a better understanding of the world as a whole will not be lost, especially when in learning of the world he learns to speak the English language a little more readily. And so we are glad we found on that evening, in the store-room of the camp library, the pile of the GEOGRAPHICS. RECENT OBSERVATIONS IN ALBANIA By Bric. Gen. GeorGE P. Scriven, U.S. Army F THE country in general, it may () be said that Albania, as delim- ited by the maps existing before the war, is now under control of the Ger- mans, the Austrians, and. the Bulgars to the north of the latitude of Berat and the lakes, and under control of the French and the Italian troops to the south. The Greeks as yet have no control within the boundaries established by the Conference of London, while the English and the Serb theaters of operations lie in Mace- donia. The western part of southern Albania (soon perhaps all of west Albania, if the present Italian success carries on) is the more important section on account of the richness of the valleys and the value of the harbors. on the: Adriatic (Sea; Pic territory is in the hands of the Italians, and is the part of Albania which forms the crux of the problem under considera- tion. Its disposition will determine the future fate of the country, for I believe that as this region goes so will Albania as a whole go. It would be idle as well as wrong to attempt to break asunder this numerically small but homogeneous race of mountaineers. The sector occupied by the Italian troops at the present writing runs north of the river Viosa (also called the Vo1- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AL ussa) from about the bend of the river Semeni, with the Adriatic on the west, Greece to the south, and by the left flank of the French Armee d’Orient on the east, in the neighborhood of Ersek, on the line of communication from Santi Quaranta to Saloniki. The French sector is smaller than the Italian and numbers fewer people, though within its boundaries are included the lakes Ochrida and Malik and the fertile valley of the latter, in which is Koritza, probably the wealthiest town of the country. Throughout southern Albania—indeed, probably throughout all of Albania in these days—government is administered by the armies of occupation. The people have little to say as regards their own affairs and have been almost completely disarmed. In the Italian section, how- ever, many local prefects and magistrates hold office and administer the law as it now exists, the old Turkish Code having been partially replaced. NATIVES APPOINTED TO OFFICE For this administration lower courts have been established, methods of. pro- cedure drawn up, and, wherever possible, natives have been appointed to munor offices. This recognition of the Alba- nians and delegation of authority to them has caused great satisfaction. They are beginning to understand that under the mild military control of the Italians they are treated simply as Albanians, without regard to religious differences. No in- iquitous distinction in law is now made between Orthodox, as the people of the Greek Church are called, and Moham- medan. In this respect the Italian wisely differs from the Greek, who, perhaps nat- urally enough, sees little good in the Moslem. The French have gone a step further than the Italians in Albanian affairs, last year proclaiming an Albanian republic at Koritza. Of this, however, at the time of my visit to Koritza, I could find no trace. The republic seems to have died quietly and naturally. It probably had no support from the people and was a forced attempt of the foreigner, upon whom the Albanians always look askance. As a matter of fact, the Republic of Koritza had no reason for its existence. It seems that an Albanian, Germani, had been induced to come over from the Aus- trian camp to become prefect of police, a most important post in the new republic, but something went wrong with Ger- mani; he has disappeared. At all events, Koritza and the surrounding country to- day remain under French control. man is a fighter, put-an open fighter who scorns a treacherous advantage; he believes in the vendetta, but will warn his adversary before strik- ing him. If he becomes a bandit by pro- fession, he is not in his own eyes an out- law ; he lives beyond the control of law. He strikes his enemy, but would scorn to be a mere murderer and is above being a thief. Honorable in his dealings with strangers who are properly accredited to him or his community, the latter are safe under his roof. He is especially honor- able in his attitude toward women. It is said that before the war, alone and un- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 103 Photograph from Gen. George P. Scriven CELEBRATION AT’ VALONA WITH ITALIAN OFFICERS AND NATIVE CLERGY IN THE STAND Valona is one of the chief cities of southern Albania and is beautifully situated on the shores of the Gulf of Valona. Under the Italian influence it has been made to thrive and prosper. protected, a woman could travel safely from one end of Albania to the other. The women are worthy mothers of the men. Industrious and hard working, I have seen hundreds, indeed thousands of them, some with their little children, sit- ting by the roadside with a few old men, breaking stone hour by hour through the long day, hot or cold, and earning from the Italian Government three lire per day with their bread and cheese. Even the little children are given the latter in pay- ment for their puny efforts. No doubt the French pay as well as the Italians; and so the people live better now, prob- ably, than in times of peace, since their bread is secure. | In Albania the women are the work- ers, the Orthodox more so than the Mo- “They are hammedans; but all work. moral too; prostitution is unknown, and so an illegitimate child is said to be a dis- Stace to the mother, the family, and the community. The Albanians are somewhat harsh of feature, though the children are bright and the young girls are sometimes pretty. The unattractive appearance of the women is increased, if not caused, by the non- descript garments commonly worn in these days, shabby, ill-fitting, and fastened together anyhow or nohow. Of the people of Macedonia, seen in the towns or along the roads and the countryside, the same may be said. In both regions there is little that is char- acteristic in the costumes. Clothing, gen- erally of an inferior European make, is worn perforce, for even in Albania wool 1s now very scarce and dear. The pretty national dress of the Alba- nian is seen only on gala occasions, when the men come out with the white skirt, - over tight-fitting breeches, vest and coat ‘of white wool, with the pointed, tufted shoe and white or red turban, and usually, especially in the rain, the long sheepskin cloak, generally black. The cap, or fez, HS St 4] ‘Aueq¢y wos ‘pousnjo.s SUM pUe ROTIOUY 0} pUuel[SsUyyT WOTZ JUIS A[JUOI0I SEM -o8e sieah poipuny v ‘uogqis) PreMpy—WeLIO}sIY 9} 9JOTM RoIOUY JO JOIIIJUI sy} UY} UMOUY sso st -‘Aye}] JO JYSIS Ut ysnoyye “eueq{y,, VINV@IV (STITH ONIIOWIONA AHL GNV Tavlos 104 | IJ UL OJUL Jd}U9 07 poulepsIp UosodeNy uaAd jou ‘AyessayT, pue ‘viueq yy ‘sn4sidy fo toyseur poyndsipun oy} sy ‘ostiduiyp ULWIO}G VY} JO eYsed [HZramod Jsour 9Y} 9UIvIIq UIT} UL TV ‘pa1ojn} sii], Jopinw sauoied-siy SulsucAe JO vopl oy UM TOs Joy poltes pie purd puesiiq & pozuesio ‘jajoeieyo Jo so10fF Areurpsoeljxo JO URWOM v ‘ioyjow sity Uodnaray AA “SfaTyO Suroqysrou Aq UIPIS SAA ‘Tuajaday, Jo Aoq Areyrpasoy oy} “iayyeF sty ase Jo srvaK ugo}INOF SEM ITY UIYM "ULI, YIM dU] VINV@IV: INSIAd a), 2 VHSVd VIV JO WILSVO AHL 80 AGIS .LSVa AHL UdALIOS "gq 98109‘) ‘uax) WoIZ YdessojoYT 105 Photosraga from Gen, Ganeee P: Seniven ALBANIANS DANCING AROUND THEIR OWN COLORS AND ITALY S ENSIGN AT: DELVINO: ALBANIA “The wild Albanian kirtled to the knee, with shawl-girt head and ornamented gun,” of whom Byron sang, is seldom seen nowadays, except on gala occasions, such as this. The native finds it cheaper to dress in factory-made clothes of western Europe. The poorer classes are never handicapped by extensive wardrobes; in some sections the inhabitants sew their garments on, and these are never removed until they fall off. f Photoses on by M. A. Stein MOUNTAINEERS IN GALA ATTIRE CELEBRATING A FEAST DAY IN TOWN: ALBANIA 106 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 107 Photograph from Gen. George P. Scriven ON THE ROAD TO ARJIROKASTRO “In these days the women seem to have no special dress. Sometimes they appear in trousers of a kind, with a long, legging-like stocking drawn over; sometimes they wear skirts and shoes, if they can get them.” judging from the veil that obscures her face. however, is worn when -.possible as a symbol of race. 3 In these days the women seem to have no special dress. Sometimes they appear in trousers of a kind, with a long legging- like stocking drawn over ; sometimes they wear skirts and shoes, if they can get them. The women of the poorer classes now appear hardly more than beasts of bur- den, carrying on their backs great bun- dles of brushwood, or maybe of heavy stones, that rest on a kind of wooden pack in the form of a shelf placed be- tween the shoulders. In the fields, too, they are seen plowing or digging deep into the soil, always with sad, work-worn, patient faces that reflect the harshness of their lives. THEIR CHIEF DESIRE The Albanians are probably neither so good nor so bad as they have been This one, wrapped in her white robe, is a Mohammedan, painted, but certainly they are worth the effort necessary to develop them and their country. Their chief desire now is to be allowed to manage their own affairs and to work their little farms in the fertile valleys, to herd their sheep and weave their garments of wool, if only they are let alone. They do not submit easily to government, “have no love for chance strangers, and are slow to accept change in the manner of living or of cultivating the fields. Nothing has been said of the minerals that surely are to be found in the moun- tains of Albania. Lyttle is known regard- ing the latter, for they are practically unexplored. It is not improbable that with the advent of the armies systematic search for mineral wealth will be made. Mineral pitch, or asphaltum, has been known since the time of the Romans, and near Valona I have seen specimens, clean, black, and hard, which promise well. Minicabs pi Photographs from Gen. George P. Scriven A STREET OF ARJIROKASTRO “They are all pleasant places to look upon, nestling among the mountains, in the valleys, and by the sea, with their old gray walls and roofs of stone dotted with storks; but they possess none of the comforts or conveniences of modern life.” 108 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 109 Traces of petroleum, too, have been found by the Italians, and I am told boring is, or is about to be, under- taken. Copper and iron*are believed to exist in the hills about the Malik Valley, and coal, silver, and lead are said to be present elsewhere in the moun- tains. Gold mines were worked in _ ancient times and Albanian silver was known to the Venetians, but the whole mountain coun- try has lain neglected for ages. It cannot be doubted that with the coming of the soldiers, the building of roads, and the development of the country now going on, especially in sections occupied by the Italians, there will be a change in Alba- nia and in its people. CLIMATE IN UPLAND AND LOWLAND The climate of Al- bania is considered healthful in the up- lands, though subject to violent changes, which are trying to the stranger, at certain seasons, even if he is confined to one lo- Guity. But when a traveler, moving rap- idly about the country in a motor—the only practicable way of traveling in these Photograph from Gen. George P. Scriven A REPRESENTATIVE OF THE OLDEST RACE IN SOUTH- EASTERN EUROPE The Albanian calls himself a “Skypetar’—Son of the Mountain Eagle—and he deserves the appellation, for he has made his home among the barren crags of his native land for many centuries, main- taining to a remarkable degree his independence and his racial in- tegrity. days—rushes several thousand feet from year and the valleys then look their best. a mountain height, cold and windy and Snow, of course, lies in the mountains probably snow-covered, into a warm, sun- until well into the spring, but seldom lasts shiny valley and back again in the frac- throughout the summer, as the tallest tion of an hour, it is well to have a care. peaks do not attain an elevation of more May is the pleasantest month of the than 8,000 feet. 110 THE CUSTOM-HOUSE AND BOAT LANDING AT; SCUTARE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by M. A. Stein : ALBANIA The boat commonly used on Lake Scutari is known as a Jondra, and somewhat resembles a Venetian gondola, though more crudely built. run high out of the water. Both prow and stern are sharp-pointed and According to its size, it may be propelled by from: one. to. twelve ‘oarsmen, who stand facing the bow and sing a wild barbaric chant as they force their oars through the water in short, quick jerks. Malarial fever afflicts both Albania and Macedonia. The army medical report in my possession gives a rate of 25 per cent since the occupation of Albania—prob- ably an average, for 1 have heard of one command having 80 per cent of its.men sick with malarial ‘fever at one time However, the health of the troops at the - time of which I am writing, the spring of 1918, was very good. The fever .of the Balkans i is persistent, but is not especially fatal Stullonteis ‘to be dreaded for its lingering effects and the great debility it causes. The usual specific is quinine, a supply of which is placed on the mess table or carried about in the pocket... In Macedonia, especially north of Sa- Joniki, in the Struma: Valley, which pro- duces probably the finest cigarette tobacco ‘of the world, there is found a climate said to be as bad as that of the west African coast. Winters are short,, but cold and rainy, and the country roads become almost im- passable lakes of mud, over which there can be little transportation. In conse- quence, military operations are limited to the few metalled roads that exist and to the dry season. SPLENDID HIGHWAYS BUILT BY, ITALIANS Before the arrival of the Allies, one of whose first cares was to improve the roads, few highways existed in Albania and Macedonia, except the old Turkish road from Santi Quaranta to Saloniki, with its branches in the former country south to Janina, in old Greece, and north to Berat. During my stay in Albania I traveled by motor over many miles of road built by the Italians—not mere ephemeral mili- tary lines of communication, but perma- nent highways,admirably traced and skill- fully built. I speak particularly of the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pee Photograph from Gen. George P. Scriven ITALIAN SOLDIERS ARE TEACHING ALBANIANS THE ADVANTAGES OF MODERN HUSBANDRY Under the direction of General Ferraro, several up-to-date experimental farms have been established in southern Albania and the natives are being taught to use the most improved farm implements, such as American plows, cultivators, and harrows. In the valley of Monastir the British also are introducing modern agricultural methods; one of their army farms has an area of 1,000 acres. magnificent 55-mile turnpike from Valona to Tepeleni and the highway from Santi Quaranta to Valona. The latter is proba- bly one of the most interesting examples of road-building to be found the world over. It was constructed, under the di- rection of General Ferraro, by Italian sol- diers and several thousand Austrian prisoners, aided by the Albanians of the ‘country-side, who were paid by the Ital- lan Government. It extends 81 miles, for the most part along the Adriatic, but high above the sea. Built for the permanent use of the people of southern Albania, as much as for military purposes, it is, like the old Roman roads, made to last through the centuries, and this is one of the superb highways of the world, both in point of construction and outlook. It was sufficiently completed for .motor travel in the remarkably short time of © about 67 days. There is today a good metalled high- way running from Valona all the way across the Balkan Peninsula to Saloniki, a‘ distance 0f;363 miles. -It is the old Turkish Highway which had long lain neglected and had become almost impass- able in places, but which is now kept in excellent repair by the troops and money of Italy, France, and Great Britain. It is almost impossible to conceive of the existence of a railroad in Albania; yet with the development of the country rail- roads will come, and who can doubt that this war, terrible and destructive as it 1s, will bring with it into the shadowy re- gions of the world the torch of enlighten- ment and progress? : fa Albania needs light and help from the great people of the earth. ‘Too long has she lain in darkness, with the hands of her neighbors always at her throat. It is no wonder that she gropes in the infancy jersey, ‘sieok ooh uey} as0Ur 10F syuatoYpe d1oyIe) “‘URUIOY SY} Pue XOPOyIICO yoo15 oy} JO sioqmatu oy} YyJoq ysureSe UONeUTUTIDSIP Uddq Pry g191]} aUTSA1 YSOFIN, Xa) Japuy, ‘URNSTIYD pue Wo[soPY UaaMjoq suOTUTsIP OU SurMeEIp are sueTTEIT OY) SuTeYe werueq¢y JO yonpuoo set} Uy VINV@IV 2! VIVWIHO Ly MOIAWAS SQOIOTTAN V WALIV SNVINV@IV AZALLVN GNV NOILVdNd00 JO AWUV NVIIVII ZHI JO SHAILVINASHUdaY UIATIOG *q 981094 “ud wWo1z Ydessojoyg THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of national life under the tutelage and restraint of the child; but she is a lusty infant, promising a sturdy maturity, when once a suitable and acceptable guardian for her can be found. A LAND OF LARGE ESTATES The lands of Albania are largely owned by great proprietors. Many of the estates were in the hands of Turks before the war. Others of the great land-owners are Albanians, among them the powerful family of the Vlores, at Valona, which is said to possess over I50 square miles of land. This family, Vlora (flower), gives the name Valona to the town. As an in- dication of the upheaval due to war in Albania, it is interesting to note that one of the sons of this historic house is now interned in Sardinia; one is in the Italian army ; one is in Switzerland, and a fourth in Constantinople. The great ancestral home stands lonely and neglected—a roosting place for storks. Farm lands are worked to a great ex- tent by tenants, but some are owned and cultivated by the villages or communi- ties, which they surround, and the owner- ship of these is secure. But what of the lands owned by the absent Turk or Al- banian, of whom, as in the case of the Vlora family, some are sympathizers with the Allies, others with Turk or Austrian? This question looms large in the future. Albanians hold to the ancient methods of farming. The crooked stick, some- times reinforced with iron, still serves as a plow, and a pair of small oxen or an ox and a buffalo draw the implement. A great iron hoe is used by the women to break the sod. The ground yields abun- dant return, producing in the valleys, es- pecially of the south, good crops of rye, oats, barley, and corn (maize). But sheep and goats are almost the only wealth of the people who live on the mountain slopes. Forests are few and the mountains, as @ tule, are rocky, barren, and’ stern of aspect. Often, however, they are cov- ered with a low, green scrub. Occasion- ally, high on the mountains one sees pines and firs, even among the snow fields. The Turk has never spared trees, and as a consequence both Albania and Mace- donia are almost denuded. Even in the 1138 fertile valleys the oak, beech, poplar, and walnut are to be found in no great num- bers. The plane tree is perhaps most conspicuous. Of fruits there are the mulberry, cherry, and pear, while in the Chimara, on the coast, the oranges and lemons are magnificent; and around Va- lona olive groves flourish and are well cared for by the Italians. Grapes which yield a fair wine are grown in Albania, aid SO, t00,.1S tobacco, NATIVES ARE STUDYING: ON-IPALYS EX- PERIMENTAL FARMS By the application of modern farming methods the Albanian valleys of the south could be converted into veritable gardens. The Italians have made a beginning in the direction of training the Albanian farmer by means of experimental farms. The best of those that I have seen is at Va- lona. It is established in a valley north of the town, where there are some 400 acres under cultivation, producing wheat and such vegetables as onions, cabbages, and lettuce. Excellent houses have been erected for the 35 farmer-soldiers detailed to culti- vate this farm and instruct the natives, of whom about the same number are em- ployed. The latter are paid one lira per day, together with a little food, princi- pally corn meal. For the instruction of the country peo- ple, as well as for practical purposes, modern methods of cultivation are used and approved farm machinery employed, including an American plow and a gaso- line-driven engine. The farm this spring was only in its second season, but already an average of 4,000 lire per month was received from the sale of the produce, chiefly, of course, to the markets of Valona for use of the soldiers. ‘The farmer-soldiers are also raising pigs, chickens, turkeys, and pig- eons and are experimenting with hares. This is a great work, intended pri- marily as an example to Albanian tenants and proprietors, who are given seed and farm machinery by the Italian Govern- ment, but are required in return to sell their produce for the use of the troops. Prices are fixed at a moderate rate; for instance, eggs for the officers’ mess at Va- 114 lona cost about 14 cents a dozen, whereas in Rome they sell for 50 cents. The success of the Valona experimental farm is due to the efforts of General Fer- raro, who is a great administrator and takes almost a boyish delight in this par- ticular activity. I saw several other ex- periment farms: one at Liascoviki, in the heart of the mountains; one near Perati, at the junction of the Viosa and Sarando- poros rivers, and one in the rich valley of the Viosa, near Premati. So the Italians have made a beginning, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and a good one, in training the Albanians in improved methods of agriculture. But time and opportunity are necessary. Much has been done, considering that this is a period of war, and that all work of improvement behind the lines depends on conclusions fought. out in front of them. Who knows how much would have been done by the Italians for the improvement of Albania if they could have used both hands instead of being compelled to fight with one while they worked with the other? THE UKRAINE, PAST AND PRESENT By Nevin O. WINTER HE revolution in Russia has dem- onstrated to the world one fact long recognized by students of Russian affairs. It is that in the old Rus- sian Empire there was little sense of na- tionalism or cohesiveness. While the racial homogeneity of the Slavs, the pre- ponderant element of the population, has always been most pronounced, the term Russia meant little to the vast majority of the people. There was nothing that could compare with the love of the Anglo- American for the Stars and Stripes, of the Frenchman for his beloved France, of the Anglo-Saxon for Great Britain. With the passing of the Czar and the authority of the church the only forces of cohesion disappeared. Were it other- wise it would not be possible for so many separations of large sections to follow without an apparent pang on the part of those still left or those going out for themselves. It was but natural that Finland should revolt, for the Finns are not even Slavs. But in the case of Little Russia, or the Ukraine, there is a story that is worth the telling. What is the Ukraine? This is one of the many questions that people are ask- ing today. The Poles and the Lithua- nians of a few centuries ago knew well this most turbulent section over which they attempted to rule, and Imperial Rus- sia for a long time was greatly troubled by this very unruly part of her expansive domain. The Tatars and the Turks felt its proximity because of the many raids made upon them by the wild warriors of the steppes. In recent years the Ukraine has quieted down, so that the casual students of to- day hardly realized that there was such a distinctive section left, living in the be- lief that the Slavs of the Ukraine, or Little Russia, as it is better known, had become thoroughly amalgamated with the Great Russians of the Petrograd and Moscow sections. ‘The events of the last few months, however, have revealed the real situation. The Ukraine has had a troublesome career. The wild Scythians helped to feed ancient Greece and her colonies from these same endless steppes whence Germany now expects to draw suste- nance. A thousand years ago Kiev was already becoming an important place. When the Saxons still ruled England, in the long ago, the banks of the Dnieper were a meeting-place for many races, drawn thither by commerce. Religious differences had not yet arisen, for all were worshippers of idols. Even then a Slav people were safely established here. sowing and reaping their harvests and sending their surplus grain down this river to the Black Sea. The name Ukraine means “border- marches.” For centuries it was the bul- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE wark that protected Poland and Lithuania from the Tatars, Turks, and other mi- erating Orientals. As a result it has had cruel taskmasters. The native population was largely Cos- sacks—a wild and unruly people at that time. ‘They were not originally a tribe, but were men who went forth into the wilderness to find freedom. The vast steppes, covered with grass to the height of a horse, within which a multitude of game lurked, lured them on. There were Poles and Lithuanians and Russians and even Turks among them. They became marvelous shots, riders, and swimmers; their horses were famous for their swiftness and endurance. Their differences gradually blended in a unity of purpose and principle. PRIMITIVE GOVERNMENT REPUBLICAN IN FORM The name Zaporogians was applied to the community that was the heart and soul of the great Ukraine. Their govern- ment was crude, but very republican in form. Each year the old officers laid down their duties in the presence of a general assembly, even in that day called the Rada, and new ones were then chosen. ‘As any member of the tribe could be elevated to the highest office, it permitted each one to aspire to this dignity. The highest official was known as the “het- man.” If unpopular, he was sometimes choked to death—an effective, if cruel, displacement. They carried on an intermittent war- fare with Tatars on the east, stealing their cattle and occasionally sacking the unprotected towns. Again, their warring excursions would be directed against the Turks to the southeast, in the Balkans. When tired of this they turned north- ward to the Slavonic population. These early Ukrainians were ever at war with somebody and for somebody. They fought with Poland against Russia, with Russia against Poland, with Poland against Turkey, with Turkey against the Tatars. ‘They assisted in placing an un- frocked monk upon the throne at Mos- cow. They were simply natural warriors who rejoiced in that occupation. The warrior shaved his head except for a wisp 115 on the crown, which was allowed to grow long enough to wind around the ears. Although professing the Orthodox Greek faith, they were the brigands and the corsairs of Christianity. Though nominally subjects of Poland for a long time, the Ukrainians were constantly in- volving Poland in trouble with the Tatar and Turkish rulers. At times they even captured Polish peasants and sold them as slaves to the Tatars, who in turn passed them on to Persians. CHMIELNICKI’S TERRIBLE REBELLION The most serious conflict waged by Poland with her rebellious Ukrainians was during an insurrection under Chmiel- nicki, in-1649. ‘The massacres and cruel- ties perpetrated by the _half-civilized hordes from the Ukraine were as bar- barous as those of the American Indians during the onward march of the whites. The conditions existing here are vividly set forth by the famous Polish novelist, Henryk Sienkiewicz (who wrote many other splendid books besides “Quo Vadis,’ for which he is best known among Americans), in his novels covering different periods in Polish history. Upon the failure of his rebellion Chmielnicki offered the annexation of Little Russia to Moscow. This offer was accepted in 1653, when it came under “the suzerainty of that growing empire.” Always striving for complete independ- ence, the Ukraine was never quite able to achieve it. Two wars with Poland re- sulted from that action. It was more than a century after its incorporation before the entire province was brought into complete subjection by the developing Russian Empire. The “hetman” was maintained for some time; but this office was abolished by the vig- orous Catherine the Great, and under her it became an integral part of the Empire. The Ukraine’s experiences with war and disaster would long ago have broken the spirit of a race gifted with less elastic temperament. ‘There are elements in his temperament that enable him to stand much oppression without revolt. This characteristic may help the German in his attempts to make the Ukraine a subject nation. 116 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A MARKET SCENE IN Photograph by Nevin O. Winter KHARKOV: RUSSIA Kharkov is the leading commercial city of the real Ukraine, for Odessa does not properly belong to the Little Russians, although it is now included in the bounds of the subject nation which Germany is trying to establish. Before the war, Kharkov was the administrative center of the great iron industry and coal mines of South Russia. The Little Russians have worked hard and fought hard, and they have emerged a fairly united and still vigorous people. The population increases more steadily than that of Great Russia, as the people are greatly attached to home and do not care to wander far from their native vil- lages. They are great lovers of the soil and cling to it with a passionate tenacity. EXTENT OF - DoE UKRAINE The Ukraine includes southeastern Russia, with the exception of the prov- ince known as Bessarabia, which partakes of the character of the Balkan States and is peopled with Roumanians and Bul- garians. The great seaport of Odessa and surrounding country have been added to it under the new alignment. The Ukraine does not reach much north of Kiev or east of Kharkov, but it is a large State in itself, about as large as the German Empire, with some twenty-five or thirty millions of people living in it. The largest city of the real Ukraine is Kiev, around which national life prob- ably centers because of the deep relig- ious associations in connection with the shrines and many holy places. It was at one time the capital of all Russia. Khar- kov is the leading commercial town in it, unless Odessa, on the Black Sea, is con- sidered. About four million Ukrainians live in Austria, in the province of Galicia, and allie there known as Ruthenians. They are exactly the same type of people as the majority of those living in the Ukraine and would be classed out them ethnographically. THE LURE OF. THE STEPPES There is a lure about the limitless stretches of the steppes in the Ukraine. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A GROUP OF’ PEASANT WOMEN ON A RELIGIOUS 117 Photograph by Nevin O. Winter PILGRIMAGE TO KIEV The Holy City of the Ukraine is visited annually by hundreds of thousands of pilgrims. It is the Jerusalem of the Little Russians. The catacombs, where repose the bodies of saintly recluses, are among Kiev’s most sacred places, and here the pious ones kiss the shriveled hands laid out as hallowed relics by the monks. this practice. In wide, level spaces, or in gentle undu- lations, they reach out until sky and hori- wom meet: in a-barely perceptible line. Parts of it remind one very much of our Own western prairies. In spring and summer it is an ocean of verdure, with the varied shades of green of the grow- ing vegetation interspersed with flowers of many hues; later, in the autumn, after the crops are harvested, it becomes a brown waste of stubble and burned-up pastures; in winter it is a white, glisten- ing expanse of snow. The unending forest land of the north has disappeared—not suddenly, but by degrees. Most of it is treeless, however, and a feeling of sadness and almost de- pression involuntarily creeps upon one as he travels over the steppes for the first time. There are not many old towns in the Contagion frequently spreads as a result of Ukraine. Except in Kiev and Kharkov, one will hardly find a building more than a hundred years old. No old medieval churches built up by the toil of genera- tions of devout hands, no old chateaux of the nobility, no palaces rich in pictures, will be encountered. The great majority of the towns are still big, overgrown vil- lages. The towns are separated from each other by enormous distances, with imper- fect communication. The peasants plant their villages in the lee of some swell in the surface or by the edge of a stream in which they can water their flocks during the drought which may come. WINDMILLS EVERYWHERE The villages stretch down little valleys seemingly for miles instead of being com- pact, as in most countries. The only con- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Nevin O. Winter PEASANT GIRLS OF KHARKOV: LITTLE RUSSIA While the Kharkov district of Russia has developed greatly as a manufacturing and industrial center in recent years, the chief occupation of the population is agriculture. The breeding of sheep, cattle, and horses is also an important activity, and at the four great fairs held annually in Kharkov, before the war, thousands of horses were bought and sold. spicuous feature will be a church or two and the many windmills on the horizon. Windmills are exceedingly common and dot the landscape on every hillside. Some will be still, while others, with their broad, far-reaching arms, furiously beat the air that blows over the steppes. Sil- very gray they appear from age, as all are built of wood, and they are usually unpainted. Many of them seem ready to fall to pieces from age. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE UKRAINIAN AND THE GREAT RUSSIAN The general use of windmills is due not so much to lack of water, for they will be found near streams, but the flat- ness of the country does not give enough fall to allow the use of water-power. They are used to grind grain, and the farmers may be seen bringing their do- mestic grists to them, as they did to the pioneer water-mills in our own country. In many ways can the dissemblances of the Ukrainians with their former Musco- vite compatriots of the north and east be traced. They speak a dialect which varies considerably from that spoken to the north and northeast of them. ‘Their language is said to be nearer the old Sla- vonic than that of the Great Russians. The people are handsomer than the Great Russians. Better nourishment probably has something to do with this, or the natural distinction between a north- ern and southern people, but the admix- ture with other races has also left its trace. They are, in general, taller and more robust. The natural brightness and vivacity of the Slav temperament, which one will also find exemplified in the Pole, has not been dimmed by the infusion of the more stolid and melancholic Finnish blood, as THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 119 Photograph by Nevin O. Winter A STREET SCENE IN ODESSA, THE CITY CREATED BY CATHERINE THE GREAT AS A STEPPING STONE TOWARD CONSTANTINOPLE With wide and well-paved streets, many of them bordered with trees, Odessa is one of the most beautiful as well as one of the greatest commercial cities of Russia. Situated on the shores of the Black Sea, 20 miles north of the mouth of the river Dniester, it has a population slightly larger than Baltimore. more than eighty million rubles annually. Before the war, the value of its exports averaged With Bucharest it shared the questionable dis- tinction of being one of the gayest cities of Europe. is the case with the Great Russian. They have a buoyancy of temperament which leads to a light-hearted gaiety of spirits, such as one does not find among the Muscovites. THE HOME OF RUSSIAN FOLK-LORE In so far as outside influences have affected the Slay temperament in the Ukraine, it has been that of the Greek and the Tatar. The warm and bright colors of their costumes are somewhat remi- niscent of the Orient. They are great lovers of beads, of. which they will wear many strings, and the national costume of the women includes a wreath of flow- ers worn on the head. A vein of romance and poetry runs through the Little Russians. It may not be very deep, but it is wide-spread. It is the home of Russian folk-lore. Lyrical ballad and improvised ballad still spring almost spontaneously from the lips of. the peasants. Their nature is rather poetical and they are very musical. The love songs of Little Russia are distinguished by their great tenderness. They have songs for all occasions, sacred and pro- fane. ‘They are also great lovers of flowers. BRILLIANT COLORS MAKE NATIVE COS- TUMES A DELIGHT TO THE EYE The lover of peasant costumes will be in his glory here in the Ukraine. No- where in Russia is there so much color in costumes as here, and the general ef- fect is extremely pleasing. The market in Kiev or Kharkov is a study in color. Red is the prevailing color among the Photograph by Nevin O. Winter A RUSSIAN PEASANT GIRL SPINNING: UKRAINE The women of the Ukraine are especially fond of bright colors, and one of the features of the native costume is the necklace of varihued beads. The industrial development of the Ukraine region has provided a cheap method of producing cloth, so that the home spinning- wheel and the loom gradually began to disappear a decade or more ago. I20 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE women, but there are many other bright bits. ‘The costume is also extremely ar- tistic. The red turbans of the women have embroidered borders and their skirts also have a border which reaches almost to the knee. The women generally wear their skirts. rather short, scarcely reach- ing to the ankles—a style becoming more and more popular the world over today. The blouses are made out of pretty pat- terns, with unique and original designs worked into the material. Even the heavy coats, which they wear for warmth, have their own design, and all will fol- low practically the same pattern. Even the men have their little vanity, having their shirts embroidered in red and blue designs, and the younger men have quite a dandified look. GO BAREFOOTED TO SAVE THEIR BOOTS Both sexes wear coarse boots, many of them being made of plaited leather, if they are able to purchase them. In sum- mer many will come to the city bare- footed, for in that way they save their boots; and leather boots, even in peace times, cost many rubles. In war times they are beyond the reach of the ordi- nary peasant. On festive occasions many of the young women are wonderful to behold. They don highly colored dresses and have long bright pink, blue, and red ribbons tied in their hair, which stream behind them as they walk. Oftentimes they wear gar- lands of real or artificial flowers. Sev- eral strings of large and small coral or glass beads complete this pretty outfit; and many of the maidens, with their gypsy-like complexions, look very charm- ing when attired in this manner. nese. people ‘have. a- great love for vivid colors in everything and even deco- rate their rooms with striped or checked red and white towels. The icon (holy image) shelf is sure to be decorated with these fancy towels and paper flowers. A guest of honor would be given a seat under this little domestic shrine. KHARKOV, THE SECOND CITY Kharkov is the second city of the Ukraine and is almost two-thirds the size of Kiev. Its long, broad, and dusty streets, rather roughly paved, are flanked 121 by houses of a nondescript architecture. They are usually two stories high and in colors red, yellow, blue, and magenta stucco predominate. Huge signboards prevail everywhere in the business section on the stores with samples of the goods sold therein painted upon them. ‘The peasant who cannot read can understand the pictures at least. The glittering domes of a number of large, flamboyant Orthodox churches give a semi-oriental general effect. Kharkov’s importance is due to the fact that it is the center of a large agri- cultural district, one of the most fertile sections in all Russia. There is a very large bazaar here, which draws thousands of visitors on several occasions during the year. It is a great distributing center for agricultural sup- plies and is also quite an educational center, with one of the greatest universi- ties in all Russia. ODESSA, CATHERINE THE GREAT’S CREATION By the new alignment Odessa and the province of Kherson have been added to the Ukrainian Republic. This city of half a million is one of the newest cities in Europe. While Moscow can_ boast of a thousand years of history, Odessa ‘is only a little over a hundred years of age. Its rapid growth will compare with the cities of the new’ world. ~ It dates from 1794 and it owes its existence to Catherine’ the Great, . Just-a few. years before that this territory had been ceded to Russia by Turkey. Her purpose was to establish a strong city as near to Con- stantinople as possible. A magnificent statue of the empress, representing her as trampling the Turkish flag scornfully beneath her feet, now adorns one square. Odessa is not a typical Russian city. Mark Twain said that the only thing truly Russian about it was the shape of the droshkis and the dress of the drivers. One might add the gilded domes of a few churches. It is an attractive city in many ways and it has the reputation of being a very fast city.. It has been in recent years a very important post. The business of the city is largely in the hands of the Jews, who comprise a third of the population. There has not A TYPICAL VILLAGE, PRIEST: RUSSIA What the attitude of the Ukrainian Government will be in matters of religion is as yet conjectural. The revolutionary movement throughout Russia as a whole has been anti-clerical. The Russian peasant, however, is innately devout. Photographs by Nevin O. Winter THE GREAT STACKS OF STRAW LEFT AFTER THRESHING: UKRAINE It was the vast, grass-covered steppes which first attracted the roving Cossacks to the Ukraine. These same steppes, when put under cultivation, yield bountiful harvests of wheat. It was on Ukrainian grain that Germany expected to feed her millions after the treacherous treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which was designed to dismember the Russian Empire and leave it helpless in the hands of the despoilers. I22 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 1238 Photograph by Nevin O. Winter A GROUP OF RUSSIAN FORESTERS In centuries past there were magnificent forests of vast extent in the northern section of the Ukraine, but the trees have gradually disappeared. Reforestation is one of the obligations resting upon this people when peace again comes to them. been the best of feeling toward them by the Orthodox population and a terrible massacre occurred in 1905. It has always been a stirring revolutionary center and has caused the imperial government much trouble in the past quarter of a century. Vy THE HOLY CITY OF THE UKRAINE Kiev is the holy city of the Ukraine and hundreds of thousands of pilgrims visit it each year. The natural landscape is heightened at all times in its pictorial effect by the picturesque groups of pil- grims, staves in hands and wallets on backs, who may be seen clambering up the hills, resting under the shadow of a hill, or reverently bowing the head at the sound of a convent bell. Here is the story as it is recently re- lated by Russian chroniclers. A thou- sand years ago, or thereabouts, a very holy monk, named Anthony, came to A- PEASANT ..HOUSE IN THE: UKRAINE : RUSSIA The villages of the Ukraine do not cluster about some feudal chateau or nobleman’s castle, as in many of the other countries of Europe; they are usually planted in the lee of some swell in the surface of the steppes, or beside a stream where the flocks of the peasants may find water inthe dry season. Uy, Us y i Hy Ue HARVEST TIME IN THE UKRAINE The characteristic big wooden yoke and low-hung shafts identify this vehicle at once as Russian. The undulating plains of the Ukraine, once a pasture-land only, now yield bounti- ful crops of grain. 124 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 12 UKRAINIAN PEASANT WOMEN Ol Photograph by Nevin O. Winter IN THE STREETS OF KHARKOV: RUSSIA In summertime these countrywomen come to the city barefooted in order to save shoe leather, which is very expensive in a land that annually exports hundreds of thousands of hides in times of peace. Kiev and dug a cell for himself in the hill. The devout life of this monk soon drew other holy men around him, and all at first made their homes in the caves. It is said that many of the early monks never again emerged into daylight after they once entered the caves. Some shut themselves up in niches and remained self-immured the rest of their days, liv- ing on the food placed there each day by their brothers. When the food remained untouched, the monks knew that a saintly spirit had fled. The place was then walled in, and the niche remained the monk’s home after as well as before his dissolu- tion. KIEV S GHASTLY CATACOMBS The catacombs are indeed ghastly to visit, for there are rows upon rows of skulls in them. Access is had by narrow Steps, and then through labyrinthine sub- terranean passages one descends deeper and deeper into the bowels of the earth, winding hither and thither along a path- way. Finally there begins a series of niches, in which repose the bodies of the saintly recluses. The pilgrims pass each holy tomb, rev- erently kissing the shriveled hands laid out by the monks for that purpose. They do not distinguish between the holy and the holier, but pay a tribute to each one impartially in order to conciliate all. Much contagion must be spread by this unsanitary method of homage. No doubt many an infection, and possibly even a great pestilence, could be traced directly to this spot, where the indiscriminate osculation of church relics is observed. ICON RECEIVES I00,000 KISSES A YEAR The Cave Monastery, or Pechersky Lavra, is a large stone structure on the hill, at a little distance from the city, and is surrounded by a high stone wall. It is 126 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Nevin O. Winter AN OLD WINDMILL OUT ON THE STEPPE: UKRAINE The windmill is a landscape feature as characteristic of the Ukraine as of Holland; but the mills of this region are not nearly so picturesque as those kept in perfect repair by the thrifty Dutch. Many of the Ukrainian structures seem ready to fall to pieces, and they are seldom painted. Their mission is to grind the grain in a country which is so flat that there is no such thing as water-power. entered through a holy gate. Each monk has his own apartment, with a little gar- den attached. Several hundred monks live in the monastery and a number of lay brethren are also allowed to dwell there. In the principal church is preserved a miracle - working icon, known as the Death of ‘Our ‘Lady. It was brought from Constantinople and has received no fewer than a hundred thousand kisses a year. It is painted on cypress wood, now black with age. Every line of the picture is marked by precious stones and each head has a halo of brilliants, while an enormous diamond glitters above the head of Christ. The wealth. of the Lavra at Kiev 1s THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Nevin O. Winter A LANDLORD CROWNING RUTHENIAN PEASANT GIRLS IN. A HARVEST CEREMONY The four million Ukrainians who live in the province of Galicia, under Austrian sway, are called Ruthenians enormous. Each successive Czar has visited it not infrequently and always gave a large donation. What the attitude of the new leaders of the Ukraine toward this monastery will be remains to be seen. ‘The revolu- tionary movement as a whole has been anti-clerical and shows a revolt against the former influence of the church in Russia. The monks do not live the ascetic lives of their ancestors, although the food still seems plain. Coarse bread is always served, fish frequently, but meat and wine are not unseldom. One monk always reads from the lives of saints while the others eat. ‘The monks seat themselves on benches and they eat off pewter plat- ters. There is an inn at which many stop who can pay, but the fare is too plain for most people. Then there is also a free lodging quarter, where the poorer ones 128 According to legend, Kiev is “the mother of all the towns of Russia.” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Nevin O. Winter PILGRIMS:ON THEIR WAY TO KIEV, THE HOLY CITY OF THE UKRAINE It was the capital of St. Vladimir, who, in the year 988, established the Greek church as the State religion. A monument to this ruler was erected in the city in 1853, representing him baptising the Russian people. can stop without charge. Sour black bread and boiled buckwheat groats is about the only food provided for this class of pilgrims. PILGRIMS SHARE THEIR FLEAS WITH ALL Many peasants will travel on foot for days and spend almost their last kopeck for the sake of visiting this sacred mon- astery in the holy city of Kiev. Sienkie- wicz makes one of his principal charac- ters say when faced with danger: “I shall die and all my fleas with me.” These pilgrims certainly bring theirs with them to Kiev and share them freely with any one with whom they come in contact. It would be difficult to find a larger or more varied collection of professional or casual mendicants anywhere than congre- gate here at Kiev during the pilgrimage period. Dressed in rags and wretched- ness, these mendicants expose revolting sores and horrible deformities in order Kiev has been a religious center since his day. to excite sympathy. Some appear to en- joy vested rights in particular locations. Many might be classed as pious beggars and have an almost apostolic appearance, with their long beards and quiet bearing. All of them may be worthy objects of charity, but the Russian beggars are most importunate. RUSSIAN PEASANTS EXTREMELY CHARITABLE The Russians themselves are very char- itable toward the unfortunate class. Poor peasants, themselves clothed in rags, will share their little with those poorer than themselves. A foreigner, knowing the poverty of the people and the inadequacy of public relief, cannot but feel kindly disposed toward those who are really helpless. Here, as elsewhere, however, it is difficult to distinguish between the unworthy and the deserving. | THE ACORN, A POSSIBLY NEGLECTED SOURCE OF FOOD By C. Harr MeERRIAM FoRMERLY CHIEF OF THE U. S. BioLocicaL SurvEyY the food supply of the United States, | N VIEW of the present pressure on and with special reference to the uni- versal effort to reduce the consumption | of wheat by the substitution of corn meal, bran, and other cereal products, it may be worth while to call attention to the high nutritive value of a wholly neglected food of wide distribution. I refer to the acorir. There are in the United States more than 50 species of oaks, of which 30 occur in the Eastern States and about 15 in the single State of California. To the native Indians of that State the acorn is, and always has been, the staff of life, furnishing the material for their daily mush and bread. And when it is remembered that the Indian population of California at the time of its discovery numbered probably not less than 300,000 persons, and that from the Oregon boundary to the Mexican line, except in the desert region, where oaks do not erow, acorns were universally eaten, and. in most cases were the principal article of diet, some idea may be had of the vast quantity and high food value of those annually consumed. In the fall, when the acorns are ripe, the Indians gather them and spread them out to dry in the sun, and when thor- oughly dried store them in large baskets and wickerwork caches, sometimes in trees, but usually on rocks or poles.’ These receptacles are built to shed the rain and to keep out rats and mice, but are sufficiently open to permit the ciret- lation of air, thus avoiding the danger of molding. Another and very different way of preserving acorns, practiced by the Win- toon Indians of western Tehama County, in California, was described to me by eB. Washington, of Oakland. The acorns were buried in boggy places near cold springs, where they became swollen and. softened and turned nearly black in color, but remained. fresh for years. When needed they were dug out and roasted, never dried or pounded for flour, the mush and bread being always made of dried acorns. White men in plowing have openta up caches of acorns that had lain in these cold, boggy places for fully 30 years, and found the acorns black, but still good. When preserved dry in the usual way, the acorns are shucked as needed, and the dry meats, each splitting naturally in two parts, are pounded in stone mortars until reduced to a fine meal or flour. This at first is disagreeably bitter, but the bitter element is removed. by leaching with warm water, which in seep- ing through acquires the color of coffee and the bitterness of quinine. The meal is then dried and stored to be used as required, for mush or bread. According to V. K. Chesnut, the In- dians of Round Valley, California, some- times practice another method of getting rid «of the bitter element, namely, by burying the acorns with grass, ashes, and charcoal in a sandy place and afterward soaking them in water from time to time until they become sweet. BOILED IN ’BASKETS BY USE OF. HOT SLONES The ordinary method of cooking is by boiling in baskets by means of hot stones, the result being a thick jellv-lke mush or porridge. Acorn flour makes a rich, glutinous food and contains a surpris- ingly large quantity (18 to 25 per cent) of nut oil of obvious nutritive value. Mrs. Merriam tells me that it is easy to work, being what cooks call a “good binder,’ which means that it holds to- gether well even when mixed with several times its bulk of corn, meal or other coarse or granular materials. Mush and bread made wholly of acorn flour are not pleasing to our taste, but 130 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by C. Hart Merriam INDIAN WOMAN OF THE CHUKCHANSY TRIBE, NEAR FRESNO FLAT, CALIFORNIA, SHUCKING ACORNS Note the newly gathered acorns of the black oak in the carrying basket, the flat stone upon which the acorn is poised, and the small stone in the right hand with which it is split. The picture shows also one of the flat, circular winnowing baskets in which the acorn meal is agitated to separate the fine from the coarse, and a bowl-shaped basket in which the acorn mush is cooked. The work is done in a small opening in the manzanita bushes adjacent to the Indian's home. leached acorn meal mixed with corn meal in the proportion of one part acorn to four parts corn makes excellent corn bread and pones, and mixed with white flour or whole-wheat flour in the same proportion makes palatable bread and muffins, adding to the cereal value the value of a fat nut product. I have often eaten the pure acorn mush and bread as made by the Indians, but prefer the mixed product above men- tioned. John Muir, during his arduous tramps in the mountains of California, often carried the hard, dry acorn bread of the Indians and deemed it the most compact and strength-giving food he had ever used. Another kind of bread was made by the Indians of Sacramento Valley. The eminent geologist, James D. Dana, who traversed the valley with the Wilkes Ex- pedition in 1841, said: “Throughout the Sacramento plains the Indians live mostly on a kind of bread or cake made of acorns .'.... kneaded: tanto 7 sloa © about two inches thick, and baked. It has a black color, and a consistency like that of cheese, but a little softer; the taste, though not very pleasing, is not positively disagreeable.” Chesnut tells us that this kind of bread usually contains a red clay which is mixed with the dough before baking, in the proportion of one part clay to 20 of acorn dough. It is then embedded in leaves and baked overnight on hot stones, either in the cooking hole in the ground or covered with earth and hot stones. “When removed the next morning the bread, if previously mixed with clay, is as THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 131 Photograph by H. W. Henshaw, from C. Hart Merriam DIGENO INDIAN WOMAN POUNDING ACORNS AT SANTA ISABEL, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA The picture shows plainly the ring of partly ground acorns which always rises about the rims of these mortar holes in the solid rock. stone pestle, and some of the acorn baskets. black as jet, and while still fresh has the consistency of rather soft cheese. In the course of a few days it becomes hard. . . It is remarkable for being sweet, for the original meal, and even the soup, are rather insipid. The sweet taste is very evident, and is due in great measure to the prolonged and gentle cooking, which, favored by the moisture of the dough, gradually converts some constit- uent of the meal into sugar.” Chesnut adds that the clay really serves a useful purpose, converting any tannin still remaining in the dough into an insoluble form, thus removing the in- digestible element. He states further that bread made in the same way, but without the clay, is likewise sweet, differ- ing only in color, the color varying from light tan to dark reddish brown. The quantity of acorn meal cooked and eaten by Indians is almost beyond belief. It shows also the method of holding the heavy At a ceremony for the dead, held near Bald Rock, Tuolumne County, Califor- nia, in early October, 1907, the prepara- tion of the acorn food for the mourners and guests was begun several days in advance. ‘Two cooking places and five leaches, each about 4. feet in diameter, were in active operation for several days. On the opening day I counted at the cooking places about 50 huge baskets, each holding from one to two bushels, full of freshly cooked acorn mush (nup’- pah). The mush is so heavy that the services of two strong women were re- quired to lift each basket and place it in the large conical burden basket on the back of a third woman, who slowly car- ried it to the roundhouse where the cere- mony was held. In addition to the mush, there were at least 50 turtle-shaped loaves of acorn bread (o0-lay), made by dipping out the 132 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE WhtisbMilor ea Photograph by H. W. Henshaw, from C. Hart Merriam INDIAN WOMAN POUNDING ACORNS AT AGUA CALIENTA, IN WARNER VALLEY, SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Note the elevated rim of partly ground acorn meats surrounding the mortar hole hot mush in a special basket and plung- ing it (turning it out of the basket) into a cold, running stream. The action of the cold water, curiously enough, causes the loaves to contract and harden They are then placed on rocks to drain, and in the course of a few days become dry and hard and may be carried for weeks, until consumed. The total quantity of acorn mush and bread made for this ceremony must have exceeded a ton in weight. In some parts of California the In- dians husk the acorns as soon as ripe, without waiting for them to dry. The shells, being at that time somewhat flex- ible, cannot be easily cracked with the cracking stone, but are torn open with the teeth. INDIANS ESTABLISH ACORN CAMPS IN AUTUMN A very intelligent full-blood woman named Che-na-wah Weitch-ah-wah, be- longing to the Po-lik-lah or lower Kla- math tribe, writes that in her country when the acorns ripen, in late October and in November, the families establish acorn camps in favorite localities, gather- ing and bringing in the nuts in the large burden baskets. In the evening, when the evening meal is finished, all the fam- ily—men, women, and children—engage in removing the hulls with their teeth, an occupation at which they are very ex- pert. into large, flattish circular receptacles of basket work, which are placed on top of a high frame over the fire in the house, so that the heat in rising dries them. All acorns are not equally desirable from the food standpoint. Of the edible qualities of the numerous eastern species I have no personal knowledge, though it is well known that acorns of several spe- cies were eaten by various eastern tribes from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. It is known that the Algonkin tribes The hulled green acorns are put: THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of our Eastern States used acorns for bread and for oil, and mixed boiled acorns with their fish and meat. The Iroquois of the State of New York, according to F. W. Waugh, commonly made use of acorns for food, apparently favoring the sweet kinds, as those of the white and _ chestnut oaks, but in times of necessity resorted to the bitter acorns of the black and red species. Waugh states fur- ther that nut meats (presumably including acorns ) were pounded, boiled slowly in water, and the oil skimmed off into a bowl]; the oil was boiled again and seasoned with salt, to be used with bread, potatoes, pumpkins, squashes, and other foods, and nut oil was often added to mush. The meats left after skimming off the oil were seasoned and mixed with mashed potatoes, and nut meats were crushed . and added to hominy and corn soup to make it rich. And the Hurons of eastern Canada, ac- cording to the Jesuit Relations, prepared mae acorns by “first boiling them in a lye made from ashes, in order to take from them their excessive bitterness.” Another way was by boiling them in several waters. During the famine winter of 1649-1650, after the Hurons, defeated by the Iro- quois, had taken refuge on the Island of Saint Joseph, at the north end of Lake Huron, the Jesuits of the Mission at that place “were compelled to behold dying and 132. 133 Photograph by C. Hart Merriam ANCIENT ACORN MORTAR HOLES AND PESTLES IN SOLID GRANITE, NEAR KAWEAH RIVER, CALIFORNIA These ancient grinding mills in hard granite rock are common on the middle and lower slopes of the Sierra Nevada of California and some of them have as many as 20 or 30 mortar holes. are large and heavy with smoothly rounded striking ends and are held in both hands; the modus operandi is illustrated on pages 131 When pounding the acorns, several women usually work together, sitting at neighboring holes and singing in rhythm with the strokes of the pestles. The pestles skeletons ekeing out a miserable life; ic. ule acOnm Was, to. them forte most part what the choicest viands are in France.” The Jesuits, before the snow had cov- ered the ground, had bought 500 or 600 bushels of acorns, and had dispatched several canoes to procure a supply of fish from the Algonkin tribes 60. to 100 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by C. Hart Merriam 6 OPEN-AIR KITCHEN, WHERE THE ACORN MEAL IS LEACHED AND COOKED Beyond the leach is the fire, covered with stones which are being heated to cook the mush in the baskets on the left. The leach is a low, concave mound of dry debris gathered under the manzanita and lilac bushes, consisting mainly of dead and broken leaves and bark, which together form a porous bedding through which the water easily finds its way. The leach is lined with a fiber mat, or cloth, and the branch of an evergreen tree is laid on the meal to catch and spread the water so that it will not dig into the meal. Used by the Mewuk Indians of the Sierra foothills region, California. leagues away. But the quantity of food obtained proved insufficient, and early in March the famished Hurons were com- pelled “to go in search of acorns on the summits of mountains which were divest- ing themselves of their snow.’ These poor Indians were drowned by the sud- den breaking up of the ice on the lake (Jesuit Relations). USE OF ACORNS IN SOUTHERN STATES The Choctaw, of Louisiana, according to David Bushnell, used to make flour by pounding the acorns of the water oak in a wooden mortar, when the meal was leached, by putting it into an openwork basket and pouring water through several times. It was then boiled or used as corn meal. In the Southern States, where more than 20. species of oaks occur, and in parts of Mexico, acorns are sometimes eaten by the people, and they are relied upon to supply the principal food of the countless thousands of hogs that roam at will through the glades and forests, thus contributing materially, albeit indirectly, to the support of the population. And there is every reason to believe that a fair proportion of the species might be utilized with advantage to vary or supplement the daily diet of the peo- ple. This would be especially desirable in the case of the ill-nourished poorer classes—those subject to the inroads of hook-worm and pellagra. In California the relative merits of the different kinds are weil known. At mid- dle elevations in the interior of the State the fruit of the black oak is the favorite, while in the humid coast belt that of the tanbark oak is most prized. Besides THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by C. Hart Merriam ANOTHER TYPE OF LEACH, MADE BY THE WUKSACHE INDIANS OF ESHOM VALLEY This leach consists largely of sand placed on a bed of dry, dead leaves and twigs sup- ported on a square framework of poles. The looped stick resting against the leach is used for stirring the hot stones in the basket while the cooking 1s going on. these, the fat acorns of the blue oak of the dry foothills and the elongate ones of the valley oak of the bottomlands and adjacent slopes are gathered and con- sumed in large quantities; and in years when the nut crop of the favorite species fails, most, if not all, of the others are turned to account. Even at the present time hundreds of bushels of acorns are annually gathered and eaten by California Indians; but the quantity consumed by the white popula- tion is negligible, the main part of the crop (amounting to thousands of bush- els) being devoured by hogs, bear, deer. squirrels, and other animals or allowed to go to waste on the ground. ACORNS AS A BREAD SUBSTITUTE IN EUROPE In the old world the utilization of acorn food for man and beast dates from 156 Pho THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tograph by H. W. Henshaw, from C. Hart Merriam POMO INDIANS SHUCKING AND DRYING ACORNS, NEAR UKIAH, IN RUSSIAN RIVER VALLEY, CALIFORNIA The split meats may be seen spread out to dry on cloths on the ground and also on an elevated platform alongside the house. are gathered stands near the door. very ancient times, and notwithstanding the importance of the wood for timber and fuel, and of the bark for tanning, acorn mast was long considered the most valuable product of the oak forests. In England, France, and Italy, during periods of food scarcity, boiled acorns were used as a substitute for bread; and in most of the Mediterranean countries the sweet fruit of Quercus esculenta (mind the name). is still prized by the inhabitants. In Algeria and Morocco the large acorns of an evergreen oak are eaten both raw and roasted, while in Spain those of the Gramont oak are re- garded as even superior to chestnuts. V.K. Chesnut quotes Giovanni Memmo to the effect that in Spain and Italy some- times as much as 20 per cent of the total food of the poorer people consists of sweet acorns. But as the indigestible tannin is not removed, it has been found that Io per cent of the acorns pass away One of the large carrying baskets in which the acorns undigested. The superiority of the meth- ods employed by our Indians is obvious. That a food of such genuine worth should be disregarded by our people is one of many illustrations of the reluc- tance of the white man to avail himself of sources of subsistence long utilized by the aborigines. We seem to prefer crops that require laborious preparation of the soil, fol- lowed by costly planting and cultivation, rather than those provided without price by bountiful nature. COMPARATIVE ANALYSES OF CORN MEAL, WHEAT FLOUR, AND ACORN FLOUR + Acorn flour 2 ‘Wheat ——————-——_, Corn meal flour J,eached Unleached Wiatene in wee 12-5 Ti. 11.34 Eee PAST Oe chao eae. FO 25 .29 1.90 Pape fase ECG) 1.0 TOC OT ino Protein... O.2 II.4 4.48 5.44 Carbohydrates 74.4 Fiswack 62.02) 50.62 Biber ee se LO 2 2.00 1.91 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 137 Photograph by C. Hart Merriam ACORN CACHES IN YOSEMITE VALLEY The outer covering is of branches of fir, cedar, and pine, closely appressed, with the tips directed. downward to keep out the rain and the native rats, mice, and squirrels. The interior lining 1 is mainly of the long, slender branches of Hosakia or Lotus. While on the subject of Indian foods, it may be mentioned that the nutritious 1 For these tables I am indebted to the U. S. Food Administration. The analysis of acorn flour was kindly made by Dr. J. A. Le Clerc, of the Bureau of Chemistry, U.—S. Dept. of Agriculture. ° ' ? This acorn flour was made from the Cali- fornia black oak (Quercus californica) and is very old, having been obtained by me from the Mewuk Indians at Oleta, in the middle Sierra foothills, 12 years ago. As a result it is exceedingly dry and without doubt has lost. much of its protein. An interesting compari- son may be madé with an analysis, by Charles D. Woods, of acorn flour from the California Valley white oak (Quercus lobata), which mielded:..Water, 8.7; ash, 2.0; fat, 18.6; pro- tein, 5.7; carbohydrates, 65.0. This meal (un- leached ) contained 6.63 per cent of tannin. The large percentage of fat in both kinds shows their extraordinary richness in nut oil and consequent high fuel value. nuts of the sugar pine and digger pine and the berries of certain species of manzanita are much used by California Indians; that the seeds; roots, and fruits of numerous other pints form valued additions to the diet, and that in times of scarcity the nuts: of the California laurel and buckeye, of which hundreds of bush- els may be had, are so treated as to be edible. .. 3” In the arid mountains of the desert re- gion east of the Sierra the rich oily nut of the pinyon or nut pine takes the place of the acorn as the dominant element of the food supply; and in certain canyons bordering the Colorado desert the same may be said of the native date, while in the open deserts the mesquite bean is the staple commodity. Photograph from Alice Rohe TILKMAID IN SAN MARINO THE MORNING CALL OF THE _ Early each day, peasant girls climb Monte Titano from the sloping farms below, carry- ing woven baskets of straw in which are packed bottles of milk. When the price of milk reached 50 centimes (10 cents) a quart recently there was a‘national scandal. 138 OUR LITTLEST: ALLY By AticeE RouHE ISING sheer and majestic from R the plains of Romagna, an impos- ing mountain dominates the land- scape from Rimini to the distant rolling hills and peaks of the Apennines. Atop this great rock, whose serrated flanks and menacing heights seem inac- cessible, three towers soar in picturesque silhouette against the sky-line. The nearer approach over ever-upward roads, ascending from the Adriatic to- ward this giant mount, brings increasing doubt as to its accessibility. It is Mount Titanus, and the towers piercing the blue sky are the famous “Penne” of San Marino, the littlest Re- public in the world, the land of perpetual liberty, of hereditary peace. An eminence well worth the struggle to reach in these war-tortured times! Austrian dirigibles soar above Rimini, its nearest railway connection, 13 miles away, dropping their destructive bombs ; but the Land of Peace stands calm and unafraid, wrapped in the undisturbed autonomy of sixteen centuries. The entire landscape to south and west is marked by mounts and peaks capped with medieval towers, bringing to mind those illustrated fairy tales of childhood, with their deeds of wickedness and chiv- alry. Legends and fairy tales indeed are | interwoven in this marvelous panorama; but history, too—history of violent and bloody warfare — rises phantom - like about those warning heights. They are the towers of the Malatesta, and from Rimini, past Verruchio, where these ty- rants first established their lordship, to right and left of the river Marecchia, their story is written before San Marino. THE MOUNTAIN OF THE TITANS But long before the Malatesta began their cruel sway, Mount Titanus had its place in the dawn of story, for it is no other than that famed mountain of myth- ology which the angry Titans raised in their efforts to reach Jove and drive him from his throne. 139 Having left Rimini, with its stern re- minders of war in air and sea, its sand- bagged cathedral, temple of Sigismondo Malatesta, miles behind, the country of peace becomes an inspiring goal. The frontier is crossed with scant for- mality. Serravalle, largest of the castelli, or towns, of the Republic, first stop on San Marino soil, is passed, and the Borgo, nestling at the foot of the foreboding- looking mountain, shows quaintly narrow streets and arched loggias, as the cour- ageous auto plunges determinedly up that precipitous drive. At last it stops before an ancient gate- way, where all passengers must descend. Then through its massive arch, up a steep, narrow street, the way leads with many turns, past little squares and mar- ket-place, to the cherished spot of the Sammarinesi, the Pianello, Piazza della Liberta, with its statue of Liberty in the center. Here is the government palace, modern edifice of fourteenth century architecture. Here are the postal and telegraph offices and the Tribunal. Doves, fitting symbols, flutter about the palace, descending to get their daily food from the natives; then flying away to rest be- neath the statue of San Marino, standing guard over his Republic, from the palace angle. Before the wall, which seems to protect the promenaders from falling into the depths below, a view of unusual love- liness is unfolded. A PANORAMA OF UNSURPASSED SPLENDOR But it is from the “Rocca,” the ancient fortress, still higher, ever higher, that a panorama of unsurpassed splendor is re- vealed—mountains and peaks, sea and plain, white ribbon-like roads winding through level and height toward distant parts. Ranges of mountains roll wave- like away into the horizon. Carpegna, cradle of the counts of Montefeltro, later dukes of Urbino, looms majestically. To the left a black streak against the hori- zon marks Ravenna’s famed Pineta, or Pine Forest. Again one sees Rimini and 140 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from Alice Rohe EMPTYING WINE CASKS AT THE GATE OF SERRAVALE: SAN MARINO As these splendid animals attest, stock-raising is the principal occupation of the Sam- marinesi, but the cultivation of vineyards is a close second. Even the poorest peasant crushes his grapes and makes his wine. the sea, and through the clear air the gaze crosses the Adriatic and discerns the faint outline of Dalmatia, the land from which came that pious stone-cutter, founder of the Republic, the land of liberty and peace—Marino. But nearer. at hand, so close that it seems as if one could almost call across, though it is six miles distant, the most compelling of all San Marino’s moun- tainous neighbors holds the attention. It rises abruptly from the rolling hills, an- other seemingly inaccessible and impreg- nable rock, with a formidable fortress menacing the landscape from its precipi- tous height. This is San Leo, whose history, inter- woven in primitive times with that of San Marino, is of especial interest, in the light of the littlest Republic’s diverging line of development. War and tyranny ever disturbed the inhabitants of San Leo, while peace and liberty blessed San Marino. ‘Tradition says the reason was that the body of San Leo was removed from the country, while that of San Marino remained—a powerful and vener- ated relic. San Leo’s grim fortress has been the scene of dark deeds during the successive political wars and the varied turbulent epochs of Italian history. Among its famous and infamous prison- ers was Cagliostro, who died after six years of suffering, in solitary confine- ment. ITALY HONORS. THE LITILE: REPUBEIC RIN ITS MIDST It is on the highest point of the Re- public, 2,500 feet above sea-level, looking from San Leo out over the scenes of vio-— lent history, that the story of San Marino becomes picturesquely vital. Battles and discords have rolled for centuries about its feet, war has engulfed it, even as to- day, and even as today it has maintained its independence, its liberty, its heritage of peace. The position of San Marino, 13 miles from Rimini, is singular. This little Re- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 141 Photograph from Alice Rohe A VIEW OF SAN LEO FROM SAN MARINO When Leo and Marino, Dalmatian stone-cutters, had completed their self-appointed task of caring for the spiritual and physical well-being of the Christian slaves who were recon- structing the walls of the city of Rimini, they sought peace and solitude on two neighboring heights now called San Leo and San Marino. public, whose greatest length is 9 miles, is completely surrounded by Italy, who respects its autonomy, as have rulers of the past, with a few fleeting exceptions, since the pious Dalmatian stone-cutter left the mountain to his followers, “‘free from every other man.” Today is the time when the rights of little nations are commanding a good deal of the world’s attention. Their claims before humanity have been forced by tyranny and the horrors of war. San Marino, littlest nation of them all, is of interest because of its very freedom, its persistent maintenance of its hereditary liberty. The tradition of its safety, its internal peace, in contrast to San Leo, is ingenu- ously expressed in the ancient belief that whenever an evil and avaricious spirit, covetous of dominion, entered a citizen, that citizen, through some occult power, was disposed of. Disturbers of the pub- lic peace did not last long. Saint Ma- rino, you see, watched over his Republic. Whatever be the reason for the perpetual peace, the veneration of the saint is boundless. Today, with the same sin- cerity and reverence as of old, the silver bust containing the head of Marino 1s car- ried throughout the Republic to bless it. A REPUBLIC WHOSE IDEAL HAS BEEN MAINTAINED That this little Republic, which today has 11,000 inhabitants and an area of 38 square miles, has maintained its indepen- dence, its ideal of liberty, in the midst of strife and bloodshed, of changing social conditions, for sixteen centuries, adds dignity to the unwavering belief of the trusting ones in the never-ceasing protection of the saintly founder. The position of the mountain, far from the great Roman roads, the Via Flaminia and Via A‘milia; sufficiently distant from 142 the coast to be safe from maritime inva- sion; the stronghold impregnable to as- sault by medieval armies ; the retiring and unostentatious, peace-seeking character of the inhabitants; the comparative pov- erty of the country—all contributed to San Marino’s being left alone. But ex- ternal reasons were not sufficient—there was an internal cause which existed in its institutions and its morality. In the most disrupting centuries of Ital- ian history San Marino had no factions, no strife between feudal lords and peo- ple, no domineering insolence of con- querors, no lost rights to vindicate. In- stead, the people lived simply, changing their constitutions slowly, according to the needs of the times, always adopting changes which were best for the develop- ment and conservation of liberty. In the life of the Republic today the in- fluence of the Dalmatian saint is strongly reflected. For a country to maintain the characteristics of its primitive founder is a social phenomenon of which possibly San Marino alone can boast. THE ARRIVAL OF MARINO AND LEO During the days of Christian persecu- tions, in the middle of the fourth century, Marino and Leo, two stone-cutters of Arbe, Dalmatia, crossed the Adriatic and came to Rimini. Their reason, says tra- dition, was to aid Christians, condemned by pagan rulers, to reconstruct the walls of that city. Realizing that the labors of those who were compelled to hew the rocks from the mountains and transport them along the Marrechia to the mouth of the river were the most oppressive, they ascended the river and stopped be- fore those two abruptly rising mountains, commanding sentinels of the landscape. Their experience as stone-cutters soon placed them in charge of large numbers of slaves, to whom they brought not only material but spiritual help. Legends of those far-away days tell how both pro- cured donkeys to aid them, and one day a bear: devoured that .of ‘Marino... The saintly man immediately bridled and sad- dled the bear, and the wild beast submis- sively performed the labor of the donkey it had eaten! The walls of Rimini having been fin- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ished, Leo and Marino looked longingly upon the solitude of the two mountains. As the hermits of the Thebaid, who flourished at this same period, they sought peace and solitude in those impenetrable heights. Hewing a bed from the rock and cultivating a little garden, Marino found all his material wants supplied. This rough bed and site of the garden are pointed out today by reverent peas- ants. d A few slaves followed their former overseers in order to practice, undis- turbed, their Christian faith. Leo and Marino, overthrowing all pagan idols, each built a little church. Fine remains of the Roman temple of Jove, once domi- nating the height of San Leo, are seen in the columns of the cathedral and La Pieve today, while small bits of sculpture also have been found at San Marino, where the cathedral now rises on the an- cient site of the fourth century chapel of the saintly founder. WEALTHY MATRON GIVES MOUNT TO. THE : HERMIT From neighboring fields and pastures and little settlements, came the weary and oppressed, seeking peace and the Chris- tian faith upon the two mounts. Poor and simple people, their wants were easily satisfied. Soon two small villages or colonies sprang up about the little churches, taking the names of the two apostles. Legend adds that in those early days, when hewing and quarrying was the industry, even as it is today, the two saintly stone-cutters exchanged their 1m- plements, tossing them back and forth from the two mountains! | The fame of the saintly hermit of Mt. Titanus spread abroad. Felicissima, a wealthy Roman matron of Rimini, im- pressed by the pious man, who had been bidden to come to that city, and grateful for receiving the light of Christianity and for the salvation of her sons, gave him the mountain, which she owned, as abso- lute and perpetual property. The influence of San Leo has been wiped out by the centuries, while that of San Marino exists today, with a signifi- cantly simple appeal in these warring times. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Marino’s desire was to found a free so- ciety, based upon liberty, justice, sim- plicity, charity, virtue, and, above all, a_ love of peace. When the good man came to die he called his followers about him and bequeathed to them his mountain, “free from every other man” (ab utroque homine). His parting prayer was that they never seek enlargement of territory by violent means. War, though a pain- ful necessity for those acting in self-de- fense, was an unpardonable crime in those who caused it. Begging his follow- ers to remain true to the faith and to live. mae perfect accord, freemen all, he passed away, little dreaming that in the twentieth century his little community would stand, a monument to his peaceful teachings and simple form of govern- ment, in the midst of a war-torn world struggling against autocracy for the peace and liberty of all nations. THE MISSION OF THE FORTRESS BELL As one stands looking out over the his- tory-laden panorama at sunset, the sound of the fortress bell calls vividly to mind how little changed from ancient times is the government today and how true to tradition are these steadfast people. It is the bell announcing the Arengo, or Ar- ringo, for the following day. For always at Ave Maria, the day before the elec- tion of officers, the inauguration, the fete of San Marino, and the semi-annual Arringo, or assembly of the heads of families, the great bell gives the tidings. Its ringing also calls the council meet- ings; its only sinister mission is to an- nounce the passing of a penal sentence. Twice a year, the first Sunday after the 1st of April and the Ist of October, heads of families have the right to assem- ble before the regents in the Council Hall and present petitions or suggestions for change or modifications in existing con- ditions. Prohibiting farmers from sell- ing their produce before arriving at the Borgo, the introduction of religious teach- ing in the public schools, the question of a water supply—such were the most re- cent petitions of these twentieth century fathers of families. The bell of the fortress calling the as- sembly of heads of families reflects the dawn of government. One sees in its past 143 the shades of the patriarchate and the dim outline of the referendum. In the beginning, the followers of San Marino recognized as their head the rec- tor of the monastery. Increasing num- bers of inhabitants led to the formation of the Arringo, the gathering of fathers of families, presided over by the rector of the monastery. In the tenth century the government was liberated from the authority of the rector of the monastery, and the Arringo was replaced by the Council General, the assembly of heads of families continuing twice a year, as today, with the right only of petition. THEIR TERRITORY EXTENDED THROUGH PURCHASE, NOT CONQUEST The retiring quietude of the mountain community was now stirred by the neces- sity of taking account of the outside world. Already the Court of Rome, bas- ing its right upon the Pepin grant of temporal power, laid claim unsuccessfully to San Marino. The eleventh century upheaval, which caused the Italian middle class, oppressed by feudalism, to form communes wher- ever walled cities existed, found San Marino also a commune, with its statutes and consuls. ‘Through purchase, not con- quest, these sober people extended their territory. They began, according to the needs of the times, to fortify their com- mune, The imposing Rocca fortress, a fourteenth century embattled stronghold, was begun in these troublous times. The strength of its walls, whose crumbling might encircles the citadel today, gave San Marino a formidable argument that it be leit: in’ peace. The character of the little Republic and its twin mountain, San Leo, recall stories of sieges and the scaling of walls. And many were the attempts which marked its medieval history. The support given by the Sammarinesi to the Montefeltri against the Malatesta tyrants led to the agreement between Duke Frederic of Urbino and Pope Pius H, whereby the castles of Fiorentino, Montegiardino, and Serravalle, their courts and dominions, as well as Faetano, were granted to the Republic. The liberty of San Marino, existing from the day the Dalmatian saint planted AVM SIH SGNYM NVIWMO'Id ASINIUVWWVS FHL ‘MAIA NI YHAM OVTAdAN WIRLTI SIH. 0 SYAMOL LVAXO AYNHL AHL HIM ayo 91PY wor ydei30j04g 144 ‘Ploysuorjs sty} 0} ARMpvOI aUO puk 9}e5 9UO ATUO SI dIDYJ, “Joe suvad xIS perp pue 6g41 ur pouosiidu sea ‘uostid Joop SUOpuo’yT Ur pue a]T}seq ay} Ul Y}Oq Sut1d} UOSTId SulAsas pue ‘K1aavuy Jo spe Auvw Surquu09 qHpNesq UIWOM ASN SUL JOF S9IN}XTU ‘YNOA JO SAIXI]Jo ‘Sto}IYd-9AO] SuTfjos Joye ‘oyM “OIJsOIpseD JOJsodui-yose sy} ‘ppoysuo.sys sry} uy ONINVW NYS dO NIVINOOW NIML ‘OFT NVS ONINMONO WILSVO IVARIGUW WIGVNOAAMWI FHL eYoy oolpy wos ydeisojoyd - > _* care 145 146 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from Alice Rohe THE INAUGURAL PROCESSION IN SAN MARINO The two regents, heads of the State, are seen leaving the palace preceded by an attendant who bears the keys and seals of the Republic. Regents may not serve two successive terms. the cross, carved with “Libertas,” upon Mount Titanus, seemed doomed forever in the sixteenth century, when Czsar Borgia, having destroyed the lordships of Umbria, the Marches, and Romagna, raised his avaricious eyes against the land of liberty: At the death of his: father, Pope Alexander VI, Borgia was forced to abandon his designs upon Italy and the Republic’s lost liberty was soon regained. The infamous Cardinal Alberoni occu- pancy, from October 17, 1739, to Febru- An inauguration takes place every six months. ary 5, 1740, when the town was sacked, following the refusal of the Sammarinesi to renounce allegiance to their Republic, was the longest usurpation of their lib- erty. The event, which still stirs resent- ment in the hearts of these people, was immortalized by Carducci in his address at the dedication of the new government palace in 1894. Napoleon respected San Marino’s in- dependence in 1797, offering large tracts of territory, which the Sammarinesi cour- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ey: Photograph from Alice Rohe THE ONION CURB MARKET: SAN MARINO The commercial life of the Republic centers in the Borgo, and every market day house- wives and servants come down from the heights to buy their vegetables. Important fairs are also held here in September and October, when traders come not merely from all parts of the 38 square miles of San Marino, but from neighboring towns of Italy as well. teously refused. Writing to his minister regarding the map of Italy, he said: “We consider San Marino as a model Republic.” THE GOVERNING BODY Today the government of San Marino, impregnated with the spirit of its fourth century founder, preserves picturesque forms and customs. A council of sixty citizens—the Grand Council—is the governing body, which has the supreme power accorded it by the primitive popular Arringo, composed of heads of families. Until recent times these sixty were chosen, one-third from the patricians, one-third from the land- owners, and one-third from the peasants. There is no official recognition of nobility in these days, patricians and nobles, al- 148 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from Alice Rohe FAIR DAY IN THE PIAZZA BELZOPPI: SAN MARINO Fair days in the little Republic present a kaleidoscope of color. Gayly kerchiefed peas- ant women, farmers, land-owners, stock-breeders, boys and girls mingle in a democratic throng. ways created for special service to the country, being citizens like all the rest of the inhabitants. Originally, councillors were elected for life; now they are re- elected every three years. As few changes are made, the life term practically exists. The only times the Sammarinesi exercise their power of voting is at these tri- ennial elections and when five councillors, through death, are lacking in the sixty. From its number, every six months, the Council chooses two consuls, or captains regent, who are invested with the execu- tive power and who preside at meetings of the public councils. These, before San Marino abolished class distinctions, were chosen, one from the patricians, one from the peasants. ‘The office is honor- ary, each regent being allowed 150 lire (about $30) for clothes. The elaborate medieval costumes for state events and the frock coat and silk hat for ordinary public occasions would scarcely be cov- ered by that amount. The regents, with their six months’ tenure of office, can be reelected only after an interval of three years, the domi- nating idea to; maintain a free govern- ment of the people without peril of a one or two man power being seen here, as in every law and custom of the Republic. Back in the thirteenth century the titles of these two consuls were changed to captain and defender, signifying their special medieval mission of leading and protecting the people. In the fourteenth century the present titles of captains re- gent were adopted. NO WOMAN’S SUFFRAGE IN SAN MARINO From the Council of sixty there is also chosen each year what is known as the Council of Twelve, which acts as a medi- ary body between the Grand Council and the regents. It has the power of judging criminals in preliminary hearings and civil cases of the third grade and als assists in contracts for minors an THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE womén. Needless to say, there is no woman’s suffrage movement in San Marino. From the same sixty councillors an- other nine are chosen for the Economic Committee. There is also a Secretary of Foreign Affairs and a Secretary of Home Affairs. Justice is administered by three foreign judges, changeable every three years. San Marino’s love of justice is reflected in this judiciary system, for the employ- ment of foreign judges, a custom from early times, precludes prejudices and fa- voritism, which might arise in a commu- nity where nearly every one is related either by blood or interests. As for the jury system, San Marino regards its dangers as too obvious. Geographically speaking, there is noth- ing on the level about San Marino. Life is one continuation of ups and downs. The daily excitement of meeting the auto which plies—in summer twice a day, in winter once—between Rimini and the Republic would be breathless if the in- habitants were not accustomed to climb- ing. Life is as peaceful as Saint Marino could have wished. It is possible to walk up and down the steep, winding streets, flanked by their quaint old stone houses, without meeting a stray pedestrian. That, of course, is during ordinary hours, for all San Marino turns out for the arrival of the auto. Housewives who have given commissions to buy supplies in Rimini are always in evidence. Then, too, the post arrives and the whole population seems to congregate in the Piazza della Liberta for its distribution. CITIZENS FOLLOW THE OCCUPATION OF MARINO The quiet of San Marino is proverbial. From the slopes beneath the ancient for- tress the sound of the stone-cutters at work in the quarries recalls the story of the Republic’s founder even into the heart of the capital. The Sammarinesi of today follow assiduously their found- er’s occupation, which is their principal maidustry. Stone is carted to Rimini, Forli, and all the neighboring towns and countrysides. In this tranquillity there is small need »f a police force, and even the militia of ‘he fortress, now used as a prison, was 149 recently .disbanded. The public force, with the exception of several carabinier1, whose duty seems to be to make pictur- esque details in the narrow streets, con- sists of the gendarmes and the Noble Guard, now called Guard of the Coun- cil. It is their duty to act as escort of honor for the captains regents on days of civil and religious solemnity, and espe- cially to guard regents and councillors when in public session. The brigadier of gendarmes, or carabinieri, during these war days examines passports and decides whether strangers may remain in the Re- public. As for the national defense, every citi- zen between 18 and 60 years of age is enrolled for military service in case of the country’s need. There is no conscrip- tion, the Sammarinesi of all centuries recognizing their obligations of defense as a matter of course. SAN MARINO’S GREAT FEAST DAYS On its great days, October 1, April 1, and September 3, how San Marino changes from its accustomed calm! To the outside visitor, who escapes from the direct impressions and thoughts of war into this little community, the festal days seem like a moving picture of the middle ages. ‘The truly medieval ceremonies on the evenings of September 15 and March 15, and the winter fesia of February 5, the fete of St. Agatha—the last named dear to every Sammarinese heart as the anniversary of the final liberation from the Alberoni occupancy—are of only slightly less importance. On the 15th of September and the 15th of March, at the hour of Ave Maria, the bells of the government palace and the fortress announce the hour of electing the new regents. San Marino flocks to the Piazza della Liberta. Within, the Coun- cil is in session, the regents having been escorted from their homes in picturesque cortege to the palace. The ceremony of choosing the new re- gents is an ancient one. First of all, by extracting names, I2 nominators are chosen. Each of these must name a candidate, one in whom he has full faith and also one who has not for three years held that office. The 12 names are then voted upon by the white and black ball | | | aaa Photograph from Alice Rohe A GATEWAY IN THE ANCIENT WALLS OF SAN MARINO: THE ROAD LEADS TO THE QUARRIES IN WHICH THE REPUBLIC’S FOUNDER LABORED Few places on earth have retained their medieval atmosphere as effectually as San Ma- rino, and yet even here the sign of progress is in evidence. Note the electric light conspicu- ous in the arch of the Porta Della Fratta, beneath whose shadow the women of the little Republic come to do their weekly washing. 150 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE system, the six receiving the highest num- ber of votes being the candidates. These six names are then coupled in three pairs, the arrangement being amicably made by the candidates. A CHILD CHOOSES THE REGENTS The cortége then issues from the pal- ace—the regents, in their medieval state costumes, accompanied by attendants in livery bearing torches. Up the steep street to the near-by cathedral, the cor- tege goes. At the door of the church the regents are met by the archpriest, who awaits them with holy water and blesses them. The religious element of primitive times in San Marino’s government is evidenced in all the modern ceremonies. ‘The re- gents take their posts of honor on the canopied throne beside the high altar. Guards, carabinieri, the entire cortége, stand at attention in the long nave. The archpriest offers a prayer to San Marino; then he reads the six names and puts the three couplets in three little silver balls. They are placed in a silver urn, shaken about, and a child is called to draw out one of them. ‘The little one holds it up before the breathless congregation. It is then given to the regents, who open it and read the names. ‘They in turn go to the high altar and give the paper to the priest, who reads aloud the names of the new heads of the government. Instantly, the band sounds the national hymn and the cortége with flaming torches winds its way back to the palace. The newly elected regents are officially notified with medieval ceremony. THE INAUGURATION CEREMONY The inauguration is the big event of the Republic, when the tradespeople, a num- ber of whom are souvenir-sellers, look forward to their chief profits from vis- itors. ‘The simplicity of life here is such that 20 or 25 strangers are regarded as a great invasion, and the whole community is agog. The important occasion is announced the night before by the ringing of the fortress bell. On the morning of the in- auguration a series of parades begins. The noble guards, resplendent in be- plumed hats and gold-braided uniforms, iit preceded by the band, first march to the homes of the regents to escort them to the palace in Via Giosue Carducci, where they clothe themselves in the state gar- THETIES. At ten the gorgeous procession moves through the narrow streets to the govern- ment palace. The regents having entered, the populace, with all the cortége, stands at attention for the moment when the flag is unfurled from an upper balcony. As the banner, blue and white, with the coat of arms of the Republic—the three plumed towers, encircled in a laurel and oak wreath tied with a ribbon bearing the motto “Libertas’—is raised, the band strikes up the national hymn, a quaint, unmartial air, founded on an ancient theme of Guido Monaco. The spectacular moment which the populace awaits is when the regents leave the palace to attend mass in the church where lie the relics of the Republic’s saintly founder. Following mass, at which the regents assist in their official posts beside the altar, the retiring regents on the canopied throne, the new ones in a simple pew, the cortege goes back to the palace, where the inauguration cere- mony takes place. An address by a former regent is al- ways delivered. Then the new regents take the oath of office and the old ones, removing their insignia of power, place them upon the future heads of govern- ment, bestowing upon them the seals and the keys of State. The ex-regents step down from their seats of authority and the new ones take their place. Then the ceremony is over and the cortege accom- panies the regents to their homes. The whole day, however, is one of gaiety. ‘The band serenades the regents, who in turn receive the townspeople. From all the hamlets of the Republic people crowd to the capital. It is a con- stantly changing picture of life which seems far removed from the world of today. THE FETE OF SAINT MARINO The spirit of primitive times, developed into picturesque customs during the mid- dle ages, casts its spell over the Republic on its day of veneration and rejoicing, September 3, the féte of Saint Marino. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE { : co i q Photograph from Alice Rohe SAN MARINO’S WAR HOSPITAL AT THE ITALIAN FRONT The mound in the central foreground is a flower-bed, with the seal of the Republic appearing in blossoms The day opens with the joyous ringing of bells, and at half-past nine the band plays in the Pianello. The usual cere- mony—the unfurling of the flag, the cor- tege of regents proceeding to the cathe- dral—takes place with a fervor as though ever new. After solemn high mass the procession, augmented by many priests, with the sa- cred relic, the head of the saint enclosed in a silver bust, proceeds through the town, blessing the various institutions. At noon comes the vital moment when the archpriest blesses the government palace with the venerated relic. The mid-day hour is tense with religious feeling. Standing beneath the loggia, the priest raises high the revered reliquary. At the instant of elevating the silver-encased head, as though automatically released, the bells peal forth and kneeling San Marino rises to its feet. The ceremony of February 5 has es- pecial significance, when from the church of Saint Agatha, in the Borgo, the Sam- marinesi climb in procession to the cathe- dral, or La Pieve, as the church of the saint is called; for it celebrates in the memories of the people the end of the Cardinal Alberoni usurpation. Legend tells how long ago, one cold winter day, the whole Republic being covered with snow, the people shivered in their homes and decided not to fare forth. The next morning, to their surprise, they found the snow marked from Saint Agatha to La Pieve with the tracks of wild beasts who, in rebuke to the people, had held the pro- cession. Needless to say, the function has taken place, regardless of weather, ever since. Though intensely devout, the religious atmosphere of San Marino is noticeably different from that of Italy. There is less of form, despite its reverent medi- eval customs. The Sammarinesi seem to have kept alive the primitive spirit of the early Christians in spite of the tact that at the end of the tenth century they were drawn into the hierarchy of the Roman THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 153 Photograph from Alice Rohe STONE QUARRIES BENEATH THE ANCIENT WALLS OF SAN MARINO The twentieth century Sammarinesi follow assiduously the occupation of their fourth cen- tury patron saint. Church. Their religion is interwoven with their law. Here the religious mar- riage ceremony is legal and the only one performed, while in Italy the civil cere- mony is obligatory. Monasteries and convents there are, where the simple communist idea of primitive times seems also to prevail. At Serravalle, an ancient custom exists which preserves the early habits of the religious orders. The little hospice is still open where in olden times wayfarers could find a haven and where foundlings were left. The grain from the little farm owned by the hospice was made into flour and distributed among the poor on Christmas eve. The unchanging customs perhaps reflect the reason for the peace- ful life of the Republic. THE RECREATIONS OF THE PEOPLE The quiet recreations of the Sammari- Mesi are picturesque to the outsider. Stone is carted to Rimini, Forli, and neighboring Italian towns. During the summer months on Saturday nights,. band concerts are held in the Piazza della Liberta. On these evenings, when a full moon hangs over the dark outlines of distant mountains, the picture is reminiscent of those medieval squares as reproduced in our grand _ operas. Couples walk back and forth about the statue of Liberty, or they seat themselves on the walls separating the steep street from the piazza, or lean against the para- pet which overhangs the depths below. Others gather about little tables before the age-gray café, all living pictures of days that seem long past. In winter, life is a different story. The little mountain Republic is so cold and such deep snow fills the narrow streets that the people practically hibernate. The climate, which in summer ts especially de- lightful, changes from warm to cold early in October and remains cold until April. The dwellers in the capital, bearing £ 154 family names interwoven in the history of the Republic, are for the most part government employees, professors in the college, storekeepers, or doctors. ‘There is a good hospital and a college which admits to many of Italy’s universities. COMMERCIAL LIFE CENTERS IN THE BORGO The commercial life of the Republic is centered in the Borgo. Every week, mar- ket days draw from the capital above housewives and servants. ‘The fairs, the chief ones being in September and Octo- ber, are occasions when buyers and sellers come not only from all over the Republic, but from neighboring Italian towns as well. Fair days present a kaleidoscopic pic- ture of gay-kerchiefed peasant women, farmers, stock-growers, boys and girls leading sheep, pigs, and cattle. ‘The cattle market from a distance looks like an en- campment of innumerable tents, with the indistinguishable forms of hundreds of great white cattle, which are the beasts of burden in this country. War has demanded its toll even among Sammarinesi cattle, but so prosperous is the stock-raising industry, one of the most important of the Republic, that the fairs are still imposing and picturesque events. One sees young and old climb- ing the ascending roads, bringing their cattle, little calves, half grown, good workers, good breeders, cows that pro- vide milk and daily toil as well—all for sale. In the piazzas, peasant women, with great garlands of onions and garlic, bas- kets of eggs, picturesque flat baskets full of live chickens, hampers of the famous San Marino sheep’s-milk cheese, bargain and barter. Booths with everything from dress goods to hair oil are surrounded by eagerly buying peasants and townsfolk; for San Marino has no. well-stocked stores, and therefore the fairs, with their visiting merchants, are of unusual impor- tance. The towering capital bears no fruit, except the heritage from its founder— stone of the quarries—but the villages and countrysides surrounding Mount ‘Titanus yield their share of various prod- ucts. Aside from cattle, poultry, eggs, cheese, and vegetables, the vine plays a THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE notable part in the life of the Republic, and the wine of San Marino is of a su- perior quality. All the picturesque features of the vintage of poetry are found in San Ma- rino late in September. All ox-carts seem to lead from vineyard to wine-cellar, and feet are stained red with the juice of the grape. In the vineyards bare-footed men pack the grapes in huge barrels atop the ox-carts, which transport the fruit to the cellars. Here peasants, juice spurting through their toes, crush the grapes in great vats from which the escaping liquid ‘runs off, ready to be stored in barrels for fermenting. Here the young figure of a modern Bacchus, there old men like satyrs, stamp the future wine in these dark canteens. Even the smallest farm- ers, the poorest peasants, who boast no cellars, tread their grapes in the farm- yards or wagon-sheds. FROM CRADLE TO GRAVE Picturesque customs abound in San Marino. From birth to death the Sam- marinesi pass the circle of existence as did their forebears. One of the charac- teristic sights is that of a christening party—the midwife, with the baby in her arms, covered by a huge stiff mantle, look- ing like an animated piece of furniture moving through the cobbled streets to- ward the cathedral, followed by the god- parents of the newcomer. When Sammarinesi are carried to their last resting place—the architecturally at- tractive cemetery at the end of a cypress avenue down the slope of the mountain— the coffin, covered with its heavy pall, is supported on the shoulders of friends until the city gates are reached; for no funeral car could wind its way through those steep, narrow streets. At the gates the cortege is met by the hearse, which proceeds down the mountain to a ceme- tery that is a modern copy of the ancient catacombs. Beneath the chapel and the cloistered loggia of fourteenth century style, graves are hewn from the living rock, as in those early Christian burying grounds. One passes through avenues flanked by last resting places, here tiny ones for children, or still smaller ones for bones; there larger ones for adults. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The Sammarinesi seem little occupied with business, the few stores of the capi- tal doing a leisurely trade. But in its quiet way San Marino has touched on most of the economic and social problems to its own satisfaction. It has its com- pulsory education law, and everything is being done to eradicate illiteracy, which still prevails among the peasants. A good school system, a college, and an excel- lent little museum attract students from neighboring towns. THE REPUBLICS COOPERATIVE INSTITUTIONS The Mutual Aid Society, with an im- portant savings bank, whose object 1s to aid the working classes, has many branches reaching -into the public life. Cooperative societies have been fostered by the Mutual Aid, among the interesting ones being the Cooperative Canteen. Its object is to serve good wine at a low price. Drunkenness is little known in San Marino, where crime is a rare occur-. rence. The Sammarinesi know what is good wine and they insist upon having it. One can always tell a wine' shop, even when there is no painted sign, by the branch of a tree or bit of bush hung over the door. The public bake-house is one of the busiest of codperative institutions. Be- fore October, 1917, families nearly al- ways sent their bread to the public oven to be baked. In October last, the eco- nomic effects of war made it necessary for the Republic to prohibit private bread baking. Bread tickets are issued and the bread, made in the public oven, is sold during certain hours of the day in the market loggia. The grain magazine, where members of the Mutual Aid could buy grain and flour at low prices and on credit, has naturally been affected by the war. The branches of the Codperative Labor Organization indicate the occupations of San Marino. It includes stone-cutters, masons, carpenters, and manual laborers. The Emigration Society’s aim is to place Sammarinese laborers in other countries. The Consumers’ League, of which the bake-house is a branch, boasts an eco- nomic kitchen. 155 There is a charity organization, a per- manent home for chronic invalids among the poor, a fresh-air fund, which sends babies to the seaside in the summer, a hospice for winter, and of course a Red Cross Society. Two theaters, one in the Borgo, one in the capital, are scenes of occasional his- trionic fetes, but dancing and _ theater- going have been discouraged since Italy’s entrance into the war, this being the sim- ple way of showing sympathy for the war-shadowed nation which surrounds the Republic. These quiet, unassuming people—earnest and sometimes austere— have adjusted life to their own wants. Indeed, the little Republic, which im- presses one as very neat and tidy in its appearance, is quite as orderly in its social and economic life. : A REFUGE FOR THE PERSECUTED YESTERDAY AND TODAY But while it seems self-sufficient and asks. only for peace and tranquillity, San Marino has been a refuge for fugitives through all the ages, since the Dalmatian stone-cutter with his early Christians found shelter on this mountain top. To- day, one finds refugees of various kinds and conditions living comfortably in the Hotel Titano or with Sammarinese fam- ilies. Penal offenders are not permitted to remain in the Republic, but political fugi- tives are given a haven. In times past many famous people have found shelter here, and today men known interna- tionally live in the tranquil shadows of Mt. Titanus, awaiting their hour. Extra- dition agreements exist between the Re- public and England, Italy, Belgium, and Holland. Back in 1849, Garibaldi, with his hand- ful of valiant men, found a life-saving refuge here when pursued by overpower- ing Austrian troops. ‘The incident still lives in the hearts and history of San Marino, where tablets bearing Garibaldt’s words on that occasion, a statue of Gari- baldi, and a square named in his honor testify the love of the Sammarinesi for the great liberator. ‘The cooperative can- teen is situated on the ground floor of the ONIYVNW NVS ! Lada AYVA YAH. HLIM SHdvVuo AHL ONIGVAUL ‘NAdO AHL NI ANIM JO SMSVO YIHHL AMVW GNV SANIA WAHL TAVH SINVSVHd LSYWIGNOH AHL NAAT oyoy oo1py wor ydeisojoyg Ww e 156 Ajuosew JO sopid [eAoIpsw I13y} YM psuMOID s}UWNs 9911} oY} p4seMo} S}ysiay oY} dn sulloquivja aq 0} Waas ‘syootjs MOJIeU ‘d90}s suTyUeLy ‘ISOUIIVUIWIeS OY} JO sosnoy ou ONINVW NVS JO OVIGNdAN HHL JO SIOPGWAS OINOLSIH ‘SYAMOL AWAHL AHL DO spy wlorz Ydeisopoy 157 158 house where Garibaldi and his wife, Anita, were given hospitality. In the far-off sixteenth century, the Duke of Urbino found a haven here from the Borgia confiscator, the Sammarinesi helping him to escape to Venice, dressed in peasant’s clothes. SAN MARINO SENDS HER YOUTHS TO WAR Although doves soar undisturbed above the Piazza della Liberta and San Marino nourishes its ancient desire to be left in peace, the Republic feels how impossible it is to remain unaffected by the world war. Naturally, the great effect on San Marino is economic, but the spirit of hu- manity, of liberty, has pulsed too strongly for centuries in this little community to permit it to be indifferent to the con- flict surging about it. And so San Ma- rino has shed its blood for the great cause. Fifteen of its youths volunteered in the Italian army. Two of them have al- ready fallen upon the field of honor, three are. Austrian prisoners, and four have been wounded. And San Marino, thrill- ing with the cause of liberty against au- tocracy, maintains a finely equipped hos- pital at the Italian front, enthusiastically replacing the one lost in last October’s disaster. 3 Officially, San Marino is neutral. The report that the Republic had declared war against Austria—which was largely cir- culated—is without foundation, say the Sammarinesi. “What a ridiculous figure we would cut—a little republic, without a standing army, declaring war against a great bar- baric horde,” said Professor Onofrio Fattori, councillor of 23 years’ standing and former regent. “The truth of our relations is this: Several Sammarinesi are prisoners, and when we attempted to have them restored to us the Austrian government replied that we were no longer neutral, since our citizens were fighting for Italy, and therefore the re- quest could not be granted.” The world recognizes San Marino as an ally on the side of democracy. PRESIDENT WILSON BREAKS A SAN MARINO CUSTOM War has brought an unprecedented breach of tradition in conservative San Marino. It is only natural that the littlest THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE republic in the world should admire the biggest one; but as for the breaking of an ancient custom—President Wilson has accomplished that. Sammarinese babies, at least one in every family, are named after the patron saint. The others bear names of different saints or of distin- guished men of the Republic. On April 25, a son was born to the daughter of the Sammarinese historian, the late Marino Fattori. The family was pulsing with President Wilson’s historic address in which he announced the breaking of re- lations with Germany, and the parents decided no other name should be given the baby than that of the man they call the great apostle of peace and liberty. So in La Pieve, with all the quaint Sammarinese customs, Baby Reffi was christened Wilson, and the records of the Republic were given a decided innova- tion. The fact that the letter “W” does not exist in the Sammarinese alphabet introduces a slight deviation from the American pronunciation, but “Vilson” conveys the idea quite satisfactorily. Naturally, the language of San Marino is Italian, but the people use a dialect which, though based upon Italian, is not always recognizable. San Marino’s love of established calm has been disturbed by the same economic problems which agitate the entire world. On all supplies received from Italy this land of peace is paying its war tax. Products which come from within the Republic have not reached the high prices of other countries. As cattle abound in great numbers, meat is cheap. Eggs, when selling for 7% cents apiece in Rome, were obtainable at 4%4 cents in San Marino. It-is doubtinl 1mm any other ‘civilized country in the world a pair of fine young chickens could be bought at this time for four lire (about 80 cents). », TAXES ARE INSIGNIFICANT, RENTS LOW Milk in bottles, carried in bag-shaped baskets of straw by girls and women from the farms below to the city, created an unheard-of scandal when it sold for 50 centimes (about ten cents) a quart. Though prices have increased enor- mously, on account of buying from out- side markets, living is cheaper in San Marino than elsewhere. Taxes are so insignificant and rents so THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 159 Photograph from Alice Rohe A CITY SET UPON A HIGH HILL: THE CAPITAL OF THE WORLD’S SMALLEST NATION AND EUROPE’S: OLDEST STATE The peasant women of San Marino follow their peaceful pursuits, while all about their miniature Republic sounds the clamor and the clangor of a world in the throes of war low that the Republic does not have to face the serious problems of other coun- tries. This is due to the fact that the government has no complex and expen- sive State organization to maintain. A palace with a garden the size of a city block is taxed 11 francs a year, while a home consisting of six large rooms, cellar, and garret pays the astounding an- nual tax of one lira 70 centimes (about 34 cents). As for income, tobacco and salt, which san Marino receives at cost from the Italian Government, with an annual com- pensation of 300,000 lire for the sup- pression of custom duties, are the only sources of revenue. San Marino sells its salt and tobacco inuch cheaper than does Italy, and its revenue from these two articles is 200,000 lire a year. There is also an agreement between Italy and San _ Marino. that the latter shall not produce certain articles. The relations between the Italian Gov- ernment and the Republic are not those of a protectorate by any means, as San Marino, so proud of its autonomy, re- frains from an accord which could give rise to that term. From its early life politically, however, San Marino has al- ways had a stronger protecting friend— first the dukes of Urbino and later the Papal power. Today, the big friend is Italy, and the relations are described in the convention of 1894 as “Rapports of friendship and of .good neighbors be- tween Italy and the Republic.” Further: “The Republic, having the firm convic- tion that the protecting friendship of His Majesty the King of Italy for the con- servation of its most ancient liberty and independence will never become less, de- clares that it will not accept that of any other Power. All the other articles demonstrate the e st aibyy S[duiexd 10° “suoMMsUT oAnesedgoo Aq poyydus o1B Suts[qo10 SyseWop AULIN “SAH TUNLIG Sy oyqnusy UleJUNOW 9Y} UT ast] OPTY A AINMOS POVLLOO ONIUVIN NVS OLLSIYELOVEVHO V > NOS AHL NI SYHANNIdS Boy s:I[Ly wos ydessojoyg 160 "APUNWWOD [[VUs ALQAD 9}LUSe Jey} SI1do} snoieA ay} UO SuOTUIdO JO aSuLYoXa oY} 10} AyuNqs0ddo ay}q pey aAey pue SXkep xIs Suipasoid oy} SULINP poloqey sey [TY “SsOqysiou J19y} YPM AJUNWIWIOD 9Y} JO SITeYe ay} SsNosip pue SodTAJOS YOINYD Jojfe a]IyM Jasul] ‘Jsoq Ilo} Ul possoip ‘ojdood oy} ‘eoloury JO Sasvi[IA pue SUMO} 94} UL SY .‘sseul Jo}Je Aepung uo sswod oULIeyT ues JO SOSe][IA OY} UL INOY [eID0s ATYIeM oy, ONINVW NVS ‘ONIGUVIOALNOW :aavVNOS OI'IqNd AHL NI ONIWAHILVS SNINYOW AVGNAS aYyOY so1py woz ydesSojoyg 161 Photograph from Alice Rohe HERE OLD MEN, LIKE SATYRS, WITH. PURPLE JUICE SPURTING BETWEEN THEIR } TOES, CRUSH THE GRAPES IN GREAT VATS The escaping liquid is drawn off and stored in barrels in cellars hewn from the rock, where it is allowed to ferment. The wine of San Marino is of a superior quality. | 162 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE parity and equality in which the two States are considered. San Marino has coined its own money, though at present the Italian monetary system is adopted. It has its own postage stamps, the ever-present three towers being engraved in different colors in ac- cordance with their value. The interna- tional telegraph and postal regulations are placed in the hands of the Italian Government. : Anomalous as it may seem, the little Republic has, on rare occasions in the past, bestowed titles of nobility upon for- eigners who have greatly benefited the country. As for its nobility or patrician order, which seems to have crept in dur- ing the seventeenth century, when the title was given the regents, later councils eliminated such distinctions among a free people. The patrician families whose names are enrolled upon the Republic’s “Book of Gold” are those who have per- formed exceptional services for the com- munity. HE REPUBLIC’S ORDER OF KNIGHTHOOD There is a knightly order of five grades called the Equestrian Order of Civil and Military Merit. The first three grades are bestowed for service to the Republic; the last two for service to humanity. All the forms and ancient customs are very dear to the people. The peasants evince a wonderful reverence for their country. These contadini live among THE BRITISH HILE lacking the romantic in- \\ terest and religious significance of their triumphant Holy Land campaign, which resulted in the elevation of the Christian cross once more over Jerusalem, no military operation of Brit- ish forces in the Near East has been of greater importance than the recent occu- pation of Baku, the great oil city of the Russian Empire. Four-fifths of all the oil produced in Russia comes from the 2,700 wells of the two vast oil fields of the Baku region. In 1915 (the latest available statistics, 163 their vines and fields, with their sheep and their great white cattle, keeping alive customs that are only picturesque mem- ories in other lands. Here the women, sitting in the doorvard, carding the wool or spinning: the flax, have ever before them the unchanging outline of the three- towered mountain. Men guiding the plow, behind the great white oxen, seem ever laboring toward. the protecting heights of the guardian citadel. On Sundays, the outpouring from the churches.in the -castelli, or villages, is a colorful. picture of peasant life which could have been posed a hundred or many hundred years ago. And a sight which makes the Republic a decided contrast to Italy, only a few miles away, is the num- ber of young men, living over again today the customs of their fathers. A change in their habits would be a disaster. San Marino has had its opportunities to change from unassuming quiet and simple integrity. Some years ago an al- luring offer was made to turn the Repub- lic into another Monte Carlo. Though it would have meant wealth to the citizens as well as the government, the offer was rejected. The littlest Republic in the world, true to the precepts of its fourth century Christian founder, the Dalmatian stone- cutter, has perhaps found the secret of. eternal peace and perpetual liberty in the modesty of its pretensions, TAKE BAKU owing to the chaotic conditions which have obtained for two years throughout the Slav dominions) the Baku output was more than seven million tons of oil. The lighter grades formerly were transported by pipe line to Batum, on the Black Sea. Baku is built in the form of an amphi- theater on the south side of the Apsheron peninsula, which juts far out into the Caspian Sea. It is said to derive its name from the violent squalls (badkube) which frequently strike this section of the west Caspian coast. Although there was a settlement at this 164 £ eo THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ee Speer ES a ee Photograph by Hon. John B. Jackson 3 A SEREE TD SCENE. IN BAKU point as early as the sixth century, Baku, which is now a town of nearly 250,000 inhabitants, did not become a Russian possession until a little more than a hun- dred years ago. The upper part of the city, corresponding to the back rows of an amphitheater, is the picturesque Tatar quarter, with numerous narrow lanes and oriental bazaars.: The most striking architectural feature .of the, place is the massive Kis Kale, or Maiden’s Tower, a monument of the Byzantine period, which rises to a height of nearly 150 feet. Centuries before the wealth of the Baku oil fields was realized, Persian fire- worshipers discovered natural gas issu- ing from the fissures of rock in this vicinity, and a few miles from the mod- ern city there may still be seen the ruins INDEX TO THE SOCIETY’S MAP OF of an ancient temple where these burning jets from the lower regions were the ob- jects of adoration. Aside from its importance as the T'am- pico of Europe, Baku had several thriv- ing industrial establishments at the out- break of the war, such as tobacco fac- tories, flour mills, and sulphuric-acid works. Its trade with Persia and the Transcaucasus territory is active in peace times, the principal articles of commerce being raw silks, cotton, fruits, wines, and rice. In addition to its advantages as a sea- port, Baku has in recent years enjoyed railway connections both with Batum, 560 miles to the west by way of Tiflis, and with Rostov-on-the-Don, 818 miles to the northwest. 4 THE WESTERN THEATRE OF WAR Attention of readers is directed to the INDEX to the Society’s MAP OF THE WESTERN THEATRE OF WAR which may be obtained from the hee daveuiers of THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, 16th and M streets northwest, Washington, D C. The index is especially valuable in quickly locating any of the 15,000 places near the battle lines in France and Belgium shown on the remarkable map published in the May number of the GEOGRAPHIC. shown on this highly detailed map and may readily be found by the index. Practically every place mentioned in the news dispatches is clearly Additional copies of the map (26% x 31 inches) on paper are 75 cents (including index); on linen $1.50 (including index); index alone 25 cents. Postpaid in the United States. Foreign postage 25 cents extra. INDEX FOR JANUARY-JUNE, 1918, VOLUME READY: Index for Volume XXXIII—January-June, 1918—will be mailed to members upon request. | | Lieut. John Philip Sousa and his U.S.Naval Reserve Band The worlds greatest bands parade before you -on the Victrola Sousa’s Band, Pryor’s Band, Conway’s Band, Vessella’s Band, United States Marine Band, Black Diamonds Band of London, Band of H. M. Cold- stream - Guards, Garde Républicaine Band of France, Banda de Alabarderos of Madrid, and other celebrated organizations. | Listening to these famous bands on the Victrola, arouses your enthusiasm both for the bands that play such stirring music and the instrument that reproduces it so perfectly. Now of all times band music is an inspiration to all of us—and the Victrola brings right into the home the.thrilling music of the great- est bands in all the world. There are Victor dealers everywhere, and they will gladly play for you Victor Records by these famous bands, and demonstrate the various styles of the Victor and Victrola—$12 to $950. Victor Talking Machine Co., Camden, N.J., U.S.A. Berliner Gramophone Co., Montreal, Canadian Distributors important Notice. Victor Records and Victor Machines are Scientifically coordinated and synchronized in the processes of Ce Manufacture, and their use, one with the other, is absolutely eee essential to a perfect reproduction. _ HIS ‘MASTERS VO New Victor Records demonstrated at NE REC. US. PAT. 0 "rag!Sure min paee ne ro, oma Victe a . ok tor 4S Reaicta “Hie lity, always ees Mo ier ~ Re Victor Talking Machin€ — ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ TO FOLLOW THE BOYS OVER THE TO USE THE MAP OF THE WESTERN THEATRE OF WAR HOW THE MAP IS REGARDED IN FRANCE. Editor National Geographic Magazine, Washington, D. C., U.S. A. Dear Sir: This is to express my most cordia ee Se congratulations on your Map of the Western Theatr rae of War. ‘There is not to be found in France so com ~ plete a map on so small a scale. I have bee: able to follow most accurately on your map th “) reports of the Franco-American offensive, be | causethenameof everyvillageand townappears S=<-| We applaud the magnificent courage an 7-~_»| success of your compatriots. : : Sincerely yours, SECRETARY, Societe de Geographie, Paris, Fran NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY | N THESE crucial and thrill- ing times who does not wish he could go over the top with the boys! Next to doing so is to follow their movements on the National Geographic Map of the Western Theatre of War. Place the map on the wall or the door, mount it on board or like material, and put a colored pin in every front line town to show what nation’s troops are holding it—whether American, French, British, or Italian—a different color for each nation’s forces. ‘Then move pins forward as the Allied armies drive on, and each day’s news will become - THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE >, me Der oy Berlin. The 70-page index of all names on the fighting front is so arranged and keyed thz you can quickly locate any and all of them. Dept. H, National Geographic Society, 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Please send copies of ‘MAP OF WESTERN THEATRE OF WAR,” with Index Book of 12,00 — names, for which I enclose herewith dollars. Postpaid in United States. If several copies are desired, write names and addresses and send with your card Name Printed on Military Linen, $1.50, postpaid in U. S. A. Street Address Printed on Paper, 75 cents; Abroad, 25 cents additional. Index without Map, 25 cents. City and State You can get them—with a Graflex OT speed pictures aione, but pictures that other cameras can never get —good snapshots indoors, or on cloudy or rainy days—the elusive smile of a bashful child, or the shy, furred children of the forest at play—you can get them easily with a Graflex. The booklet, “Why I Use a Graflex,”’ will prove it, and tell why. Free from your dealer or from us. FOLMER 6 SCHWING DEPARTMENT Eastman Kodak Company Rochester New York pz | ————_, wee the picture before you s ‘biker, nap it ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ FROM A LITHOGRAPH, DRAWN ON THE STONE BY GEORGE BELLOWS That Monstrous Thing Called Kultur You haven’t believed. Because your mind is clean, because you have been surrounded from childhood by an atmosphere of uprightness, and decency, and kindliness, because you hate to see even a dumb brute suffer—you haven’t believed. You have listened, with a doubting shrug, to the tales of German atrocity—doubting be- cause these tales were so bestial, so revolting that to you they were unthinkable. But you, but we, must believe, because they are the truth. The official documents of England, of France and of Belgium confirm them—absolutely. More—the half, the worst half has never been told in this clean land of ours, has never been told because unprintable. There’s a fester spot on this fair world—a spot that has spread from Berlin until it has poisoned all of Germany. And there’s just one cure—the knife. The poison cannot be dammed up, it must be cut out else this mon- strous thing called Kultur will fasten its hide- ous self on all the world. Our boys over there have learned to believe. They are seeing the horror and the pity of it ail. They know, and knowing, they set their jaws and go over the top with a righteous wrath, a holy anger that carries all before it. We have got to feel this war as they feel it. Have got to believe, and believing, set our jaws and do our part whatever that part may be. Right now it’s money, money, money. BUY U.S. GOVT. BONDS of she FOURTH LIBERTY LOAN Lhis space contributed for the Winning of the War by .The National Geographic Magazine... | ; p —not the name _of a thing, but the mark of a service MAZDA is the trademark of a worlde wide service to certain lamp manu- **Not the name of a thing, but the mark of a service’’ facturers. Its purpose is to collect and select scientific and practical information concerning progress and developments in the art of incandescent lamp manufacturing and to distribute this information to the companies entitled to receive this service. MAZDA Service is centered in the Research Laboratories of the General Electric Company at Schenectady, New York. The mark MAZDA can appear only on lamps which meet the standards of MAZDAservice. It is thus an assurance of quality. A MAZDA Lamp for every purpose This trademarkis the property of the General Electric Company. : 4644 RESEARCH LABORATORIES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—it identifies you.’’ Descriptive Text by Edward W. Nelson, America’s Foremost Au- thority on Animals 127 Paintings of the Mammals of North America in Full Colors by Louis Agassiz Fuertes 50 Reproductions of Animal Tracks Drawn by Ernest Thompson Seton A Series of Drawings of American Prehistoric Mammals by Charles R. Knight 32 Black and White Pictures from Unusual Photographs of American e ° INTRODUCING A LITTLE BLACK BEAR TO A LITTLE BROWN BEAR Wild Life AT SEWARD, ALASKA Wild Animals of North America Intimate Studies of the Big and Little Citizens of the Mammal Kingdom More than 200 illustrations: 127 Paintings reproduced in full colors; 50 Track Sketches, a number of Drawings of Prehistoric Mammals and many illus- trations from unusual photographs reproduced in black and white. HERE is no subject richer in fascinating interest than the study of animal life. To see all the types and representative species in their native environment, to watch them meeting their respective problems of life and adapting themselves to the conditions they have to face, and to follow nature through its. many moods as typified by its wonderful variety of mammalian forms is a delightful and informative diversion. To do this under the guidance of one of those born observers, whose eyes are always open, whose ears are always keen, whose brain is always quick to grasp, and whose pen is ever facile, is to become intimately acquainted with one of the richest chapters in zodlogy. Such_is to be the good fortune of those who receive a copy of the National Geographic Society’s new Book of Mammals. ‘This work is the consolidation of Edward W. Nelson’s splendid nature articles in the GEOGRAPITIC. There is no man so well fitted to introduce you to the mammals of North America as Mr. Nelson, the Chief of our remarkable U. S. Biological Survey. For forty years he has been their friend, living among them and studying their habits and traits in the most intimate way. To him an animal is something more than flesh and bone and skin and fur. It has a personality; and he is as careful to record this as to describe the formal qualities which science writes down in species descriptions. Mr. Nelson is a naturalist of the John Burroughs order. ‘To visit the people of woodland, mountain, and field with him is to discover a new world. Illuminating the descriptions are natural-color illustrations from the brush of that gifted artist-naturalist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes. Mr. Fuertes is not only a master of color but also of pose, and he can catch the timid alertness of the prong-horn antelope, the cruel sagacity of the arctic wolf, the lazy indifference of the common skunk, or the wide-awake watchfulness of the gray squirrel, with equal facility. _Added to these is a series of 50 sketches by Ernest Thompson Seton, depicting the footprints of various animals as they appear in the light snow of field or forest or in the dust of the wayside. These will enable the reader to identify the tracks of many of the mammals of North America. _ Together these authorities have produced a book that is without counterpart in the literature of animal life. Derr. H, Nationa, Grocrapuic Society, «lied blow ele elie culaceie 6:0 econo levers) pllekaNeteyenebeiete akan teEeonaSs 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Please send........copies of ““WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA,” bound in.....esccccoeees 2 la for which I enclose herewith. .... ae eer RS Ms OS) ZA la Zo PA — > lath Meili ail Sinise cy MAGAZINE a ot SEPTEMBER, 1918 0) KY Nien an hr ud livallllie al a a Ty me tinall . CONTENTS 1 S26 Ships for the Seven Seas With 23 Illustrations | RALPH A, GRAVES | nf The American People Must Become Ship-minded With 8 Illustrations EDWARD N. HURLEY (iin a wf Tt | T aps | Our Industrial Victory With 17 Illustrations CHARLES M. SCHWAB Sr yy ul ey y inane lle The War and Ocean Geography With 7 Illustrations TPA Nhlinnsin PUBLISHED BY THE “Sonar muse™ NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. dinate Drone hod fT [io NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL | SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, DIRECTOR AND EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE OFP. AUSTIN: | 2) ©. 1916-1918 FrRaANKLIN K. LANE Secretary of the Interior Wiitit1am Howarp Tarr Formerly President of the United States C. M. CuHestTer Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Supt. Sy Naval Observatory Freperick V. CoviLie Formerly President of Wash- ington Academy of Sci- ences JoHN E. Pinispury Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation RupotpH KavuFFMANN Managing Editor The Even- ing Star T. L. MacponaLp Mer Deb. ACS: S. N. D. Nortu Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census PRESIDENT SECRETARY BOARD OF MANAGERS 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. Howarp Gore Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’l Army GILBERT H. GrosvENOR Editor of National graphic Magazine Geo- GeEorGE Oris SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. Tirrmann Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Henry WHITE Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. JoHn M. Witson Brigadier General U.S. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers JOHN E. PILLSBURY JOHN JOY EDSON : : GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER RALPH A. GRAVES VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER ASSISTANT EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR 1918-1920 Cuar.es J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company JOHN Joy Epson Chairman of the Board, Washington Loan & Trust Company Davin FatrcHILpD In Charge of Agricultural Explorations, Department of Agriculture C. Hart Merriam Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. Austin Statistician GeorcE R. Putnam Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GEORGE SHIRAsS, 3D Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photogra- pher GRANT SQUIRES New York To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. “the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,” All receipts from the publication the National are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by | an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, EDITOR A. W. GREELY C. Harr Merriam O. H. Trrtmann Rozert Ho.wuisteR CHaPpMAN Water T. SwWINGLE Copyright, Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Sec. October 3, CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Davip FarrcHILD Hucu M. Smitru N. H. Darton Frank M. CHarpmMan 1918, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. Ceeas Second-Class Mail Matter. 1917, authorized July 1, All rights reserved. 1103, Act of 1918. ea / Modern artillery defends You against invasion. Frowning dreadnoughts, eager air craft, and sullen submarines weave the modern fabric of the na- tional armor of defense. Are you modern in the watch you carry—in Jour defense against missed trains, fumbled engagements, and the costly hour- errors and minute - misunder- standings that invade and disrupt ‘your days? One distinguished watch attains the apex of modern proficiency — TOUT Modern from design to assembly, and from assembly to service. Keyed to the exacting requirements of mod- ern life. Scientifically safeguarded against error, a Hamilton gives you unequaled. accuracy along with re- liable, dependable, uninterrupted ser- vice. Hamilton is the favorite watch of railroads, and is carried by the engineers of America’s most famous fliers. A gallery of 32 quality models to choose from. Prices, $30 to $155; movements, $16 ($18 in Canada) and up. Every Hamilton guaranteed to give absolute satisfaction. Rail- road accuracy plus a lifetime of service. Send Today for “The Timekeeper™ —the story of Hamilton supremacy Hamilton Watch Company Dept. 35 Lancaster, Pennsylvania ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ SS t IE IT PPO DIT CONA T DB3T ITD Your Investment Problem lone present conditions sound investment securities are available at prices which yield unusually attractive returns. In solving your investment problem— in placing your funds or in re-investing your holdings to the best advantage —the Bond Department of this Company can be of service to you. | . This Department is a complete investment organization, with every modern Wty for service to investors. It investigates, examines, and underwrites bond and note issues; buys and sells securities; and furnishes information relating to investments. Through our correspondents in various cities, these facilities are placed at the convenient disposal of our customers outside of New York. This Company is an organization—of which the Bond Department is a part— covering completely the field of banking and trust service. Through its Banking Department, the Company transacts a general commercial banking business. As a member of the Federal Reserve System the Company is enabled to extend to its customers the credit facilities and rediscount and collec- tion privileges of a member bank Through its Foreign Department and its affiliations and connections throughout the world, the Company affords a com- plete foreign banking service. Through i its Trust Department the Com- pany acts in every fiduciary capacity for corporations and individuals. Your inquiries as to how we may serve you will be welcomed. Our monthly booklet, Investment Recommendations, will be sent on request. Guaranty Trust Company of New York 140 Broadway FirtH Ave. OFFICE Paris OFFICE Pith “Ave. & 43rd St. ce eens Rue des Italiens, 1 & 3 2 LombDar Doge us . Mapison Ave. OFFICE Ln GieneaorPl. 7 Tours OFFICE Madison Ave. & 60th St. Rue Etienne Pallu, 7 Capital & Surplus $50,000,000 Resources over $600,000,000 -**Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Tiny Pellets of Corn Hearts are Steam Exploded— Puffed to Bubbles, Raindrop Size— To Make Corn Puffs There are toasted corn bub- bles—called corn puffs—which form the finest of the Puffed Grains, some folks think. They are airy, flimsy, drop-size globules, with a multiplied toasted corn flavor. Sweet pellets of hominy are sealed in. huge guns; then subjected to fearful : : heat; then exploded to The Pellets The Bubbles eight times former size. The object is to blast every food cell, to make digestion easy. But the result is also a food confection—the most delightful product ever made from corn. For the War-Timeé Milk Dish Countless children nowadays get Corn Puffs in their bowls of milk. They are thin, crisp, flavory morsels light as air. And never was a corn food so fitted to digest. Between meals children eat them dry. lightly doused with | melted butter. ! Keep Corn Puffs with your other Puffed Grains. It’s a win- some, wheat-conserving dainty. And, like all Puffed Grains, the blasted food cells make it hygienic food. Corn Puffed Puffed Puffs Rice Wheat All Bubble Grains, Each 15c Except in Far West ‘The Quaker Oats @mpany Sole Makers Big r. rod UCtION and accurate manufacture are two prime essentials in Government work. Fenestra Solid Steel Windows aid materially in accomplishing these results by eliminating shadow zones in the enormous new Dodge Brothers Ordnance plant here shown. To structural durability is added equally durable windows which aug- ment the strength of this plant where the glass area is practically one third that of floor space. There are 134,000 square feet of Fenestrated wall and sawtooth roof, and 500,000 square feet of floor space. 31,775 lineal feet of Fenestra operator open and close the sash as desired. As in other modern manufacturing structures everywhere, the final judgment of the nation’s expert engineers approves Fenestra. Daylight, Ventilation, Weathering and Fire Protection are Fenestra values —for the full story address Detroit Steel Products Company, 4119 E. Grand Bivd., Detroit, Mich. Yj Yairi te, wv Yili» Y Q W UII ffitifity ‘Mention the Geographic—it identifies you.’’ Smith, Hinchman & Grylls Architects GWG WW SS SX NS SS SS \ Nowhere are Art and En- Zineering, more ideally mated than in the produc- tion of Marmon Closed Cars. The long low 34 chassis 1s exceptionally well suited to the pur- poses of fine coach work —to comfort, nobility, grace and beauty. 186-Inch Wheelbase 1100 Pounds Lighter NORDYKE & MARMON COMPANY Established 1851 Indianapolis NSS LK SS“ ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ PL / OYS and mechanics aren’t the only ones who have to get rid of obstinate dirt and stains. If your hands are stained with ink or dye or grease, treat them to a bath in Goblin Soap suds— you'll be delighted. Goblin Soap is a splendid all around soap for toilet, bath, kitchen, garage, shop—anywhere where there is dirt to be removed without injuring the skin. Try it. It lathers quickly and easily in any water, hard or soft, warm or cold; it’s gentle and thorough. For Poilet or Bath If your dealer does not have Goblin Soap, please send us his name and we will see Large Cake that you are promptly supplied. | oc CUDAHY, 111 W. Monroe St., CHICAGO Pricein Canada, Tc 64 Macauley Ave., Toronto, Canada Weed Chains of Solid Gold —would not be worth as much as Weed Chains of Steel you use on the tires of your passenger car and truck. Steel is worth more than gold now, for in these days we measure the real value of a metal by the work it does. Conserve your Weed Chains as you must conserve gasoline. Use your passenger cars in bad weather only when it is necessary. Weed Chains must be saved for trucks and essen- tial passenger cars, which should be kept going rain or shine. When you must use your car put on your chains at the first drop of rain, and take them off the moment the road is safely dry. Waste through reckless, unnecessary use is now a crime. If you don’t help save Weed Chains, as you are help- ing to save gasoline, there will be a national shortage. This means not only a tremendous loss, through injury tocars and trucks, but the checking and curtail- ing of essential industries to which these cars and trucks are essential. Cars and trucks must have chains on SnD eer pavements and muddy or snowy roads. A nation-wide shortage in Weed Chains means the use of makeshifts—a harmless rope, or ruinous non-creeping chains that give a certain amount of trac- tion, but cut the tires to pieces. Conserve your Weed Chains AMERICAN CHAIN Co., INC., BRIDGEPORT, CONN. Relieve Your Pain In Nature’s Way- Heat and light naturally ease pain, and with a Thermolite they are available instantly wherever there is electric current. These beneficial rays, safe as sunlight, penetrate the tissues, and by removing congestion, relief from pain follows quickly and natu- rally. Muscular soreness, stiff neck, rheuma- tism, neuralgia, congestion—all respond to ~[hermofite SAFE AS SUNLIGHT There is nothing intricate or harmful i in this remark- able treatment, and it’s far easier and more effective than application of poultices, hot water, and ordinary methods. But the best way to tell i3 by actual test; so we're willing to send ‘[hermolite on approval. If not satishied, your money refunded. We do this because we know how enthusiastic a Thermolite user becomes. Send $7.50 for Thermolite complete. Write for interesting literature that shows how to banish nearly every pain. OLR DIR Quality, the finest — Price, negardfoss — ‘Dearing - power, the fongest — that’s — Genuine 7 SARA GAAA 20 Gp 9.9 GRD.0.0. ED. x oS Batre =, Layee Top Material unc 0. Ga © 0 Gam 6.6: re used on cars that bring the Righeot prices. it SEAS RRR RR SERS: DS. ? SED: CD 0:0. $4: i ; Ge Also sold by surgical and electrical supply houses H. G. McFADDIN & CO. 38 Warren St., New York Makers of Lighting Devices Since 1874 3 ak; ai mga ry = mb 0 © cammsil 60 cmmiamn 6 c'ciemly 0 6. untind 6 Culm via: EASES & Sal Eoutpment <2: ee * se eee q { Loaersmmnecemne saan oomans sass oamne sans smanewsmnenans’s KeNaeg @ 0 GD 6:0: Gam e:0: aL =u ‘0:6! 5 0.0 GED 0.0 GED 0 0. Gan CO 6 G=mee o Gums 10 Gamma a0: EBSD 0 0 GED GO e: ammo © GEEED 0.0 GED 00 GEE c'0 GUE ¢'6: =D 010 Ga 0:0. GREED 0.0 | GEED 010 Ga 01 Ga 10 =D ee EES 7 s li e e [| ry i e i e il e | ry [| ry ry @ T es. | s | je | i] @ T 8 il @ (| @ il e ii ig, ———— ; RAW Ss Te PIERCE ARROW LOCOMOBILE CADILLAC MARMON CHANDLER PREMIER SCRIPPS BOOTH WHITE HUDSON MERCER COLE CHALMERS COLUMBIA REO SIX WESTCOTT Avoid misrepresentation, even though it be uninten- tional. Look for this label on tops represented as Pantasote. She Cpe alaate Company 1744 Barling yee Bldg., New York Our patrons enjoy "tHe anaes Of 73 years of vale giving. Request Booklet 3. HARRISON GRANITE COMPANY 200 Fifth Avenue New York City Offices in panainal Cities. Works: Barre, Vt. SSS iwWwWwmi ur. oF SUPERIOR QUALITY DISTINCTIVE IN STYLE C. G. Gunther's Sons 391 Firru AVENUE New YorK Furriers exclusively for ninety-eight years iam TaN AKE off that old i top and replace TUT with a stunning new one of Chase Drednaut and notice the big improvement —a rejuvenated car at small cost. Ask Your Dealer or Write Us TMM MMP TT Ye NEW YORK » DETROIT - CHICAGO - SAN FRANCISCO UAL | ini *-L;C-CHASE & CO. BOSTON LEADERS IN MANUFACTURING SINCE 1847 SEU H] 2 Tm al oi 4A TOP of Drednaut will often outlast the life of the car it- self. It adds beauty and dignity—remains true in finish over a long period of severe use. ‘‘Defies Time and the Elements’’ —— EUROPE WAS USING AMERICAN RED GUM FOR FINE CABINET- WORK YEARS BEFORE AMERICA’S PRIDE AWOKE TO ITS OWN. Residence of C. L. Harrison, Esq , in Cape Glrardeau, Missouri. ; Enjoy Beauty? Write for Samples. Wish Knowledge? Ask for Booklet. The Beauty of GUM in Natural ONLY PARTLY EXPLAINS WHY IT JIS “‘AMERICA’S FINEST CABINET WOOD.” IT ALSO 1311 Bank of ommerce Bldg Tomes | “BEHAVES WELL.” Olt VANOLTVYIALVN SLT 7, i | { | DQNOL FHL OL NILVS SV LHOS LIZA ‘COOMGAVH ONIYZAGNA NV ‘if sere pam AAA AHL OL AOL V,, ‘NMOUd WAVA* a | Mewmpuis, TENN. ‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.?? The above is the fa- mous Potter Palmer Memorial in Grace- land Cemetery, art Chicago. Inthe Rock E Everlasting OU whose aim is to insure your family against anxiety now and always, should appreciate the value of that amemorial which shall honor your name and coming, Zener- ations. Whether you plan for an impressive architectural effect, a single shaft or a simple marker, nothin}, will so fittingly perpetuate your memory as the Rock Everlasting, RE GRANIT Sometimes taste will lead to the placing, of Barre Granite almost as it was hewn from1 its native hills,in simple, ruszed grandeur. Again it comes in polished deiivanas in sculp- tured frieze, in modest slab or marker. But whatever the type chosen, Barre Granite stands supreme in dignity and beauty and in the quality which resists time and decay. The Rockefeller, Fleischmann, Heinz, Schley, Armour, Tarkington, Potter Palmer, Anheuser, Leland Stanford and thousands of other famous names live in Barre Granite. Write for copy of “Memorial Masterpieces” BARRE QUARRIERS & MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION Dept. B, Barre, Vermont **The Granite Center of the World’ ‘*Mention the Geographic-—It identifies you.’’ An Expression of Intelligent Appreciation Waterman's Ideal Fountain Pen owes its universal popu- larity to an intelligent appreciation and accepiance of its sterling qualities and efficiency as a writing tool. The elimination of pen-dipping saves time and thought :nterrup- tion, and does away entirely with the wasteful evaporation of an open ink well. Its readiness to write instantly, anywhere, is a writing con- venience that can be fully realized only in a genuine Waterman ideal Buy it by name. Refuse substitutes At the Best Stores Everywhere $2,50, $4.00, $5.00, and Up Folder on Request L. E. Waterman Company, 191 Broadway, New York Letter from a prominent dentist, whosename will be given on vequests: Has Not Changed the Quality of SANFORD’S My Rls Calox “T have recently done much work for soldiers and have observed a better condition of the teeth among those who use a good tooth pov- der than with others who use a paste. My prescription is invariably LOK THE OXYGEN TOOTH POWDER”? Send for trial package and interesting booklet on the care of the teeth NMcKESSON & ROBBINS INCORPORATED 88 FULTON STREET NEw YORK i The Perfect Ink f S , f For Business I i] mom RFA | Writing Fluid ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Premium Blue-Black “ONIGHT in No Man’s Land! Through all that wild inferno—shrieking shells and spewing shrapnel and stuttering machine guns and clanking, crunching tanks—on the tiniest and cheert- est of mechanisms hangs the destiny of the world. Never before, in all history’s wars, has Time played so appallingly vital a part. The grim significance of ‘zero hour” has burned this deep into the minds of our boys over there: unless their watches are in step with those of the fire-control, they will be wiped out by their own guns. Des- perate, blood-bought raids over the top, useless if delivered out of unison, become irresistible when timed to the tick of an Elgin. Elgins! Guiding stars to our Emergency Fleet—trusted companions of a great Polar explorer—pathfinders for intrepid government scientists—official chronometers of our destroyers and torpedo boats! Thousands of Elgins are used by the Government in our Navy—tens of thousands by our Signal Corps—and along that surging battle-line in France hundreds of thousands of Elgins are in hourly use by the fighting men of America and her gallant Allies— —a war essential of the first rank. 99 tar of the S€LrVICE IILGIN NATIONAL WATCH CO., IXLGIN, U:S:Aa ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ | "Rrautital Bich hr Beautiful Moodvork” 7 Beautiful birch Living Room, Oakes Home, Evanston, Ill. White enamel on birch. Messrs. Schmidt, Garden & Martin, Chicago, Arch’ts You live inside your home— The interior woodwork must be a delight to the eye, harmonious, beautiful and in 300d taste. (“beautiful birch” characteristics), “Beautiful birch” bein’ a close-Zrained, hard, lastin2, wood forms an ideal base for white enamel. It lends itself to a wide variety of finishes from light to dark, “holds its own” under hard usage, is ‘‘mar-proof,” and above all else— economical to buy. FREE, Size little panels in six handsome. finishes with a come mon sense illustrated book. Write please. The NORTHERN HEMLOCK and HARDWOOD MANUFACTURERS’ ASS'N 214 F. R. A. BUILDING OSHKOSH, WIS. An Actual Incidentina Los Angeles Hote Y Boston Garters have never failed me yet.” He thus expressed the confidence that every wearer has in the security of the 4 You can always rely on them to “stay put. 4, And it’s a real pleasure to wear them because yj they keep your socks smooth and rest so lightly on the leg that you forget you have them on. At leading stores from coast to coast. VY. GEORGE FROST CO., MAKERS, BOSTON WSS Beautiful booklet just off the press—illustrating many distinctive and ex- clusive Memorials. If expecting to spend 500 or more, write for it. It is intensely in- teresting. MEMORIALS ART COMPANY Representatives in Principal Cities Studios: 103 Delaware Court, Buffalo, New York SaVo AIR MOISTENER FILL WITH WATER, HANG ON BACK OF ANY RADIATOR OUT OF SIGHT } Converts dry indoor air into a moist, wholesome, healthful atmosphere, Saves Health, Furniture, Pianos; also 25% of your coal bills. Write for Free Booklet. SAVO Manufacturing Company 315 New York Life Building, Dept. G. Chicago, Illinois SPRATT’S WAR RODNIM No. 1 This has always been a favorite Dog Food of the expert kennel owners and trainers. SPRATT’S FIBO an appetizing and flesh-forming food of unusual merit for puppies and dogs out of condition, for dogs recovering from illness; also for shy or dainty feeders. Write for samples arid send 2-cent stamp for “ Dog Culture.’’ SPRATT’S PATENT, LTD. Newark, N. J.; San Francisco, Cal.; St. Louis, Mo.; Cleveland, Ohio; Montreal, Canada. Factory also in London, England. SaVo FLOWER AND PLANT BOX Self-Watering and Sub-Irrigating For Windows, Porches iy $0 and Sun Parlors Leak-proof and _ rust- proof, You can move Savo Boxes indoors or out and have beautiful Flowers and Plants the year around. Write for Free Catalog. ZA = Ie Pe Oa atk BEA pes, LOU CANS RPI ANd eh ps Wash ee ie Mei S GOK G2 RRR OR 2 ave Genus A rH MavgUge :: me py i eT tee NS Ga 4 . fg. The All Year Round Garden SAVO MFG. CO., 315 N. Y. Life Bldg, Dept. D. Chicago, Illinois Cia Nv, SUNITA IUNALTVUTV LUELLA LULL LLL men pages an . e spelling of a puzzling word: WEBSTER’S NEW bie sald yo cueston — be it the pronunciation of Cantonment; INTERNATIONAL we locaton of Zeebrugge, — blighty, stank,etc., this S DICTIONARY fi Quin oriy oneerete fal onewer: G.&C.MERRIAM CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. ®&°U‘4? AND Wola-PAPER Please send me speci- : iF ewe EN al od ee me a pee cme ee ee ee ee REE -POCKET MAPS\ADDRESS 2... 25 2 izecsesatate eee neces Mo oe oy MUN e meaning Words Defined f 2700 Pages -6000 Illustrations Brill 2 fy? £ VAVEATOVUUEAODECUONUAUADUOOUOVARSOOPOCODOOUOVECTOCEOO REO AUUEUOEO EET O CUETO OES OVE OVO OO UTA E TOYA OA TATOA TUONO EVASUOATONUAUOATOOUOOOCOODODEODENUANONTOOUAO OTOL LZ September Investments On Attractive Basis WE are offering for September investment bonds and short-term notes of a breadth and variety to meet the requirements of all classes of investors. The securities we offer have been investigated by our buying departments and we recommend them to the consideration of investors. Securities at present prices afford a liberal yield and we recommend them for investment. Send for List AN-87 The National City Company National City Bank Building, New York Correspondent Offices in 31 Cities SQUUNNVAVITUNVAUTAVOVANVOVAOUANEVOUYOCOOLOCVACUTVOOVAVOOUACOOVOOOOVOOPOVOOTOODEYGUEQVUOTOUOVEO VOC OVOO TOY OTOO TATTLE T ATE Buy Liberty Bonds to the Utmost HE duty of every Americnn soldier is to fight for Liberty. The duty of every American citizen is to lend for Liberty — to buy Liberty bonds and buy to the utmost. Back up the Boys in France! Buy bonds of the Fourth Liberty Loan to the limit of your ability. Let your subscription equal the full measure of your patriotism! S.W.STRAUS & CO. Established 1882 Incorporated NEW YORK CHICAGO 150 Broadway Straus Building Detroit Minneapolis San Francisco Philadelphia Acceptances 36 years without loss to any investor Bonds Short-Term Notes STINNNNAQLUDUDNQOUAAUUNOQUUNOOOQUUUEONOOGOEQNQOUONN0QQU000000000000000000000000000000 0000000000000 00000000 00UNENNO0UNNTNUUIIGE SUNT _ SS EU HMIITIITUIIIUULUTLAUUIUTTTTTUeS Municipal Bonds Ihr BE TM estaccisHeo 1865 STII DOLD 8% From Safe Investment For One, Two or Three Years Denominations of $100, $500, and $1,000. Abundant security and ample future earn- ings assured by long-time contracts. Company’s product is of utmost impor- tance in both peace and war times. Ownership one of the strongest in the Middle West. Valuable conversion privilege. Arrangements already consummated as- suring prompt payment at maturity. Write for Circular No. 1012-D Peabody, Houghteling & Co. Protected by Municipal Taxes Exempted from Federal Taxes Municipal Bonds yielding from 42% to 6% in $100, $500 and $1000 denominations. Principal and interest pro- tected by municipal taxation; exempted from Federal Income Tax. Issued by thriv- ing cities —amply secured—readily market- able. These bonds are sought by savings banks, insurance companies and other ultra- conservative investors. We also specialize in all issues of overnment bonds Core, for booklets “Bonds as Safe as our Cities” nd “A Nation at War—Its Financial Needs’’. Address dept. IN-9. William [2 mpton ©, GOVERNMENT AND MUNICIPAL BONDS “Over a Quarter Century in This Business” SUINNIILTIITUNITIIULUTU 000 TT ETTMAINTUUIUUA ULLAL UUM UMMM LAU LULU UMM HULU UUM (ESTABLISHED 1865) Tae ersiecee B08 Glikeoieee 10 South La Salle Street, Chicago 105 SeTEaSete St. 305 Rp Got ee ae (B-294) PITTSBURGH JACKSON, MISS. Farmers Bank Bldg. 506 Millsaps Bldg. = AUTEUR SSO c= SUUTOAMAOANAOACOAOANE MM) Y= ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ (7s: ae Xt SA: iN $56) Ss SS Ss V/s CASS “NRE Ser CAF IGS \\ i ‘ . SAE COCL CCQ ECGS S ACG WOR “eA WZ “i i X N \ \ MMMOMMmMmKMMMOQUNw MMOOOOMM MMMM MW NM id MEER N NN N : mm KL N\ 5 Ne NSN NGS LW J YN i SSW § NA , lea ine X\ FNS NG NR A ‘\. SI |p NS WN ENN N i: SAY SH Nyy } VN NN ' WN § NNN N \N NN = NY NY Ne NSN Ng 8 \N IN NW a \ ~~ NN NN 5 Ss N NY SN Y¥ N NY N N NN iw N Ww CS XS NYS X NN a Zs \ : \ N \ \ AN N \ N N N N \ NAS \ \ NA NN \ \Xg N \ LISY x \\ \ ie N N LN .W \ \ NRA \ \\ ra N N & N N NN \\ oO AN Sos SAE, \\ W . cea LO UG LL rbdddditidea Mls WUMMUUI LLU “Only a few minutes, Dolly, and my bath will be ready” IS \\ K2Pbggyyyys/ eeeeeeeeeadddddddeddeddedddddddddcdtdeédtu i HE bathing of a child is the most exacting test for any soap. = The tender skin instantly detects the presence of free alkali . ~ or any other harsh material. Yy YL, Y Se R - “YY by, id tor Mbewiion dy y Bs IILLLLLLLLLLLLLILLLLLLLEL LLL LLLLLLLLLILLLLLLLLLLLLLE LLL LSLLLLLLELELLLLLLL LULL yy TTL WM buys “ddd EE EEC0AAAAAz Z, 4 YU, lif? a Mitt ti: \ Mdedmddddddddaddddddda Y 1, SM» It is this test multiplied several million fold that proves the mildness, purity and safety of Ivory Soap. Ivory is used in nurseries everywhere because it never has been known to cause the slightest irritation. fy ‘nf ZZ »,, To use Ivory Soap is to enjoy a delightful bath and toilet, with the added satisfaction of knowing that nothing in the lather is even remotely injurious to the skin. Uy @é Y Mle LM EEL YG ZG Wp Ve Saat ~ Wy hs ULLLILLALLLLLULLLLLLLULALL ALL ULL LULU LLL LLL ILLUL LLLP LULL ELE LALLA TELA NA . SWB Gf ~) JVORY SOAP Ve, We We Yi ZZ \ SS 44 {GRE Z “Ny Vy YY My Vy, \ YN : NV es IT FLOAT | “Wy V SS \S SERS SESSA | 95 SESS OEE NN = N N\\ SS \ : N \ Vs \ \\ AX 2 XK W RY NERS DD—GD[_ Aan WY MON XX WN Fp" iW lli@ Ft} iii OO Onninn. nll DOW TPDMMAA ¢ ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ - VoL. XXXIV, No. 3 WASHINGTON SEPTEMBER, 1918 THE NATIOQNAIL GEOGIRAPIANIC MAGAZINIE SHIPS FOR THE SEVEN SEAS The Story of America’s Maritime Needs, Her Capabilities and Her Achievements By Ratpo A. GRAVES AutHorR oF “FEARFUL FAMINES OF THE Pas?” HE, human mind cannot conceive of millions; to most of us even : tens of thousands convey no con- crete idea save that of a numeral and four ciphers. Let this, then, be a story of America’s ships and American ship- building in the language of units. Our merchant fleets, already created and those to be, are the great, pulsing arteries supplying our armies abroad with all that constitutes the life-blood of fight- ing forces—food, clothing, ammunition, machine-guns, artillery, locomotives, air- planes, ambulances, reinforcements! Ships in sufficiency spell victory. And to make that victory sure the American Government has authorized the United States Shipping Board to expend, as quickly as it can pay men for labor and material, a sum nine times as large as the value of all the gold and silver produced by all the mines of the earth during the year 1916; a. sum nearly fifteen times as great as the cost of the Panama Canal; more than seven times as much as the original vast appropriation for our air- plane program. When that sum is exhausted as much more will be placed at the disposal of the Shipping Board, provided the ships are forthcoming in numbers never before built in the same length of time by any nation, or by all the nations of the world combined. Quantity of production, qual- ity of production, and speed of produc- tion constitute the supreme aim of the shipbuilding program in the minds of Americans today; the cost is secondary and for subsequent consideration. THREE TONS PER FIGHTING MAN Why the quantity and why the haste? The answer lies in the historic fact that two million American soldiers are now in France fighting for the cause of a free world, and in the historic promise that by next July that number will have swelled to four million. Every individual man of that army requires three tons of shipping to keep him supphed with the essentials of life and of effective warfare. Not three tons of supplies, but three tons of shipping plying constantly back and forth across the Atlantic, month in and month out, through calm and storm, autumn, winter, spring, and summer. Every sol- dier—be he in base camp far behind the lines, in aviation training camp, in port of debarkation, in labor battalion, or among the shock troops of the front line—re- quires that three tons of shipping be set aside, consecrated to his particular needs. Four million men in France, twelve million tons of shipping on the Atlantic— semdrys oy} uO Kepap juanbost02 pue foqe] 1x9 SUSU S9TOY jJaAII OY} FO UOT}ISOd dy} UT IO soyetd ay} jo SUOISUDUIP 9Y} UI UOT}eIADp yseo] oY} se ‘SUIMULIYS IO SUI[JIMS WOT, sutojed 9Say} JUDAId 0} UsYe} og JSNUL 91D JeII4) “papjowl pure ‘uaq ‘ynd aie drys payesriqey e jo soyerd oy} YM Aq Susozed oy} oye OYM Us oY} 1OJ posmbes st soeds 1004 poyonsjsqoun JO osuedxe snorouss & YYA JOT poyySy-]jom Ysea vy aaGVW Hav dIHS V dO SALVIdWAL NHGOOM AHL AWHHM THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINIE the ratio is inexorable. ‘lhe elimination of a single ton from that irreducible mini- mum will mean that some fighting man must go without the requisite clothing, food, medical supplies, or munitions of war that would make him 100 per cent effective against the Hun. Nor is this ratio of three tons to one man a liberal estimate. At the beginning of the conflict the number of ship tons required for each man was as high as five or six—about the same ratio which Great Britain found necessary to keep her army of occupation on the arid Gal- lipoli Peninsula, where water as well as food and munitions had to be brought by ship. It is only through the genius of organization, of rapidly developing and developed efficiency in the handling of cargoes, both in our own loading ports and in French ports of discharge, and in the hurry-hurry-hurry impulse which actu- ates the master and crew of every ship at sea flying the American flag, that the tonnage per man has been reduced. This ratio applies only to our men on the western front. If any considerable number of troops is dispatched to Russia or Siberia, the ratio of ship tonnage per man unit of those forces will rise to six, for the voyage from San Francisco to Vladivostok is twice as long, and two ships making eight round trips a year can carry no larger quantity of supplies than one ship making sixteen round-trip voy- ages. Of course, much of the foodstuffs required by our Siberian forces would be supplied from Australia, from the Philip- pines, and in some measure from Hawaii. Japan will be more or less busy keeping her own troops supplied, especially as she has already greatly depleted her shipping resources by charter to the United States. SHIPS FOR THOSE AT HOME When we have supplied the vital needs of our uniformed forces, there are the people at home to be provided for—the great army of a hundred million men, women, and children engaged in the es- sential industries, occupations, and pur- suits of a nation at war. They, as well as the soldiers, must be supplied with the raw products of many climes—sugar and coffee and rubber from the tropics; ni- trates, pyrites, manganese, sulphur, and 167 other substances which go into the manu- facture of war’s engines of destruction ; hides and wool, hemp and sisal, oil, meats and wheat to supplement our own stocks depleted by export to our Allies. All these and a countless number of other articles of food, clothing, and industry must come to us in ships. Ships! Ships! SHIps! How, then, is the United States Ship- ping Board, together with its great aux- iliary agencies—the Emergency Fleet Corporation, the Merchant Marine Re- cruiting Service, and the Port and Har- bor Facilities Commission—supplying the nation’s needs in the hour of its ex- tremity? The undertaking, beginning a little more than a year ago in abortive effort, misdirected energy, and chaotic confusion, which seems to be a natural law when any really great program is launched, has gradually evolved into order. The ho- rizon of the immediate future is aglow with the promise of notable achievement. THE INTRICACY OF SHIPBUILDING In view of the speed which at last is being attained in the quantity production of ships, it is an excusable error on the part of the layman to assume that the construction of sea-going craft is a com- paratively simple undertaking. As a matter of fact, most of us, when the im- perative need for a vast American mer- chant fleet was suddenly realized eighteen months ago, looked upon ship-building with about the same nonchalance as the would-be airplane manufacturer who, in in the early days of the war, sought a contract from the government, declaring that he needed no special equipment for the undertaking, as he could “whittle a flying machine out of a piece of timber with a drawing-knife.” Many people still imagine that a ship of wood, steel, or concrete is little more than a glorified row-boat. In reality, the making of a ship is one of the most intricate achievements of in- dustrial science, requiring the greatest nicety of calculation, workmanship, and correlation of parts. ‘To cite a typical instance: So delicate must be the adjust- ment of machinery to hull that the shaft line (the location of the shaft which Photograph by M. Rosenfeld THE FIRST FABRICAT EDs SEP UEVER Bw rb With the launching of the Agawam at the Submarine Boat Corporation's fabricating plant near Newark, N. J., on May 30, there was inaugurated a new shipbuilding method which promises to revolutionize ship construction for all time. Fulton’s steamboat, the Clermont, on the Hudson; the Savannah, the world’s first transatlantic steamship; the Merrimac and the Monitor, first ironclads—all were milestones in maritime history. And now comes the fabricated ship, also “invented and made in America.” 168 © Committee on Public Information THE BEGINNING OF A CARGO-CARRIER The keel having been laid, the keel plates and ribs are hoisted into position by the erectors who operate giant cranes. Much of the assembling work is done in the steel mills, where the plates and parts of the frame are made. In the left foreground are other assembled parts ready to be hoisted into position and riveted. 169 Photoe ann by M. Rosenfeld | HOW A DOUBLE-BOTTOM CARGO SHIP LOOKS IN THE COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION Note the pile of bulkheads at the left assembled and riveted ready to be hoisted into place 170 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ~ “ogg transmits the power from the engine to the propeller) must be run (its position fixed) between 11 o’clock in the morn- ing and 2 o’clock in the afternoon ; other- wise the expansion of the metal caused by the heat of the sun’s rays shining on one side of the vessel more than the other would deflect the line from the correct position, resulting in disaster to the ma- chinery on the trial trip. THE FABRICATED SHIP The widely heralded fabricated steel ship has been the source of much popular confusion. It is generally assumed that the steel plates are cut to a pattern by the hundreds, like the parts of ready-made clothing. After a fashion, this is true, for scores of steel mills and machine shops and 1,000 auxiliary plants, scattered throughout the country and employing a million men, are manufacturing the parts which go to make up our standardized fabricated steel ships, including their en- gines and boilers. But this does not mean | that the thousands of parts which go to make up each vessel can be transported to the seacoast, fitted to pattern like a jig- saw puzzle, pinned together with a few rivets, and pushed out into deep water, a completed cargo-carrier. The intricacy of “putting together” a fabricated steel ship cannot be more forcefully suggested than to review the groups of men employed in the under- taking. The erectors and their helpers, with the aid of steam cranes, swing the massive keel, plates, and beams in place. The riveters, with their gangs—the men who heat the rivets to the exact temperature required, the men who pass these rivets from the forges to the riveters lying prone upon their backs between the inner and outer “skin” of the ship, or perched high upon a scaffold at bow or stern, and the “buckers-up” (those who with ham- mer or counter pneumatic machine press down upon and brad the glowing steel pins which the riveters drive into place with their rivet-guns, striking more than a thousand 95-pound blows to the min- ute)—bind the plates together. It is the riveter’s responsibility if the hull is not watertight or if his rivets are unable to resist the constant buffet of waves and the throb of mighty engines urging the laden craft through heavy seas. The task of the drillers and reamers is to alter the holes in the plates when they fail to match. Even the tailor-made suit needs a touch here and a stitch there at the first try-on, so it is not to be won- dered at that the parts of a steel ship, made in many sections of the country, out of material which is seldom uniform, and under varying conditions of temperature, do not always fit. Where the holes are uneven they are made perfectly cylindri- cal by reaming, in order that the rivets may completely fill the space and thus avoid both a dangerous play of parts and subsequent leakage. . With both hand and pneumatic tools, the busy chippers trim off and smooth the edges of plates and castings, and when this work is done the calkers turn their attention to the edges of plates, angles, and rivet heads. Water must be kept out not only because of the immediate danger of ruining the cargo and sinking the ship, but also to avoid the insidious danger of small leaks that corrode the metal and in time cause serious structural weakness. When the metal workers have com- pleted their tasks the shipwrights install the wood decks, the wood foundations for capstans, winches, guns, and other parts. Theirs is the responsibility also for wooden masts, cargo booms and spars, and for launching ways. To join- ers is intrusted the interior woodwork and state-room fittings. Shrouds, stays, lifts, bracings for masts and funnels, life-lines, and all other wire and hemp rope rigging are installed by the “human flies” of the shipbuilding profession—the riggers. Besides these experts employed on the ships themselves, there is a hurrying group of machine shop and _ foundry men — sheet-metal workers, plumbers, machinists, blacksmiths, drop forgers, electricians, and acetylene burners. THE ARISTOCRATS OF LABOR The coppersmiths deserve a paragraph to themselves, for they are among the aristocracy, the “'400'“of labor, «Their number in America has been variously estimated at from I,200 to 1,800. At the 172 KEEL PLATES OF A STEEL MERCHANT SHIP: THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Committee on Public Information THE VERTEBRA OF ONE OF OUR CARGO-CARRIERS The need for hurrying our shipbuilding program is being emphasized daily from scores of quarters. to help feed our stalwart Allies. Not only must our growing armies in France be supplied, but we must continue The Federal Food Administration announced recently that its shipment of foodstuffs to Europe during 1918 will total 10,000,000 tons, but that in I919 this amount must be increased to 15,000,000 tons. outbreak of the war many of them were engaged in making copper kettles and worms for breweries, alcohol stills, and turpentine plants. A large percentage of the brewery coppersmiths were either Germans or Austrians, and therefore could not with safety be employed in our shipyards; but the really American arti- sans were quickly mobilized for the es- sential labor of hammering out the cop- per kettles for our new ships’ galleys, of rolling from sheet metal the vitally nec- essary copper pipes for all the parts of a ship’s machinery that come in contact with salt water; then of installing those pipes. Working at forced-draft speed, for which they are paid from 85 cents to $1.50 an hour, two coppersmiths become pacemakers for 1,000 men working on other parts of a ship. ing loft by a template— Before the steel plates of a ship can be rolled to varying thicknesses and cut to certain dimensions, be that ship fabri- cated or specially built throughout, two groups of artisans of great skill and long training must pave the way. ‘These are the loftsmen and the shipfitters. The labors of the loftsmen are of pri- mary importance. ‘To them come the plans of the ship designer, drawn to a small scale. It is the loftsmen’s duty to translate those drawings into terms of a full-size ship. These experts work in a great mold ioft, ideally lighted and provided with a vast expanse of smooth flooring, suggest- ing a gigantic, low-ceilinged, rough-raf- tered dancing pavilion. Each plate of the future ship is represented in the mold- a light wooden or THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Da per. pattern, on which every rivet hole is marked, every curve and twist designated. With these templates for guidance, the vari- ous parts of the ship’s mone are laid.-o ff, Bimecaded, putched, mened,.'and.) bent. Upon the skill and thoroughness of the loftsmen depend in very great measure the speed with which a eaip,. is. built, the strength of its hull, and the economy of its construction. Working in collabo- ration with the lofts- men are the shipfitters, who take the tem- plates and mark off upon the steel plates the different parts of the hull. In some spe- cial instances the ship- fitter works directly from his blue-prints without the aid of templates. THE CAMOUFLEUR ARRIVES Once the ship is completed, 60 per cent of the labor being rep- resented in the hull and 40 per cent in the installation of the mechanical parts and the motive power, there comes upon the scene a corps of men whose profession was unknown before the war and for whom a name had to be invented by the French—camoufleurs, men who prac- tice the art of concealment by protective coloration. In the use of camouflage it has been found impossible so to blend a ship with horizon or seascape as to make it invis- ible; a phase of the art had to be devel- oped which would effect an optical illu- sion confusing to the enemy observer. BUILDING THE 173 © Committee on Public Information STERN OF A MODERN SHIP When America suddenly awoke to the necessity of having ships in a hurry, it was the bridge-builders and those who had erected our steel skyscrapers, who proved to be the “men of the hour.” fabricated steel ship is an adaptation of the American bridge-build- ers’ method of construction. The Marine camouflage, instead of being a new art, is in reality the revival of a prac- tice familiar to the Greeks and Romans at the dawn of the Christian era. They employed what today in modified and 1m- proved form is known as the “baffle” system of painting. It is the use of big splotches of color and wide bands of paint to distort the dimensions and shape of vessels to such an extent that an enemy at any considerable distance is unable to determine their size, their armament, or the direction in which they are going. 174 ae is THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Committee on Public Information THE BULKHEAD OF A FABRICATED SHIP SEPARATELY ASSEMBLED AND READY TO BE SWUNG INTO PLACE BY A STEEL CRANE At the present rate of progress, it is predicted by officials of the Shipping Board that the normal tonnage of the world will be restored in the fall of 1922. But the requirements of the world after the war will be greater than ever before. Credit for the adaptation of this ancient illusion method to modern needs is given to Lieutenant Commander Norman Wil- kinson; R. N= VRS 2 famous British marine artist. It is his “baffle” system which is employed on practically all the ships of the Allies, with modifications to meet the requirements of each type of vessel. The work of camouflaging has been perfected to such nicety that a ship can be decorated with its particular pattern of streaks and stripes with astonishing dispatch. It is a matter of record that at one American port an 8,800-ton freighter was completely camouflaged in less than 24 hours. The district camou- fleur was notified late Saturday afternoon that the vessel in question would be ready to sail Monday morning. By midnight Saturday the design for the ship had been selected and the pattern indicated on the hull and superstructure. With the arrival of necessary supplies at that hour, 62 painters were set to work and by 5.30 Sunday afternoon the ship was ready to defy the most keen-sighted commander of a Prussian U-boat. THE RIVETER A POPULAR HERO Of all the groups of workers engaged in shipbuilding none has succeeded in focusing public interest upon his partic- ular task so much as has the riveter. The machine-gun staccato of his pneumatic hammer has come to be recognized as the magic song of the shipyards—a national anthem of industry. The speed with which he sends his steel pins, heated to an orange hue, into place is taken as a criterion of the morale and efficiency of the particular plant in which he is engaged. ‘The b-r-r-r-ratttt of the rivet gun is the mechanical equivalent of THE. SKELETON OF A-STEEL, SHIP To keep the shipbuilders supplied with material, steel mills are working night and day in many sections of the country. During the month of July the Bethlehem Steel Company’s plant at Reading, Pa., produced an average of a million rivets a day—enough for two steel ships every 24 hours. It requires 125 tons of metal for each day’s rivet output at this plant. 175 © Committee on Public Information WORKING IN TIERS ON THE SIDE OF A FABRICATED SHIP At the top may be seen the reamers, correcting slight discrepancies in the rivet holes. In the middle are two painters. On the third platform are the workmen who bolt the plates together temporarily while they are being permanently fastened by the riveter. 176 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE man’s slogan—“Speed up!” Hence the many riveting contests which were staged in every shipyard in the country until the con- centration of attention on this particular branch of the industry threatened demorali- zation of the coordi- nate branches. But the riveter is still the hero of the hull in the eyes of the people. Many have been the astonishing records of rivets driven in 8 or 10 hours, and a flood of controversy has re- sulted. Perhaps it is better to avoid dispu- tation by omitting stellar single-day ecmieyvements. ci Sie i -oononwoneoer vonvewsonssnsencenigreorsovsenconsonenip aman © Committee on Public Information FROM SHOP TO SHIP It requires six and a half million pounds of material to build a fabricated steel ship of 7,500 deadweight tons capacity, and nearly half a million rivets are needed to hold the parts together. 188 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Committee on Public Information A SHIP’S PROPELLER IN THE MAKING For merchant vessels equipped with comparatively slow-moving engines, four-bladed pro- pellers are used. The three-bladed propellers are usually used on fast merchant and naval ships. The first screw man-of-war ever built in any country was the U. S. S. Princeton; of 1,000 tons, launched less than 80 years ago. rush and confusion of the early days, was excessively high. In one great yard early this year 141 men out of every 1,000 em- ployed during one month were injured, the average length of time lost by each injured worker being 17 days. Five months later the percentage of accidents had been reduced nearly two-thirds, and the average number of days lost from work by the injured men did not exceed SIX. The chief factor in bringing about this gratifying decrease in casualties has been the safety-first educational propaganda upon which the directors of industrial relations insist. Much of the credit is due, too, to improved hospital facilities, which enable injured men to receive im- mediate treatment, thus greatly lessening the danger of. infection. The percentage of accidents in the ship- yards throughout the country today is not as high as in the steel mills, but cor- responds to the general industrial. rate. The Submarine Boat Corporation of Newark, N. J., which ranks second only to Hog Island in size, having 28 ship- ways, claims a world record for safety, in that it launched four ships without a fatality. sae HOUSING. CONDITIONS WHICH AFFECT ; MORALE In time of war the word morale comes to have a significance so broad as to em- brace all conditions which affect man’s social relations and physical surroundings as well as his mental attitude, and the morale of the shipbuilder, like that of every other workman employed in an essential industry, is of as far-reaching importance in achieving ultimate victory as is the stamina of the man who operates a machine-gun or leads a bayonet charge. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 189 © Committee on Public Information FINISHING A SHIP'S PROPELLER WITH A BATTERY OF EMERY WHEELS This operation fills the air with a dust of emery and bronze particles which proves dis- astrous to the workmen if it is drawn into the lungs. to health. In the expansion of existing shipyards ‘and the establishment of new plants, the Emergency Fleet Corporation was, at the very outset of its activities, brought face to face with a critical menace to the work- ingman’s morale—the problem of where and how he should live. . Thousands upon thousands of laborers were needed to con- struct the shipways, to lay the railway tracks necessary for the economic distri- bution of material, to erect machine shops, executive quarters, hospitals, res- taurants, and commissary depots. In the majority of cases the shipyards were being built on low-lying water- fronts, sometimes far removed from Gittes. In every instance there was an influx of population so large as to over- tax with distressing results the normal housing facilities of the several communi- ties. Often the question for which ship- yard contractors had no answer was not The wearing of dust masks is essential “Where can | get labor?” but.“How can I house the labor which I have?” Much of the labor turn-over during those first few months was due in large degree to the impossible living quarters of the men as well as to the confusion and generally unsatisfactory conditions within the yards themselves. Many expedients were employed to overcome the difficulties. Some of these, such as the construction of tent cities, were obviously temporary solutions. In other cases, however, the plan adopted was such as may have a lasting and salu- tary effect upon the whole housing prop- osition in congested industrial districts. A typical example of the latter is that undertaken by the Merchant Shipbuilding Corporation in Bristol, Pa., where 14,000 men are employed. The living accommodations at Bristol being incapable of expansion to the needs © Committee on Public Information A TRACK CRANE CARRYING A PROPELLER FROM THE MACHINE SHOP TO A SHIPWAY TO BE FITTED ON THE SHAFT The military police are conspicuous in many shipyard pictures nowadays. Every precau- tion is taken against enemy bomb outrages. A stick of dynamite in a shipbuilding plant is as much to be dreaded as a Whitehead torpedo at sea. 190 of the hour, the Emergency Fleet Cor- poration came to the financial aid of the. Shipbuilding Company and a complete city of homes was erected. BUILDING A CITY OF HOMES TO ORDER On a tract of 155 acres adjoining the plant, a model town was conceived with the aid of experts in city planning. Broad thoroughfares were laid out, spaces for parks set aside, and locations for schools, churches, bakeries, restaurants, and for a theater, city hall, and department store were designated. That was a few months ago. Today a $5,000,000 city of dwellings is nearing completion, not after the higgledy-pig- gledy fashion in which the Topsy boom towns of the past have “jest growed,” but after a well-ordered, scientific plan. The first impression which the visitor gains of this shipworkers’ town of Harri- man, with its 5,000 dwellers, is that of architectural comeliness. ‘There are no frail, spindle-shanked three and four- story frame tenements with windows and doors flush against the outer walls, re- minding one of a person without eye- brows; there are no tortuous alleys; no rows of tatterdemalion shacks and lean- tos surrounded by tumble-down, snaggle- tooth picket fences; no unkempt area- ways; no fire-escapes adorned with all imaginable articles of intimate family wash; no vacant lots strewn with tomato cans or other goat pasturage. In con- trast, there are more than a score of. at- tractive stucco, slate-roof homes of six rooms each, 232 group houses of four and five rooms each, 200 three and four room apartments, and 60 brick homes, accommodating more than 500 families. The bachelor quarters include lodging houses, open dormitories, and a small number of neat bungalows, providing for the comfort of 2,300 men. Every home has electric lights, porce- lain bath, and hot-air heat. The apart- ments and bachelor quarters have porce- lain tubs or showers, electric lights, hot water, and steam heat. A VALUABLE EXPERIMENT IN HOUSING Rents are fairly moderate. The most desirable homes in the community, those which face a wide, curving boulevard and are surrounded by attractive lawns, may be’ had. at from -$36,: to $42 a month. Bachelor accommodations range from $1.75 to $3.00 a week, including attend- ance, the housekeeping being conducted by three-score orderlies under the direc- tion of four foremen. The school-house, with its spacious playground, is thoroughly modern in its lighting, ventilation, and sanitary ar- rangements, a ten-room structure fur- nished and equipped after the most ap- proved standards. At present the Y. M. C. A. building is the club-house of the town, and a tem- porary hall, with a seating capacity of 1,500, is serving as a community assembly room until the theater is built. The com- munity bake-shop is run in conjunction with the cafeteria, where the equipment is ample to supply not only the inhabit- ants of Harriman, but all the other work- ers in the shipyard. There is no municipal government in Harriman, for it is not incorporated. W. F. Smith, who has the title of city manager, is the mayor, council, and board of aldermen—the Pooh Bah of the com- munity and vice-regent for the shipbuild- ing company and for the financial sponsor of the model city, the Emergency Fleet Corporation. Harriman promises much, not merely as the fulfillment of an urgent need in time of war, but also as a valuable ex- periment in community housing. It has its defects, many of them, one being the danger of depriving its dwellers of civic responsibilities, but it is a long step in ad- vance of the makeshift housing methods which obtain in so many industrial cen- ters. It is worthy of close study, and may afford worth-while lessons for those who are to rebuild the devastated villages of Belgium and northern France. THE TASK OF MANNING OUR NEW SHIPS Finding men to build the ships and providing places in which they can live while so employed present larger difficul- ties numerically, but in no degree less serious or more immediate than finding officers and crews to operate the ships as they are completed. The American seafarer, one of the hardiest, most resourceful, and pictur- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE © Committee on Public Information SCOTCH MARINE BOILERS READY FOR INSTALLATION ON. A NEW MERCHANT LINER Sixty per cent of the labor of building a ship is represented in the hull: expended in installing the machinery and equipment. The rest is American shipyards have set many new speed records during the last twelve months, but a few weeks ago a shipbuilding plant in Belfast, Ireland, wrested a laurel from the Yankees when the Irish workmen completed the installation of machinery in five working days from the time of a vessel’s launching. esque products of our national life, once conspicuous in numbers, long ago became conspicuous only because of his rarity, as our merchant marine practically disap- peared from the seas. in the face of war’s calamity we found ourselves a people without ships, we like- wise found ourselves without men to operate the merchant vessels which we began with such frenzied haste to build. It was not that the sons of the skippers and seamen, who in an earlier era of our history won world-wide fame manning our peerless barks and clippers, had grown soft and sybaritic. There was still in the youth of the land the brawn, the initiative, and the love of adventure which those must have who answer the call of the sea. But there had been no incentive to awaken the latent longing for Strange places and for the romance of trackless waters and of combat with Na- When, therefore, ture’s storms and lightnings, her spuming waves, and the ceaseless urge of her un- seen currents. To the Merchant Marine Recruiting Service, another of the coordinate branches of the United States Shipping Board, inaugurated by Henry Howard, of Boston, was entrusted the task of re-cre- ating a noble race of mariners for the needs of the hour and for the merchant fleets which shall not disappear from the waters when peace comes again to the world. While the recruiting service was tenta- tively organized in June, 1917, and at that time began training officers, it was not until February of this year that an active campaign began for training crews. Once under full headway, the work has been pursued with commendable _ success. More than 11,000 experienced men have been admitted to the schools for officers. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and. more than 28,000 inexperienced youths have been enrolled for training as merchant mariners. Seven thousand re- cruiting offices, located mainly in each unit of a great chain of drug stores whose chief executive has lent every pos- sible assistance of time and fortune to the government, are supplying from 500 to 600 new students daily for the appren- tice schools for seamen maintained on a fleet of 12 training ships. SCHOOLS FOR SKIPPERS AND SEAMEN More than 1,600 men are today attend- ing the officers’ schools, fitting themselves for the duties of mate, engineer, etc. In the navigation schools the course of in- struction is six weeks; the engineers’ course is completed in one month. But both schools require of their students previous navigation or engineering ex- perience of two years at sea or its equiva- lent. That equivalent in the case of engi- neers may have been special training in technical schools, experience as a locomo- tive engineer, or engineer of a stationary engine. — The apprentice course is for six weeks, at the end of which time the successful pupil receives a rating as ordinary sea- man and is placed on board a merchant ship. The ratio of apportionment in crews is not more than four graduates of the apprentice schools to every six able seamen, an able seaman being one who — has followed the sea for two years or who has secured his advanced rating by passing an examination at the end of his first twelve months. Like the pupil in the riveting classes of the shipyards, the apprentice receives a salary while he is fitting himself for im- portant work—a stipend of $30 a month, plus quarters and food which would arouse the envy of every man who ever sailed before the mast in the old days of American supremacy at sea. When the 288 hours of instruction have been completed (eight hours a day, six days a week, with one instructor for every ten men), the newly created sailor, cook, steward, oiler, coal-passer, or water-tender—whichever branch he has chosen—begins work at from $60 to $75 a month, with 50 per cent additional should he be sent into the war zone. 193 In-order to be enrolled. in an officers: or an apprentice school, the applicant must pass a thorough physical examina- tion and must be an American citizen. The strength of the personnel of the merchant marine at the present time is in the neighborhood of 75,000. If the war ends in 1920 and we have by then a mer- chant fleet of 3,500 ships, as is now the reasonable prospect, we shall need an ad- ditional 100,000 men, besides the number which must be recruited as replacement crews to take the places of those men who will return to shore life at the end of the war. THE REMAINING MAJOR TASK Having mobilized and trained the nec- essary man power for the task of build- ing a vast merchant fleet; having pro- vided the workmen with satisfactory sur- roundings and with the material which goes into the making of those ships; hav- ing begun to launch and fit out the ships themselves with something approaching quantity production; having organized machinery for the recruiting and school- ing of officers and crews to man those ships, and having actually developed an appreciable number of such officers and seamen, the remaining major task of the United States Shipping Board lay in the direction of expanding the facilities of our ports and harbors in order to elimi- nate the woeful congestion which existed and still exists, and which would have be- come still worse as the number of ships increased. James J. Hill, that great phrase-maker of commercial life, once defined a seaport’ as the funnel through which a country’s commerce flows, and added the truism that the volume of traffic which a line can carry (be it a railway line or a steamship line) cannot exceed the capacity of its terminals. Every one admits today that the con- ditions, both at our own chief seaports and in France, at the time American troops first landed Over There were “pretty bad.” It may be that. there was some exaggeration in the story that the great freighter Nansemond, formerly the German ship Pennsylvania, a cargo-car- rier of 15,000 tons, lay alongside a dock at Brest for three weeks and then had to 194 © Committee on Public Information A MARINE CONDENSER WITH 4,000 SMALL BRONZE TUBES THROUGH WHICH COLD WATER IS PUMPED The 7,500-ton fabricated steel ship is expected to make a speed of 114%4 knots an hour, while the 3,500-ton wooden ship of the Ferris type has engines which send it through the seas at a speed of 10 The shaft horsepower of the engines in the steel vessel is 2,500, while the indicated horsepower of the latter is 1,400. knots. return to America with two-thirds of her cargo of steel rails (urgently needed for the construction of communication lines to the American base camp) still in her hold. But even so, no one will attempt to deny that “confusion worse con- founded” was a mild term to describe terminal conditions in the summer and fai oL 1O17: Through the indefatigable efforts of various branches of the army, the con- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE oe gested condition in the e French ports of de- barkation were ef- fectually remedied, but there still remain many things to be done before our ships can be utilized to their maximum efficiency. To expedite the cor- rection of existing shortcomings, and to make ready for that new merchant fleet of millions of tons ca- pacity, President Wil- son suggested a con- ference among offi- cials of the Shipping Board, the War De- partment, and the Railroad Administra- tion. As the outcome of that conference, the Shipping Board, on May 23 of this year, created: ‘a Port: and Harbor Facilities Commission. A NOTEWORTHY COM MISSION The reading public, through many chan- nels of publicity, is fairly familiar with the work of the Ship- ping Board under the chairmanship of Ed- ward N. Hurley; it knows of the achieve- ments of Charles M. Schwab, Director Gen- eral, and of Charles Piez, Vice-President and General Man- ager of the Emergency Fleet Corpora- tion; it is conversant with the activities of Henry Howard, who directs the Mer- chant Marine Recruiting Service, but thus far the opportunities, difficulties, and lasting importance of the Port and Harbor Facilities Commission have been strangely overlooked by the American press. The personnel of the Commission itself THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 195 © Committee on Public Information STRAIGHTENING THE MINUTE BLADES ON THE SHAFT OF A TURBINE ENGINE The first turbine-driven vessel ever built was the Turbinia, which developed a speed of 34% knots an hour on its trial trip in the spring of 1897. Today most of the high-speed mer- chant and naval craft of Great Britain and the United States are equipped with turbines. suggests the ramified interests which it gimects, E,. F, Carry, until recently di- rector of operations of the Shipping Beard, is the chairman; Vice-Chairman 5. M. Felton represents the War Depart- ment’s interests; Rear Admiral H. H. Rousseau is spokesman for the Emer- gency Fleet Corporation; the navy is represented by Captain A. C. Hodgson; J. H. Rosseter speaks for the Division of Operations of the Shipping Board and Pacific Coast steamship interests, T..C. Powell for the United States Railway Administration, and G. S. Dearborn for the Atlantic Coast steamship interests, while E. Logan Hill, formerly assistant general manager of the Erie Railroad, is the dynamic secretary of the Commission aid ©. |. Chambers, U. S$. Navy,. is its chief engineer. The task which lies before the Com- mission is Herculean. It must devise ways and means to enable our ports to handle an unimagined volume of war material, foodstuffs, and troops in less time than man ever before attempted such a feat. The speed with which ships can be loaded and bunkered on this side, un- loaded Over There, and started back for another cargo is the supremely vital fac- tor in the maintenance of the three-tons per fighting man ratio. Any slackening of pace necessarily means additional ton- nage, for a ship that makes a round trip between New York and Bordeaux or Brest in six weeks 1s exactly one-half as valuable as the ship of the same tonnage which can make the “turn-around” in three weeks. The price which a rapidly growing sea- port pays for its prosperity is the develop- ment of its shipping facilities along lines of transitory expediency rather than those of lasting and economical expansion. New York presents a flagrant example 196 of a city whose commerce has grown so rapidly as to outrun the imagination of its builders. Hence a congestion at rail- way terminals and at docks which defies immediate solution. The Port and Harbor Facilities Com- mission has found it wise to begin sur- veys of ports all along the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific seaboards, to determine how and where best to divert a part of our commerce from New York Harbor. These surveys embrace a vast deal of data. Not only is it essential to know the amount of commerce which has passed through a given port in time of peace, but what are its possibilities with respect to railway connections, the labor situation, the productivity of the adjacent territory ; what amount and kind of imports can be absorbed in the neighboring States, as well as the kind of exports which can be handled most expeditiously and econom- ically. It is obviously impractical to ship cotton from Boston or New York when it can be shipped from Savannah, Ga., the doorway of the cotton fields; but it is equally impractical to bring the cotton cargo-carrier into Savannah to discharge imports from Liverpool destined for New England consumption. Likewise, it isa waste of time and labor to route all our coffee imports either through New Orleans or New York. The logical scheme would be to bring into New Orleans that portion of the Brazil crop which is consumed in the South and West, and that portion destined for the North and East through New York. These are typical elementary problems which the Commission considers in its surveys. Their number is legion. One of the most important phases of the Commission’s labors is to make pro- vision for the proper and expeditious coaling of ships and for their prompt and thorough repair. A number of contracts have been let for the construction of dry docks, and financial assistance is being accorded private firms for the erection of wharves, piers, warehouses, improved machinery for bunkering, and for the in- stallation of cranes and other modern loading and unloading devices. Repair yards are being built in several ports, and the plans for these are carefully scruti- nized by the Commission’s engineering THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE experts, in order to insure adequate fa- cilities for the new commerce carriers. No part of the shipping program is fraught with greater possibilities for con- structive accomplishment than that en- trusted to the Port and Harbor Facili- ties Commission. SPEED AND ECONOMY IN HANDLING FREIGHT The economic waste which results from the improper handling of freight at termi- nals is appalling. The opportunity for improvement of conditions is demon- strated by the fact that the average cost of hauling a ton of freight for a distance of 240 miles in the United States is 74 cents, while the expense of handling that same freight at the terminals is 75 cents. Goods once loaded may be transported from Havana, Cuba, to Boston, a dis- tance of more than 1,300 miles, cheaper than they can be moved from one pier to another in that city. And it has been estimated that a cargo of coal, after it has been loaded on board ship, can be moved from New York to Rio de Janeiro for less than it can be moved a distance © of 60 feet on the docks by ordinary methods. That the task of loading and unload- ing a ship can be developed to a science by the employment of highly specialized machinery and the use of docks specially built for specific kinds of cargoes has been demonstrated on the Great Lakes, where iron ore which formerly was hoisted from a ship’s-hold and moved to the ore pile for 50 cents a ton is now handled at less than one-tenth. that cost. Gratifying progress has been made in the rapidity with which our ships are be- ing dispatched abroad, and the improve- ment is continuing. Two ships are now doing the work which it required three to do a few months ago. The procession of cargo-carriers in and out of our har- bors reminds one of a never-ending mer- chant marine review. Every six minutes a merchant ship arrives and another de- parts from American ports. Sailings for Europe are even bettering that famous -ailway advertising slogan, “A train everv hour on the hour;’ a Europe-bound vessel departs every 40 minutes. These THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Lo © Committee on Public Information FINISHING THE BOW PLATES OF A MODERN FREIGHTER One of the vexatious questions which has greatly perplexed the directors of the ship- building programs in Great Britain and the United States has been the problem of “overtime.” Many industrial relations experts maintain that the payment of time-and-a-half or double- time for Sunday labor is one of the chief causes for absenteeism in the shipyards. The tempta- tion is strong to work on Sundays and lay off a day during the week, thus securing seven days’ pay for six days’ work. Both from the standpoint of output and of the workmen’s health, the seven-day week is being frowned upon in many quarters. 40-minute sailings do not include ships in the service of the army and navy. In the new order of the day, there is no such thing as a loafing speed on any sea. Formerly, nitrate ships bearing that essential ingredient of explosives from Chilean ports to New York made four voyages a year; now the “turn around” between New York and Iquique is made in 44 days, while the trip from New York to Valparaiso has been made in 18 days. The round-trip voyage between Rio and New York, for ships bearing manganese for the manufacture of steel formerly averaged from three to four months; a Swedish vessel under charter to the Ship- ping Board has made it recently in 55 days. Ships bringing oil from Tampico to Galveston now average 11 days for the - round trip, while some tankers occasion- the turn around in two weeks. ally make it in a week. Sisal is being brought from Yucatan in ships that make Out in the Pacific the round trip from San Fran- cisco to China, including time in port, has been reduced to 81 days, while from Seattle to Japan and return is made regu- larly now in 68 days. These speeding-up records are an ear- nest of what can and will be done when our ports and harbors are adequately equipped and when the faster and larger cargo-carriers are put into service. AFTER THE WAR All America recognizes the fact that the chief end of our ships is to safeguard democracy and enable us to enjoy it for- ever. But there are secondary ends also, and the foremost of these is the restora- 198 tion of our country to an honored place among the maritime nations of the world after peace has been declared. No people living unto itself alone has ever been truly great. Commerce has been the world’s greatest civilizing in- fluence, and it has frequently happened that wealth and power and the oppor- tunity to serve mankind have been en- trusted to nations whose territorial do- minions were inconsequent and whose peoples were numerically puny. Their influence was based on the universality of their knowledge of men and climes. The Pheenicians, greatest merchants of antiquity, wrote their names large and indelibly in the chronicles of the ages, not through the virtue of their statesmen, not through the courage and strategy of their military captains, not through gifts of art, of religion,-or of literature, but because from their ports of Tyre and Sidon they set sail on every sea, bringing the raw riches of mines and forests from the outer fringes of the world to Greece, to Egypt, and to the islands of the Medi- terranean ; because they carried their pur- ples and linens to the princes and poten- tates of Rome, of Sicily, of Carthage, and to mysterious lands, gardens of the Hes- perides, lying beyond the Pillars of Her- cules; because they were the great dis- seminators of the culture of the East through their superior knowledge of the earth’s geography, and because they could sail the trackless sea better than any other race of their. time. After the Phoenicians, the next coun- try to establish her unquestioned suprem- acy on the seas was the great mother of civilization, Italy, whose mariners car- ried to the ends of the earth the fame of her marvelous city republics, Venice and Genoa. The wealth and power of these great capitals of commerce were founded solely upon ships. Then, as mutual rival- ries undermined their world sway, and the discovery of a water route to the Far East brought England and western Eu- rope into communication with the Orient, their prestige waned, and gradually there arose in northern Europe that remark- able maritime association known through- out the middle ages as the Hanseatic League—not a nation, but a world power whose units were bound together by com- mon interests of commerce. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The successive rise and decline of Por- tugal, Spain, and the Dutch Republic, world powers whose supremacy, one after the other, was founded upon mari- time prowess, are familiar to all students of human history. CIVILIZATION’S DEBT TO BRITAIN Then came the British Empire, the mother of colonies, whose sway upon the Seven Seas has been maintained for more than two centuries. British command of the high seas, more than any other instrumentality of modern times, has resulted in the dissemination of light into the dark places of the earth. The Anglo-Saxon has spread his influ- ence on every continent and over the islands of every sea by benevolent assimi- lation of alien peoples. This enduring sway of British influence, maintained by a girdle of commerce-bearing steel ships, furnishes an illuminating contrast to the ephemeral empire of Alexander, held to- gether solely through the force of fear engendered by the Macedonian phalanx. . A hundred years ago America gave promise of sharing honors with the par-. ent nation, but a combination of circum- stances caused the young Republic of the West to withdraw from enterprises for which her mariners and her wonderful shipbuilders had proved her to be so fit. From 1793 to 1842 more than four- fifths of all the imports and exports of the United States were carried in Amer- ican bottoms ; from 1843 to 1862 the pro- portion declined to three-fourths. The next quarter century saw it diminish to one-fourth, and finally to only a little more than one-tenth, from 1887 to 1913. Now, with our shipyards turning out steel ships, wooden ships, and concrete ships, the auguries seem propitious for that not-distant day when, with all the world at peace, the Union Jack and the Stars and Stripes shall float side by side in all the ports on earth and contend in brotherly rivalry for supremacy of speed on every sea. Then will there be an Anglo-Saxon partnership in commercial ventures against which Teutonic aspira- tion can never-raise its bruised head in menace. ; In the meantime, to thwart the com- mon enemy of mankind on land, America will continue to build ships, ships, ships! Photograph by Paul Thompson BUILDING SHIPS IN PAIRS Ships are costing three or four times as much today as in pre-war times, but they are being built six or eight times as fast, and speed is the essential factor just now 199 AEPUF Sb G4IYY UEUI4IYSY YY} AV SOAVAILIS VY} FU AUF GY} fJoIto V4 PULiUS AJUO 944 SEM OFINDSOU 9Y4} JO Suos oy} Asautsoy eToyM Jods ‘sIy} UC WTING NaYd SVH INWId DINIGTINGdIHS GNV’ISI 90H 000‘000'S¢$ HHL HOIHM Nod “AxoV Nv O00‘c$ LV GUSVHOUNd ‘90d GNV dWVMS JO LOVYL AYV-09Q AHL JO LAvd V ‘ ‘ . ~< & “ttt 200 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE MUST BECOME SHIP-MINDED By Epwarp N. Hurry CHAIRMAN, UNITED STATES SHIPPING BOARD HE Germans used to complain, before the war, that only a small proportion of the American tour- ists who visited Europe each summer filtered through to their country. Eng- land, France, Belgium, Holland, and Italy got the heavy battalions of the American tourist army. The Germans felt neg- lected, especially as many of our tourists traveled in their big liners. Berlin even undertook to overcome the handicap of distance by organized attractions de- signed to make it a rival of Paris. But the percentage of real American tourist travel to Germany was small—most Americans who crossed the Rhine went for purposes of study or business. During the past summer, however, this situation has entirely changed ! We have sent abroad in three months a number of “tourists” greater than the entire eastbound passenger travel for an average pre-war year—that is, the total eastbound passenger traffic in 1913 over the North Atlantic routes was 718,373, while this summer 300,000 American sol- diers have been ferried over the Atlantic in one month. Many of them went in the big German liners, now used as trans- ports by Uncle Sam. Some of them landed in England, others in France, the old tourist points ; but every one of them _was dominated by the desire to cross the Rhine and visit Germany and interview the Kaiser in Berlin! Which goes to show, perhaps, that there is always some method of getting things started your way. BRITAIN, FRANCE, AND ITALY AIDED IN TRANSPORT OF TROOPS We could never have carried out the big job of transporting troops and sup- plies to Europe without the help of Great Britain and her Allies. During the past summer, at times of maximum troop movements abroad, British ships have 201 carried as high as 8o per cent of our sol- diers, while more than 50 per cent are now going across in British vessels. Aid has also been furnished us by France and Italy: On September 1 of this year the United States Shipping Board controlled nearly 10,000,000 dead-weight tons of merchant ships, comprising seized enemy ships, requisitioned and chartered foreign ships, old American ships pressed into service, and new ships owned by the United States Shipping Board. THE DIFFICULTIES OF OPERATING OUR MOTLEY “FLEET It is a great Armada, this army supply train to. France, for it is almost double the whole German merchant marine at the outbreak of the war.~ But it is also rather a motley collection of bottoms— old ships and new, big ships and little, the Leviathan and the ocean tramp, the steel tanker and the wooden coaster. Moreover, it is operated under difficulties that have probably never confronted any other nation. We have had to train mer- chant officers and seamen. ‘There have been complications in loading and unload- ing, both on this side and abroad, due to the diversity of cargo handled and emer- gency pressure put upon port facilities. Our Armada, being made up of diverse sizes and speeds, has not lent itself to standard operation. Finally there has been the very definite handicap of convoy traffic, which pulls ships down to moder- ate speeds, lengthens the average voyage while at sea, and hinders turn-around at the ports, because convoyed ships must wait their place, regardless of efficiency in loading or unloading. We are doing the job assigned us to- day with the help of the British, French, and Italians, and when one remembers that the American military force has been multiplied by five this year, with a cor- FUPUAUFIAUTY SIFCHS PIU) | GYF YF FYE4FUUY G BOpUlE GUELPUsAU UF PoJVIUAT dE p4ea sit Yyviym Ssdatys o"“"LL “UdUt OOOO sutsojduis yuerd surprinqdrys e@ FO. 931s ay} SI sty} AEPo} pue ‘eruvajAsuUusg Jo AJO}SIY dy} UT JIJUIM jSoJOAOS JY} NoYSNo1y} possoisoid yIom Jng SAVMdIHS OS JO NOLLOAYLSNOO TH OL SdVOIGNVH HTAVAAIdASNI LSOW IV GHUNUSHYd ADI GNV MONS NAHM GNV’ISI DOH LV ANHOS V U4 4—— YUU VUU viCcy 4o0VUuy LLb4** 202 (hints NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE BEFORE IT WAS POSSIBLE TO PROCEED WITH EXCAVATION WORK AT HOG ISLAND LAST WINTER, IT WAS NECESSARY TO THAW THE GROUND WITH LIVE STEAM At any other time and in almost any other place it would have been logical to wait for the weather to moderate, but with the Huns marshaling their forces preparatory to launch- ing their great spring drive, all America was spurred to the limit of its capabilities in hurry- ing the construction of a great cargo and transport fleet. responding multiplication in the demand for tonnage, perhaps. we have reason to feel that we are doing more than we an- ticipated when the original war shipbuild- ing program was laid down. But tomorrow we will do better. fHaE COST OF SHIPBUILDING AFTER THE WAR ; Now that new, modern steel steamers are being delivered to the Shipping Board, it is possible to look ahead a year and see increased efficiency in our ocean supply service. We shall have big trans- ports running at good speeds, with beef ships, tank ships, and steel freighters. A large proportion of these vessels will be oil-burning, with turbines, comfortable quarters for crews, and other improve- ments. It will then be possible to stand- ardize operation and increase turn-around at ports, serving the American soldier in France with less tonnage. Cost of building ships in American yards after the war should compare fa- vorably with costs 1n other countries. We shall have great yards for fabricated ships and quantity production. These will put the industry on a sound footing, an en- tirely new basis, and we shall do on the ocean what we are already doing on the Great Lakes—build and operate ships more economically than any other nation in the world. Moreover, we will have enough shipbuilding business so that all our yards can specialize on one or two classes of ships, as is done abroad. In the past our few merchant shipyards built almost anything that was ordered, from a tug to a floating dry-dock. That was a fundamental handicap in cost, due to our small volume of shipbuilding. sa . 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OUR MERCHANT MARINE MUST BE WORTHY OF INDUSTRIAL AMERICA Our supply ships today, despite the re- markable way in which they are meeting the war emergency, are nevertheless a re- proach to'us for past neglect of ocean transportation. And when our new ships materialize and are placed in service, em- bodying modern features of design, thev will represent America’s correction’ of past neglect and point a way to a mer- chant marine worthy of our national eff- ciency in other industries. When our present shipbuilding pro- gram has been carried out we will have a merchant marine of the first order, so far as physical equipment is concerned. The present building program is laid out to cover about two years. It calls for more than 16,000,000 dead-weight tons of new construction, comprising 2,249 con- tract ships, 42 concrete ships, and 402 requisitioned ships. : The transports can be converted into passenger-and-cargo liners, running on regular routes between this country and Latin America, Europe, the British colo- nies, and the Orient. Fast cargo ships, refrigerating ships, and tankers will be assigned to regular freight routes. Tramp cargo-carriers will take their place im the Caarter ocean traffic. AMERICA’S FACILITIES ON THE OCEAN AFTER THE WAR America will have facilities on the ocean for delivering her factory and farm products, bringing home raw materials from other countries, carrying her custom- ‘ers to her doors, and, what I consider to be even more important, taking Ameri- cans abroad as tourists and salesmen and students and creators of international good will, especially to Latin America. It is generally thought that we are handicapped in the operation of ships by higher American wages paid officers and seamen and obsolete navigation laws. Actually, our real handicaps have been 207 lack of a large merchant marine cover- ing American trade routes regularly, to give us the benefit of quantity handling, and lack of modern port facilities to give us quick turn-around. In our other industries we have demon- strated it as a principle that the way to cut costs was not to cut wages, but to in- crease the volume and the efficiency. War is giving us a.big merchant marine—a basis for American inventiveness and energy to work upon, developing new methods. We have the best-developed petroleum industry in the world, and will increase the tonnage handled per man in ocean transportation, as well as reduce costs and eliminate much of the uncongenial work aboard ship, by building vessels equipped to burn oil either under steam-boilers or in explosion engines. Moreover, we can keep our ships at sea as many days in the year as possible, and eliminate costly waiting in port by rebuilding our ocean terminals, linking them up to our rail- roads, and turning our ships around in a matter of hours instead of days, just as we do with our big carriers on the Great Lakes. AMERICA MUST BECOME SHIP-MINDED TO ‘WIN MARITIME POWER But it takes something more than phys- ical equipment to make a merchant ma- rine. We must have technical training and morale, if you please. We must make America ship-minded. We are so little ship-minded today that it is chiefly the difficulties of operation which occupy the thoughts of those who are giving any thought whatever to our merchant marine of tomorrow. Our people still think of ships and foreign trade with fear and doubt, con- trasting ourselves with the more efficient maritime nations. Their thought of ships today is approxi- mately what their thought of war was a year ago, when we were passing through the difficulties and gloom of preparation. These were dark months, and it seemed as though we should never get anywhere in stemming the advance of the Hun. But we know what happened at Chateau- Thierry, when two divisions of the new American Army not only stopped several . The electric-power plant is large oO = _~ fg} cB) op oY eo) oO = n cB) G&G ws) > ps oO as} Oey e) WY 4S) vo cB) S oO a ~ NIGHT SCENE ON THE WAYS OF THE HOG ISLAND SHIPYARD cB) — fas} Seal e) 2) os ic) ~ ep) O S ven ‘S cB) ~ n may n oD G SB G — hy ao te] ~ oO aS Vv oO & ~ > 3°) MS; uw S (3) ~ Go = G 4S; vo cB) 1S) ie) + a ea) 3°) S ee) w (eo) S ~ (30) oc) ~ we Oo Mo) ea) e) S — THE NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC “MAGAZINE divisions of crack Prussians, but sent an electric thrill of hope and youth and the fighting spirit through the war-worn Al- lies. ‘That was an achievement, not of numbers, or equipment, or advantage of any kind, but purely of morale. And in thinking of the American mer- chant marine as it will be tomorrow, I feel confident that we will back up our ships with something of the same spiritual! quality. There may be difficulties and limitations we do not yet know. But I[ believe the American way of overcoming them will be to exert our national genius for invention and organization, holding our own through the development of new methods. SHIPBUILDING COMPARED WITH THE AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY Fifteen months’ experience as Chair- man of the United States Shipping Board has made me somewhat wary of proph- ecy. - Yee | tecl safe in predicting that a year from now, provided we give the necessary thought to this great question of the merchant marine, we shall have as great confidence in its efficiency and its future as we have today in our army abroad. Comparisons between pee American automobile industry and our new mer- chant marine are natural. We are build- ing our fabricated ships on the standard- ized quantity production plan, like Amer- ican automobiles. Our automobile in- dustry has become what it is, first, through the average American family’s need for an automobile and the ability to buy it; and, second, the splendid spirit of the in- dustry. The average American producer needs ocean transportation just as much, and it is reasonable to assume that when the need is realized we will generate a merchant marine spirit comparable with the automobile spirit. SKILL AND TRAINING ESSENTIAL IN. OUR MERCHANT MARINE SERVICE Given the ships and the merchant-ma- rine spirit, only one other element 1s needed—that of technical training in shipping and foreign trade. People think of seafaring men as more or less unskilled laborers. They admit that the old-time salt on a sailing ship 209 was a man of many trades, knowing how to knot, splice, reef, and steer; but they have heard that the modern tramp steamer requires chiefly deckhands and coal-passers. Nothing could be further from the truth. The men who man and command modern steel ships are divided into three classes—deck department, engine-room, and steward service. Deck duties call for skill in navigation and lead to posts of highest command. ‘The engine-room of a modern steel steamer carries possibili- ties for learning a half dozen trades; it has boilers, engines, dynamos, motors, lighting, refrigeration, machine - shop work, and so forth. Even the steward’s department on a passenger liner calls for knowledge and skill comparable with that needed for running a modern hotel. So, in the operation of ships, we find a whole bundle of interesting technical crafts, with possibilities of rising in the mer- chant marine or fitting one’s self for op- portunities ashore. TRAINED MEN REQUIRED ASHORE AS WELL AS AFLOAT And this is only a beginning in the tech- nicalities connected with shipping. Ships are loaded and unloaded at our ports. That calls for dock management—ware- housing, conveying machinery, stevedor- ing—all technical in their nature. Ships must be insured and cleared, cargoes must be routed, with shipping and ship’s papers—the documents connected with ships are many and technical. Freight must be organized and assembled for quick handling on regular routes covered by schedule. If ships are to make money, that calls for skillful handling of outgo- ing freight in this country and expert selling and service in foreign ports. In fact, there is another compact bundle of technical crafts connected with the mer- chant marine ashore, at home and abroad, and beyond these crafts again we find the foreign branches of American exporters and manufacturers and banks. Even to man our emergency supply ships to France we have been compelled to recruit and train officers and seamen at the rate of several thousand weekly. Unless we can train men and have them ready for the American merchant marine JOSssaA 94} JO MOId Pajesosap oy 7 preog surddrys *s ‘q wor yder30,04g ‘OOUEISIP S[PPIUE 94} UL Uses SI paysune] aq 0} ynoqe HOSTIM, MOTPOOM “SII Aq pouaysiryo ‘yIu02smG syy JO SUIYSUNL] dy} SsoujrM 0} parquiasse sey PMOID oy, GNW'ISI DOH LV V WiId Wows LSVaH DNIMOO’L 210 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE in its broadest aspects, ashore as well as afloat, it will be necessary to depend upon foreigners with the requisite experience. Therefore, we are taking steps to es- tablish vocational and college courses throughout the nation. ‘There will be courses in specific trades suited to men already at work in shipping offices, and on docks and railroads, fitting them through concentrated night study for ‘advancement in their present positions. And there will be college courses for men who wish to prepare for ship operation, port management, foreign trade, consul- ships, and the like. So, out of our present ocean supply iain tor.the army abroad, there are growing many possibilities and opportu- nities. CREDITABLE PROGRESS IN THE FACE OF GREAT DIFFICULTIES Looking back twelve months to the ‘time when we faced the task of building 150 new shipyards for merchant tonnage, and when only two complete new ships had been delivered to the Shipping Board, I feel that we have not only made creditable progress against overwhelming difficulties, but that the thought of the nation has followed us, and made even _ greater progress in the building of sound public opinion. Looking ahead to the coming year, I feel that we shall make even greater progress in ship operation and the devel- opment of a real merchant marine. It is logical to assume that the quick war-time intelligence of the nation will keep pace with us during the coming months, and that a year hence, when the American merchant marine is a physical actuality, there will be a backing of national public opinion equal to the support of our ships, their profitable operation, the making of any adjustment in laws that may be nec- essary, and the development of foreign trade to make the American merchant marine a permanent institution. We are awake once more on this sub- ject of ships and shall not go to sleep Pale again, any more than we shall go to sleep in the automobile industry, or railroad- ing, or aircraft, or military preparedness. War has taught every class of Amer- ican producer the vital importance of ships. . The American farmer, for ex- ample, has suffered from lack of ocean tonnage during the war in selling his spe- cialties, such as fruit, and has. also suffered for lack of fertilizers. Today he knows what ships mean in farming and is looking ahead not only to the pro- tection of the American merchant ma- rine, but will use it to extend his busi- ness. For instance, we are building many refrigerator ships to carry beef to the war zone, and these will be useful after the war to sell red apples, Califor- nia and Florida oranges, dairy products, and the like of the American farmers. We are building army transports which after the war will be converted into cargo- and-passenger liners to South America and other regions, furnishing quick de- livery service for the American stockman to sell valuable breeding animals abroad. MERCHANT MARINE VITAL, TO NATION’S WELFARE The manufacturer has felt the pinch of scarce ocean tonnage to even a greater de- _ gree, both for the sale of his products abroad and the import of his raw ma- terials. Today he knows the value of ships and understands that an American merchant marine is vital to the national welfare. It is not wholly a matter of cost. He wants the facilities. He wants American ships for protection against emergencies and he wants them for the direct high-class ocean service on Amer- ican trade routes which will enable him _ to reach new customers, build new trade, and hold it. What people want they usually get. The American people today are alert to the importance of ships, and our national business genius will be equal to working. out all the problems and overcoming all the difficulties. OUR INDUSTRIAL VICTORY By Cuartrtes M. Scuwaps DrrEcToR GENERAL, UNITED STATES SHIPPING BoaRD EMERGENCY FLEET CoRPORATION tory that the American Army will have won in France when this war is over will be the industrial victory here at home. It will be a triumph no less sig- nificant and enduring than that won on the battle-fields. The battle at home is now raging, and victory already is perched on the banner of the American shipbuilders. Few persons realize what has been done in the shipyards since we entered the war. Without the constant daily observation of progress, such as I have enjoyed while personally visiting the shipyards of the country since I joined the government’s forces, 1t might well have been difficult for me to grasp the big essential facts of our shipbuilding effort. American yards today are building ships faster and better than anywhere else in the world. Our speed-up per- formances have revolutionized the indus- try. In building a huge merchant fleet in two years, or three or five, for that mat- ter, we are doing the impossible; yet the fleet 1s coming on. The story of our accomplishments in the yards that extend from Maine down along the Atlantic to Florida, along the entire coast of the Gulf of Mexico, and from southern California to the upper- most point of Washington, on the Pacific, is the most amazing account of industrial progress ever written. The truth is that we in America have gone to shipbuilding just as we go to any other industrial enterprise. Whether we be making automobiles or harvesting ma- chines, or what-not, we Americans have the habit of going after things with the single idea of getting them done. So, when it came to building ships, we vio- lated every convention, if such a thing exists in shipbuilding, and set to getting the ships afloat in the shortest possible time. We were not a shipbuilding nation when we entered the war. Today Amer- S ECOND to the great military vic- 212 ica is the greatest shipbuilding nation in the world. The Bureau of Navigation the other day informed Chairman Hur- ley, of the United States Shipping Board, that more tonnage had been built in this country during the last year than in Great Britain. That was one of the most sig- nificant reports given to the American people since the war began. ACCOMPLISHING A MIRACLE OF PRODUCTION Now, how did America bring about this miracle of production? Before the war the building of a steel ship, from keel- laying to launching, required from nine months to two years. Now we are build- ing these ships in one month. Some have been launched in less than one month from the time of keel-laying. In the old days they used to lay the keel and then figure out where the rest of the ship was going to come from. All that is changed now. ‘Today the shipbuilders, with contracts calling for work that will keep their men engaged for months to come, order their material in wholesale quantities. One yard on the western coast has ordered steel for the construction of 39 ships. The only thing that remains to be done in that yard is to put the steel together. The men are spurred on by a patriotic desire to help win the war. of fabrication have taken the place of the old and slower ways, and every ship- builder is on his toes, eager to take ad- vantage of any suggestion that lends more speed - to his task. When the New York Shipbuilding Corporation at Camden, N. J., built the Tuckahoe in 27 days, ‘the shipbuilding world gasped. Practical men at the head. of some of our shipyards frankly disbe- lieved the story of the Tuckahoe. They said it was a physical impossibility to put together the steel required in a 5,500-ton collier in that time. Tuckahoe’s record has had to go into the New methods. But since then the ~ © Committee on Public Information THE FIRST OF A FLEET OF I80 SHIPS TO BE LAUNCHED AT HOG ISLAND The Quistconck is to be used in the transportation of food and supplies for American troops in France. It is a 400-foot vessel drawing 24 feet of water when loaded. Its keel was laid on February 12 and the launching took place August 5. Twenty-seven rolling mills sup- plied the steel for the ship and 980 men were employed on its construction. 213 214 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THERE WAS FEASTING AND REJOICING AT HOG ISLAND ON THE DAY THAT THE SHIPYARDS FIRST VESSEL WAS LAUNCHED A view of the tables where luncheon was served to the guests at the greatest going-in party ever given in a shipyard. The thousands who came to see the launching of the Quist- conck stood in the noonday August sun for hours, and 500 were overcome by the heat. discard. It was a splendid achievement, and all the more glory belongs to the builders of the Tuckahoe because their example has inspired other yards to even better records. A SPEED CHALLENGE TO EVERY SHIPYARD IN THE COUNTRY When the Tuckahoe was launched, a speed challenge went forth to every yard in America, and since then three ship- building plants have succeeded in lower- ing the record. First came the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation at Alameda, Cal., which put a 12,000-ton cargo boat, the Invincible, into the water in 24 work- ing days after the keel was laid. ‘Then the Great Lakes Engineering Works, at Ecorse, Mich., built a 3,500-ton freighter, the Crawl Keys, in 14 days. More re- cently the Grays Harbor Motorship Cor- poration built and launched the Aberdeen in 171%4 days from keel-laying. This was a wooden boat, and the record is so much better than any previous performance in the history of wood shipbuilding that it defies comparison. Now, remember that two years ago the building of the Tuckahoe would have taken a year or a year and a halt, the Invincible two years.or more, the Crawl Keys nine months or one year, and the Good Lord only knows how long it would have taken to build a wood boat. The success of American shipbuilders in lowering the time required for build- ing steel vessels is due to three important factors: First, and in my mind foremost, is the splendid spirit that actuates the men in the yards and leads them on to better and better performance. Second, the organization that has beet built up in our yards in the last year S| THE .NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE . READY FOR os OUTEITTING As soon as the Ouistconck had left her shipway and was afloat on the waters of the Delaware, a fleet of small tugs towed her to the fitting-out basin. In the meantime huge cranes were laying the keel of a new vessel on the ways which the first Hog Island ship had just quitted. makes for efficiency and permits all of the speed achievements mentioned. Third, there have been marked im- provements in the methods of hull con- struction and assembling of material. As pointed out before, the material for ships is assembled in huge quantities. When the time comes to put together this ma- terial, the stuff is all there. . STANDARDIZATION OF SHIP CONSTRUCTION _ ‘There are other factors that play an important part in our new speedy con- struction. In the last few months, par- ticularly, we have been working toward the standardization of ship: construction. Before the war every yard was build- ing ships according to its own design. Just as a dressmaker cuts out patterns from a dress, a shipbuilder builds the frame of a ship, and in the old days every ship called for a different pattern. There may have been some vessels with double decks, some with triple. The types were almost as many as the ships. That is true to a certain extent today, for we are only now getting the requisitioned ships coiipleted,. 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Suro SI Joquinu siyy, “AIeNAqey SUIS STouTIeUE JURYIOW Se paUres} Ussq savy syyNok ULITIOWY OO0O0'ZZ ULY} IIOT SdIHS DNINIVAL AOIAWHS DNITINYOAA ANIYVW TNVHOYUAW AHL JO HNO GuvOd NO SHdOW AHL DNINUVAT 66 3) BS \ N el) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HOISTING IN LIFEBOATS AFTER DRILL AT DOCK The United States Shipping Board training ships, on which apprentices are taught to become seamen, spend five days a week at sea and two days at their base. is not allowed to interfere with lifeboat drill. that manufacture the hundreds of parts necessary to the building of a big steel steamer. So long as these parts are for a given size and type of ship, they are made to an exact pattern and dimension. Similarly, when the ship-buyer wants, say, an 8,800-ton cargo vessel, under the standardization process he knows to whom he can turn for a vessel of that size and of the type that he desires. It is just like the automobile buyer of today, who knows where he can get a car of cer- tain horsepower, size, and design. The saving that took place in the steel mill and in the industrial plants will benefit the buyer. The comparison, in my mind, between automobile factories and “‘ship factories” is more real than mere theory. I think that our plan for standardizing ships will work out in a practical way, just as the standardization scheme in the automobile industry has been brought about. The stay in port The great object to be attained from all this, of course, will be the greater speed in tonnage production. That is the imperative need of today, and so long as the war lasts the demand for rapid ship construction will remain. Every mile gained by American armies in France calls for more tonnage, for with the lengthening of our lines of communica- tion and the strengthening of our man power abroad the need for more food and munitions will increase. By January I we hope to have com- pleted the great bulk of requisitioned ton- nage that was on the ways when the United States entered the war. That will mark the definite turning point in our ship production. By that time we will have put into effect our standardization plans, and then, I firmly believe, Amer- ica’s shipbuilding machinery will be run- ning at higher speed and greatly increased efficiency. f } “-pavog SuiddiyS sa}e1G povus) 9y} FO UOIssiWIWIOD SotjIOey toqiefy pue Wo oy} Fo Sot}yiq¢suodsat oy} JO suo st ‘a9dTITMIUIOD JeM-odY}-1oyFe JO} pue spsou 9} 2IPSWIUUT OF y OQ ‘syiod Jpn) pue ojue]}Vy INO [][w JO Ssusnoyatem pue sysop dy} JO Juatdmbs oy} aAoIdwWt 0} Jsoq MOFF “AIO Mon Aq ou10q Suroq SI “YT A yey} 0} AJUO puOsas siIjodoIjoW puR[SsUuy MIN 9Y} JO Sat}yploef} surddrys oy} uo uspinq e& pasoduit sey JeM sy J, NOLSOd LV LNOUNHLYM AHL JO MAIA V kq yders0joyg uelepqy “EH woe’] 224 “AVM SIq b UT Gof Siq © Suljpuey Jof AtouIyORU [eII}snpul podojaaop A[[NJJopuOM puke PodziUeSIO A[YSIY SP YIM ‘Soye’]T Jeaiy) 9Y} UO Sa}e}G Pa}HUL) ey} Yim a}odw09 p[nos pjIOM dy} UL AIJUNOD sUIITIeUL OU ‘spUL] J9Y}O JO So[BIs 9SEM MO] JO Sso[psesoy U0} B $}UID VAY je OGID 91O S}i JO diys & voa1f Ue. ‘OWIID e 1e% suo} ZI SUNT] ‘SAapeopUN jULSIS opIYM ‘opIU B JYSIo1Z JO UOJ V SulATIvI Ur [RO Jo doUNO UP J[eY URY} sIOW 9]}}I] B ATUO OsN SJoJeM PUelUE JnO JO SdaTIsed-310 SIq yy, ‘“JoyesJodo puke JIUMO Giys Jo}eM-ILS IY} 0} YSIUINJ sjooff Soye’] Jest oy} YOYM suossaf-yoalfqo ay} sie Aueyy MOINAIOS OIWNONOOA NV OL. 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Oo os Oa: LESSEE - me : ss em RS ” Aw gt ste we Ae. s eR 3 Be “3 ON a 229 THE WAR AND OCEAN GEOGRAPHY By THE effects of the great world effort to throttle autocracy before autoc- racy could throttle the liberty of the hu- man race that one might catalogue the entire range of human activities with- out writing down a single interest of mankind that has not been affected in greater or less degree. Yet it is difficult to find one interest, except the- larger one of human freedom, more radically touched than that of the seas. Twenty-odd million tons of shipping lie at the bottom of the ocean‘or float around as helpless derelicts which multi- ply the dangers of the deep. And with these ships has gone to Davy Jones’s locker such an array of merchandise and munitions as no one ever dreamed would be his—beef and flour that might have saved millions from the threshold of starvation; railroad engines that might have moved the trains of a nation; mu- nitions that might have sufficed the cause of victory in most of the wars of history. Some day the war will be over, a peace that will make the whole world a parlia- ment of man will be signed, and the race will be permitted, unshackled from its fear of the hydra-headed Hun, to settle back into the pursuits that make for its well-being. S © FAR-REACHING hayeheanehe THE CALL FOR GREATER KNOWLEDGE OF THE SEA When that day comes the ocean will have new interest; for commerce, unfet- tered and free, will move up and down its lanes as never before. The world will be a family of nations taught by the sacri- fices of many a trying hour to think more in terms of world welfare and less in terms of local advantage. In that day there will be urgent de- mand for every ship that we are now calling into being for the world purpose of the moment—the annihilation of au- tocracy. Not only so, but there will be a demand for every ship that the shipyards EDITOR of the nations can build in the years that lie ahead. Se ae If world peace engenders international trade and international trade demands expanded shipping, expanded shipping in its turn will call for a closer knowledge of. the sea: . It may “be Gerue tar fag principal ship lanes of the ocean are almost as definitely traveled and marked as a Lincoln Highway or a Long Island boulevard, but withal, our knowledge of the bounding main is only fragmentary. To begin with, the area of the sea is about three times as large as that of the land, and although as long ago as 1904 the governments of the civilized world had gotten together as many as twenty- five million observations of every kind and sort from the logs of merchantmen, warships, and government vessels, and al- though the results of a single expedition have filled over fifty massive quarto vol- umes, what we know about the sea is but the primer of the things it has to reveal. OUR FRAGMENTARY SOURCES OF INFORMATION Imagine men in airships cruising over a strange country, flying above miles of clouds, and once in a while dropping a sounding line down to earth and now and again letting down a dredge or a trawl; and suppose that country were the war zone in Europe. Do you think that under such conditions they would learn much about what was happening down below? They might happen to sink their sound- ing tube into blood-sodden earth, or their dredge might chance to dig up a piece of shrapnel or a dead rat, while their trawl might catch a. butterfly or capture a bumblebee; but certainly the specimens would not give a picture of the geology of the land, nor the things brought up by dredge and trawl afford an insight into what is going on at the bottom of the ocean of air, or of what inhabits the floor of that ocean. Little wonder, then, that we marvel at 230 | | THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 2 Photograph by Frederick I. Monsen A DIVER IN THE HARBOR OF ST. THOMAS, VIRGIN ISLANDS Lower the surface of the ocean 600 feet and you would transform the geography of the earth. Asia and North America would be united by a strip of land some 1,500 miles wide; the Dutch East Indies and Borneo would be tied to the continent of Asia; New Guinea would be a part of Australia; the North Sea would be only a narrow gulf off the point of Norway; Ireland and England would be one and a part of continental Europe; a traveler could go dry shod from Good Hope to Cape Horn via London, Berlin, Bagdad, Bombay, Pekin, Tokyo, Sitka, San Francisco, Washington, and Buenos Aires. how much has been learned about the seas, the while we realize that what we know is much less than the proverbial drop in the bucket as compared with what remains a mystery. The most impressive thing about the sea is its shallowness as compared with the size of the earth, and its depth as com- pared with the height of the land. Ii you were to take a globe six feet in di- ameter and excavate the deepest trench of the ocean thereon, it would be a bare pin-scratch deep—about one-twentieth of an inch. y~v~o wy suinasnul JEILG ANU 4U AUG 4role ByEU pues ~~ ra t . AVMUON AO SHYOHS AHL NO SHIVHM dO ONILLAD Tab! Gombe Ss Aly [Jaq Weyer Jopuexe[y ‘si Wo1j ydessojoyd 222 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE DEPTH OF THE SEA AND HEIGHT OF THE LAND And yet so profound are the depths of the sea that the bulk of the water in it is fifteen times as great as the bulk of the land that rises above its waves. In its deepest trench the tallest mountain on the face of the globe could be buried and ships could still pass over the spot with a half mile of water under them. The average depth of the ocean 1s more than two miles—about 12,480 feet, the oceanographers estimate. On the other hand, the average height of the land is less than half a mile—about 2,250 feet. How much further beneath the waves the sea bottom lies than the land crest above them is shown by the fact that while only one per cent of the land rises to an alti- tude of 12,000 feet, 46 per cent of the ocean’s floor lies under more than 12,000 feet of water. The relative height of the land surface and the sea bottom is about in keeping with their relative areas, there being 71 acres occupied by the sea for every 29 held by the land. If it were possible to drain off the upper 10,000 feet of the waters of the sea and to lay bare the floor that lies under it, the territory thus recovered, added to the land now above the sea, would give only a fifty-fifty di- vision between land and water. THE CONTINENTAL SHELF The oceans as we know them are larger than the true ocean basin.. As a monu- ment is always planted on a base, so the continents have broad under-sea bases upon which to rest. phers there is a line known as the 100- fathom line, which largely parallels the shore-line, but which is sometimes as much as several hundred miles out to sea. When that line is reached the bottom suddenly begins to slope down toward the abysmal depths. The floor lying landward from this line is known as the continental shelf, and it is upon this broad shelf, with an aggre- gate area three times as large as that of the United States, that the continents are planted. By overflowing this vast area of slightly submerged territory, the oceans gather unto themselves ten million square To the oceanogra-_ 99 ” IO miles of territory that in elevation be- longs more to the land than to the sea. As a matter of fact, the continental shelf lies in part under water and in part above, the part above being the alluvial plains of the continents. Where these plains are broad the shelf usually is broad, and midisesmest ‘35255. re ianate Beare aan re Cae Renate remesrsoee Wee eS SE Rs SWRpSaewoteres ed SE ys ae ane = Le ae ie nF *, ee oe iS a ONO *: eet = A -R < cat sc Py Le AIT > ae i oa =~ Pay sao a > ET OMe ea dite a 3S: Se eS Sausages bY Ge Boe: eh S: > > Cp <5 Soe’ 3 a, IS = AS >, > hm PS. ~~ ee em Bob Ph, % WY i PSD ° 35h “St REALE > Be DG, Ca <= ¥ Ge Rr K aire saan ae Se ee ot ey = 3 Oe Pe aay! ~ ey Ss jasnssumes et 7 > EAS 2 Care =. eh Mead “ aor 5 a =, = 3 % To insure Victor quality. always look for the famous H trademark, “His Master's Voice" [tis on all products /E\ of the Victor Talking Machine Company. = **Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ SS ey TS — ck =. 6-6 ‘© C3 4, €O} 7H Sa— > > >. —s iC) TOON Do ea ey To 9 O21 Oe1 GeO 1011 O11 O 1101101102812 11 1111116919111 HHH OHO HOH OHH O HOH OHO ODO OHHH: O99 O 99818981 G 828191011 OH OO OHO OOOOH OSS Ou OOOO OueGirQu vO GS Orgnge 1 0OerQer Me Oe, (e) De Dee 6B O20 Wr. M01 @ 20 G20 Goo Geo Gee Goo Gee Ger Goo Oe Wee Gee Gor G22 O90 G19 We oO oe Goo Gor G20 Gs 2 Oe G22 Gee @ + B11 Ds Os: @ 0 G11 00 Ger Ger Gee Ger Gor Gor @:-O2O $02 © 9 ee WO 95 Oo @ 1+ @29@2-@<:@+- Os: O20 12 O~ The fireman was not to blame GOING business is burning up ! Why doesn’t the fire-bucket hop off the shelf and hurl its wet contents into the heart of the oncoming fire? Why doesn’t the stand-pipe hose unroll itself and the big valve automatically turn on the water? Why doesn’t the chemical-extinguisher tip itself upside down and pump itself dry? That is what you think when you realize your business is being burned up. What you OO. @er@eo . ©2926 20 B00 oreo Hor Gos Ser Ge Gee Gore - (Hers OeeGeo@e ©2001 Gor Dor G01 GxeSo2 O11 Ger Geo Gover Ge: G00 Goe Ger Ger G00 Hae G12Gi0 Gee GeeG 10 Gor Gs0 Her 19 Os Gee Ger S oc Gor Ger Ges Ges GerGerOerGeGrGerGerGrgugs then want, to save your business, is something that will jump into action on its own hook, | as if your business salvation was worth an effort. | Apparatus that depends on the human element will fail ninety-five times out of one hundred, says a great ex-fire chief of New York City. Fire-buckets, hose, and chemicals are all right if somebody is there to use them. | Fireproof walls, metal trim, metal furniture, | | 0000000 er Gor G10 Gee Gor Mor Serer Go Ser GeeGerGerGerGorGerGerBes Bor SerGesBo1 Ger GorGerGor Oe @er@e CY Oy Wr my tr i to -O et Le Tt tt tt oo 1@ 0c @or@orGerGecGseGeo Gee Ges GorQeeG D-0Ger iron shutters, wire-glass, etc., are also valu- able aids, But they can’t put out a fire. That’s the reason why all of them combined do not make a business as safe from fire as a Grinnell Automatic Sprinkler System does alone, nor earn as low an insurance rate. Grinnells frequently reduce the insurance rate by two-thirds. For this reason a Grinnell System really costs nothing in the long run, and generally pays for itself in a few years by its own savings on insurance. Even if you carry double the insurance you do, you would be the loser if your busi- 9D o0 O00 @o1 Gee Ger Gee Gee Gee Ger @ 19 Gee G0 Gor Gor Goo Ger Goe oreo Gor Gor Ger Ger Gee Gor Go Gor Sec Ge Gor Gor Ger Gor Ger Ger Ger Gee Gor Go ovi we Gee Geo Gee Bore Seo 9 Oe @ eo oi Ser Seo Hee Geo M re Mee Gee QeoGeeQeeQeeQee ae Caeg, One short ness were swept away by fire. hour of fire would set you back, disrupt your organization, cancel a lot of your profits. That’s why business men of America have put 25,000,000 Grinnell Sprinkler- heads on guard over their going businesses. We can give you a few pertinent ideas about your own property if you will tell us your floor space, your insurance rate, and the amount of insurance carried. Don’t theorize—get the figures! Address the General Fire Extinguisher Company, 293 West Exchange Street, Providence, R. I. 0B 8 ee See Ger Gee Qoe Ger Ger Ger @eor See GerQerGerOe- 021029901 B90 @ 0s O2-OrG41SS(2) ©2009 On QoQ QuguGuguge B40 Qe Gor e00r0 00 Geo Oe e900 a0 Go 20 Meo Ge Be0 19GB 00H 12 Do0 er O20 O20 Gor Gor 10290 Os See SeeQeo er Der Serer See Ger See Geo er @ee Geo Doe See Seo HerDee Gore Ger Oee DeeDe “None better at any price” : The meal is judged by the coffee you serve. tt #%2| Under all conditions and on all occasions White House Coffee gives pleasure and com- ITE HOUSE | mands respect. Always sold in the air- PANE tight, all-tin cans—never in bulk. White House Tea is superb. It has — a quality as distinct and superior as White _ House Coffee. Five favorite varieties — in 1-4 and 1-2 lb. cans. Order by name “White House.” Decline substitutes. DWINELL-WRIGHT CO. Principal Coffee Roasters BOSTON CHICAGO : ee iE RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP in U_ 8., $2,003 annual membership abroad, £3.00; Canada, $2.50; life menbershi, $50. | DTA TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY payable to National Geographic Society, and : if at a distance remit by The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the New York draft, postal or express order. National Geographic Magazine IN THE PLEASE DETACH AND FILL IN BLANK BELOW AND SEND TO THE SECRETARY To the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Sixteenth and M Streets Northwest, Washington, D. C.: i nominate... 022 0 a ee ee Oe TAdGress 0 Pe ho Pe ee a I eS for membership in the Society. Name and Address of Nominating Member ‘¢Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ When Belgium Stemmed the Tide _ Four years ago the Belgian Army, ‘war-worn and weak in numbers, con- fronted the Germans on the Yser. From Liege to the last narrow strip of their country they had resisted the invaders inch by inch, glorious even in -retreat. At the Yser the Belgians performed a signal service to the Allied cause by holding the Germans while the gaps were being closed in the Franco-British line to the rear. Four years have passed, and the same nations are still at death grips along the Western front. America, too, is there, and has this opportunity because the Belgians kept the enemy from crossing the Yser long ago. The same unfaltering courage, the same inspiration for sacrifice in. our army abroad and in our citizens at ‘home will give us victory. The complete mobilization of the whole people is necessary and. the telephone service has an increasingly important part in speeding the national effort. More than 12,000 members of the Bell System are in military service. Those that remain at home must fill the gaps and do their utmost, with the co-opera- tion of the public, to help win the war. One Policy AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY AND ASSOCIATED COMPANIES One System UWS. 9. ‘WAR SAVINGS STAMPS ISSUED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT Universal Service ‘*Mention the Geographic-—It identifies you.’’ Photograph on aa T. Ellis, Paris A TRIBUTE TO A SLEEPING Hero: IN THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY WARDS National Geographic Society Wards in the American Military Hospital No. 1, Neuilly, France . ICTURE TO YOURSELF the feeling of one of our fellow-members or his boy upon being brought into this hospital and placed in a comfortable bed provided for him by his own friends. Can you imagine a better tonic or a more comforting thought to a sick or wounded man than the realization that he is almost at home? Thousands of members of the National Geographic Society and the sons of a great many more have answered our country’s call to arms. Numbers have already gone to France, and others will follow shortly to place the Stars and Stripes side by side with the battle standards of our allies in this titanic struggle for freedom and everlasting peace. There will be no overhead expense in the handling of the National Geographic Society's fund, and every dollar will be expended for equipment and maintenance of the ward. No matter how small or how large your subscription, it will be welcome and proper acknowledgment made. For particulars read “A Day in the Geo- graphic Wards,” by Carol Corey, in the July issue of the Geographic. ey ee ee ee (CUT HERD) SS SS EE EE eee GILBERT GROSVENOR, Chairman, National Geographic Society Ward Fund, 16th and M Streets N. W., Washington, D. C, Isencloscsh=-2=-- = ee toward the National Geographic Society Wards (twelve beds each) in the American Military Hospital No. 1, Neuilly, France. ‘Two wards have already been established. No. V514G Enamel Inlaid, chased center, Gruen Verithin model. Solid green gold, $100 to $250 MASTERPIECES OF SWISS CRAFTSMANSHIP Made and sold under the management of an American organization HE Gruen movements, When you own a watch with famous among horologists the name ‘‘Gruen’”’ on the dial, for their precision time-keeping, you own the finest modern ex- A are made under American ample of Swiss watchmaking art : ownership in Madre-Biel, Switz- | —with the complete service of an : erland, by a modern. guild of | American organization behind it. : , Z that country’s best craftsmen. EH Gic ne Wate hi beaine i The movements are then able only through one of 1200 : brought to the Guild Workshop Gruen jeweler agencies—the Z in America, at ““Time Hill,’? best in every locality—to whom : Cincinnati. Herethe How the Gruen Pat. Wheel the sale is confined. : beautiful Gruen cases oth thin” The shortness of Duplicate repair parts : are hand wrought and ‘St makes watch more durable. may be had through Z inthemthe movements —— these agencies at all : adjusted and timed. : om) times. z Fixed Gruen Verithins . $30 to $200 Ultrathins . $225 to $350 Z Prices Very-Verithins 40 to 225 Dietrich Gruens . 300 to 765 Al Owing to war conditions, prices quoted are subject to change without notice. J GRUEN WATCHMAKERS?’ GUILD, Dept. D-4,‘‘Time Hill,’ Cincinnati, O. al Makers of the famous Gruen Watches since 1874. Canadian Branch, Toronto, Canada et GRUEN YiswATCHES e : a F omy ) C2 aT x Go SaR Kare ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ To Follow Our Boys to the Rhine Use the Map of the Western Theatre of War | HOW THE MAP IS REGARDED IN FRANCE — Editor National Geographic Magazine, Washington, D. C., U.S, As ! Dear Sir: ‘This is to express my most cordial congratulations on your Map of the Western ‘Theatre of War. There is not to be found in France so com- plete a map on ‘so small a scale. JI have been able to follow most accurately on your map the reports of the Franco-American offensive, be- | causethe name of eyery village and townappears. We applaud the magnificent courage and success of your compatriots. ns | Sincerely yours, SECRETARY, Societe de pecgrapnic, B Paris, France "N THESE crucial and thrill ing times who does not wish | — he could go over the top with 1 the boys! Next to doing so is “aqiener to follow their movements on the National Geographic Map of the Western Theatre of War. a Place the map, on the wall or the door, mount it on beard, or Te material, and put a colored pin in every front line town to show what nation’s troops are holding it—whether American, French, British, or Italian—a different color for each nation’s forces. "Then move pins forward as the Allied armies drive on, and each. day’s news will become clear to you, and you will really feal a part of the forces that are headed- ‘inexorably toward Berlin. The 70-page index of all names.on the fighting front is so arranged and keyed that you can quickly locate any and all of them. | fs cage Dept. H, National Geographic Society, mee . 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. iC | Please send copies of “‘MAP OF WESTERN THEATRE OF WAR,” with Index Book of 12,000 names, for which I enclose herewith dollars. Postpaid in United States. : If several copies are desired, write names and addresses and send with your card.. ©. ; 4, Es Name Printed on Military Linen, $1.50, postpaid in U. S. A. ~ Street Address Printed on Paper, 75 cents; Abroad, 25 cents additional. Index without Map, 25 cents. City and State uly, Why Teeth Lose Their Glitter All Statements Approved by High Dental Authorities You Leave the Film Why do well-brushed teeth discolor and decay? Why does tartar form? Why does pyorrhea start? Millions of people are asking those questions, and the answer is this: — A slimy film constantly forms on your teeth. It clings to the teeth. It gets into crevices, hardens and stays, and your brushing doesn’t remove it. And most tooth troubles are due to that film. That film is what discolors—not your. teeth. . It hardens into tartar. It holds food which ferments and forms acid. It holds the acid in contact with the teeth to cause decay. ~ They, with tartar, are the chief cause of pyorrhea, and many internal troubles are due to them. Millions of germs breed in it. These facts have been known for years. But dental science found no way to effectively combat the film. A vigorous dental cleaning from time to time was needed to remove it. : That way is embodied in a ‘dentifrice called Pepsodent. You can prove it, as miousands have, by a simple one-week test. Now a way has been found to combat it. This is to urge that you do it—at our cost. | Aiea soe See the Difference Pepsodent is based on pepsin, the digestant of albumin. The object is to dissolve the film, then to constantly The film is albuminous matter. prevent its accumulation. It must be acti- vated, and the usual agent is an acid harmful to the teeth. Ordinary pepsin will not serve. But science has now found a harmless activating method. Five governments have already granted That method, employed in Pepsodent, makes teeth-cleaning vastly more effective. patents. Able authorities have made clinical tests of Pep- sodent. In thousands of cases they have watched its efficiency. Now we are urging all people to prove it in their homes. without it, and they are all- important. It means results you do not get Use it ~Note how cléan your teeth Send the coupon for a-Otie-Week tube. like any tooth paste. feel after using. foiMark the absenée/of the slimy film. See how’ teeth whiten as the ‘fixed film dis- appears. | babs 2 That film is your teeth’s chief enemy. One week will show you that you can combat it. will always clean your teeth, we think, in this scien- Then you tific way, Cut’ out the coupon now. Aetern. your opply tooth paste tubes to the nearest ‘Red Cross Station en: OFF. The New-Day Dentifrice A Scientific Product = Sold by Druggists Everywhere (136) To oo$ TT ed ee ee ee a Se — Ohne Weck Tube F ree | | THE PEPSODENT CO., | Dept. 204, 1104 S. Wabash Ave. | | | | di Chicago, IIl.: Mail One-Week Tube of Pepsodent to "Address; 3225200 5 ee Ne ae She es eee | Ao CN ee oe ee ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Descriptive Text by Edward W. Nelson, America’s Foremost Au- thority on Animals 127 Paintings of the Mammals of North America in Full Colors by Louis Agassiz Fuertes 50 Reproductions of Animal Tracks Drawn by Ernest Thompson Seton A Series of Drawings of American Prehistoric Mammals by Charles R. Knight 32 Black and White Pictures from Unusual Photographs of American Wild Life INTRODUCING A LITTLE BLACK BEAR TO A LITTLE BROWN BEAR AT SEWARD, ALASKA Wild Animals of North America Intimate Studies of the Big and Little Citizens of the Mammal Kingdom More than 200 illustrations: 127 Paintings reproduced in full colors; 50 Track Sketches, a number of Drawings of Prehistoric Mammals and many illus- trations from unusual photographs reproduced in black and white. HERE is no subject richer in fascinating interest than the study of animal life. To see all the types and represeitative species in their native environment, to watch them meeting their respective . problems of life and adapting themselves to the conditions they have to face, and to follow nature through its many moods as typified by its wonderful variety of mammalian forms is a delightful and informative diversion. To do this under the guidance of one of those born observers, whose eyes are always open, whose ears are always keen, whose brain is always quick to grasp, and whose pen is ever facile, is to become intimately acquainted with one of the richest chapters in zodlogy. Such_is to be the good fortune of those who receive a copy of the National Geographic Society’s nev Hooke of Mammals. This work is the consolidation of Edward W. Nelson’s splendid nature articles in the EOGRAPHIC. There is no man so well fitted to introduce you to the mammals of North America as Mr. Nelson, the Chief of our remarkable U. S. Biological Survey. For forty years he has been their friend, living among them and studying their habits and traits in the most intimate way. ‘To him an animal is something more than flesh and bone and skin and fur. It has a personality; and he is as careful to record this as to describe the formal qualities which science writes down in species descriptions. Mr. Nelson is a naturalist of the John Burroughs order. ‘To visit the people of woodland, mountain, and field with him is to discover a new world. Illuminating the descriptions are natural-color illustrations from the brush of that gifted artist-naturalist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes. Mr. Fuertes is not only a master of color but also of pose, and he can catch the timid alertness of the prong-horn antelope, the cruel sagacity of the arctic wolf, the lazy indifference of the common skunk, or the wide-awake watchfulness of the gray squirrel, with equal facility. _Added to these is a series of 50 sketches by Ernest Thompson Seton, depicting the footprints of various animals as they appear in the light snow of field or forest or in the dust of the wayside. ‘These will enable the reader to identify the tracks of many of the mammals of North America. ‘ Together these authorities have produced a book that -is without counterpart in the literature of animal life. Dept... H, (NaTionan ‘(GEOGRAPHIC Socipty, 22,52 “Ryle see ue) eek SOM gel Merges eet Sia) stOieumle cleelete every TiGiaes 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Please send .i-.c10.ei copies of “WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA,” bound in.....cccccccccescccecsssme for which: Pyenclosetherewithi oi. gens vecile does es ws dete COllars, If several copies are desired, write names and ad- BING 5 serene Seale ge) ohevene le eateysters ccc cece e nce esccccccees CiESCR AN ATSENGRUNE MoI Cong: Street Address «css. cic) s sais eis sheroreiereians Se Bound in Royal Buckram (Stiff Covers) or Military Khaki (Flexible Covers), postpaid in U. S., $3.00 City and State . soe e cee reer eereoer eo ereeoereeeereeoeee ees ee & 12-inch Spartan Nonble Belton Blower Drive in Plantof Lehigh Foundry Co., Fullerton, Pa. High Spee The demand on belts varies enor- mously. Some must loaf along with light loads; some run slowly and some run quickly with heavy loads; and some must contend with trying conditions like steam, fumes, or exposure to heat. For each and every set of power re- quirements the Graton and Knight Standardized Series leather belting presents a belt made specifically for this purpose. Blower belts that rush along a mile a minute must have great elasticity, high surface traction and must stand up under trying conditions. For this ex- acting work, the Graton & Knight Spartan Belt, with its wonderful elas- ticity and pulley-grip, is ideal. It resists conditions of exposure, heat, steam, chemical fumes that cause most belts to disintegrate. It is a fine example of the benefit of Standardization applied in belt making. Write for book on Standardization. THE GRATON & KNIGHT MANUFACTURING CO., Worcester, Mass.,U.S.A. Oak Leather Tanners, Makers of Leather Belting, Lace Leather, Packings and Specialties Branches and Distributors in al' Principal Cities GRATON & KNIGHT Standardized Series LEATHER BELTING Tanned by us for belting use ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—it identifies you.’’ THE PRESIDENT VISITS THE FLAcsHIP: His Fuac Fiixs at tHe Bow oF THE BarcE Flags of the World By Commander BYRON McCANDLESS and GILBERT GROSVENOR HANDSOMELY BOUND VOLUME of I50 pages, containing 1,200 flags in their’ full colors, 300 i illustrations in black and white, the complete insignia of the uniformed forées of the ee United States, the international flags i in use on land and sea, together with an epitomized history of each flag, and an authoritative history of the “Star Spangled Banner.” In this book there are published for the first time the flags of each of the forty-eight United States in full colors and with complete descriptions based on original research and approved by the State officials. The Federal Government put all of its resources at the command of the National Geographic Society in order to insure the correct reproduction of every military and naval flag in its proper design and coloring. ‘The same cooperation was given by the Embassies and Legations of all the friendly countries represented. | No complete collection of Pan American flags hitherto published has been correct, and the same is true of | «Asiatic flags. This flag book is as authoritative as an official report, as deliontral as fine fiction, and as beautifully illustrated as a gem of the printing art can be. Bound in stiff royal buckram, it is being lees in thousands of home libraries and is a gift par excellence. Our military and naval forces find ‘“‘Flags of the World”, extremely useful, containing, as it does, the “| most complete and recent information on the important subject of flags and signals. Every soldier and ‘sailor is glad to have one of these books, and to make them most suitable for this purpose a special edition thas been printed on water-proof paper and bound ina FLEXIBLE KHAKI cover, which will stand the wear and tear of every-day use in the field or on board ship. ‘This is a gift your boy in his country’s service wiil appreciate. : — CUT ON THIS LINE ~ Dept. H, National Geographic Society, — 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. ee oe Please send___——Ss—CSFsSCSFssSN copies of *‘ FLAGS OF THE WORLD,” bound in for which I enclose herewith Soars. If several copies are desired. write names and ad- Name dresses and send with your card. Street Address Bound in Royal Buckram (Stiff Covers) or Military Khaki ( Flexible Covers), postpaid, $2.00 City and State 9-18 ‘—and use this powder for your tender, bleeding gums” Only dentists understand the real dangers of neglect in caring immediately and prop- erly for spongy, tender, bleeding or re- ceding gums—warning signals of pyorrhea. Pyorrhea attacks and destroys the gum tissues and bony sockets which hold the teeth in place. Mastication becomes pain- ful; the gums ache and bleed; teeth loosen and eventually fall out; the general healt! is affected by the bacteria developed under pyorrhetic conditions. Pyorrhocide Powder is the preparation most widely prescribed by dentists to prevent pyorrhea and to aid in restoring affected gums to a normally healthy condition. As a part of the Dentinol and Pyorrhocide Method, Pyorrhocide Powder has demon- strated its value in maintaining gum vitality and in correcting all unhealthy conditions which lead to pyorrhea. The Dentinol and Pyorrhocide Method originated in the Pyorrhocide Clinic, New York, ten years ago. A staff of scientific investigators and dental specialists devoted many years to studying the causes and effects of pyorrhea and how it could be prevented and treated successfully. Dentinol, to be applied by the dentist, and Pyorrhocide Powder, to be used at home, were developed. Since 1908 dentists from all parts of the world have been instructed in the applica- tion of the method. It is being used suc- cessfully by thousands of dentists. Pyorrhocide Powder’s effectiveness is due to the presence of Dentinol in combination with other healing ingredients. Used twice daily, Pyorrhocide Powder acts quickly and surely. It relieves tenderness; heals bleed- ing gums. Spongy gums are made hard and firm. Their power of resistance against pyorrhea infection is increased. Pyorrhocide Powder retards tartar forma- tion. It cleans and polishes the teeth. Tooth, gum and mouth health can be maintained only by co-operating with a dentist and by the regular use, twice daily, of a medium like Pyorrhocide Powder compounded to meet the requirements proved essential by years of scientific research and clinical experience. Pyorrhocide Powder is economical because a dollar package contains six months’ supply. For sale by all dental supply houses and good drug _ stores. THE DENTINOL & PYORRHOCIDE COMPANY, Inc. 1478 BROADWAY, NEW YORK CITY Sold for years exclu- sively upon the recom- mendation of the dental profession. Effective not only in the treatment of pyorrhea but also in its prevention, when used regularly as a dentifrice. ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ YORRHOC POWDER Send for Free Sample and Booklet Upon request we will send you a sample of Pyorrhocide Powder, together with our edu- cational booklet on the causes, effects, © treat- ment and prevention of pyorrhea. Inflamed gums—a cause [ | ue OF Loose teeth || YORRHEA is un- | doubtedly a vital danger to both gums and teeth. Tender gums indicate it, and | with it come loosening teeth. | Imperceptibly at first, the | gums recede fromthe normal | gum line. They inflame. | They present many tiny openings for millions of bac- | teriato attack the unenameled | tooth base. Tooth-base de- | cay quickly follows. Even if | the cavity be filled and the tooth saved, the gums con- | tinue to recede. Remember, too, that inflamed and bleed- : ing gums act as SO many | doorways for disease germs © to enter the system—infect- ing joints ortonsils—or caus- ing other ailments. Shelltex Rimmed Against this Pyorrhea (Riggs Disease) ordinary tooth pastes are powerless, Yet Pyorrhea attacks four out of five people who are over forty, and many under this age. But Forhan’s—if used in time and used con- sistently—positively pre- vents Pyorrhea. Itisa scientific tooth cleanser as well. Brush yourteeth with it. See how promptly bleeding or gum tenderness ceases and how your teeth are kept white, clean, and free from tartar. EYEGLASSES AND SPECTACLES For Outdoors, Too OU can’t “keep your eye on the ball”. if you're conscious of your glasses. Shelltex Shur- ons stay on comfortably, and are as good-looking as they are serviceable. If gum-shrinkage has al- ready set in, start using Forhan’s and consult a dentist immediately for special treatment. It will pay you to insist on the genuine, which always bear the name Shur-on or Shelltex in the bridge. The cost no more. 30c and 60c tubes. : All Drugzgists. E. KIRSTEIN SONS CO. 249 Andrew St., Rochester, N.Y. FORHAN CO., Mak immed and rimless Shur- pleat RR IEE a Edablished 7864. 214 6th Ave. N.Y, Send for Trial Tube Free. It takes labor and material to produce the articles you buy. wan SAVINGS Sthlirs When you buy articles you do not need, there is that much ISSUED BY THE UNITED STATES | less labor and material to produce the articles needed for our fighting forces; there is not enough for both. | By saving food, fuel, and all other things not required to maintain your health and efficiency, you release labor and material for the use of the Government. If you want to win this war—SAVE—and lend your money to the Government by buying War Savings Stamps. Every $4.22 invested in November, 1918, gives you $5.00 WARSAVINGS STAMPS | on January l > I 925. ISSUED BY THE UNITED STATES Buy more War Savings Stamps now! ITED sree | THIS SPACE CONTRIBUTED BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY USAmyorNey DENBY Red Cross, Y. M.C. A., MOTOR TRUCKS and Allied Organizations Letters of Credit are the safest and most convenient medium for carrying funds. THE tasks of war and peace alike find During the war we are issuing such Credits, free of commission, to officers and men in the U. S. Army and Navy, and to those engaged in Red Cross, Y. M. C. A., and allied organization work. the same efficient We have also sent our American representative to France for the convenience of our friends, with headquarters at the office of the Credit Commercial de France, 20 Rue Lafayette, Paris. BROWN BROTHERS & CO. performance in the Denby. Denby Motor Truck Philadelphia NEW YORK Boston Company BROWN ; SHIP LEY & COMPANY Detroit, Michigan Founders Court, Lothbury Office for Travelers LONDON, E. C. 123 Pall Mall, LONDON, S. W. E ° , Envelope and Stamp Moistener aecore : practical gift ate its a? S a | t M a Cc k e r e | welght in gold. is Sfamp an nvelope CODFISH, FRESH LOBSTER Moistener is useful, handy and sanitary — FOR THE NOT THE always ready to do what you should not do. 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Davis Co., 43 Central Wf., Gloucester, Mass. ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ RAINS rush through space, ships nai the seas, people ne work and plese and the tick of a timepiece guides them all. How necessary to the smooth-running schedules of efficiency that the watch should be accurate. How easy for you to secure, when buying a watch, the world’s master timekeeper —a Waltham. By merit only did Waltham win tributes from the nations of five continents. Horological experts se- lect official watches without fear or favor. Calmly and scientifically they test and compare, looking through the surface of a watch into its works, It is there they find their answer. But they discovered at Waltham they : true ideal of what a perfect timepiece’ should be—a watch that outclassed in precision and reliability even the finest offerings of Switzerland, England or France. And with their verdict “the world’s time became Waltham time.” Patent for Pendant and Bow applied for Visit a jeweler whose name stands for the utmost in quality. That is the man you desire to patronize, because you can depend on the value of any article he recommends. Ask him to place in your hand for inspection the Waltham Colonial A, illustrated on this page. Here is a watch as precise as it is rich in the simple beauty of its refinement — extremely thin at no sacrifice of accuracy. Maximus movement 21 jcwels — River- side movement 19 jewels —Colonial A is an example of those methods of manu- facture that have brought the world to Waltham for time. ff ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Painted by Edw V. Brewer for Cream of Wheat Ca, PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC WASHINGTON, D. C. Copyright 1918 by Cream of Wheat Co. cosine ‘Bright Brigade” to do your ed than Soap Price | Unchanged Large Can 10¢ | =| ll Pi m THENATIONAL * GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE OCTOBER, 1918 Yt Y) out vaalinall —aalll CONTENTS Russia’s Orphan Races AQ Ff ge With 27 Illustrations MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS N ryt! What the War Has Done for Britain With 13 Illustrations JUDSON C. WELLIVER x Amey How Canada Went to the Front With 6 Illustrations T. B. MACAULAY The Healer of Humanity’s Wounds - With 16 Illustrations } finned hearth g n@ Y, it ih) An Old Jewel in the Proper Setting With 14 Illustrations — CHARLES W. WHITEHAIR PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. MDaftrrt ad ted be ‘on CAL etn hime NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN 3 ‘ A PRESIDENT GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, DIRECTOR AND EDITOR JOHN E. PILLSBURY ‘ bs VICE-PRESIDENT JOHN JOY EDSON . 5 3 TREASURER GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY JOHN OLIVER LAGORCE . O2-Ps AUSTIN’ (7%. ° 1916-1918 LANE Secretary of the Interior FRANKLIN K. Wuintttam Howarp Jarr Formerly President of the United States C. M. CHeEs ter Rear Admiral U. S.. Navy, Formerly Supt. Oe De Naval Observatory FREDERICK V. CovILiE Formerly President of Wash- ington Academy of Sci- ences Joun FE. Pinispury Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation RupotpH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor ing Star The Even- T. L. MacponaLp MES TESA E Gass; S. N. D. Nort Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census ASSOCIATE EDITOR SECRETARY BOARD OF MANAGERS © 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. Howarp Gore Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’l Army Gitsert H. GrosvENoR Editor of National graphic Magazine Geo- Grorce Oris SmitH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. Tirrmann Formerly Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Henry WHITE Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. JoHN M. WiLson Brigadier General U.S. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER . RALPH A. GRAVES... ASSISTANT EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR 1918-1920 Cuar.es J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company JoHN Joy Epson Chairman of the Board, Washington Loan & Trust Company Davin FarrcHiLtp In Charge of Agricultura! Explorations, Department of Agriculture C. Hart Merriam Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. AvustTIN Statistician Georce R. Putnam Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GeorGE SuHIRAS, 3D Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Nese and Wild-Game Photogra- pher GRANT SQUIRES New York To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. “the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,” All receipts from the publication the National are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. of the Society, or other friends, are desired. use, adequate remuneration is made. Articles or photographs from members For material that the Society can Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage. and be addressed: GILBERT H. GROSVENOR. EDITOR A. W. GREELY C. Harr Merriam O. H. Tirrwann Rosert Ho.wiister CHAPMAN Water T. SwINcte . Copyright, 1918, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Sec. 1918. CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ALEXANDER GRattAM BELL Davip FarrcHiILp Hucu M. Smiru October 3, 1917, authorized July 1, N. H. Darton Frank M. CyHapman C. All rights reserved. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter. 1103, Act of A LOCOMOBILE chassis equipped with special body individually designed and made to order. It seats four, is very low built, and has a double cowl and two windshields. Custom designs copyrighted by The Locomobile Company of America, Bridgeport, Conn. Orders will be accepted for After the War Delivery O do honor to our martial heroes the memorial should be hewn from the Rock Everlasting, of the Vermont hills, the firm old Barre Granite. Stron3’ and sound clear through; capable of taking, on the highest polish or stand- ing, erect in rough and rugged outline, this famous stone UNITED STATES is typical of America’s best and bravest. This monument, a single stone of Barre Granite, is a magnificent specimen of that famous rock which, in costly mausoleum or smallest marker, is equally suitable, su- preme in the beauty which endures. To anticipate the need is to relieve your family of concern at a time when they can least bear it. The Rockefeller, Fleischmann, Heinz, Schley, Armour, Anheuser, Tarkin3- ton, Potter Palmer, Leland Stanford and thousands of other famous memorials are made from Barre Granite. The above monument ; A i : “6 of Major Orlando Jay Write for copy of “Memorial Masterpieces Smith, in Sleepy Hol- = BARRE, QUARRIERS & MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION Tarrytown, N. Y. Dept.B, Barre, Vermont ‘ DRIVERS DIRECTING I2 OXEN DRAWING A PLOW The same boy may be seen in the illustration on the preceding page. He rides on the voke of one of his team. But the present outlook promises a better sequel. The Armenians, who more than any other people have suffered from the Osmanli branch of the Turanian race, are still holding out in the Erivan plain and the hill city of Shusha. The British, whose empire might suffer most from Pan-Turanian’ success, have trekked 700 hard miles from Bagdad and landed a party at Baku, the Pan-Tura- mian hub. Here lives Ahmed Aghaeff, Baku Tatar and chief exponent of Pan- Turanianism, principal in the Pan-Tura- nian conference in Constantinople four years ago, and editor of the widely spread ATA Turk Yurdu, whose aim is to awaken among a score of widely separated peo- ples a sense of their common tie. What the landing and presence of even a small number of British at Baku means, only one who understands the racial com- plexity and opportunist psychology of Transcaucasia can realize (see also page 275). BOHEMIANS IN THE VOLGA’ VALLEY The brave’ Bohemians, the: most-dis- cussed people of this year, who centuries ago helped repulse the Tatar hordes from the gates of Vienna, now hold the heart of the Volga Valley, with the’ capital: of ZEYACYIPELA 0} (JoaAgpess saoqe jyooz O0g‘Z) sseg TAO}SOIST YSNOIY] SIP], WOT; SuTUUNI “Y}SUI] UT SopIUl OFT UeY} 9IOUT SI ‘PfAOAM dy} Ul SpeOd UleJUNOUT [NFYNeVdq JsOU oY} FO 9UO ‘AEMYSIY JeIIS SIYT, MIVLL IHL NO IdOM GUVMOL S$Vd IAOLSHUM FHL WOYT LNXOSId AHL :dvOU AYVLITIN NVIONOXD AHL NO SWRITTIM *O “IW Aq ydessojoyg WE NS XK SS AES 248 THE NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 249 the Kazan Tatars and. Bulgari, the ruined city where fifteen centuries ago the Bul- garians nad their seat. Of all the varied peoples who inhabit that rabbit warren of humanity, the Cau- casus, the Georgians are most interesting. With the Armenians, they form an im- portant outpost against Turanian dan- gers. The great mountains that sheltered Shamyl and many another patriot have shut off the various tribes and races in secluded valleys, where they have re- tained their peculiar customs. Thus the mountains of Daghestan have kept that recluse among nations “an island in a sea of history.” 7 But Georgia has been more or less for- tunate, for the same pass that is now used by the wonderful Georgian Military Road, with its matchless views, has been the pathway for innumerable historic movements, and the valley which is now followed by the railway from Batum to Baku has been the caravan route of countless traders. WHERE GEORGIA WAS BORN A few miles south of the snow ridge of the Caucasus, there is a wretched little village whose fame should be world-wide. Mtzkhet has claims to antiquity that make New England towns appear as embryos, for its citizens assert that it was founded by one of Noah’s sons, who strolled over rom, Mount Ararat’ one day after the waters had subsided and chose this site because of its excellent drainage. Beneath its terraced homes two rivers unite: the clear, cold Aragwa, hastening from its birthplace in the eternal snows of the Caucasus to the hot depression of the Caspian, and the Kura, sullied and _ dirty, swinging in from the west to make its way down the Tiflis depression and across the barren Transcaucasian steppe, between the mountains of Daghestan and the highlands of Armenia. Damascus has a verdant freshness about it that is as deceptive as grease paint, but Mtzkhet stands out from green fields and pastures new like a weathered, sharp-bowed fishing smack in an emerald sea. On a rock cliff opposite this quiet city with the cat-fight name the kings of Geor- gia erected their first castle, but it was in ool -Mtzkhet itself that Georgia was ‘born. The Georgians admit their descent from the Accadians and Sumerians, but there is nothing in their appearance or person- ality to indicate their descent from any- thing. They seem to have ascended from the plane of other men. Militant of appearance, handsome of countenance, chivalrous, and unfamiliar with hard toil, these lovers of wine, women, and song are as princely in bear- ing as the unwashed Bedouin before his desert tent. Part of them are mountain- eers—the most picturesque brigands that ever carried an arsenal at their belts. The rest are agricultural people, whose contact with the soil does not prevent them from holding their chests up hke soldiers in uniform. The Georgian women conquered the Turkish rulers by the palace route, but the Georgian men are handsomer than their wives, and in Georgia the male wears the fine plumage. But he treats his wife and daughters well and never allows them to act as servants. There is so much strength in the Geor- gian face that the women lose their great- est charm by the time they mature. The classic nose 1s too noble to be pretty, the straight, large mouth shows determina- tion rather than a Cupid’s bow, and the fine eyes. soon dominate a face that is manly in its beauty. In the Tiflis Red Cross cafés one may see scores of Geor- gian wemen with short, curled hair who could pose as Belvedere Apollos, but never a Venus. St. Nina established a Christian church in Mtzkhet about 347 A. D., which was for many years a center for Christian culture. The Georgians assert that they were Christians before the Armenians, and vice versa; yet the princely but spendthrift Georgians and the oppressed but wealthy Armenians have been so much mixed throughout their history that there are today persons who call them- selves Georgians and who speak Geor- gian, but who attend the Armenian church, while Armenians speaking Ar- menian are often found in Georgian churches. The Georgians are good hosts and the Armenians are shrewd business men. That is why the Golovinski Prospekt in ‘SUETUOIIW ot} Rrra “Surjsosoyur }soul oat SUBISJOOL) OY} ‘SNSeoneD oy} ‘AyIUeUINY FO UolTeM yiqqet yey} Jrqeyur OYM sojdood polzea sy} {je JO,, WITT WAM V 1090 AMA SNVIOYOUD WIANIVINOOW YSHHL HOIHM WOuT SATHIA GANIIONI HOAW JO dNOYD V VOT VAINAD AHL IWWLAOWAD SWRITITAA "O “WW Aq ydessoj0yg e) ite) N ES < * cS S THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Tiflis, one of the proudest avenues in the world, is owned by Armenians and brightened by the presence of the Geor- gians, the handsomest young people one can find in Asia. CEORGIA’S DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE On October 14, 1917, I attended: the investiture of the Georgian Katholikos at Mtzkhet, the first in one hundred years. This was the first step this militant peo- ple, who had chafed under the burden of Tsardom, made toward independence. The affair at Mtzkhet marked their re- ligious autonomy and freedom from the assian Church. ‘On May 26, 1918, aiter the Turks took the Batum and Kars dis- tricts, thus leaving only historic Georgia to the Transcaucasian Republic, the Georgian Diet declared their independ- ence, thus virtually ending the Trans- caucasian Republic, in which Tatars had had four representatives to Georgia’s aairee: Whether Georgia can hold out against the Turks and Germans remains to be seen, but of one thing we may be sure, Georgia will never tamely submit to op- pression. She flirted with Germany’s Pan-Turanian schemes and as late as June 19, 1918, was forced to send dele- gates to Constantinople to confer with the Central Powers; but Georgia has never relished the idea of subservience and she may hold out till relief can reach her. Every train entering Mtzkhet on Octo- ber 14, 1917, was packed to the doors. Crowds of young men from Tiflis rode on the roofs in order to see the colorful drama of the rebirth of a proud nation. It was not until the procession between the tiny station and the stately church was formed that order appeared in the kaleidoscopic scene. AVPLCLTURESOUEL PROCESSION At the head of the line was a hand- some Georgian, bearing aloft a blue silk banner inscribed in silver with Georgian characters and surmounted by a silver disc which bore the picture of some great saint. He was dressed in soft black boots, a dark-brown tcherkeska, with its narrow waist and flowing skirts and cartridge cases across the breast, and wore the small Georgian skull cap; but as 251 necessary as his dress were the sword and dagger and, strange anachronism, an au- tomatic pistol in a brand-new russet case at his hip. Death-dealing weapons are still articles of ordinary dress in Georgia. The color-bearer was flanked by two swordsmen in wine-colored plush doub- lets edged in soft fur, scarlet trousers, soft white-leather boots with gold tassels, and anklets of soft white leather with: narrow stripes of red leather trimming. Behind them came thirty or more male singers, gaily dressed and followed by a band of young women wearing Mar- guerite braids which reached below the knees. Over their close-fitting bodices of figured silk in soft tints of gray and blue they wore flowing velvet cloaks of deli- cate blue edged in fur. Their skirts, of queenly length, were paneled in the same soft tinted material as composed their bodices and their soft boots were hidden: except for the shapely toes. Then came a huge motor-car, crawling along with all the dignity due its chief occupant, the Katholikos-to-be. Form- ing a daisy chain about this ecclesiastical chariot were forty or more young Geor- gian girls, their smooth cheeks flushed beyond their usual fine color by the ex- citement. Most were dressed in simple white, against which their raven hair and rosy cheeks showed lively contrast, but a few wore tailored suits and small hats in the latest European style. OBSERVERS OF :- THREE HODY DAYS EACH WEEK Behind these lovely ladies came gaunt Khevsurs, wearing chain coats of mail and chain helmets. Their straight swords were double-edged and each carried a small shield decorated with appliqué fig- ures. Their small, wiry horses sniffed restively at the fumes of the motor-cars, resenting more than did their ruddy- haired masters this anachronism of eight centuries gap. The Khevsurs wear the cross on their clothing and are the champion religion- ists of the world, for they observe the Christian Sabbath, the Jewish Saturday, and the Mohammedan Friday, and their religion is a strange mixture of all three beliefs with paganism. An early French traveler started the story that they were A GROUP OF THE FAMOUS GEORGIAN WOMEN The woman in the center has her hands full of a peculiar candy made by stringing wal- nut meats and covering them with a gelatinous substance formed by boiling down grape juice Photographs by M. O. Williams SOME GEORGIAN BOYS ALONG THE GEORGIAN MILITARY ROAD NEAR KASBEK Part of the Georgians are picturesque brigands; the rest are agricultural people who have lost none of their pride of race as a result of their contact with the soil THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE De descendants of some Frankish Crusaders who fell in love with Georgian womanhood and forgot the Holy Grail in the midst of Georgian loveliness ; but a matter-of-fact and very erudite Geor- gian scholar in Tiflis spoiled that story. Inside the church, erected on the spot where the unseamed vesture of the Christ was found, after hav- me been brought hither from Golgotha ya jew, there *lie buried many of the proud but ill-fated line of Georgian kings, the last of whom, George XIII, ceded his terri- tory to Russia in 1801 and died ‘that year; ‘broken-hearted, a true ruler, who could not conquer and therefore faced the only alter- native—death. Sixteen centuries have passed since the first Christian church was erected on that eme- yet in the ne- cropolis beyond there are remains of broad- headed men of the Iron Age, compared with whom Heraclius, Oueen Tamara, the Guramides, and the Pharnavasians are unromantic moderns. They could tell of times before Prome- theus was bound to the heights of Kasbek and Jason came hither in search of the Golden Fleece. Mtzkhet is ancient, but it is only a way station on the great high- way of history across the mountain bar- rier which bridges the land-masses of Europe and Asia. Georgia’s relations with Russia should have a peculiar interest for Americans, for the King of Kakhetia sought the pro- tection of Ivan III the year Columbus discovered America, and our Pilgrim OO Photograph by M. O. Williams A GEORGIAN MOUNTAIN GIRL OF GERGETI ON THE SLOPES OF KASBEK There is so much strength in the Georgian face that the women lose their greatest charm by the time they mature. is too noble to be pretty; the straight, large mouth shows determina- tion rather than a Cupid’s bow. The classic nose Fathers were about to embark for the rock-bound coast when Georgia, harried by Persia, appealed to Michael, the first of the Romanoffs, for protection. While our first Federalists were drafting our Constitution, Heraclius II declared him- self a.vassal to Russia. =Last October, Georgia planned to be one of a group of autonomous States that would be the nucleus for a federated Russia. WOMAN SUFFRAGE IN THE CAUCASUS “T divorce you three times!” The silk- clothed Tatar with his well-trimmed THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by M. O. Williams TWO TEKKE TURKOMANS ON THE STEPS OF THE MILITARY MUSEUM AT GEOK TEPE The Russians insult the Turkomans with pictures of the Russian victory and Tekke cowardice, but there is about as much cowardice in a Turkoman as there is milk in a milk- snake. beard evidently meant it, and the veiled figure opposite him should have quailed before the idea of widowhood. But she didn’t. That was one of the incidents I saw 1n connection with the election of the Transcaucasian Government in Tiflis on the day that ill-starred little republic was born. One of the wives of a prominent Tatar had voted a different ticket from the one her husband had advised, and, womanlike, once the ballot was safely and secretly deposited, told her husband about it. Such are some of the primer steps toward modernism in Georgia. High over the city circled an aéro- plane, with its clatter drawing the atten- tion of the people. The day was clear and bright and the streets crowded. Thousands gazed aloft to watch the move- ments of the machine. It crossed the Kura, which divides the shoestring city along its banks, passed over the Golovin- One of these fighting men wears the Georgian Cross (see page 259). ski Prospekt,. and tured toward ats hangar to the east. Then suddenly there fell from the plane a dazzling shower of huge snowflakes, which grew and grew, volplaning and whirling until a few reached the out- stretched hands of the people below. The Bolshevik occupants were bombing the election crowds with Bolshevik literature. Electioneering in Tiflis was not without its picturesque side. In the theaters on the night before, the lights had scarcely flashed on after the first act when from a dozen places in the top gallery showers of flyers were dropped onto the heads and laps of the gaily dressed throng. Through the day auto- mobiles, with their exhausts roaring and decorated with the numbers of the differ- ent political parties, dashed through the fine streets, campaigning for votes. Posters were pasted to almost every- THE .NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE PA SY) Photograph by M. O. Williams TEKKE TURKOMANS AND RUSSIANS ON THE TRANS-CASPIAN RAILWAY “The Tekke Turkomans are huge, fine-looking men, who wear sheepskin hats a foot high. They owe as much of their charm to their fantastic headgear as does a stage beauty. thing within reach, and in some cases the poster of one party had been covered by the poster of another. Plate-glass win- dows on finer shops than most American cities boast had been daubed with paste and plastered with posters, and few in- deed were the shop-keepers who cared to scrub off these disfiguring sheets before the election was finished. Crude num- bers indicating the various parties were scrawled here and there, reminding me very much of college days when the Freshies painted “1911” on every avail- able spot and the Sophs changed the last figure to a zero to show that the class of I910 was still on the map. SIXTEEN POLITICAL PARTIES IN. CITY CONTEST The election in Tiflis was hardest on street-cleaners and most profitable to printers, for every party seemed deter- mined to surpass every other party in the number of flyers they could scatter on the streets and in all public places. For months to come the buyer of small no- tions in Tiflis will carry home his goods ina slip of paper naming political candi- dates. One of the sixteen parties in avcity where 100,000 votes were cast printed 2,000,000 flyers. Some of the parties published booklets explaining their position, and party plat- forms fell on the people from all sides. When a people to whom the ballot is new undertakes to choose from among sixteen parties, it takes a judicial mind. But most of the people seemed to have de- cided in advance what ticket they would vote, for I found no one who could give me the names of all the parties repre- sented by the sixteen numbers. Number 1, the Minshevik branch of the Social Democratic party, polled nearly a third of the votes cast. The Armenian Federalist party came second with two- thirds as many. They were followed closely by the Bolsheviki, most of whose A TEKKE TURKOMAN AT GEOK TEPE, THE SCENE OF SKOBELEFF’S VICTORY OVER THE TURKOMANS votes were cast by Russian soldiers still stationed in Tiflis. ‘They were the ones who utilized the aéroplane as an election- eering factor months before it was pro- posed to distribute propaganda in this manner behind the German lines. After the Bolsheviks came the Party of Popular Freedom, and next came the Cadets. The Zionist party polled 781 votes and a party called the Moslem Union of Russia, represented by number 14, did not get a single vote. Number 13 ran a close second for consolation honors with a solitary ballot. Men and women voted together, rode in the same electioneering automobiles, distributed flyers together, and in general Photograph by M. O. Williams THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE showed an absolute equality of oppor- tunity and willingness to make use of it. The voting was heavy, amounting to one vote for every five inhabitants of) Wifis: In spite of the heavy vote, there was little excitement during the three days of election. There was talk of intimidation by the soldiers, but I could detect no evi- dence of it. Soldiers were prominent in the air-warming oratory in front of the voting places, but those I saw seemed content to listen to their own eloquence without using more forceful measures. Out of eighteen thousand Bolshevik votes, the Russian soldiers cast twelve thousand. Prisoners were allowed to vote, and 246 out of 250 voted the Bol- shevik ticket. THE SIZE. AND -EXTENT O8® 7 Ui silAay, Our doorway to Turkestan was Kra- snovodsk, a mediocre city consisting of a railway station, two churches, several wharves, and other small things too nu- merous to mention, but not too insignifi- cant to make their presence felt. It has spread itself out at the base of some tawny hills very much like the African hills along the Red Sea and basks in the desert sun with a supreme disregard for its own slovenliness. Not only is the rail- way station the main architectural feature of the town; its sentimental value is only equaled by that of the several wharves. Some say that history emigrated from Turkestan. If it ever yenignated” from Ikrasnovodsk, it simply obeyed the com- mon impulse. Turkestan begins in the west by being a land of desert, dust, and dreariness and ends in the east in lovely and fertile Ferghana. Its inhabitants insist that in spring there are green spots here and there, but in few places is there enough rain to give an annual house-cleaning to the dusty trees and shrubs. Turkestan, including the Khanate of Khiva and the Emirate of Bokhara, both of which now claim independence, is three times as large as Texas, yet it was almost lost in the Tsar’s domains. It has as many people as New York and Massa- chusetts combined and there are as few Russians as there are native-born Amer- icans on Manhattan Isle. Its two largest rivers empty into a sea about the size of Photograph by M. O. Williams A BOKHARA KHAN LOOKING IN FROM THE DARK PASSAGE THAT LEADS TO THE COVERED BAZAAR: GREAT WEALTH IS SOMETIMES CONTAINED HERE Like many another ancient city, Bokhara does not owe its permanence to brick or marble. A good rain would wash away its crumbling walls and mud houses. It is being continually patched and rebuilt, never completely old and never wholly new. Photograph by M. O. Williams VISITS BOKTARA RT i E DES I A SON OF T ft the dealers cheat, the Mullahs s broke ere he gets away to the desert ’ c 5 ) +H Le) cB) s ) se) oO ala) (eo) Y (D) HH 5 op) Res os <= bp Sess Se EO per @r a Po ne Ee On Ore. == SS Sy af a “When the nom 258 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 259 Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massa- chusetts, and do their best to keep it from drying up into a salt pile; but they are slowly losing the battle. The first point of interest along the railway is the Akhal Oasis, which can easily be distinguished in spring, but re- sembles the desert in late fall and winter. It is the largest oasis in Turkestan, 160 miles long and 10 miles wide. Here dwell the Tekke Turkomans—huge, fine- looking men, who wear sheepskin hats a foot high. The Turkomans owe as much of their charm to their fantastic head- gear as does a stage beauty. When they remove them and reveal the shaved heads and gaudy embroidered skull caps be- neath, they seem commonplace; yet there are many of the older men whose majesty of bearing is not a matter of costume alone. Their red cotton khalats give them a princely stateliness which the trousered and booted Russian with his shirt flopping lacks. AMERICA’S LOVE FOR RUGS CHANGES AN ORIENTAL PEOPLE If some one asserted that the American love for Oriental rugs had changed the marriage customs of a nomadic people, had brought forth on this globe a com- paratively homely race of human beings, and had built up a complex system of morals in the heart of Asia, it would seem like a sensational story. Yet that statement seems well founded, and love for beauty in America has re- acted on the facial features of a princely race in Turkestan with deplorable result. Truly it is a small world when an artistic recluse in a New York studio fathers a homely son in a distant desert. Yet the rising generation of Turkomans are dis- tinctly homelier than their princely sires. And the conquest of their domain by Russia does not entirely explain it. The Tekkintzi rug, more commonly known by the less distinctive name of Bokhara, is the loveliest product of the desert loom. Its charm lies not in in- tricacy of design, manifold detail, or sym- bolic meaning. It is not a picture in wool. Brilliancy of coloring it does not have. But in richness of tone the Tekkintzi wins its rightful place as queen of rugs. Its symphony of soft and sober color has its major and minor chords. From one direction it is dark and quiet and soft. But as the light strikes down into its velvety nap, it shines with a light over- tone and reveals a sheen like that of silk, such as can come only from years of con- tact with the flexible, high-arched feet of the desert mother or the heel-less boots of her, master: Years of care in selecting the long- fibered, spotless wool, in dyeing it in reds from Bokhara, blues from Afghanistan. or blacks from Merv, with a touch of orange or yellow now and then, and in weaving it beneath the hot sun of the dry desert, give the Tekkintzi a character which more hurried methods cannot give. It reveals no trace of foreign accent, for its language of lasting beauty is bred in the blood. When one sees how well the erect Turkoman, with his stalking camel or his loping horse, fits the desert vastness he wonders why the Russians were able to humble him as they did. God gave him life and boundless pastures for his flocks, and while he sat in solemn council or rode the boundless plain, with a wob- ble-kneed colt at the heels of his light- foot mare, his wife wove rugs and found in them expression for the artistic in her nature and its desire to make itself known. Then came the Russian glacier, creep- ing down toward India, and the fearless nomad was cruelly beaten in his own field by the well-armed fighters of an agri- cultural: race. ~ The locomotive ‘came to shriek derision at his train of stalking camels, and a band of shining steel cut its burning way across his trackless desert. Then the trade in rugs, which had be- gun as a matter of art and individual choice, became a commercial transaction. As the pastures became smaller, irrigated plots made it possible for the nomad to become agriculturalist, and the dweller of the yurteh began to buy with the prod- uct of his wife’s labor the frames for his felt hut, instead of making them himself from the reeds of the marshes. The old roaming life was gone and. mud huts, plain and square, began to grow up from the desert plain, usually centering about a homely station building. Not flocks but rugs became the source of income. 260 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pees Photograph by M. O. Williams IN THE BAZAAR AT .MERV The legend and history of Merv date back many, many centuries before the Zoroastrian Books of Wisdom told of the haven that prehistoric man sought and found in the great oasis which bears the name of the present town. For centuries, possibly extending back to the Iranian peoples whom Alexander found here on his way to India, the Tekke maiden had been taught to dye and weave. When she was married to her Mohammedan husband, the young bride took with her to her master’s hut the rugs her patient toil had formed, and he in turn paid a corresponding price to her parents. Her dowry was her skill and its product. She was a menial, but with the soul of an artist. Her toil was long, but it was not drudgery. She was not a slave, for her work demanded the inspi- ration of a soul, and she had an enviable position compared with that of many of her Oriental sisters in polygamy. Gradually these masterpieces in ma- hogany, deep chocolate, terra-cotta, old rose, burnt orange and black found their way to America, where their appeal was irresistible. Buyers raced one another across Europe into the Transcaspian home of history to secure the priceless THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 261 Phe cera by M. O. Williams YEARS OF CARE ARE REPRESENTED IN EACH OF BOKHARA’S RUGS Around the Merv Bazaar are small sheds to which the wholesale buyers remove their wares and store them or display them to those who were not lucky enough to see them first treasures of a conquered race. The skill of the Tekke woman began to win its re- meard: Eler-genius had caused the art world to wear a path to her hut and her open-air loom. But there was the un- happy side. THE TURKOMAN TAKES AN INFERIOR WIFE Only the rich young Turkomans could afford to buy a wife at the exorbitant price her skill made possible. Parents raised the price of their daughters, con- soling themselves with the fact that if they could not produce offspring they could at least produce valuable rugs. The age of marriage became higher. Caught in the trap which skillful women had woven, the young men revolted from the exaggerated demands of the avart- cious and unromantic parents and sought cheaper wives elsewhere, while Tekke women, robbed of love and enmeshed in their own skeins of fine wool, dragged out busy lives of hated spinsterhood. 262 STRIKING A BARGAIN AT THE NATIONAL CROGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by M. O. Williams MERV The buyer and seller grasp hands to feel out the opponent, and when they seem to be in deadlock a third man steps in to arbitrate. the money between the palms. The Turkoman was a fine, erect man, whose real height was accentuated by a massive, shaggy sheepskin shako till he seemed a veritable giant. To the princely bearing of the Bedouin he added the mili- tant charm of the drum-major. His fine features were cruel but handsome. His nose was straight, his chin strong, and his face oval. He was handsome and he knew it. With American methods he could have won the hand of any wife he chose. But he was forced by custom to If it is a go, they shake hands once more with follow the method of barter and his purse was as thin as his lips. Among the Persians, Kirghizes, and Sarts this militant Romeo bought wives for a tenth what a Turkoman woman would cost. But he had to pay the price in the irregular features and smaller bodies of his offspring. Commerce robbed him of his proper mate and put in her place an inferior woman who bore home- liness instead of beauty. Rugs fought with humans and defeated them. But the Photograph by M. O. Walliams A JEWEL OF THE HAND LOOM When a small dealer in Merv wants to sell a rug he drops it over his shoulder thus and a unconcerned; that gives the impression that the rug has merits that need no salesman- ip. 263 FO FOfOO afqearaouod AjaAe Sururezuos jod-sJaMoy pnw e si ereyyYO™ “awo1youoU & PadtopisuOd st auIN}sod [eu eIeYYO™ o[Suls e ur s10joo xIg VIVHMOd :dVUV YIN AHL AWOAAA GULVAS AYANIA MOANIVU YAHL NI GUAVUAV SLNAGALS IVOIDOIOAHL q 4q ydersojoyg SSN Sx S S S BY EQN THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE: demand for rugs, like the demand for wives, brought its own unhappy sequel. THE RUG-WEAVING ART FINALLY COM MERCIALIZED The supply of fine old rugs was insufh- cient and new ones had to be made more quickly. Women who had not learned the complex processes of manufacture began to produce rugs for the brisk mar- fet. Persian, Sartian, and Kuirghize women began to set up frames and turn out a product that showed their lack of artistic taste. Aniline dyes became com- mon, and coal-tar yielded colors so hide- ous that artificial aging methods had to be resorted to. The market in a depre- ciated product began to decline. The young men not only could not af- ford a Turkoman wife; even the Sart and Kirghize women became a burden The rather than a source of income. _Turkoman, whose religion is lax and whose ideas of social intercourse are the same, became the first nominal Moham- medan to forsake polygamy for indis- criminate prostitution; and in Bairam Ali today there exist great buildings de- voted to this shame produced by the com- mercialization of art. Nineteen seventeen was a bad year in Turkestan. The Russian Government had encouraged the growing of cotton for its Moscow factories instead of food, and with the disorganization of the railways by Bolshevik troubles and the long drought, both in the Afghan Mountains and in lurkéstan, food became scarce and dear. Hunger forced priceless rugs into the market, and when I visited the rug market at Merv there were thousands of specimens, where the autumn before there had been dozens. Many of them are the best quality that Nas been seen for a decade. When the well-to-do American secures one of these art treasures from the cradle of civiliza- tion, he has a product whose value in- creases with every year, unless he mars with heeled shoes an art study in wool which was not intended for such use. But it is a small world nowadays, and back of many a rug that will find its way fe :America after the war is a desert woman robbed of her mate by the skill of her hands and the avarice of her parents ; 265 a homely little son of a handsome father and a bought woman from another race; and a great brick brothel in Old Merv, rising beside the ruins of ancient cities that reach back to the time of the Per- sians, the Uzbegs, the Mongols, the Arabs, the Nestorians, and the Seleucid, and beyond into the remote ages before the Zoroastrian Books of Wisdom told of the haven that prehistoric man sought mid the shifting desert sands and found in the great oasis of Merv. THE CHARM OF BOKHARA Farther east lies the romantic mud flower-pot of Bokhara, which might be any desert city inclosed in crumbling walls and composed of mud houses which have almost no windows on the streets. A good rain would wash it away, and if left to the ravages of time this ancient city would soon sink to the level of the dust from which it was constructed. But Bokhara, like many another ancient city, does not owe its permanence to brick, marble, or reinforced concrete, and it will probably survive for a few more centu- ries, patching up here and .rebuilding there, never completely old and. never wholly new. There are some charming spots in Bokhara, but it is a city lacking in archi- tectural interest. There is a very roman- tic tower from whose top, 200 feet above the courtyard of the mosque of which it is the minaret, criminals used to be hurled headlong to their death. This high min- aret, which has all the grace and charm of a monolithic smokestack, is almost the only break in the skyline. But the people of Bokhara are absorbingly interesting and their principal charm is their dress. A solemn old Bokhara mullah wears as his flowing robe a garment whose cclors would have made Joseph in his famous polychrome coat appear to be practicing camouflage in a dust bin. An American darky chooses just such colors for his necktie and then hides it under his vest to keep the city from calling out the fire department. Six colors in a single Bokhara male costume is considered a monochrome, and the rainbow is a colorless aggregation of dull tints compared with what is consid- ered sober apparel for a Bokhara Tatar. | White GSU ZZ Photosaen Be M. O. Williams BOKHARA 'THEOLOGUES And two Turkomans who had to find some excuse for getting into the picture. No, only one is a Turkoman; the one with the close-clipped cap is an Uzbeg. 266 THe NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE 267 Photograph by M. O. Williams THREE BOKHARA THEOLOGUES IN FRONT OF MIR ARAB In Bokhara on Friday spotless white turbans are the rule, but a riot of rainbow tints is to be found in the costumes beneath that white headgear In Merv a crowd looks like a great mass of shaggy, black chrysanthemums, on ac- count of the sheepskin caps worn by the Turkomans. But in Bokhara on Friday spotless white turbans are the rule; and under those turbans purples, blues, scar- lets, yellows, pinks, and greens of myriad hues. There are blazing yellow suns on dark-red backgrounds and_ barber-pole stripes in a dozen colors. There is just one color effect that the Bokhara man has ‘not. yet learned. He does not accordion pleat his gown and make it of alternate strips of crimson and white silk, so that it ripples from white to red and back again with every step. The man who introduces that effect to the Board of Deacons of the Common Council of Bokhara Religions will surely win fame and fortune. Bokhara is a mud flower-pot contain- ing every conceivable color of flower and Ce Ree: SES Se See e Photograph by M. O. Williams THEOLOGICAL STUDENTS IN BOKHARA, SHOWING THE FINE CARVED DOOR, THE MAIN ITEM OF ARCHAJOLOGICAL AND ARTISTIC INTEREST 268 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 269 every one is a male. A Bokhara woman has no place in the color scheme, unless it be as a neutral background. She hides behind a horsehair veil four feet by two and wears a cloak of gray that conceals any fascination she may have. The pret- tier ones wear thinner veils than the grandmothers. Oriental veils will con- tinue to be considered a means of punish- ment, but as far as the man on the out- side is concerned, they are, more often than not, a kindness. MHERE - EVERY FRIDAY IS EASTER SUNDAY” ‘The Friday service in the Registan in front of the Emir’s castle is most impres- sive. From the entrance of the ark the cobbled square slopes down to the melon ells and fruit venders’ shops at the lower end, from whose shelter even a foreigner can observe the ceremony. Stretching down the incline from the wide doorway is a line of white-bearded Moslems dressed in their heaviest silks and broad silver belts, standing on such glossy, faded rugs as never reach a deal- ers hands. Fifty or sixty feet lower down there is a cross-line of other wor- shipers. ‘There in the bright sun of the market-place , forming a color picture that only an Eastern sun could harmon- ize, hundreds of men bow and kneel and rise in unison. The timing of their move- ments is perfect. One sees broad silk- clad backs and massive white turbans at one instant and white beards and erect forms the next. Larger groups of wor- shipers may be seen in Samarkand and Delhi; but nowhere will one see a finer grouping of color. Every Friday is Easter Sunday to the Bokhara Moslems, and the kindly sun of the desert softens and harmonizes the varied scene into a pleasing whole. THE BAZAARS OF BOKHARA Not only are there varieties of color, Mut Of race as well. Persians, Jews, Hindoos, and Armenians mingle with the Sarts, Uzbeks, Tajiks, and Afghans. Ta- tars and Turkomans can be seen side by side with the Mongolian Kirghizes, and even Chinese wander through the maze of covered bazaars or swing across the brilliantly lighted squares. If Bokhara resembles a crocus or pansy bed in color effects, it resembles an anthropological museum in types of nose, mouth, cheek- bone, and eyes. But on all sides one sees the broad face, high cheek-bones, and round head of the Turanian. The bazaars of Bokhara are her main charm. Even Damascus has nothing finer. The streets are covered and the lights subdued. Each tiny shop, a Mother Hub- bard cupboard in everything but empti- ness, where the shrewd merchant sits with his entire stock within reach, has a tug at its tiny front porch, where the customer can sit and smoke or drink tea until the bargain is complete. One can see processes as well as prod- ucts and hours may be spent in watching the fascinating handicrafts of the Fast. The brass-ware is inferior to that of Da- mascus, but adds a mellow glow to the long, dark bazaars, and gaily-colored saddles and gaudy velvet caps, edged with glossy fur, light up the scene. Bokhara is a very important religious center, with 364 mosques. Why not one more, with a temporary tabernacle for leap years, it is hard to say. But the Moslem year is shorter than ours, so that perhaps they have enough mosques for one mud city. There are more than a hundred theological colleges, with small rooms for the students surrounding a paved quadrangle. from the corners of which rise small domes surmounted by stork nests. THE BOKHARA MOSLEMS The Bokhara Moslems are ceremonial- ists to the tips of their fingers. ‘They have shifty eyes, intellectual faces, and indolent bodies. Many of them are fat and greasy. One will see more fat men among the worshipers at Bokhara than he will in weeks of travel in Georgia or among the Turkomans. The Moslem re- ligion fits a sleek beard and a fat body, and it is no wonder that the Turkomans are considered very poor churchmen. But if one would really know the charm of Bokhara and its Oriental spell, he must not alone thread the murky bazaars, where the copper-workers’ fires cast fan- tastic shadows on the tiny shop-faces op- posite, or sit at the busy braziers eating Photograph ie M. O. Williams A PERSIAN COBBLER IN ASKABAD, WHICH IS ONE OF THE CITIES FROM WHICH es RUSSIANS HOPED TO ENTER .PERSIA VIA MESHED 270 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE yaa spitted mutton with a loaf of unleavened bread as table and fork, or satisfy the thirst of the desert with rosy pomegran- ates, luscious apples, or aromatic musk- melons from Chardjui, with almond and raisins to eke out his Oriental meal. Let him seat himself beside one of the picturesque, but stagnant, pools, whence Bokhara derives its water, while the shades of evening silently settle about the quiet city. The Emir has tried to pro- tect this Oriental spell by forbidding a hotel within the gates, and the last of the Russian business men have commuted back to their homes in Kagan. But the gates will not be shut for some time yet, so take time now in this most Oriental of cities to feel a little of the philosophy that takes pride in the past and thinks not of the morrow. TWILIGHT IN_BOKHARA Three veiled women come down to the water's edge, their shrouded forms re- flected in sombre tints from the afterglow which leaves its rosy blush in the fringe of sky behind us. Now from behind one heavy veil there emerges a snow-white arm which dots with a touch of light the watery mirror of the quiet pool. In and out flits that firm, slender arm with its heavy gold bracelet until she turns to her companions and they all climb the slippery steps and fade away into the shadows of the roofed bazaar. Following her comes the water-bearer with his flabby water skin, which he slowly fills through the neck from a leath- ern bucket until it becomes bloated and full-bodied as some huge amphibian. Some of the water splashes back into the dark pool in a silvery stream edged in peariss . And the music-of “its. falling merges with the musical street cry of the passing peddler of sweets, who is trying to dispose of the rest of his tiny stock be- fore night settles down. Here at last is the East. Not Damas- cus, with its tourist hotels and shiny vic- torias; not Jerusalem, its ancient wall rent by the Kaiser's gate and its glaring clock-tower; not Cairo, with street-cars clanging by and evil-minded touts dog- ging one’s footsteps; not even Constanti- nople or Delhi or the lovely, but lifeless, dream in marble at Agra, can quite match the charm of old-world Bokhara, dusty and tumbledown, with its seared face to- ward the glorious past, when Merv was queen of the East and Bokhara was her rival. Then, as night really falls, we hasten through the deserted bazaars, barred and covered on both sides, where infrequent and dim electric lights can’t quite spoil the fanciful effect, past great khans, in whose courtyards solemn, thoughtful camels ponder over problems of their own with supreme lack of concern for the rough stones that bruise knees once ac- customed to soft sand beneath the stars. ilere, one old patriarch roars dike a lon while his turbaned master beats him to his wrinkled, calloused knees. And as we emerge from the dilapidated old walls of this dusty mud flower-pot a muezzin up near the scraggly stork’s nest that tops the minaret sweetly in- tones the call to prayer. Beside us in the dusty road a string of tawny camels, gro- tesque in their ugliness, but picturesque hulks against the leaden sky, plod silently by on padded feet which sink deep into the soft dust of the Oriental desert. THE TOUCH OF TIME’S LOVING FINGERS What costume does for Bokhara, archi- tecture did for Samarkand. The Regis- tan, once the show-place of Central Asia, still retains much of its former beauty, for the tinted tiles which encase the im- posing facades of the mosque schools of Shir-Dar, Tillah Kari, and Ulug Beg have retained as much of their Oriental brilliance as is pleasing to the Western eye. Time has touched the tiles of Sa- markand with loving fingers, leaving all that was beautiful and nothing that was garish. And the crowds which flock the great market-place today add interest and ani- mation to a historic and dignified plaza. The costume, the facial make-up, the method of transportation and bargaining, all are much what they were when Timur had his capital here, although the me- dressehs, which form three sides of the Registan, are of a much later date, erected while our colonists were settling James- town. Outside the native city, with its sellers of melons and menders of shoes, its hun- J9] SY} OF [JVM pn oy} UO patoyseyd aie SIAOUWL,, JSd}e] OY} Surounouue s1ajsog VUVHMO€ LV NVLSIOWN AHL NI SYIMVA SNOIMDITHa SUIEITIIM “O “W Aq ydessojoud 272 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE dreds of praying men and its tasseled boxes made from gourds of fantastic shape for use with pea-green tobacco powder, one sees tilework at its best, dat- ing from Timur’s prime. Here are found the beautiful mausolea of Shakh Zinda, erected by the monarch whose empire reached from Siberia to the Dardanelles and from the Ganges to the Persian Gulf. A JACK-OF-ALL-TRADES ARMY That Timur the Lame, whom Marlowe pictures as a crude barbarian, was not without culture as well as kultur is shown by the fact that these mausolea were erected to the nurse, the sisters, and the spiritual adviser of the great nomadic chief who captured Delhi and Tiflis, Da- mascus and Aleppo, cities now coveted by Hadji Wilhelm of Potsdam. In the shadow of the huge Mosque of Bibi Khanum, which Timur erected to his favorite wife, the great grain and dried fruit market is now held, for the fertile valley of the Zerafshan produces heavy grain, luscious grapes, and thin-shelled almonds, as well as the juicy melons which one buys, after sampling, in great drippy slices, in the Registan. Timur’s army was a Jack-of-all-Trades horde, for each fighter not only carried a bow with thirty arrows, a quiver, and a buckler, but for every two mounted fight- ing men a spare horse, and every ten had a great tent of felt. Each squad of ten also had two spades, a pickaxe, a sickle, aasadw,.an ax, an awl, a hundred needles, eight and a half pounds of stout cord, an ox’s hide, and a strong pan. Swiss Fam- ily Robinson was not better provided for from the mother’s wrist bag. With this equipment and such flocks as were necessary, the great roving war- rior advanced against a score of enemies and conquered most of them, so that he was reputed to have had his chariots drawn by conquered kings, wearing as parts of their harness the jewels which once they wore as crown gems. Then came the day when the conqueror returned by way of Derbent and northern Persia, over the route Germany seeks as the corridor to the East, and the long, long trail winding across barren steppes and hot desert, over snow mountains and through the torrid heat of the Ganges 273 and the Caspian depression, led Timur, the lame wanderer, back to his tomb in Samarkand. He never reached his capi- tal alive; but his faithful followers, be- fore they began fighting among them- selves, carried the warrior’s aged body back to the city where his friends lay buried. The tomb of Timur, with its melon dome of turquoise blue, is in a quiet sec- tion of the city, at some distance from the smaller but lovelier mausolea of his loved ones. But in that cool and dark tomb, below the hot sun of Turkestan, the great Mongol leader and lame trav- eler lies buried with eight friends. Bar- barian though he was, Timur loved deeply, and in death ‘he is not alone. ROMANCE GIVES WAY TO COMMERCE Historical romance gives way to com- merce when one leaves the polychrome- tiled mosques of Samarkand and slips across into the lovely valleys of fertile Ferghana, where Russia’s cotton was grown before revolution spoiled the Mos- cow factories and the railways at the same time, so that mountains of cotton piled up in the yards at Kokand and Andijan. Last winter the people hun- gered, for the railway that took out cot- ton used to bring back food; but this year the food is growing once more in the cotton fields, and Turkestan will be better off when this winter’s famine comes to parts of Russia. Down into Ferghana and out toward the Pamirs the express from Petrograd, with its sleeping cars and spotless diners, used to run; and across the protecting mountains the British Indian _ officials watched with undisguised . dismay this onward sweep of Tsardom. But Rus- sia’s imperial power has been divided into warring atoms, and it is a Teutonic power robbed of its dream of Bagdad that now looks out on the romantic cities of Merv, Bokhara, and Samarkand as_ stepping- stones to the tropical materials and popu- lation centers of India and the East. The modern Hadji has found that he cannot ride to India on the bowed backs of Moslem worshipers. But prostrate hordes in the unenlightened cities of Bok- hara and Samarkand beckon the drama- loving Kaiser on to seek aids among the Although the American traveler in the picture is six feet five inches tall, he is overtopped by the enormous wheel of the native cart A SQUARE IN KOKAND, FERGHANA The owner of the high-wheeled Sart cart sits astride the horse, while his veiled wife or wives ride on the springless vehicle 274 NATIONAL THE In the practice of his profession the soothsay patrons. countless worshipers in the Great Mosque at Delhi. It is a long, long trail. Timur traveled it to his tomb. THE STORY OF BAKU How Russia’s collapse will affect the tribes of Turkestan cannot be foreseen. But the outstanding event in the whole _Turanian field is the landing of the Brit- | ish at Baku—the city of fire and blood. | Baku is more cosmopolitan than Bokhara, for Bokhara is only cosmopolitan in an GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 275 YY: i% WY We Witte Z Photograph by M. O. is Williams Ville A BLIND FORTUNE-TELLER IN KOKAND er uses small pebbles to divine the fate of his To the left is a native cobbler at work. Asiatic sense, while Baku contains Euro- pean influences and inhabitants as well. From one end to the other, the Cau- casus is a vast mine of copper, iron, tin, zinc, and other metals. In the lovely Alazan Valley of Kakhetia some of the world’s finest wine is grown, and the North Caucasus is a granary where American agricultural machinery has reaped rich harvests; but at the east end of the Caucasus it is oil that has made modern history and made Baku a familiar Photograph by M. O. Williams A CAMEL DRIVER OF SAMARKAND AT THE END OF A PERFECT DAY To the north of the land where Omar sang, the wine is perhaps just as red, and this son of the desert on his camel’s back seems homeward bound after a plunge into metropolitan delights. 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T 0} SOTIUI OZ € :ayeos 277 218 name among business men the world over. Baku is well built in spots and is tre- mendously wealthy; but it lacks the dis- tinction of a city that has grown grace- fully. It savors of the nouveaux riches and the boom town still, at a time when it is already declining as an oil-produc- tion center, with Grozny and Maikop ris- ing to wrest its laurels from the oil port on the Caspian. The political situation at Baku has al- ways been delicately balanced, and in 1905, in February and September, it was a scene of brutality and massacre, to which was added the terrible spectacle of the burning oil fields—a present-day pos- sibility. Combining as it does the ancient and the modern, the Oriental and the Oc- cidental, the Moslem and the Christian, the Turanian, the Armenian and the Slav, with liberal mixtures of Kazan Tatars, Lesghians, Georgians, and Persians, Baku is ‘the key-to the political-‘situation in Transcaucasia. A strong hand is needed to control the situation, and the British are just the ones to supply the needed morale. One can only appreciate the-impor tance of the British landing, simultane- ously with Allied successes on the west- ern front, by understanding something of the psychology of the peoples occupying the region. Expediency rather than principle actu- ates all of them with the exception of the Armenians. And expediency urges some- thing different with Allied victories in France and a British force at Baku than it did last March, when I was in Baku, when the news of the great Allied defeat WHAT THE WAK EAs THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE on the western front was being given wide publicity by German agents, when the British Military Mission was removed from the train at Elizabetpol as they were trying to leave Tiflis, and when English officers in Baku were obeying the orders of the Tatars not to wear their military uniform. To no one did the news of the British landing at Baku come with more surprise than to me, because I left there in April, and at that time German propaganda was alarmingly potent throughout Transcau- casia and north Persia. I was only one of about fifty Americans and British who were ordered to leave Tiflis March 22, and who saw the fighting in Baku from March 31 to April 2. But the whole out- look then was extremely pessimistic. The very fact that even a small party of British are there now is significant, for had they come when I was there I doubt whether they would have been al- lowed to land. JOINING THE CZECHO-SLOVAKS From Baku we chartered a steamer to Astrakhan, and thus opened the Volga season, and in Astrakhan I left my Amer- ican and English friends and went on into Russia alone, back over the route I had traveled nine months before, until I came to Samara and joined the Czecho- Slovak expeditionary force. Every one who knows those true pa- triots respects them, and every American who knew them loved them as brothers in a world struggle to prevent Russia’s subject peoples from becoming slaves of the Kaiser, as these varied races were once slaves of the Tsar. DONE FOR BRITAIN By Jupson C. WELLIVER Sidney Brooks told in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MaGazINnE “What Great 3ritain Is Doing” in the war. His article was an eloquent plea to Americans to realize the part his country was playing in civilization’s crisis ; and there was need Cie he: I: IS well-nigh two years since Mr. At that time I was in England. Amer- ica’s declaration of war was only a few weeks ahead, but its imminence was not generally realized either there or here. Probably, save when the two countries: — have been at war, and during some try- | ing months-of our Civil War era, there | never has been a time when misunder- | THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE standing was more acute, on both sides, between the English-speaking countries. Even the best-informed Americans had but inadequate conception of the burden Britain was carrying. Prejudice was rife in this country, and was sedulously culti- vated in many quarters and by divers in- terests. On the other hand, opinion in Britain was settling down to conviction that America would stand any humiltia- tion, submit to any insult, rather than fight. Britain had without hesitation entered a war to which the enemy had not chal- lenged her, because she believed she was doing right. She wanted the moral sup- port, and she sorely needed the material aid, that the great daughter State could bring. Why was America so slow to see and understand? Were we indeed as sordid and selfish as the Anglophobes among us were wont to charge Britain with being? Were we merely a race of profiteers? BRITAIN’S MORAL LEADERSHIP Today, with our millions of soldiers and billions of wealth fighting alongside Britain’s, we may remind ourselves of those trying months, and the reminder must make us grateful that things are as they are. It would be alike futile and foolish to ask how long our aloofness might have continued without creating incurable distrust between the two An- glo-Saxon nations and bringing disaster to the world. For that she furnished the moral lead- ership, the instant courage, the true per- ception of underlying issues, Britain is entitled to recognition as the force which made this war, from its first gun, essen- tially a contest between systems rather than States ; between ideals, not alliances ; between good morals and bad morals. It was the confidence of the nations, small and great, near and far, in this moral leadership of Britain that saved the world. ‘That confidence nerved Bel- gium to bare her breast to the first blow, to meet the first shock of invasion with all she could summon, and to stay it for a little time while the forces of civiliza- tion could make their initial rally. That confidence brought Portugal, oldest of England’s allies, into the field. 279 It brought Japan, newest and most powerful of Britain’s allies, with shin- ing armor and well-tried sword, into the arena as sentinel of the eastern gateways, guardian over the peace of the East, too long and insidiously tempted by the plot- ters of Berlin. It brought the colonies and dominions of the world-flung Empire straightway to “shoulder arms” at the foot of Britain’s democratic throne, bearing their yet un- sought pledges of loyalty and devotion. The princes of India, the Boers of Africa, the men of Canada and Australia, the Maoris of New Zealand, trooped unbid- den to their places in the ranks. Yet the wealth and resources of the Empire—in men, money, and industry were not the greatest of Britain’s contri- butions. More potent than these was the fund of moral credit enlisted in the cause on the day when Britain gave it her en- dorsement. The scales of prejudice fell from a thousand million eyes in that hour when men envisaged the contrast between autocracy, prepared, and democracy, in- spired. BRITAIN SAVED HER DEMOCRACY What has the war done i Britain, to Britain, for Britain, and through Britain, for the world? First of all, it has saved Britain for democracy; it has reincarnated, in a new Britain, the spirit of democracy, the love of freedom, the devotion to fair play and substantial justice that for a thou- sand years have made Britain the leader of civilization. Other peoples may have at times displayed equal zeal in behalf of human rights and equality, but what one has been able to temper and direct these fine aspirations as they have been directed by the genius of the British’ ‘race. for political and institutional construction ? Before the war the world heard much about British decadence. Your true Brit- isher has an almost morbid tendency to misgiving about the state of the national soul. He is pretty positive, when affairs wear a favorable aspect, that there 1s something radically wrong just under- neath; and when they look thoroughly bad, that they are really much worse. The Britisher’s passion for self-depre- cation is only equaled by the German’s THE FATHER OF SIX OFFICERS IN THE BRITISH ARMY GIVEN THE FREEDOM OF HIS INFACT VES, aC Lely) The recipient of this unique honor, bestowed by the city of Peterborough, England, was Dr. Thomas James Walker, on the occasion of his 8oth birthday. He has 13 children, and six of his nine sons hold commissions in the British army. Dr. Walker is seen on the mayor’s right. In America, Governor and Mrs. Manning, of South Carolina, offer a strik- ing analogy to this Britisher’s contribution to the war; they have also given six sons to the service of their country. 280 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE for self-glorification.. It is as hard for an Englishman to discern anything quite right in England as for a German to de- scry anything at all wrong in Germany. The German plumed himself on_ his ability year by year to increase his sales in England; but it never occurred to the Englishman to congratulate himself on the fact that, year by year, he somehow had more money with which to buy them. If a group of amiable spirits sat over emci, beer in a Berlin café. till after midnight and their converse took on a slightly alcoholic fervor, the German capital was forthwith described as de- veloping a “night life,’ becoming tre- mendously gay, and threatening to out- shine Paris in the attributes of true cos- mopolitanism. But if the like happened in London, Britain shook its solemn head, decided that the national morals were going hope- lessly bad, and regretfully realized that the social fabric was on the point of dis- integration. The rest of the world fell into the easy habit of accepting the self- imposed verdict in each case, and ulti- mately indulged a good deal of unwar- ranted admiration for the amazing prog- ress of Germany and unjustified worry about the confessed degeneracy of Eng- land. AN AGE-OLD CONTEST In a thousand other ways the two countries were as unlike as in this lack of capacity for accurate self-appraisement. There was plenty of room in the sun for both. The world needed all of the best that both could give. They ought never even to have imagined that they were sufficiently alike to be capable of intense rivalry. And they never would have developed such an obsession but for the political institutions which made it possible for Germany to be brought under the control of a wicked, selfish, designing, criminal dynastic policy of world conquest. ‘The contest between autocracy and democracy has been going on through all the ages. Because England and Germany were on the whole the foremost European repre- sentatives of the antagonistic systems, clash between them was inevitable. Two short centuries had seen European 281 civilization spread its sway over most of the world. Everywhere this outreaching carried the conflict. The world could not exist half slave and half free. Under the spell of German egomania it was falling into a disposition to over- estimate certain undeniable advantages of close-knit, strong organization, and to exaggerate the equally obvious disadvan- tages of that laxity and carelessness which tend to propagate when democracy rules and times are good. At the price of those sops which auto- cratic Germany tossed to the proletarian Cerberus, the world might have been bribed to exchange freedom for a mess of welfare pottage. It is good that the contest came as early as it did. BRITAIN SPIRITUALIZED BY THE WAR Discussing war and after-war problems in a London club one day, an American observed: “This war will be followed by a revo- lution.” An Englishman in the party quietly retorted: “This war is a revolution. around you.” He was right. It is trite, but it is true, that Britain has been spiritualized by the war. The British democracy is no longer merely a political and institutional de- mocracy. It isa human democracy. The social caste system and the pound sterling have been overthrown as rulers. ‘Truth to tell, England was never so caste-bound or money-ridden as popular belief, there and elsewhere, pictured it. But it loved its traditions, and this was among the most sacred. The ordeal of war has made Britain know that humanity is the most precious thing in the world. No man could give more than his life; no man could give anything comparable to his life; and when all men willingly offered that last sacrifice, they could ‘only. offer it for a common ideal which must be the highest possible ideal—for humanity. The rich man discovered that his wealth was dross, the titled person that his title was tinsel; the great common denominator among them all became hu- man life and human souls. Neither Magna Charta nor the old English revolution meant any such stir- Just look DS? THE NATIONAL ring in the depths of the British soul as this has meant, for this has come in a time: and. to a people alive with social consciousness. Britain, giving its all for freedom, has taken time to ask what it means by free- dom, and has adopted: some new defini- tions. Freedom is not again to mean the liberty of the few to live in palaces and the many to live in hovels; of the many to pay with.their toil for what the few consume at their ease. No, this is not Bolshevism. An ignorant peasantry might translate it into Bolshevism, but the English nation is translating it into terms of social and industrial democracy. If this be socialism, make the most of it. The Englishman, even the English- man who a little time ago would have been called a Tory (though today he is apt to be the most liberal of his race), prefers to call it socialization. His no- tions about it are intensely practical. For example: , HOW BRITAIN. -SOLVED* THE. SMILK SHORTAGE Before the war had even approached its climax, Britain discovered that it faced a shortage, among other things, of milk. The government guaranteed very high prices to induce production ; but the sacri- fice of herds, plowing up of grass lands, and deficiency of labor rendered stimula- tive efforts futile. There was not enough milk to go round in the old, easy way, and administration stepped in to insure first against profiteering and second that those who most needed it should have their share of the milk. Observe the results. Some months ago the British Medical Association discussed some remarkable vital statistics. It found that for the last preceding year the death rate among infants under five years old had been about one-half the rate in pre- war times. It was a phenomenon be- yond the comprehension of anything but common sense. The medical authorities applied that test and issued their verdict. For the first time in the modern history of Britain there had been milk enough for all the babies, and good milk. But if the adult patron of a public eat- ing-house buys and drinks a glass of milk as a beverage, he is liable to a fine of five GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pounds, and the proprietor subjects him- self to a like penalty. If anybody: imagines that hereafter Britain will return to the customs of “the good old days,’ when for want of milk twice as many British babies en- joyed the privilege of. dying, he is far from understanding what is going on in the English public mind today. GOUT AND HUNGER ALIKE BANISHED IN BRITAIN — Bariae sending. its merchant © fleet through all the danger zones, transport- ing soldiers, munitions, supplies, keeping the blood circulating in the arteries of the commercial world, has lived month after month fairly on the brink of star- vation; yet rationing has been for the greater part voluntary, accomplished through the cooperation of a willing pub- lic with a patient food administration. Never in Britain’s history have so many people been amply fed; never have so few been hungry. Never, it: may be added, has the population enjoyed: so nearly unanimous immunity from those aristocratic digestive ailments which con- stitute the penalty of eating not wisely but too well. A search warrant would hardly find a dozen respectable cases of gout in the entire Kingdom. Armies of people in Britain are for the first time wearing their old clothes, and glad to do it; other armies are for the first time wearing good clothes, and equally pleased. We have heard quite too much about the extravagances of the munitionettes who buy Astrakhan furs and impossible jewelry. After all, people associate more, and more intimately, with their clothes than with any other incident of life. To be decently clad is the first essential to self-respect. Other and more exalted tastes are presently induced. The factory girl who begins with dressing like a lady, presently finds herself disposed to be a, lady. And the community is making arrange- ments accordingly. In recognition of her services in shops and factories, in offices and on the farm, manufacturing explo- sives at Gretna and doing the work of tens of thousands of men just behind the firing lines in Fr:nce, woman has been A LARGE BRITISH TROOPSHIP IN DURBAN HARBOR Photographs from W. B. Wilson BRIGISE TNMEPERIAL TROOPS IN, THE STREETS OF DURBAN, SOUTH -AFRICA | Sir Eric Geddes, First Lord of the British Admiralty, is sponsor for the statement that since the beginning of the conflict the British navy has escorted overseas to and from all theaters of war some 16,900,000 men belonging to the armies of the British Empire, and the loss has been one-the: pdth vart of a man per hundred carried, from all causes—marine risks or enemy actio 283 284 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GOOD NEWS FROM THE FRONT, Photograph by Paul Thompson TO WHICH THEY MAY NOT RETURN These wounded soldiers on the steps of a London hospital have recovered sufficiently to be sent to a convalescent home, for which they are to leave in a few days given the ballot. The monarchic de- mocracy of England has reached the goal of universal suffrage several laps ahead of America. TWO HISTORIC SESSIONS OF THE HOUSE OF COMMONS The organization—it can hardly be called a system—for public education in Britain is notoriously inadequate. Many people knew that before the war, and the war’s shock aroused the nation to action. I have sat through two absorbingly in- teresting sessions of the House of Com- mons. One was on a day of political crisis, when some innocent souls thought Mr. Lloyd- George was in danger of be- ing driven from power, and when, with the eyes of the world focused on West- minster, with the benches and galleries of the Commons packed, the Prime Minister in a great speech drove his enemies from the field in utter rout. The other was on the day when Mr. Fisher, Minister for Education, presented and explained in much detail an ambitious but dry-as-dust program for educational reforms. The one occasion saw a tremendously dramatic political spectacle; the other, a three hours’ explanation of a complex piece of constructive legislation. Yet I am not sure that Mr. Lloyd-George’s was the greater triumph. Toa House of Commons that had already voted away something like a quarter of the national wealth in war appropriations, Mr. Fisher calmly made his demand for $75,000,000 to inaugurate a complete new educational organization — and was enthusiastically applauded! ONE OF THE MOST COMPLETE EDUCATIONAL SCHEMES EVER DEVISED That applause was the testimony that Britain intended to help the munition girl who aspires to be more like a lady; to help the farm boy who, while digging trenches in Flanders, has learned to see THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4 * PERSE SE Lae RR ROR e a6 BORARE RAALBOAR Photograph from American Red Cross A GROUP OF WOUNDED AMERICAN SOLDIERS WHO HAVE~ BEEN SENT TO ENGLAND TO REGAIN THEIR HEALTH AND STRENGTH The scene is the lawn of Dartford Hospital, near London. Mrs.. Walter Hines Page, wife of the former American Ambassador, is seen dispensing flowers and cheerfulness among the boys who have been sent from the front to recuperate in England. life with a wider vision than when plow- ing furrows in Kent. Like every other British reform, the educational act carefully utilizes the long- laid foundations, avoids unnecessary shock to tradition, saves and builds upon whatever has been found good. It has since become a law, and for its codrdina- tion of all grades from kindergarten to university, for its plans to make educa- tion compulsory, practical, and cultural; for its guarantees of the full measure of educational opportunity that every type of adolescent mind may justify, it seems fairly to justify the verdict of some educators, that it is the most com- plete and satisfactory educational scheme ever devised for any nation. If space would permit, a digest of this measure, which combines a scheme of universal education with new and neces- sary restrictions on child labor, would give an excellent idea of how the British have managed, while meeting the de- mands showered on them by a warring world, to find time for constructive re- forms. Here in America a few people have just begun to study the amazing data about illiteracy, our 11,000,000 alien resi- dents, use of foreign languages in great communities, and the physical degeneracy of great classes, which have been made available through the working of the uni- versal military service act. Britain has studied its corresponding data, and has taken measures to end disgraceful condi- tions. Foreseeing the myriad problems of after the war, they have set up in Britain a Ministry of Reconstruction, headed by Dr. Charles Addison, which has produced a great mass of illuminating studies in existing conditions, with plans for their “SUIUICI} S.YJUOU! YIeS FO 9SINOD 34} UI Jo}svul 0} YIOM Arej]IU UO syooqd yws -Joyip ZI dsAey SsJOOyJO SuNOA dt ‘SyOOd [OOYIS 1194} YUM opesed uo ‘Ss}UsWIIseT pue[YySsIP, Wort ‘dues surures So0u yUsinqutr SLO Soo eae I WY LL “s4ood [ooy roy} Uy P : puelyorry 5 ©) Pores Ty; WO y [UIpyT et} J WO SMOOd “IOOHOS WAHL HLIM AdVaVd NO uosdworyy, neg Aq ydess0j0y7 N ‘DOJOISIUL pu ATJOY JO SoyouNg pur sjuasard YM PIpeO] SIIP]OS JO UONL}S OO[IIIVAA }e [eAIIIV sy, ,,souO LYON] oY} JO aWIOg, 66 5 2 AAVAIT SVWISIYHOD NO LJNOUW LHL WONT SYAIGIOS HSIN uosdwory, ineg Aq ydeisojoyg “usut paseydes Aporrp oavy Hey e pue UOT]IW e osoy} JO puv ‘Aepo} puepsuy Ul YIOM }e UIWIOM O00‘00N'S ATIvoU ae SIO J, “AIJUNOD I19Y} 0} S}IOYO Jsoq I9Y} SUIATS JO UOTIeF -S1}@S OY} UI Se [JOM Se YL Wo[Ioxe pue s}aids Ysty Ul pleMat UMO S}I Sey UOTyedNIIO [NJasn oy} ‘suotssoidxa [erAof Jt9y} WoOIf Surspn! puy SUALSHAUVH LINVA AaV AYHT MON :SYHMOTSA JIVIOIAILAV AGVW AXHL SAWIL AOVad NI We. arn Qk 288 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE . reform. It is calculated that 1,000,000 new houses must be provided as fast as possible after the war. Very well; mu- nicipalities will build them, using their own credit, backed by the national gov- ernment’s. ‘The government has set a splendid example of how to improve housing and sanitary conditions wherever it has built for war workers. Out of the United Kingdom alone, with its 46,000,000 population, have been drawn 6,000,000 men for military and naval service ; 1,250,000 have come from the dominions and colonies and 1,150,000 more from India. A MILLION BRITISH LIVES GIVEN TO THE CAUSE A million British lives, it was recently stated, have been given to the cause; yet this sacrifice will only slightly affect the Kingdom’s population, because improved living conditions of the civil population have effected so great a compensatory saving of life at home. Only recently has the birth rate been appreciably depressed, while the saving of infant and adult lives has been aston- ishing. With all its boasted efficiency and talent for organization, I venture to say that Germany has been outstripped in these regards by war-time Britain. Alongside the military mobilization that produced the gigantic British army and approximately doubled the navy has gone a civil reorganization that has made it possible not only to create and contin- uously expand the war industries, but to: keep alive the world commerce by which the nation lives. In bulk the exports of Britain have indeed greatly decreased ; in value they have been amazingly main- tained; which means support of British credit throughout the world. And not only have the exports main- tained British credit and upheld the pound sterling; they have been so di- rected and handled as to lay a foundation for British trade after the war, whereon will rise a structure that will be more than ever the despair of German compe- tition. Although America has gathered in half the world’s monetary gold, we have not borne the sole responsibility of directing the war’s finances. In truth, we have 289 loaned money to the world, while Britain has both loaned money to it and—far more important—financed it. British credit and world-reaching banking organ- ization have accomplished amazing re- sults with bills of lading and commercial acceptances that we are just beginning to realize. CARRYING HUMANITY ’S BURDEN On the afternoon of the coldest day of the bitter winter of 1916-17 I landed in London, after shivering through the ride from Liverpool. A robust Jehuess hoisted our bags atop her taxi and drove us to a hotel where we got quarters. That night we were refused coal for the grate in our room; there was no coal save for invalids. But that same week a convoy of vessels laden to the last pound with coal for suf- fering Norway had cleared from a Brit- ish port and been safely escorted by British destroyers and cruisers to its northern destination. That awful winter Britain did without coal in order that Scandinavia, France, and Italy might have it. Britain—that is, except the mu- nition works; they must have their allot- ment, because the armies of Britain and her allies must be equipped. All the way through, it has been for Britain to carry burdens, supply de- ficiencies, provide means, perform the tasks that were neither spectacular nor heroic. The British navy, working al- most in secret, has been the backbone of the Entente cause. Without it the war would have ended, as Germany planned, before the close of 1914. Germany was throttled from the beginning by a fleet whose very location, in the far northern Orkneys, was not known to the world till months after Germany was sealed tight. It was for Britain to send the heroic first army that died in the first hundred days—but saved the Channel coast. Eng- land must needs provide the hopeless ex- pedition to relieve Antwerp—a maneuver that failed in its immediate purpose, but saved Belgium to the Entente. Britain bore the horror of Gallipoli without wincing. When the hour came for the tables to turn, when glory and victory were at length among the possi- ‘Kavu pue Auire YSstIg oY} JO sooty 39}v1OSap OF SI WOTSLIDO s1y} UO Ajsofey SIFY “ArepY UssnG) pue ss1005) Suryy Fo Tease oy} Surieme are Ka LOHSYACIV LV SGNNOYD WAISVNWAD AHL NO {Saad V DNIAO[NG S, 0 VO Vea LO NOPIVLV a V uolup, 19dedsMaN Ut9jsaM O) GL 200 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE bilities, Britain, in the interest of unity and efficiency, placed her army under a French commander-in-chief and never afterward questioned his management of the struggle. NOT A MILITARY COUNTRY Britain was not a military country. Its facilities for producing the necessaries of war were hopelessly inadequate to such a contest; they had to be created; and while handling a sea campaign that might well have been esteemed her full share, providing ships and money and supplies, she built the organization for producing munitions on a scale never at- tempted before. Even now, how many people know that the Vickers-Maxim establishments in England employ more people than all the Krupp works? Who realizes what it means for the British navy and transport service to have transported overseas 16,000,000 soldiers, first and last, with losses almost negligible ? Take the air service. It required the creation, absolutely, of an immense in- dustry—so big, in fact, that in its ramifi- cations it was said a year ago to be the greatest single war industry in the coun- try. It requires 30,000 aeroplanes a year to keep 1,000 at work constantly on the fighting lines, so great is the wastage. England has been accomplishing more than this ; unostentatiously but effectively, she shouldered this along with the other burdens. And, doing all this, Britain still had industrial resources that enabled her to aid America in providing hundreds of thousands of uniforms for our soldiers before our own sources of supply and machinery of production were fully or- ganized. There is an incident which I have al- ways thought peculiarly illustrates the sort of services Britain has been render- ing all along. During 1917 tonnage be- came so scarce that new restrictions were put on imports and oranges were barred. They came mainly from Spain, and a huge uproar was raised in that country. At length—so the story went in London at the time—Spain delivered an ultima- tum: unless her oranges were taken, she would not let her iron ore go! 291 Italy and France must have iron ore from Spain or the war might as well be stopped. So Britain quietly lifted the embargo on oranges, and somehow scraped up the shipping to bring the oranges, and also to deliver the ore to France and Italy. WHAT BRITISH WOMEN HAVE DONE Everybody knows how British women have taken the places of the men in in- dustry, but nobody who has not seen can understand. At Sheffield we saw a gun being turned into shape, so big that we were pledged not to publish its caliber lest the. enemy- learn too much, and women were operating the giant lathe. At Gretna Green were near 40,000 peo- ple in one plant making high explosives, and about seven-eighths of them were women and girls. On the Clyde we found mile after mile of shipways lining that pathetically little stream that is the headquarters of the world’s shipbuilding industry, and women and men worked side by side on the scaf- folds, at bolting and riveting, forging and casting, as if they had always done it. In a great foundry where casings for the big naval shells were cast, we found the floor filled with women in overalls and oil-cloth caps, doing practically all the work. At Birmingham, where the cartridges for rifles and machine-guns are made by millions, women were operating the ma- chines, with hardly a man in sight. Out- side, at the shipping warehouses, we saw the boxes with labels stenciled on them, ready for shipment. ‘They were going to France, Italy, Saloniki, Mesopotamia, South Africa, Russia, the South Seas— everywhere that Britain and the allies were fighting. What about these women, now habited to their place in industry, to the self-re- specting sensation of doing their part in the world’s work, to earning good wages and being independent? Wall they will- ingly give up their places to the men after the war? ‘The question is asked con- stantly. I am going to attempt an an- swer, based on what I have learned of the British national ambition and the British woman’s conception of her rela- t1On, tO It. 292 Britain has the idea that this world has seen the last of over-production. It has become convinced that the real difficulty that gets things out of economic kelter is under-consumption. So it proposes that the ladies shall keep on working, the men shall join them, and arrangements shall be made for such a distribution of their joint product that there will be no over-production ! THE LESSON OF CONSUMPTION The greatest lesson the British people have learned from the war is this of con- sumption. They have acquired the habit of being steadily employed at good wages. They have learned how to spend their money carefully, sanely, thriftily. They have learned to save; the bond-selling campaigns have taught that. Thrift came from ebriety, serious-mindedness, and the necessity of stretching all supplies to make them go round. Money ceased to mean so much when one, though he had a bushel of bank notes, wasn’t allowed to spend more than “one-and-thrippence”’ for afterno n tea, with other meals in proportion. London is full of great houses vacant. Income’ taxes havedone part of it, the fuel controller much. Who wants a 4o- room house when the coal administration allows only fuel to heat seven rooms, and when servants cannot be had at any wage? So the great places stand empty. while there is a scarcity of middle-class houses ; palaces are too expensive, hovels no longer good enough. The leveling-up-and-down process is actually happening, and England as a whole likes it. Lincoln said, “God must have loved the common people, for he made so many of them.” As for Eng- land, the war filled them with the con- viction that they are the people, and the government gave them all—men and women—the ballot. THE FUTURE OF THE HOUSE OF LORDS The minority that doesn’t like the new order will have no power of veto. The House of Lords is far advanced on the way to a reorganization that will make it almost another United States Senate— elective and without hereditary right to seats. A parliamentary commission has reported the plan, and it is nearer adop- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tion than woman suffrage seemed on the day war broke out. After that will come adaptation of the federal system to the kingdom. Pre- monitory rumblings in public thought are telling of it. There will be legislatures, like those of our American States, for Scotland, Wales, metropolitan London; probably two for Ireland; one and per- haps more for England outside London: and all these States will be represented in the Westminster Parlaiment as ours are in the Congress at Washington. Perhaps the Dominions will at length send their delegates there, too; if not, some sort of truly imperial parliament will make place for them and for closer political union of members that the war has drawn into a new spiritual com- munity. A BETTER RACE OF BRITISHERS A better race of British men and women will come out of this war. Not- withstanding the physical misfortune to the race of having so many of its best men killed or maimed, Britain will gain vastly more than it will lose through the train- ing, discipline, and physical improvement of its manhood; through teaching re- liance, self-respect, realities, true values. The world will gain greatly by a renais- sance in Britain of the spirit that made Britishers its pioneers, colonizers, civil- izers, administrators. And that renais- sance has been achieved. There will be a movement of English- men to the distant quarters of the world; but enough will remain at home to build the motherland to a greater and better position. Misgivings about Britain sinking to second rate among the powers are at any rate some centuries premature. The tight little island will continue “the power- house of the line.” It will be developed as never before. It has found itself anew. There is today a perfect mania for efficiency, quantity production, elimi- nation of lost motion, suppression of waste. One thing that Britain has done during the war will have an effect on the na- tional life not yet to be measured, but certainly far-reaching. That is the re- habilitation of agriculture. In 1918, we THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 293 MOTOR © Western Newspaper Union DRIVERS OF THE BRITISH WOMEN’S LEGION The organization to which these war workers belong is similar to the American Women’s Motor Corps. They are attached to the Canadian Forestry Corps and are stationed at Wind- sor Park. Their log huts have been built by the women foresters. are told, the country has produced food- stuffs enough to feed it for 40 of the 52 weeks. Nothing like that has been done for half a century. It is one of many instances of accomplishing the impossi- ble. Sacred parks and beloved areas of grass lands have been sacrificed ; but the food was produced, because there were no ships in which to import it. Not again will Britain permit itself to be dependent for its daily bread on the uncertainties of importation. Agricul- ture is become a chief object of national solicitude, and will remain so. The 1918 achievement would not have been so striking in normal conditions as to labor, animals, implements, fertilization, and the like; but in the circumstances of its accomplishment it is one of .the war’s wonders. Britain has learned anew what a great agricultural industry means; has learned that the land is for use first, ornament afterward. ‘Taxes on incomes, rates on the broad acres of manorial estates, are solving the land question. The great holdings are being disintegrated at a rate of which Americans have little concep- tion. Single proprietors have sold at auction hundreds of farms. In one case a noble- man specified that tenants should have preference, and practically all his hold- ings went to them. Some of the lands had been in his family 600 years, and some of the farms had been held by the same families of tenants for 300; but never had there been, till this sale, the thought of possible ownership. If this disintegration of land holdings does not proceed fast enough to satisfy the public desire, it will be accelerated by application of further taxation measures which the people have in mind. Mr. Lloyd-George, apropos certain budgetary reforms that when enacted, did not es- Cy Aantal me = - " ra “<< UO SOXe], ‘PIeMId}e JusUTeUIO Ysiy OSM JOF Sr puL] oy} jy} pousesy sey {suvowr Arysnpul peanqpnoSe ywoiS v yeyM MoU poured] sey ureqysIg,, ATIINS AO STH TNVSVAId HHL NI SSHCYAHdAHS AWIL-AVM V uosdwoyy, [neg Aq yde1sojoyg YA ddvIC UT SSO] dy} Uo}seF Pus STOPLI} lf} PLOT Ady} jnq ‘Mes TAO SI UVM FHL IINOA Nivilud Ni ANY a f sureys AAP ynd-ssO1d oY} pure WAAWAT AHL OL X¥ OY} PJOTM O} pourvo] AJUO Jou sALY WIWOM sunodk Apinjs asoty J, NOILVdND0O SIH SQ@ISIA MOVIMERNNT AHL JO sprey uo v YUL QIQePIVAV ATA ‘SUOTJONAJSUT S,JUSWIUIIAOL YSHLIG IY} YIM soueT[duI0D UT ‘oIDyM ‘UTeYSIOF{ Je ‘sUapsIed dIAISUDJUT [[IyINg oY} st 9Us0S ou, NIVIING LVAND WOL GOOA ASIVA OL, ONId INH SI SYANYOM UVM NAWOM JO dNOUD SIH STIXA SSV'ID ASNAWWI o00‘oSc wHaNa poomMsspuy) WY pooMsspug ©) 206 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pecially endear him to the “best people,” did much to popularize the works of his American namesake, Henry George; and these two Georges will have a good deal to do with directing British policy for some time after the war. But, though the British may become substantially self-supporting as to agri- culture, they will, of course, remain pri- marily an industrial, commercial, mari- time, and financial people. With all the drafts that war has made on its man- power, England has actually increased its iron and steel production. SHIPBUILDING AND WORLD COMMERCE As to ship-building and its relation to world commerce hereafter, those kindly folk who fear the loss of British sea su- premacy would do well to see the Clyde, the Tyne, and the Belfast shipbuilding districts, and to learn about the new na- tional shipyards on Bristol Channel. After nearly four years of war, in which it had borne the lion’s share of shipping losses, the British merchant marine was still able, during the critical weeks of last spring and summer, to transport 60 per cent of the first American army of two million soldiers sent across the Atlantic. The country’s industrial plant has been expanded during the war beyond all pop- ular knowledge. Moreover, the expan- sion has been directed by an unwavering purpose to make the new establishments easily adaptable to peace production. The nitro-cellulose plant at Gretna Green covers an area of nine miles by five. It requires a hundred miles of plant railways. It has been built entirely since the war began, and, as it produces noth- 297 ing but high explosives, might be reason- ably regarded as one industry whose product would hardly find a market in peace times. Yet its management assured me there was every prospect that the demand for explosives in engineering work plus the market for celluloid specialties in endless variety would keep the establishment busy with merely some rather easy adap- tations of its products. A RECONSTRUCTED COMMERCIAL WORLD The new Ministry of Reconstruction, the Board of Trade, foreign trading houses, bankers, consular service, have cooperated throughout the world to strengthen Britain’s hold on foreign mar- kets. In anticipation of changed conditions after peace returns, of increased credit requirements to restock the warehouses and restore the public utilities of the world, a series of great banking consoli- dations has taken place in England in the last year. They are part of the eco- nomic mobilization for the competitive struggle after the war. The alien property authorities of King- dom and Empire have been quietly trac- ing out and untying the bonds by which intriguing German interests had estab- lished hold on many industries, markets, financial and commercial opportunities. The German salesman who goes out to offer his wares hereafter will find himself dealing with a very much reconstructed commercial world. Whatever he may have thought of British competition prior to August, 1914, he will find it the real thing along about August, 1920. HOW CANADA WENT FO THE FRONT By Hon. T. B. Macautay, or MonTrREAL HE work which the United States : has undertaken in connection with the war is so vast, and the spirit in which it is being carried out is so mag- nificent and so enthusiastic, that what we Canadians have accomplished must of | necessity appear rather small in com- parison. You of the United States are to have the honor and glory of being to a large extent the deciding factor in bringing this terrible war to a happy conclusion, and of turning what might possibly have been a drawn battle into a glorious victory. The efforts which you are putting forth are the delight and admiration of your 298 Allies and the dismay of Germany and the Kaiser. We Canadians are delighted at the manner in which you have taken up your task. The story of Chateau Thierry has stirred all our hearts. The help you have given far exceeds the men and munitions you have fur- nished, great and valuable though they are, for you put new heart and vigor and sureness of victory into the French and British troops, who had begun to be a little war-weary and stale after four years of struggle. RALLYING TO THE MOTHER COUNTRY After four years of hostilities, it is difficult to place ourselves in thought back to the early days, when the great German military machine, which had been preparing for forty years, was crashing through Belgium and northern France. The sky was clouded and the outlook dark; the brave men of France and Brit- ain were being overwhelmed by superior numbers ; we had few guns to answer the German artillery, and ammunition was so short that many of our guns were re- stricted to five rounds a day—it was at that time and under those circumstances that Canada had the privilege, on account of our British connection, of getting into the fray, and we all feel a joy and pride that we were able to do something, even though but little, to help stay the Hun in those gloomy days. At the beginning of August, 1914, we were not only unprepared for war, but had so long breathed the atmosphere of peace, that we were unable at first to realize the importance of what had hap- pened and the magnitude of the crisis into which the world had been plunged. CANADA SAW HER DUTY .AS A PRIVILEGE As to our duty, there was no doubt. From the Atlantic to the Pacific we felt that it was both our duty and our privi- lege to put our whole weight into the struggle, side by side with the mother country. But what were we able to do? In what way could we help? As for military organization, we had THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE practically none. We had 60,000 militia, but they had had little training and had taken their duties lightly. Bernhardi had said that in the event of a European war Britain’s dominions and colonies could be completely ignored. As for financial help, we had been a borrowing country, and how could we begin to lend? But our national spirit rose to the needs of the occasion. Our people quietly de- termined to do their best. The call went out for 25,000 volunteers to go overseas, and within a few months we had sent off not 25,000, but 33,000. Within two months of the outbreak of war some of our troops who had been hardened in South Africa were fighting in France, and within seven months even our green troops were on the field engaged in a life- and-death struggle with the Huns—and holding them! Further detachments were despatched as quickly as they could be raised and drilled, until we now have a total of over 550,000 enlistments, and will soon have 600,000, and of these about 450,000 are already in Europe. Every month is add- ing to the number. We have promised that we will send over not less than 500,000, and we propose to keep that promise. CANADA’S CONTRIBUTION OF MEN AND HER CASUALTIES Our enlistments, including those se- cured under the Military Service Act, already number about one in thirteen of our population. In the same proportion the figures for the United States would be around 8,000,000, which is about the number you are preparing to raise. We began with voluntary enlistments, but, just as in the mother country, we had to come ultimately to the draft sys- tem. You have profited by our experi- ence, and have very wisely adopted the draft system from the beginning. We fully agree with you that this is the only right and fair method, and that it is be- sides vastly more efficient and more eco- nomical. And how about the casualties? In the early days of the war, when we were short of artillery, and even of rifles, and were unprepared for poison gas, we suf- © Western Newspaper Union IN THE FLAX FIELDS OF FAIR ENGLAND Who would not pay a premium for linen woven from the flax gathered by such capable hands and with such a winning smile! — "Ud}JOSIOF Jnq ‘usyestoy AjUO jou st ATOUY OUTUTUIF SUTIq UN} oY} 1OF pue YusuIdInbs oy} Jo ysed osye ose sdvo pue syetoACQ ‘sopooford oy} Sullyy FO Uoednd50 snoprezey oy} Ul posesud IIYM SYSeUT ses IvaM 0} Pastindai 91e vVswWOM SuNOd snorsjsnpur ssay} pue ‘uns e wWoI’Z pasy SI jf o10foq UsAO ATpeop SI ]Jays ses ayy, STVOINAHD SNONOSIOd HLIM STIHHS DNIGVOT WIIHM SMSVIN SVD ONIYVAM SYAMUYOM UVM HSILLIVG POOMIIPUN 2 pooMiAspuy 6) 300 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 301 fered heavily. Up to June 30 of this year we had: IMEC IMAC HON cii'sg ste cc os oe acs cede oe 27,040 IDTCUMORRWOUNGS: <5. ce sce ce ce cescee nes 9,280 IDG) Or CHGS Ce ar 2257 ES MMMCC COAG Ch oo core o's ociac'e esos sw oils 4,342 Missins—“propably dead ..2...6......: 384 MINOR MIMGLCALNS oo 0/002 ce facie ls we Sue's 43,303 im other words, of the total number who had gone overseas up to June 30 last, II.3 per cent were already dead. In addition there were— coo bh aka IG): i Se ea a 113,007 [She SVONCISIES) Sc Me ce le ea a 277A. 115,781 so that in addition to the deaths, 30.2 per cent had been wounded or made prison- ers. It isa comfort to know that between 30,000 and 40,000 of the wounded were ultimately able to return to the firing line. The total casualties were 41.5 per cent of the number who had gone overseas. But even this does not tell the full story. Most of those who had but recently gone across had, of course, not been long ex- posed, and the casualties were chiefly among those who had gone over early. Among them the casualties were tremen- dous. ‘Those noble fellows paid a terri- ble price, and I can assure you that among them were many who were the very cream’ ofthe Canadian nation.* WHEN. GERMANY -LAUNCHED HER FIRST GAS ATTACK When I think of those early days, my mind goes back to April and May, 1915, to the second battle of Ypres. It was then that the Germans made their drive for Calais and the Channel ports. Alongside our Canadian boys were French troops from Morocco, and against them the Germans first used their devilish gas. ‘The Moroccans broke and fled, and small wonder. Nothing remained but our Canadian boys between the Germans and Calais, and they were many times out- numbered by troops that were supported by efficient artillery. * According to official figures issued from Ottawa on November 12, Canadian casualties, up to eleven days before the signing of the armistice, totaled 34,877 killed in action; 15,457 dead of wounds or disease; 152,779 wounded, and 8,245 presumed dead, missing in action, and prisoners of war—a total of 211,358. Our lads spread out to cover the extra eround, but were driven back. Some of the Canadian guns were captured, and our Montreal Highlanders and others were determined that no Canadian guns should fall into the enemy’s hands, and charged through a wood and retook them. The Germans thought that we must have heavy reserves or we would never attack in such a way, and instead of pushing through they entrenched themselves as did our boys also, and time was gained. In the next few. days reserves were brought up and Calais was saved. It is said that a German major was taken prisoner, and as he was being led back to the rear and saw nothing where he ex- pected to find masses of troops, he was distracted, and again and again cried, “Let me go for half an hour and: Calais will be ours.” But Calais was saved, and the course of the war has been different because of what our Canadian boys did that day. Many of those who took part in that terrible struggle I knew personally. Be- fore my eyes there rises the picture of Major Norsworthy. In his early thir- ties, handsome and vigorous, he had brains, sound judgment, self - reliance. and energy such as few possess, and had he lived he would certainly have been one of the most prominent financial men of Canada. And Captain Guy’ Drummond, aged about 28, son of Sir George Drummond, inheritor of wealth and honored name, tall,- refined, the very finest type of the high-principled gentleman. When last seen he was using his knowledge of French, trying to rally the flying Moroc- cans. But they, poor fellows, were past being rallied, as they fled, gasping for air, their faces blue, and with death already fastened upon them, for of those who fully inhaled that devilish poison few would survive a year of agony, and the rest would be invalids for the remainder of their lives. But perhaps the story as told by a fine young fellow, a private, Billy Maclagan, who has often been in my own house, may bring the details home to us more closely. Billy went over with the first contingent, and is one of the few, the very, very few, who have gone through 302 the four years of struggle without a scratch. He wrote us his experiences. They were spared the worst of the gas, and put mud and spittle on their hand- kerchiefs and tied them on their faces. He gave us the full details of how, later on, out of the mist, flood after flood of Germans came charging on. Our boys fired and fired until the Ger- man dead lay thick before them, and their gun barrels were red hot. And still they came on, wave after wave of gray figures. We held them, while our own numbers dwindled alarmingly. The captain went, then the lieutenant, and at last in the whole trench there remained but three— a corporal, Billy, and a drummer boy of fifteen. The Huns paused and the three slipped out over the top and crawled back. The little drummer boy gave in under the sights he had crawled through and over, and began to shriek, covering his eyes. The big corporal grabbed him and thrust him within his own great coat, buttoning it up, so that the little fellow could see nothing, and so they continued. At last they met reinforcements, and Billy re- turned with them to show the way. ‘They were. even then but a handful, but the Germans did not know that and the at- tack was stayed. “NONE. BUT CREEN ‘TROOPS. COULD HAVE DONE THAT” It was a French officer, I believe, who said that no veteran troops could have done better. ‘Then he corrected himself, “None but green troops could have done that—they did not know they were beaten; they did not know enough to re- tire!” The Channel ports were saved, but at what a cost! But while we are proud of our Cana- dian boys, do not suppose that I claim any special superiority for them. Scot- land has in the British armies about twice as large a proportion of her population as has Canada... lhere are’ glens in/Scot- land where not one man of military age is now living. And nothing makes our Canadian soldiers more annoyed than any claim by those at home that they are any better than the troops from Scotland and England. We from Canada feel that we have THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE done well, but we take off our hats to the mother country. One of the lessons we have learned from the war is to appre- ciate the Scotchman, the Englishman, and the Frenchman as we never did before; and we appreciate them now because we know them now. CANADA AND HER VICTORY LOANS Now let us turn to finance: We are a young and borrowing coun- try; we have been an extravagant coun- try, and we thought we could do little toward financing the war. At the begin- ning the mother country advanced money to the various dominions at the same rate as she herself had to pay, but by 1915 we began to rely on ourselves. The govern- ment issued the call for the first domestic loan. They asked for $50,000,000, and wondered if they would get it. The sub- scriptions came to over $113,000,000. On the strong urgency of the larger sub- scribers the government took $100,000,- 000 of this amount. , In September, 1916, they asked for $100,000,000, and we offered them $201,- 000,000. Six months later, in March, 1917, they asked for $150,000,000, and we offered them $254,000,000. In November of the same year they asked for yet another $150,000,000, and we offered them $419,000,000. For this loan the government had reserved the right to accept all subscriptions, and they did take $400,000,000. If in 1915a man had told us that within the next two years the people of Canada would supply the government with $750,- 000,000, or $100 for every man, woman, and child in the country, he would have been looked on as a wild visionary. Peo- ple do not know what they can do until they really try, and we surprised our- selves. The subscribers to our first loan num- bered 24,800; to the last loan they num- bered 820,000, or nearly one in nine of the population. And now our govern- ment has asked for $300,000,000 more, and I shall be surprised if the answer is not at least $500,000,000, and I imagine that they will take it all. We shall have a heavy debt, but what of that? We shall carry it with ease, for THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 2()9 WOMEN AT WORK ON © Underwood & Underwood MINE NETS Not only in the actual manufacture of explosives and shells have Britain’s women been bearing a large part of the burden of war, but in preparing these instruments of destruction for immediate use. we are young and growing, and our shoulders are broad. Canada never was so strong or so prosperous as at this mo- ment. ‘The safest government bonds in the world are those of the United States and Canada, and I bracket them together as regards security. Not merely have we raised these large amounts of government loans, but we have kept up the price of our bond issues, so that every person who bought a Cana- dian Victory Bond can today get for it on the spot more than it cost him. The brokerage and bond houses of the Do- minion have been organized into a great committee, and whenever any bond is offered for sale it is at once resold to other purchasers. The demand for bonds has been stimu- lated until it now exceeds the supply, and the market price is above the cost price. Our government can borrow this year on slightly better terms than it had to give This group of war workers is engaged in wiring floats for mines. last year. That speaks for itself for the value of the bonds and the credit and wealth of the country. In addition to paying for the upkeep of our own troops, Canada has granted war credits to the Imperial Government of $532,000,000 with which to purchase foodstuffs, munitions, etc., in the Do- minion. Our banks have loaned the Im- perial Government $200,000,000 more. But despite the withdrawal for govern- ment loans, the deposits in our banks are $300,000,000 more than they were at the beginning of the war. The country never was so wealthy. HOW THE DOMINION TURNED TO TION-MAKING MUNI- Prior to the war we lived too easy a life, and our municipalities and corpora- tions borrowed freely in Britain. When the British markets were closed we turned to the United States. Of our 504 provincial and municipal securities sold in 1916, 85 per cent went to the United States. Of similar securities sold in 1917, only 244 per cent went’ to the United States. Our expenditures for war purposes have now risen to about a billion dollars. A considerable amount of this has been raised from taxes... Vhere has. heen a tremendous increase in the national reve- nie. But the way in which this extra money has been raised and the kind of taxes which have been imposed would, I am sure, not be interesting. You know all about that sort of thing in your own country. Perhaps J had better say the details would be interesting but not very pleasant. But more than men and money were required. ‘There was a pressing need for munitions with which to meet the Ger- man hordes. Canada had never been a great manufacturing country. But again we surprised ourselves, for we have al- ready supplied 60,000,000 shells, which I have no doubt have done good work. We have furnished munitions to the value cf $1,000,000,000, and will soon have fur- nished another $200,000,000 worth. We are helping in shipbuilding, too, for we expect to turn out chis year about 500,000 tons of new shipping, about two- thirds of steel and one of wood. I under- stand that this will about equal one-fourth of the output of the British shipbuilding yards for the year of 1917. In aircraft, too, we are trying: te do eur share. We are turning out about 350 aéroplanes per month. The total to date is about 2,500. Besides that, we are man- ning them. CONTRIBUTIONS TO MANY ACTIVITIES But it has not been all men, money, and munitions. Our people have re- sponded gloriously to all appeals for the relief of suffering. For our Canadian Patriotic. Fund, which looks after the wives, children, and dependents of our men at the front, we have already given $44,000,000. For every two dollars the government has asked from the people it has generally been given three. To the Red Cross the contributions have been $12,000,coo in cash and $15,- 000,000 in supplies. Of the cash con- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tribution, $7,c00,000 were spent by the British Red Cross and the balance by the Canadian Red Cross. According to a newspaper item which I saw the other day, Canada leads all the nations of the world in Red Cross contributions per Capita. . To the Belgian Relief Fund we have contributed over $1,500,000 in cash and an equal amount in supplies, while $8,000,- 000 more went to French, Serbian, and Polish relief funds and numerous other charitable and patriotic associations. ~ For military work by the Y. M. C. A. the contributions have been $4,500,000. In addition to the donations from the public, the Dominion and Provincial zov- ernments have giver. $5,250,000 fo char- itable work through the Impevial Govy- ernment. In all, the relief contributions from Canada amount to $90,000,000, or over $12 for every man, woman, and child in the Dominion. Our educational leaders have also or- ganized the Khaki University for edu- cating the men at the front and fitting them for their return to civilian life, and our government has undertaken its sup- port. This idea has now been copied in Britain, France, and I believe even in Germany. It had birth in the brain of Dr. H. M. Tory, president of the Univer- sity of Alberta. Dr. Yory hassentire charge of the work on the other side. To summarize what we have done in finance. We have paid about one billion dollars for war expenditures, and have raised $750,000,000 of this amount by domestic loans. We are asked to raise another $300,000,co00 during November for further expenditures, and I feel sure we will offer $500,000,000. We have given a credit of over $500,000,000 to the Imperial Government for purchase of munitions and supplies, and our banks have given a further amount for the same purposes of $200,000,c00. | We have supplied 60,000,000 shells, one billion dollars’ worth of munitions, and will soon deliver $200,000,000 worth more. We will, besides, this year add 500,000 tons of shipping, and are making 350 aéroplanes per month, having already completed 2,500, and in addition to all this we have contributed $90,000,000 to relief work. © Underwood & Underwood ARMED WITH BUCKET AND PASTE-BRUSH, SHE BECOMES THE OFFICIAL TOWN BILL- POSTER AND RELEASES A MAN FOR THE ARMY When her father answered his call to the colors, this girl of Thetford, England, carried on his work as official bill-poster and town-crier for the town council 305 506 We are a pragtical people, and yet a sentimental strain runs through us. We have: always a soft spot, and especially for those who help us or do us a good turn, Did you ever hear ofthe Cana- dian soldier who hailed from one of our Scotch settlements? In the course of an attack Sandy was rushing forward, rifle and bayonet at the charge, when sud- denly he was attacked viciously by one of his smallest enemies, who was also nearest at hand. He felt that he’ could not do justice to the enemy in the dis- tance unless he first disposed of the enemy in his midst. So he paused, put his rifle in the hook of his elbow, and made a vigorous home attack. He was successful. But just as he caught his tormentor a German shell burst in front of him, in the very spot where he would have been had he not paused. Sandy held the little thing be- fore him, and as he looked at it he said: “Weel, ma wee mon, I canna give ye the iron cross; I-canna-give ye the Victoria Cross, but ye hae saved ma life. I, must reward ye somehow. I'll just put ye back where ye belong.” And back he went. TAKING A MAN’S PART IN THE GREAT STRUGGLE For years before the war broke out, many of us knew of Germany’s ambi- tions to rule the world, and feared that this struggle was coming. The question had to be settled whether Anglo-Saxon ideals of freedom and democracy were to prevail or the world was to be Ger- manized and ruled by the Kaiser. When the future of humanity was at stake, we wanted to have some influence in the decision, and we were thankful that, as part of the British Empire, we were at war and privileged to take a man’s part in this great world struggle, the greatest crisis that has come in the history of humanity for over a thousand years. There was no compulsion on us. The Germans expected us to stay out, and simply could not understand our going in. At first we were influenced by pa- triotic and humanitarian reasons which we felt in a general way. But our boys soon came in contact with German bru- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tality in a concrete way and our feelings became vastly deeper and more intense. For instance, Lieutenant Holt, of Win- nipeg, returned on leave of absence and brought with him as a souvenir a little doll. In one of those early days his regi- ment was; forced back by the? enemy through a Belgian village. He stopped at a small house to ask directions, and a little girl of about seven years ran out and gave him her dolly. She said, “Please take my dolly to a safe place.” ‘To please her he took it. Next day our men re- took the village and he at once went to the cottage to see how the child had fared. He found her—lying across the thresh- old, dead—killed by a German bayonet. Lieutenant Holt brought back that dolly to a safe place in Canada, but your boys and our boys are now fighting that the whole world may be made a safe place for little mothers like that. King’s Staff-Sergeant James W. Smith, who has returned with his right arm shattered and shortened and the hand little better than a deformed claw, who was foreman in the W. C. White boiler works of Montreal and is now superintendent in a munition factory, told me personally that he had himself assisted in taking down some Canadian soldiers who had been crucified by the Germans nailing them to a barn door. Do you wonder that our Canadian boys were very demons in fe- rocity when next they attacked? NO SELFISH CONTEST It is no selfish struggle in which we ate engaged. Like you of the United States, we have nothing to gain. We seek no territory, no indemnity, no ad- vantage. But, like you, we are glad and proud to be in, and glad and proud to have been of any service. This is the brief story of some of the things that have been done. But after all, those things belong to the past; they are written in history and are now mere records and memories. Nothing that we can now do can change them, and the future, which we have the power to change, is therefore more interesting and more important. In our outlook on the future we are now, thank God, united as Allies—Allies who are working together with heart and soul. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE | O07 Oe A VIEW OF JAFFA, THE ANCIENT PORT OF PALESTINE WHICH WAS USED AS A BASE OF OPERATIONS IN THE BRITISH ADVANCE UPON JERUSALEM In the time of Solomon, Jaffa was the port of Jerusalem, and it was here that the cedar from Lebanon was landed for the construction of the Temple. port figured in many of the crusades. In the middle ages the sea- Napoleon captured it in 1799, and now it has helped the Twentieth Century Crusaders of Britain to deliver the Holy Land from the Hun and the Turk (see also pages 325-344). I should like again to express my ad- miration of the magnificent work which you of the United States are doing. If we in Canada can but keep pace with you, we shall be satisfied. We shall at least try. My last word is a vision which I and other Canadians note with joy is already in the first stages of realization. I see the United States and the British Em- pire, the two great branches of the Eng- lish-speaking world, going down through the centuries arm in arm, cooperating as brothers, each helping the other, each strengthening the other, and unitedly blessing the world and making it safe for democracy. The Germans have suc- ceeded in unifying the Anglo-Saxon world. A VIEW Bn Photograph by an Australian Aviator, from C. W. Whitehair OF THE HOLY CITY OF JERUSALEM: FROM) (Ee *Siay The conspicuous area in the middle of this airplane photograph is the “Place of the Temple,” in the center of which is the glittering Mosque of Omar, one of the richest temples in the world. Beyond is the elevation known as the Mount of Olives, crowned by the Kaiserin Augusta Victoria Hospice, in which the German Government installed a powerful wireless outfit. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre can be distinguished near the center of the city. The Garden of Gethsemane lies between the Mosque of Omar and the Mount of Olives (see also pages 325-344). THE HEALER OF HUMANITY’S WOUNDS N. PEACE asin. war, there is: no organization more necessary for the alleviation of suffering than the Amer- ican Red Cross, some of whose distinctive activities are most effectively portrayed in the exclusive photographs on pages 309-324. Now and ever the hearts of countless millions of the soldiers of every land who have survived the awful conflict of the War for Eternal Peace glow with gratitude when the Red Cross is brought to mind; their children and their chil- dren’s children will remember it with the exact antithesis of the feeling inspired by thoughts of war. Great as the Red Cross was in war, yet greater is it in peace, and its usefulness is now supreme in the months and years of restitution, rehabilitation, and recon- struction in the countries of our staunch friends, who so bravely bore the brunt of the brutal thrust which threatened the safety of the world and who held at bay the militaristic machine of the last of the Huns until the armies of democracy could gird up their loins and destroy it. The American Red Cross needs now the support of every American more than ever before. To help in this work of relieving civilian suffering in devastated France and Belgium is the paramount privilege of every man, woman, and child in the United States. The widows, aged parents, and fatherless children of the heroes who died to stem the tide of autocratic ad- vance require your assistance, through the Red Cross, in regaining their equilib- rium to face the problems of the future. TO eB ABO: Hem, ph ssitmaa neti ey Ls apepuapale ee EE IEE, pie AN ADOPTED SON OF AMERICA “T like the American soldiers. They have come to protect my country. And-‘I-like espe- cially my god-fathers,” says Andre Claudel, a ten-year-old orphan who has been adopted by a number of army field clerks in France. Andre’s mother died a year ago and his father was killed in the Argonne. He is a serious-minded little French boy and one of the best students in the refugee colony at Caen. 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AHOVAD 66 SSOYD daa NVOIMANV € 3) 321 -Iodwr uv sey SsoiZy poy UesIIoWYy oy sjeapt A}JO] SIFT ‘Yjiva uO UU SUT]YSYy Jsowospuey It} AONVUL NI AHONAIGOV AIAOW,, SSOWO qwa V € ‘ueotiowy Ariaad jo Jsoddns oy} sysow yoryM osodind P—UOLPZTIAID UO JEM JY} JO SJofo IY} SUIZIWIUIU UI S}SISUOD SsoU[NJIsN 4s9}voI ‘UO SUIOS SPM JEM IY} IM UOTILZIIATD ACS O} SBA PUODS 9Y} /ILM OY} UIM doy 0} SPM SsOID poy UvdIIoWY 9Y} JO dsodind suwN-1eM js1 AAIT IVIOOS AWOH AO HONOL V SHAID NHALNVO SSOWO dau V NI YWANYOD OISNW AHL S S}f MON Bay LION | 323 A SMILING HERO : From the day the United States entered the war up to July 1, 1918, the women of the American Red Cross made 10,786,489 hospital garments for the use of “our boys.” Here is one of both—boy and garment. ‘The boy is cheerful in spite of the load of shell fragments he is carrying in various parts of his anatomy, and the garment—maybe it’s from your own Red Cross chapter. ; 324 AN OLD JEWEL IN THE PROPER SETTING An Eyewitness’s Account of the Reconquest of the Holy Land by Twentieth Century Crusaders By CHARLES W. WHITEHAIR thousand years ago, captured Jeru- salem and made it his capital, it has been a coveted prize, sought not so much by the nations for its military im- portance as for its sacredness to three of the world’s greatest religions. For to the Jew and the Mohammedan, as well as the Christian, Jerusalem is “The Holy City.” Throughout its his- tory the wearied feet of millions of pil- grims from far-distant lands have never ceased to climb over the rocky Judean hills to pay homage and to worship within its sacred walls. To the Jew, as the home of his fore- fathers, it has always been of hallowed memory in spite of the hundreds of years of his exile. To the Christian, Jerusalem, with the surrounding country, is truly “The Holy feand, for it 1s the land of his Lord’s birth, His ministry, His crucifixion, His resurrection. Throughout Christendom the names Jerusalem, Mount of Olives, Bethlehem, and Garden of Gethsemane are laden with meaning, even to the smallest school child. To the Mohammedan, Jerusalem is second only to Mecca in sanctity. Repeatedly besieged, captured, and re- captured, practically all of the great na- tions of history have held sway over the Holy City—the Israelites, Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Assyr- ians, Romans, Saracens, Crusaders, and Turks—and its surrender in the past has nearly always meant the destruction of its buildings and the wholesale slaughter of the population. S ies King David, nearly three BRITISH CAPTORS WITHHELD SHELLFIRE FROM THE SACRED CITY The treatment which Jerusalem has re- ceived at the hands of her British captors 325 stands out in strong contrast to her past history of suffering. Realizing the importance of Jerusalem to the Christians, the Jews, and the Mo- hammedans, General Allenby so planned his campaign that he captured the town without firing a single shell into the an- cient walled city. However, the capture of Jerusalem is only an isolated incident in the great Palestine campaign. Operating in an 1n- hospitable, hostile country, where not only food, clothing, and munitions had to be transported from great distances, but even water carried many weary miles to her forces fighting amid oppressive desert heat, Great Britain and her colonies, prac- tically unaided, crushed the Turkish Em- pire. To do so she sent a million men to the Holy Land and Mesopotamia, transport- ing them an average distance of about 3,000 miles through submarine-infested seas. And these campaigns were con- ducted simultaneously with the major operations of her armies in Belgium and France and the activities of other hun- dreds of thousands in Macedonia and Fast Africa! Early in 1915 the Turkish forces, aided by the Germans, were launched against the Suez Canal—the main artery of the British Empire, connecting Australia, New Zealand, and India with the mother country. In February,:a small force of the enemy reached the, canal and was driven back; but in order to protect this vital waterway it became necessary for the British to launch an offensive. This meant pushing forward over 150 miles of desert, which marked the begin- ning of the long, weary months of fight- ing on the Sinai Peninsula, known as the Desertsicampaiona” Ainericas can little realize those awful days of suffering. P]IOM ay} FO AIOZSTY oy} ur sdsoo ysodsuvi} aures ysoyeo1S dy} ‘s}svaq Uapinq Jo Spuvsnoy} FO sus} Potojsnur Aue YsHitg oy} Ustedures Jiosap epNsurusq leurs Ss} Uy ANILSATIVd GANOSAY JO SGNVS LadSHd GNV AMS AHL ISNIVOV GaALLANOH’IIS SYAaVSNUO HSILIMd AHL JO NVAVAVO V 326 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 327 Photograph from C. W. Whitehair AN AUTOMOBILE HIGHWAY IN THE HOLY LAND The going is seldom smooth for a motor car in Palestine, and the rainy season offered additional obstacles to the British in their advance upon Jerusalem. But the mud and the mountain torrents were far preferable to the suffocating dust and almost unendurable desert heat of the dry season, when the Jordan Valley advance was made. During the summer of 1916 I visited every part of the Sinai front, and in no part of the war zone have I seen men undergo greater privations and hardships. Every gallon of water had to be carried forward in great tin boxes, called “fan- tasses’’; and in time the British mustered the greatest camel transport the world has ever seen, running into the tens of thousands of burden beasts. — It was no easy matter to move forward the guns and keep up the lines of com- munication, for the wheels of the motor- cars and artillery sank deep into the soft sand. One enterprising young officer discovered that by laying chicken wire on the sand, motor-cars and guns could be moved forward. THE GREAT BATTLE WITH DESERT THIRST On the desert, many weary months went by. The army had not only to fight the Turk, but the heat, dust, flies, and thirst as well. And the worst hardship of all was the unquenchable thirst. Only those who have gone into the desert really know this awful, unbearable, ever-grip- ping, burning thirst. The desert thirst has no equal. The sizzling hot sun on the sand, the glaring light, and the burning heat get into the blood, and the victim begins to want water. If he is fortunate enough to have the water, he drinks, but his thirst re- mains unsatisfied; and then, after he drinks, he begins to perspire and his throat becomes dry and parched and his body becomes a roaring furnace, while his clothes are soaked with perspiration. He can literally drink gallons. But the lads who went over the scorching sands of Sinai had only one gallon of water a day per man—one gallon for cooking, washing, and drinking. pa rer a ee ee JS11y} Jtosop a1qeyouonbun ‘suruing ‘surddiis ‘Injme jeyj}—jssry} pue “‘soip Ysnp ‘jvey oY} 3nq “YIN, ay} yYSy 0} Ayuo jou pey ounsseg ur Awae ysng oyy, SHOUOd HSMIXd@ AHL JO SdYOO GUINQOW JaASHd AHL dO SMWAVNOdVAH AHL Woud vaaal JO SSHNYNa@IIM ZHI SECU UIANT GAS OS dese era (he) N SP) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 329 Photograph from C. W. Whitehair GENERAL VON FALKENHAYN AND DJEMAI, PASHA LEAVING THE MOSQUE OF OMAR IN JERUSALEM This is one of the numerous official Turkish photographs which fell into the hands of the British following their successful “Palestine push.” There is no more formidable fighting man in the world than the Turk, and Germany sent some of her ablest officers to the Near East to organize and direct the operations of the Ottoman troops against the British; but the triumph of General Allenby’s men was complete. In the entire campaign, every gallon of water had to be brought from the River Nile by means of pipes. The water was stored in great reservoirs prior to being filtered for the troops. It was not only necessary to bring the Nile water hundreds of miles for the army, but in many instances water had to be furnished to the captured civilian pop- ulation along the line of march, due to the fact that the ‘T‘urks:destroyed the wells as they retreated. But, in spite of heat, thirst, the diff- culties of transport, and the combined Turkish and German resistance, the Brit- ish forces moved slowly forward until they reached the strong enemy line stretching from Gaza to Beersheba. It was at this juncture in the operations that General Allenby, in June, 1917, came out from France, took over the command, and began the “Palestine push.” The success of the whole campaign very largely centered around the railroad, which was constructed mile by mile as. the army moved forward. Much of it had to be built under constant fear of aerial bombardment. But probably no. railroad has carried as large an amount of freight in the same length of time, for all the food, munitions, guns, and men for Palestine are moved over the one track. THE GIFT OF. THE LAST.CRUSADERS Before the war, in going to Jerusalem it was necessary to proceed by boat from Port Saido ‘Jaffa, thence by rail to Jeru- salem, for the trip across the sands of Sanai took about eight. days by camel. Today the traveler can go to bed on a AS6tt atl O12 *pDmnoas s910T 39) eaieeini kane SYTANV ICO HSILINa JO § SAOIdSNAV AHL wHaNa “WaAIVSOMAL NL AVU AJNAUNAdHUNL NVJLUMILY UNELVaus Las Tey NYA “M “OD Wor ‘AuojoD uvorroury Aq ydessojoyd in) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ool comfortable train at the canal base camp, Kantara, and arrive early the next morn- ing in Jerusalem. This quick and comfortable trip has been made possible by the last Crusaders, many of whom sleep beneath the lonely crosses that mark the road from the Suez Canal to the gates of the Holy City. On December 5 the British forces had fought forward to a line from Neby Samwil to a position opposite Ain Karim, a distance of just under five miles. Neby Samwil is 2,935 feet above sea- level and quite the highest point in the vicinity of Jerusalem. It is about four and a half miles from the north wall of the city. Ain Karim, the traditional birthplace of John the Baptist, is about four miles slightly to the southwest of Jerusalem. HOW THE ATTACK WAS LAUNCHED The actual attack on Jerusalem was begun on the morning of December 8. Unfortunately, on December 7 it had be- gun to rain, and there was a deluge for three days, as it was the rainy season. Mist and fog hung over the hills and made aéroplane observation practically impossible. The rain also made the roads almost impassable for mechanical transport and the camels were useless. ‘The troops had been moved up in the same clothing they had worn in the desert campaign—khaki drill and shorts—and the men suffered severely from the intense cold. The general who commanded the 60th division told me that on the night of De- cember 7 he had brought up from Jaffa all the oranges he could get, and then went among the troops and threw the fruit on the ground and made the men scramble for it as they would in a foot- ball game, to get them warmed up. The only food the troops had was bully beef and biscuits. But in spite of cold, rain, and rough food, they were all ex- ceedingly keen to go forward. Every soldier, that cold, rainy December night, seemed to be inspired with the spirit of the old Crusaders, as he went forward, singing, to the attack. About midnight the British forces reached the position of deployment and the attack began. By dawn they had cap- tured all of their first objectives. It is impossible to speak of this attack as a charge, because, as I went over all the ground, I found it was quite difficult even to crawl up the side of the hill. Their last objective lay quite a little way out of the city. It was an old fac- tory on top of the hill, in which there had been installed a large number of ma- chine guns, which swept the slopes. At 8 o’clock on the morning of De- cember 8, the British left the Turkish trenches they had captured and made for the factory. The only cover was the big rocks on the hillside, and they went for- ward in the style of the old Indian fighter. At 4 o'clock that afternoon they made a final rush and seized the crest. At 5 o'clock the assailants were in possession, and this practically meant the capture of Jerusalen, as there were no more com- manding heights to which the Turks could retire. THE SURRENDER OF THE CITY On the morning of December 9, Pri- vates wel se. Church and Ri W.).J) An- drew, of the 220th London Regiment, sighted a white flag outside of Jerusalem. The news was immediately wired back to Major General Shea, who at once wired General Allenby. General Allenby telegraphed: “Go for- ward at once and receive the surrender Of the tcity memy name, 2 General Shea immediately went for- ward and from the acting mayor and chief of police he received the surrender of Jerusalem. Of course, it was received outside the city wall. At noon on December 11 General AlI- lenby made his official entry into Jerusa- lem through the small, narrow Jaffa Gate, on foot, 1n his ordinary active serv- ice uniform, without even the display of military medals. What a contrast to the entry of the Kaiser, when he made his pilgrimage to Jerusalem in 1898! His agents had the Turks tear down a part of the city walls rear the Jaffa Gate so that he could ad- vance through a passage made solely for himself, and on horseback he entered, with all the pomp and glory and display of wealth that the Teutonic mind could conceive. ood THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a Alle ai WEES Les Photograph from C. W. Whitehair A CAMEL RACE, ONE OF THE EVENTS OF A Y. M. C. A. ATHLETIC MEET ARRANGED FOR THE ENTERTAINMENT OF THE BRITISH TOMMIES WHO CAPTURED JERUSALEM That ostentatious entry twenty years ago was looked upon at the time as the action of an egotistical monarch, but now we have come to realize that it was part of a plan to win the Moslem world to Germany. This breach in the wall made possible the entry of carriages into the town, and these have taken away some of the charm of the Holy City; but the vehicles can penetrate only a few hun- dred feet, as the streets are exceedingly narrow. However, the world can be truly thank- ful that henceforth no such desecration of the sacred city will take place. The British, I understand, are planning to re- pair the breach in the wall, thus restoring all the traditional simplicity of the ancient city. KAISERISM ON THE MOUNT OF OLIVES The Kaiser caused to be erected on the beautiful Mount of Olives, overlooking Jerusalem and all the surrounding coun- try, a great stone building altogether out of keeping with the ancient architecture of the city. They called it. the Kaiserin Augusta Victoria Hospice, which even then was spoken of as looking more like a fortress than a hospice. It is a tremendous building, supposed to be for the use of German pilgrims, but it was afterward discovered that it con- tained a powerful wireless outfit, which, I presume the exponents of German Kultur would explain, was a real aid to the German pilgrims’ prayers and medi- tations. Later, it was claimed that the founda- tions of the walls were beginning to give way, thus affording an excuse for build- ing great concrete bases to hold them in place. ‘These bases had a strange re- semblance to the ordinary German gun emplacements—a _ little more German Kultur ! Today, standing at all gates and before all the places sacred to Christianity and Judaism, are British Tommies, protecting them against desecration and spoliation at the hand of war. British Indians, be- ing Mohammedans, guard the Moham- medan sacred places. Since: the capture of, they cityva noted single building has been torn down or damaged, and no changes of any kind are permitted without the sanction of the military authorities. Every single stone is being guarded, so that the city may be preserved unmarred by modern hands. Upon his entry, General Allenby at once announced to the inhabitants that they would receive just treatment, that no preference was to be shown, and that the people were to carry on their business as they would in times of peace. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE MEET: CO Oo ee) Photograph from C. W. Whitehair LADY ALLENBY GIVING AWAY THE PRIZES AT A Y. M. C. A. ATHLETIC PALESTINE _ While the Y. M. C. A. has been chiefly instrumental in providing entertainment and diver- sion for the Twentieth Century Crusaders in the Holy Land, it has also helped the British authorities in solving some of the vital sanitary problems of Jerusalem. It was this organiza- tion which secured engine, pump, carts, and wagons for the first sanitary equipment installed in the city. The first British military governor of Jerusalem was the Postmaster-General of Egypt, Borden Pasha; but he had to re- sign because of illness, and Colonel Ron- ald Storrs assumed the title and duties of Governor of Jerusalem on December 27. When he arrived he found that the city was on the verge of famine, and imme- diate action had to be taken to avert it. SAVING THE CITY FROM STARVATION Jerusalem in the past had two main sources of food supply—the first from the sea by Jaffa, which was cut off at the outbreak of the war; the second from the districts east of the Jordan. The latter was interrupted by the Turks when the British captured the city. No supplies were coming in from the surrounding country, as in December the roads are very bad, and because nearly four years of Turkish military occupa- tion had stripped the country of all avail- able food resources. An order was issued requiring the dec- laration of all grain in the city, for nearly 25,000 people were absolutely destitute and the number was increasing daily. Hundreds of tons of supplies were shipped in and relief work was carefully carried forward under the personal su- pervision of the Governor and his staff. The Turks on evacuating Jerusalem took special care to deport all persons oc- cupying important civil offices, such as heads of communities, magistrates, chief accountants, the chief of the police, and other prominent citizens. They had closed all schools, disbanded the police force, and destroyed or carried away every important document or register Se) Oo iS IMPORTANT NOTICE. Ail correspondence must be written in one of the following languages and in the characters indicated :— English. French. Italian. Hebrew (Hebrew character). Arabic. Yiddish (Latin or Hebrew character). Spanish-Hebrew (old Hebrew character). Russian. Armenian. Greek. Spanish. Portuguese. Dutch. Amharic. German (Latin or German character). All other correspondence will be destroyed. JERUSALEM IS THE MODERN BABEL Fifteen languages ought to be enough for any community, but the last line of this official proclamation, issued in the Holy City after There are lots of other tongues spoken in the capital of Palestine in addition to the ones catalogued. These, however, are the principal languages to be heard in the streets the British occupation, is no joke. and observed on the signboards. connected with the administration. There were no records left; not even title deeds of private property. Private and public institutions had been pillaged. No medical attention was to be had anywhere in the city, but within 24 hours ff few (wears): ini & wi lho? Egyptian Government Military Governor. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE after the British oc- cupation two hospitals were opened for the civilian population. The Governor and his staff personally went to every bakery during the first few days, to see that the women and children got bread and were not crowded away by the men. Nine hun- dred tons of cereals are now brought to Je- rusalem every month, and every precaution is taken to see that the city has sufficient food. The problem of gov- ernment was far more complicated than ap- pears on the surface, for in Jerusalem more languages are spoken than in any other city in the world—a fact indicated by one of the official notices re- produced on this page. Fortunately, the Military Governor is splendidly fitted for his task, for he knows the Near East, having been during the past iat five (No. 27.) service. He knows the oriental mind, and realizes how impossi- ble it 1s to deal with orientals, without knowing something about their religion and their mode of liv- ing and thinking. He is able to speak flu- ently Arabic, French, Italian, Greek, Eng- lish, German, and Turkish and is now mastering Hebrew. During his services in Egypt, Colonel Storrs became very popular with the Moslems—a fact which gave him a good standing in Jerusalem, as the majority THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of the population in Pales- tine are Moslem. Since the different relig- ious communities in Jerusa- lem have been quarreling for years, it was not to be expected that they would lay aside their differences the moment the city was taken over by the British. The Governor laughingly told me that he felt that he was dealing with the popu- lation in a just way as long as they all kept complaining. Bor, example, in the morning a deputation of Greek priests would call to protest that the authorities were according special privi- leges to the Jews or the Moslems; a little later would come a deputation of Latin priests registering a similar complaint against the others; and following them, the Moslem leaders would make their com- miaimts. After these ‘ the Jewish rabbis might come to voice their troubles. ~The Governor put it aptly when he said that if part of the community quit com- plaining, he had made up his mind it would be time to change his program, as the satisfied citizens were possibly being shown too much consideration. In the large public square in the outer city a British military band gives a con- cert four times a week. At first the band played only three afternoons a week— Thursday, Saturday, and Sunday —but the Grand Mufti, the head of the Mos- lems, complained, saying: BVot are playing for the Jews on Saturday and for the Christians on Sunday, but you don’t play for the Mohammedans on Friday.” The band now plays on Friday. we) Oo C1 Me 34 PUBLIC NOTICE No person shall demolish, erect, alter, or repair the structure of any building in the City of Jerusalem or its environs within a radius of 2506 metres from the Damascus Gate (Bab-al-Amud) until he has obtained a written permit from the Military Governor. Any person contravening the orders contained in this proclamation, or any term or terms contained in a license issued to him under this proclamation will be liable upon conviction to a fine not exceeding L. Kg. 200. R. STORRS Colonel Jerusalem, 8th April 1918 Military Governor. AVIS Personne n'est autorisé a démolir, construire. changer ou modifier nimporte quel batiment dans sa structure a Jérusalem ou dans ses environs sur un rayon de 2590 mé- ires partant de la porte de Damas, (Bab-el-Amud) sans avoir obtenu un permis écrit du Gouverneur Militaire. Toute personne conirevenant. soil aux ordres contenus dans cette proclamation, soit 4 la feneur du permis octroye, s‘exposera apres condamnation, a une amende ne dépassant pas L. Eg. 200. Le Gouverncur Militaire R. STORRS Colonel Jérugalem, le 8 Avril 1918 Vemlane 3313 66? be sly> 3 u-aall Hae 3 OE cheap ol Gade GY SY bef ol Jo abe I caal Ll 2a at ol lode +, = Gls! agelal wh ge dasl ae tees “Kol CW Salen oy Ules Raby Jo § er Bs Geral byt ge be ols YIM ode OY Uo! : a ox ley tle Bt ade ¢ LU lly of le ae 4d Gee ode i) GL SKasl! Se et yh © VQIA Se cls Ag SH p23 ST TUT Sep pnd MPMsD2 WwW odwrs pia $2 NIN |PM w Pony Dose" YP Ko OW nw vxaxn SewrD sansa pres. Sopw iy Cop dx 2K) ow wen reP 2500 7 1 ND) WR py! HON TNR Oy we NNT APTA. WR MPEP AIM wR OW 72 were 200 Se orap by moe xbw orp nop ok Apt. “He > 1918 Smo 8 obey Sudip NO 7 Cxaxmonn) Photograph from C. W. Whitehair ONE OF THE FOUR-LANGUAGE PROCLAMATIONS POSTED IN JERUSALEM BY THE BRITISH BRITISH HORSES TETHERED AT THE FOOT OF THE MOUNT OF OLIVES: THE KAISERIN AUGUSTA VICTORIA HOSPICE CROWNS THE HEIGHT (SEE TEXT, PAGE 332) Photographs from C. W. Whitehair BRITISH OBSERVATION POST IN THE INDIAN HILLS ON THE DAMASCUS ROAD ‘The rapidity with which the British troops completed the conquest of Palestine and Syria during the closing weeks of the world war constituted one of the most brilliant strategic campaigns of history. Much of the success of the great “push” was due to the excellence of the observers both on the ground and in the air. 336 A RESERVOIR BETWEEN THE PONTIUS PILATE TANK AND JERUSALEM The capacity of this basin is 350,000 gallons. The tank begun by Pontius Pilate was not completed in ancient times because the Roman Government frowned upon the heavy cost of the proposed water system. ‘The British, however, immediately following their occupation of the Holy City, began the restoration and completion of the tank, which has a capacity of 5.000,000 gallons and is fed by a perennial spring. Photographs from C. W. Whitehair COURTYARD OF THE COPT INN: JERUSALEM his inn marks the northern boundary of the Patriarch’s Pool, an artificial reservoir which is said to have been constructed by King Hezekiah 337 © International Filia Service FRENCH PILGRIMS CARRYING A HUGE CROSS INTO THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE This edifice is one of the most sacred shrines in all Christendom. Every year in times of peace thousands of Americans join in the pilgrimage of peoples who wend their ceaseless way to this historic spot. 338 © International Film Service THE ANCIENT CEREMONY OF “WASHING THE FEET” BY THE GREEK PATRIARCH ON THURSDAY BEFORE EASTER IN FRONT OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE: JERUSALEM This particular scene was enacted in the Holy City some time prior to the rescue of pene by the British. Note the preponderance of the Turkish fez in the crowd of on- ookers. 339 ‘s9|qvis $,UOLUOOS SUIS] 9du0 aI9M vey avoqe Surpueys st ainjo1d oy} FO 3Jo] OY} Je oATLU OYT, ,,etoy} IeyYe sty pooeid prAeq Surly s10foq usde jods posses e sem yy ‘ajduiay, yuooyruseu S UOWOTOS jo ds ot} St ‘y7eM ve Aq popunosins st YIYM “Bore sIyT, admMay, 94} FO aoe] q Yj}, ‘fldoyS-yso-wiesepy st woyesnsof [pe ur soeld jngrmeaq ysow ot, NHIVSOWAL :AYNSOIONI WIdWAL AHL AO WANUYOO ISVAHINON AHI 340 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE b41 A public reading room has been opened in the public garden, in which the daily news telegrams are posted in English, ‘French, Arabic, and Hebrew, and news- papers in various languages are provided. Football teams have been organized among the boys of the city, under a spe- cial coach selected by the military. Pub- lic entertainments of all sorts are pro- vided, and great care is taken to see that the heads of all the different religious communities are invited. Without question, the greatest achieve- ment of the British régime has been the bringing of water to the city. Before the British occupation the only water in Jeru- salem was that which was collected dur- ing the rainy season in the dirty cisterns throughout the city and that which was peddled in goatskin water-bags on the backs of men and donkeys. The reservoirs or cisterns are from twenty to thirty feet square and are so constructed that the water from the build- ings and streets flows into them during the rainy season. As sanitation in the past has been unknown in the city, the condition of these cisterns can be imag- ined, for no precaution was taken to pre- vent the filth and dirt of the streets from flowing in with the water. Water has always been the most pre- cious thing in Palestine, and particularly in Jerusalem. Although the Turks ruled the city for more than four hundred years, they had never provided an ade- quate water supply. Within five months after the arrival of the British 320,000 gallons of water were being piped into the city daily. About 15 miles from Jerusalem, out beyond Bethlehem, on the Hebron road, was a great tank begun by Pontius Pilate to supply water to the city. We are told that the expense was so great that when the Roman Government learned of it the work was stopped at once and was never completed. The tank and an aqueduct from an ever-flowing spring to the tank have been restored, and the water is now brought to Jerusalem through a six-inch pipe. The tank holds about 5,000,000 gallons, and insures a steady supply. PLANNING FOR THE CITY'S FUTURE Realizing that under a just and honest administration Jerusalem is likely to have a large increase in population, a general plan has been drawn up for the imme- diate future. This plan provides for modern extensions beyond the walled area and contemplates a more practical style of architecture, which will, however, harmonize with the buildings of the an- clent CIty. As an old jewel must be properly set, so as to bring out all its luster, so will old Jerusalem stand out on the top of the hill, unspoiled by modern hand, towering alone in all her ancient beauty. Much of the oriental charm of the old city is due to the dark, narrow, winding streets, resounding with the babble of many tongues and teeming with endless streams of people gathered out of every nation under heaven. Many of the streets are ill paved and end in blind alleys. A number of them run under and through buildings and are lighted by oil lamps. No ray of sunshine or fresh air penetrates these dark pas- sagewavys. Often it is necessary to crouch against the wall to let the camels and donkeys, in charge of their yelling Moslem drivers, get by. One who has made the trip from Jaffa to Jerusalem at night by motor-car can never forget the sights and sounds of the almost endless train of grumbling, groaning camels, with donkeys occasion- ally interspersed, all loaded with vegeta- bles and fruit, creeping up to Jerusalem for the morning market. PILGRIMS FROM ALL LANDS In Jerusalem we see the pilgrims from all countries, who have come to end their days in the sacred city. Jews are seen by the thousands, in their long, thin robes, which look like dusters, all with wide- brimmed hats, much like those worn by the: Quakers in their early days in America. Mingling with the crowds are Greek, Latin, and Armenian priests in bare feet or wearing sandals, and here and there are the sisters from the numberless con- vents. The Moslem women go hurrying through the streets, with faces completely hidden by long veils. Armenians, Arabs, -and Europeans are all rubbing shoulders in the little winding streets. As I went about the city the variety of putrid smells and the dirty, begging pop- 342 ulation detracted much from the charm > of the scene and made it difficult to realize that this to millions of people is the most sacred spot in all the world. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre is a very interesting place, being remarka- ble for the number of supposedly historic spots in so small an area. Not far from the reputed sepulchre is the Stone of Atonement, where the body of Christ 1s said to have been prepared for burial. A few feet away is a hole in which the cross is said to have been placed, with two holes beside it for the crosses of the two thieves crucified at the same time, and in another room a star is inlaid in the floor to mark the burial place of Adam. Millions of people journey to Jerusa- lem to see these sacred places. An Amer- ican, tourist. once .remarked that’ this church is hike an American department store—everything under one roof. The most beautiful place in all Jeru- salem is Haram-esh-Sherif, “the Place of the’ Temple.” This area, which is sur- rounded by a wall, is the site of Solo- mon’s magnificent temple. It was a sacred spot even before King David placed his altar there. In the center is the glittering Mosque of Omar, one of the richest in the world. It is built’ over a-oreat rock, the Holy Rock, beneath which, according to the Moslems, is “The Well of Souls,’ where the spirits of all the Moslem dead assem- ble twice a week to pray. Mohammed himself once declared that one prayer here is worth a thousand elsewhere. The rock is 59 feet long and 44 feet wide. Upon it the old Israelites made their burnt offerings, and in the middle ages the Crusaders erected an altar. On this rock Abraham is supposed to have built the altar on which to sacrifice his son Isaac. Beneath it is a small cavern about 15 feet square, in which some peo- ple believe that Masonry was first instt- tuted by King Solomon. Shortly after the capture of Jerusalem a group of New Zealand Masons, by lib- eral gratuities to the sheik in charge of the mosque, secured permission to enter this mystical chamber, and there 32 of them, representing 27 different lodges, held a Masonic meeting. ‘The old sheik acted as door-keeper and protected the meeting from intruders. Throughout the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE world of Masonry in modern times, no other worshipful master has opened his lodge in quite such historic surroundings. Jericho has nearly disappeared from the map ; today it is a little village of only a few dirty, dismal hovels, not worthy of being called houses, in which live some three hundred wretched creatures. However, from the little village, at the break of day, there is unfolded to the eye of the traveler one of the most remark- able historic panoramas in all the world. Across the Jordan to the east the sun shoots its rays over the heights of Moab. It was from one of those lofty moun- tains that Moses, after forty years of wandering and waiting, gazed longingly upon the Land of Promise, which he was destined never to enter. To the south, between the mountains of Moab and the Judean Hills, nestles the Dead Sea, upon whose sluggish waters there now floats the smallest fighting squadron of the: great British navy. To the northwest lies the Mountain of Temptation, where Christ is reputed to have spent His forty days and nights of fasting. To the west, silhouetted against the sky-line, looms the tower of the German hospice upon the Mount of Olives. IS THE JEW'S DREAM TO BE REALIZED? One of the spots best known to tourists in Jerusalem is “The Wailing Place of the Jews,” a portion of the old wall erected by David, where for hundreds of years countless thousands have gathered to pray for the restoration of their kingdom. At last it looks as if their dream would be- come a reality. Mr. Arthur James Bal- four, Great Britain’s Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, has written as fol- lows on this subject: “His Majesty’s Government view with favor the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavors to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which shall prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.” : A part of this plan was the establish- ment of a great Hebrew university, and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE WAILING PLACE OF “May the kingdom soon return to Zion! GO ps se) Photograph from C. W. Whitehair THE JEWS: JERUSALEM Comfort those who mourn over Jerusalem. May peace and joy abide with Zion, and the Branch of Jesse spring up at Jerusalem.” Thus runs the litany of the Jews, which for centuries has been recited in this place. Today the never-ending prayers of an exiled people are about to be answered. I was fortunate to be in Jerusalem at the time of the laying of the corner-stone of this institution. ‘The day marked the dawn of a new epoch in the history of the Jewish people. The site of the university is on Mount Scopus, across the Kidron River from the city and north of the Mount of Olives. On the day of the ceremony the crowds began leaving the gates of the city in the eatly afternoon. Most of them were walking because they were too poor to ride. Besides, when the Turks left Jeru- salem they swept the city clean of car- riages, wagons, and horses. But one forgot the poverty of the mul- titude when he caught their spirit, for over them hung an atmosphere of hope and expectancy. ‘They were happy, and well they might be, for a new day was beginning for all of them, and surely no race has suffered longer or more intensely than the Jews. With heads high the multitudes sang their hosannas and hallelujahs. The lay- ing of the corner-stone was marked by simplicity and dignity. The actual build- ing of the university will be delayed until after the close of the war. It now looks as if, after nearly two thousand years of exile, the Jews will return to claim. a home: in. the land -of their forefathers. Even under the unjust Turkish rule, the Zionists had established 45 or 50 settlements, and any one who doubts their ability to colonize has only to visit some of these villages. The houses are better built than those of the ordinary Paléstine village. The streets are clean and the farms are most creditable. The colonists have greatly in- creased the annual harvest of the acres they cultivate, and have demonstrated that Palestine has large agricultural possi- bilities. The territory of Palestine is about one- 344 sixth the size of England, and before the war had a population that has been estt- mated at about seven hundred thousand. Due to the unjust Turkish rule of the past four hundred years, the population is in a wretched condition. Four years of war have devastated the land beyond belief. Under a capable government, it is be- lieved that Palestine can support a popu- lation running into the millions, but large sections of the country are now almost completely depopulated. THE TORTURES OF WARFARE IN THE JORDAN VALLEY The Jordan Valley today lies practi- cally uncultivated. In earlier periods the valley was well tilled and produced large crops. With a proper system of irriga- tion, no part of Palestine would yield more bountiful harvests, for the soil is fertile and the climate is subtropical. At the same time, there is no part of Palestine where the British troops have suffered more severely than in the Jordan Valley. During the summer the dust and heat are terrific. The thermometer goes booming up toward 120° to 130° F., while the dust 1s suffocating, in many places being over a foot deep, not alone on the road, ‘but -over*the valley. “Ivisas fine and foamy as the finest wheat flour, and rises in great clouds as the motor plows through. So completely does it hover over thecar as it 1s‘stirred up; that time after time the occupant of the back seat cannot see the windshield. The motor drivers are often forced to stop to find their way, as the blinding, baffling clouds roll about them. BRITISH FOUGHT. FOR VALE CH RTS TIA NLA vs Just how the problem of government will be worked out is a question for the Allies to settle; for, of course, the coun- try will need to be so handled that Jeru- salem will be kept not for the Jews only, but for all peoples. It is wrong to speak of Palestine as the national home of the Jews alone, for the native Christian can make the same claim. It seems that General Allenby has taken a very sane view of the problems involved. He insists that he is not com- manding a British army, but is in com- mand of a detachment of the Allies, and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE so strongly does he feel this that I was prompted to say: “You must realize that in all your force in Palestine there are possibly only a few hundred French and Italian troops, and in all of your fighting here in Palestine, so far as I can learn, there has not been one single soldier who has given up his life who was not a Brit- isher.” He replied: “Possibly that is true, but you must remember that while all of the men under me have been British soldiers, yet that is merely an incident; forthe men who were fighting here might have been used on the Western Front. The other Allies have used their men there, and this is as much a part of the Allied show as is France, and I am carrying forward the campaign on the basis that the future of Palestine should be left to the Allies to settle, the same as in other conquered territory. However, I am, of course, trying so to administer the coun- try that it can be handed over in the best possible condition to whomsoever it is en- trusted after the war.” As I went from one part of Palestine to the other, and rubbed shoulders with the Indians, the Australians, the New Zealanders, the Scottish, and English troops, and talked with these men and their commanding officers, I came to see the secret underlying the success of the Palestine campaign. This success is evolved from the dynamic personality of one of the greatest military leaders of the war, General Edmund Henry Hyman Allenby. He has inspired confidence and trust in every man of his command. From his highest general down to his most humble private, there is a reliance in his leader- ship which knows and looks only for suc- cess. The recent capture of Damascus stands out as one of the brilliant] nlitars achievements of the war. In spite of the mountainous country between Jerusalem and Damascus, the British forces were moved forward so rapidly and with such strategic skill that practically the entire Turkish army opposing them was cap- tured. Palestine today is beginning a new chapter of her history, which is entirely due to the courageous and wise adminis- tration of her British liberators. LCCASAOUUSANOOAOGAUOOUAUINUEDEAOCOORSOOUUEOOUGULONNOURUOEONODL kee greatest artists into your home The Victrola enjoys that privilege—a distinc- tion accorded it by the most famous artists In Every home can have the worlds best music ~on the Victrola It is easy for you to enjoy at will the greatest musi- cal art of all the world—if you have the instrument which brings the magnificent interpretations of the the world of music. “HIS MASTER'S VOICE REG, US. PAT. OFF ey = . Ctor 9 Oak «pr Quality: always 08° Ww 92 c, ts iplis Masters Voc ane cot € Victor Talking Mac ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ They appreciate that the Victrola reproduces their art with a fidelity that parallels their actual perform- ances on the opera and concert stage. Only the Victrola satisfies their high artistic demands. That is why they make Victrola Records exclusively. Any Victor dealer anywhere will gladly demonstrate the va- tious styles of the Victor and Victrola—$12 to $950—and play any music you wish to hear. Saenger Voice Cul- ture Records are invalu- able to vocal students— ask to hear them. Victor Talking Machine Co. Camden, N.J., U.S.A. Berliner Gramophone Co., Montreal, Canadian Distributors The outer part of SparOak is firm, heavy selected, special oak tanned center stock. The side of SparOak next the pulley is Spar- tan leather, giving the maximum grip on the pulley. ISSUED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT “Note the name- SparOa Beltin 1g That bruising drive! A constant trouble maker—you find one belt that has the pulley-grip to stand high speed and fluctuating loads, but it hasn’t the stamina for long service. Another belt is tough as an anvil, but it slips and leaks power. Or, perhaps, it isa case of tight and loose pulleys, or pulley flanges, or step-cones, or continual shifting, or some other heavy duty. Try SparOak—that double serv- ice belt. Its pulley surface is Graton & Knight Spartan Leather —the highest frictional value ever attained in belting. The outside is special oak tanned from the finest quality of heavy-center stock. The combination gives a belt that not only grips the pulley at high speed with fluctuating load—but stands the mauling of hard service con- ditions. Drives that were driving foremen gray-haired, behave them- selves when equipped with SparOak. If there’s such a drive in your plant, don’t delay a minute in learn- ing about SparOak. For a whole class of belting dilemmas it’s the answer. We have just prepared a book for you on Standardization in Belt- ing. It describes the character and applications of SparOak, and the others of our Standardized Series. US, 45 THE GRATON & KNIGHT MFG. CO., WorcesTER, Mass., Oak Leather Tanners, Makers of Leather Belting, Lace Leather, Packings and Specialties Branches and Distributors in all Principal Cities GRATON & KNIGHT Standardized Series LEATHER BELTING Tanned by us for belting use \ ) KNIGHT 4 BIGHT ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’”’ THE FRANKLIN CAR AND TODAY’S STANDARD OF MOTOR CAR SERVICE Frequently special conditions give new significance to old facts. And zow is the ttme when conditions give added importance to the long-established economy facts of the Franklin Car— a steady day-by-day delivery of 20 miles to the gallon of gasoline— instead of the usual 10 10,000 miles to the set of tires— instead of the usual 5,000 For the Nation needs economy of gasoline and tires—and an efficient automobile can do much to bring it about. The simple Franklin facts speak for themselves. If all cars were as efficient as the Franklin, the result would be a saving this year of 400,000,000 gallons of gasoline and $192,000,000 worth of tires. For sixteen years the Franklin Car has delivered an economy ahead of the times, and has won every prominent official economy test ever held. Moreover, the Franklin depreciates 50% slower than the average car—an important fact, now that motor cars must give longer service than ever before. This remarkable economy and long life is due to engineering principles of Direct Air Cooling, Light Weight, and Resilient Construction, as opposed to water cooling, heavy weight, and rigid construction. The Franklin Car delivers a war- time motoring service simply because the Franklin Company has held true to the principle that the main object in owning an automobile is transportation with the greatest comfort, safety, and reliability—at the least expense. FRANKLIN AUTOMOBILE COMPANY, SYRACUSE, NEW YORK Orders for Franklin Cars for post-war delivery will be filled in the order of their receipt by our dealers. “You can tell a real patriot by the way he works — Full-time work by both employers and wage earners will win the war.’’>—W. B. Wilson, U. S. Secretary of Labor. wy ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ HIS year yal men will especially appreciate useful gifts of moderate cost. Cutting out expensive and non- essential holiday presents will appeal to every true American, The gift that carries the spirit of a war-time Christmas and that will be welcomed by any man jf anywhere is the Boston Garter fied’ guile At men’s wear shops and leading stores everywhere. 35c and Upward “BEAUTIFUL BIRCH FOR BEAUTIFUL WOODWORK.’? If 2 Read nie Book by all means before you start to build! The book tells why ‘‘Beautiful birch”? is the first choice of most architects and build- ers for interior woodwork, veneer doors, hardwood floors, ete. We send this book free. And along with it will go a set of little panels showing how beautifully “Beau- iiful birch” takes the different finishes. x, YOU Will have to ve with that wood- work—so—it? s important that you choose it as carefully as you choose your other friends. (Will you begin the study of “Beautiful birch” TODAY? NORTHERN HEM- LOCK & HARDWOOD MFRS. ASSN. 214F. R. A. BUILDING OSHKOSH WISCONSIN Be sie ITALY—THE GIFTED MOTHER OF CIVILIZATION Get acquainted with that sturdy little nation which has conquered Austria. Read the inclusive article on Italy which, with 80 magnificent illustrations, comprised the October, 1916, number of the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. Italian achievements are briefly sketched and there is given the historic background fora fuller appreciation of this race. The vivid account of Italian history is just the thing to bring back to mind school-day lessons important today. This Italian number of the GEOGRAPHIC is available, as are also that remarkable issue on American Army Cane tonments and the great Aviation Number. All profusely illustrated from rare and beautiful photographs. 25 cents each. Postpaid in U.S. A THIS MAGAZINE IS FROM OUR PRESSES DEPT. H, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Jupp & DETWEILER, INc. MASTER PRINTERS 420-422 ELEVENTH STREET WASHINGTON, D. C. _ WEBSTER NEW of Cantonment, the speliing of apusziing word: INTERNATIONAL he meaning ~ aa eqaeen of ppvel les ia cans ang —41 O ; as DICTIONARY [i [ai athe ECnEne Dibecitaic Gualaaeer G.&C.MERRIAM CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS. ®&0ut4® Ano, io1a-PaPER EDITIONS Sr Rl ae i ae I heres de a pc eg mee ee aS Please sand me eh (taki “a Ka L ut ‘\ ; 400,00 Words Defined : 2700 Pages 6000 Illustrations AIULUUGUUULSULYUIUL DTV LUCCA LLL Sai we rr ot re ew ww ee no en en ow ee een coe ee nnens- men pages and br nae 1 opt lat, Pro phy Tooth Brush Prop y" lock That is what generation after generation named this beautiful heirloom, held as a family relic for over two hundred years. Its worth beyond money. Its associa- tions the very life of the immortal dead who created its beauty and service for us to treasure and to keep. Have youaGrandfather’sClock? What is there more lovely, or more useful as a gift to be a perpetual memorial of home and name for your children and their children’s children ? Waltham has kept alive upon this continent the enduring, simple beauty of these Old World and Colonial master- pieces. A Waltham Grandfather's Clock is given the same distinction as a work of art and is even a more perfect clock, in accuracy and workmanship, than these glorious old examples which illustrate our page. It is because the Waltham horo- logical standards are so embrac- ing of all that is best in clock and watch making in the past and in the present that the fame of Waltham has gone to the uttermost ends of the earth. Your dealer can tell you about the Waltham Grandfather's Clock. From him you can pur- chase it or a Waltham Watch that will give you that distinc- tion in beauty and accuracy associated with the name of Waltham all over the world. WALTHAM THE WORLD’S WATCH OVER TIME ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ 1 A RCE no agape ree JAPANESE YOUNG WOMEN UNDER BROAD SUNSHADES ‘TRANSPLANTING RICE AN IDEAL CHRISTMAS GIFT Scenes from Every Land {FOURTH SERIES) 200 Full-page Illustrations, 24 Pages in Matchless Four Colors, 20,000 Words of Descriptive Text By GILBERT GROSVENOE8, Editor National Geographic Magazine XCELLING in beauty and in compelling interest its three predecessors, the fourth volume of the National Geographic Society’s “Scenes” series may now be secured from the Washington headquarters of the Society. The first two series of “Scenes from Every Land” have been entirely exhausted and cannot be had at any price, while only a few copies remain of the third. ‘To insure your copy of the New series you should order at once. “Scenes from Every Land” is like no other book in the world. It occupies a unique place in the literature of the universal language—the language of pictures, through which man becomes acquainted with his fellow-man on the other side of the world. The Editor has selected 200 photographic gems from the Society’s great treasure-house of pictures, which is being constantly enriched by contributions from explorers, scientists, | world-travelers, artists, and lovers of nature in every quarter of the globe. These: | | pictures tell their own story of strange peoples, odd customs, the history of ancient | civilizations written in the massive ruins of their temples, palaces, and amphitheaters, |. the master achievements of modern engineers—the builders of canals, bridges, and cities—and the inspiring manifestations of the handiwork of Nature, wrought in mist- crowned mountains, shimmering waterfalls, and landscapes of magic beauty. a, The Society is able to publish this volume, which includes 24 pages in full colors, at a nominal price, owing to the fact that most of the illustrations have appeared previously in the Narronat Geocrapruic Macazine and the expense of engraving both the color and the black-and-white plates has already been borne. No picture in the Fourth Series, however, is to be found in any of the earlier volumes. “Scenes from Every Land” is the ideal Christmas gift for young and old. We will receive orders now for ccpies to be mailed with your card. a ee 2 rr RRA DO CEE EEE it eee ace ee —-CUT ON THIS LINE —— Dept. H, NATIONAL G£OGRAPHIC SOCIETY, Pre er er Tin Sais yes co sy Lelis, 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Please send......copies of the Fourth Series ‘‘Scenes from Every Land,”’ bound in.............. for which I enclose herewith......... ete a ee dollars. If several copies are desired, write names and addresses and send with Names of esdc ce ete ehe ienave te naltstiese- 0 Se Sel ae EO oieeieee your card. : Street Address. i... .66. 505.3 Jn cc © eee eee Bound in Royal Buckram, postpaid in U. S., $2.06 5 Bound in Full Leather, postpaid, $2.50 (De Luxe Edition) City ‘and State: i.-\si..c/e0 01010 0/0.» ele oicloheranste nna 10-18 The Errors Made in Tooth Pastes All Statements Approved by High Dental Authorities Why They Failed The evidence shows that the tooth-brush needs aid. Tooth troubles have constantly increased. Millions find that well-brushed teeth still discolor and decay. Modern dentists know the reason. It lies in a film—a slimy film—which brushing does not end. Most tooth trouble finds its source in that film. That film is what discolors—not your teeth. It hardens into tartar. It gets into crevices and stays. It holds food which ferments and forms acid. It holds the acid in contact with the teeth to cause decay. Millions of germs breed in it. They, with tartar, are the chief cause of pyorrhea. So any brushing which omits that film does very little good. Tooth pastes have aimed to remove food debris, or counteract acid, or combat germs. But the cause of tooth troubles lay imbedded in film, where the tooth-brush failed to reach them. Science now has found a way to combat that film. Able authorities have proved it by clinical tests. It is now embodied in a dentifrice called Pepsodent, and we are asking all to prove it by a simple trial test. We Now Use Pepsin That film is albuminous, so Pepsodent is based on pepsin, the digestant of albumin. The object is to dissolve the film, then to constantly prevent its ac- cumulation. Ordinary pepsin mixtures cannot serve this pur- pose. Pepsin must be activated, and the usual agent is an acid harmful to the teeth. But science has discovered a harmless activating method. Five governments have already granted patents. Itis that method, used in Pepsodent, which makes it possible nowadays to keep teeth from film accumulation. Many clinical tests have proved the effects cf Pepsodent. They are now beyond possible question. You can prove them yourself, and in one week, if you will make the test. Send the coupon, with 10 cents, for a special trial tube. Use it like any tooth paste and watch results. Note how clean the teeth feel after using. Mark the absence of the slimy film. See how teeth whiten as the fixed film disappears. A short trial will give you a new conception of what teeth-cleaning means. And we do not believe you will ever return to old, inefficient methods. Cut out the coupon now. Return your empty tooth-paste tubes to the nearest Red Cross Station Pepsaden REG.U.S. The New-Day Dentifrice A Scientific Product = Sold by Druggists Everywhere (131) Dee en nn nn ne ee | SPECIAL 10-CENT TUBE | A size not sold in Drug Stores THE PEPSODENT CO. | Dept. 222, 1104S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill. | Enclosed find 1Cc. for a Special Tube of Pepsodent. | ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ A POSTCARD GREETING FROM THE GEOGRAPHIC WARDS There is No Overhead Expense in Handling the National Geographic Society Fund; Every Dollar is Ex- pended for Equiptment and Maintenance of the Wards ——— SE (CUT HERE) OO —— ——— Se GILBERT GROSVENOR, : Chairman, National Geographic Society Ward Fund, J6th and M Streets N. W., Washington, D. C. iieenclose: chee fee ee toward the National Geographic Society Wards (twelve beds each) in the American Military Hospital No. 1, Neuilly, France. “Two wards have already been established DUES RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual } membership abroad, IN THE } $3.00; Canada, £2.50; ite membersbin. 50 1 NTATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY | payable to National Geographic Society, and c : : if at a distance remit by The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the New York draft, postal x ? ; or express order. National Geographic Magazine PLEASE DETACH AND FILL IN BLANK BELOW AND SEND TO THE SECRETARY To the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Sixteenth and M Streets Northwest, Washington, D. C.: I nominate _.- [AGOFESS. Vy ei gis Ae I ae Sa ES ena eR Re for membership in the Society. INName and Wares of NE pe Member Vfqdlod Records Which Require Absolute & R a on) Permanency | | Should be Written with | $ #3 \ SAN FORDS A\N iE qi Wik VE ini Premium Blue-Black wh “H Writing Fluid and Sanford’s Fountain Pen Ink An =e : Ultramorial | Combining a Celtic Cross and Exhedra In this design we use an elaborately orna- mented Celtic Cross with a simple and unas- suming Exhedra. Six crypts for interments are built into the massive vault directly beneath the structure, which throughout is constructed according to exclusive Ultramorial methods. You who look to the future should build Your Memorial now. Let us design and erect an Ultramorial structure upon Your cemetery plot which shall be a true Monument to you—— your character and individuality. Write for our interesting booklet, “Art in Memorials,’ gladly mailed on request MEMORIALS ART COMPANY Studios: 103 Delaware Court . Delaware Avenue Buffalo, N. Y Representatives in Principal Cities SST RE NA PS SS Ss FESR RESIN: ANFORDS DENBY MOTOR TRUCKS. In a time when extra service is de- manded of every man and machine, the absolute dependability of Denby trucks be- comes even more valuable. Denby Motor Truck Company Detroit, Michigan that a tooth powder is better than a paste Send fox trial package and interesting booklet on The Care of the Leethn. . INCORPORATED ‘\ 88 FULTON ST., ~ ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ le A SWIMMING PoLarR BEAR A HOLIDAY GIFT OF RARE AND PERMANENT VALUE WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA Intimate Studies of the Big and Little Citizens of the Mammal Kingdom More than 200 illustrations: 127 Paintings reproduced in full colors; 50 Track Sketches, a number of Drawings of Prehistoric Mammals and many illus- trations from unusual photographs reproduced in black and white. HERE is no subject richer in fascinating interest than the study of animal life. To see all the types and representative species in their native environment, to watch them meeting their respective problems of life and adapting themselves to the conditions they have to face, and to follow nature through its A many moods as typified by its wonderful variety of mammalian forms is a delightful and informative iversion. To do this under the guidance of one of those born observers, whose eyes are always open, whose ears are always keen, whose brain is always quick to grasp, and whose pen is ever facile, is to become intimately acquainted with cne of the richest chapters in zoology. Such is to be the good fortune of those who receive a copy of the National Geographic Society’s new book of mammals as a Christmas gift this year. ‘This work is the consolidation of Edward W. Nelson’s splendid nature articles in the GkoGRAPHIC. There is no man so well fitted to introduce you to the mammals of North America as Mr. Nelson, the Chief of our remarkable U. S. Biological Survey. For forty years he has been their friend, living among them and studying their habits and traits in the most intimate way. ‘To him an animal is something more than flesh and bone and skin and fur. It has a personality; and he is as careful to record this as to describe the formal qualities which science writes down in species descriptions. Mr. Nelson is a naturalist of the John Burroughs order. ‘To visit the people of woodland, mountain, and field with him is to discover a new world. Illuminating the descriptions are natural-color illustrations from the brush of that gifted artist-naturalist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes. Mr. Fuertes is not only a master of color but also of pose, and he can catch the timid alertness of the prong-horn antelope, the cruel sagacity of the arctic wolf, the lazy indifference of the common skunk, or the wide-awake watchfulness of the gray squirrel, with equal facility. } Added to these is a series of 50 sketches by Ernest Thompson Seton, depicting the footprints of various | animals as they appear in the light snow of field or forest or in the dust of the wayside. ‘These will enable the reader to identify the tracks of many of the mammals of North America. Together these authorities have produced a book that is without counterpart in the literature of animal life. Itis a holiday gift of rare and permanent value. Pe ee ee GWT ON, ASRS) OL WN aoa ee oe Drpr. II, Natrona, GEoGRAPHIC SOCIETY, 5 did 5 hic leisllerie os die o) dserlellot blo Veneilel oy etele te feRe Re PeiereMeRE aeLO) kee 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Please send......:.¢opies of “WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA,” bound: in. joc. 5 oc cinin feta eee for which I enclose herewith: 22222 deck cies erceice coe scaollars: INE hol ee Ae ea COCO OOO OOOOU oT If several copies are desired, write names and ad- dresses and send with your card. Bound in Royal Buckram (Stiff Covers) or Military ; Khaki (Flexible Covers), postpaid in U. S., $3.00 Citysand State sc-2) sic ccs ne ateverene ove ol ote laveleresnenenee nett he Teena 10-18 Street: Address ese ae. ec aise leveve ote ave revere epeiatencieteRehemeiomele ~~» & 2.900 ON “ABA.” “x2, Cheques On what kind of funds are you going? Are you going to travel on funds that are safe and convenient? “A.B.A” Cheques are safe because those you purchase are usable only after you have countersigned them. They are convenient because of just the right denominations ($10, $20, $50, and $100), compactly arranged in a neat little pocket case and good for payment of purchases and services in all Allied and neutral countries. If your bank does not sell them, apply to Bankers Trust Com. pany, New York. 29 TIMES STRONGER |W): Army or Navy THAN PLAIN | Red Cross, Y. M. C. A., STEEL and Allied Organizations Letters of Credit are the safest and most convenient medium for carrying funds. Witt’?s Can and Pail are made of heavy, deeply corrugated steel—29 times stronger than plain steel. ‘They are dent-proof. A special galvanizing process makes them rust- proof. ‘They outlast two ordinary cans. Spe- cial lids that fit air-tight make Witt’s Can and Pail absolutely sanitary. ‘They are sealed tight asa vault. Odors and gar- bage are kept in; flies and dogs kept out. Buy Witt’s for your home. It saves you money. Write for booklet and name of your nearest Witt dealer. THE WITT CORNICE CO. Dept. B-3, Cincinnati, Ohio Look for the Yellow Label During the war we are issuing such Credits, free of commission, to officers and men in the U. S. Army and Navy, and to those engaged in Red Cross, Y. M. C. A., and allied organization work. We have also sent our American representative to France for the convenience of our friends, with headguarters at the office of the Credit Commercial de France, 20 Rue Lafayette, Paris. BROWN BROTHERS & CO. Philadelphia NEW YORK Boston BROWN, SHIPLEY & COMPANY Founders Court, Lothbury Office for Travelers LONDON, E. C. 123 Pall Mall, LONDON, S. W. *¢‘Mention the Geogravhic—It identifies you.?? not the name of a thing, but the mark of a service j | DA MAZDA is the trademark of a world- : wide service to certain lamp manu- ‘*Not the name of a thing, but the mark of a service’? facturers. Its purpose is to collect and select scientific and practical information concerning progress and developments in the art of incandescent lamp manufacturing and to distribute this information to the companies entitled to receive this service. MAZDA Service is centered in the Research Laboratories of the General Electric Company at Schenectady, New York. The mark MAZDA can appear only on lamps which meet the standards of MAZDA service. It is thus an assurance of quality. This trademark is the property of the General Electric Company. 4646 RESEARCH LABORATORIES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY ‘¢‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ SS PARREBRREE BE BBBRE Sri ee ee ee 3 3% Sis engines gee os : ett as 4 SS gra Nae - petite : SVR RE UOY: enero Dee LEESSSUS SAIPAN SHORE REESE BRET RRS UTE ER EEEA ARE LBRO ER ES USSR ERR SB ES The food you come back to oo when you can 7 get it — and “now youcan SERBS SRO ORASHRTETEE EH CRE EASIEST ESSER TIT Painted by Edw. V. Brewer for Cream of Wheat Co. Copyright 1918 by Cream of Wheat Co. PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. “ WASHINGTON, D.C. Ns ? Why Not Now ng: iP wheat — i . (es v & & es 0) > O O Ca) = eV) —C — ~ O a) 0) + rae} & on a7.) 0) ne 2) e ° — os O OQ. O Ku (OE LAV) a is = OV) 72) =) i) =o ee NOVEMBER, 1918 CONTENTS (PEP Our Friends, the French Mt With 29 Illustrations CARL HOLLIDAY The Price of Liberty—-An Appreciation The Rebirth of Religion in Russia With 16 Illustrations THOMAS WHITTEMORE An Important New Guide for Shipping With 4 Illustrations GEORGE R. PUTNAM Coal—Ally of American Industry With 23 Mlustrations WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER The Spirit of the Geographic With 4 Illustrations PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. Py FP p le yA f AT A nw f MM a = OTIS as 2 Dl } f YD =] NiNeineee iinnflntiet NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN GILBERT GROSVENOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE O. P. AUSTIN 1916-1918 Frankuin K. LANE Secretary of the Interior WitnttaAm Howarp Tarr Formerly President of the United States C. M. Cuesrer Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Iormerly Supt. ‘U.S. Naval Observatory I’reperick V. CoviLLEe Tormerly President of Wash- ington Academy of Sci- ences JoHn E. PILispury Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation RupotepH KaurrMANN Managing Editor The Even- ing Star : T. L. Macpona.p Nise I An Gets: Ss, N...D? Norra. Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census DIRECTOR AND EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR PRESIDENT SECREYARY BOARD OF MANAGERS 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. Howarp Gore Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’l U. S. Army GiLBert H. GrosvENOR Iditor of National Geo- graphic Magazine GeorceE Oris SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. Tirrmann Formerly Superintendent of U Coast and Geodetic Survey Henry WHITE Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. JoHN M. WItson Brigadier General U.S. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers JOHN E. PILLSBURY JOHN JOY EDSON : : GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER RALPH A. GRAVES VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER ASSISTANT EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR 1918-1920 Cuartes J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company JoHN Joy Epson Chairman of- the: Board, Washington Loan & Trust Company Davip FarrcHiLp In Charge of Agricultural I’xplorations, Department of Agriculture C. Harr Merriam Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. Austin Statistician Georce R. Putnam Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GerorGE Suiras, 3D Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, l‘aunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photogra- pher GRANT SQUIRES New York To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, “the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge,’ the National Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society. or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage, and be addressed: GILBERT GROSVENOR, EDITOR CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Davin FarrcHILD Hucu M. Smiru N. H. Darton Frank M. CHapmMan A. W. GREELY C. Harr Merriam O. H. Tirrmann Rosert Horuister CHAPMAN Water T. SwINGLe Copyright, 1918, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. Entered at the Post-Office at. Washington, D. C., as Second-Class Mail Matter. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Sec. 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 1, 1918. HE American Government has built in France a railroad as large as the Delaware, Lackawanna and Western. It connects our big. seaports there with Pershing’s victorious army of occupation in its march into Germany. HamiltonlfJa ‘“ The Watch of Railroad Accuracy ”’ UNAS Crowded trains bearing the enormous quantities of munitions and supplies poured ceaselessly forward—the wreckage of war flowed back from the lines—over this No 992 Hamilton Models were purchased by the Government for its train crews. road. suit you. A large measure of the splendid success our armies achieved was due to the efficiency of this Amer- ican road—built of American ma- terials, with American rolling-stock, run by American men-—and timed by the Hamilton Watch. cl om V A \ ‘ Ts Write today for **The Timekeeper’’ —the story of Hamilton Accuracy Whether you need a watch of business-like simplicity or one of smart elegance, you will find a Hamilton to There are 22 models to choose from, but Hamilton dependability is built into each one. Prices, $32 to $160. Canada) and up. where. Owing to unsettled conditions, prices are subject to change without notice. HAMILTON Dept. 35, Lancaster, Pa. ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Movements, $17 ($19 50 in Soid by ail jeading jewelers every- WATCH COMPANY Flamilton Watches Time American Railroads in France Fenestra Vertically Sliding Sash meets requirements in offices. Center Pivoted Fenestra meets factory requirements. Plant of S.B.SB.W. Fleisher, Ine, Manufacturers of Yarn Philadelphia, Pa. Wm. Steele §3 Sons Co. of Engrs and Const’rs y Philadelphia, Pa., and Toronto, Can. KS ws XS SS There is a type of Fenestra Solid Steel Window for: every requirement. In the Fleisher ‘Textile Plant which covers an entire city block and is the largest factory of its kind in the world, Wm. Steele & Sons Company, Engineers and Constructors, employed four distinct types of Fenestra. Sliding Sash is used in the top floor to meet screening and shading requirements in Office, restaurant and rest rooms. Fixed Sash is installed in third and fourth floors where the spinning of yarns is done and humidity has to be exactly controlled. Center Pivoted Sash meets ordinary factory conditions in the lower and upper floors for wool storage. Top Hung Sash is installed in the power house. Detroit Steel Products Company, 4319 East Grand Boulevard, Detroit, Mich, \ ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ A New Power Plant for the Pierce-Arrow {eas Pierce-Arrow has a new engine of greater power. This engine has been de- veloped by Pierce-Arrow engineers. ‘They have named it The Dual Valve Engine. The increased power it yields adds to the comfort and convenience of the Pierce- Arrow Car. This comfort and convenience are enhanced by the perfect control. With the new engine one can go from five miles an hour to seventy and back again to five on high gear. ‘This almost eliminates the neces- sity of shifting gears—either on hills or in traffic. It offers more power with no greater weight, more speed with less gasoline, more flexibility with less gear shifting. It is cool- er, quieter and quicker than any previous Pierce- Arrow. The new engine is no sudden innovation. It is the result of years of careful experi- ment. It is in line with the steady develop- ment of the Pierce-Arrow. It is in harmony with the policy that no changes should be made until a real improvement had been perfected. Pierce-Arrow THE PIERCE-ARROW MOTOR CAR CoO. BUFFALO, N. Y. ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ HE length of the average stick of dynamite is eight inches. Small as they are these eight inch sticks of con- centrated force play an important part in the industrial work of the Nation. Every year the Hercules Powder Co. is called upon to furnish enough of them to forma dynamite chain fifteen thousand miles long. Such a chain, the sticks laid end to end, would extend two-thirds of the way around the globe. It could be laid along the ocean routes from New York to Pernambuco; from the latter to Cape ‘Town; then to London via Madeira with a few hundred miles to spare. This yearly chain of Hercules Dynamite is of more im- portance to you personally than perhaps you realize. It is linked with a majority of your daily activities, both work and play. Suppose metals were today mined laboriously by hand. Unless you are a millionaire you would have in your home no electric light or gas, no telephone, no kitchen range. Steam or hot water heat would probably be out of the question. You would not own an automobile. Why, one-hundred years ago even a brass door-knob was a sign of wealth. : It is largely to the power of dynamite that we owe the abundance of most of our modern conveniences. So the next time you see one of these eight inch sticks in its yellow wrapper look upon it with respect—not only on account of its power but also because of the service it renders you. HERCULES POWDER, Co. Chicago Hazleton, Pa. Pittsburg, Kan. Denver Memphis Pittsburgh, Pa. Joplin New York Salt Lake City J St. Louis San Francisco Wilmington, Del. HERCULES CO. ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ MARMON 34 Advanced Enpincering Marmon Closed Cars are produced by coach builders noted for their custom made creations, This Landaulet affords the advantages of an open car and yet, when closed, has the appearance of a Limousine. 136-Inch Wheelbase 1100 Pounds Lighter NORDYKE & MARMON COMPANY Established 1851 : Indianapolis ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ hae Rock Everlasting” UST as the Green Mountains of Vermont will stand after ages have passed, soa Barre Granite memo- rial will remain to honor you and yours through countless enerations. Uniformly dense, of an even color, perfect in texture, Barre Granite is equally beautiful whether finely hammered or polished to a slistening, smoothness. Specify Barre—for any mau- soleum or monument. Ask your monument dealer about it. You can see in any ceme- tery splendid specimens of BARRE GRANITE Make the erection of a monument a prese ent-day duty.. Do not leave it to others. And be sure you get the same material that marks the restin3 places of notables and leading citizens throughout the coun- try. Write for copy of booklet—"Memo- rial Masterpieces.” 38 Barre Quarriers & Manufacturers Ass'n Department B Barre, Vermont The Granite Center of the World 18SUED BY THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ en 1our Then is when Tire Chains prove their Real value—they add so much to your brake power. Without them brakes would be useless. It’s these unexpected emergencies that make a driver think quick and act like lightning. When suddenly the children dash out from the pavement and are almost under your wheels before you realize it—you instinctively jam down your foot-brake and frantically grab the emergency. What if your brakes slipped and didn’t hold? Wouldn’t the consequences be awful ? It’s positively criminal for a driver of a motor car to overlook even the slightest safety precaution. Unquestionably the most eee ep eementary addition to brake power when the roads and pavements are wet and slippery, is in the use o WEED TIRE CHAINS Cars with chainless tires on wet-greasy-slip- Wet rubber slips—never grips. It slides like a cake pery pavements lack brake power to the same Ofsoap on moistened hands. It lacks the bite and : : ae hang-on ability of chains. degree as they would if their brake linings were Good brakes and Weed Tire Chains are undoubtedly made of wet-greasy-slippery bands of rubber. the:greatest factor in preventing motor accidents. It’s the height of folly to even attempt to drive without chains on all four tires when the roads are slippery and uncertain. American Chain Company, Inc. Brigdeport Xe/ Connecticut In Canada: Dominion Chain Company, Limited, Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada Largest Chain ManufacturersintheWorld The Complete Chain Line—all types, all sizes, all finishes—from plumbers’ safety chain to ships’ anchor chain. ‘‘Mention the Geograyhic—It identifies you.’’ Briercliff Manor—on the Hudson. _Home of. W. W. Fuller, Esquire. Interior trim of ‘‘Beautiful birch. == Chief amon the ( birch ) charms of a SS charmin?, home —this charmin?, home—is its interior trim of ‘Beautiful birch-—the Natural Trim forthe American Home.” | Your home may easily and economically be made just as charming by the use of birch, which, for trim, doors, floors and furniture is of extraordinary beauty. And it is not high in price. birch, whether used solid or as veneer, is extremely hard, and so, practically ‘‘mar-proof’’—sanitary and adapt- able to a great variety of finishes, includin3, white enamel —for which it is ideal. : ; A hard hardwood—which stands upto hard service with- out showinZ any ill effects— birch gives more for less. We want to send you some tangible proofs in the shape of a set of little panels of ‘‘Beautifulbirch,” showing different finishes. We'll send our book about birch, too. NORTHERN HEMLOCK & HARDWOOD MANUEACTURERS’ ASSOCIATION 214 F. R. A. Building, Oshkosh, Wisconsin for use by the W tains toughness, elasticity and a velvet softness of ends. Lhis makes the part of a brush thatis used, perfectin quality and long wearing, Rare quality, authoritative design, and excellent value charac- terize our private and public Memorials. Request Booklet 3. ‘HARRISON GRANITE COMPANY 200 Fifth Avenue New York City Offices in principal cities. AIR MOISTENER FILL WITH WATER, HANG ON BACK OF ANY RADIATOR OUT OF SIGHT i\, Also Made for Hot Air Registers Converts dry indoor air into a moist, wholesome, healthful atmosphere. Saves Health, Furniture, Pianos, also 25% of your coal bills. Write for Free Booklet. SAVo Manufacturing Company 315 New York Life Building, Dept. G. Chicago, Illinois CUQUUTTULIOOLIATYCDUAN INHALE INQUNUVUUUHTUN INN i ” ee bh Ae f bl ht 9 9 tank, t eg thi S . DI C Tl 6) NARY Auitheraby eontns on ace a, final aneven AND !INDIA-PAPER s men pages and Please send me Ege E FREE POCKET MAPSVADDRESS we cuvi creole cece os ee ee cas teuaseielhall Nae Gan eee Several Reasons for Buying WHITING-ADAMS Vulcan Rubber Cemented Brushes ist. The bristles and hair are highest grade, prepared HITING-ADAMS method, which re- 2nd. Every bristle and hairisheld by pure, best quali- , ty Rubber; no fake, coal tar, chemical imitation of rubber is used in our factory. ‘‘Rubber” means pure rubber in all WHITING-ADAMS Vulcan Rub- ber Cemented Brushes. The butts of bristles or hair are completely saturated and surrounded with strictly pure rubber in semi-liquid state, and then vulcanized ard as granite. 8rd. WHITING-ADAMS Brushes cost little and wear long. Our large volume of business reduces cost of manufacture to lowest point,and selling prices are made near to cost. 4th. Manufacturing Brushes as we have for over 106 years, means that we know brushes, and users of our brushes receive the full benefit of our brush knowledge. Send for Illustrated Literature JOHN L. WHITING-J. J. ADAMS CO. BOSTON, U.S. A. Whiting-Adams Brushes Awarded Gold Medal and Official Blue Ribbon, the Highest Award at Panama-Pacific Exposition, 1915. JUDD & DETWEILER, INC MASTER PRINTERS 420-422 ELEVENTH ST. N. W WASHINGTON, D. C SaVo FLOWER AND PLANT BOX d Sub-Irrigating For Windows, Porches ~ and Sun Parlors Leak-proof and _ rust- proof, You can move Savo Boxes indoors or out and have beautiful Flowers and Plants the year around. Write for Free Catalog. The All Year Round Garden SAVO MFG. CO., 315 N. Y. LifeBldg., Dept. D. Chicago, Illinois Nh} = \\i Ni lft , ‘s = Q & is] 4 2 Qa AIAAUUASIAAINIL 2700 Pages 6000 Illustrations SMM ti BE TTR estacuisheo tees TTT) 1% to 8% Buy Now for January Delivery A choice variety of investments in $100, $500, and $1,000 denominations, se- cured by essential industries, are avail- able at this time. ‘They were withheld from market during the Fourth Liberty Loan campaign. You can take advantage of thc present high-rate market and make reservations of these unusually attractive invest- ments now. Delivery and payment may be made any time up to and including the first of January. Ask for Circular No. 1016-D Peabody, Houshtelins & Co. (ESTABLISHED 1865) 10 South La Salle Street, Chicago (B-439 ) TTT estasuisreo ie6s SUT SERS Issued in payment for municipal improve- ments. Supported by the va/ue of the im- provements, plus the taxing power of the municipalities issuing them. These municipal bonds pay from 4%% to 6%; 000 in denominations of $100, $500, and Exempt from Federal Income Tax. Readily market- able. Sought by savings banks, insurance com- Panies and other investors in very safe securities. We also specialize in all issues of Government Bonds Send, for booklets ““Bonds as Safe as our cities” 5 and “A Nation at War —Its Financial Needs” Address Dept. N—11. William [2. Compton (0. - GOVERNMENT AND MUNICIPAL BONDS Over a Quarter Century in this Business’? NEW YORK ST. LOUIS 44 Wall Street 408 Olive Street CHICAGO CINCINNATI 205 So. LaSalle St. 805 Union Trust Bldg. PITTSBURGH JACKSON, MISS. Farmers Bank Bldg. Millsaps Bldg. S998! GSHSMavisa Seane PUT EE TE How to Turn $1000 Into $1600 aN investment of $1000 in a ten-year first mortgage 6% bond, safeguarded under the Straus Plan, will yield a total return of $1600 in principal and interest. If you want a security maturing sooner, you have a choice from ten down to two years, as the bonds mature serially. These well-secured bonds are issued in denominations of $100, $500 and $1000. Write today for our booklet, “Safety and 6%,” and for Circular K-808 S.W.STRAUS &'CO. Established 1882 Incorporated NEW YORK CHICAGO 150 Broadway Straus Building Detroit Minneapolis San Francisco Philadelphia 36 years without loss to any investor LUTTE D?: SUC TTI TTENTOUUTEOVUNTOUTUONCNTUOTUTTORDUOEENTEOTETOTEEVTEGESTECTERESEEEOEEOECTEDEED CTEECECO STEED TET OTE TTC STOO OTT TUT UTEP PPP PLT LOUULELTLUPEUREUOCUIOCUIECUOLEUM LOOP E CUERPO nT E Ld SATIGHAL ety BANK BUILDING VEw oh The Trustee itd the Individual Investor HE steady growth of our trust fund business is significant. It shows that trustees are coming to recognize very generally that they can command from us advice of value. To the individual investor, such a service is of equal importance. He rarely has the time or facilities for thoroughly investigating the invest- ment situation, and it is the part of wisdom for him to seek the best advice obtainable. We shall be pleased to have you consult us. Our current offerings of Bonds and Short Term Notes will be sent upon request for Circular AN-96. The National City Company National City Bank Building, New York No. 514 Fifth Ave., New York CORRESPONDENT OFFICES IN 31 CITIES Bonds Short Term Notes Acceptances TOTUTYTTUUTTTVUTUUUTAAUUTVGUUTTUAUTELIVOGOUCVIAROUIVVOOUUTIVUOTIINUCUIIIDEOUIIMEPUOIVONTIUORUUOR DO TOOOLHOO DDO) hrs ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ [!= FHTTUHIETUUPUEUTURUIUIEUUULIEU MII MOUIMPROLIMUMOMOU UE TMMIGIMI EITM CLERC EOI EMEC ELI MELILELUEUIUEM EOE HC CEU GHEE LOL TTT TO 1 42177227 2522522 00222948 22222402277 Z A HA j ip abe atabetobtdabolabr tat dor th, 23252223 BAA Z Lyanyy, ny yp LG i Nf Y “pir nygiypuuniy, Ly, Ahab bebabababedr bb haibebatebababebstrtrsdebstlaebabetbeh ia off ymin fg vo ° fon Udfann Yop rrygurun My , iii, Mudddldmninbliiinunmtl VEEL Va e/a fog ea 4 Mltat peel) MN htiisiutllli G SS © SS S 74 Z:% /Z gig é LY 44 Z G Z Yh % : G4 WG ~ WwW Ow SYOOw aN : NY NS \ SS SS SSNS Ww RN WON WW WW WY WNW Ny’ NN Wns: \ +S SS SS Ow ~ WL L | \ Woe \ Mo N OY OK WL y} Genneenh iy Y Youmuh oy W, fom G% Y oy, mre, t Z y G4 4 Z porters Hy Yorereseue, Yih : x MWB UA HMB NWWWOye Xs Ww XS. SENS Koos Y YW NS Woon ows 44°4 ys ay ; tj Wy Ve, Z $34 j 4 G Ny 2 g Y 44 ty), WAN RN Ww SY ENN 4G ema 4G." WR AAW WOO Maw X ’ N AV OWN SSS SS KN WX S\N y SN RS Wy GC Sy SS WWI yew SNS WS \ NS Wo, WX WOT SS ASS WOMAN S SSS WS SN “es Wew es Re See x N \. SS Li Mile i hr pm “LYUILUUYYLLY YUL YU yyy retin YY ZZ ypfrer “YM Yt YY Yl HY Yl PCy LEE Gy DY CN omy YO GG ff GAY Ye GY yy | Cade saad Vk ye adtaldduldilii : (allelic aibddld tian Mla nt Via /) ee py COPYRIsHT 1816 BY THE PROCTER & GAMBLE CO., CINCINNATI S K\ Se S WSS \ NEXT to ahealthy body and a contented mind, nothing has so J * much to do with the preservation of the hair as the soap used uy % in the shampoo. yy i} Ivory Soap cleans hair and scalp thoroughly. Its copious lasting ig = \ QQ lather absorbs the dirt, and then rinses out easily and completely. ee Yeah oy soe WSS SS WW x x Containing no uncombined alkali, it does not burn the hair nor make it brittle, and it does not destroy the scalp’s natural secretions. The HOw SS RNR WS Wi y hair dries soft, silky, fluffy, the Ivory shampoo putting it in the condi~ a b tion which makes for continued health and beauty. A SSnanns NSSSONSS \ “ NS \\ S\\ WOW SSS WN SOQ WN ~ WAAQWGY WLW Manners Y consconted Y SS IN AAW UY, Yy Go UY Oth Uy wnnueeet YY r2*rsn, Yfp, nae fly, Ay viMrmnaldlangunitbriatll NS WY y QUO? Meltninn Welle yyrrmpys 4: Gh, N eX NS 4 LYUYECLYYLEEEEGELYLEEGGLLLELLILELL SLE YLCLYYEYY YC G4Y GLYCELELY YELL ELE: H 222520002420 700 2322202222220 9522502202222 002200 4225 4022020220228 22 y Sips ieabeh hata deb iatabr OEE LEE Lipa ibaebiibabseblytlaabbai tablets babddabasdeaihabatdely ogy Yili SELES LE IPEAETIEGEALOLOGLALASEOLIIIELTTS LEI eey CAA UD bbbtch, i, Yt lid” $ “ CU, “35 444 ea haat np piahio fet KEI 1 (Sepa ‘¢Mention the Geograrhic---It identifies you.’’ WoL. XXXIV, No. 5. ° WASHINGTON NOVEMBER, 1918 THE NATIONAIL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA ZINIE OUR FRIENDS, THE FRENCH An Appraisal of the Traits and Temperament of the Citizens of Our Sister Republic By Car, HoLemaAy DEAN OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO, OHIO HAT manner of men are these \ \ French with whom our soldiers have been fighting side by side? To many an American a Frenchman has long meant simply an _ elegantly dressed gentleman with a waxed mus- tache, a multitude of gestures, a shoulder that automatically shrugs, and a heart that is very susceptible to feminine charms; but during the last four years the average American has been revising his opinions of this citizen of the most civilized country on the globe and is now asking in amazement, “Can this dainty gentleman that I considered super-re- fined, romantic, sentimental, and effete be the hero who has held at bay the most ruthless nation in the history of man?” Even so. This same gentleman, so dif- ferent in his entire composition from those rugged, home-spun characters that we have produced—and admired—in America, is now the marvel of the world. The French have proved to us, what we have long been unwilling to admit, that a man may be artistic and at the same time brave; that he may love finery and at the proper time fire a shot from a mudhole in the trenches that is heard around the world; that he may spend hours talking about art and belles-lettres and, when the call comes, march into a man-made hell and calmly lay down his life for his country. In short, we Amer- icans have learned from the French that a man may possess all the refining effects of culture and at the same moment be a hero. It is a wholesome lesson for us to learn that boastful swaggering and im- polite aggressiveness and lack of con- sideration for the subtle, dainty refine- ments of civilized society are not neces- sarily related to strength, endurance, and heroism. THE UNIQUE FRENCH TEMPERAMENT The French temperament is unique; it is social champagne. A people full of tender feeling, they are not in the least averse to a public demonstration of emo- tion. While the English and the American hide such sentiment with a certain ap- pearance of stoicism, this unabashed peo- ple expresses itself frankly and publicly with kisses, embraces, tears, and an amaz- ing flood of vivid words. A school-boy when leaving his mother at the door as he departs for school re- celves more attention, hugs, warnings, and tokens of affection than would a Seattle boy starting for New York. A family gathering or separating at a French railway station is an occasion as full of tears and cheek-kissing and pro- 346 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by H. C. Ellis A MASTERPIECE OF CULINARY ART: PHOTOGRAPHED IN THE KITCHEN OF A FAMOUS PARIS RESTAURANT The Paris chef takes as great pride in such a piece de resistance as does the sculptor in his less perishable creation. The scientific cook has stood the French people in good stead during the past four and a half years, for he has brought all his skill into play in making palatable the most meager of rations. longed embraces as that of an American bride leaving her fond mama, while the collision of two automobiles is an oppor- tunity for oratory surpassing anything heard in America. And yet these are the people who said at Verdun, ‘They shall not pass!” But an American must not take this French (volatility too, seriously, “ip jis doubtful whether in the history of man the world has possessed a more good- natured, more patient people. Contrary to foreign opinion, these French have almost infinite patience. In fact, their very patience with lax publie administration and wrong legislation has sometimes been their undoing, and only on rare occasions and at long intervals, as in the French Revolution, will they be provoked into violent bursting of unjust restraints. But when they do, one is lia- ble to recall the ancient. warming, ~be- ware of the fury of a patient man.” Owing to their extreme intellectual alertness, they seem to us more silent folk forever arguing or scolding ; but it is only that same energy transmuted into lan- guage rather than into the wasted phys- ical action so often seen in America. That they are a people of exceptionally good disposition is proved by the fact that so few genuine physical clashes result from the veritable fusilade of argument that they constantly fire at one another. “NO PEOPLE ENJOY THEMSELVES MORE THOROUGHLY” Long ago Goldsmith pointed out that the French were the only people who could be happy while starving, and a modern writer, Barker, in his France of the French, has declared: “No people en- Photograph by Ethel MacMurray Pee = SPIRIT OF FRANCE _ These men typify in their cheerfulness and readiness one of the national characteristics which made them invincible in the face of almost overwhelming odds of men and artillery in the first onrush of the Huns. 347 jeyded oy} st Ang 2’ YSIYM FO JLSIP ay} UL BuryVUroe] Ul Podojduis v4aM USM OOO'OD 1UM ay} 2 Wo1f SuNnep sinjonsjys snorimod v SI 4foq ay} 0} apeuUUId saT[etUs ay} S}UMOUTANS YOIYM ‘ay[MSIY.P EYP IS FO YOuNyD oyy, “Jodoyseqag ze youesy ay} Aq pasnydeo suouued ooz WO Jsvd ‘AdULIY Ip IWIeG 21JON FO anyes A}FOT & AG PoUMOID SI }]T “JooF SEP Jo JYSIoY VL 0} SUTSIZ YOoI OtueTOA B St ‘ainqoId ay} FO JoJUId oY} UL DDUaUTIUS dy} ‘SIU JUNOT “jSoJO}UT [eANJOo}TYIIe IIeI FO VdYIpo AINj}UI YIFJIM}-YJUAIJI Ue ST [eIpIy}eo YT, Tia AHL NO aH'TINDIV d ANVG AYLON GNV WLINAO CHL : NI NIOWIA AHL JO MOON ZHI, “LHOIN AHL NO IVIGAHLVO AHL ONIMOHS “AYIOT-ALAVH JO INAWINVdad ‘ANd WI JO MIA ‘IVYANAD 2 cba ctunasctt So ue ietase tte 348 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 349 OVER THE COFFEE CUPS IN NORTHERN FRANCE “It was the French woman’s faith in small savings that rescued her country after the war of 1870, when vast horded wealth was willingly brought forth to pay the enormous national debt, and the same faith made it possible for France to preserve herself and the world during the world war.” joy themselves more thoroughly while they are about it.” Frugal, almost parsimonious, in their spending of a sou, how do they obtain all this pleasure? Our American conception of a good time, I fear, too often consists in spending a huge amount of money, in rushing madly hither and thither from this theater to that, from roof garden to summer resort, from ball to masquerade. Your Frenchman, however, has a to- tally different conception of a good time. To him the society of his fellow-men is a source of exquisite and eternal pleasure. Belonging to a people of infinite social capacity, a people in whom the social in- stinct. is inherent and ancient,.-he has made fellowship an art of which he alone is the master. “Since there has been a .France at all,” says’ Brownell in his French Traits, “France has embodied the social instinct.” To neglect the art of making friends, of making oneself agreeable to those one meets, of making oneself nothing short of charming as a conversationalist, is to a Frenchman nothing short of domestic, “commercial, and political suicide. In short, the French have long since learned, what we Americans are simply beginning to learn, that social accomplish- ments should be purposely and purpose- fully exercised, and are a valuable part of -life’s equipment for the truly successful man. LENDING GRACE TO THE HARDSHIPS OF LIFE How adaptable is this social quality of the French! How it makes pleasant the rough road of life! It lends a personal grace not only to the necessities, but even to the very hardships, of life. During this war I have taken dinner in French families where the bread was distressingly scarce and pitiably poor, the sugar limited to one cube per individual, butter entirely absent, and the quantity PIUIPUIAIPUL STWIOUOII O} FYSII Joy PoAvid svy ‘sd}sIs YSIIg JOY ULY} SSI] OU “ULIUOM YOUII J dy} “IM OY} SuLINp Joqe] fo sivod Jey & PUB INOF JOY SUIMOT[O,T “UOT}CU OY} FO SOTPIAT}IV [LIIYSNPUL oy} UI URUIOM FO JUIAPL IY} O} SUOI}IPUODS d}epOWMOIIe 0} ofI] DuUIoUOII FO JUotU4sn{[pvot wots v SUTE}ISSIIOU ST JeM 9} ‘ATJUNOD Joy}O ATIAI Ul SB ‘9URI UT AYOLOVA LNAWNYIAOD V NI SNYOM YAHLOW WILMA UOT GHUVO SI AdVd AVHHM ‘AVYSUON Ol'IGhd THL SHIH *D “H 4q ydessojoyd THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by H. C. Fllis BOOK STALLS ALONG THE SEINE: THE BOOKWORM’S PARADISE “In the Frenchman we find an unusual love of philosophy and a certain worship of reason which are rather discouraging to us more loosely thinking, more sentimental, Amer- icans. The Frenchman, even of the lower middle classes, is always searching for a reason, an explanation, a more thorough understanding of this and that.” of meat so small that only the national optimism could magnify it into a square meal, and yet the bon mot flourished upon this very poverty of food. It simply means that the Frenchman has learned to enjoy life independent of all circum- stances, and whether in city or in trench he is still the man of society. Near the battle fronts the American soldiers at meal time snatch up their mess kits, rush to the camp kitchen, hastily swallow their food with scarcely a word, and go about their business; but the French seat themselves with some cere- mony, take an hour or more to eat their small ration, and meanwhile discuss with: precision, energy, and lively wit a multi- tude of subjects. WHERE THE FRENCH BECOME RETICENT And yet,, contrary to” the common American opinion, the Frenchman is not at all effusive about his personal affairs. On philosophy, art, and literature he will debate with you with titanic energy, but attempt to divert the conversation into matters domestic or personal and you will find the talk suddenly languishing. In other words, your Frenchman is not a believer in a “shameless exposure of spiritual nudity.” His personal, domestic, and spiritual life are not for public or incidental discussion, and, though you may know him for years and spend a multitude of hours with him in the most stimulating conversations of your life, still you feel that you do not and prob- ably cannot ever know his inner life. He can have the most unselfish en- thusiasm for your success; without a trace of jealousy he will wildly applaud the successful feats of his colleague in university, laboratory, or court ; but never does he open his heart to you or that col- (oumsutids of} uy) ,Sdwojultg NY,, ‘oto}s Iepnoysed sy} Jo seu Jeorya0d a1 YIM 9018e ISHTINVI SI ALOVAd JO AAOT SNVW -HONGaT AHL “WAIT FO ALIAILOV MALO AWIAM NI SV “HOUMWIWOD NI :aYOLS INANLAVdAd SINVd LVAXD V AO NOI SIE III UIIS SUOT}EIOIIP [e410] oT, YIINI ALVNYO AHL Aq ydeis0j0yg 352 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by H. C. Ellis A TRELLIS BUILT BY NAPOLEON I FOR HIS EMPRESS,.MARIE LOUISE: COMPIEGNE Like the Babylonian monarch who erected the famous Hanging Gardens to delight the eye of his princess, who amid the flat plains of Mesopotamia pined for her mountain home, so the first Bonaparte built this beautiful arbor to remind his homesick Austrian princess of her favorite trellis at Schonbrunn. league concerning the troubles or the happiness about his hearthstone or the relationships existing behind the closed doors of his family residence. What the Frenchman lacks, however, in ; talkativeness about his personal affairs he more than compensates for in his startling loquacity on things of a general nature ; for in France intelligence is universal. This does not mean that every French- man is well educated; it does not mean that he is widely traveled, but it does mean that mentally he is generally on tip- toes. As far as city and town life is con- cerned, it has been truly observed that “the sensation which France produces on the impressionable foreigner is, first of all, that of mental exhilaration.” And, be it remembered, this intellectual enthusiasm must not be classified as loose thinking. The French are astonishingly precise. Their intellectual precision is such that I am afraid it discourages their imagination. I cannot imagine a Parisian ' ofthe cultivated class indulging before his'.fireplace in those loose, wandering dreams in which so many Americans de- light. INTELLECTUAL CANDOR A NATIONAL TRAIT Intimately connected with this attitude is the Frenchman’s intellectual candor. Long accused by the Americans and the British of lacking this very quality simply because he does not make a public dissec- tion of his personal inner life, he pos- sesses, I believe, far greater intellectual frankness than either of his two allies, when dealing with the deeper problems of existence. If he is an atheist, he is frankly one; if he is a believer in the necessity of some supposedly immoral tendency in man- Es NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by H. C. Ellis A WARD FOR THE CHILDREN OF, THE POOR: FRANCE ENDEAVORS TO SAVE EVERY BABY, WITHIN ITS BORDERS The dowry custom in France has its good points, for it prevents hasty and poverty- ridden marriages; on the other hand, it is bad, for it deters marriage in a land where children are sorely needed and causes the French family to be small, so that the one or two children, when grown, may possess the proper financial] attractions for marriage. kind, he generally says so frankly; if the ‘Trinity is beyond his conception, he does not camouflage his skepticism; unlike many Americans, he accepts few theories on faith, and what he cannot understand or accept he candidly rejects. In the Frenchman, then, we find an unusual love of philosophy and a certain worship of reason which, are rather dis- couraging to us more loosely thinking. more sentimental, Americans. Perhaps our tendency is to take too many ideas, facts, and things for granted; but the Frenchman, even of the lower middle classes, is always searching for a reason, an explanation, a more thorough under- standing of this and that. If at the table of my French hostess THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by H. C. Ellis A:-PERIPATE TIC PURVEYOR: OF -BLYPAPER He sells it rolled, so that the purchaser will not feel stuck up by his purchase I inquired as to the origin of some word or the theory of some science, voila! an animated discussion immediately, a sift- ing of opinions, a peeping into diction- aries and encyclopedias, an astonishing volley of facts, and when the subject is dropped it is because that subject has been perforated, riddled, heartlessly dis- membered. But if it has passed through the dis- secting-room its anatomy has _ forever been made clear to me. In other words, vague, sentimental reflections seem rather distasteful to the twentieth century Frenchman, and his bravery in acknowl- edging and facing facts might well be imitated to some degree by our own coun- trymen. IN THE FRENCH SCHOOLS Your Frenchman, from the boy in the lycée to the professor in the university, is sure that complex life can be reduced to a comprehensible system; his tenacity in developing and defending a logical system worked out from a given defini- tion is wholly admirable. Indeed, to one who has seen the lacka- daisical air of the average American stu- dent toward the class-room discussion of some purely abstract idea, this French zeal in defending an intellectual point or theory, this seizing upon an abstraction as a sort of object of faith to be debated upon with enthusiasm, to be battled over if need be, comes as a pleasing shock. If, therefore, any American still clings to the old-time opinion that the French are a frivolous people he should imme- diately revise his theory. They are start-. lingly serious and their very seriousness has led throughout their history to what has been called their tragic antagonism of conviction. Such intellectual alertness would not allow any people to remain contentedly unanimous, but on the other hand has led to internal hatreds among the French so keen, so heated, that only a common intense patriotism has preserved safety. i a ey 5 “IBM. JO SIBOS JY} JOAITOF SUI[EIDUOD ‘S{JIY ISoY} 9YJOID UleSe [JIM SpreAUIA Suis pue “wo3yy 910}Sd1 UOOS [JIM IJ1IY} YUE Ng ‘sases A[pvop FO Solin} 94} YA pouosrod pue ‘Joudesys surysinq JO Jse}s sy} YM poterds ‘sjjays aatsojdxe ysty Aq pajse[q Used dAvy] asusedueyd JO splay 94} ‘Ssase}UIA 91e1 JO SIMassIOUUOd FO jYSI]ap oY} pue souLI. Jo optid oy} v0uGQ LOLIISIG=iINOVd Wry HO ‘AVNGAdMA LY SYIAAHLVO Advao jasurpnog “’y Aq ydeisojoyd 356 [heg jo Joyjoiq ‘1oqjured ‘seqeyy) solineyy “4 f soppy d10'T S ‘ ioqured oY} FO FIM ‘yoyIoqny oulepeyy ¢ {SI9IP[OS INO 1OfJ suluep ussq dAvY OY AM ‘S[41S S Jo] o10’T JO as61eyo ul AjJUdI04 ‘[Yorquv a, SIN iG QR 6Q S]srj1e YOUdIIT WIOPOUT JO payy13 JSOUr oy} JO dUO ‘UdtL9qnY “I : jo] SJopvos ye Susuulsoq “Burpuryjs ,,UIO Joquiazdag,, Fo sojured ‘seqeyy jneq jo Soar pub qsrze YouDsT 4-40 soyyonep™ Seqeysy ‘MIA 9 ‘Jourouosjse oy} JO JIM “uOleIUWLLT oWEpeyYy “S$ !Joyd[nos oy} ‘ulpoy “by Ssawiouolse ay} MOLLE] “€ {410}C[MOS oY" FO FIM “CHPOY oureprfy *z {PAY PUB YOY,, POWOAUL OALY O} ples ‘[YoqueA “1 :}Jo[ SJopeai je SuruUTSaq ‘pojvag Seu ea ~ 35RDOWUG HANAN ‘IVAN :SOINIS JO AWALXIW AONVALS V SIH “O “H Aq ydeisojoyd me 2a : tie 357; 358 A GROUP OF ARTISTS IN A BOHEMIAN CAFE: THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by H. C. Ellis PARIS The poet, Paul Fort (front row, second from the right), has just finished reciting one of his own compositions and seems well satisfied with This worship of reason, this desire for precision and clearness, this regard for method and established procedure, has caused in business and governmental ac- tivities a curiously encumbering effect. The profound faith prevalent in France in ticketing, labeling, and filing has led to what a British observer, Barker,’ has called “the plague of petits papiers.” In- deed, he continued, “one is administered in France from the cradle to the grave, and sometime afterwards.” The mass of administrative machinery in many fields is astounding, even to an American, and the French themselves grin sarcastically, but patiently, over the amount of sheets, tickets, tags, and gen- eral red tape connected with the most ordinary activities of governmental life. THEIR REVERENCE FOR CONVENTIONS Nor is this profound regard for method and established procedure limited to af- fairs of government; it permeates all so- himself ciety and may be seen in the reverent at- titude toward conventions and in a sort of social slavery toward petty observances handed down from.the remote past. To an American, scornful of traditions, it is almost beyond understanding—this do- ing a thing generation after generation simply because it has long been the cus- tom to do the thing. Naturally this close attention to method in daily life causes a reflex action upon all the mental processes of the French. Their constant regard for form and clear- ness has fostered a genuine passion for arranging, modifying, and combining all things symmetrically. Revealed in their formal gardens, the exact balance found in their architecture and sculpture, their careful attention to exactness in musical counterpoint, and their orderliness in writing, this idea of form impresses itself upon the visitor wherever he turns. The explicitness, the certainty, the conformity to established Photograph by IT. C. Ellis A FRENCH DESIGNER AND ARTIST: IN SUCH STUDIOS AND FROM SUCH HANDS ORIGI- NATE THE FASHIONS FOR WHICH ALL WOMANKIND IL,00KS TO PARIS This creator of fashion plates, Caprillo, turned his talents to the production of vivid war posters during the world conflict 359 OMI] YUITT Ulopold Ur puno} SI se lwusipeinjeu PUL LISI[BII sles 9} PIeMO} AdUapUd} kB SI 194} Aepo} Inq “Yolo oY} FO SivoX Jo yIVI puke YUIo}UIAVS dy} UL ATqe}OU ‘tUsI[OquAS 10 ‘KIOBaT[V I0F SUTYI] Ppoploop & SPA d494} VdURIT AUNUVW AHL JO MNVd AHL NO SUNIVd AH SV ‘WIH LnNOay s1adaoWw UNVSVaAd SIH HLIM “ALLINWYAH SIME “D “H Aq ydes80j04g -AIN}UID Y}U90} JO ssutjured Japjo 9y} Uy, 6 360 THE ..NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE 361 ideals of fitness—these proclaim the 1n- tense sanity of the French mind. |Vhat the French know, they possess. The Frenchman is terribly explicit. His exactness, were it not relieved by so many human qualities, would be excessively un- sympathetic. The clearness of the lan- guage itself, its almost faultless precision, long ago made it the language of diplo- macy ; its very clarity reflexively conduces toward clearness in thinking. TIE MOTHER OF. CRITICS All this must connote a high degree of critical taste ; for every one is constantly guarding against the vague, the unsym- metrical, the inelegant manner of expres- sion ; every one 1s constantly watching for things, ideas, and forms that appeal to the esthetic nature. The result has natu- rally been that France is the mother of a majority of the keenest masters of criti- cism in modern times, not only in litera- ture, but in music, painting, architecture, and sculpture. If there is such a thing as being too sane, as some of our psychologists warn us, then France’s extreme regard for the sanity, the orderliness, the symmetry of life may some day prove dangerous ; but at present the wholesome, jovial, almost effervescent nature of these very human people shows little sign of such a peril. One may expect to find, therefore, in French art a profound regard for what may be called the artistic proprieties— in other words, style. To a foreigner, French painting and sculpture may seem to possess more of order and movement than of profound motive. Edith Wharton has said: “However lofty and beautiful a man’s act or his pur- pose, it gains by being performed with what the French call ‘elegance.’ They do not care for the raw material of sensation: food must be ex- quisitely cooked, emotions eloquently ex- pressed, desire emotionally heightened, every experience must be transmuted into terms of beauty before it touches their imagination.” Beauty is unquestionably present in their sculpture, painting, architecture; but whether one finds here the terrific energy, the abandonment, the fine frenzy seen in some of the work of the Italians is indeed a question. In fact, French art sometimes seems to be more the fruit of intelligence than of overpowering genius. It is so abso- lutely finished, so decisively clear, that it leaves perhaps too little to the imagina- tion. It reminds one of the dignified symmetry and grandeur of portions of Milton’s Paradise Lost, but not of the stormy emotion of the poems of Burns or Byron. One finds oneself, even in one’s admi- raeiom: tor tt all; secretly longing fora little irregularity, a touch of the unusual, a flash of the wild abandonment that often thrills one in the primeval wilder- ness. But violence in any form has until very lately been rather repugnant to the French artistic sense—violence in color, line, and contrasts—and symmetry, ideal, restful, eternal symmetry, takes the place of successful audacity. TRIUMPHS OF FRENCH ART But in spite of all this, what nation has equaled France in high general level of artistic production? Where may be found her equal in Gothic architecture— her’ Notre Dame, St. Chapelle, the cathe- drals of Rheims and Rouen? Where, too, may be found the rival of Paris in noble modifications of the Greek—the Madeleine, the Pantheon, the Palais Royal, and a score of others? Repeatedly from the Middle Ages to this present hour the French masters have led Europe in finish and clearness of sculpture. An art lavishly supported from public funds, it has found expres- sion in such marvelous works as De- lore’s “Triumph of the Republic,” Bar- mes: “ihe First. Burials,’ and ~Rodinés ralhes-Ehinker,’* “Balzac,” “and ~~ ‘Dhe Hand of God.” In the older paintings of France there was a decided liking for allegory or symbolism, notably in the seventeenth and earlier years of the eighteenth century—it 1s so apparent in the work of Versailles—but today there is a tendency toward the same realism and naturalism as is found in modern French literature. I fear that many an American looks pen. Prench art as a thing of general ‘sjooyos I1ay} yzoddns hoy} yey} yisids owes oy} Ul spun dI[qnd yyWM Ht 4Y1oddns Adty pue ‘uOnyWsUur [euOTeONpa pue [vin}Nd Jess vB SI 19}v9Y} VY} Woy} 10,7 ‘ajdoad 19430 Aue JO 3ey} sossedins youety oy} Jo Azyiqe duorsy4sty oUL wa SITH “D “H Aq ydesSoj04g LVABL S Tay dVeeND ENS TTVIIAAGAV A AHL fO WVud0Nd GHIAVA AHL AAO'TI HONAW AHL 362 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 363 immoral tone. It may be that our Puri- tan instinct is shocked by the frequent recurrence of the nude in the paintings of France—as though the human body were something abhorrent and never to be admired among decent people. But French art is not immoral; it is simply frank. Undoubtedly most*of* the _ money gained in Paris from salacious art. comes from foreign pockets; for if a Frenchman seeks immorality he spends no money on poor imitations. To judge French painting as it really is, one has simply to look at such master- pieces as Corot’s “Matin,’ Lorrain’s “Village Féte,”’ Millet’s “Gleaners,” Rosa Bonheur’s “Horse Fair,” Jules Breton’s “Return of the Harvesters,’ and Monet’s “Cathedral of Rouen.” ‘The truthfulness, the simple dignity, the exquisite finish, of these painted stories from French life are proof enough that French art is the product of admirable skill and untiring patience. THE DEBATABLE QUESTION OF FRENCH MUSIC Many a French singer apparently has the skill, but many an American loses his patience trying to understand French music. In these times it may be heresy to say it, but French music seems to a foreigner to lack the deep emotional and ethical quality of the greater German music; nor has it that positive lyrical quality found in Italian opera. There has indeed been considerable dis- pute among critics as to whether there is yet a distinctly national quality in French music. ‘There are large numbers of charming old melodies, but these are provincial, not national. There are, of course, approaches to national airs in the “Noels,”’ or ancient Christmas songs, while “The Marseil- laise” is and will long remain not only a national but an international expression of love of freedom. But all this does not prove the case for French music. In light opera these people have un- doubtedly far surpassed the Germans and the English, but in grand opera we may find constantly cropping out the influence of Italian and German masters. What we Americans miss is the continued melody, the completed lyrical composi- non.” tion, that sings itself in one’s ears for days and perhaps months after one has heard the opera. ‘Then, too, to an Amer- ican the French voice seems rather thin, and even the French themselves will ad- mit that only a few of their greatest sing- ers have been native born. But it must be remembered that most of the famous singers of the world have looked upon Paris as “home”; for here was the birthplace of such masterly com- positions as Bizet’s “Carmen,” Berlioz’s “Damnation of Faust,” Thomas’ “Mig- Gounod’s “Faust,” Massenet’s “Manon,” and Saint-Saéns’ “Samson and Delilah.” THE GLORIES OF THE: FRENCH STAGE One may qualify one’s remarks on the music of the Frenchman, but who can overstate the glories of the French stage ? “Most French people are born actors”; indeed, their histrionic ability probably surpasses that of all other nations. Possessing exceptional mobility of fea- ture, vigorous and dramatic gestures, a language so exact as to be almost mathe- matical, a natural clarity of expression, they have in their very infancy those characteristics for which actors in other lands toil a lifetime. Then, too, Americans should bear in mind the vast advantage the French actor has in having, what America does not yet possess, a national public interest in the théater. In fact, the theater is part of the life of the nation; it is considered a branch of public instruction, under the control of the national department of education; its leading representatives at Paris—the Opera, the Opera Comique, the Odeon, and the Comedie Francaise— receive a large annual support from gov- ernment funds, just as, for instance, the agricultural schools do in America. The result has been such world-famous dramatists as Moliére, Racine, Corneille, Sardou, and Rostand; such masters of acting as Alexandre and Constant Coque- lin, Antoine, Mounet-Sully, and Sarah Bernhardt. Just as histrionic ability is native to the Frenchman, so one might also declare that the scientific attitude is characteris- tic of a great number of the French. The average native has enormous curiosity ; IN CASSOCK AND KHAKI: A FRENCH ABBOT AND AN AMERICAN LIEUTENANT IN A MONASTERY GARDEN “Mainly Catholic in their traditions and sentiment, the common people still reverence the vast institution governed from Rome; but the educated classes, because of their belief in its opposition to certain democratic movements, have in recent years been rather alienated.” A PEASANT HOME IN WESTERN FRANCE WHERE AMERICAN OFFICERS WERE RECENILY- BIEVER TED The soldiers’ hostess and host are to be seen at the left. Note the horse and the ox harnessed in tandem fashion. If this were in Austria or Hungary the woman would be the yoke-mate of the ox. 364 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 365 THE TOWN G A’ [ I: Photograph by H. C. Ellis AT --PROVINS Note thie sturdy Strength of the French peasant woman trundling a heavily loaded wheel- barrow and the two men in the cart riding toward her. The quaint old town of Provins in the middle ages was a great industrial center, having a population of 80,000, of whom 60,000 were workmen. he likes to be shown how; he admires ac- curacy; he worships reason. The result is that today this nation holds leadership in Europe in the sciences, especially the applied sciences. The French peasant has been accused of lacking imagination; but the imagina- tion of the French scientist leaps to meet the correct solution, while the German scientist plods toward it. THE GIFT OF FRENCH SCIENCE TO MAN’S WELFARE What marvelous skill has the French- man shown in the application of science to human diseases and deformities ; what marvelous research has been his in bac- teriology, neurology, and pathology ; what patience, what accuracy, what ihsight, has he displayed in clinical observation and description! To realize -what- French science: has’: At the beginning of the world war it had scarcely 8,000 inhabitants. done for man’s welfare, one has simplv to recall the names of Ampere, the inves- tigator of electrical dynamics; Pasteur, the master of bacteriological research, conqueror of rabies, and founder of the famous institute that bears his name; Roux, discoverer of diptheria serum; Chantemesse of.anti-typhus serum fame; Yersin, discoverer of the bubonic plague bacillus and its curative serum; Claude Bernard, marvelous worker in vivisec- tion; Berthelot, founder of thermo-chem-. istry, inventor of smokeless powder and aniline dyes; Pierre and Madame Curie, discoverers of polonium and radium; and Flammarion, master and interpretor of -astronomy. ‘The list has but begun; it might fill a score of pages. * But let us turn once more to the more strictly human side of French life. What shall one say, for instance, of what we “Puritan descendants consider so vitally : 2]qesiuipe st cued NO JeYM 8UI}495, JOF snus Joy pue ‘pajonb dot1d jst ayy Aed 07 sasnygos Ajdurs sYyS,, “AlojJe1o pure ‘SoTJeUaYIeUI ‘SdTUIOUODE ut Yonu Uses] OF SP JoryTeur Je Joy 9Atosqo ©} pue ‘s94ng PMosys AT]euoTdIoxe Ue SI URWIOM YOUsIy ay} “yooo poos Ajtieurpioeijxo ue 3 ; ems 2) UOE TP Peat G10 SUVIA GHNGNAH OMI SdVHUAd ANV SNVd GNV SHILLAM YAddOO AHL :4YWOH SSV’IO-YALLAG V NI NAHOLIM HONAYA IVOIGAL V SIT “OD “H Aq yaeisoj0yg 366 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 367 pepo the ethical viewpoint of the nation? rani here is where the French and we have long misunderstood each other. Just as, frankly, we Americans do not considerthese people as of a profoundly religious temperament. “Your Frenchman is willing to admit that the: church is a helpful institution, to be respected always and utilized at inter- vals; but when its religion undertakes to interfere with what he considers the nat- ural activities of a normal life it is liable to receive a cold shoulder. Mainly Catholic in their traditions and sentiment, the common people still rever- ence the vast institution governed from Rome; but the educated classes, because of their belief in its opposition to certain democratic movements, have, in recent years, been rather alienated. Fortunately, the recent law separating church from state and the patriotic atti- tude of the clergy, whether Catholic, Protestant, or Jewish, in the present war has undoubtedly improved the standing of organized religion in the nation. Morally the French are not an intro- spective people as were our Puritan fore- fathers. Your Frenchman does not al- ways believe that his conscience decides aright; he does not rely implicitly upon it; he has an unhesitating belief in a sane following of natural instincts. Puritan- ism meant restraint; Parisianism means ex pression. In the words of one observer: “To violate the heart’s dictates, which are the direct behests of nature, is, in his eyes, either pedantry or folly. It is not a question at all of a higher law, but of the natural instincts of man, which on the one hand he is to preserve from ‘ depravity and on the other to organize in such a way as to benefit that highly artificial institution known as so- ciety, in the direction of natural develop- ment, and not natural restraint.” The suggestions of culture, the dictates of science, the voice of society, must be considered, and one must distinguish be- tween the anti-legal and the anti-social. Business immorality is a thing to be de- tested, affecting as” ‘it may the whole of economic society—a thing more danger- ous than personal immorality, which is largely one’s own business. FRANCE MISJUDGED BECAUSE FOREIGNERS SEEKING SIN FOUND IT France no doubt has its weaknesses, for which no excuses need be attempted. The immorality of women, however, in that great country has been shamefully exaggerated. Because the foreigners seeking sin found it on certain Paris boulevards they concluded that this frank sexual advertis- ing was characteristic of France, whereas the average French girl is as zealously shielded from temptation as was ever the daughter of the Pilgrim father. But to love intensely and passionately is the French girl’s hope and desire; and why should it not be? On the subject of sobriety one may not be so kindly a critic at present. A few years before the war there began a rapid increase in the use of alcohol, especially among the city working class and lower bourgeoisie—an increase indeed formida- ble to public health. The use of light wines as a universal beverage may have had only a slight de- bilitating effect; but as the increasing excise duty on wines caused a greater demand for cheaper and more violent spirits, and as the use of absinthe and apéritifs became more popular, the rate of pure alcohol used per person in France at length reached in 1916 the entirely too large amount of 1% liters. Nor has the war discouraged the drink- ing habit. Many a poor soul has found ‘solace in the bottle after the day’s drudg- ery of war work. The Frenchman makes no pretext of hiding his love of the game of chance. Generally he is too shrewd to place large amounts at stake, but the sum total of the national betting must be an enormous amount. Theoretically gambling is illegal, but under the name of casinos and clubs it thrives, and the government, always lib- eral and tolerant toward lotteries and other forms of the vice, collects approxi- mately 15 per cent of the incomes of such places -in-‘the form of a license tax. Horse-race betting, like the casinos, is under strict government supervision, and 568 THE NATIONAL AY SC HoOOr, ON GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by IT. C. Ellis WHEELS IN FRANCE The children’s parents are members of a carnival company, traveling from town to town, much like our circuses. Jecause their fathers and mothers Jead a nomadic existence is no reason why the education of the youngsters should be neglected, and this is how the problem is solved by the alert and resourceful I'rench. nowhere may one find such honest gam-: I bling—if such a thing is possible—as in France. THE DUELLING CUSTOM Still another derogatory remark and we shall pass to more pleasant phases of French life. To us duelling is utterly ridiculous; to the French it is a quick and unostentatious manner of settling per- sonal difficulties. There is a code of conduct for civilized men and, in the Irenchman’s view, a man should hold himself responsible for de- parting from it. Why carry such a mat- ter, however, into the court? It is a pri- vate and personal affair. Why give it publicity in the newspapers and make lawyers rich and take the time of the judge and law courts? A pistol shot or a slight thrust of the sword and the thing is settled, says your Frenchman. If the opponents are not killed they will both acknowledge that the code of conduct has been defended and vindicated; if one is killed the other THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 369 Photograph by H. C. Ellis A BIT OF FUN OR A HUMANE PROVISION FOR THE COMFORT OF THIS PATIENT LITTLE PLODDER? | The trousers are supposed to keep off the flies, but the clever mountebank knows that they also attract attention to his traveling Punch and Judy show may be prosecuted for homicide, but if it was a fair duel is almost certain of ac- quittal. Often indeed a French duel has re- sulted from what we Americans would consider very small breaches of polite- ness. But we must rcmember that polite- ness is one of the most marked national characteristics; the courtesy of the French, “punctilious,” as some one has called it, is but another evidence of their love of form, system, established tradi- tion. “The French put the same inten- tions into manners that all civilized people do into language, and have systematized them with the same care for correctness on the one hand and pliability on the other.” This observance of traditionally polite forms is often irritating to the hasty manerican. I remember that_after. I had waited in line an hour and a quarter ina Parisian railway station to reserve a seat on a train I was dumbfounded to see two women clerks enter the office and hold up the entire business of the occasion to say good night and shake hands with every one behind the counter. What is the use, says your average American, of this constant tipping of hats among the men, this constant shaking of hands when entering and leaving an office, this saying of farewell a dozen times be- fore one goes? But the French know what they are about. Long centuries of such little courtesies have reduced the forms of politeness almost to a ritual, and every French boy, unlike every American boy, knows exactly what to say and how to act in every business or social situation. THE FRENCH HOUSEWIFE WITHOUT AN EQUAL IN ECONOMY The French have long been a shrewd, calculating people who have watched closely every sou. They may seem ro- 370 THE. ARTICHOKE SECTION THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by H. C. Ellis CENTRAL MARKET, PARIS The immense quantities of vegetables eaten by the French counteract in a measure the effect of some habits less healthful mantic to foreigners; their passionate protestations of love may seem too frank to us of Puritan descent; but in not only financial affairs, but even their pleasures, they minutely calculate all items. Probably there is not in the world the equal of the French housewife in econ- omy and efficiency. Before the war wages were astonishingly low in France, and. there must have been . continual squeezing of each franc; but, thanks to the ability of the French wife, who could tell from outside evidence that there was unusual stinting in the average home? To see a French woman bargain at the market is to learn much in economics, mathematics—and oratory. She simply refuses to pay the first price quoted; her genius for “getting what you can” is ad- mirable. The Frenchman is not so careful and is too liable to be drawn to the café for a consoling drink or the seductive game of piquet; but the hand that holds the purse-string is the hand that rules the world—and the French wife holds it tightly. Her faith in small savings res- cued France after the war of 1870, when vast horded wealth was willingly brought forth to pay the enormous national debt, and the same faith made it possible for France to preserve ‘1erself and the world during the world war. FRENCH PARENTAL REVERENCE EQUALED IN CHINA ONLY With such women, is it any marvel that the French home is so admirably united? The family is the primal social fact in France, and the parents are “the funda- mental fact without which the organism (the family) could never have come into being.” Hence there is a reverence for parents equaled probably only by the an- cestral worship of China. Indeed, it is very doubtful whether the love between husband and wife equals that existing between parent and child. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NOT ALE, THE :GOOD FRENCH COOKS ARE EMPLOYED IN THE PARIS RESTAURANTS “Probably there is not in all the world the equal of the French housewife in economy and efficiency” There is constant consultation with parents and relatives by sons and daugh- ters of advanced years—a form of con- sultation scarcely ever heard of in an American family. If a Frenchman of thirty or thirty-five proposes changing his profession, he may consult not only his father and his mother, but the entire family group; the proposed marriage of a daughter or a son is often an occasion for a council of the entire clan, including distant rela- tives that in America would hardly be in- cluded in our family tree. The world has been fond of pointing out that the French language has no word for “home.” It has a word possibly even more tender. What a meaning is in the sound of “foyer”! It includes the con- cept of hearthstone and much more. It brings to the French mind and heart all tac ideals, activities, and dreams of.a close, inner circle where obedience is a joy, respect a willing observance, and love an ever-present radiance. The foyer is not for the outside world ; only behind locked doors does it really live and flourish. The father may deal with the outside world of business, but here in thee foyer the mother generally rules supreme, and her influence is every- where seen 1n It. Is it any wonder that when one parent dies the other is immediately taken into the home of the married son or daughter, there to rule as a sort of benevolent, en- lightened despot? COURTSHIP AMONG THE FRENCH Perhaps some youthful American reader of these pages has already asked, How can there be any courtship in so private a home, where everybody within the charmed circle is consulted about all the affairs connected with that circle? As a preparatory step toward such a yyBr3 ayy 0} youn, yo yay OY} pue Ifoy OY} O} SUIOO] JOMOT, JOY] oY} ornzord sty} JO punoisyoeq Jurjsip dy} uy “yueq iF9T VY} UO Stojrenb oy} pue ‘stno’*y 349 fo purest oy} YUM OL) 94} “YUL JYSII oy} UO Stoyienb 9yj——sjsed 9914} OJUL paprarp sr yezdes 94} SHYT, “HD eB] ep a] 24} pue stmno’y 349 aj] oy} :azis 2] qeIapIsuos jo Spuryst OM} 91 JOATI dy} WO1f SUISTY “Sasprliq If Aq Possodd st ‘saypiuI UsAas SULINSBOU ‘AYID OY} YShoiy} IUI9G dy} JO asino0d SUIPUIM oy, aSIVAUHD “LS WOW NAMVL MAIA—SHOdINa NAAAS AO HAILOUdSaAd :slivd essni0}}ey “) Wor ydeisojoyg N In Ce) beautiful home life one would think that there should first be a most romantic love affair, with moonlight walks and whispered words of adoration and all the other pretty things found in the senti- mental novel. Unfortunately or fortunately—as you may view it—these accompaniments of American match-making are frequently totally absent from French courtship. Indeed, in the middle and higher classes of French society there is often very little possibility of love-making before mar- riage. Owing to the family regulations and the fact that there are few coeducational schools in the country, the French girl seldom makes with boys those confi- dent, personal friendships so common in America. In the main the French mother prefers not to trust her daughter alone with a Photograph by H. C. Ellis A WOMAN’S WORK AT THE CENTRAL MARKET IN PARIS Like London’s Covent Garden flower market and the fish market of Venice, the Central Market of Paris is one of the sights of the city. Much of the heavy labor in this market fell to the lot of women even before the war so sorely depleted the man-power of France. man; if they are to do any loving, it is better that they do it where she can keep an observant eye on them. In spite of such manifest difficulties in the prelimi- naries, the French girl probably desires marriage more ardently than the Ameri- can girl confessedly desires it. ‘There is so much supervision of the French lass in her home that her only release seems to lie in marriage. Hence a remarkable docility in the matter of the choice of a husband. Some one has said that the French woman marries, not because of love, but with the hope of love afterwards. With the letters of her sweetheart too often the property of the entire house- hold, with too little opportunity really to “size up” the future husband, and with the necessity oftentimes of obtaining the consent of practically the entire family group, she cannot rely altogether on the Photograph by H. C. Ellis TRUFFLES, USED FOR FLAVORING FRENCH DISHES: THIS HAND- BWE ES WORTH ALMOST 500 FRANCS Pigs and dogs are trained to hunt truffles. fungi. dictates of the heart, but may accept the husband in a manner that would seem curiously business-like and matter-of-fact to the American girl. THE DOWRY A TRUST FUND FOR CHILDREN I have said that the consent of the family group is generally requested. ‘To the French a marriage means readjust- ment of the entire family. group, and obviously, according to French reasoning, all members of the family must be con- sulted. Some varieties, how- ever, exhale so powerful an odor that their places of growth beneath the surface can readily be detected by the gatherers of the precious THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE And this “round- table” discussion deals often with matters so extremely material that under similar cir- cumstances the Amer- ican girl would feel shocked if not posi- tively insulted ; for ex- treme financial pru- dence enters into the conference. In the better-class families a dowry ac- companying the wife will practically be de-. manded. What does she bring with her? is the not uncommon question of the young man’s parents. Extremely pruden- tial it all may seem; but one should remem- ber that this dowry is not to be used by the husband for his per- sonal use, but as a trust, funds for prince maintenance of the expected children, = li the wife dies childless the dowry will, in all probability, revert to her family ; the theory of the attains othat such property belongs not to the individual— either husband or wife—but to the fam- ily as an institution. In some ways such foresight is good, for it prevents hasty and poverty - ridden marriage; in other ways it is bad, for it deters marriage in a land where children are sorely needed and causes the French family to be small, so that the one or two children, when grown, may possess the proper financial attractions for mar- riage. Hence, too, the unusual impor- tance attached to the child in the French home. He or she is a somewhat expen- sive luxury; his or her intelligence may be unduly forced; he or she may be- come almost unpleasantly precocious ; he THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE FOUNTAIN OF NEPTUNE, AT VERSAILLES _ The leveling of the ground for the gardens and park of the palace at Versailles, the mak- ing of a road to Paris (11 miles distant), and the erection of the Aqueduc de Maintenon to bring water for the fountains from the River Eure are said to have occupied 36,000 men and 6,000 horses for years, while the palace itself cost in the neighborhood of $100,000,000, in addition to the forced labor exacted under the old feudal system. The fountains at Versailles only play on the first Sunday of each month from May to October and on special féte days. or she must be given a bountiful start in life. | What is the effect of this attitude to- ward the child? To an. American it makes the higher class French girl an adorably innocent and totally feminine woman—the number of international marriages during and after this war will prove the statement—while to that same American it makes the young Frenchman starting on a commercial or professional career seem rather lacking in that ag- gressiveness and daring so inuch admired in American business circles. Again, for the sake of the child, the family and the foyer, the French wife is more likely to forgive transgressions of matrimonial rectitude than would the American wife. A father’s neglect of his family is, in the French woman’s eyes, far more criminal than the temporary straying of the husband into doubtful re- lations with another woman. With us conjugal rectitude is of pri- mary importance; with the French that rectitude which sees that the home re- mains intact and comfortable is more im- portant. In other words, your French wife is likely to consider domestic faith- fulness more essential, more to be de- manded, than conjugal faithfulness. NO MILITANT SUFFRAGE SPIRIT IN FRANCE Such a home, such a privacy of domes- tic life, does not encourage the French woman to take a large part in the public life of her nation. For instance, there seems to be an astonishingly small inter- est among the average French women as to whether they shall ever be allowed to vote. They seem very willing, in their ‘sun}{ 24} Aq JuoUIpsequiog [elioe WOT, JEM 9Y} SUIINP YON potoyNs sey iT “Jos SII JO JYSIOY & O} ASIA SIOMO} P2TOY-doo] sAIsseUI JYSIO S}I PUL YITY} JOoF OZ 0} QI WoO IF J1e S][eM SIT ‘OOLI Ul ‘TA sapteYyD JO JoyzoIq ‘suvsTIQ fo smMo’T Aq WING SEM PUL SPUOJIIIIgG FO ISe]JIA JY} SUIYOO]IIAO JYSloy AYDOI & UO poo}.s I] "SOUT [VAIIPOUL FO SII Paystssy JSOUL 9Y} FO JUO SLM o]}SRO [ePNoj SuISOdUIL Sty} ‘S}9191}09-SJoT]IA pue ousaidmoD Usamjoq ABPMPIU poyeNnys AONVWYUA NYATHIYON :SANOSAHAUAId AVALVHO SUM “OD “H Sq ydes80q0yg Po ee tte “tt SID Fg 376 TMH NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Sle extreme femininity, to leave the matter entirely to the men. And what a wonderful government these Frenchmen have made through their vote! Democracy is indeed the test of all national activities. The French government shows genuine respect for the average citizen ; indeed, every French- man seems proud that he is simply an average citizen. Hence the whole ten- dency of the government is to work con- sciously against legalization of social ine- qualities. | Any man with ability and ambition can rise to any position. The bourgeoisie or middle class—that is, the traders, profes- sional men, military officers, peasant-pro- prietors, etc.—is so large that all other classes are negligible, and necessarily there is extremely wide social equality. Again, French democracy, since it is popular, is admirably authoritative. The _ people show a surprising submission to a large amount of state administration. It is not the supine submission found in Germany or the uninquiring attitude found in a large portion of England’s lowest classes; it is willing, intelligent obedience to administrative machinery created by the people themselves. Perhaps, as stated before, there is. too much machinery; perhaps there is. too much centralization of national activities under government control in one spot (Paris); but, after all, the widespread interest in active self-government, the healthful, vigorous, often passionate, public discussion, the political alertness of the people as a whole, means safety for France. There may be too much centralization in Paris; but every Frenchman, whether he lives in a Normandy village or in the mountains that look toward Switzerland, is proud of this city that has long been the light of the world. “The light of the world!” May not the words be applied justly to all France? What would Europe be without her? One can conceive of a Europe existing without Germany or Russia, but the glory of the continent would be extinguished if France should die. It is for her and what she has long represented in liberty that the world battled yesterday. That nation which seeks to destroy France is fore- doomed to destruction. THE PRICE OF LIBERTY, EQUALITY, FRATERNITY HE, price in stalwart young man- hood which the French nation has paid during the world war to pre- serve human liberties has exceeded by appalling numbers the toll exacted of her associate Allies. While France has not yet made an official announcement as to her losses, it is estimated that one million eight hun- dred thousand French patriots have laid down their lives on the altar of their country’s freedom; one million gave limb, sight, or health, and were thus rendered permanently incapacitated for their accus- tomed pursuits of peace; one million two hundred thousand others sustained inju- ries which have retarded their activities. Thus, four million men is the tribute that war has exacted of what Mr. Holli- day rightly characterizes as the most civ- ilized country on the globe for the salva- tion of her own people and the safe- guarding of her democratic institutions. What if America had suffered such losses in proportion to her population? Every man between the ages of 21 and 30 who registered for military service in the United States on June 5, 1917—more than nine and a half million in number— would be a casualty today, and there would still be a million and a half men to be added from the registration lists of September 12, 1918. Mothers, fathers, wives, brothers, sisters, and sweethearts would be mourning for five million Amer- ican dead. For every ten men, women, and chil- dren in France at the outbreak of the war one able-bodied citizen in the prime of manhood has either laid down his life or suffered bodily injury. The casualties in, no other army save the Serbian even approached such sweeping percentages. Truly, the sons of France gave them- selves without stint for the cause of world democracy. "(PRE Sed 90S) sapesyy Jo Atajseuopy (8) :IOMOT, [Jog oY, (4) © (Zge pue IgE sased 998) pauMOID o1aM SIeSy, oY} dIOYM ‘uUOoTdwNssy yO [epee (Q) {9}e5) Uaploy 94} pUTyeq InoTAeg INQ Jo Jeipoyyey) (S$) Seay ay} J9j9g [HUN paling o19M siesJ, oy} [[e sym ‘sjasueyory Jo jespeyied (7) {peatsiew pue poziydeq o19M siesy, oy} 904M ‘UOTHeIOunUUY Jo [eIpayjey) (£) faovjeq pueiy (Zz) ‘wmosny_ pue Ainsvoiy, (1) :o1e Ja] oy} WoIy Burpros ‘sSurpying yedmoursd sy, “ojo ‘sie[JOP Jo suoN]Iw Fo anjea oy} OJ spamof pure ‘sjread ‘sauo}s snoaid ‘sjassaA JOATIS pue pjos ‘saqOd [eJOpss0Vs ‘TEM FO SarydoOI} ‘Soa PasoeS ‘Salio}SeUOWU PUL S[eIPIY}LO S10}sIY JO ABIIG UL YONS PIPMOIO 2194} SI P[JOM oY} UT Baie [enbs say} OU UT ‘UOlsyes ueIssny pue ol] UeIssNY Ul snoDeid sSuly} JO ssnoY-o1Nseai} pue ‘UIMI[OsNeW ‘UINaSNUT MOU SI UTpWIy oY) ‘JIOF e A]TeUISIIO II ASOIONI HOIHM SYAMOL-HOLVM ALOT GNV ‘YIVM H9IH AHL, ONIMOHS ‘VISSAY AO SAVIOH AO AION AHL JO MAIA 378 THE REBIRTH OF RELIGION IN RUSSIA The Church Reorganized While Bolshevik Cannon Spread Destruction in the Nation’s Holy of Hollies By THomas WHITTEMORE HE, Holy~ Kremlin of Moscow has become a Bolshevik fortress. From the 9th to the 16th of No- vember, 1917, for more than seven days under a hurricane of fire, the city was stormed and finally carried by the Bol- sheviks in terrible fratricidal war. Since then the sacred citadel has been playing a new and ignominious role in the history of Russia. From the time of the building of the Church of the Beheading of St. John Baptist and of the little Church of our Saviour in the Forest, bespeaking the days when the acropolis was still a wooded hill, a multitude of churches and palaces, witnesses of Russia’s glory, have written here a national document in stone. The history of Russia is the history of the monuments of the Kremlin. During the bombardment a Chinese workman, looking on, was heard to say, “The Russian is not good; bad man; he shoots on his God.” . Outraged and despoiled, the Kremlin is in bonds today, guarded by foreign mercenaries. The forty times forty churches of the white stone city seem to draw a little closer in answer to the trumpet calls of the Kremlin domes. The battered towers and shredded gates, from which red flags are defiantly flung in the face of Russia, still stand bravely to pro- tect the sacred site. Deputations from the Sobor, or Rus- sian Council, now sitting in Moscow, have abjectly to ask the Bolshevik commit- tees’ permission to hold s~ vices in the churches of the Kremlin. 1 the Bolshe- viks dared, they would long since have declared the churches of the Kremlin to be museums, and so extinguished their light of faith. The representatives of the Church have 1S) Ne) acted in fearless determination that the churches should continue to function, and have continued their sessions amid the violence and destruction raging on all sides of them (see also pages 392 and 393): Entrance to the once always open Kremlin is now only by permit, through the Troitsa gate. All day long a moving line of people on various missions, show- ing their passports at the window of a little wooden kiosk, beg to be allowed to enter: A SCENE OF SACRILEGE WITHIN THE KREMLIN Once within the walls of the Kremlin, one faces piles of ammunition, barbed wire, and ugly miscellaneous heaps of rubbish. Austrian, German, and Lettish soldiers, some frankly in their enemy uni- forms, are lounging about or standing guard. Army motor-lorries and cars carrying dark, sallow, un-Russian-faced government officials tear up through the gates, shrieking a curse, so it seems, as they enter upon all-hated Christian Russia. The farther one walks about and secs the outraged fabric on all sides, the stronger becomes the feeling of grief. With indescribable emotion, one enters the resounding stone inclosure near the Cathedral of the Falling Asleep of the Mother of God. Here are still to be traced the stains of enormous pools of blood in which floated human fragments, tracked about by daring feet.* * Many notes of personal experience and all the photographs of the Kremlin which illus- trate this article were graciously given me in Moscow by my friend, Bishop Nestor, the dis- tinguished missionary bishop of Kamchatka, who took them himself in the Kremlin by per- mission of the Bolshevik government. Sp re yee JO SUOI}IPes} W9}}0810J oY} pue ‘sayomnyo Ajduta oy} ‘QoUdTOFIpUL PJOO ay} WoIZ ACM SUOT & suUISSNY [eNJoIJ[a}UT JYSNoIq sey WONJOAdI sy J, TONVLSIG AHL NI ‘IISVA GASSH’Id MHI JO HOYNHO AHL GNV NIIWNAIM AHL AO STIVM AHL ONIMOHS “AUvVOAOS GAY AHL NI MOOSOW NI INAJHTIVA AHL JO NOISSHDOUd EXTERIOR: OF THE USPENSKI CATHEDRAL: (SEE PAGES 379, 390, Showing the shell hole in the central dome. The Cathedral itself has been badly treated. A shell struck its central. dome and, bursting among the five domes of smouldering gold, viciously smote a sec- ond. The hole in the chief dome between the ghostly frescoes of the saints meas- ures 7 feet in length and nearly 6 feet in width. In the drum of the dome is an ominous crack. DEVASTATION INSIDE THE CATHEDRAL The damage has not even yet been ex- amined in detail by architects, and it 1s AND 393) In this church the T'sars were crowned. not known, therefore, whether such wan- ton devastation can be repaired. The window glass is everywhere smashed or shot through. Within the Cathedral there are strewn about splinters of a 6-inch shell, which exploded there, and fragments of white stone, brick, and rubble. The gold and silver candelabra, those constellations among which all within the church seems to float through space, are bent as by storm; the Altar and the Sanctuary are strewn with broken glass, brick, and dirt; the Shrine of the Bc — - <2 et Ss KK BASE “(€O€ pue ‘IQt ‘OLE sased 99S) ,SSOID Od} JY} JO [LeU & puc Losi Cys fy CY CGF Here FY Ere tty vests were cee rt ye [eUISIIO S}I UI patojso1 Usaq Skemye sey jt ‘o1y JO Sistopunjd Aq pojzeyseasp A]Tpojeodet Ysnow], ‘6Z-SZV1 ul ‘eusolog Jo ‘“TUDAeIOIY a yInq sea Go. JO YAHLOW AHL JO daWISV ONITIVA AHL AO IVAGAHLVO AHL YO “AOGOS IMSNUdSN AHL AO AOIMALNI THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Holy Martyr, Patriarch Hermogen, is covered with fragments of stone and rub- bish. This is the church built by Fioraventi of Bologna, in which the’ Tsars were crowned and in which the earlier Patri- archs were laid to rest. It is the precious reliquary of Russia’s rich inheritance of the treasure of the ancient Eastern Church. THE MARVELOUS EASTER SERVICE In the days before the suppression of the Patriarchate by Peter the Great (see page 390), on Good Friday—or, as the Russians say, Great Friday—the Patri- arch, in humble imitation of our Lord’s entry into Jerusalem, rode on an ass from the Church of Blessed Basil, across the mosaic of fluttering doves, through the Gate of the Saviour, up to the Kremlin, but this year the new Patriarch; Tikhon, was forbidden entrance in. the ancient way. Indeed, it was late on Easter Eve before His Holiness knew with certainty that he should be allowed to celebrate in his own Cathedral on the morrow. In spite of the desecration, amid the ikon-clouds of steadfast witnesses to the. faith, the Patriarch officiated at Easter. There, on ‘Easter Eve, for two hours before midnight, one hears the Acts of the Holy Apostles read. Meanwhile the lamps and candles, lighted one by one, swim like planets. into our ken. The church swings in the shadows like a huge censer. Then the gates of the sanctuary open and, in the vestments of royal purple, Patriarch, bishops, and priests, with silver and crystal crosses, like a torrent, flood the church with song: “Christ is risen!” they exclaim. “He is risen, indeed!’’ the people make answer. The jeweled Gospels are thundered 1 in different languages from the four corners of the church to all the earth. In the orchestra of voices the festival bell of the tower of John the Great companions the mighty voice of the archdeacon, Rosov, | pie Chaliapine of the Russian Church. A HOLY MONASTERY OUTRAGED It is all a vision of the forms and color of the Imperial Byzantine Court, in which 383 the Church on earth pays her most splen- did homage to Heaven. A dreadful impression is produced by the present appearance of the Chudov Monastery, the “Wonder-working Mon- astery.” The facade of the south side has been pierced by six heavy shells. In the rose-red walls are deep breaks and cracks and holes from 5 to 7 feet in di- ameter (see page 384). Two shells broke through the wall of the Metropolitan’s apartments, in which a member of the Council, Benjamin, Metropolitan of Petrograd, was staying. Inside the rooms there is complete de- struction. Fragments of furniture are mingled with heaps of stone and rubbish. In one room a shell pierced the im- mense, thick wall near a window and de- stroyed it as far as an ikon of the Mother of God which stood near, but the ikon and the glass over it and the lamp hang- ing before it were uninjured. The church in the monastery, where the relics of St. Alexis rest, did not suffer; only the win- dows were broken. The relics of St. Alexis had been carried to the catacombs church at the beginning of the firing. There, beneath the low vaults, the Metropolitan, Benjamin; Archbishop M1- chael, of Grodno; the Prior, of the Chu- dov Monastery; Bishop Arsenius, the Elder Alexis, of the Zosimov Hermitage, and all the brethren offered their prayers day and night, under the unceasing rattle of the guns which shook the walls of the church. | ‘CERMAN INVECTIVES MAR CHURCH WALLS In the Church of St. Nicholas, in the belfry of the tower of Ivan the Great, a shell crashed through a window and de- stroyed the east wall of the interior of the Sanctuary. The large, magnificent old Book of the Gospels, which was placed against the ruined wall, was thrown to the floor near the Altar. The front cover was torn off, and the precious ikons of the Resurrection of Christ and of the Evangelists adorning the book: were broken and thrown about; many leaves were torn and crushed. The Altar of Oblation was broken and * the service books torn. All over the Sanctuary bricks were scattered about, with splinters of shells and various eccle- es Ls © AS A eS) 3]39 Jsour dy} JO duo ST SIT, EM YOIYM pury dy} sardnoso 3] “eIssMAy TTe UI SatiajseuOUT pazeIq Meroe be vo ge et -o}eis e@ Aq QSEI UT sIxoTY UeW[OdOIJaIY JY} 0} UOATS sv (Cg HOvd WAS) THVHOIW THONVHOYV AHL JO WIOVAIN V ONILVAONANWOO ‘AYWLISVNOW AOGNHS AHL fO MOM XA CAWLLV HS 384 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE siastical objects, heaped up between the Altar and the Royal Gates, but the Altar itself, in spite of its nearness to the ruin, was uninjured. In the Church of St. Nicholas lies a Bamwousme holy relics of the Prelate Nicholas, a saint honored by all Chris- tians and even by the heathen. The walls of the entrance to this church are written over with the most filthy and sacrilegious inscriptions and invectives, not only in Russian, but (more significant of the lead- ership in all this despoliation) in Ger- man. ‘The entrance of the church where the relics lie was used as an outhouse. MADMEN DIRECT A RAIN OF DESTRUCTIVE SHELLS When raining destructive shells on the Kremlin, the madmen evidently decided beforehand not to spare one of the churches ; and, in fact, traces of the crime are left on all. The famous porch of Lodgetti, of the Church of the Annunciation, from which Ivan the Terrible admired the comet, is destroyed by shot and shell. Miuracu- lously, the age-dimmed interior of this remarkable little church is unharmed. The jasper floor which the Shah of Per- sia gave to the Tsar Alexis, the floor of many-colored jasper, like an Apocalyptic sea, binding the door-posts and lintels, set with precious stones, remains like a ponderous Byzantine cope-clasp. The Church of the Archangel is scarred with the marks of shells. The Churches of the Resurrection and of the Deposi- tion of the Robe,.the oratories of the ikon of the Mother of God of Pechersk, and the Church of the Forerunner, in the Borovitsk Tower, domes like a garden of Hafiz, or Omar Khayyam, all fell beneath sacrilegious fury. The last-named church came in for severe usage, and some shots struck the ikons of the sainted Prelates of Moscow and of the Mother of God of Kazan. DIAMONDS AND PEARLS IN RUBBISH HEAP The Patriarchal Sacristy, containing treasures of incalculable value, has been turned into a heap of rubbish, where, among sand, rubble, fragments of the walls, and broken glass, the unholy hand digs for diamonds and pearls (see p. 387). 0890 The worst devastation has occurred in Room No. 4, which was pierced by a bursting shell. Here several glass cases and cupboards with precious ancient cov- ers, or palls, ornamented with gold and precious stones, were torn to shreds. Some memorial palls were pierced and completely ruined. A book of the Holy Gospels of the twelfth century (1115), of the Grand Duke Mstislav, of Novgorod, was injured by a splinter. Various precious objects and ornaments of the Patriarchs, such as mitres, gauntlets, church utensils, vessels, and crosses, are all thrown out of the cases onto the floor and broken to pieces. Another shell, in Room No. 6, de- stroyed a case containing Patriarchal vestments. The historical Russian ec- clesiastical treasury, the noble monument of the past: Patriarchal life of a great nation, is shattered. Subsequently, after the Bolsheviks had assumed protection of the treasury and locked themselves into the Kremlin, these rooms were broken open and ruthlessly looted by some of their own company. GEMS GOUGED FROM ORNAMENTS In their haste to rifle the cases and in their indifference to the national signifi- cance of the treasury, these robbers wan- tonly ruined ecclesiastical ornaments by brutally gouging out the gems or ripping off their golden mountings, and by cutting out the jewel-studded medallions from the vestments made of ancient stuffs, in which weaver and goldsmith wrought with a mutual hand. Some of the treas- ure has been recovered, but most of it is either destroyed or irrevocably lost. What hope is there for the safety of the Hermitage treasure brought from Petrograd in wooden boxes now lying in the Kremlin? The Church of the Twelve Apostles is riddled with shot. Furrowed by shells and broken, its east end lighted by holes and cracks, it gives the impression of be- ing held together by some miracle. One shell pierced the wall from the south side, below the window, and burst in the church, causing much destruction ; the standard candle-holders were broken and many ikons on the walls injured by splinters. 386 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE OUTRAGED AND DESPOILED Broken and twisted candelabra, shattered windows, battered ikons, crushed and trampled- upon sacred vessels—such are the scenes which greet the eye of the worshiper in many of the “forty times forty churches” of Moscow today. On a large crucifix, standing by the north wall, the outstretched hands of our Saviour were broken off. The figure was gashed with sharp bits of brick, and oil from the hanging lamps had poured over the whole. Red spots made a startling likeness of a living body covered with blood. Some pilgrims who had succeeded in getting into the Kremlin, on approaching this sacred object, were unable to look at it and gave way to their grief, passion- ately embracing the feet of Christ cruci- fied afresh (see page 388). The little Nicholas Palace, which for- merly belonged to the Chudov Monastery, suffered severely from the attack. From the outside, one peers into great holes in the walls. Inside all is complete devas- tation. The great mirrors and other fur- nishings of the palace have been barba- rously demolished, cupboards broken into, and their books, deeds, and papers scat- tered through all the rooms. The Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul in the palace was pierced by shell and laid waste. The ikonostasis was broken, the Royal Gates forced open by THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 387 DESPOLIATION OF THE PATRIARCHAL TREASURY, SHOWING THE GOLD AND SILVER CHALICES (SEE PAGE 385) Among the sand, rubble, shattered walls and fragments of glass, unholy hands rummaged for jewels which were knocked from their settings in sacred vessels the shock of the explosion, and the cur- tain rent in twain. Many valuable ikons were stolen. The Law Courts are knocked about, and the cupola of the famous Catherine Hall is pierced by shell. In the rooms of the experts or detectives, the fools of revolutionaries, coming upon the poi- soned organs, abortions, etc., had de- voured them because they were preserved in spirits! The Nicholas Tower and Gate, where Napoleon, in 1812, broke the ikon of the sainted Prelate Nicholas, but which has remained uninjured since that time, has now been subjected to heavy fire and riddled with shot and shell (see page 391). The case covering the ikon of St. Nicholas is ruined ; the canopy above the ikon is broken and hangs by a nail. On one side the image of the angel is broken and that on the other side of the image is pierced. The representation of St. Nicholas be- tween has been preserved, but around the head and shoulders there is one continu- ous pattern of shot holes. At the first glance it seems that there is no ikon, but, on looking more carefully through the dust and rubble, there appears first the stern face of the saint, with a wound on THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A GRIM MONUMENT TO REVOLUTIONARY SACRILEGE Furrowed by shells and riddled with shot, this noble edifice, the Church of the Twelve Apostles, presents an even sorrier spectacle within (see page 385) the right temple, and then the whole figure, considered always as the defense of the Holy Kremlin. THE GREATNESS’ AND THE: GLORY OF THE KREMLIN The Gate of the Saviour was till now honored by traditional custom, where every one who went through, even the foreigner and the pagan, bared his head as a mark of reverence. Now no one enters here and armed guards stand smoking cigarettes, scolding the passers- by, and quarreling among themselves. The famous clock with the musical chimes is shattered. The hands stopped at the moment when a heavy shell broke into the Kremlin wall and left its indeli- ble trail of blood and shame on this hal- lowed heart of Moscow. One would like, as so many have said, to open the Kremlin gates that all people, not only of Moscow, but of all Russia, might see the ruin of their sacred places. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE What will wash away all the uncleanness, Russians ask, by which the Russian bar- barism directed by the enemy has defiled the Kremlin ? It is impossible not to recognize that in the Kremlin are found the history of the art, moral strength, might, greatness, and glory of the Russian land. If ancient Moscow is the heart of all Russia, then the altar of this heart is the Kremlin. A sacrilegious attack upon it could be made only by madmen or by men to whom nothing is holy and who are in- capable of understanding (whatever Rus- sia’s future is to be) the significance and importance of this monument of Russian history. It cannot be considered a suffi- cient reason that the artillery fire di- rected against the Kremlin had for its object to crush the handful of officers and cadets who were within. Not daring to approach, Bolsheviks searched for them with shell, injuring now the dome of the Cathedral of the Repose, now the Church of the Twelve Apostles, now the Tower of Ivan the Great, now the Chudov Monastery, and so on, in turn, almost to the last church. Alas! This crazy fallacy is character- istic of the self-imposed government. What they did in the Kremlin they are doing today throughout Russia. One would like to believe that, if these men were once Russians, all consciousness of love for their country had been drained out of their hearts before their subserv- ience to the enemies of all that is to a true Russian dear and holy! Now these wounds have been bound up, as far as is possible, by merciful hands, as if bandaged, propped up by splints, and covered with sheets of iron, so that the winter shall not do still greater damage. THE ORTHODOX CHURCH RISES FROM THE RUINS A seventeenth century tale begins: “What man ever divined that Moscow would become a kingdom?” The twen- tieth century historian may wonder how the Kremlin could have been the target of such violence. | What further struggle and suffering await the Kremlin no one knows. No foreign eyes friendly to Russia remain in Moscow now te see. 389 The violent commotion which is shak- ing the life of Russia, typified physically by the wrecking of the Kremlin, 1s find- ing its first visible reaction in the reorgan- ization of the Russian Church. In the cities, where life courses more rapidly than in the country, the people, or a great part of them, are perceptibly ‘returning to the Church, but in the vil- lages a mental bias, which originated in the cities, amounting to an absolute denial of the Church’s moral and religious teach- ings, is apparently prevailing. ‘The peas- ant’s faith is shaken, but the Intelligencia are again kissing the Cross. The manner in which the revolution is affecting the Church, and its conse- quences with regard to external organiza- tion is already sufficiently clear. From the middle of the seventeenth century two opposite paths opened be- fore Russia: the path blazed by St. Serge and thes path or Peter) the Greats . St. Serge’s path led up to statehood in the moral consciousness of Russia. Peter the Great drove Russia into the establish- ment of an enforced empire held together by autocracy. Peter, in his determination to central- ize autocracy in Russia, placed at the head of the Church administration a col- legium, to which was given the name of the Holy Governing Synod. This con- sisted of ecclesiastics of different grades, over whom, by Peter’s decree, the reign- ing Emperor was instituted supreme civil judge. The Holy Synod was assisted by the presence of a High Procurator ap- pointed by the Emperor, an official whose duty it was to see that the Synod’s dis- positions should conform to the laws of the State and to its interests. The Russian Church has not since that day drawn a free breath. No ordinance of the Synod could be promulgated, unless confirmed by the secular author- ity. The ecclesiastical members of the Synod were appointed and summoned to take part in its labors by the Emperor alone. When, in 1917, the imperial powet was abolished, the Russian Church faced the question of organizing her administration afresh. Under the past imperial régime, the secular element, in the person of the Em- 390 peror and of his representative, the High Procurator, assumed a predominance in- compatible with the spirit of the canons of the Orthodox Church. There was danger that, as a consequence of the re- cent revolution, the head of the democ- racy might assume a like predominance. The only way out of this menacing situa- tion was to convoke a council, which is the supreme normal organ of Church legislation, administration, and justice. The Council assembled in Moscow on the 15th day of August, 1917. It was opened in the Church of the Falling Asleep (Uspenski Sobor), within the hal- lowed precincts of the Kremlin. The Metropolitan of Moscow, Tikhon, was elected President; the Vice-Presidents were the two Archbishops—Arsenius, of Novgorod, and Antonius, of Kharkov— and’ two. presbyters, one of whom was Father Nicholas Lubeimovy, chief priest of the army and navy, and two laymen— Professor Prince Fugene Troubestskoi and the President of the Duma, M. V. Rodzyanko; later Mr. Alexander Sama- rin was elected a Vice-President (see pages 370- 382). “Wr WISH nO HAVE A FATHER” The first question to be settled was this: should the Patriarchate be re- stored? Some of the peasant members spoke energetically to this end, declaring that such were the instructions from their constituents. One of them said, “We wish to have a father.” In Russia’s present condition a decla- ration from the most numerous class of the Russian people possesses a peculiar weight; but the idea of the restoration was vigorously opposed by a group headed by the liberal professors and by several priests. When, however, a con- siderable majority declared in favor of the Patriarchate, the opponents received the decision calmly, and most of them set to work heartily to assist in its realization. So the Patriarchate was restored. But it was not restored in the form it had in Russia in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In those days the Patriarch was invested with excessive personal power, which did not strictly conform to the spirit of the Orthodox Church. first among equals,” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC. MAGAZINE The Council narrowly defined the po- sition of the Patriarch as that of “the _ On .a par with the other organs of the higher Church admin- istration, the Holy Synod and the su- preme Church Council, of which the Pa- triarch is president. He is awarded a position much like that occupied by the Patriarch of Constantinople, but with some extension of rights, compared to those given to the latter by the statute of his local Patriarchate. THE ELECTION OF THE PATRIARCHATE The election of the Patriarch took place during the time of the armed conflict in -Moscow, when part of the city was cut off from the building in which the Coun- cil has ‘its sittings. The election, how- ever, took its perfectly regular course, a sufficient number of members being present. Under strict observance of the rules for elections established by the Council, and with the participation of the mem- bers who represented all the Church ele- ments, three candidates were chosen: Tikhon, Metropolitan of Moscow; Arse- nius, Archbishop of Novgorod, and An- tonius, Archbishop of Kharkov. A few days later a solemn service was celebrated, after which three tickets bear- ing the three names were dropped into a special casket. Father Alexis (who is distinguishable by his black cowl and white beard and is sitting at the right in the second row of the Assembly, page 393), a holy monk and recluse, vowed to the solitude and absolute silence of the monastery of Zosimov (a dependence of the Troitsa-Sergian Laura), being thereto appointed by the Council, in the presence of the assembled people took out one of the tickets, on which was found to be inscribed the name of Tikhon. As ordained by the Council, the Most Reverend Metropolitan Tikhon was at once proclaimed Patriarch of Moscow and all Russia. He represents the new birth of the free Russian Church, the new Father. Two illustrations which accompany this article show the Council of the Sobor in session (pages 392 and 393). At the end of the hall, within the inclosure of ST. NICHOLAS GATE AFTER BEING SUBJECTED TO HEAVY GUNFIRE The case covering the ikon of St. Nicholas is ruined. The canopy above the ikon is broken and hangs by a thread. The ikon itself, just over the gate, has survived both the guns of Napoleon and of the Bolsheviks. On St. Nicholas’ Day this year it was not only decorated with a garland of fresh flowers, but surrounded by a spiritual wreath of popular fervor (See page 387). 391 a en pr ie uO SUISeI UOTIONIYSap PUe DUIIOTIA Jt} plue ‘Ajwyed papsedo1d suorsses spiIounoD sy, “(S6E osed 908) Aepo} eissny Ul Po[qurosse Wout FO Ayred 9A} -eJuosoIdad JSOW OY} SI 4] “SOT}ISIOAIUN 94} FO pu ‘s9dUOTOS PUP S}1e OY} JO SoTWOpLvIe ‘solumapeoe [eoIsojooy} ‘AAvU oY} pue Ate oy} “ewinp [euor}eU ay} Juosoidat pIounoD) sy} FO Sioquiow oT, ‘PUNOIBIIOF OY} UI STMOD sYM JOY} Aq PpaysInsuysip ose suepodosjoJY oY} PUL YoreL ed oy, MOOSOW NI WHANWVHO TIONAOD HOYNHO AHL NI : VISSOY AANA AO TIONNOD NVISSOU-TIV LSI AHL 392 "(S0£ os8ed 99S) loysjeqniy, ouasSny ooullg ‘Jorg pur AOULTOqN’ | FOIE PHUNO) yf} FO SJUIPISatIg-91A OM} 91B POIOSAON JO ueWOdoIjO_ 9Y} JO Io] IY} OJ ‘ysTOHIN, pue ‘YSUSTOWS ‘ey}eYoMeY ‘sJouUC[O ‘esn[ey ‘AOSIUJIYI J, JO Sdoysig oY} puke veuucjoy pue ey}erA Jo sdoysiqud1y oY} 91e ‘yYSIA 0} YO] wotf ‘MOT Joddn 9y} Ul “AsAy, Jo doysiquosry oy} ‘aw “IPP[A JO uep[OdOIJI dy} ‘snseoney) oy} Jo urwpodosjopy oy} ‘Avjsore A Jo uvpypodosjayy ay} pur ‘oupOir) JO doysiqyory 9y} ‘Agpisopy jo doysiqyoiy oy} ‘UOSIoy yy, JO Goysiqussy oY} ov JYSTI OF }fo] WOI ‘AOYIeYY JO uepypodosjoyy OY} HoT SIY Je puke po1osaoN Jo uepjodosjJoW OY} st IYSs41 sry yy ‘BISSHY [TB FO YOTelye_ UIsoyd J9}e] PU 1OGOS 9Y} FO JUSpPIsaIg poyoaja sem OYM ‘MODSOP FO UR WOdOIaP 9yI ‘UOYYLL, St oinsy [esjU. sy, MOOSOW NI SUIS TIONNOD AHL HOIHM NI ‘VIVH AHL AO GNA AHL LV TdadVHO CREND erwin iti ‘suuky Joysexy JO puNnos 9} 0} SsOID 94} JO JOUUeq 94} Jopun SuryyeM sued spuesnoy} ynq ‘Aep 410M B aq 0} JUSWIUIIAOS oy} Aq porlepoap useq AJasodind pey Aep oy, “YyIeF OY} JO SuINI oY} UO ATUO Pozi[ea1 aq Ud SUITE I19Y} Jey} MOU SYTAIYs|Og YJ, QI6I ‘AVW ‘MODSOW NI auvVaOS GH AHL NI-AVA SV’IOHOIN “IS NO SHHSIUVd AHL JO NOISSHOONd AHL NI SACALIWIOW 394 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 399 the chapel, sit the Patriarch, the Metro- politan, the Archbishops and Bishops, the lay vice-presidents, and the secretaries. In the center sits Tikhon, the Patriarch, President of the Sobor. At his right is the Metropolitan of Novgorod, and just behind him Argafangle, the Metropolitan of Yaroslav, who, by the way, is the Rus- sian Honorary President of the Anglican and Eastern Orthodox Churches Union. At the Patriarch’s left are the Metropoli- tan of Kharkov and the Metropolitan of Kherson, and behind Kharkov are the Metropolitan of the Caucasus and the Metropolitan of Vladimir. They are all wearing the white cowl to distinguish them from the archbishops and bishops. Opposite, facing the prelates, sit the other members of the Council. Speeches are made, not from the floor, but from a rostrum, on the left-hand side of the hall, facing the Assembly. The Council Cham- ber itself is on the second floor of the building. The entrance hall below is the lobby of the Council, where members walk and talk together, often arm in arm, in ani- mated discussion, and where laymen pause reverently to receive the blessing of Patriarch or Metropolitan. Some of the bishops wear the Cross of St. George for valor on the field. In re- ceiving the blessing a Russian opens his hands and puts them together and the prelate lays his hand in the open hands to be kissed after the blessing. THE SANEST AND MOST DEMOCRATIC ASSEMBLAGE IN RUSSIA The Patriarch, accompanied by a sin- gle footman, drives daily to the Sobor from his palace in an unpretentious car- riage drawn by two black horses. He is often seen giving his blessing from the carriage window as he passes through the street, and there is generally a crowd of people pressing forward to receive his blessing at the door of the Council House. The arrival of the Patriarch at the Sobor at 11 o’clock in the morning marks the opening of the session. The Assem- bly rises as he enters, “Many Years’ is sung, and the House comes to order. Although there are perhaps no con- spicuously outstanding and dominant fig- ures in the assembly, it reaches as a whole the highest level of the Russian mind. Here sit men from all districts. It is an all-Russian assembly. There are many strong personalities and many men marked by singularly beautiful and con- secrated devotion to their task; nor is there evidence of a desire on the part of any one to dominate, least of all on the part of the Patriarch. I heard no uncommonly stirring speech- makers, but a good deal of clear, cogent statement. It is because there is nothing noisy or spectacular about the Council that it evokes profound respect as the sanest and most democratic, as well as the most spiritual, body of men now assem- bled in Russia. In contrast to the picture Titian has left us of the Council of Trent, all the sittings are open to the public. So repub- lican 1s the Sobor in its character that visitors who happened to be present when these photographs were taken were re- quested not to leave the hall. I have had the advantage of knowing the Patriarch and many members of the Sobor and acquiring, in intimate relationships, a knowledge of their hopes for Russia. The election of the Patriarch is the first act of constitutional Russia. It has a precedent in the history of the Russian Church. Although not foreseen by the canons, a similar example may be cited in the election of the Apostle Matthias, of which we read in the Acts. This manner of election answers to Russian ideals, and powerfully contributed to the joyful acknowledgment of the Most Holy Patriarch Tikhon as the person indicated by the will of God. THE NEW PATRIARCH FORMERLY LIVED IN AMERICA The man chosen to this high and re- sponsible service is 54 years of age. In the world he was called Vasili Ivanovich Bellavin. He was born in the town of Toropetz, in the Government of Pskov, where his father was a priest. He was educated in the Church school of his native town, and later in the Ecclesiasti- cal Academy of Petrograd. On leaving the Academy he was appointed master of dogmatic and moral theology in the Sem- inary of Pskov. In the capacity of teacher, he knew how to interest his pupils by his 096 excellent method of instruction. In 1891, while carrying on this work, he became a monk. During the next year, 1892, he was named Inspector, and soon after Rector, of the Seminary of Kholm. In 1897, on being consecrated Bishop, he:was elevated to the. See of Lyublin, and in 1808, it is interesting for Ameri- cans to recall, he was translated to the North American diocese.” In America he won universal respect and took an active part in the organization of the Russian Church in North America. It was in his time that the Episcopal See was trans- ferred from San Francisco to New York. From America he was translated to Yaroslay in’ 1907... The people ot s¥a- roslav fully appreciated the goodness of their Bishop and elected him an honorary citizen of the town. After his translation to the See of Vilna (also in 1907) Bishop Tikhon, in his generosity, made many gifts to various charitable institutions. He remained in Vilna until 1917, when he was called to Moscow. Wherever in the Province of God he has exercised his episcopate, Bishop Tik- hon has proved to be exceptional in his simplicity, wide benevolence, and purely Christian. character! Any gentle,” strone, learned man, he has written little. He has been rather a practical church worker, an accessible leader. He compares with the Patriarch Philip, murdered under John the Terrible, and with Cranmer in England. It is there- fore a great consolation for the Russian Church that, in these hard years of the life of the people, such a prelate should have appeared at the head of the gov- ernment of the Church. THE PATRIARCH’S WAY CARPETED WITH GOLDEN FLOWERS The consecration of the Patriarch in the Kremlin was the first free act of the Church there after the fierce artillery fire of the Bolsheviks upon the Holy Places. At the door of the Chudov Monastery, on St. Alexis’ day of this year, a little group of the faithful were waiting for the coming of the Patriarch to say the Liturgy. ‘In; place of the usual carpet spread for his entrance to a church, some one, just before he came, simply scattered dandelions in flower from the fields. In THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the sunlight the broken steps suddenly be- came paved with gold and‘malachite. A delighted smile touched the face of the Patriarch, and one seemed to see in his anxious eyes a belief that in these spring flowers in the midst of all Russia’s woe grew the symbol of new life for the Holy Church. ) When the question of the Patriarchate had been settled, the Council proceeded to organize a system of Church adminis- stration, ordering that periodical councils should be held in the future. An important matter decided by the Sobor before its Easter adjournment was the reorganization of parishes. The Sobor restored to the parish much of the independence which it had enjoyed in ancient times, but which had been lost in the growth of bureaucratic centralization. The Sobor was also obliged to provide answers to many social problems. ‘The Sobor and the Patriarch addressed epis- tles to the clergy, the people, and the army, to strengthen their spirit against the growth of pernicious influences from without, poisoning the life of the nation. The actions of the revolutionary gov- ernment, directed against the position and rights of the Church, met with the So- bor’s resistance. ‘The latter body pro- tested against the confiscation of the parish primary schools and the schools which prepared for the _ priesthood; against the abolition of Scripture study in all schools, and against the abolition of Church rights of property. The measures just mentioned, as con- trary to the proclaimed principle of sepa- ration of Church and State, were con- sidered by the Sobor as being acts of tyranny against the Church. However, it was the Patriarch, and not the Sobor, who played the most important part in the general movement for the de- fense of Church rights. His fearless epistles, addressed to the people, explaining the true significance of the measures adopted against the Church by the present rulers of the coun- try, call upon the people to defend their faith and excommunicate the authors of the persecution. The Sobor upheld the Patriarch’s authority as a representative of the Church in its relations with the outside world. HIS HOLINESS TIKHON, PATRIARCH OF MOSCOW AND ALL, RUSSIA The new head of the Russian Church was at one time Bishop of the North American Diocese. It was in his time that the Episcopal See was transferred from San Francisco to New York. He was at the head of the Russian Church in this country from 1898 to 10907. A man of gentleness and strength, he focuses the forces of spiritual enlightenment in Russia, ‘suoT{Ipuod reros: 10 jeoutyjod sutssed 3y} YM sj}sot YOINYD 9} yoryan uo soydiourid peuss}9- 94} 9SNJuUOD JaAoU ADIT, UBISseauce je1os pue jeontjod Jo [eAtAoI 9Yy} SURO YoIny) oY} OF wMjor oy} Jey} SAST[OG JOA ][PM SOSSEUE ULISSMY OUT, 3 S161 ayW ‘AVUOOULAd WO SIMAYLS WHA NI HOUVIALVd BEL GNV ‘HOUNHO NVISSOY AHL SULVTHUd VWAHLO ADT GHINVAdWNOOOV HO ANIGVIIVHO AHL ‘AOSON NOOVAGCHOUV AHL ADT GAGHOAYd ‘NOISSHOOUd NWwT0S NI HOUVIGLVd SH 399 eIssny Ul oUt} jussoid oy} je soefd Surye} st yoryM asuvyd Jeny4ids yeoIB oy} sojeorpur ajdoad ay} jo yey oy} JO pue sutjaaz sejndod Jo uolejsozuew Mou Yoey| SYVVSI “IS JO IVYGHHIVO AHL ONINYLNA GVaOONLAd OL LISIA LSYIE SIH NO HOUVIMLVd AHL 400 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE It was a source of inestimable com- fort to the devoted that the people ar- dently responded to the Patriarch’s call and by peaceful mass demonstrations of their religious sentiments largely suc- ceeded in putting a stop to the open cam- paign started against the Church. THE CHURCH PROBLEM IN THE UKRAINE In connection with the Ukrainian sepa- ratist movement, a group of Ukrainian public men raised the question of the separation of the Church of the Ukraines from that of Russia. It was decided to summon a special Ukrainian Church Council. As Regional Councils are pro- vided for by the organization of the Rus- sian Church, the Moscow Sobor did not protest against the summoning of a Sobor at Kiev, and the Patriarch sent his rep- resentative to Kiev with a message of greeting. While the civil war which broke out in Kiev interrupted the work of the Sobor, tendencies were disclosed of a more mod- erate character than those advocated by the supporters of a complete separation from the Russian Church. AN IMPORTANT NEW 401 In the midst of the trials besetting the Russian people, mainly through their own guilt, the Church proves its vitality. It is now reconstructing its outer forms, which had greatly deteriorated during the past from Orthodox Church order. But outward forms are not vital; inner life is of far greater import. That source of inner life never ran dry in the Russian Church, in spite of the numerous defects of its outward forms, for the deficiency of which it often compensated. Let there be no misgiving; the Church has aided Russia in every crisis. ‘The Church which even in the nineteenth cen- tury produced such shining lights as St. Seraphim of Sarov and Father John of Kronstadt, besides hosts of others, that Church is sure to foster and develop its inner life, now that better conditions of external organization are secured. In the present moment of confusion in Russia the Church is the only institu- tion which stands on its feet. May not the example of the Sobor well pave the way in due time for a similar trium- phant reconstruction of the Russian body politic ? GUIDE FOR SHIPPING Navassa Light, on a Barren Island in the West Indies, is the First Signal for the Panama Canal By Georce R. PuTNAM COMMISSIONER OF LIGHTHOUSES are as necessary for the safety of traffic on the sea as are signal lights for the protection of railway travel. It is interesting to note that there are waterways which are operated much like railways. Thus portions of the Detroit and St. Marys rivers, which carry the enormous traffic between the Lakes, have practically been double-tracked by dredg- ing and marking separate channels for up-bound and down-bound vessels, and in some narrow parts of this passage a block-system has recently been intro- duced, so that by means of semaphore | IGHTHOUSES and other sea marks -signals a vessel is prevented from pass- ing until the preceding vessel has gone a safe distance. Similar systems are in use on important canals. In normal times the shipping of the North Atlantic is operated on a double- track plan, with distinct lanes agreed upon for east-bound and _ west-bound vessels, and these lanes are for safety shifted to the southward during the ice- berg season. New York has a sort of four-track entrance from the sea, and of the four channels leading to the Narrows, the great Ambrose Channel is reserved for 402 NEW YOR : | ! SKETCH MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF NAVASSA LIGHT- HOUSE AND THE UNMARKED SHOALS OF THE. CARIBBEAN Coral reefs and islets above water are shown by solid line, sub- merged rocks and shoals by dotted line express and high-class traffic, and sail- ing vessels and tows are not permitted to use it. WHERE OCEAN TRAFFIC LINES CONVERGE The great increase in the shipping in- terests of this country and the building of the Panama Canal have attracted at- tention to a large area which is poorly provided with safety signals for naviga- tion. The Caribbean Sea, once known to fame mainly by the exploits of the early buccaneers, is now a region where ocean traffic converges from north, east, and south toward the Panama Canal. » The northwestern part of this sea is strewn with rocks, coral reefs, and sub- merged dangers, unlighted and unmarked, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a constant menace to shipping from New Orleans and the Gulf, which must pass through lanes between the reefs, and from New York and the North Atlan- tic coast, which must go close to several of these dangers. On one of these dangers, Navassa Is- land, 600 miles north of Colon, the first signal for the Pan- ama. Canaf’ has) -re- cently been placed. On this barren and uninhabited rock the United States Light- house Service has built a lighthouse of unusual type. The main route to the canal from our Atlantic seaboard is between Cuba and Haiti, through the Windward Passage, and Navassa Island, lying between Haiti and Jamaica, marks the southern ap- proach to this pas- sage, and is the first landfall for vessels from Panama cross- ing the Caribbean Sea. The importance of its position with respect to shipping to and from the canal caused the United States to undertake the building of .a light station of the first class on this in- hospitable rock. NEW LIGHT SWEEPS AN AREA AS LARGE AS DELAWARE After many difficulties of construction, due to the inaccessibility and character of the island, on October 21, 1917, the light was first shown from the new con- crete tower. Every night since then two beams of 47,000 candlepower have swept around the horizon each 30 seconds with clocklike regularity. Instead of a dark rock, which had loomed in the night in THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE — S (Sy) heel Mia. : s le am oP ‘imum soe HS BO by F. C. Hingsburg Photos aoh THE BEGINNING OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE TALL LIGHTHOUSE, SHOWING THE STEEL REINFORCEMENT IN PLACE FOR THE FOUNDATION AND BASE OF THE TOWER The steel skeleton, around which the concrete of the tower was poured, consists of 40 vertical steel bars, banded by a spiral of round steel bars, with loops one foot apart, wired to each vertical bar. this passage, threatening mariners since the days‘of the early voyagers, these great rays now flash out friendly guid- ance to the seamen of all countries, re- gardless of nationality ; the beams of this light have been seen 29 sea miles away, reaching nearly to the Haitian coast, and they sweep a sea area of about 2,200 square statute miles, as large as the State of Delaware. Navassa light, on this rock in the center of one of the principal international sea passages and 500 miles from the Amer- ican coast, is the most important light- house built by the United States in the last quarter century. A TOWER TO WITHSTAND HURRICANES AND EARTHQUAKES Navassa Island has the outline of an oyster shell and is slightly more than a mile in area. As the island rises fairly abruptly on all sides, forming a roughly flat tableland about 200 feet above the sea, it was necessary to build a tower 150 feet in height, in order that the light might “see over” the edge of the plateau and not be obscured to vessels in the vicinity of the island, unless close under the cliffs. ‘The tower was placed on the highest part, bringing the light 395 feet above the sea. The lighthouse tower was designed to withstand West India hurricanes as well as earthquakes, and the lower sections have massive proportions, the base being 25 feet in diameter, with walls over 6 feet thick. It is built of reinforced con- crete, one of the tallest towers yet con- structed by this method; it is of simple and dignified design, bell-shaped at the base, and above that a simple cylinder to 404 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ie Photograph by Thomas Sampson NAVASSA ISLAND LIGHT STATION, WEST. INDIES: SCHOONER IN -LULUMEAY UNLOADING SAND A little nook called Lulu Bay, with the schooner moored to the cliff; this is the only landing place available on Navassa Island. All the supplies and material for the lighthouse construction, as well as the workmen, were brought to the island by this little schooner, which was the only means of transportation for the year and nine months that the work was in progress. the watch-room gallery. The use of this structural material has resulted in a much more slender outline than has béen neces- sary in masonry lighthouses. Almost everything required for this work had to be brought from a distance ; the skilled employees were sent from the United States, together with all special supplies and equipment; the laborers came from Cuba and Jamaica, and it was even necessary to bring from Jamaica all the sand and most of the water used in construction. The nearest ports were Guantanamo, Cuba, 90 miles, and Kingston, Jamaica, tro miles distant. No good landing ex- @ Photograph by F. C. Hingsburg NAVASSA LIGHTHOUSE Built by the United States Lighthouse Service, of reinforced concrete, on an uninhabited island in the West Indies. The concrete tower is 150 feet in height. The dwelling for the keepers is shown to the right. 405 “406 ists on the island, so that the little schooner that was used to bring supplies and men had to be moored under the rocky cliffs, when weather favored, and the cargo hoisted onto the shelf above; this small craft had narrow escapes from hurricanes, and there were many days when it was impossible to land. On one occasion, after being damaged in a storm, the schooner with her load of supplies put back to Jamaica, and there was apprehension as to the food on Na- vassa, but this reassuring report was re- ceived: “The last flour was used for mak- ing bread on Friday. There were suff- cient rations on hand to last through Sun- day, and with goats, wild pigeons, fish, etc., together with a pig and a number of chickens which are kept here, we were in no serious predicament.” An unusual feature in lighthouse build- ing, a radio equipment, much facilitated construction. Men quickly tired of the monotonous life. On account of climate and difficulty of transportation, very little fresh food was available, and the workmen persist- ently grumbled. ‘The excessive heat soon diminished their efficiency. The trans- portation of materials from the landing place to the site was a most burdensome task, as this had to be done largely by men shoving the loaded cars on the work railway. ISLAND RESEMBLES A PETRIFIED SPONGE ‘Navassa is one of the strangest pieces of territory owned by the United States. It is a remarkable formation of volcanic limestone, completely riddled with holes and pockets, some of great depth and having no visible bottom. These holes are so numerous that one can walk only with great difficulty. There is a total absence of water, and no watercourses or lakes, as rain is 1m- mediately absorbed by the cavities. The whole island has the appearance of a great petrified sponge. There is a growth of stunted trees and underbrush on the high plateau, and the island has some ani- mal life, wild goats and wild cats, doubt- less descended from those brought here THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE when the island was occupied, and numer- ous seabirds and land-crabs. UNITED STATES TITLE TO ISLAND RESTS ON MURDER-TRIAL DECISION It is a curious fact that the title of the United States to Navassa Island rests on the decision in a murder trial. Although uninhabited and long abandoned at the time the lighthouse work was undertaken, Navassa was for some years actively oc- cupied. The pockets and surface of the island contained a large deposit of a phos- phate earth and guano. Under the guano act of 1856, one Peter Duncan presented a memorial to the Sec- retary of State stating “that on the first day of July, in the year of 1857, he did discover a deposit of guano on an island or key in the Caribbean Sea not occupied by the citizens of any other government, and that he did take peaceable possession of and occupy said island or key of Na- vassa in the name of the United States.” These deposits were worked by a com- pany for a number of years, up to 1808, and the ruins indicate an elaborate plant for this purpose. In 1889 about 150 men were employed on the island, and on September 14 of that year a riot occurred, in which the superintendent and several of his assist- ants were killed. The frigate Kearsarge took the murderers off the island and they were tried in Baltimore. The defense set up the plea that the island was not an American possession and that the court had-no jurisdiction, but the Supreme Court denied this plea and the murderers were executed. A concrete dwelling, in.the Spanish tyle, with a large open patio in the center, furnishes comfortable quarters forthe families of the three keepers who care- fully watch this, one of the loneliest of the sea signals of this country. They see many a passing ship, but can expect sup- plies and mail only when the supply steamer visits the island, a few times a year. | The matter of marking other danger- ous reefs of the Caribbean Sea for the protection of the increased shipping is now receiving special consideration. COAL—ALLY OF AMERICAN INDUSTRY Following the Nation’s Annual Output of 735,000,000 Tons of Fuel from Prehistoric Ages to Its Arrival at Tidewater By Witi1AmM JosEPH SHOWALTER NE, who has not wandered () through the seemingly endless reaches of the innumerable man- made caverns of the coal regions, and there studied first hand the tremendous industry of harvesting the solidified sun- beams planted for humanity by a boun- teous Providence in the Carboniferous Age, cannot appreciate the vastness of that industry nor its meaning to the American people. To see them gathered at the rate of more than two million tons a day, trans- ported hundreds. of miles, and then, under the alchemy of science, transmuted into a thousand forms—heat for the fire- side, light for the darkness, motion for the railroad train, power for the factory, fertility for the soil—is an illuminating lesson, showing how man, the creature of Nature, through science makes her. won- derful forces his servants. Under his touch coal becomes comfort in the home or death at the battle front; yields a corrosive acid that burns like fire or a sweetness that makes sugar seem insipid ; gives off a gas that smells like a bad egg, but is as harmless as a chicken; is transformed into colors that make the rainbow envious of their brightness and variety, and into explosives that make the thunderbolt jealous of their power. THE MAGNITUDE OF AMERICA’S COAL NEEDS The first thing that impresses one who studies the coal situation in America is the well-nigh inconceivable proportions of the nation’s demands for fuel. ‘Ihe government estimates that the req:tire- ments for the current year will reach: the enormous total of 735,000,000 tons. So huge is this figure that it were al- most as futile to use tons as units as to 407 measure the distance around the earth in inches. Even the number of carloads mounts so far up into the millions that they become meaningless, and trainloads are only a little better. About the only way in which one can visualize this demand is to build a mental bin capable of holding enough to meet the national need. If this bin be made with each of its four sides measuring a thou- sand feet, it will have to be more than thirty-three thousand feet high—overtop- ping Mount Everest, the tallest mountain in the world, by nearly a mile. Or, if the fuel were put into a coal pile of normal slope, with a base of twenty feet, that pile would have to be 96,000 miles long— nearly four times around the earth. Little less startling than the size of the national demand for coal are the propor- tions of the excess requirements of war times over peace times. ‘Taking the aver- age annual demands of peace times and comparing them with the demands of the past year of war, one finds that the extra coal required in the United States as the result of the war reached a total of 210,- 000,000 tons. | Here again the-brain reels in its effort to comprehend the meaning of such vast figures. They mean an excess tonnage amounting to 4,333,000 carloads. ‘These cars would require a string of engines nearly a thousand miles long to pull them and would form a train which, moving at a uniform speed of twenty miles an hour and never stopping, would require seventy-five days to pass a given crossing. ARMY OF MINERS NOT GREATLY REINFORCED And yet the force of miners upon which devolved the task of meeting this almost unbelievable increase in the na- ST UOT} -onpoid oY} MON ‘suo Sof ATUO d19M UOISII sty} WoIT S}UsudIys [v}0} 94} OSe sivak jYS1a-AJOUIN “paaouras Je} sny} suo AtaAd JOFZ VOI Ul suo OAY o4B oto} PUB 'SIET[OP UOT][Iq UdAVS JO aNTRA Jo}eMapy & pey Sey Jno UayL} Aprasye [eog UOLHoT SPOVIYJUR IY} Jo OOS‘zg pred uusg weIyIAA ‘Soury 9soy} Ul osn s}t 0} Julod pur[suy ur sour urwoYy Yysnoyye ‘us}xe Aue 0} pasn useaq sey [Boo yey} sotimyusd Moy ev Sulimp AyUO st yy NVW ‘TONAHOUNOSHA YOT AYNLVN LNYGIAONd Ad GAYOLS SNVAUNAS GHIMIGIIOS WAL WIT SMOOU AAV aSHHL HLVANAL "af ‘ues10y *{ Aq yde1rZ0,04g a 4c8 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tion’s requirements was very little, if any, larger than in peace times. Tens of thou- sands of miners had left the coal fields for the factories or for the battle front, and with all the high wages paid, it was next to impossible to maintain the army of anthracite and bituminous workers at peace-time strength. Let us go into the coal region and down into the mines and see the sturdy har- vesters reaping the grain of heat that Nature stored up against the day when the forest should find itself unable to supply mankind with fuel. THE ANTHRACITE FIELDS We will first visit the anthracite fields, that wonderful region in Pennsylvania which lies to the north of Reading, to the south of Carbondale, east of the Susque- hanna and west of the Lehigh rivers. Scranton and Wilkes-Barre are the center of the upper field, Hazleton of the middle field, and Pottsville of the lower. Were all of the coal beds in this remark- able region laid out in a compact body, they would cover an area only twenty-two miles square. Yet out of such a small area have come billions of tons of coal and culm, the former to cheer a million fire- sides, and the latter to dot every landscape, and to serve as monuments to remind us of the patient toil of hundreds of thou- sands of men through scores of years. A visit to a modern colliery is an im- pressive experience. Depending on its size and the labor available, it will bring from one to two full trainloads of coal up out of the bowels of the earth every day, put the coal through the breaker, where the sheep of fuel are separated from the goats of slate and culm, and load it into the cars ready for market. We shall be safe even if we do go down a thousand feet into the earth and roam about in an underground plantation whose area may be judged by the fact that there are eighty-five miles of railroad track in it. The colliery superintendent, a rare old Welshman who has been min- ing coal for twenty years, and the district engineer, a fine youngster who has had his engineer degree from Lehigh, will ac- company us. There are some things on top of the ground that will be even more interesting 409 to us when we go below—particularly the hoisting engine and the ventilating fan, for without the one we would not be able to ride back to daylight, and without the other we would stand a chance of being “gassed” over here in peaceful America HOW A MINE BREATHES The giant fans fly around with a rim speed of a mile a minute, two of them, with a third in reserve for emergencies. If it were not for those fans the air in the mine would become so laden with gas and dust that if it did not explode and transform the whole mine into a charnel- house, it would develop choke-damp and suffocate us. ‘These fans are to the mine what the involuntary muscles of the chest are to the lungs—they make it breathe. Every mine has two shafts—the hoist- ing shaft and the air shaft. In order to keep the air in the mine free enough from gas to permit miners to work in safety, enormous quantities of fresh air must be sent down the one shaft and correspond- ing quantities, gas-laden, drawn out of the other. In America this is usually accomplished by exhaust fans drawing the used air up the air shaft. This type of fan tends to make a vacuum at the top of the shaft, and the weight of the atmosphere drives the fresh air down the hoisting shaft and the stale air up the other. If that which goes down the hoisting shaft were allowed to take its natural course, it would make a bee-line for the air shaft and rush up into the fan-created vacuum at the top. That would leave the foul air in every other part of the mine and accomplish no great good. So, means have been found to lead air around a mine just as effectively as one might lead a horse. By the use of doors and curtains and bridges, the mining superintendent is able to take the current of air that rushes down the hoisting shaft ~and make it move here and there, hither and yon, into every nook and cranny of the mine, driving the foul air before it as it goes. It seeks out every gas pocket and forces itself into every chamber. It may very well be imagined that a mine with enough tunneling to call for 85 miles of railroad track needs a great deal Of air -and “that this’ air, to: reach 410 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZIN THE MULE STABLES IN A COAL MINE Often down a quarter of a mile in the earth are stables kept as clean and as sanitary as a race-horse barn. The mule is brought down the shaft in the cage, or elevator, blindfolded, and he stays down below until he dies, or is rendered “hors de combat” by accident. If he is sick there is a “barnyard” covered with white sand—the only touch of white to be seen— where he can roll and rest to his heart’s content. every part, must cross its own path many times, just as a man, covering all four sides of every block in a city, would have to cross his own tracks. In the mines this is accomplished like a railroad cross- ing by bridge instead of at grade. When a crossing point is reached, there is a tunnel opened up through the solid rock above the roof of the mine, and through this the air rushes at right angles to its former direction. To get the air properly distributed, it is necessary to make splits, so that the cur- rent can be divided and sent into different sections of the mine. These air splits are doors which permit only half of the air coming their way to pass. The remainder must find some other way through. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 411 Photograph from U. S. Bureau of Mines LINING A MINE WALL WITH ARTIFICIAL ROCK One of the frequent causes of mine cave-ins is the weathering of the slate of the roof and side walls. which may finally bring disaster. It gradually crumbles or scales off and suffers a consequent weakening, The cement gun covers the slate with a thin plaster, which effectually shuts out the air and leaves it as unexposed to deterioration as it was during the countless ages before the coal was removed. Before going down into the mine the superintendent will give us each a miner’s lamp—at this particular mine the lamp is a tiny teapot affair containing sperm oil and with a spout full of cotton yarn. Also, he will equip us with electric hand- lamps, to be used in any emergency. Then he will stick an extra ball of yarn in his pocket and we will start for the “cage,” which is the mine name for an elevator. THE DESCENT INTO ANTHRACITE We step on, he presses a button, and the hoisting engineer is notified that we are ready to go down. Suddenly the cage seems to drop; then it seems to stop, and the walls of the shaft appear fairly to fly upward past us. Up, up, up they fly, disclosing this stratum of rock and then that. Arriving at the bottom, we soon find that a coal mine is planned like a city. There is one main street, or entry, and it has been laid out with the nicety of a grand boulevard. Parallel with this are other entries, and across these entries run other streets, at right angles, usually, which are called headings. Lining all these headings as houses line the streets are the chambers, or rooms, in which the miners work. When we stop at the bottom we feel ourselves in a small-sized hurricane. It is the air rushing down the shaft and starting through the mine on its mission of purification. Setting out down the main entry, along a railroad track, we soon hear a clanging bell and a whistle, and presently there looms out of the dark- ness a yellow light. As it approaches, we see the outlines of what appears to be a “UL $LLGe S4oepy 44-01) puc qno Be Us MA PYitv vts> Ee SAG AS (NS 25 I IE OS A (ey a i oe oe (Pa asp ‘ ; ohare Meer sexw jes i seis oy1 Aeme jnd Aoy} SuOTe ]aAeIZ AY} se pur * ee ASAI UH 3 AS als ope Boo A ACAD fl guUY ths oU af ae) pousjsey oie syord 10 SaATUy [vod UTeYD sty} UO ‘s[eoyM JoyooIds punose SuTA[OAII UIvYD SSo]pUs Ue ‘SoPYOIS poyestodo-uew yd fo peojsul ‘ SI 19}}N9-39ARd DUG “puNnoIsS 9y4} Jo do} uo poyesoues Sey puke UISIUBYIOU SUIATIP 9} WOS} JNO soysvat Ieq-19yjNd YW ‘auTyoew Surmour v Piya jou 8 wieejs Aq oulos “AjdI1}99]9 Aq oUWOS “IIe passaidiuod Aq UdALIp de aWIOg *ysIyp yt punose suryyns JHOYM ISOC] [eOD dy} Suljsey{q 10 : PHOS 24} WOT Surjooys,, JO spoyjow pnzojsem oy} SUTUIOIIOAO IOF SoMIySeUL Sulyjnd Jo sodA} Aueu o1e o19YL, WIHONAd UIV-GASSHAWON V HALIM ‘IVOO JO ISVaNd V ONTLLAQNHaNA SOUT JO NeoING *S *qQ WoIZ YdviZ0j0Yg , THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE long, round boiler creeping along ‘the rails; but in reality it is a compressed- air engine—for compressed air, rather than electricity, is the haulage power in this mine. Upon the surface there is a great air pump that keeps crowding the molecules of air together closer and closer until they push away from one another with the strength of a thousand pounds to the square inch. Think of thin, invisible, im- perceptible air being packed so tight that it tries to burst out again with a strength that would make a Samson seem a weak- ling! Put a cubic foot of this air into a cask and the pressure on the sides would _ be 432 tons. KEEPING TAB ON THE MEN IN THE MINE When the miners go down to their work in the morning they are checked in by the “fire boss.’’? He is a foreman who has charge of fire prevention and of the safety of the miners while at their sev- eral tasks. During the night every sec- tion of the mine has been inspected to see whether there is gas anywhere. If there should be an entry, a heading, or a room that is laden with gas, the fact is noted on a slate which is exhibited to the men as they file past. If there is no gas, it is said that the day starts with a clean slate, which is both figuratively and lit- erally true. The brass check of every miner who enters the workings is taken and hung up on a board, opposite the number of the - room in which he is digging coal. If he has a helper, his check—somewhat dif- ferent—goes up too; and if there are two men working as partners, that fact is shown on the board also. By this careful checking system the location of every miner and every helper in the mine is known all the time, and in case of explosions, fires, or falling walls the management always knows who is in and who is out. We walk and walk until we begin to feel as though we might be coming out over in China or France, and then we come to the rooms or chambers—for all the coal in the neighborhood of the hoist- ing shaft has gone up in heat and smoke long before now and this mine is far- flung. 413 These rooms or chambers might be monks’ cells in some catacombs for the living. Here the miner bores and blasts and digs away the coal and loads it into the mine cars. If he has a helper he does not need to do the loading himself, but in these latter days helpers are not much in evidence. ‘The car holds about 6,000 pounds of run-of-the-mine coal, and a miner is supposed to fill two of them a day. When the car is loaded the miner puts his number on it, and presently, with much ado, there comes up the heading and into the passageway leading to the chamber a string of mules walking tan- dem, or single file, and dragging an empty car behind. They pull out the loaded car, set the empty one where the miner wants it, and go back the way they came, with the load of coal. There are other strings of mules, also, | and they distribute the empties and mo- bilize the loaded cars from and at given points. ‘Then the compressed-air engine comes along and makes up a train of loaded cars after dropping one of empties ready for distribution. The coal trains are pulled down to the hoisting shaft, and one by one the cars go to the sur- face, an empty coming down as a loaded one goes up. THE DANGERS A MINER FACES The dangers the miners have to en- counter are many. Their work is indi- vidualistic and solitary. Who knows whether they are careful in handling their explosives? Who knows whether they keep a proper watch for signs of gas? And yet one careless miner in one little chamber may start a conflagration that will sweep the mine and make scores of victims. He may disdain to screw off the cap of his powder can and pour out the powder in a safe, orderly way, pre- ferring to cut a jagged hole in the top of the can with his pick and to pour out the powder through it. He may disdain to tamp his charge home with clay and may use a lot of paper and coal dust in- stead. All that goes very well until there is fire-damp present, and then—and then the world may read, in newspaper head- lines across the page, of a terrible dis- aster. [[JIp puey pauorysez-pjo dy} YIM UIezYSs1o UI pjhod sy se InoYy suo UT sozoy AueUI sv [[IIpP Uv OUT & sauTYyDeUI asay} JO’aUO YU AV ¢ YIV GUSSHUdWOD Ad NHAING MYOM LV ‘TING VANWVHMOVE V "af ‘uesi0zy ‘f Aq ydessojoyg ‘(e1P ooed 09S) Jojsesip oul B& FO SIOIOY JULINSII dy} YIM ‘sJaSuep tay} 10} 4duiajuod peciq a1g pur Jopmod pur ses yyM ApirelpiwieZ Uojyo Jey} st Ayd oy} puy ‘4olj9BO}. stourtu JayjO oy} [Je pue Aueduiod dy} Aq paptaoid pue udyr} > > © ers 0 2) ‘ . gS a 4 aq ULd Jey} paenSajes pue UVOLMedIId A1IAd UTLUJOPUN AVL ‘JUdJOYIPUL PUL SsafosVd ‘IOUT JUG “WISaq UdIJO OS soIy dUTLT dy} JeYA sodvd dsayq Ul yOvg SI }{ ‘SpO] 1Vd-9UTTU esIAIS UMOP JsPTq 0} ApLoT MOL ST SOUT ot} ,“FaqtueYD,, SIY UL [Lod JO _yseadq,, OY} UL Safoy sIy payptap Suraezy ~ . oe LSVId AHL ANOH . DNIdWNV\ 4 soutqy Jo nvoing ‘SG "A Wor Yde1s0} ‘UlRIS JO SUTIIOYIES IY} Ul St JOPUIG-J[9S OY} JeYM Jeoy JO Spjay ysoarey oy} Ur st AJQUIYDeW SuIUILY ‘SUISVIIOUT SIT IOUIUI aSe1OAR oY} JO Jndjno [enprlArpur 9y} siapeoy [BoueYyeM PU “SoUTYIeUL SUIIjNI-[eOd ‘s[[lIp JowEYy-yoe! YIM pue ‘yyIv ay} Jo sydap ay} UT DAD pouMep sey ose [eoueyooU! oy} Ing “‘puey Aq 9UOP Se Ie OUTUI PopeOoT 24} O} UIeaS 94} UI [ROD poUTUIUN 94} UseMmjaq UOT}EINdO AIOAO 20UQ YAGVOT “IVOINVHOAWN OIYLOaTa ‘af ‘uesi0y ‘( Aq ydersojoyg THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE THREE DEADLY MINE GASES The three principal gases encountered in mines are choke-damp, or carbonic acid gas; fire- damp, or marsh gas; and after-damp, or carbonic oxide gas. Choke-damp is heavier than air and settles in the lower parts of a mine, just as water seeks the lowest level. It kills by suffocation. It may be dipped up with a bucket like water, and its pres- ence may be detected by lowering a light into the cavity where it ex- ists, as it will put out the flame immediately. Individual miners are killed by it, but it never explodes. Fire-damp is a most peculiar gas. If you mix less than 85 per cent of air with it or more than 95 per cent of air, it will burn but will not explode; but if it be mixed in the proportion of 88 or 89 parts air to II or 12 of fire-damp, the combination becomes one of the most terri- ble of explosives. Eternal watch f ul- ness is the price of safety. When the coal is blasted down, fire-damp pockets are often opened up, and the thin, trickling, hissing sound tells the miner what has occurred. Miners test the chambers, headings, and entries for fire-damp with a lamp. If the blaze becomes elongated and blue at the base, that gas is present. An explosion of fire-damp is one of the most terrible disasters that.can occur in a mine.“ In-an imstant the dark, man- made caverns are lighted up from end to end by a lightning that beggars descrip- ings. 417 Photograph from U. S. Bureau of Mines HOW NOT TO PREPARE A BLAST This miner, pouring powder out of a jagged, pick-cut hole in his can, while his cap lamp burns brightly, is not only taking a chance with his own life, but with that of every other miner in the work- This is a picture of what the miner should not do. thousands of lives have been sacrificed by just such methods. But tion. ‘The expanded gas drives before it a roaring whirlwind of blazing air,” as one who has survived the catastrophe tells us, “which tears up everything in its progress, burning many a miner’s body to cinders, entombing others, and, rushing to the shaft, it wastes its fury in the shower of dust and stones and timbers it blows high into the air.” A tragic story might be written of mine disasters which fire-damp has caused and of the tens of thousands of miners who have given up their lives in such holo- VW PIOTT OF Alpenzooyo st otusyos e serds,, 0} VouIs “uorsaI [eod ay} JO IepMoeUIDA 9yy UOdN yuTIdUT AT9Y} YFOT DALY ADT, ‘Woy. 9309s, 1O oyeiIq O} sjaoxyM Ied dy} JO sayods oy} UsaAjaq Yonys oq 0} ,sseids,, 918 PUNOISIIO} dy} UT SN91}S pasou-dieys YL ‘uoNezodsues d11}99]9 Jo JeALIIe oY} Aq poajnuittos usoq sey uostid punolstopun ue Ul JOqe[ pley 0} 9dUd4UIS JT] SIy se WSTep YM poMeY-Io] SPY apntu sur e Aue] NIVYL ANIN V ONIAOW WAILOWOOOT OIMLOWTIT NV ( ‘utSroz] -[ Aq ydes80.0yg : SeBNw~wewyw aN x THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE causts; but as the years go by greater care is used, better ventilation is main- | tained, and the disasters, happily, are growing fewer. After-damp is one of the deadliest of | all gases encountered in mines, but fortu- nately it does not occur except following fires. It is-so subtle that the ‘miner is powerless to escape its attack when he realizes its presence. Odorless, or pos- sessed of a mere hint of violet, its victims experience an exhilaration at its onset that seems to them only a sensation of feeling unusually well; but so quick and deadly are its effects that before this feel- ing passes, the victim 1s wholly within its grasp. HAND METHODS PRODUCE ANTHRACITE ‘In the anthracite region mining is still done principally by hand. Some jack- hammer drills have been introduced and some electric coal-cutting machines; but hand methods still produce most of the anthracite. The jack-hammer drill is an instrument which bores the blast-holes by power. With one of these drills a miner is enabled to bore as many holes in one hour as he can bore in eighteen with a hand-drill. Among the illustrations of this article (see pages 414 and 416) will be found pictures of cutting machines, jack-hammer drills, mechanical shovelers, etc.—labor-saving machinery that is now working wonders in the productive pow- ers of the miners. | If space permitted we would follow our fine old Welsh guide up into the “kidney” of the mine and see a second layout of entries, headings, and chambers in a half- way station seam; we would contrast the new steel timbering of the mines with the old wood timbers coming from the South; we would stop to look at the mule stables, as clean and as sanitary as any stables you ever saw, with a sand-floored yard, where the sick ones may roll and rest to their hearts’ content.- But let us follow the coal up the shaft, and through the breaker in the case of anthracite, and through the tipple or dumping house in the case of bituminous. When we reach the top again, we note the layout of the breaker plant, where the coal is cleaned and sorted into the sev- eral commercial sizes. The first thing 419 that impresses us is that the mine-owners are almost as careful in saving coal as a miser is in hoarding his gold. The loaded mine cars are rolled off the cage by hand, and the breaker building is so situated that the cars run down to it by gravity. As the cars roll down to the breaker hoist, which may be either a verti- cal lift or an inclined plane, boys “sprag” or “scotch” them and let them down to the hoist one by one. Going up to the top of the breaker, we see the coal as it comes from the mine, with all its slate and culm, mechanically dumped, a carload at a time, upon the oscillating bars, which begin the process of separating the coal from the worthless material and the assorting of the former into groups according to size. There are eight different sizes of coal now in general use—broken, egg, stove, and. chestnut, which are the domestic sizes, and pea, buckwheat, rice, and bar- ley, which are steaming coals. They range from four inches in diameter for broken to one-sixteenth of an inch for barley..;Of course, there are .as many pockets at the railroad tracks as there are grades of coal produced in a breaker, and as many chutes mmto the cars as are neces- sary to load every grade simultaneously. After the “bony’’ coal passes through the crushers and is broken up, it joins the procession of unseparated slate and coal down the several chutes. At one place it runs through a centrifugal slate picker, which is a striking contrivance that does the work of a jig in another type of breaker. There are dry breakers and wet ones, but this has no reference to the presence or absence of prohibition. Dry breakers are those where the coal comes from the mine fairly clean and goes through the breaker without being watered, either for the suppression of dust or for the wash- ing of the coal. Also, there are breakers which sepa- rate the slate and culm from the coal by jigs rather than by centrifugal pickers. In these the coal as it comes from the mine is “jigged” up and down in water. The coal settles more slowly than the slate and culm and can therefore be skimmed off like cream from milk. In order that the miners may not be ee “OUTJOUL 9Yy} JO WOI}0q oY} 0} SID 9Y} SUIUINJo1 Ul syeIq e se sje AouIeg 94} PUR Pastaddd SI aj4ed 94} Udy ‘paduinp st JBOD 9} II9YM I9yeIIq BY} JO do} oy} 0} Wary saysnd “ayqvd eB 0} poyoeye ‘Aouteq,, e stay, ‘auerd paurpour ue 0} AjAvs3 Aq yy14p AI} SUI 94} JO NO WYSNOIG d1e SIed papeo] dy} Udy AMA YAMVANAT ALIOVUHINV NV dO YOLVATIY ANVId-GUNVIONI AHI « ‘af ‘ues10y ‘f Aq ydesB0,0yg 420 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 421 Photograph by J. Horgan, Jr. ONE OF THE LARGEST COAL BREAKERS IN THE WORLD: KINGSTON, PA. The coal comes in at the rear of the breaker, on the top-story level. It wanders this way and that, first down this story and then the next, finally reaching the bottom minus its slate and dirt and separated into every size, from “broken” to “buckwheat.” tempted to load too great a proportion of slate, there is a “court-house” at every breaker. The men are normally allowed 7 per cent for slate, but sometimes, when in a hurry to get a car loaded, they throw in a larger proportion of refuse. But they never know when one of their cars is going into the “court-house.” This - is a side track where an inspector ex- amines the coal to see whether it is run- ning to the proper percentages or not. If he finds that the miner has loaded too much slate, the latter is asked to take a day off. Two or three offenses result in a discharge. HANDLING BITUMINOUS COAL, Handling bituminous coal after it leaves the mine is a much simpler process. Often it is sold as run-of-the-mine, in which case the mine cars are simply run up to the top of a building called the tipple, tipped over, and their contents dumped into a chute that leads to the rail- road cars on the track below. If it is not shipped as run-of-the-mine, it is graded over a series of bar screens into lump, nut, and slack, each grade going into its own pocket ready to fall by gravity into the railroad car. Some of the bituminous tipples are large and elaborate affairs, capable of separating many thousands of tons of coal a day and loading it ready for shipment. Were space at hand, one might tell of the great culm banks that are being made to give up their coal; of the coal being dredged out of the rivers of the anthra- cite region, which was deposited there through decades of freshets and floods ; of the superstitions of the miners, as, for instance, the dread of the white mule, which is harmless if the miner detects its ghostly approach, but certain to inflict a mortal bite if it is able to steal uv un- observed. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by J. Horgan, Jr. SLATE PICKERS AT .WORK IN A SCRANTON BREAKER The coal burned in the household grate had to “shoot the chutes” of a breaker before it was ready for use. After the mechanical slate pickers have finished their work, the coal is distributed to various chutes according to size and then hand picking takes out the slate that still remains with the coal. But having seen the coal mined, brought to the surface, and put through breaker or tipple, it will be well to follow. that coal to the market, and for that purpose we will watch the Jersey Central gather- ing the loaded cars from the Lehigh & Wilkes-Barre. collieries, which it owns through stock control, and moving them tO market, A number of engines are busy all day long collecting the cars from the several collieries. These they move up to Ashley, at the foot of the Wilkes-Barre Moun- tain. From this point they are dragged to the summit by a series of three in- clined planes and cableways. ! Safely at the top, twelve miles from Ashley by rail, but only a few thousand feet by incline, the cars are released and roll by gravity down to Penobscot yards, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4923 Photograph by Heyl & Patterson SLATE PICKERS AT WORK Moving by on an endless apron, hour after hour, the coal is looked over by the pickers, whose duty it is to take out every piece of slate. It is wonderful how well trained their eyes become. just over the brow of the mountain. Here, with much switching, a train is made up and you think it is starting on a straight run for market. But that, is-a mistake. ‘The train will run only as far as Mauch Chunk, 27 miles away. Here it will’ go ‘into. the yards, behind great accumulations of other cars. There is more switching ; and some time, maybe the next day, maybe several days later, these cars are put into other trains and started to tidewater. There they go into yards again and more switching takes place, with road engines idle while yard engineers work. Why ‘coal trains must be. made up, broken up, made up, and broken up again, amid all the confusion and congestion of crowded freight yards, instead of being so made up at the point of origin, that all lost motion may be dispensed with, well may puzzle the uninitiated. Under even a headway of twelve miles an hour, a coal train ought to run from Wilkes-Barre and Scranton to New York in eleven hours; and yet cars are often- times many days wending their way through congested yards to their destina- tion. They spend from two to ten hours in yards where they spend one rolling to market. THE CREATION OF COAL Having seen the harvest in the coal field, let us turn to the seed time. Millions of years ago Nature stored away billions Of tons’ Or coal for us, and then left us a record of her processes written in a lan- guage that all ages and tongues can under- stand. It is a story so wonderful as al- most to defy belief, and yet one so plain to him who reads it as to defy unbelief. Under-every seam of coal there is a bed of clay, and in this clay may be seen petrified stumps and roots with the trees they supported shooting up through the THE NATIONAL’ GEOGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE Photograph by J. Horgan, Jr. BREAKER BOYS AT LUNCH TIME In the days before child-labor laws began to mean something, such youngsters as these spent most of the years of their minority in the breakers picking slate. school and older boys and men must do the work. past is now a successful business man. coal itself and through the slate above. With this evidence, can it be doubted that trees grew in the coal-forming age? And when you find petrified ferns and shells above and below the coal, and evidences of them in the coal when placed under a powerful microscope, can you doubt that plants were existent, or that there was animal life on the earth in that era! And when you discover sandstone and slate placed in exactly the same position as sand and silt deposited by rivers upon the floor of the continental shelves of the sea, can you doubt that this sandstone and slate were once sand and silt submerged be- neath the sea, especially since you find the remains of all sorts of sea life in them? And, furthermore, when you find above But now they are in But at that, many a breaker-boy of the the seam of coal and its overlying strata another bed of clay, another seam of coal, and other overlying strata, and above them still another series, and yet another, until there are as many as eighteen seams of coal, with their attendant strata of clay and slate and sandstone, is it possi- ble for us to interpret Nature’s message otherwise than that there were eighteen risings and sinkings above and beneath the waves, eighteen crops of carbona- ceous materials gathered, garnered, and carbonized for our benefit ? Yet these are but a few outstanding passages in the amazing story Nature has written for the seeker after the truth of the geological story of coal. Those who are able to understand the sermons that THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 425 Photograph by Earle Harrison NATIVE MOUNTAIN WOMEN COME FROM MILES AROUND TO THE COMPANY COMMIS- SARY TO TRADE: MONEY IS RARELY USED, AS THEY GIVE FOR MERCHANDISE BUTTER, EGGS, AND CHICKENS the great Author has written in the rocks, and to translate the books that He has compiled in the running brooks, find the wonderful story of earth history told in twelve great chapters representing as many eras in geological time. As we descend the coal-mine shaft, we begin to leaf backward in the great book of Nature. The first chapter we come to is the last one in the book, and it begins with the advent of man on the earth. Next to that is the chapter which gives tae story of the age’ of mammals. It takes the two chapters beyond this to tell us the story of the age of reptiles. Then we come to the fifth chapter from the end, or the seventh from the beginning, and it tells us the remarkable story of coal. In thus leafing backward in the book of the ages, as we descend the shaft, we scan millions of years of geological history. The chapter which tells us of the coal age is an amazing account of a wonderful time. We find that there were many kinds of fishes existing in those times, but that there are few evidences of other than gill-breathing creatures upon the earth. Not a single specimen of animal life of that era has survived to this time, but there was a vegetation of unbeliev- able abundance and size. Many of the plants which existed then were plainly the ancestors of plants ‘(ger ‘Sch “ech sosed ‘x0} 20S) j UOHveID JO sossad01d [NJ1opUOM ay} JO JUNOSSe s,ainjeN peor ued OYM oso} SU [JaM OS SSuIY} [[B JO JoJwotD oy} JO Aysofeut oy} ozefoo1dde ued OYA “pezi[vot oq Wed WtaS JOOJ-UAI SIY} ayxeIU 0} pasmbas UOT}VJIS9A JO JunoWe Snopustties} ay} IY} Your UL URYI Sse] WIS [VOD LV SYLU PjNOM UddS JOAI SLY ULUT BUIAT] Jey} yS210J Jsasuap dy} yy} pozifear st I ud @aoV HHL OL SNOL GNVSNOHT, OML ANOS SC'THIA LVHI NIA ‘Ivoo Vv ~ "af ‘uesi0yy ‘[ Aq ydess0j0yg 7 e ‘[eOd WO1f paxeod ‘sn JOf poplAoid A[yots Os osmeN JoYyIOPY [NJWUnog e& YSIYyM dAD pphod. “UANq 9M [VOD 9} JO UOTJeWAOF ay} JO AIOYS JY} SI YOM JY SUIYIOM-IpVIIU [eIUSS oY} JO uUoHPRIDoIdde JoYNJ v oq PpnoM oto) Aq sassoooid Suryejsured oy} JO prat otoy} pue suru dsap ev o}JUL UMOP OS Ue A. l BuLIN}IA UL DUd}US B OJUL PassatdWoOd stUINJOA v SE }P ‘d4nJBN FO YOO JBoss oy} ul uoqirs uo ss}deyo oy} wosy ydeaseied Auy e St sty, ‘Vdi NODTNVUOS:> TNIW AIL lOd-anv- AuOD WAL dWO LS ULL CORO RING ‘If ‘ues 428 CHEMICAL FIRE-FIGHTING Every precaution is taken to protect mines from fire disaster. of the anthracite area there is a mine that has been burning for years. found possible to check the flames. the bottomless pit. which live today, but the survivors are pigmies, measured by the giant statures of their antediluvian ancestors. ‘Trees that rose to a height of fifty feet and pos- sessed trunks two or three feet in diam- eter are now represented by plants with stems a fraction of an inch in circumfer- ence and a foot or so high. AMAZING COAL-AGE. VEGETATION Nor was the difference in luxuriance as compared with today less great than the difference in ‘size. There was the great lepidodendron, a club moss ve grew from forty to fifty feet high; largest existing descendant he a height of not more than three feet. There was the sphenopteris, a giant fern raising its head like a palm tree; there were the calomites, cousin of. the modern horsetail, which grew in dense jungles; and there were even grasses which grew to the APPARATUS FOR THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by J. Horgan, Jr. PROTECTION In the Carbondale country It has never been Occasionally there are cave-ins which startlingly suggest Restoring a mine after a serious fire is often a matter of years. MINE height of a forest of twenty years’ growth. Perhaps the most striking of all coal- age vegetation was the beautiful sigillaria, a monarch of the carboniferous forests, whose trunk often swelled to five feet in diameter and possessed a bark that seemed studded with sealing-wax 1mpres- sions. In a single mine in England thirty of these trees were found standing in their natural position in an area fifty yards square, the wood of each petrified and the bark turned to coal. In some cannel-coal mines whole trees have been found, with roots, branches, leaves, and seeds com- plete, all converted into the same quality of coal as that surrounding them. Those were happy days in the vegeta- ble kingdom. Plant life was quickened as animal life is stirred by the ozone of the sea, for the air was laden with unim- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph from U. S. Bureau of Mines EQUIPPED FOR RESCUE, WORK-.IN COAL-MINE DISASTERS. It would be difficult to overestimate the value of the work of the United States Bureau of Mines in the improvement of methods for the prevention of mine disasters and in rescue operations in the accidents that, in spite of every precaution, still occur. Modern appliances and quick mobilization of rescue forces have saved thousands of lives in the industry. aginable supplies of carbonic acid gas, which was inhaled by the Brobdingnagian . jungle. Indeed, so rich was the atmosphere in its supply of this gas that while it made vegetation grow extraordinarily rank it would have suffocated man. Further- more, there -was warmth exceeding any- thing we know in the tropics today, and there was moisture in abundance—more than the most spendthrift of plants could wish for. The vegetation of that time was not limited by zones, neither by continents. In the coal beds of Alaska, in the meas- ures of the Antarctic, or in the mines of Australia, Europe, Asia, or America—in them all one finds evidences that the five hundred specimens of plants of that era, preserved by Nature for our inspection, acknowledged no climatic zone nor found themselves limited by any ocean. How amazingly dense was the vegeta- tion of the coal-forming era may be shown by comparisons with existing for- ests. The densest jungle I have ever seen is that lying along the Motago River, in Guatemala, and men who have traveled in every tropical land of the earth say that they have never seen anything surpass- ing it. Should Nature, by the processes of the coal age transform that jungle into a coal seam, it would be only a few inches thick ; yet there are coal seams existing today which are sixty feet thick, though ten feet is regarded as a fine seam, and three feet will produce more than five thousand tons Lovie acre: THE FAMILY-TREE OF COAL It is interesting in passing to note the family-tree of coal. Wood contains some 50 per cent of carbon. As dense forests have decayed they have left peat beds behind them. Subjected to the pressure of superincumbent strata, and touched slightly with the internal heat of the earth, peat becomes lignite, and we can see peat so near to being lignite and lig- nite so near to being peat that the line of demarcation is hard to draw. After lignite comes cannel coal, the connecting link between lignite and_bi- tuminous coal. Bituminous coal contains approximately 88 per cent of carbon as compared with 67 per cent in lignite and 84 per cent in cannel coal. Anthracite Sns ou ‘UdOM FO Suryariys ou st dsay} ‘daoys pousyys141z FO spoy ev ay] Bur ‘oy e} ‘puegsaly ‘pe}essUlouL JOU Fr ‘paqtuojus sey Jey} UOIso[dxo uv fo SMou M Jo osuadsns dy} pure Jnos Jo Ysmmsur ot} dinjoid Ayjayenbape urd OM ‘SIOTJOU PoIZUIIf. JO Sur[S } ul UMOP JoYy}OIG pur } JO suryY VY LV SNOOH INdALVA Juatjed ‘ssapieo} [nzave ey} st oto} nq -pueys ‘juajis pue yieq <~ésyydop snousoAvo ol Aq auUIW & JO YMOW otf} 0} Popped Vssp{IyS Pwe TollOM sol] LIVHS w9NIW SOUT] FO neoing "SC “f(y tory YdeISoOjoyd 430 BY RUE 1B Diag EET, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 431 Photograph from U. S. Bureau of Mines A TINY GUARDIAN OF THE MINER'S WELFARE As susceptible as men are to the overwhelming effects of mine gases, the canary bird is much more so. invading army of restoration. The result is that in many disasters the birds are made the outposts of the They are overcome long before man can detect the presence of the gas and therefore warn the men of the dangers ahead. goes still higher in carbon, with 93 to 97 per cent. Then comes graphite, with still more carbon, and finally the diamond. Here again Nature has shown us how she made the different kinds of coal. Occasionally in a bituminous bed we come across a little section of anthracite, and always there is basalt accompanying it. In some great volcanic eruption liquid lava was thrown out and it ran over the bituminous coal, driving out, by its in- tense heat, exactly as the coking process does, most of the volatile matter and transforming the bituminous coal into coke, which under great pressure hard- ened into anthracite. Again, if anthracite or coke be sub- jected to the heat of an electric furnace, as it is by the abrasive manufacturers at Niagara Falls, it becomes an impalpable black powder. So, also, in the earth do we find places where anthracite under- went such intense heat that even the little gas it contained could not resist expul- sion, with the result that the anthracite became graphite, which is widely mined and which the world uses alike for lubri- cating machinery, making lead pencils, polishing stoves, and shining shoes. That the diamond, the head of the car- bon household, was formed in the pres- ence of iron, under tremendous pressure, was a theory arrived at by M. Henri Moisson, an eminent French chemist. Analyzing a great number of small stones, he found always a trace of iron present. He held that molten iron, cooling in the presence of carbon deep in volcanic depths, where there was little elbow room for it to undergo expansion in assuming a solid form, would exert a tremendous pressure upon the particles of carbon it a a ee ote SUVLFELIVUY SULDeU| ULL pue SULPeEO] pidges 4Jucy -10dwII MOY Uses aq [[IM FI ‘UOTSsTUMIOD UT drys u0J-000‘01 & daay 0} Aep & OOOTY S}SOd jf JeY} PotToqWouoI st W UoyYAA “NOY ue ut drys e JO pjoy oq} OJUI [BOD FO SUO} O0O'Z PLOT URS sjUR{d SuITeOD JaMoU dy} JO xWOG ‘“puewoap pue Ayddns Jo Mey oY} JO SUPTIOM OY} O} Fyos}t Jsn{pe Jo}0q pynod Arjsnpul oY} pezyiyn oq phos ‘apes} o10-uOT oY} UI posn oie SB YONS [eOd JO} SatyypIOe} VSes0}s J] “9UI}sIX9 YouI-0}-puey ev sey skemye AT}snpur 9y} pue ‘pus JoY}I 3 IOAIOSOA [eal OU SI IJOY} Jey} SI YNSel sy, ‘as UkI JOUMSUOD oj}eLUTYN oy} UeY} Aep UOATS B UL [VOD S1OW [HRY Spores oy} UeD JON ‘[eAOUWAI S}I JOF sIed opraoid ued speoses oy} uy} Avp UdAIS Aue UT [vod aio Aue soNpoId JoUULS SOUT dF, “SOATOSOT IOF uoIstAoId — 91OY} SI S[CUIWIO} 94} JL JOU SOUT oY} Je JOYWON ‘solppIOV] asv10js FO AOL] dy} St satjypMoysip Jediourid oy} FO suo [vod fo Sul[pueYy sy} UT "VA ‘SMUAN LTXOdMAN LV SUXId TVOO Aueduiod uess0f[-19AvaG-ueUwlyjaMA wWorfz ydessojoyg 432 JIQLIWOPUr JSOUL 9Y} OSvANODSIP P[NOM Jey} SMOIO UILI} IOF S| Js¥] papreasid se yons suorpuod ‘WUWI] Jay} PUoAdq Pexe} IIe Sony voyr} CII} PUL SOII[NOUJIP DATOAUT JOJUIM -Vrem APUaTyedU JO sIY WAM B IJOJoq SunPS UPAR] B Jey} VOLS B JopL jodsues usy MA ‘oyerooidde apy ued payyy eq 0} ulq [vod sty JoF Sur OJ[IV1 94} 0} Sjussoid soul} [[e ye JoUIM AMOUS put pod AOA VW NOW V 10 GNY AHL LY advan AzTANOd GHaAtAOD nS ‘QUT SIOIAIIG WII [eUOHeUID}UT O) =MONS VY 433 434 absorbed, and that these would thereupon assume the crystalline form. He decided to attempt a duplication of the process. Packing a cylinder of soft iron with the carbon of sugar, he placed the whole in a crucible filled with molten iron, which was raised to a temperature of 3,000 degrees by means of an electric furnace. The soft cylinder melted and dissolved a large portion of the carbon. The crucible was thrown into water and a mass of solid iron was formed. It was allowed further to cool in the open air, but the expansion which the iron would have undergone on cooling was checked by the crucible which contained it. The result was a tremendous pressure. Open- ing up the crucible Moisson found his theory correct. He had duplicated Na- ture’s process in a small way and had achieved Nature’s results. SUBJECTS UNTOUCHED Thus we see that the difference be- tween peat and diamonds is only a differ- ence in degree of heat and pressure ap- plied to carbon in geological ages gone by, and the marvelous story of coal links the beautiful ferns and the stifling car- \ THE .NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC, MAGAZINE bonized atmosphere of millions of years ago to the scintillating diamond and the dark mine of the living present. One fain would let his enthusiasm out- pace his judgment with such an inspiring story to chronicle and write a book rather than an article, for there is so much that remains untold. The picture of the world before coal was utilized remains un- drawn; the vastness of coal beds of the earth and their influence upon nations and peoples remain unappraised; the history of coal utilization remains unwritten ; the need of coal conservation and the ineff- ciency of modern engines, which waste from 85 to 95 per cent of the energy in the coal they use, remain undiscussed ; the life of the miner and the heritage he bequeathes to humanity have been barely mentioned. These and many other phases of the thrilling story of King Coal and his be- neficent reign upon the earth must be passed over. Sitting by a warm fireside, reading a favorite magazine, how little we reckon all the ramifications of the wonder tale of the seed-time and harvest and utilization of Nature’s great gift of heat and energy to man! THE SPIRIT OF THE GEOGRAEETS into the heart of a generous, sympa- thetic, and patriotic people. Such a privilege has been the rich experience of the Board of Managers of the National Geographic Society since an announce- ment, first appearing in the pages of the GEOGRAPHIC some months ago, invited the members of the Society to contribute to a fund for the establishment of a Geo- graphic Ward in American Military Hos- pital No. 1 (then the American Ambu- lance Hospital), at Neuilly, a suburb of Paris. That two wards have been established instead of one and twenty beds are now being supported instead of ten, as origi- nally contemplated, is tremendously grati- fying; but far more significant and in- spiring than this fact has been the tender |: IS a stimulating privilege to see spirit of solicitude and often of self-sacri- fice reflected in every contribution for this noble cause. From every quarter of America and from members in distant parts of the world the response has come. ‘The mem- bership, in spite of the extraordinary de- mands made upon them for the support of Liberty Loans, Red Cross and War Service Community drives, and the ex- panded needs of their local charities, have yet found the occasion and the means to subscribe generously toward this fund for the care and comfort of our wounded boys in these Geographic wards. Even more moving has been the re- sponse of those whose contributions have been made at the expense of personal privation, and how beautiful has been the tribute of those who have given not only THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 435 money, but the fruits of their individual industry. ORPHANS SEND THEIR PENNIES TO PRO- VIDE A TREAT FOR THE WOUNDED Whereas a “fellow-feeling makes one wondrous kind,” suffering and sorrow make us supremely sympathetic, as at- tested by the following letter to the Editor received from Mrs. Cynthia A. Mann, secretary of the Children’s Home Finding and Aid Society of Idaho, at Boise: ahs - “T saw in the July number of the Gro- GRAPHIC MAGAZINE that your Society had two wards in American Military Hospital No. 1, Neuilly, France, and that it cost $600 a year for a bed without any extras. I want to do all possible in my little way and encourage the unfortunate wards in my charge (I am teacher in our orphans’ home). I paid them for pulling weeds, and they saved their pennies and earned nearly $4.00. I told them we would send $10 for an ice-cream treat; and I wish to feel that I have maintained a bed for at least ten days, so please find enclosed a draft for $26.50. Please be sure of the treat, for our little ones feel that they worked very hard. Two of them Dlis- tered their hands. We weighed the weeds; one little g-year-old pulled 25 pounds and earned 50 cents. Some under 6 years pulled a pound. “Tf the boys Over There could know of the love and ardor of their affection they would enjoy the treat doubly. I have made four scrap-buoks, which every one pronounces very interesting, and I spent much time, thought, and labor to make them worth while for the entertainment of our dear lads while in hospital. Wit, humor, patriotism, sentiment, valor, devo- tion to home, country, and truth are 1l- lustrated by picture and story. Some old, old gems; others new, grown out of the times. I wish to send these to your wards. How can this be done? Would you be kind enough to write me. I wish we might hear from some of the patients. It would be a great day in The Children’s Home. And what a memory to have for all time, ‘We sent the soldier boys a treat and they sent us word they got it and it was fine.’ ”’ TRUE SERVICE BY COLLEGE GIRLS At the opening of the autumn term of Flora Macdonald College, Red Springs, N. C., the president,;Mr. C. G. Wardell, wrote to the Society saying that the faculty and student body had read with deep interest. Carol Corey’s article, “A Day in the Geographic Wards,” and that they would like to support a bed in one of them. He added that the young lady students, instead of taking the amount from their allowance, proposed to earn the money by doing the work around the college which housemaids had been do- ing, and thus show the real spirit of their purpose. In reply to a letter heartily ap- proving the plan, Mr. Vardell wrote, on September 25: “Your very kind létter of the 21st has been received... bread it to, my student body last night and they received it with tumultuous applause. ‘They are gladly doing this service, and I call it real war service. “How shall we remit the money to you? > Once a-month, 1f you say so. Ui possible, the students would like a small, inscribed placard at the head of the bed. Will they be allowed to make scrap- books and provide small things especially for that bed? They want it to be just the best bed that ever was spread in any hospital and are prepared to do all they can to make it qualify as such.” The remittance has been coming to the Society regularly on the first of each month, and over one of the beds in the Geographic wards there is framed today a neatly printed legend, reading: BED MAINTAINED BY FLORA MACDONALD COLLEGE THE TRIBUTE OF AGE TO SACRIFICING YOUTH _ Pathos, industry, devotion to our coun- try’s cause and to our soldiers’ needs are reflected in the many letters which have accompanied contributions of afghans, pillows, pajamas, bathrobes, — slippers, comfort bags, and many other useful arti- cles for the equipment of the wards and to. .convey a,touch of, home” to the youths who are suffering from nostalgia as well as bodily pain in a foreign land. THE MOTHER OF THE REGIMENT A famous English poet has pointed out that we may live without poetry, music, and art, but “civilized man cannot live without cooks.” Ask an American doughboy if life would have been worth living at the front without the Salvation Army cook, comforter, and general utility cheerer. That this noble servitor for the American soldier is doing her all under fire is attested by the fact that she is wearing her shrapnel sombrero, and the only jewelry which adorns her person is the “bracelet” of her identification disk. 436 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Here is a typical letter from a bereaved husband in New York State: “The en- closed blanket was knitted by Mrs. ; age 7Q years, while suffering from a broken ankle last winter. She desired that it be sent to France. As the Na- tional Geographic Society maintains sev- eral hospital units there, we concluded it would be proper to present it to you for one of them. Shortly after finishing the blanket Mrs. died suddenly of heart trouble.” : ie short time ago there came: to: the Fiditor’s desk this eye-dimming missive: itis notmuch [can do, as. 1. cannot aittord to, as li ama Civil’ War veteran’s widow. But I want to do anything I can for our dear boys who have shown their love of country and their loyalty, too. I am 81 years old. I hope you will like the wash-cloths. I have never knit any- thing before. If I can do anything else, please let me know.”’ Here, indeed, is inspiration for another parable of the Widow’s Mite. And, at the other end of life’s scale, the day’s mail brings a package of towels, comfort bags, and one wash-cloth knitted by the eight-year old daughter of a Vermont mother whose son is in the army. From New Orleans. there comes a “happiness quilt,’ with a letter which adds, “If you want more such quilts for our convalescents, all right, you will get them; for, when off duty, as a lawyer (a woman), I can knit and, better yet, I have lots of friends I can press into Service.’ A HERO OF I861I KNITS FOR THE HEROES oF 1918 From Springfield, Mass., comes the following: “I am writing you in the in- terest of my father, , who has been a subscriber to the Nationa, Gro- GRAPHIC MaGAzINE for some time. We recently read in one of the issues an arti- cle on a Paris hospital, two rooms of which are furnished by the Geographic Society for the benefit of American sol- diers. My father is 85 years old, a G. A. R. man, and his grandsons—my three boys—are now in the service, two of them in France. He has been for the past year industriously knitting, until now 4357 he has completed two afghans, which he very much desires should be sent to that very hospital in which you are in- terested:?” Comfort bags, made and filled by mothers of Annapolis graduates during June week; six afghans, knitted by the young ladies employed in the headquar- ters of the National Geographic Society ; comfort bags, designed as Christmas gifts for each boy occupying a bed in the Geo- graphic Wards; scrap-books from Camp Fire Girls; an afghan from Cuba; boxes of sheets, pillows, and other supplies from many women’s clubs; two great boxes of hospital supplies from the women of Ohio; afghans knitted in small squares by the school children of many States— these are some of the contributions which have flowed into these offices continu- ously since the first announcement of the need: for them, and will continue to be received, for that need is not yet satis- fied, with tens of thousands of wounded men still in France. Not all of the contributions have come through the mails. A few mornings ago there called at the editorial offices of the Society a matron in whose eyes tears gleamed as she confessed that her health was such that her efforts to assist in Red Cross work had proved futile:. “All I can-do. 41s -pive,; she added... *(My. son enlisted in the British army before Amer- ica entered the war, but he has since been transferred to our own expeditionary forces, and. 1: want; to feel that. have aided in giving comfort to some one of his associates who may be stricken on the firing line. Will you allow me to endow one bed in one of the Geographic Wards for a year? I would like to con- tribute,’ in addition’ to. the $600: for :the support of that bed, $5 a month to buy the ‘extras’—fruits, chocolates, and ‘smokes’—which Mrs. Corey mentioned in her account of her visit to the wards.” YOUR PERSONAL INTEREST DESIRED Thus have members of the National Geographic Society responded to an op- portunity afforded them to establish a di- rect personal bond with the men who have suffered for us Over There, while we have endeavored to sustain them and our common cause Over Here. ‘SsIOyIOM AWIY UoreAjeS Aq pojonpuod _AropeI,, std [eordAy & St oJOFY ‘uNn_T ay} YIM soayjeq SIy UT JoIpjos ueoreury oy} OJ ,dod,, ynd yey} pury ey} Inq 4Jo][nq UNs-ouryoeu pue [Joys oArIsoj[dxa YsIy Jo puly AreUuIpPsO oY} JON SHHONAYL ANIT LNOWT AHL NI SYYMVIW SNOILINAW \ ‘atsse] ATW WoNPAyes & JO dudIso1d dy} Ul DUApPIAD UT SALMTL SLAL YIM ssauTI9dq9 JO wads oy} YA Jus ur otrvs Ady} JoAouoyM WYSy Sursoy v yYySno}J ssouyrtsowoy JO suowap oapry MT, “J9ayo poos Jo p1oM pure aus e—aye1rour JO soUeUdUTeL of} UL JuRJIOduT o10Ur AJOHUYUL JNq o][qloue} sso] suTyjauios Aq poturdwosoe ATqelieAUL seM synuYsnop jo UOTINIIYSIP IT, NUHOLIN AWUV NOLLVA “IVS HHL NVHL ATIVOLOAATA AUOW LNOW AWL LV SAO@ AHL YOL ANOH AO LIaIdS AHL GALVIGVA HOIHM AOVId ON SVM AYAHI 439 440 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HOW THE SPIRIT OF THE GEOGRAPHIC AFFECTS THE SPIRITS OF THE WOUNDED SOLDIER A post-card greeting received from one of the American boys who is being nursed back to health and usefulness in one of the Geographic wards in American Military Hospital, No. 1, at Neuilly, a suburb of Paris. The need for these splendid wards will not cease for many, many months, and it is hoped that the opportunity pre- sented the membership for taking per- sonal part in the operation and upkeep “THE RACHS OF EURORE HE next number of THE GEo- GRAPHIC will be devoted to “The Races of Europe,’ by Edwin A. Grosvenor, LL. D.. This. will be’ one of the most important monographs ever issued by the National Geographic So- ciety, because the complexities of the race problem in Europe, which must be surveyed and settled, are of more vital in- terest to the world today than ever before in human history. It is impossible to appreciate the variety and the seriousness of the racial ques- tions now being discussed by peoples everywhere without a clear idea of racial origins, racial characteristics, and racial of the Geographic Wards will be em- braced, especially since every dollar sub- scribed is applied directly, there being no salaries or overhead expenses of handling the fund. NUMBER boundaries as distinct from _ political boundaries. Dr. Grosvenor’s authoritative and at the same time entertaining and dramatic story of the “Races of Europe” will prove of absorbing interest to the casual reader and of invaluable assistance to the stu- dent of European conditions. It will be accompanied by numerous striking illustrations, and as a supple- ment there will be issued with the maga- zine a remarkable map, printed in 19 colors, which will prove a key and guide not only to the accompanying text, but to the day-to-day news from across the At- lantic. 3S — wes ¢ « \” a o>—_P>, ——# os Ge —<- 959 > = I The life of the ct TP iy ie camp — In homes throughout the land where the boys are absent in the service of Uncle Sam, the Victrola with its corps of noted artists is keeping up the spirit of the home- folks with its superb music and entertainment. In the camps where our soldiers and sailors are gathered, the Victrola is also in active service doing its musical duty. Its cheering music and wholesome entertain- ment afford a welcome diversion to pleasantly while away the spare moments. The Victrola is the messenger of cheer whose inspiring music is so necessary in these stirring war times. During the coming holiday season, it will find its way into many additional homes. And many new Victrolas and Victor Records will be among the Christmas gifts to bring joy to the hearts of the soldier and sailor boys in camp. Victors and Victrolas $12 to $950. Victor dealers everywhere. They will gladly play any music you wish to hear. Victor Talking Machine Co., Camden, N. J., U.S. A. SS“ a NDVIRANCUDUQODORUAVONSEUOODEODUNTOUEORINNOUDETODIUDD To insure Victor quality. always look for the famous trademark, “His Master's Voice.'’ It is on all pro- ducts of the Victor Talking Machine Company. 1 ——— TTT T= ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ A Double Service Belt Most good belts ave! buillsco aan have either fine pulley-gripping sur- face and less ruggedness, or plenty of ruggedness and less traction. The outer part of SparOak is firm, SparOak, one cf Graton & Knight Stand- heavy, selected ardized Series Leather Belts, is a unique belt eee sale: SES because it has super-gripping power and the firmness that resists the mauling of hard usage. The side of SparOak next to the pulley is Graton & Knight Spartan—the belting leather with the highest co-efficient of friction ever attained in any belting material; the outside is the finest quality of Graton & Knight special oak tanned, extra firm center stock. Combined, they forma belt of absolutely unique quality. par Oak Beltin SparOak stands high speeds without slip- ping or burning. It stays flat under strain. The punching of shifters and rapping of pul- ley flanges affect SparOak surprisingly little. SparOak belts in actual use carry their trac- tion power up to speeds of more thana mile a minute. In the hard test of ‘‘mule spin- ning,” SparOak has set new standards of The side of SparOak what belting efficiency is. nero ue Belceats If you havea vexatious belting problem, tell giving the maximum us about it and let us tell you whether or not grip on the pulley. SparOak is the belt required. There are thou- sands of cantankerous drives in the United States that will lose much of their cranki- ness when operated by SparOak. If you have such a one, it is well’ worth your while to write us about it. Write for information about Standardization as applied to Belting THt GRATON & KNIGHT MFG. CO. WORCESTER, MASS., U.S. A. UNITED STATES Oak Leather Tanners, Makers of Leather Belting, GOVERNMENT} Lace Leather, Packings and Specialties Branches and Distributors in all Principal Cities GRATON & KNIGHT Standardized Series LEATHER BELTING Tanned by us for belting use ‘¢Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ ” MY MY W jJ}yffivyy MUMMY Y Lida WA YM (THE free creamy lather of Goblin Soap makes “cleaning up” easy for grown- ups and a delight for children. The most obstinate grease and stains yield readily to Goblin Soap, and the hands and face have a soft, smooth and healthy feeling afterwards. Fine for kitchen or workshop, office or home; wherever you need good soap. If your dealer does not have Goblin Soap, please send us his name and we will see that you are promptly supplied CUDAHY, 111 W. Monroe St., CHICAGO 64 Macauley Ave., Toronto, Canada our dentist will tell you that a tooth powder is better than a paste. 4 GCALOX the Oxygen Tooth Powder is the best powder A package, sufficient for one week’s trial, and authoritative booklet telling ‘Why a Powder Is Better Than a Paste’’ will be sent free on request. McKESSON & ROBBINS, Inc. 88 FULTON STREET NEW YORK SS SSS SS Se 4 A SOS eee Ns : . eS 1 — a — 1 — 2D —D — A — BB - This monument is a splendidly proportioned Sarcophagus of modern design with incised French Antique letters “Art in Memorials” —an intensely interesting booklet fully descri- bing the distinctive and exclusive Ultramorials with underground crypts for interments, per- ee the broadest latitude in the expression of art. Erect your memorial now, as you yourself want it, so that it will immortalize your name, your character, your individuality. If expecting to spend $500 or more, don’t miss getting this booklet-—mailed on request MEMORIALS ART COMPANY Studios: 103 Delaware Court Delaware Avenue Buf alo, New York Representatives in Principal Cities ~ I —A —-B d— 7 — 1 — 2 — BP — DP — BR DUES RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annual membership abroad, $3.00; Canada, $2.50; Hye membershir. 5° 1 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY payable to National Geographic Society, and IN THE if at a di.ance remit by The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the New York araft, postal or express order. National Geographic Magazine PLEASE DETACH AND FILL IN BLANK BELOW AND SEND TO THE SECRETARY To the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Sixteenth and M Streets Northwest, Washington, D. C.: I nominate 222 26 2 gee OO Pes en is MT at for membership in the Society. Name and Address of Nominating Member ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Unarmed Arms of the Service Men from the battle front who have been holding the line for months and years complain of the monotony of war. The soldier’s life in the trenches soon ceases to be a novelty and be- comes a tedious routine. The morale of the army is of su- preme importance and the greatest military authorities of the world are enthusiastic in their praise of the or- ganizations which make it their busi- ness to keep the soldier in good spirits. This work, like that of the Signal Corps, has been more highly developed One Policy in this war than ever before. Huts for amusement, comfort and recuperation of the fighting men are in the trenches The un- armed workers go about their duties under shell fire as coolly and as self- forgetfully as the telephone men of as well as behind the lines. the Signal Corps who are frequently their neighbors, and who keep intact, often under a hail of bullets, the in- dispensable lines of communication. It is for us who remain at home to support these unarmed heroes to the utmost, with our gifts, our labor, and our unbreakable morale. AMERICAN TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH COMPANY AND ASSOCIATED COMPANIES One System Universal Service ‘¢‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ HIS DINNER HAS JUST SLIPPED FROM HIS GRASP: AN OSPREY, OR FISH HAWK, RISING FROM A STRIKE : “i aucdwadn Lhe Book of Birds 200 Pages, Illuminated with 250 Matchless Subjects in Full Colors, 45 Illustrations in Black and White, and 13 Striking Charts and Maps No other Nature-book ever published at a moderate price equals The Book of Birds in the beauty of its illustrations, the fascinating quality of its authoritative text, and the charming intimacy with which it introduces the reader to shy Friends of Forest and Country- side, Seashore and Upland. The three principal divisions of this beautiful book are the contribution of the gifted ornithologist and facile author, Henry W. Henshaw, formerly Chief of the United States Biological Survey. Dr. Henshaw possesses to a marked degree the rare faculty of de- scribing the haunts and habits of Nature’s wild creatures with the ease and grace of the born story-teller and with the insight and knowledge of the scientist equipped by wide experience and exhaustive research. And no author has ever had a more gifted or more sympathetic illustrating collaborator than has Dr. Henshaw in the noted naturalist-artist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes. whose 250 bird portraits, reproduced in full colors in this superb volume, have preserved with wonderful fidelity not merely the richness of tint in plumage but the animation and the personality, so to speak, of each subject. An engaging chanter is contributed hv TF. H. Kennard on “Encouraging Birds Around the Home.” Mr. Kennard persuades the reader to hecome a conserver of bird life, whether he be the possessor of a great estate or the owner of a window-sill, 2 That mvsterions imnulse which Nature has imnlanted in so manv of her creatures—the migrating instinct—is the subject of a wonderful chapter hy Professor Wells W. Cooke. ; George Shiras. ard. noted as a traveler and naturalist and as the inventor of a method whereby birds and wild animals make their own portraits, gives a delightful account of photographing wild birds with a flashlight camera. The Book of Birds is a gift to delight the naturalist who ean spend days in the forest, the business man who has only an occasional hour in the woods. or the man or woman whose sole acquaintance with hirds is_made in the citv parks. Placed in the hand of a boy or girl, it will inculcate an imperishable love of Nature and Nature’s winged children. Obtainable only from our Washington Headauarters. PRE Rc OM AT DUR ONS Man oa ce tt) i aR Oe SUE OWN CHR SU Ni ee ee Diniz J0i5 INN CONSHin (ipo ance Saeinase, oe er sidise, Batons fora ce Sr dracolletel cctaneNa eae ermal COILS: 16th and M Streets. Washington. TD. C. Please send........ eopies of “THE BOOK) OF BIRDS,” bond) img sis cs wieielc o) oversie.clclalorsc o eetetet-Raanare: for ewhichwl vencloseshenrewitiie. «2c osc es cee dollars. Tf sexeral copies are desired, write names and ad- NAIM ecclesia one rere eeeVevens sileraxejone iohoseleReeneneners Seeks dresses and send with your card. Bound in Royal Buckram (Stiff Covers) or Military Street Address Khaki ( Flexible Covers ), $3.00, postpaid in U.S. A. 11-18 City “and State:. fovea use sas or oterevatonete RA OOD OO Franklin Light Weight and Air Cooling add to Franklin fine- ness a day-by-day delivery to the owners of — 20 miles to the gallon of gasoline —instead of 10 10,000 miles to the set of tires —instead of 5,000 50% slower depreciation than any other fine car. ‘There Are ers Days Ahead For the Wasteful Motor Car ODAY, when you are considering a motor car, your standard is bound to be different than it was a year ago. You are buying a car to ride in— as much as you require—but you are more exacting as to costs, comfort, and staying qualities of the car. The performance of motor cars in general is unchanged. And the live question now 1s which car will give you a full measure of usefulness—and still stick to the new standard of keeping down waste. Bulky, wasteful, rigid cars are unable tochange for months to come on account of the material situation. And with the people frowning upon waste, there will be hard days ahead for the wasteful motor car. It’s all summed up in the old question of un-— necessary motor car weight and rigid construction. Unnecessary weight means unnecessary expense to move it—more fuel; and, combined with rigidity, It gives tires no chance to wear out—it pounds them out. The Franklin Car has always been built on the principle of utility, cutting out all excessive weight at the outsetand relying on flexibility instead of rigidity ; and now, without change, it meets your need and desire for a car to use—a car to ride in with the utmost safety, comfort, and reliability at the least expense. FRANKLIN AUTOMOBILE COMPANY SYRACUSE, NEW YORK ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ WEAVING BLANKETS ON HAND LOOMS: HIGHLANDS OF PERU scenes from Every Land (FOURTH SERIES) 200 Full-page Illustrations, 24 Pages in Matchless Four Colors, 20,000 Words of Descriptive Text By GILBERT GROSVENOR, Editor National Geographic Magazine XCELLING in beauty and in compelling interest its three predecessors, the fourth volume of the National Geographic Society’s “Scenes” series may now be secured from the Washington headquarters of the Society. The first two series of “Scenes from Every Land” have been entirely exhausted and cannot be had at any price, while only a few copies remain of the third. To insure your copy of the new series you should order at once. “Scenes from Every Land” is like no other book in the world. It occupies a unique place in the literature of the universal language—the language of pictures, through which man becomes acquainted with his fellow-man on the other side of the world. The Editor has selected 200 photographic gems from the Society’s great treasure-house of pictures, which is being constantly enriched by contributions from explorers, scientists, world-travelers, artists, and lovers of nature in every quarter of the globe. These pictures tell their own story of strange peoples, odd customs, the history of ancient civilizations written in the massive ruins of their temples, palaces, and amphitheaters, the master achievements of modern engineers—the builders of canals, bridges, and cities—and the inspiring manifestations of the handiwork of Nature, wrought in mist- crowned mountains, shimmering waterfalls, and landscapes of magic beauty. The Society is able to publish this volume, which includes 24 pages in full colors, at a nominal price, owing to the fact that most of the illustrations have appeared previously in the Nationat Grocrapuic Macazine and the expense of engraving both the color and the black-and-white plates has already been borne. No picture in the Fourth Series, however, is to be found in any of the earlier volumes. Dept. H, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, ais a Mitsu lalela ois) 6 ¢iele w's w ecope geet Metne ete 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. Please send......copies of the Fourth Series ‘‘Scenes from Every Land,’’ bound in.............. for which I enclose herewith.....................dollars. Tf several copies are desired, write names and addresses and send with Name.iiceec.. os noe eee your card. Street Address... cc cj.< cs sesso cele Sete itoule Bound in Royal Buckram, postpaid in U. S., $2.00 Bound in Full Leather, postpaid, $2.50 (De Luxe Edition) City and State css. 0.25. o00< cieralevs eo euaseneeenenetnetetetele 11-18 How to End F Im on Your Teeth All Statements Approved by High Dentat Authorities It Must Be Done Brushing teeth without ending the film is pretty nearly useless. Millions of people know that. They find that brushed teeth still discolor, still decay. And statistics show that tooth troubles are constantly increasing. A slimy film which you feel on your teeth is the cause of most tooth troubles. It gets into crevices and stays, resisting the tooth-brush. That film is what discolors, not your teeth. It hardens into tartar. It holds food which ferments and forms acid. It holds the acid in contact with the teeth to cause decay. Millions of germs breed in it. are the chief cause of pyorrhea. which wrecks the teeth. They, with tartar, So it is that film Science has now found a way to daily combat that film. Able authorities have proved it by clinical tests. It is embodied in a dentifrice called Pepsodent, which countless dentists are now urging. It is bound to supersede old methods with every one who knows it. A Test Will Show The results of Pepsodent are so evident, so quick, that even a week’s use is convincing. Pepsodent is based on pepsin, the digestant of albumin. The film is albuminous matter. The object of Pepsodent is to dissolve it’; then to constantly prevent its accumulation. Ordinary pepsin will not serve this purpose. It must be activated, and the usual agent is an acid harmful to the teeth. But science has discovered a harmless activating method. Five governments have already granted patents. Itis that method—used only in Pepsodent— which makes possible this efficient application.: After a great many tests made by dental authori- ties, Pepsodent is recognized as the way to fight this film. And now we urge every one to prove it in their homes. Send the coupon for a one-week tube. Use it like any tooth paste and watch results. Note how clean your teeth feel after using. Mark the absence of that slimy film. See how your teeth whiten as the fixed film disappears. See Then Stop your inefficient methods for one week, how much more Pepsodent accomplishes. judge for yourself what to do in the future. Cut out the Coupon now. Return your empty tooth-paste tubes to the nearest Red Cross Station Pepsa The New-Day Dentifrice A Scientific Product — Sold by Druggists Everywhere (132-B) ent : One-Week TubeFree | THE PEPSODENT CO. | Dept. 250, 1104S. Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill.: ! | | | | | Mail One-Week Tube of Pepsodent to | | | ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ dresses and send with your card. Bound in Royal Buckram (Stiff Covers) or Military A MONTANA DOE AND FAWN IN THE SNOW OF THE OPEN RANGE WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA Intimate Studies of the Big and Little Citizens of the Mammal Kingdom More than 200 illustrations: 127 Paintings reproduced in full colors; 50 Track Sketches, a number of Drawings of Prehistoric Mammals and many illus- trations from unusual photographs reproduced in black and white. HERE is no subject richer in fascinating interest than the study of animal life. To see all the types and representative species in their native environment, to watch them meeting their respective problems of'life and adapting themselves to the conditions they have to face, and to follow nature through its ie many moods as typified by its wonderful variety of mammalian forms is a delightful and informative iversion. To do this under the guidance of one of those born observers, whose eyes are always open, whose ears are always keen, whose brain is always quick to grasp, and whose pen is ever facile, is to become intimately acquainted with one of the richest chapters in zodlogy. Such is to be the good fortune of those who receive a copy of the National Geographic Society’s new book of mammals as a Christmas gift this year. This work is the consolidation of Edward W. Nelson’s splendid nature articles in the GkoGRAPHIC. There is no man so well fitted to introduce you to the mammals of North America as Mr. Nelson, the Chief of our remarkable U. S. Biological Survey. For forty years he has been their friend, living among them and studying their habits and traits in the most intimate way. To him an animal is something more than flesh and bone and skin and fur. It has a personality; and he is as careful to record this as to describe the formal qualities which science writes down in species descriptions. : Mr. Nelson is a naturalist of the John Burroughs order. ‘To visit the people of woodland, mountain, and field with him is to discover a new world. A : Illuminating the descriptions are natural-color illustrations from the brush of that gifted artist-naturalist, Louis Agassiz Fuertes. Mr. Fuertes is not only a master of color but also of pose, and he can catch the timid alertness of the prong-horn antelope, the cruel sagacity of the arctic wolf, the lazy indifference of the common skunk, or the wide-awake watchfulness of the gray squirrel, with equal facility. ' : Added to these is a series of 50 sketches by Ernest Thompson Seton, depicting the footprints of various animals as they appear in the light snow of field or forest or in the dust of the wayside. These will enable - the reader to identify the tracks of many ef the mammals of North America. ‘ , ‘ fs Together these authorities have produced a book that is without counterpart in the literature of animal ite. 16th and M Streets, Washington, D. C. ; Please send........copies of “WILD ANIMALS OF NORTH AMERICA,” bound in.......--sccceeeceees for which I enclose herewith. <2 .)..2. 041s 000s. tee nes. dollars. Dept. H, Nationat GEocrapHIc Society, wutdia a wild v aun 00) 900 0 hae atore'si0 aia ote rates tate taken aren ae lf several copies are desired, write names and ad- Name..kcccsccacvicceccces s.6 0.00 0'ee lenis slelsisreleleialocchene Khaki (Flexible Covers), postpaid in U. S., $3.00 City and State o....0:5 0.5. 0,clc © s,0le cle 0 cleletvip a eiatwlaie inte 11-128 Street Address. ....cccccccoccsccsccccccoucececes - ome Qe Mount the old stub on the new Refill “like putting a new bulb in a socket” S7° the “socket” of your Colgate “Handy Grip”— you don’t need a new “socket” with every new shaving stick, any more than you need a new socket with every new electric lamp. Save the Colgate Handy Grip “socket” that you have—and refill it with a new stick, just as you'd refill a lighting socket with a new lamp. : Double economy with Colgate’s. The Refill costs less than the complete Handy Grip. Even the stub unscrews from the old Handy Grip—is easily mounted on the Refill and adds 50 more shaves. COLGATE & CO. Established 1806 New York efill Shaving Stick ps RO: ie ¥ 3 ‘ : as $ : FE: 3 Bs % oe g ; ‘ i 2% ee j is 2 ; fg os > $ za “in a3 is. Shelltex Rimmed Shur-on EYEGLASSES AND SPECTACLES Style—Service That comfortable “feel” of security, that attractive “look” of smart distinction, are yours when you wear the real Shelltex Shur-ons. They cost no more—and assure lasting lens protection. The genuine (made only by Kirstein) always bear the name Shur-on or Shelltex in the mounting. Look for it at your dealer’s. E. KIRSTEIN SONS CO. 249 Andrew St., Rochester, N. Y. Shelltex - rimmed and rimless Shur-on eyeglasses and spectacles. Established 1864. Will Not Blow Up Will Not Leak Will Not Rattle a Beware of | _ tender, inflamed gums- YORRHEA, witha pre- mature loss of teeth, is almost inevitable if you do not properly care for your gums. Here is the ex- planation: As you age, the body tis- sues naturally relax. You see this tissue-loosening in the neck. It goes on in ee '3{ your gums,too. As you | grow older your gums | shrink below the normal | gum line. Through lack of care they become spongy and inflamed. Then you have Pyorrhea (Riggs’ Dis- t ease). Four out of five i people over forty have | Pyorrhea. And many un- | der forty, also. Don't let a tender gum spot develop. These ten- | der spots breed disease germs which enter the | system through tiny open- ings, infecting the joints or tonsils—or causing other ailments. Immedi- ately get Forhan's, which | positively prevents | Pyorrhea if used in time and used consistently. Forhan's tones the gums and hardensthem. They | in turn keep the teeth | healthy. Brush your teeth with Forhan’s. It | cleans them scientifically | —keeps them white and | free from tartar. If gum-shrinkage has | already set in, start using | Forhan’s and consult a dentist immediately for special treatment. 30c and 60c tubes All Druggists FORHAN CO. | 214 6th Ave., N. Y. | Send for Trial Tube Free We make Mufflers for any automobile truck, tractor, or gasoline engine. They are used exclusively by more than forty of the leading manufacturers of cars and trucks. 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When Peary’s ship, the ““Roosevelt,’? was on her way back, MacMillan hoped the ship would get stuck so they would be held there for at least another year. Butthe Pole had been found. What else was there to do? There is a place in the North—the largest unexplored white spot on the surface of the globe—a place nobody was sure of. And this was the goal that Donald MacMillan set out to reach. His expedition was organized by the American Geographical Society and the Museum of Natural History. ‘They expected to be away two years; in- stead they spent four years of terrible hardship, of hair-raising adventure, of long, patient waiting; but they found what they set out to find, and MacMillan has told the story in a most remarkable book. FOUR YEARS IN THE WHITE NORTH By Donald MacMillan, M. A., F. R. G. S. Get it today at your bookseller’s___.__-- $4.00 Read it and pass it on to a soldier. HARPER & BROTHERS Established 1817 Lantern Slides from Photographs in National Geographic Magazine So many requests are being constantly received regarding lantern slides from the copyright photographs in the Geographic that arrange- ments have been completed to supply them to members of the Society. Slides are not kept in stock, each order being made up as received, and will be delivered within two weeks after receipt of order, unless otherwise advised. he copyright notice must appear on each slide. The purchase of lantern slides does not carry with it the authority to publish the pictures and they cannot be used for advertising purposes. Slides cannot be sent upon approval and a remittance must accom- pany each order. The slides will be carefully packed and sent by express collect. Prices in the United States (standard size), black and white, 75 cents each; colored, $1.50. Address, DEPT. NATIONAL GEOGRAPHI MAGAZINE WASHINGTON, D. C DENBY MOTOR TRUCKS Tu F, sieisnes of your business depends largely on the efficiency of your haulage. Denby Motor Truck Company Detroit, Michigan U.S. Army or Navy Red Cross, Y. M. C. A., and Allied Organizations Letters of Credit, which are the safest ana most convenient medium for carrying funds, are issued by us, free of commission, to those engaged in war work. We have also sent our American representative to France for the convenience of our friends, with headquarters at the office of the Credit Commercial de France, 20 Rue Lafayette, Paris. BROWN BROTHERS & CO. Philadelphia NEW YORK BROWN, SHIPLEY & COMPANY Founders Court, Lothbury LONDON, E. C. Boston Office for Travelere 123 Pall Mall, LONDON, S. W ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Ky Korea cattie 4 althan for Ime Encased in a body of gold or silver lies the real reason for the existence of any watch — its works. The surface may be graced by delicacies of refinement so beautiful to look upon that the mind sometimes neglects to investigate the inner mechanism, which makes a watch either a reliable timepiece or simply an ornament. But to the horological experts of a nation — when select- ing an official timepiece — nothing counts but accuracy. So Korea came to Waltham for Time. Because she found there a degree of time-keeping dependability that was unapproached even by the famous watches of Switzerland, England or France. The Riverside The most dependable moderate price watch in the world Because —the name ‘*Wal- tham’’ means that inside the case has gone more than.a half- century of watch making experi- ence. Since 1854 the popular saying has been: “If you want to know the correct time, find the man with a Waltham.” Because — nothing will give you greater confidence in your watch than the knowledge that it bears the name.of an institution which as contributed more improve- ments to the art of watch-making than any cther factory in the world. Patronize the jeweler who recommends Waltham Watches because he is an expert with intimate knowledge of those mechanical details which give time-keeping perfection. Ask him to show you the Riverside, a mod- erate price Waltham, made in five sizes— three for men and two for women. Here isa watch which brings to its owner a feeling of gratification that his daily work and play are timed by a masterpiece enshrining all those superiorities which have made ALTH ‘¢‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ a3 " 2e ef : Cream S| Pamted by Edw. V. Brewer for Cream of Wheat Co. cae mea “ee $s 4 1 tee Ye : a t gh 5 : oe ET ee ee u i : aes pe As i = ‘ io VE : 2 Fe : * aoe S z a a Sa8 a ea ar as “ & x ie Copyright 1918 by Cream of Wheat Ca, ‘“NONE BUT THE BRAVE DESERVE THE FARE.” PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, IN« WASHINGTON, D. C. GEOGRAPHIC DECEMBER, 1918 btn red ree re hm Dotnet | yD % vinta A Sgt Pe a a ree etre Mee SS arilhitdinetlineeainml es cit CONTENTS © i lNiuinutiuatl re Nee £. cl iBaatl ‘ = = = 4 —aall THE RACES OF EUROPE An Account Which Removes the Padlock of Techni- cality from the Absorbing Story of the Mixture of Peoples in the Most Densety.\\) |) Populated Continehon se =60MAY V4 ¥ pps _ EDWIN A. GROSVENOR, L.H.D., BE.D. | nd verti thn ts pe | in BY With a Map of Europe and Adjoining Portions of Asia and Africa in 19 Colors (Size, 20 x 24 Inches), Together with 62 Illus- trations of Racial Types, a Relief Map of Europe, / \ ilitvwuliinedd inatliniim ‘ eS ‘ Ors : Att | ree and a Political Map of Germany PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. Sl eovtne liane linn Asean Aisi NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS, WASHINGTON, D. C. O. H. TITTMANN GILBERT GROSVENOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE O. P. AUSTIN 1916-1918 FrRaNKLIN K. LANE Secretary of the Interior Witttam Howarp Tarr Formerly President of the United States C. M. CHestrer Rear Admiral U. S. Navy. Iormerly Supt. U.S. Naval Observatory Frepertck V. Covin.e lormerly President of Wash- ington Academy of Sci- ences Joun FE. Pitiuspury Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, Formerly Chief Bureau of Navigation Rvupo.pH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor The Even- ing Star T. L. Macponatp INMESD oR ovA. Cos: S. N. D. Norru Formerly Director U. S. Bu- reau of Census DIRECTOR AND EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR PRESIDENT SECREYARY BOARD OF MANAGERS 1917-1919 ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. Howarp Gore Prof. Emeritus Mathematics. The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic I{xplorer, Major Gen’! U. S. Army Gitgert H. GrosvENor Ivditor of National graphic Magazine Geo- GEORGE OrTIs SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey QO. H. Tirrmann Formerly Superintendent of S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Henry WHITE Formerly U. S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. JoHN M. Witson Brigadier General U.S. Army, Formerly Chief of Engineers JOHN E. PILLSBURY JOHN JOY EDSON .. 3 ‘ GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, ASSISTANT SECRETARY WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER RALPH A. GRAVES VICE-PRESIDENT TREASURER ASSISTANT EDITOR ASSISTANT EDITOR 1918-1920 CirarLes J. BEL President American Security and ‘Trust Company Joun Joy Iipson Chairman of the Board, Washington Ioan & Trust Company Davin FarmcuHi.p In Charge of Agricultural Iixplorations, Department of Agriculture C. Harv Merriam Member National Academy of Sciences O. P. Austin Statistician GeorcGeE Rh. Purnam Commissioner U. S. Bureau of Lighthouses GEORGE SHIRAS, 3D Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, l‘aunal Naturalist, and Wild-Game Photogra- pher GRANT SQUIRES Military Intelligence Divi- sion, General Staff, New York To carry out the purpose for which it was founded twenty-eight years ago, namely, “the increase and diffusion of geographic knowledge.” Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. the National All receipts from the publication are invested in the Magazine itself or expended directly to promote geographic knowledge and the study of geography. Articles or photographs from members of the Society, or other friends, are desired. For material that the Society can use, adequate remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage. and be addressed: GILBERT GROSVENOR,. EDITOR A. W. GREELY C. Harr Merriam O. H. Tirtmann Rosvert Howiister CHaPpMAN Warter T. SwIncLe CONTRIBUTING EDITORS ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Davin FarrcHILp Hvucu M. Smiru N. H. Darton Frank M. CuHapman Copyright, 1918, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. Entered at the Post-Office at Washington, D. C., All rights reserved. as Second-Class Mail Matter. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Sec. 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 1, 1918. lig UU U0 le Ill ! | MIU UAT TTT PREMIER CLEMENCEAU AND GENERAL PERSHING AT VERSAILLES, FRANCE From a hitherto unpublished photograph by the Signal Corps, U.S. A. Copyright 1918 by the Committee on Public Information In the background is General Pershing’s Automobile identified by the four stars on the windshield. This is one of a number of Limousines used by the General Staff of the Army and built by The Locomobile Company of America at Bridgeport, Conn. A. special Limousine of the same make was pur- chased and shipped to France for the use of the Presi- dent of the United States during the peace conference. FUTILITY TTTLTTT lI. EST sl ‘*‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ HIS load of roast beef, life stock from farms in the vicinity of Indian- apolis, Ind., is on its way over one of the concrete roads of Marion Co. to the Indian- apolis stockyards. Before the combination of motor trucksand concrete roads existed in Marion Co., farmers in the vicinity of Indianapolis had to sell live stock to dealers, who bought enough cattle in the neighborhood to make a carload for shipment to Indianapolis. What the concrete roads leading to Indianapolis have done for stock raisers is best told by Joseph Jackson, one of the prominent farmers of Lebanon, Indiana. Read what he says: ‘During the past few months concrete roads have enabled me to ship live stock direct to the yards by motor truck, eliminating the middle man and saving me his profit. “Tt also saves shrinkage in weight of the cattle, caused by loading, shipping and unloading from freight cars, and I can ship as often asI have stock ready for the market, without waiting to get together a carload, which often makes it necessary to include animalsstill under full weight. ‘Shipping by truck would be expensive Over poor roads and often impossible. Overcon- crete you can keep your trucks going the year round, with the least wear and tear and witha minimum of gasoline. ‘‘Concrete roads and motor trucks are and will be hereafter a great aid to the farmer shipping produce and live stock to the market. You see that roast beef may depend on concrete roads—that roads are a great factor in regular distribution of food products. paragraph of Mr. Jackson’s letter above. é Read again the second It gives some of the reasons why Concrete Roads PAY PORTLAND CEMENT ASSOCIATION Indianapolis Detroit Kkansas City Denver Dallas Helena Atlanta Chicago Milwaukee Parkersburg Minneapolis Salt Lake City Seattle New York Washington Pittsburgh CONCRETE FOR PERMANENCE ‘¢‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ More Power HREE years ago we said that the Pierce - Arrow Car would not be changed for at least eighteen months— not then except for a real improvement. We have kept both promises. Our engineers have developed the Dual Valve Engine—a six-cylinder en- gine with greatly increased power-— power so flexibly applied that speeding up to seventy miles and slowing down to five on high gear are both possible. 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In general, invasions solely by men left more enduring results than those by peoples. The tendency was for men, accompanied by their families, to remain apart from the conquered as a distinct class. The single man formed ties among the conquered and therefore was identified with the community. The essential fact, however, is that, after the barbaric invasions, there existed no such thing as an unmixed race. Nor does any such thing exist now. Racial purity is a figment of the imagination. THE TEST OF TONGUES We have seen that by this universal intermixture of mankind in Europe all racial characteristics were blended, con- fused, or lost. Therefore no physical test or combination of such tests has yet been found practicable or possible to apply. In consequence, “To the eye of modern scholarship ‘language’ forms the basis of ethnic distinction.” Language is not an infallible guide. Sometimes it appears unsatisfactory and perhaps misleading. Sometimes it in- volves difficulties and seems to arrive at contradictions. But there is no other test that rivals it in comprehensive ac- curacy. Unsatisfactory though the guide may sometimes be, it is far more satis- factory than any other we possess. In point of fact we possess no other. Webster’s New International Dictionary is correct in the definition, “Slav: a per- son who speaks Slavic as his mother tongue.” ‘The Encyclopedia Britannica is correct in saying, “Judged by the lan- guage test, and no other is readily avail- able.” The authoritative Statesman’s Year Book is correct in its invariable system of determining “ethnical ele- ments on the basis of language.” In the quaint Biblical story it was by the test of speech that the men of Gilead at the passage of the Jordan detected the tribe of Ephraim. “It was so that when those Ephraimites which were escaped said, ‘ket mé go over,’ that the men of Gileads said “unto. him,.°Art thou. an E\phraimite?’ and if he said, ‘Nay; then said they unto him, ‘Say thou Shibboleth,’ and he said, ‘Sibboleth,’ for he could not frame to pronounce it right. Then they took him and slew him.” It was a common racial language, de- spite local difference, that distinguished the Celts, Teutons, and Slavs from one another. It was the main bond connect- ing the several members of each of those same races. “Thy speech bewrayeth thee” was the identification of each tribe. Sometimes the language test seems to fail glaringly, as when one hears the Balto-Slavic Prussian speaking German as his mother tongue, or the Celtic Irish speaking English. Yet out of the great total such anomalies are comparatively Tare, A NEW AND VITAL INTEREST IN EUROPE’S RACES The races’ of Europe are today -in- vested with a vivid interest and a near- ness they never possessed for us before. Through more than four agonizing years in thought and perhaps in person we have lived in their very midst. Peoples little known have appeared on the hori- zon and peoples best known have ac- quired a fresh significance. Nor, though the hour of victory has come, will our strained attention relax. The races of Europe are now in agita-: tion, less superficial but more profound and as intense as that by which they were convulsed by the Hun fifteen centuries ago. The Old Order has passed away with the millions dead. A new Europe is in the making. Neither a year nor a generation will suffice to make it. None of the now-living will behold it when made. The Peace Conference will ren- der its august decisions, and its members will depart, but the races will remain on the spot where on them the making of the New Europe will devolve. Europe, though so old, is for the greater part young and inexperienced in self-government and political duty and opportunity. The gait of more than one newly enfranchised people will resemble the uncertain walk of a just-awakened child. No marvel if its liberty seems at times license, and freedom for one’s self a safe conduct to avenge and oppress. The progress of the most advanced na- 460 tions to their present height has not been unattended by mistakes and falls. The moral solidarity of mankind has of late been made manifest by a demon- stration without precedent in history. The world’s heart might be wrung at the exalted sacrifices of the French, Belgians, and Serbians, but it was the world’s con- science which ranged all peoples, whose expression was possible, upon one side, except the four nations in which appar- ent certainty of profit calloused any con- ceivable sense of shame. The four re- sponsible for the inexpiable crime of the last war have not an ally or friend on earth. The New Europe will be built upon a more enduring foundation stone than was the Old. Force and force alone was the sanction of the Old Order. The New Europe will rest upon the solid rock, the sublime truth proclaimed by Muirabeau, “Right is the Sovereign of the World.” To establish that truth the Entente Allies have lavished their hard-earned wealth and the priceless blood of millions of their sons. The absolute victory of arms being accomplished, their responsi- bility to mankind enters upon its second stage: to safeguard from a still strong, unrepentant, and subtle foe what has been achieved. All the Allies are one in principle, pur- pose, and idea. greater strensth, upon, the — British, French, Italian, and American democra- cies this responsibility rests. Many a political stumble is in store, much turbulence, perhaps bloodshed, be- fore all the enfranchised appreciate and enjoy justice and order and liberty. But through it all let not our faith and sym- pathy waver for even the most ignorant and the longest oppressed. EXPLANATION OF THE RACE MAP Our map shows, pictorially, the prin- cipal facts regarding the distribution of the peoples of Europe and their relation- ships, based on the researches of Dent- ker, Hrdlicka, and many other savants. Racial boundaries differ from the po- litical boundaries of provinces and States. The latter are definite and exact, de- termined often on mathematical lines. Yet, becatise “or ther THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE The former are always indefinite and elusive. Between two adjacent races there is always a neutral zone which be- longs to both and is the property of neither—a border region, where the two fade off into each other by invisible de- grees. For the first time in human experience, the effort is being made by the victors after a great war to trace the new fron- tiers in accordance with the racial as- pirations and affinities of the peoples in- volved. Because of this impossibility of defining exactly the limits of a race, many heart burnings are inevitable in the new adjustment of European boundaries. | _ Professor Hrdlicka estimates that there are in Europe from 145 to 150 millions of people of Slavic stock, 144 to 148 mil- lions Teutonic, and 125 to 127 millions Greco-Latin. Our description of the races of Fu- rope begins farthest east. First taking up the races of the once mighty Russian Empire, we next attempt the Rumanians, then the races of the Balkan Peninsula, afterward those of the once so-called Central Empires, and thus on, following the Map of the Races, until we reach the British Islands. THE RACES. OF THE, RUSSr DOMINIONS * Taken as a whole, the Russians, as in the days of Peter, are an inchoate mass. Whether the stern Tsar, who sought to knout his sub- jects into civilization, was in truth a benefac- tor to his people is a problem. At least he made it certain that, when an autocratic hand was no longer felt, component parts, not welded but merely held together by brute force, would fall asunder. The spectacle of such disruption we behold today. The principal parts, no longer component, are the Great Russians, the Little Russians, * See also, in NAtTioNAL GEocRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “The Land of Unlimited Possibilities,” by Gilbert Grosvenor (November, 1914) ; “Rus- sia’s Democrats,’ by Montgomery Schuyler, and “The Russian Situation,’ by Stanley Wash- burn (March, 1917); “Russia from Within,” by Stanley Washburn (August, 1917); “A Few Glimpses into Russia,” by Zinovi Pechkoft (September, 1917); “Voyaging on the Volga,” by William T. Ellis (March, 1918); “Russia’s Orphan Races,” by Maynard O. Williams (Oc- tober, 1918), and “The Rebirth of Religion in Russia,” by Thomas Whittemore (November, IQI8). TWO PICTURESQUE EXAMPLES OF UKRAINIAN WOMANHOOD “Dhie Little Russian branch of the Slav race numbers 30,000,000, residing chiefly in the territory esteemed most sacred in Russian eyes. Kief, the Holy City of the Slav dominions, is the metropolis of the Ukraine. This region is likewise the home of Russian folk-lore. The love songs of the Little Russians are distinguished by their tenderness (see page 463). 461 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the tundra of Norway, Sweden, and Russia. Photograph by Borg Mesch THE LAPPS; THE ROUNDEST-HEADED PEOPLE IN EUROPE For centuries they have made their home on the permanently frozen, treeless wastes of As a result, they are generally dwarfed both in body and mind. They do not average more than four feet seven inches in height, and even the children have faces which are frequently drawn and ugly, as if with age (see p. 466). the White Russians and the Cossacks, all Slavs, all speaking some form of Russian Slavic, all members or dissidents of the Eas- tern Orthodox Church, but each group of a a a type from the rest (see pages 450 and 457). THE GREAT RUSSIANS The Great Russians spread extensively from Moscow as their historic center. The river Moskwa gave its name, not only to the capital which stands upon its banks but to the Mus- covite Empire and to the Tsars of Muscovy. Through the East a Russian is always called a Muscov. Saint Petersburg or Petrograd, always foreign, kindled no love or devotion. Moscow delivered the people from two cen- turies of oppression ‘by the Tatars of the Golden Horde: in 1613 crushed the Poles and gave the nation a new birth: in its flames con- sumed the Empire of Napoleon. It is still “Holy Mother Moscow.” Other Russians are merely accretions, added by conquest or voluntary submission. The Great Russians are the real Russians. Among them are seen some of “the best examples of the Caucasian type.” They are industrious, unambitious, sluggish, dreamy, patient, devout, disliking responsibility, indifferent rather than careless, impractical, pacific. Theirs is the only national hymn which breathes as its chief note a prayer for peace. Yet, when the order comes, no men more readily flock to the colors. No soldiers are braver or endure longer. The Great Russians are helpless when with- out an object for their devotion. Formerly they had two: God and the Tsar. The Tsar has been taken away, and in the present con- fusion, according to the Slavic proverb, “Heaven is far off.” So they flounder for a time in a political and religious quagmire, un- able as yet to feel solid ground. By expansion, as the more prolific rather than by fighting, they have pushed the Finns, who occupied more than half the Russian plain, still further north. In return their physique and temperament have been _ pro- foundly affected by constant blood intermix- ture with the Finns and in less degree with the Tatars. Their frames are well knit and mus- cular, hair and beards thick and curly, nose pronounced, eyes blue or brown, complexion florid. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Altogether they number about 80,000,000, a homogeneous whole, numerous enough to con- stitute a great State, inland except as it touches the Arctic, with “No window upon the West.” ‘They would be probably content if a chain of buffer States from the Black Sea to the Gulf of Bothnia should shut them off from European connection. Tolstoi, Turgue- niev, Dostoievski, Vereshchagin were all Great Russians. THE UKRAINIANS * The Little Russians or Ukrainians number about 30,000,000. Theirs is the territory es- teemed most sacred in Russian eyes. To Kief, their principal city, Oleg, brother and successor of the Varangian Ruric, trans- ferred the royal dignity from abandoned Nov- gorod. The life of Queen Olga, “The Saintly,” the subsequent conversion to Chris- tianity of the King, Saint Vladimir, and of the Russian people at Kherson, and all the heroic history of the Russian Church, were wrought in the Ukraine. Militant as well, expeditions thence wrested tribute from the Byzantine Empire, and Oleg, the king, suspended his shield in triumph from the Golden Gate of Constantinople. The proximity of Tatars and Turks and the resultant strain of blood have rendered the Little Russians more warlike than their northern brethren. They are of. slighter, shorter figure, and less robust. Their darker faces have more expression. They are less plodding, more volatile and imaginative, love music and are strongly attached to family and home. Gogol, born at Poltava, gives many attractive pictures of the Little Russians. Their country in 1320 was conquered and annexed by the Poles, who called it Ukraine Or. barrier against the ‘Tatars. The? part east of the Dnieper was restored to Russia in 1686 and the western part in 1793. THE WHITE RUSSIANS q The White Russians derive their name from their pale faces or from the white clothes they habitually wear. They number not over 5,- 000,000 and are found usually in the neighbor- hood of the Lithuanians. . They are not strong- bodied or forceful, seldom exhaust themselves by overwork and are generally poor. They have no towns, hardly any villages, but live in the woods. Always the victims of oppression, they show its results in appearance and habits. Their dialect differs greatly from that of the Great or Little Russians. THE RESTLESS, FAITHFUL COSSACKS The southern Ukraine is “the savage,” the “boundless steppe,’ “The Wilderness’ of * See also, in NationaL GrocrapHic Maca- zinE, “The Ukraine, Past and Present,” by Nevin O. Winter (August, 1918). 463 Sienkiewicz’ masterly romance, ‘With Fire and Sword.” Thither, when the Ukraine was Polish territory, flocked thousands of escaped serfs and outlaws, who gradually separated into groups. Their headquarters were just be- low the cataracts of the Dnieper. They were called ‘“Kazaki’ from a Tatar word meaning freebooters or adventurers. Proscribed by the Roman Catholic Polish nobility,. they often allied themselves with the Tatars of the Crimea and later with the Rus- sians, Eastern Orthodox like themselves. They were the real masters of the Ukraine, which their hetman, Chmielnicki, caused to be- come again Russian. A later and traitorous hetman, the Mazeppa of Byron’s poem, en- deavored in vain to deliver it to Charles XII at Poltava: Always restless but always faithful: to the Tsar, they emigrated to the Crimea and then farther east. They were made “Guardians of the Frontiers.” They now consist of ten dis- tinct bodies, of which the Cossacks of the Don, the Usuri, Orenburg and Astrakhan are the most important. Their lawlessness has abated, but not their warlike instincts or their loyalty. The fallen Empire had no more faithful soldiers than its 320,000 mounted Cossacks. In time of peace they are farmers, cattle- men, horse breeders, fishers, raisers of bees, cultivators of vines. Among them popular education stands on a higher plane than else- where in Russia. Relatively they have more schools and more children in them. Indus- trious, thrifty, domestic, they do not deserve, despite their origin, the opprobrium in which they are held by Europe. A RACH S Ol 1 Hl BAL ine PROVINCES Upon the map, east of the Baltic, between the Gulf of Finland and the river Niemen, a territory of about fifty thousand square miles is indicated, inhabited mainly by Esthonians, or Esths, Letts and Lithuanians. This territory forms a natural geographic unit. Command- ing the eastern Baltic and the southern ap- proaches to the Gulf of Finland, and hence to Petrograd and interior Russia, it is of great strategic importance. Probably no part of northern Europe has seen fiercer fighting or been more often drenched with blood. This geographic unit corresponds in the main with the famous Baltic provinces, which comprised ancient Esthonia, Livonia, and Courland. It forms a deep semicircle around the historic city of Riga, its guardian and sentinel. In general the country is low and marshy, dotted with innumerable lakes and covered with dense forests wherever lake and marsh permit trees to live. Toward the middle a little scarred plateau rises a few hundred feet, which erative poets called the “Livonian Switzer- and.” The entire population is not over 3,100,000, of whom there are about 1,150,000 Esths, or 464 Esthonians, mostly in the north; 1,500,000 Letts and Lithuanians, toward the south, in Livonia and Courland; 200,000 Germans, and 100,000 Jews. The Russians at no time consti- tuted more than 2 per cent of the inhabitants. BEE eo LES The Esths are a Finno-Ugrian people, once savage and adventurous, terrifying the Baltic with their piracy, constantly attacking and at- tacked by the Danes and Swedes. Their final subjection by the Brothers of the Sword and their enforced acceptance of Christianity crushed their spirit and rendered them serfs to their German masters. The Esths outnumber the Germans in the old Province of Esthonia twenty-nine to one; yet nine-tenths of all the land is held by Ger- mans. In the former Province of Livonia the Esths constitute nearly half the population, while the Germans are less than one-fifteenth. There the land is divided into estates averag- ing over ten thousand acres in extent, none owned by an Essth or Lett, but almost invariably by a German. ‘The Russian Government at times endeavored by agrarian laws to alleviate the condition of the peasant. Such efforts THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph ‘by Bearci P. Farquhar A GROUP OF GREEK PEASANTS IN THE REGION OF PARNASSUS (SEE PAGE A477) Lineal descendants of men who two thousand years ago were the custodians of the world’s art, culture, and science, these peasants, uncouth in appearance yet friendly and hospi- table, possess the heritage Olea ‘glorious past. failed against the stolid resistance of the great proprietors. The Esths have clung devotedly to their na- tional language, the sole inheritance from their past. They love poetry and song. Their phy- sical characteristics are Finnic; their faces short, broad, beardless; their foreheads low, mouths small, arms long, legs short. Despite their extreme poverty, education is relatively advanced. All but 4 per cent are Lutheran Protestants. Since the sudden universal awakening in 1918, the Esths or the land-owners have been insistent upon national recognition. But own- ership in the land is their greatest need. THE LETTS The Letts are one of three cognate tribes, distinct from any other in Europe, which once dwelt side by side on the eastern shores of the Baltic; farthest west, the Borussi, who became the Prussians; toward the middle, the Lithu- anians proper, and farthest north the Letts. So much do the two latter resemble each other in personal appearance, language, occupation, and the hardships of life that foreigners usually identify them as one. No distinction of the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE two is made in the cen- sus. They are, however, separate peoples, though iesisnnotveasy:even for themselves to _ specify wherein the difference lies. Until of late they have thought little of na- tional existence. Circum- stances denied them a large place in history. Almost all are Protes- tants. Luther's. Greater Catechism was the first book printed in Lettish, which was not reduced to writing before the six- teenth century. THE LITHUANIANS “In the eyes of the eth- nologist, Lithuanian is the most important lan- guage of Europe.” It is allied to the western branches of Slavic, re- sembles Latin more than it does Celtic or German, and is most like Sanscrit. Into its grammar and vocabulary have filtered some Slavic forms and many Slavic words. Scholars, baffled by the mystery of Lithuanian origin and language, have applied to both people and tongue the conve- nient term Balto-Slavic. Dwellers in swamps and forests, their racial char- acter has been little modi- fied. In the thirteenth cen- tury they developed an independent State, which finally extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea. They suffered horribly from the merciless Brothers of the Sword and the ‘Teutonic Knights. The ‘Teutonic Order, or Teutonic Knights, of St. Mary’s Hospital at Jerusalem and the Knights, or Brothers, of the Sword, at first purely philan- thropic, were organized during the Crusades. Afterward installed on the Baltic and become military, they employed fire and sword to Christianize the wild natives and reduce them to servitude. The Lithuanians remained pagan until their Duke Jagellon, in 1386, married the beautiful Polish Queen Jadvidja, shortly afterward ac- cepted Christian baptism and ordered his obe- dient subjects to do the same. Thenceforward they shared all the vicissi- tudes of the Poles. It was a Lithuanian com- unmixed race. AGB oy 7 ~ 26 . Photograph by Erdelyi THROUGH HER VEINS FLOWS THE BLOOD OF MANY RACES WHICH HAVE MINGLED AFTER INVADING THE BALKANS After the barbaric invasions there existed no such thing as an Particularly is it true in the Balkan Peninsula that racial purity is a figment of the imagination (see page 457). mander, with an army mainly Lithuanian, who inflicted on the Teutonic Knights the crushing defeat at Tannenberg in 1410. Poverty and wretchedness have been for centuries their almost invariable lot. ‘Though an agricultural people, the land is almost wholly held by great Polish and German owners. The Russian land laws, devised in the interest of the peasantry, accomplished no more for them than for the Esths and the Letts. Many Lithuanians have emigrated to the United States, where they show themselves simple, honest, and industrious. With few exceptions, they are Lutheran Protestants. Excellent soldiers, they fought valiantly in the Russian ranks during the last war. About 466 half of the 3,000,000 Lithuanians live outside the limits of the former Baltic provinces. Lithuanians and Letts today feel the thrill of national consciousness. ‘They would like to stand before the world as independent nations. Whether the action taken to this end is con- fined to the foreign land-owners, whose power and dignity would thereby be increased, or whether the people have any share in it is unknown. Until agrarian conditions are rad- ically changed, the political existence of the State will practically benefit neither Lithuanian nor Esth nor Lett. THE FINNO-UGRIANS The Finno-Ugrians fifteen hundred years ago occupied the northern half of the Rus- sian plain. Slavic tribes, advancing from the south, split into them like a wedge, pressing -some to the east, but the great majority to the northwest toward the Gulf of Bothnia. Their numbers have constantly diminished through amalgamation with the Slavs. On the east are now found the sparse set- tlements of the Voguls, who speak a peculiar dialect; the Cheremissians on the Volga, the Permians, shrewd traders, and the more im- portant Mordvinians. The identity of the widely spread but fast disappearing Sam- oyedes, now no more than 4,000 persons, is in doubt. On the west the Esths in Esthonia, the Choudes around Novgorod and the Karelians, north and south of Petrograd, are historically of greater interest. THE FINNS * By far the most numerous and most civil- ized of the Finno-Ugrians, not reckoning the Finno-Ugrian Magyars (see page 497), are those who call themselves Suomi, but whose relative importance Europe recognizes in ap- plying to them the generic name of Finns. No other of their sace, except the Magyars, en- joys a political existence. Their country, Finland, has an area of 125,- 689 square miles, largely lake and island, situ- ated between the Gulfs of Finland and Bothnia and included between 60° and 70° north lati- tude. In the twelfth century it was conquered and the people converted to Christianity largely by Bishop Henry, a supposed Englishman, who being killed in fight was canonized and as Saint Henry has become the patron saint of Fin- land. Since then until last year it has never known independence. Constantly fought over by Sweden and Russia, it with the Aland Islands became a_ semi-independent Grand Duchy of the latter in 1809. The stubborn opposition of the people always thwarted attempts at russification. In December, 1917, the Finnish Diet declared Finland an independent republic, * See also, in Nationa, GroGRAPHIC MaAGa- ZINE, “Where Women Vote,” by Baroness Alletta Korff (June, 1910). THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE which as such has been recognized by Russia, Sweden, Norway, France, Spain, Denmark and Germany. In general the Finns are short, have flat faces, round heads, prominent cheek-bones, oblique eyes, thin beards, variously hued hair and not clear complexions. Education is gen- eral and highly advanced, though three per cent of the people are paupers. Except 50,000 members of the Eastern Orthodox Church and less than a thousand Roman Catholics, all the 3,500,000 inhabitants are Protestant Lutherans. Among them are about 400,000 Swedes who predominate along the coast. Helsingfors is a Swedish city. Not including the Magyars, there must be nearly 4,500,000 I‘inno-Ugrians in Europe. THE APPS The Lapps are pathetic figures to foreigners. Though closely related to the Finns, they and their ancestors in their wanderings have never known any part of the world except the per- manently frozen sub-soil and the tree-less wastes of the tundra. In consequence they are dwarfed in body and mind. They average only four feet, seven inches in height. The faces, even of the young, are drawn and appear old and the whole frame often is undeveloped and misshapen. No shade of color in hair or eyes or even in complexion can be considered typical, there is so great variety. They are said to be the roundest- headed people in Europe. Some few along the rivers or seacoast are fishermen or cattle breeders, but the most for food, occupation and subject of thought are dependent on the reindeer which seems made for them as they for it. In Norway there are about 17,000, in Sweden 7,000, in Russia twice as many. ‘They are steadily decreasing in number, the little civilization that has reached them not being altogether beneficial. ‘Those in Russia are reckoned Eastern Orthodox and those in Scandinavia Protestant, but how far this secretive people have really abandoned pagan beliefs and practices is not known. The word Lapp is supposed to be Swedish and to mean enchanter, but others suggest that it is derived from the Finnish lappa, meaning “land’s end folk.” Long regarded as sorcerers and necromancers, they appear in Norwegian tales as proficients in the black art. THE “PEOPLES ‘Ole 7 tip CAUCASUS The peoples of the Caucasus present a be- wildering but a fascinating study. Any attempt to classify or even discuss them in limited space is futile. The official Russian figures estimate them according to races as about 5,000,000 * See also, in Nationa GrocRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “An Island in the Sea of History” (High- lands of Daghestan, Caucasus Mountains), by George Kennan (October, 1913). AOS PRIDE OF RACE IS A STRIKING CHARACTERISTIC OF THE RUMANIAN Peasant and noble alike of this robust people are jealous of their descent from the thou- sands of Roman families and Roman soldiers who more than sixteen centuries ago settled the prosperous colony beyond the Danube known as “Dacia Felix” (see page 471). Se a a tS ten en OR RE SE EE EES OE Ee er “(eZry o8ed 908) poojq 1e}e] 94} poyipour osye sey sajeisode ysimaf puke UeIIsIIYyD FO UWOIssao0e ayy, “wor}eu AJQAD WOIZ UswWIOM Aq AT}Ue}SUOD poystusdet useq dAeY SWoIeY Joy} yey} PCF OY} YSNOIY] Soiinjusd oAY jse] IY} SulINp poyipow Ay}eI1S Ussq sey SYIN ZT UeWwOO 24} Jo odd} eye y IU, € NOIDITIY “dOHS ONIWIVL SMUAL HIGONIINVISNOD LV SMCOC AHL JO ALINIOIA AHL NI SOMTIOd AGNV 468 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Aryans, 50,000 Syro-Arabs, 1,900,000 Ural-Al- taians, and 2,500,000 ‘‘Caucasians,” the latter term in this connection meaning simply nonde- scripts. The disproportion of the sexes is marked, there being only 91 women to every I0O men. Looking out from Mount Elbruz, a peak 3,000 feet higher than Mount Blanc, we have on the northwest 200,000 Circassians, splendid physical types of men and women, Moslems, without written laws or written language, hos- pitable in the extreme, revering old age, theft no crime, but discovery in theft a disgrace, personal and ‘tribal independence a passion. Women are little esteemed except as objects of sale. The Circassian slave trade involved no sense of disgrace in the mind of the seller or the sold, as the girls were carefully nurtured for a place in the harem. — On the east 600,000 Lesghians, dwellers in Daghestan ‘from the beginning,” an agglomer- ation of tribes with an equal number of dia- lects, devoted Moslems, brave to recklessness, of almost exhaustless endurance, of stalwart figure, but of every possible hue of eyes and hair, marked diversity of skull, tenacious of rights, a people incarnate in their leader, Shamyl, who resisted Russia for twenty-five years. In the southeast 270,000 Chechens, wild and fierce, of imposing presence, generous and friendly, their religion a peculiar blending of Islam and Christianity, a people much resem- bling the Circassians. Directly south of Mount Elbruz, to whose crags Prometheus was bound, 1,350,000 Geor- gians, a most interesting people, who claim descent from Togarmah, the great-grandson of Noah. Christianized about 330 by the nun Nuna, they have always, despite continuous in- vasion and persecution, remained steadfast to their faith. In 1799 they and their last king became Russian subjects as the only means of escaping the Persians. Their origin and lan- guage present problems unsolved. Perhaps not Indo-European, they certainly are not Ural-Altaians. ~ Physically; they are. of -the purest Caucasian type, the women remarkable for their stately beauty.* In Georgia was fertile Colchis, the land of Medea and the Golden Fleece, of Jason and the Argo, considered by some ethnologists the original home of the Greeks. THE ARMENIANS Tf The presence of Armenians in every coun- try, accentuated by their prominence, antiquity, and sufferings, requires their inclusion among * See “Russia’s Orphan Races,” by Maynard O. Williams, in the Nationat, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE (October, 1918). + See also, in Natrionar, GkocrAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “Armenia and the Armenians,” by Hester Donaldson Jenkins (October, 1915), and “Rus- sia’s Orphan Races,” by Maynard O. Williams (October, 1918). 469 the races of Europe. They belong to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European family. The map indicates the region in Asia which the greater number of the Armenians now in- habit; it also affords a general idea of the situ- ation and extent of their ancient kingdom. In only a small part of this region do the Ar- menians now constitute a majority of the popu- lation, which largely consists of Turks, Kurds, Chaldeans, Persians, Syrians, and Bedouins. They claim to be the oldest people in the world. Their national name is Haig, from Haig, their traditional progenitor, a great- ereat-grandson of Noah. Their country is the doorway and thoroughfare between the East and West. It has been tramped over by As- syrians, Medes, Persians, Greeks, Parthians, Romans, Byzantines, Mongols, Saracens, Sel- juks, and Ottoman Turks, successively fighting for its possession. At the birth of Christ the Armenians were Parsees, fire-worshippers, followers of Zoro- aster, but soon after the Crucifixion some be- came Christians. The preaching of Saint Greg- ory the Illuminator converted their king, Tiri- dates, who, with his people, received baptism at the end of the third century, thus antedating by several years the conversion of Constantine. Hence the Armenians were the first nation to accept Christianity, their king was the first Christian sovereign, and the Gregorian Arme- nian is the oldest purely national church. In the fourth century Mesrob invented, or adapted from the Greek, the Armenian alpha- bet, still in daily use. He also began the trans- lation of the Bible, completed in 410. A re- ligious character, never lost, was early im- parted to Armenian literature. This is felt in the writings of their great historian, Moses of Khoren. Since the sixth century the Armenians have never known independence. At times they ex- perienced periods of tranquillity; but, as sub- jects of rapacious and sanguinary peoples and without protection or security of any sort, their property and lives through fourteen hun- dred years hung upon a hair. Even before the coming of the Turks, there was no outrage or horror which they had not many times under- gone. In mental keenness and manner of life they were the superiors of their rulers, whose cu- pidity and resentment their intelligence, indus- try, and thrift often inflamed. With a devo- tion surpassed by no age or country, they re- mained all the time steadfast in their Christian faith through a martyrdom of centuries. There has long been a continuous emigration from Armenia to Constantinople and the West, of late to the United States. Not a few as merchants or bankers have amassed wealth. More than one has served as financial minister to the Sultan. Many are skilled artisans, archi- tects, and engineers. An Armenian community is marked for its love of education. To every Armenian church is attached a school. Armenian students excel in mathematics. In general, whatever faults -eqiV oy, ‘o018ep ofqeyszeuos v 0} AyaBoqur peroes sty Surureyoreur ur SolInjuad JOF papssoons sey ay ‘sajdood ayysoy Aq papunosins Ysnoylye ‘pure .‘o[seo UIe}JUNOU 9} JO UOS,, F[asuIIy S][vo oFF ‘aInsy onbsoinyoid @ SI uelUeq [VY 94} [eUssIe SUIN[EM I[Qe}IIOA & IYI] PotjNoooe pue ‘yor]q YIM powwi1j ‘undsswoy pasojoo-uivatd JO oUIN}sOD dATJeU SI UT TaVLAOS AO NVINV@IV NVGAWWNVHOW V See erent s TESS, (RY BLA AE odoin] Ul as[a d1ayMou pur “oFueut say Aq poiaacs pue pesouoy st ays ‘elnsuluad Uey[e{ IY} JO Stojsis Joy JO AULW UY} 9}eUN}I0F s10WI ST ULIUOM UvIueq;y 9} Jepnonsed ouo ur yng ‘sdiyspsey Aueur yyIM yYSneI1z SI OJ] SIJsowop Joy pue ‘sjqeydsoyul ureul 94} UL pue passn4i st AI} -UNOD JOF{ “PoloAuN st sys Jey} JOVZ oy} Aq Poxeorpur st uOTsIOI JOP] SNIVINOQOW NVINV@IV AHL JO NYGIVW NVILSIMHO V 470 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the Armenian has can be traced to his long subjection and his environment. | Most are dark, almost swarthy, with thick, black hair, heavy brows, generous noses, mus- cular and stocky frames, but among them one finds endless variety of form and feature. Not seldom one sees an Armenian woman with the pencilled eyebrows, chiselled features, and Madonna-like beauty of the Italian; or an Ar- menian man tall, lithe, handsome, finely pro portioned, fit model for the sculptor. In conversation the Armenian language often seems jagged and harsh, but when heard in one of their ancient churches from the lips o* some eloquent preacher, like the Patriarcl Nerses, it sounds majestic and awe-compelling, like thunder among the crags. The massacres of the last four and a half years and the deportation of hundreds of thou- sands of helpless victims, all countenanced by Berlin, have been the most terrible experiences even in Armenia’s tragic life. The unimpeach- able evidence of atrocities set forth in the Bryce Commission’s report on this theater of war, and the testimony of Henry Morgenthau, former United States Ambassador to Turkey, comprise one of the most appalling indictments of the Prussian-directed Turk in the history of | mankind, THE TURKO-TATARS The Turko-Tatars in Russia number about 4,700,000, in great part remnants~ from the baleful Empire of the Golden Horde, that held Russia in subjection from 1237 to’ 1481, and of the Khanate of the Crimea. : The penniless Bashkirs, the snub-nosed Kara- Kirghiz and the Kuirghiz-kazaks, the broad- eared Kalmucks, the Kipchaks of Kazan, and the more active Nogais have been restrained and tamed. Some are Moslems, some Bud- dhists, some Sheitan worshippers, some no- madic, some sedentary. The chief interest they excite is anthropological. To the ethnologist they are merely reminders of a merciless past. THE RUMANIANS* It is a surprising fact that, adjacent to the Black Sea and the mouth of the Danube, sur- rounded by powerful Hungarian and Slavic peoples, separated from Italy and all things Italian by five hundred miles of distance and sixteen hundred years of time, we find, in the words of Ubicini, “A people compact and homogeneous, whose features, language, monu- ments, customs and very name show its Italian origin.” Two expressions in a well-known handbook condense the connection of ancient Dacia, the * See also, in Natrionar GrocraPpHic Maca- ZINE, “Notes on Rumania” (December, 10912) ; “Rumania and Her Ambitions,” by Frederick Moore (October, 1913) ; “Rumania, the Pivotal State,” by James Howard Gore (October, 1915), and “Rumania and Its Rubicon,” by John Oliver La Gorce (September, 1916). ATL modem Rumania, with Rome: ~A.-D. 107, Dacia made a province. “A. D. 274, Dacia given up to barbarians.” The first suggests the settlement of thou- sands of Roman families, the universal speak- ing of “lingua rustica” by Roman soldiers, and the influx of prosperity that caused that flourishing Roman colony to be cailed “Dacia Felix.’ The second suggests the abandon- ment of Dacia to that unbroken chain of evils and misfortunes from which the people were not delivered until the middle of the last cen- tury. Nevertheless, such was the virility of the Roman language and civilization and such the persistence of the Dacians,. that from them have been evolved the Rumanians of today. The name Vlach, by which, until recently they were commonly known abroad, is the Slavic rendering of Romaioi, Romans, which the Dacian peasants call themselves but which also means robust or strong. Their numerous compatriots who inhabit the Pindus range in Greece are always spoken of as Kutzo-Vlachs or Lame Vlachs. Yet, while the Rumanians are Latin in all else, geography rendered them communicants of the Eastern Orthodox Church. More than once, when invaders held their country in subjection for generations, the peo- ple took refuge across the Danube or in the mountains. Their historian, Kogalnitchano, asserts “The Rumanians would not espouse the women of another nation,’ and with satis- faction quotes Gibbon as saying, “The Vlachs are surrounded by barbarians without mixing with them.” After the last Tatar invasion, in the thir- teenth century, when the nomads, sated with slaughter and booty, had withdrawn eastward, the people gradually came back and settled the provinces of Wallachia on the Danube and Moldavia between the Carpathians and the Pruth. Both were conquered by the Turks two hundred years later. Turkish governors, called hospodars, exploited the provinces. The intellectual national awakening of a hundred years ago hastened their deliverance. Europe guaranteed the two provinces au- tonomy in 1856. Three years afterward they were united as the Principality of Rumania. The nomination of Carol, a Hohenzollern prince, as the new ruler was approved by popular vote, 685,060 persons voting “Aye” and 224 voting “No.”’. The choice was happy. Prince until 1881, then King until 1914, he and the Queen, “Carmen Sylva,’ deserved and en- joyed the love of their people. ‘The present Queen Marie is a charming, patriotic writer. Allied with Russia, Rumania took an effec- tive part in the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-8, for which she was ill-requited, being obliged to cede Bessarabia to Russia in exchange for a portion of “the land of mountains, fens and barren steppes,” called the Dobrudja. A fur- ther portion was acquired after the Balkan war of IQ13. The Dobrudja, situated between the lower Danube and the Black Sea, is capable of de- “(vev 2 Sed 998) WOpae1f JO SAO] IIOY} pue WIsTOIOY ty} I0F pojow ‘SUIISOUSIUOPY 94} ore AY, ‘“sueiueq;y 94} FO YJsoU jsul ONeIpy sy} FO sa1OYs Usojsvo oY} UO ‘OISeN oO JO ‘uIeJUNOP Yoriq ey} ‘es0y CULIS J, dy} JO sassoujsvy oy} Ul SjUuLpIesse ][e Jsulese sdUapusdopul Jey} poulejurel SueIqiag Jo dno1is e sivaf poipuny say ury} s10Ul 107 TVUCHHLVO ALN MHL FO ANOLS NOLLVGNNOT AHL DNIAVI ‘SLOufdaAs NIWANALNOM a WOSANV H SIH gO dnNOwD V Ad GAGNOOWIAS ‘I SWIOHOIN 472 THE NATIONAL.-GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE velopment and is of military importance, Turks, Tatars, and Circassians are numerous in its heterogeneous population. In Rumania are found a great number of Hungarian, German, Bulgarian, and Serbian settlers. The entire population is 7,508,000. In the adjacent provinces of Bessarabia, Buko- vina and ‘Transylvania, Rumanians predomi- tate It Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary proper and Serbia are many. more. ‘Their entire number, in and outside the kingdom, is prob- ably about 13,000,coo. The excess at birth of males over females is greater among the Rumanians than among any other European people except the Greeks. Ten- dency to such excess is noticeable among most Greco-Latins. The Rumanians have special fondness for the French. ‘They are not displeased when their country is »spoken of as, an Eastern France, and they themselves call their capital, Bucharest, “the Eastern Paris.” Rumania, like Belgium, Montenegro, and Serbia, has had her full share in the tragedy of the just-ended war. Surrounded by foes, isolated as she has always been, further strug- gle only intensifying the horrors of the defeat, she submitted for a time to her conquerors. THE RACES OF THE BALKAN PENINSULA * The Balkan Peninsula is the most eastern of the great peninsulas of southern Europe. It derives its name from the Balkan Mountains, its central and most distinctive feature. Along the- Danube, its northern boundary, ran the natural route of migratory peoples, many of whom were diverted southward by the fertile and extensive plain which slopes from the Bal- kans to the river. To the west and south sharply defined mountain ranges offered abode or asylum in their limited plateaus and fos- tered the growth of individual communities. No other equal area of 185,000 square miles in Europe presents equal variety of contour and surface and natural resources and, in con- sequence, such diversity of person and occupa- tion among its inhabitants. The occupants of the peninsule could be held together only if they constituted a single peo- ple, united by common sentiments, or if. all were under the control of a single supreme authority which none of them could resist. As far as history knows, no united people has ever dwelt upon it. Seldom and only for a time, has any supreme authority existed in it. In every age the Balkan Peninsula is a mael- strom of races, peoples, languages, religions, and of all conceivable ambitions and passions, dashing and breaking themselves upon one another. The Balkan Peninsula includes Turks, Alba- nians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbians, and Mon- tenegrins. * See also, in NAtIoNAL GEOGRAPHIC MaGa- ZINE, “The Changing Map of the Balkans,” by Frederick Moore (February, 1913). 473 The political boundaries of these States and provinces only vaguely coincide with the boun- daries of race and language. Instead, every- where there is a widely overlapping border- land, in which languages pass into one another, where adjacent States put forward extravagant but often honest claims, and where many of the inhabitants themselves do not really know who they racially are or where politically they should belong. In consequence, an active propa- ganda has been carried on for years and large sums of money expended to develop inclina- tions. THE OTTOMAN “TURKS © The early life of no other Eastern people is so definitely known as that of the Ottoman Turks: Led by Ertogrul, a Tatar chief, nearly four hundred pagan nomad families wandered into Asia Minor about 1230. They had fled from Khorassan at the invasion of Jenghiz Khan. Asia Minor at that time was broken up into numerous petty States and feudal districts, of which the moribund Seljuk Sultanate of Iconium, or Roum, was the most considerable. Becoming voluntary converts to Islam and faithful allies of the Sultan Ala-Eddin, the four hundred saw their prestige and power rapidly increase. Moslems and Christian and Jewish renegades flocked to their tents. In 1281 Osman, or Othman, succeeded to leader- ship. His name, signifying “Breaker of Bones,” was of happy omen to his ferocious followers. On the death of Ala-Eddin, last of the Sel- juks, his kingdom broke into many fragments. Osman undertook to conquer them all and pro- claimed himself “Padiskhahi ali Osmani,” sov- ereign of the Ottomans. His people have ever since called themselves Ottomans, regarding as insult or injury the name Turk or barbarian, applied to them by the Arabs and by the Euro- peans in general. The Arabs, who disdain the Turks, employ the name with design. The gradual extension of the Ottoman Em- pire was due to its first seven sultans, each succeeded by his son, all ruthless destroyers. The seventh, Mohammed II, the Conqueror, captured Constantinople in 1453. Continuous subsequent conquests, reaching from Persia to the Atlantic and the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, , terrified Europe. The English prayer-book to this day, in its Good Friday Collect, makes deprecatory intercession against the “Turks.” Constantly receding since the defeat at Vienna by the Polish John Sobieski, in 1683, * See also, in Nationa, GroGRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “The Young Turk,” by Rear Admiral Colby _M.) Chester: (January, 1012); “Grass Never Grows Where the Turkish Hoof Has Trod,” by Sir Edwin Pears (November, 1912) ; “The Possible Solutions for the Eastern Prob- lem,” by Viscount James Bryce (November, 1982) ‘1 Jvite .an. Constantinople,” by. He) G. Dwight (December, 1914), and “Constantinople and Sancta Sophia,” by Dr. E. A. Grosvenor (May, I915). Photograph by Frederick Moore SERBIAN PEASANTS OF JUGO-SLAVIA To unite all the Jugo-Slavs has long been the aspiration of leaders among the Croats and Slavonians as well as those in the Kingdom of Serbia. The ambitious program of these nation builders includes the union of Croats, Slavonians, Dalmatians, Bosnians, Helvats, Montenegrins, and Serbs into one State. One of the greatest obstacles to the proposed federation is the religious antagonism evidenced toward one another by adherents of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Roman Catholics, and the Moslems. Powerful factors exist which are favorable to cooperation, however. The peoples are racially one, and they are confronted everywhere by foreigners. It remains to be seen whether the bonds of race and of language are sufficiently strong to overcome the disruptive forces of internal political jealousies and religious animosi- ties. Another serious difficulty which the statesmen of Jugo-Slavia must face is their own inexperience in practical statecraft and the inexperience of their people in self-government (see page 486). 474 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a % Photograph by D. W. Iddings, © Keystone View Company IN JUGO-SLAVIA—THE HUSREF BEG MOSQUE AND BAZAAR, SERAJEVO, BOSNIA’ Except the Montenegrins and the Serbians in the larger part of royal Serbia, all the groups which are to compose the nation of Jugo-Slavia have been under the blighting domina- tion of alternating foreign masters since the Middle Ages (see page 485). the empire of the Ottoman Turks now em- braces hardly more than Asia Minor. No accurate figures exist, but under the scepter of the Sultan are not more than 20,- 000,000 people, among whom about three-fifths may be reckoned as Ottoman Turks. Very small, however, is the proportion of original Ottomans, members of the Turkish group of the Ural-Altaian family. The harem, constantly replenished by women from every nation, and the continuous acces- sion of Christian and Jewish apostates have changed their blood and transformed their Tatar type. The majority of Grand Vizirs and Capoudan Pashas or heads of the navy during their first five hundred years were of Christian or Jewish ancestry. The few unmodified Ottomans are, whether pasha or peasant, of stately and dignified pres- ence, conservative, contemptuous of everything foreign. The “young Turks” affect European customs and simulate European ideas, but manifest few of the virtues of the West. The Turk in general is merciless in victory and in ee ‘suoI}siodns pue surojsnd sues ay} Jo Auew pue ‘39e1 JO oprid sures oy} ‘Isnt pue “‘Arjo0d ‘QoueUIOI IOF JAC] otUeS 9Y} 2ALY ADU, “eIqIagG JO WopsBury 24} JO SJOY}OIG POO] I19Y} 0} s}Satajul UOUTMOD pue AyyedurIAs Aq poyoeyje Apsuorjs ore “(Sgh osed oos) Aresunyy-eljsny fo syalqns otam ApIOWI0} CYM ‘OI1ZeLIPY ay? Jo SatO0Ys Uld}se9 94} FO o[doad asoayy, ANWOALSOD AAILLVN NI SAV’IS-ODN£ AO dNOUD V 476 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the exercise of power, but abject and harmless in defeat. There is no more cruel master; there is none more submissive when subdued. The Ottoman administration, always con- suming, never producing, but repressive of pro- duction, has blasted every people it controlled. Even the Turks themselves, impoverished and oppressed, diminish in numbers. The govern- ment, based solely on force, has always ruth- lessly employed any means to prolong its ex- istence. It has shrunk from no enormity of massacre or extermination. Hundreds of years ago it adopted the color of blood for its flag, and a formal title of the Sultan is “Hounkiar,” or the Slayer of Men. THE ALBANIANS *, The Albanians occupy a territory east of the Adriatic, roughly corresponding to ancient Epirus and southern Illyricum. Their origin and language present many difficulties. fessor Ripley believes they are “indigenous to their country.” Dr. Deniker calls them “a sepa- rate Adriatic or Dinaric race.’ It is reasona- ble to regard them as the most ancient people of southeastern Europe, descendants of the Pelasgi. Their language is supposed to be the sole survivor of the primitive Thraco-Illyrian group. Its vocabulary is encumbered with many Greek, Latin, Italian, Slavic, and Turkish words, but the grammar is its own. The Albanians show remarkable racial te- nacity. Albanian communities in Italy and Sicily, dating from the fifteenth century and having a population of over 200,000, have fused little with the Italians, and in marked degree retain their own language and customs. So to less extent do 200,000 Albanians domesticated in Greece. Disdain of foreigners and pride of ancestry, though ignorant of what that ancestry is, keep them apart. This pride and their mountain life have fostered a passionate love of independ- ence. Grote describes them as “poor, rapacious, fierce, and formidable in battle,” but they have many virtues, are faithful, generous, and hos- pitable. Nowhere is a woman safer than in their wild mountains. Known by foreigners as Albanians, people of the snow-land, they call themselves skipe- tari, or mountaineers. At home and abroad they number about 1,500,000. Of their numer- ous tribes, the Catholic Mirdites, who allow no Moslem in their vicinity, are the most impor- tant and powerful. The river Shkumbi, along which may still be traced the Roman Egnatian Way, separates the Christian Albanians into two groups, north- ward, the Roman Catholic Ghegs; southward, the Greek Orthodox Toscs. The former use the Latin alphabet, the latter the Greek alpha- * See also, in Nationa, GrocraApHic MAacaA- ZINE, “The Albanians,” by Theron J. Damon (November, 1912); “Recent Observations in Albania,” by Brig. Gen. George P. Scriven (August, 1918). Pro-. ATT bet. They have no accepted alphabet of their own, though many attempts, some of them curious, have been made to supply the lack. At least half the Albanians are Moslems, result of conquest, who will gradually return to their former Christian faith or emigrate. George Castriota, or Scanderbeg, who de- feated the Turks continuously through twenty years, is their national hero. Marco Bozzaris, of whom Fitz-Greene Halleck wrote, “At mid- night in his guarded tent,” was also an Alba- nian. So was Mahomet Ali Pasha, the fore- most Moslem figure of the nineteenth century. European statecraft never showed itself more humorous than when, in 1913, it designated the timorous Prince of Weid to be king of the Albanians. THE GREEKS * A map of Greek settlements, as they existed in the sixth century before the Christian era, would serve as a map of the lands they inhabit today. Their colonists in southern France and southern Italy have merged in the modern Frenchman and Italian. Otherwise, the Greece of five hundred years before Christ and the Greece of nineteen hundred and eighteen years after Christ coincide. Torrents of invasion have flooded Greece— Goths, Venetians, Lombards, French, Germans, Ottomans, Albanians, Vlachs, many of whom have permanently remained. Constantine Por- phyrogenitus wrote, in the tenth century, “All Greece has become Slav.” Henri de Valen- ciennes, in the thirteenth century, thought Greece had become French. Fallmerayer, in the nineteenth century, demonstrated that the Greeks have “hardly a drop of true Greek blood in their veins.” A subject people since their conquest by the Romans, through three centuries serfs of west- ern Europe, the next three centuries slaves ta Turks, the Greeks have known freedom only since those seven years of horror which we call the Greek Revolution (1821-8). Yet their civilization was able to permeate the Eastern Roman Empire, so that after the seventh century the latter is called the Greek or Byzantine. Until early in the nineteenth century all Turkish Christian subjects in the peninsula were considered Greeks. Their im- perishable language, daily heard in the ritual of their Church, was and is spoken, in however debased and corrupt a form, by Greeks every- where. Yet despite decimation and an almost unlim- ited intermingling of foreign elements, the Greek remains the same in physical features, manner of life and occupation, and personal characteristics and tastes. His face is still * See also, in NatTIoNAL GkocGRAPHIC Maca- zink, “Greece and Montenegro” (March, 1913), and “Greece of Today,” by U. S. Senator George Higgins Moses (October, 1915), and “Saloniki,” by H. G. Dwight (September, 1916). yum skep 339} UO poyNourins pue surd pjos yyWM pauaysey sdvo pas Auy WO} SUISULY S[I9A Jd" JIM IIe SoSsoIp-peoy Sueu4losey Jloyy, “ssént JeJUsIIO [ews oy] ‘sony JYystiq Auew fo suoide usjoom Aavay pur ‘s}usuI -J¥S dHYM IS1IVOI JOAO oN{q Y1ep JO o}tYM FO SoruN} usfooM IeIaM Ady, ‘BsnSeYy UL Uses soedé} oy} [Je Jo onbsosnjord Jsour ay} aae UsWIOM asay], VILVWIVd ‘VSNOVY NI NAYS SNVINIAODAZYAH z DIIIUIWIOD SBISIIAO s}t pue orqndol Juspusdeput ue sem AID J10Y4} UM ‘ysed snolo[s e@ JO MOpeYs dy} UI dA] esnSey jo sjdood ayy, ‘ouinysoo JIqWOS ISIMIOY}O JI9Y} 0} 9}0U Aes v Ppe Ate. Ady} YOIYM Sseq JOXIeUL peny-zy4siiq WY J, “SUMOS Us]OOM Yep pue sded poayoieys 931ym-AMOUS Jioy} Aq poysinsuyjsip oq Aeuw yeued jo Adljea oy} WO UsWOM oJ, VILVWIVG ‘VSADVY NI NVWOM ASH’IVNVO totopad “H 2urneg Aq sydeisoi0yg 478 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 479 oval, his complexion olive, his hair abundant and black, his eyes lum1- nous and dark, his figure slight and supple. Only seldom does! one meet a light-complexioned, light haired Greek. He is still at home upon the sea. The carrying trade of the -eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea is largely in his) hands:>-in’ 1916, of 2,658 steamers entering the Pirzus, the harbor of Athens, 2,494 were under the Greek flag. His little sailing vessels, averaging 250 tons ca- pacity, are numerous throughout:the Levant. He is an enterprising and ambitious tradesman, frugal and industrious. Many of the great bank- ing houses of southern Europe are Greek. As with the ancients, so with the moderns, a chief diversion or occu- pation is politics. Yet modern Greece has not produced a single great statesman except Veni- zelos, himself a Cretan. The people are not re- sponsible for the short- comings and mistakes of their government in this just-ended war. They live under a monarchical system, thrust upon them by the Great Powers, after their successful Revolution of 1821-8, and contrary to their instincts and desires. Hence they missed an opportunity in the world struggle to strike a blow for free- dom and humanity as well as for themselves— an opportunity such as may never come to them again... Their «king, a German_ sympathizer, since dethroned, was able to block the national will and disappoint all its aspirations. In consequence of the Balkan wars of 1912 and 1913 there were added to the kingdom about 1,400,000 Greeks formerly Turkish sub- jects. A little later Crete was united to Greece. The present population is about 5,000,000. The excess of males at birth over females is greater among the Greeks than among any other people of Europe. dom of Illyria.” Photograph by Pauline H. Dederer A DALMATIAN PEASANT PASSING THROUGH THE PORTA PLOCE, RAGUSA Until 1808, Ragusa, proudest of Dalmatian towns, maintained its nominal independence, but at various times during the Middle Ages it came under the protection of Venice, of Hungary, and of Turkey. The Winged Lion of St. Mark above the gateway testifies to the sway of Venice centuries ago. century Napoleon annexed Ragusa to his newly established “King- From 1814 up to the present time the city has been an Austrian possession. At the beginning of the nineteenth THE BULGARIANS * The Bulgarians are of Finno-Ugrian origin. They derive their name from the river Volga, * See also, in Natrona, GkocraApHic Maca- ZINE, “Bulgaria, the Peasant State’ (Novem- ber, 1908); “The Rise of Bulgaria,” by James D. Bouchier (November, 1912) ; “Bulgaria and Its Women,” by Hester Donaldson Jenkins (April, 1915). A480 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Erdelyi CROATIAN MEN IN NATIVE COSTUME: THE SKIRTS ‘ARE IN REALITY VERY BAGGY TROUSERS (SEE NEXT PAGE) The Serbs and Croats belong to the same branch of the Slav race. between them is religious and, to a less extent, linguistic. The chief difference Their literary language is the same, save that the Croats employ the Latin alphabet, while the Serbs use a modified form of the Cyrillic or Russian (see Jugo-Slavia, page 485). on which the early kingdom of Greater Bul- garia arose in the fifth century. From the Volga their Khan led some of their wild horse- men in 679. They crossed the Danube and subdued the Slavs on its south bank. Few in number, they gradually merged with the Slavic inhabitants. When Christianized in the ninth century by the Greek missionaries, Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius, the fusion became com- plete. The name Bulgarian remained, but in lan- guage, institutions, and customs the entire peo- ple was Slavic. The Bulgarians are rightly reckoned a Slavic people. They subjugated all the northern part of the peninsula from the Black Sea to the Adriatic. Later their kingdom broke into two parts, both to be overthrown by the Byzantine emperors. Successful rebellion enabled them to found a second more powerful empire, over which their greatest Tsar, Asen II, reigned wisely and well. Then came decline. The Bulgarians paid tribute to the Serbian king, Dushan. The Otto- man Turks forced the last Bulgarian -king to become a vassal of the Sultan and to yield his sister to the harem. There followed five centuries of indescribable Turkish domination. Many Bulgarians became Moslems, they and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A81 Photograph by Erdelyi CROATIAN MAN AND WIFE: COSTLY THEIR HABITS AS THEIR PURSE CAN BUY, AND OFT EXPRESSED IN FANCY, RICH AND GAUDY Before the war, market day in Agram, the capital of Croatia and Slavonia, was a pic- turesque occasion, with the peasants resplendent in their gaily colored embroideries on white garments, their bright shoes and mantles. The life of many of these peasants is extremely hard, and in some families the women are said to wear no clothing above their waists while indoors. their descendants to be known as Pomaks. Many fled the country. By the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, Russia freed Bulgaria. The emancipated State, called the Princi- pality of Bulgaria, included only the region north of the Balkans. To it was added, by popular revolution, seven years later, the prov- ince of Eastern Roumelia, south of the Bal- kans. Bulgaria, though free, was made by the Great Powers tributary to the Sultan as a vas- sal State. In 1908 it declared itself independ- ent, and the prince proclaimed himself ‘Tsar of all the Bulgarians.” Many Bulgarians, Greeks, and Serbians still remained under the Turkish yoke. To free their fellow countrymen and coreligionists, al- lied Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro, and Serbia made successful war against the Turks in 1912. For the first time the four Balkan Christian States acted together. THE CROATIAN PEASANTS ARE ESPECIALLY FOND OF OUTWARD SHOW :, _ Wedding processions, such as that shown in this photograph, afford opportunity for the display of all the finery of the countryside. The native costume is distinguished by a wealth of stitchery. The influence of the East is indicated in the white garments loosely fashioned. Physically, the Croatian is a tall, strong, clean-looking individual, with steel-blue eyes and straight, fair hair (see page 486). ee Photographs by Erdelyi A CROATIAN WEDDING. PROCESSION, ACCOMPANIED BY A PERIPATETIC STRINGED ORCHESTRA In twenty years, from 1880 to 1900, the Croats increased in number by 33 per cent, due to a low death rate and a very high marriage and birth rate. Like all South Slavic peoples, there is a large preponderance of male over female children in Croatian families. 482 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE That union did not long continue. Each put forth extravagant claims regarding the na- tionality of the people they had freed. In Macedonia, where a pell-mell of races spreads round Monastir, their claims were most violent. Turkish rule had deadened national sense among the newly liberated. Many did not know whether they were Bulgarians, Greeks, or Serbians. In 1913 Bulgaria, without warning, suddenly attacked her allies, Greece and Serbia, and was decisively beaten. In 1915, utterly indifferent to the world-issues involved, she joined the Teutonic Powers, believing that their success was assured and that thereby she would ad- vance her interests. In 1918, sensing their im- pending defeat, she abandoned her allies in the field and made peace. In the lamentable events of the last six years it is just to discriminate between the Bulgarians and the unscrupulous German Prince who was their Tsar. The docile people submitted and followed but they did not ini- tiate or perhaps desire the tortuous, inglorious policy of their sovereign. ; In 1917 the Bulgarians constituted three- fourths of the 5,518,000 inhabitants of the country, practically all communicants of the Eastern Orthodox Church. The more than 700,000 Turks or Pomaks were rapidly being absorbed. Bulgarian is called “at once the most ancient and most modern” ot Slavic languages. ‘The grammar shows modern tendencies, but the lin- guistic groundwork is in close affinity with the oldest written Slavic dialect, that of the Church. The Bulgarian birth-rate in 1910 was forty- one to every one thousand persons. [In Io1I the excess of births over deaths was 18.35 per. 1,000 persons—a larger excess than among any other people of Europe. The Bulgarians are a sturdy, sober, indus- trious, practical people. While not vivacious or emotional, their parental and filial affection is marked. Materialistic rather than idealistic, they nevertheless appreciate education for their daughters as well as for their sons. THE SERBIANS * The Serbians first appear as a confederation of Slavic tribes, which, together with their near kin, the Croats, inhabited the northern slope of the Carpathians. In the seventh century the two occupied side by side all the west and northwest of the peninsula. Both recognized the Byzantine Emperor as suzerain. The Serbians spread far and wide over pres- ent Serbia, northern Albania, Montenegro, Bos- nia, Herzegovina, and possibly farther north. The Croats settled to the northwest. Christianized before any other Slavic tribe, * See also, in Nationar GEoGRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “Serbia and Miontenegro” (November, 1908), and “The Kingdom of Serbia,” by Wil- liam Joseph Showalter (April, 1915). 483 geography brought the Serbians who lived eastward into the Eastern Orthodox Church and carried the Croats living westward into the Roman Church. Internal dissensions re- tarded their growth. Vassals alternately of Bulgarians and Byzantines, they did not at- tain independence until the twelfth century. Though the Serbian kingdom lasted little more than three hundred years, two of its Tsars render it illustrious, Stephen Dushan the Great and Laza. Ably seconded by his Bulgarian wife, the Tsaritza Helen, Dushan united nearly all the peninsula in the effort to crush the menacing Turkish power but died suddenly on his march to Constantinople. In lofty aim and ability as legislator, diplomat and warrior, this dimly- seen eastern Tsar is one of the grandest figures of the Middle Ages. Lazar took up the task of Dushan but fell, betrayed and gloriously fighting, in 1389 at the battle of Kossova on the Plains of Amsel. Serbia prostrate, but with spirit unbroken, re- sisted for seventy years, but was made a pash- alik of the Sultan soon after the fall of Con- stantinople. i The heiduks, guerrilla Robin Hoods of the peninsula, in the mountains and forests car- ried on the fight against the Turks. In 1804, led by the swineherd Kara George, the Serbian people rose en masse. After twenty-five bloody years, in the Russo-Turkish treaty of Adrian- ople the Sultan recognized their autonomy. A new leader, Milosch Obrenovitch, had arisen, The savage rivalry of the Karageorgevitch and Obrenovitch families, though unattended by civil war, reddens the story of Serbia. Three of the former and five of the latter have reigned. The Obrenovitches became extinct in 1903. The Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 resulted in the full independence of Serbia which pro- claimed herself a kingdom four years later. Enraged at the union of Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, Serbia in 1885 declared war but was decisively beaten at Slivnitza. More worthy was the Balkan war of ‘I912 when Ser- bia, together with Bulgaria, Greece, and Mon- tenegro, freed the Christian subjects of the Ottomans. In the Balkan war of the follow- ing year she was victorious over Bulgarian attack. The story of the Austrian ultimatum, of three invasions of Serbian territory by the Austrians, each time repulsed, and of her des- perate resistance against the combined Aus- trian, Bulgarian, and German armies, forms an essential chapter of the just-ended war. The kingdom is inhabited by 4,616,000 peo- ple, almost exclusively Serbian. It is the Pied- mont of the newly formed Jugo-Slav confed- eracy. The number of Serbians resident in former Austria-Hungary may be reckoned as 5,000,000, in great part descendants of the ex- patriated after Kossova. Professor Pupin, educator and inventor, is a Serbian. Without harshness, the Serbian language is an almost perfect instrument for poetry and 484 - THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE iC music. The: Czech Schattamiemeays: - 7 “Serbian song resembles the tune of the A violin; old Slavonian, that sof tmewor- a gan; Polish, that of the ¢uitan) Old oO Slavonian sounds like the loud rush of = the mountain stream; Polish, like the 2 sparkling and bubbling of a fountain; ° Serbian, like the quiet murmuring of a 5 streamlet in the valley.” fea Few very rich, none very poor, a- o pauper unknown before tI914, each 3 family owning its own homestead, how- = ever small, democratic in the extreme, loving former Queen Natalie because “she walks the streets bareheaded with flowing hair,” vivacious and quick in movement, unsuspicious and open- handed, equal to the Belgians in suffer- ing, heroism, and glory. Out of the furnace the Serbians are emerging, a trustworthy, steadfast, self-reliant peo- ple (see also Jugo-Slavia, page 485). in t . THE MONTENEGRINS * According to the Slavic legend, the Almighty, when shaping the earth, car- ried a great bag filled with mountains which he was sowing as a farmer sows grain. East of the Adriatic the bag broke, the mountains fell out, took root and produced the craggy masses of the Tserna Gora, or Black Mountain, or Monte Negro. The Montenegrins as a people are the incarnation of heroism and freedom. After their kingdom was destroyed at Kossova, a handful of Serbians, who would neither emigrate nor submit, took refuge in these mountains. Shut off from outside help, ertirely sur- rounded by Ottoman Turks, imany times attacked by apparently resistless armies which they always defeated, scorning even nominal allegiance to the Turk or any other power, from 1389 to 1916 they maintained their savage independ- ence. Resistance to the Turk was the domi- nant motive of their social and political life. Their ruler was a viladika or bishop because, as sacrosanct, he would be invulnerable to Moslem attacks or bribes. Succession, which had been from uncle to nephew, became heredi- tary in I851. The Sultan formally recognized their | independence in 1799. So did all Eu- rope seventy-nine years later. This tiny. State, after standing for centuries as the only beacon light of In recent years the Croats and Slovenes have been emigrat- , with two exceptions—the Hebrew and the Slovak. HARVEST “TIME IN CROATIA enificent white oxen overlap. -like white trousers of the harvesters are to be found in many parts of Hungary, particularly Note how the wide-spreading horns of these ma ing to America more rapidly than any other European race + cr * See also, in NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC = MacaZINE, “Where East Meets West” S| (Dalmatia, Montenegro, and Herzego- ws vina), by Marion Cruger Coffin (May, ie 1908); “East of the Adriatic” (Dalma- al = tia, Montenegro, Bosnia, and Herzego- ° vina), by Kenneth McKenzie (Decem- Oo ber. 1012). tik NATIONAL GHOGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE 485 HUNGARIAN PEASANTS IN SUNDAY DRESS KNEELING AS A RELIGIOUS PROCESSION PASSES The geographical location of a town in Hungary or Austria in which a person lives less frequently affords a probable index to his racial status than in any other country in the world. ‘There has never been any such being linguistically or racially as an Austro-Hun- garian in the sense that there are Frenchmen, or Englishmen, or Spaniards. The empire of the Hapsburgs was a confused conglomeration of peoples of divergent religious and political faiths and of antagonistic blood ties. freedom in the Balkan Peninsula, was over- whelmed for a time by the Teutonic Powers in 1916. There are about 400,000 Montenegrins. They are of tall, large, and erect figure. Their char- acteristics are those of liberty-loving moun- taineers who have lived apart and distrust strangers. ‘Their women are brave, loyal, and implacable as themselves. “The word of a Montenegrin was never broken.” Elena, daughter of King Nicholas I, is wife to Victor Emmanuel II and Queen of Italy (see also Jugo-Slavia). IWCO-SLAVIA To unite all the Jugo-Slavs has long been the aspiration of leaders among the Croats and Slavonians as well as those in the Kingdom of Serbia. They wished to include the Bosnians, Helvats, Croats, Slavonians, Dalmatians, and Slovenes, former Austro-Hungarian, or still earlier Turkish, subjects, as well as the inde- pendent South Slavic States of Montenegro (see page 484), Serbia (see page 483), and Bulgaria (see page 479). The world war has extended this desire, ex- cept that it no longer includes Bulgaria. When Bulgaria allied herself with the Turks, who through centuries had trampled upon the Slavs, and sent her armies to work their savage will upon the Serbians, she outraged Slavic feeling more than her mere alignment with their com- mon foe, the Central Powers, could have done. One obstacle to federal union is difference of church communion. Most of the Jugo-Slavs are Eastern Orthodox, the remainder, except those who are Moslems, Roman Catholic. Ob- ligations to Islam rest lightly on the peninsular Moslems and they will eventually join one or the other church. The Roman Church has allowed the Daima- tian, Slavonian, and Croatian Catholics, almost interruptedly since their conversion, to use the Slavic instead of the Latin liturgy, and to em- ploy their Glagolithic, or Cyrillic Slavic, alpha- bet. Against this custom there has been, mostly during the last generation, foreign protest, based on political grounds. An attempt, how- 486 ever, to enforce the Latin ritual would prob- ably swing the dissident Jugo-Slavs into the Eastern Orthodox Church. Another obstacle to federal union is inex- perience in self-government on the part of the several groups. Except the Montenegrins, and the Serbians in the larger part of royal Serbia, all the groups have been under the blighting domination of alternating foreign masters, mainly Turks, Austrians, and Magyars, since the Middle Ages, The federal system is of all systems the most difficult and complex, requir- ing the largest degree not only of skill, but of self- adjustment and self-control. Yet upon such a Ship of State these Slavic landsmen would embark as officers and crew in a stormy sea. To the majority of these people the idea of union is novel, until recently entertained only ' by some score of dreamers, who, while Turk- ish or Austro-Hungarian subjects themselves, hardly believed in its possibility of realization. Nor do all the groups equally desire union, even now. The Slovenes, for example, are not over-enthusiastic for it. In some respects the situation is analogous to that of the thirteen American States after the Revolution and be- fore the adoption of the Constitution. Powerful factors exist favorable to cooper- ation. The peoples are racially one, confronted everywhere by foreigners. Despite minor local differences, they possess in the Serbian a lan- euage intelligible to all, though in less degree to the Slovene, spoken by the great majority, the literary language of Croat, Bosnian, Helvat, Slavonian, Serbian, and in part of the Dalma- tian. Bonds of race and language are strong. There is practical absence of inherited ani- mosities. The fact is recognized that whoever of them fought in the Austro-Hungarian ranks did so under military compulsion. There is also appreciative recognition of decimated Ser- bia’s natural leadership. The one compelling factor is the conscious- ness that unless united the political existence of any of them is most insecure. In the attempt of the Jugo-Slavs to rule themselves in the only possible way, they are entitled to the sympathy and patience of all who believe in self-government by the people. THE BOSNIANS For the boundaries of the provinces on the east shore of the Adriatic political gerryman- der is responsible, begun before America was discovered. The inhabitants, subjects until re- cently of Austria-Hungary, are Bosnians, Hel- vats, Croats, Dalmatians, Slavonians, and Slo- venes—a perplexing medley of Slavic peoples, among whom are found a few Jews and for- eigners. The Bosnians, so named from the river Bosna, are Serbians and Croats, who for a time maintained a small and not powerful king- dom under a ruler called Ban. > They are strongly drawn by sympathy and interest to their kinsmen in royal Serbia. At their capital, Serajevo, occurred on June 28, 1914, the as- sassination of the Austrian Crown Prince and THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE his wife, the Duchess of Hohenberg, which preluded the European war. THE HELVATS The Helvats, or Herzegovinians, who are Serbians and Croats, are appropriately named, their district having been lopped off from Bosnia for the advantage of a Herzog or Arch- duke. THE CROATS * The Croats were long intimately connected with the Serbians, whom they greatly resemble. In 1908 the Austro-Hungarian sovereign ap- propriated the Turkish provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, ninety-eight per cent of whose two million inhabitants are Serbians or Croats. There is no such*unanimity in their religion. Forty-two per cent are Eastern Ortho- dox, calling themselves Serbians; twenty-eight per cent Roman Catholics, calling themselves Helvats, and twenty per cent Moslems, calling themselves Turks. THE DALMATIANS Ff The Dalmatians occupy a lone, narrow, mountainous fringe of coast land and islands east of the Adriatic. They were often called Pagani or Pagans in derision as being the last of the Slavs to embrace Christianity. Immi- grating in great numbers they quickly absorbed the native population and retained their own characteristics. Just as the Slavs: gave the name of Vlachs to the Latin-speaking Ruma- nians, so the Slavic invaders of Dalmatia called the Latinized people they found there Vlachs, or Mavro- Vlachs— Black Vlachs. In the whirligig of language, Morlach, a corruption of Mavro-Vlach, has become the term by which palates Slavs are commonly known in Eng- . is The dalmatic, or ceremonial outer tobe, worn by the Roman Catholic clergy at the divine office and by sovereigns at coronations, was in- troduced into Rome in the second century from Dalmatia, where it was used only by the no- bility. Dalmatia, a shuttlecock between Venice and Hungary, never experienced a national exist- ence. During the last two centuries it has been the alternate possession of Venice, France and Austria. It furnished many of the best sailors in the Austrian navy. THE SLOVENES OR WENDS The Slovenes or Wends are found outside the Balkan Peninsula in the former Austrian Provinces of Carinthia, Carniola” and Styria. * See also, in NatTIoNAL GkoGRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “In Quaint, Curious Croatia,” by Felix J. Koch (December, 1908). + See also, in Nationat GrocRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “Where East Meets West,’ by Marian Cruger Coffin (May, 1908), and “East of the Adriatic,” by Kenneth McKenzie (December, OZ) Photograph from Underwood & Underwood TAH OLD CAPEPAL OF A NEW NATION: PRAGUE, CZE.CHO-SLAVIA The Royal Castle and St. Vitus Cathedral. The palace was begun in 1344, and the first stone was laid by Charles IV. It has 711 apartments and three grand halls. It was the home of Bohemia’s own rulers from medieval times until 1620, when the kingdom was crushed by allied armies in the battle of Bila Hora (White Hill), a plateau on the outskirts of the city. Since that battle the Czechs in Bohemia have sought continually to regain their freedom. In the open and in secret they have nevcr ceased to agitate their cause. It was in the city of Prague that, sixty years ago, the Sokol, or Gymnastic Association, was started, with the secret purpose of some day throwing off the Austrian yoke (see illustration, page 488). 487 “AUCUIIOX) JO [[VJUMOP 9} O} poy UsIN} Ul YOTYM WeyuMOpP selijsny JO sasned ule oy} JO duo sem J] ‘asodind syt poysrpdtosoe jT “TM 91} JO SUIUUISIq dy} Je ‘UdUT OOO‘OOE JaAO Fo dryssaqwiom ev YIM ‘uorjeziuesio Arey ATeuOrTpNpOASI & ApeIT UT SBM “UOTIOOSSe SI}aTY}U UL F]OSH SUVs JOYOS sy, “esisny.pue Auewsory JYsYy 0} so}ejg popup) SY} Ul PUB SodlIJUNOD oJUdJUY OY} UL PoztUeSIO oJaM SYRAOTSG pue SYyDeZ) JO SjuswIsel AULT “VIsHY ysurese suie dn yoo} pue ‘suex]eq oy} Ut SapY ey 01 se [jom se ‘suvissny pue SUeITe}] OY} 0} JOAO JUOM PUB PeTopUSIINS Woy} JO Spuesnoyy FO So} pUejievoYy 7e Aulous Ue—elijsny jo Auaud [eal & SEM AUIS URIIISNY 9Y} Ul YeAO[S Jo YIz_) AreuoNjOAdI ATIAM “PIT oFoM Woy} JO JUI Jod o& Jnoqe puy ‘ulvVISs oq 0} JstIY 9Y} 9q p[nom Ady} Jey} OS ‘saydUI} OUT[-JUOIF ay} 0} Way} JUas pure paads o]qQIssod }so}VI15 9Y} YPM AWAC IY} OJUL SYVAOTG-OY9IZ) oy} Jnd elajsny ‘eM Jeois oY} JO Suruurseq oy} FV ‘WSsY pynod oyM UsuI JO UOTJEZIURSIO UL UIJUIPL O} SEM asodind wiewl 119Y} Inq ‘soroeTYVe UL PojJsotojUI AT[eaT oJoM SI3q -UI9U S}]T “UOTN[OAII v 1OF APJo19N0S o1edaid 0} Ose sivak A}XIS PoziURSIO SVM “UONLIDOSSY oseuutsy 10 JOYOS syy, ‘“ewoo pynoys Ayunj1oddo 9y} UsYM PITSHY IYSY 0} Sutures, stam Ady} Appear ur ¢ A[qIsusjsO UONIGIYXa SLMoYyse[eo & SUIAIS oJOM “JOqUINU UL puesnoY} UddAodja “Ud VSL, NOILVN V ALVaNO OL GadTHH HOIHM NOILVIOOSSV OILISVNWAD V :andVad NI ‘IOMOS HHL poomMispuy~) Y poomiopuy) Wosz Ydeisojoyg a aS Acs THE, NATIONAL “GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE In habits and purpose they are in sharp con- trast to the Croats and Slavonians, their near kin. Constantly intermarrying with Germans, Hungarians and Italians, they have seemed until very recently little affected by racial con- cerns. They are industrious, pliant, little in- clined to resist or complain. Perhaps in con- sequence the Austrians treated them with a moderation shown to no other subject Slavs. They number about 1,350,000, are Roman Catholics and use the Latin alphabet. THE SLAVONIANS The Slavonians, people who have appro- priated the ethnic name of their race, are neighbors of the Croats on the north. In 1840 the Hungarians imposed the Magyar on both as the official language, whereupon the smoulder- ing hatred for all things Hungarian burst into flame. Everywhere insurrection broke out. After 1868 the Croatian-Slavonians enjoyed the empty honor ot being entitled the King- dom of Croatia-Slavonia. Controlled directly by Hungary, their Ban or King was appointed by the Hungarian Premier and was subject to instant dismissal by him. The National As- sembly was limited to strictly local affairs, but its every enactment required the approval of the Hungarian minister for Croatia-Slavonia who was himself a member of the Hungarian cabinet. This device of “The Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia” was most dexterous for soothing the pride and dictating the action of a subject people. ‘Temporarily successful, in the end it enraged the inhabitants, as they real- ized how plausibly they had been duped. CZECHO-SLOVAKIA™* The Austro-Hungarian Monarchy was an anomaly, both as to its system and as to the ethnical composition of its inhabitants. A ref- erence to its method will throw some light upon present and future conditions. Austria-Hungary consisted of two equal and independent parts, Austria and Hungary. In Austria in IT91o there were 9,950,c00 Austrian Germans as against 18,243,000 non-Germans of various races, mainly Slav. In Hungary in 1910 there were 10,051,000 Magyars as against 10,836,000 non-Magyars of various races. The Germans, though but one-third the popu- lation in the one, were dominant there and the Magyars (see page 497), though less than half the population in the other, were dominant there. To maintain this ascendancy of these two minorities summed up all the internal policy and determined most of the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary. The Austrian-Germans and the Magyars al- ways disliked each other. The Austrian was a foreigner at Buda-Pest and the Magyar at * See also, in Natronar, GrocrAPHIc Maca- ZINE, “The Land of Contrast” (Austria-Hun- gary), by D. W. and A. S. Iddings (December, 7or2)," and “Hungary, a Land of. Shepherd Kings,” by C. Townley Fullam (October, 1914). 489 Vienna. But each recognized that his own po- litical salvation depended largely on alliance with the other. To the Austrian especially it was an absolute necessity. The ascendancy of each was to be ascribed in part to long monop- oly of power and to superior cleverness in manipulation. But always it could count on jealousies and divisions among the Slavic subjects, a condi- tion always encouraged. More than once the hopes of some one of its subject Slavic peo- ples have approached realization, only to be thwarted by the opposition of other Slavs or by its own dissensions. The disruption of the Austro-Hungarian Empire left the Magyars in much the same position as before, but broke Austria into frag- ments. The Austrian Germans still formed a compact body, but each of the subject Slavic peoples sprang to a realization of the national idea. The Germans inhabit a large territory, ex- tending from Switzerland south of Bavaria to a little east of Vienna; also a belt of German population almost surrounds the Czechs, and German enclaves are dotted like islands in the midst of neighboring Magyars and Slavs. Despite frequent usage, it must not be for- gotten that the word Austrian never was iden- tified with or represented a nation. It is a convenient distinguishing term, as in saying that the Austrian Germans have strong sym- pathies with the Germans in the former Ger- man Empire and will ultimately unite with them. The former South Slav, or Jugo-Slav, sub- jects of Austria-Hungary, the Bosnians, Hel- vats, Croats, \.slavonians,” Dalmatians, and Slovenes, were described among the races of Jugo-Slavia, where they are placed by geogra- phy. The other Slavic peoples, former subjects of Austria, are the Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks, and Ruthenians. The Czechs, together with the Slovaks and Moravians, are now recognized by the United States and the Entente Allies as forming the independent Czecho-Slovak nation. On the map one remarks the broad area, inhabitated by Germans and Magyars, which separates the Czecho-Slovaks from the Jugo-Slavs. THE CZECHS * The Czechs or Bohemians are the farthest west, surrounded except on the east by a Ger- man population. Bohemia, Czech in Slavic, de- rives its name from the Boii, a Celtic people who once occupied the country and who were succeeded by various German tribes. Long afterward the Czechs took possession, prob- ably during the great Slavic invasion of the sixth century. The Czech nobles or land-proprietors soon adopted German ways and spoke only German. Christianized by Saint Methodius, the middle * See also, in Nationar GrocrAPHIc Maca- ZINE, “Bohemia and the Czechs,” by Ales Hrdlicka (February, 1917). . “AIOISIY UT S1OJdVYS I}VUILIP JSOUI SY} JO UO WIOF VIIIqIC UI S}UDWIASTYOe Jay], ‘odoin’ Fo Jseay oy} ut VIYPAOTS-OY99Z_, JO uoTyeu Mou 24} PUsfop OF ote OYM Wout 9Y} FO Taqi[ed 9Y} SI YONG ‘s9oF Joy} FO suodeam oy} YIM sSadfaswoy} peddimba sny} pue ‘sayi pue suns-suryoeuw oy} pozies ‘syIOI pue spueyored YIM WOpss1f PUL JIPIO FO SoIWIUD 9Y} PIxIe}}B SIIIP[OS YeAo[S-oyoez_ ssapunep sf} Inq ‘s1aoyjJo ueWAsy Aq popueuUT “MOD S9IULISUT 9UIOS UT pUe PoluIe [Jom OM IylAIYS[Og oY, ‘“SWie ou ATeoroeid pey Ady} JUOIJ UeIIsNV-ossny oY} WOIZ eIIaqIS payovas Aoyy Udy MA “UIGIeE{ O} sey) 9y} Wolf AVMIIeY ULIIOqIG-sueIT, oY} SuOTe UMO} AJOAD ATTeoTJOeId UOSTIIe3s MoU ‘IOquINU UL O00‘OP ‘syeAO[S-OY99Z_) sq J, SHITTIV AHL ISNIVOV AOXOT ONILHOIA V SV VISSNU AZINVONO OL TUOATa UHH NI ANVWAAD LAVMAL OL dadTHH HOIHM AWAV OILVAOOWAG V JO SYXAWAW : VINAGIS NI SMVAO'TIS-OHOAZO SUIRITTIM “OW 4q ydessoj0yg 490 "“IOUJO JO Yeo SIy aye} YAIeseW Wopiseig Jesy 0} pojquiosse AsYy} UIYM ssoiIp [euoHeU PO ey} 210M JUoWRTIed JO Soquious [eIOAVS PUe ‘souin}sod jue -sead JO UOIYSe} ay} 0} Udye} oAeY onseIg JO SaIpe] Sunod oy} [Te ‘UONeU MoU oY} JO uOI}eUIL[IOId 3Y} VOUIG “sotinjusd IOF odoiny Jo ajdoad Suraoy -WOpade1f dY} paysnsd pey YIYM susd][OzZUdYOF] 24} pure ssinqsdefyy 9y} Fo Ades0jNe DJAIssaiddoO JY} SUIMOIYIIIAO UL Sot]V IY} pre 0} JOUOY AloY} pue ‘sounyioj Jy} ‘SoAl] Joy} pospeyd ‘oovod ul dAT] 0} PolIamy 0} 9UIOD pe OYyM ‘eIyBAOTS pue ‘eIAeIOJ ‘PIWIYOY JO SoAT}eU JO SpuesnOoy Ty, LASILOANNOD “GAOAWVLS “dNVO NOLLVZITICGOW AUVLIVIIW MVAOIS-OHOIZD FHL LV NAAID LIJZANAD V LV AWOISOO AALLVN NI NHWOM GNV NAW : VOISANV NI SHVAOTIS-OHOAZO DdIAIOG ydeisojoy_ ssaysiqng O 491 492 classes became communicants of the Eastern Orthodox Church, the ritual of which in each country of its faith was always celebrated in the vernacular of the people. When after- ward they changed to. Roman Catholics, Latin in church services superseded the Cyrillic alphabet and the old Slavic ritual. The Czech language, thus excluded from the Church by Latin and from society by German, became the peculiar heritage of the common people. As long as Bohemia was an inde- pendent State, neither persuasion nor persecu- tion could force them to give it up. After Bohemia became an Austrian province, al] obtainable Czech books and manuscripts were burned and the use of Czech in writing or in schools was prohibited under heavy pen- alties. But the Czech persisted in his pas- sionate devotion to his mother tongue. Lan- guage and nation became synonymous, both denoted by the same word, jazyk. The lan- guage kept the nation alive and saved it from absorption. Meanwhile it produced such wealth of early poetry as is found among no other Slavs. The political existence of the Czechs re- sembled in striking degree that of their racial kindred, the Poles. In both there was found a strong, sound, patriotic common people. In both there was the same vacillating royalty, eventually elective, and above people and king a turbulent, over-rich nobility, the patriotism of which seemed usually subordinate to class or personal interest. But the humbler Czechs were of more independent spirit, less easily cowed, and sometimes able to force the nobles to follow instead of lead. Czech romance finds expression in its grand- est figure, John Huss; in the blind, unconquer- able leader of Zizka; in the stirring, futile hero- isms of the Hussite wars; in Comenius, one of the foremost educators of history, author of “The Visible World,” the first illustrated book for children, and even in its militant University of Prague, the most venerable school of learn- ing in Central Europe. The evil genius of the Czechs was long the House of Hapsburg. Though afterward nom!1- nally existent, their kingdom was submerged at the battle of White Mountain in 1620, only its name surviving among the titles of the Au- strian Emperor. The royal history of Bohemia twice touches England in an interesting way. From the Bo- hemian King, Ferdinand, who lost his throne at White Mountain, was descended George I, the first English sovereign of the House of Hanover. The crest of the Prince of Wales with its three feathers and motto, “Ich Dien,” was formerly borne by the Bohemian kings. After the great victory of Crecy in 1346, it was picked up by Edward the Black Prince near the body of the blind Bohemian king John, who had fallen in the battle, and has ever since been the crest of the heir to the English crown. In the former kingdom of Bohemia there are about 7,000,000 inhabitants, nearly four- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE | fifths of whom are Czechs, and the remainder mostly Germans. Many other Czechs live in Austrian and Prussian Silesia, among the Mo- ravians and Slovaks, and in the United States. The recent exploits, of the Czecho-Slovaks in Siberia, Russia, France, and Italy won the ad- miration of the world and were no small factor in gaining from the Entente Allies the recog- nition of Czecho-Slovakia as an independent State. THE MORAVIANS The Moravians, centered on the Morava, occupy a plateau of the size of Massachusetts, south of the Czechs and Slovaks, whom they much resemble. They were Christianized by Saint Methodius. In the ninth century their kingdom, which reached the Oder and the Drave, was overwhelmed by the Magyars. Disciples of John Huss founded the Mora- vian Brethren, long a religious force in Bohe- mia and Poland. Almost destroyed in the Thirty Years War, the few survivors took refuge in Saxony. Persecuted there, many emigrated to Georgia, in America. John Wes- ley came in contact with them, and their ex- emplary, persuasive influence resulted in his conversion and that of his brother Charles. They were the first to insist on the conversion of the heathen as the duty of the Church. Since then they have been foremost in missionary labors. In Moravia the Brethren have almost disappeared. All but four per cent of the 1,700,000 Moravians are Roman Catholics. In- dustrious, enterprising, intelligent, lovers of liberty, they were always restless under Aus- trian rule and deserve the freedom that now seems theirs. THE SLOVAKS The Slovaks are mostly found in the north- ern provinces of Hungary. On the east they mingle with the Ruthenians and on the west with the Czechs, on whom they are wont to depend. They are a peaceful, primitive people. Having no national church, never having known independence until 1918, they inherit few traditions, but many popular songs. Their nobles are completely magyarized. Until recently, Slovak merchants and the middle class generally wished to be taken for Germans. But the people have always resisted foreign control. Despite its sharp division into dialects, they have always cherished their lan- guage, their sole bond of union. The Magyars treat them with brutal contempt. Many have emigrated to the United States. Altogether they number about 2,500,000. During the last fifty years there has been a marked awakening in education and national feeling. No longer indifferent to foreign domi- nation, they enter upon a national existence of their own. THE RUTHENIANS Ruthenian, meaning Russian, was the name given by the Austrians to such of their sub- Photograph by A. W. Cutler MORAVIAN PEASANTS IN THE VICINITY OF PRESSBURG Short skirts and Wellington boots seem to be the fashion here. Note the elaborately braided trousers and the cap made of gold cording worn by the man. The Moravians are to be found in the vicinity of the Morava River, occupying a plateau about the size of Massachusetts, directly south of the land of the Czechs and Slovaks (see page 402). 493 Photograph by A. W. Cutler SLOVAK SISTERS IN THEIR SUNDAY FINERY The Slovaks are a peaceful, primitive people, inheriting few traditions, but many popular songs. They are to be found mostly in the northern provinces of Hungary, mingling in the east with the Ruthenians and in the west with the Czechs (see page 492). 494 BES: Photograph by A. W. Cutler LIKE FATHER, LIKE SON IN HUNGARY Note that the costumes are identical except that the sleeves of the garment worn by the boy are embroidered and not decorated with colored wools, as in the case of his father. The long apron, worn by the young and old of both sexes, is a feature of the native costume seen in Mezokovesd, a town to the east of Buda-Pest. Only by personal inquiry could one determine whether the subjects of this photograph are Slovaks or Ruthenians. ‘These two branches of the Slav race mingle almost indistinguishably in this section of Europe. 495 496 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by A. W. Cutler PEASANT TYPES IN HUNGARY, NORTHEAST OF BUDA-PEST The woman on the right carries her gander in the same fashion that the Indian squaw carries her papoose. ‘The maid of Holland wears the distinctive badge of her town or district on her head; the Slovak peasant girl sometimes wears hers on her foot, as in the case of the girl to the left, whose boot-heel, elaborately embroidered, betokens the village from which she tramps. jects as are Little Russians. ‘There are more than 3,500,000 Ruthenians in the Austrian prov- inces of Galicia and Bukovina, territories seized from Poland. In Bukovina they are called Huzulians. They differ in few respects from the Little Russians of Russia. In Galicia they form nearly half the inhabitants, the aristocracy being Polish and the middle classes German or Jewish. Though Roman Catholics, they use the Slavic liturgy and the Eastern Orthodox ceremonial. hey were tranquil under the Austrian rule and in general manifest little sympathy for the Czecho-Slovaks or for the Poles. ‘They natu- rally affiliate with their nearer kin, the Ukrai- nians, or Little Russians (see page 463). They are well known in the United States for indus- try and intelligence. The Ruthenian, Zolki- evski, patriot arid warrior, was the Chevalier Bayard of the Slavs. THE NATIONAL SHOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by A. W. Cutler DAMES AND DAMSELS RETURNING HOME FROM MASS ON A SUNDAY MORNING In the land of the Slovaks, north of Pressburg, go bareheaded, but after marriage their hair is | ne When the wearer is on the street, this marriage millinery is basket at the back of the head. the young girls (those in front) usually “done up” and placed under a cone-shaped covered with a fringed silk kerchief of bright hue. THE MAGYARS The Magyars are the dominant race in Hun- gary and the real founders of the kingdom. Finno-Ugrians, they first appear in Europe as a nomadic horde in the ninth century, crushing the Moldavian kingdom and seizing the terri- tory which they at present occupy. From this center their wild raids over Europe made them a universal terror for sixty years. Then a severe defeat at Augsburg by the German Em- peror, Otto I, showed their isolation among enemies of different race and faith, more civil- ized and more powerful than themselves. Political considerations seem to have deter- mined their leaders to adopt Christianity and _ enter the Roman Church. Wise sovereigns tranquilized the country and brought in many immigrants. In numerous cases special privi- leges were accorded. All others, native and foreign, except the Magyars, were treated as subject races, on whom most of the taxes were levied. The system of taxation was recently modified, but the principle of inferior races is still in force (see page 48q). The Magyars consider the Golden Bull, granted by Stephen II seven years after Magna Charta, as the earliest proclamation of consti- tutional rights in continental Europe. It con- firms the excessive privileges of the great barons, the great wealth and power of whom were later, even under the ablest kings, to plunge the nation into anarchy and reduce the masses to serfdom. The Magyars were for more than a century the buckler of Christendom against the Otto- man Turks. Their illustrious leader was Hun- yadi, “the incarnation of Christian chivalry.” They have never recovered from their crushing defeat by the Turks at Mohacs in 1526. Their general condition was not improved by the fierce broils into which the Reformation plunged the Magyars, among whom for a time Protestantism was predominant. ‘Through the marriage of a Magyar princess to an Austrian Archduke, the succession passed to the House of Hapsburg, when the Magyars soon found themselves also treated as a subject race. Discontent brought about the attempted revo- lution under Louis Kossuth. Defeated, their leaders took refuge in Turkey. Combined Russia and Austria could not compel the Sultan to violate the laws of hospitality and give them up. This fact the Magyars have always grate- fully remembered. In the Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78 several deputations of Magyars vis- ited Constantinople to emphasize their friend- ship for their blood kindred, the Ottoman Turks. In Hungary in 1910 there were 10,051,000 THE NATIONAL GHOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE NATIVE WOMEN IN A MAGYAR VILLAGE Instead of seeking to amalgamate the peoples of alien blood residing within the confines of their country, the Magyars pursued the unwise policy of treating all persons not of their own kin as subject races, upon whom most of the taxes were levied. Asa result, instead of being a melting pot, Hungary became a retort, confining racial elements explosively antag- onistic one toward the other (see page 497). Magyars as against 5,380,000 various Slavs, 2,949,000 Rumanians, 2,037,000 Germans, 275.000 Gypsies, and 195,000 members of other races. A glance at the map reveals how ominous are the racial] influences surrounding the Magyars. West, there are the Germans; also, as the pink enclaves on the map indicate, numerous solid German communities in the very heart of the Magyars; north, the Czecho-Slovaks; east, the Rumanians; south, the Jugo-Slavs—all these like magnets attracting those of their kin still under Magyar rule. Nor is the material outlook more reassuring. The Magyar nobles are land-poor, while the Germans and Jews are the chief employers of labor, carry on the trade, and, the Jews espe- cially, control the press. The Magyars are, with the exception of the Finns, the only thoroughly Europeanized Finno- Uerian people. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ih POLS * Next to the Russians, of whom they were long the rivals and foes, the Poles are numer- ically the most important of the Slavs. ‘They first appeared in Great, or North, and Little, or South, Poland in the tenth century, where they found other Slavic tribes in possession. The wise policy of their kings early induced the whole nation to profess Christianity. Of medium size, with round heads and healthful faces, the blond more common than the brunet, their physical appearance has ap- parently changed little. The working classes, who constitute nine-tenths of the nation, have always been laborious, frugal, enduring, tem- perate rather than abstemious, and intensely patriotic. Those qualities distinguish the thou- sands of Poles in the United States. Their szlacta, or nobles, have shown themselves im- petuous, brave to rashness, chivalrous, insub- ordinate, emotional, artistic. During the formative period Poland was con- solidated by the dynasty of the great Lithua- nian, Jagellon, the Polish Wadislaus Il—a suc- cession of princes unsurpassed in constructive ability. Union with the Lithuanians doubled the population and the natural resources. To- gether they crushed the Teutonic Knights at Tannenberg in 1410 and half a century later at the peace of Thorn pushed them east of the Vistula. The Polish lands on the Baltic, to- gether with Danzig and Marienberg, were recovered. The Duchy of Mazovia, of which Warsaw was the center, five centuries inde- pendent, voluntarily joined the kingdom which a few years later spanned Europe from the Baltic to the Black Sea. ‘The Reformation, regarded with suspicion as having a German origin, only for a time disturbed the country. The advantageous situation of the kingdom, the admirable qualities of its common people, and the development already attained, seemed to assure the greatness and permanence of the Polish State. Yet disappointment meets us on every page. The brilliant passages are episodes without connection or result. Nowhere else is so much valor wasted. The chasm was always widen- ing between the nobles and the common people. The people paid all the taxes. The nobles, all equal, possessed all the wealth and power, but had no sense of obligation or responsibility. Intrepid in battle, they were ready to fight for the country only when so inclined. The system of government was oligarchic in the extreme. Succession to the powerless throne was elective, native or foreigner alike eligible. Each election was an orgy of turbu- lence and bribery. Twice the throne was put up at auction. ‘Fhe liberum veto, established in 1652, whereby the negative vote of a single member of the Diet nullified any act or all the * See also, in Nationat Grocrapuic Maca- ZINE, “Partitioned Poland,” by William J. Sho- walter (January, 1915), and “Devastated Po- land,” by Frederick Walcott (May, 1917). 499 acts of all the rest, culminated the anarchy and eventually brought about the destruction of Poland. Yet the criminal follies of a privileged class in no way excuse or palliate the iniquity of the three partitions of Poland in 1773, 1793, and 1795 by Prussia, Russia, and Austria. It must be noted that the first partition was confirmed by the Polish Diet, in which nearly all the members accepted foreign bribes. The belated heroic resistance of Kosciuszko, of a handful of nobles and of the infuriated common people glorifies the fall of the State which some historians, confused by the farce of election, still call the “Republic” of Poland. By these partitions Russia acquired 181,000 square miles of territory, with 6,000,000 inhab- itants; Austria, 45,000 square miles, with 2,500,- 000 inhabitants; Prissia, 57,000 square miles, with 2,500,000 inhabitants. The Poles under the Austrians were in the main kindly treated. Also, being Roman Cath- olics, there was no religious antipathy. Under the Russians every harsh measure was em- ployed to accomplish their russification. Those under the Prussians were the most pitiabiy situated of all. In the effort to make them Germans there was no limit to the systematic, persistent cruelty directed against all classes and ages: Poland has enriched the world in music, art, and literature. The national dances, the polo- naise and the mazurka, were always accom- panied by singing. Copernicus is Poland’s greatest name. Sienkiewicz, victim of the world war, by many considered the most bril- liant writer of the day, was a Pole, as is Pad- erewski. Situated between the upper millstone of Prus- sia and the nether millstone of Russia, and at the same time subjected to lateral pressure from Austro-Hungarian armies, the land of the Poles during the world war suffered devasta- tion which exceeds the imagination of those who have not actually witnessed the scenes of rapine, pillage, conflagration, and wanton de- struction. The restitution of a reunited Poland to its loyal common people will be among the wor- thiest achievements of the Allies. One of the most difficult problems which the restored nation’s leaders will encounter is the Jewish situation. There are millions of Jews in Polish territory. It is admitted by all thought- ful statesmen that great effort and sacrifice on the part of both the Poles and the Jews will be necessary before a satisfactory solution can be reached. THE JEWS * On the Arch of Titus in Rome are carved in bold relief laurel-crowned soldiers, bearing a massive seven-branched candlestick. This rep- * See also, in Nationat, GrocrarHic Maca- ZINE, “An Old Jewel in the Proper Setting,” by Charles W. Whitehair (October, 1918). THE NATIONAT GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 8 Photograph by Erdelyi A MAGYAR HOME The pillows in the background are a familiar feature of most well-to-do homes in Hun- gary. They form one of the chief items in a bride’s trousseau; babies are carried on huge pillows; a mammoth pillow is usually the sole covering at night, while two smaller pillows frequently constitute the bed. resents the Golden Candlestick which once lighted the Holy Place in the Temple at Jeru- salem and which was carried directly before the conqueror Titus at his triumph. The Arch commemorates the conquest of Judza in the year 70 and the destruction of the Temple and is contemporaneous with the first great disper- sion of the Jews. Individuals had already set- tled in every city of the Empire, but there had been no general exodus. Now, destitute hence- forth of a religious center, their world pilgrim- age began. The Arch seems not so much a monument to a dead emperor as the perpetual reminder of a scattered and deathless race. Sixty years after Titus, all Jerusalem was plowed over and Jews were forbidden to ap- proach the spot on pain of death. The very name of the sacred city was proscribed, the heathen colony planted on its site being called Elia Capitolina. Hundreds of thousands had perished in battle, massacre, and starvation. A people without a capital, country, or shrine, the dispersion of the survivors went on over all the known world. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 501 BA | Photograph by A. W. Cutler GYPSIES: THE NOMADS OF EVERY LAND Whence they come and whither they go is a puzzle not only to the dweller in city or country whom they pass, but to the student of races as well. They are to be found in many countries of Europe, chiefly He who is fascinated by the romantic subject of mists of legend and tradition. in the Balkans, in Hungary, and in Spain. Their origin is lost in the the Gypsies finds in the pages of George Borrow’s “Lavengro” and “Romany Rye” accounts of these wanderers which are of absorbing interest. The man in the photograph is holding the silver-crowned cane which he uses when on the road. His coat is adorned with immense silver buttons (see page 502). Rome had regarded the Jews merely as dan- gerous rebels who must be crushed. After they became powerless, they were allowed to live and prosper as they pleased. The Mishna, or Oral Law, the foundation of the Talmud, was evolved. Meanwhile a marvelous teacher, Mar Samuel, wrought into the very being of the exiles a principle that was to control their attitude and conduct. He taught that every- where “the law of the government is the bind- ing law,” and that it was their religious duty, not from expediency, but from moral obliga- tion, to conform to and obey, as far as possible, the laws of any country in which they were found. They were even to pray for the peace of the place wherein they dwelt. Thus was their adaptation to any habitat made incumbent and possible. From it has come about the racial suppleness which bends but never breaks. ‘To it Graetz, the foremost of Jewish historians, declares Judzism has owed “the possibility of existence in a foreign 5 country.” Through tribulation and agony, un- exampled in the life of any other people, it has enabled the Jewish race to survive. The nominal profession of Christianity by Europe set the Jew by himself apart. To an ignorant and brutal age every Jewish hand seemed red with the blood of the Saviour. That Jesus and the apostles were themselves Jews was sometimes denied. Under the mask of piety, every foul passion robbed and mal- treated the Jews. The laws against them were more merciless than the mobs. In Italy they were at times less harshly treated through the influence of the Popes, and sometimes a great sovereign like Charlemagne would shine as their open friend. Yet, with rare exceptions, injustice, persecution, and proscription were their invariable, universal lot from Constan- tine far down into modern times. The severe Moslem laws against them were laxly enforced. So they shared the brilliant prosperity of the Moors in Spain until both were expelled. 502 The Jewish Year Book reckons there are to- day about 10,000,000 in Europe, 3,000,000 in the United States, and 1,000,000 in the rest of the world. It reckons 100,000 in France, 106,000 in the Netherlands, 230,000 in Rumania, 257,- 000 in the United Kingdom, 615,000 in Germany, 1,300,000 in what was formerly Austria-Hun- gary, and 7,000,000 in Russia. In Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, and Spain there are comparatively few. The great number in Russia largely trace back to Casimir the Great, a Polish king. His favorite, Esther, a devoted Jewess like her namesake in the Bible, persuaded Casimir to offer the Jews a home in Poland. The Jews had multiplied, especially in that part of Poland which Russia secured in the three partitions and which, with constantly changing bound- aries, constituted the Russian Pale. When Casimir died, in 1370, Polish toleration ended. Instead there was often the ferocious shout, “Hep, Hep!” with which the pogrom began. A pogrom is an organized massacre and “Hep” is supposedly derived from the initials of ‘‘Hierosolyma est perdita.” The fires through which the Jews have passed only intensified their remarkable do- mestic and racial devotion. ‘There is no posi- tion of honor or confidence where one does not now find a Jew. ‘There is no height or distinction—political, diplomatic, financial, dra- matic, artistic, literary—which the sons and daughters of Israel have not attained. DEE GV Slit > The Gypsies are first found in the Greek islands and continental Greece early in the fourteenth century. No tradition exists as to how they arrived or whence they came. After- ward, they wandered through the Balkan Pen- insula, settling nowhere except as the greater number were seized along the way and made serfs or slaves. In 1417 they appeared in western Europe, showing a peculiar pass or safe-conduct wherein they were called Tsigani. This pass, signed by Sigismund, king of Hungary and German emperor, granted permission to go wherever they pleased in the king’s dominions, ordered his subjects to show them kindness and protection, and forbade interference with them of any sort. A little later their roving bands reached Italy, France, and the British Islands. Believed to have come from Egypt, their English name was Gypsies. The French, how- ever, called them Bohemians, thinking they had originated in Bohemia. They called themselves Rom, supposed to mean man. This term was possibly picked up in passage through south- eastern Europe. Among their many other names were Hagarenes, children of Hagar, Saracens, as from Arabia, and Athingani, or “Touch-me-nots,’ from a heretical sect in Asia Minor. Restrictive laws have hampered and some- times entirely curtailed their former vagrancy. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Most Gypsies now live in houses, though still retaining their restless propensities. Existing in every country, they have been accurately counted nowhere. There are probably not over 700,000 in Europe, of whom three-fourths are located in Hungary, Rumania, and the Balkan Peninsula, where they enjoy the same civil rights as the other inhabitants. Without coun- try or traditions or religion of their own, they readily profess whatever is nearest. The Gypsies are of wiry figure, with black, often silky, hair; large, shining, black eyes; perfect teeth, regular and white, and a glow- ing rich complexion, which early becomes tawny. Their young women often possess a brilliant but soon fading beauty. In music and dance, the untrammeled freedom of the race finds full expression. Liszt ascribes to the Gypsies “the origin of Hungarian national music.” Many of “the most popular Rumanian, Serbian, and Bulgarian ballads and tunes are derived from the Gypsies. Our chief interest in the Gypsy is his lan- guage. Toward the end of the eighteenth cen- tury three scholars, working apart and un- known to one another, discovered that his “jargon” is a primitive Indo-European lan- guage, now spoken nowhere else and contained in no manuscript or book. Corrupted and de- based, yet radically the same, it has been pre- served through uncounted years and unknown wanderings on the lips of this mysterious peo- ple. An eminent Oriental investigator, Dr. Pas- pati, believed that the Romany was an ancient sister of the Sanscrit and that the Gypsy is the most ancient Indo-European in Europe. THE GERMANS * The name German during these last years has been so blackened and befouled by its own children that it can never regain its former place in the respect and esteem of men. But, before militarism destroyed idealism, before the Prussian virus poisoned the German soul, there was no department of research, art, or literature which the Germans did not distin- guish. Obscured from the world’s thought to- day by an interposing pall are the thinkers, poets, philosophers, and reformers of Ger- many’s great past. The main body of Germans has occupied the same territory from a period antedating the Christian era. Though absorbing many Slavic elements, they are as a people less composite than the Italians or the -French. The number of inhabitants of the German Empire at the last census, inclusive of 1,870,000 persons in Alsace- Lorraine and of 1,260,000 * See also, in Nationat, GkocrapHic Maca- ZINE, “Peasant Life in the Black Forest,” by Karl Frederick Geiser (September, 1908) : “A Corner of Old Wurttemberg,” by B. H. Bux- ton (October, 1911); “The German Nation” (September, 1914) ; “Hildesheim, the Town of Many Gables,” by Florence Craig Albrecht (February, I915). Photograph by Erdelyi A FARMER OF BANFFYHUNYAD, A VILLAGE OF TRANSYLVANIA Within the limits of Transylvania (“forest land”), an area of eastern Hungary about half the size of the State of Virginia, reside three “privileged peoples’”—the Magyars, the Szeklers, kinsmen of the Magyars, and Saxons, descendants of German immigrants who came into the country in the twelfth century. Numerically, however, the most important element of the population is Rumanian. In addition, there are Jews, Ruthenians, Bulgarians, Slovaks, Serbians, and Greeks. The plurality of Rumanians forms the basis of their country’s claim to a large portion of this district, rich in mines, forests, pasture lands, and river-bottom farms. 503 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Painting by Fugene Burnand THE JEWISH TYPE The Jewish Year Book reckons the number of Jews in Europe today as 10,000,000; in the United States 3,000,000, and another 1,000,000 scattered throughout the rest of the world. In the famous painting here reproduced the Swiss artist, Burnand, depicts two of the Disci- ples, Peter and John, hurrying to the Sepulchre. Luxembourg, Paris. foreign residents, was 64,926,000. Subtracting the foreigners, the people of Alsace-Lorraine, and 3,500,000 Slavs, mostly Poles, there remain about 58,000,000 Germans. Adjacent, strongly attached to them, are the 10,000,000 Austrian Germans and the nearly 300,000 in Luxemburg and Liechtenstein, making a total German population in Central Europe of approximately 70,000,000. The distinction of Low Germans, dwellers in the Lowlands, and High Germans, dwellers further south, on higher ground, early indicated forms of the language and literary expression. More than any other race in Europe, the Germans in Germany have inter-bred among themselves. In consequence, they have devel- oped traits which in a smaller people would be termed provincial—inordinate self-satisfaction, . sense of superiority to other nations, and marked incapacity as colonizers. While mak- ing good colonists under other flags than their own, as colonizers under their own flag they have failed utterly. - countries. The canvas hangs in the Museum of the Despite all inducements offered by their gov- ernment, they were themselves reluctant to emi- grate to German colonies except as State func- tionaries or soldiers. In 1914, in the more than 1,000,000 square miles of German colonial pos- sessions, there were less than 25,000 white resi- dents, inclusive of foreigners. Moreover, Ger- man treatment of the natives is seldom kindly, but in general brutal and inhuman. Yet German enterprise and discontent with former conditions in the fatherland carried them by hundreds of thousands all over the globe. In the United States there are over 2,500,000 persons who were born in Germany, most of them loyal and efficient American citi- zens.* There are over 2,000,000 in Hungary and 1,500,000 in Russia, long resident in those In South America there are more than 500,000. In 1914 German or of German origin were * See in NATIONAL GEkOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, “Our Foreign-born Citizens” (February, 1917). THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 505 JEWISH CHILDREN IN POLAND The reason for the great number of Jews now found in Poland may be traced back to the days of Casimir the Great, a Polish king, whose favorite, Esther, a devoted Jewess, per- suaded her royal lover to offer her people a home in his dominions, When Casimir died, in 1370, Polish toleration ended, and during the succeeding centuries the lot of the Jew has been an unhappy one. Marriage vows are taken early by the Jews in Poland; a girl scarcely ceases to play with dolls before she has babies of her own, and a woman twenty-five years old is frequently the mother of six or seven children (see page 409). the reigning houses of Austria-Hungary, Bel- gium, Bulgaria, Denmark, the German Em- pire, and each of its 25 States except the Slavic dynasty of the two Mecklenburgs; Great Brit- ain, Greece, Holland, Liechtenstein, Luxem- burg, Norway, Rumania, Russia, and Sweden. In Great Britain the royal house, long thor- oughly anglicised, by royal proclamation in 1917, changed its title from “House of Saxe- Coburg and Gotha” to “House of Windsor.” In Belgium and Rumania the rulers identified themselves with their people. The monarchs of the no longer existing Austro-Hungarian, German and Russian empires are either fugi- tive or dead. Until 1871 the term German was an ethnic or geographical expression without national meaning. ‘There had never been a real German nation. Instead had existed an indefinite num- ber of political units—kingdoms, duchies, free cities, loosely connected or not connected at all—in European wars usually taking opposite sides. The number of such units had been gradually reduced to twenty-five. This was an inheritance from the tribal system, often de- plored by German patriots and statesmen. Act- ing together for the first time in the war of 1870-71, they conquered imperial France. The proclamation of the Empire on January 18, 1871, at Versailles, in the throne room of Louis XIV, the arch foe of the German race, was most spectacular. German union seemed achieved. On April 16 the sovereigns of the five larger German States granted the Empire a Constitution, in the making of which the people had no share. This Constitution rendered Prussia and her Hohenzollern King supreme in Germany. The Constitution could in no way be changed without the consent of the King of Prussia, who was German Emperor, except by revolution (see map, page 5I0). The revolution has now been accomplished. But peoples and races remain, though thrones and empires fall. After present troubles are pacified and wrongs righted, in the very center of the continent will exist a compact, homo- Bice j LBV GECU 4494 GUD) SU[UYIYU 4FUbAOLUIULL 4$U Sflesy eet a 2YIpOU Ae ue SapsJOy SUIPCAUL JO 9SINOD 3Y} PoUIWIDJOp dae OTM SAZT[VA JOATI 94} pue suio}shs urejuNoU! ay} UMOUS se 2919 Y} peylp 4 P IpeAul y Y H WdOWNH AO dVW ‘IVOISAHd AHL Ieydeiso0jiey ‘pesjsung “HV S2|!W eyN}peIS 506 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE geneous, ethnic group of Germans, 70,000,000 strong. Because of the enormities of the past four and a half years, this group cannot be trusted until they have shown repentance not of a few days or months, but by a generation er more of decent action. The nascent Slavic republics of Czecho-Slo- vakia (see page 489), Poland (see page 499), and possibly Lithuania (see page 465), to the east of the Germans, and of Jugo-Slavia (see page 485), on the south, could easily be honey- combed with discontent and mutual jealousies by the scheming junker class of Prussians Thereby would be created in the heart of Eu- rope another political volcano always in erup- tion, closely analogous to that which kept the Balkans in continual convulsion prior to the world war. Unless from the Germans are ex- acted such guarantees of good conduct as can neither be escaped nor evaded, the world is handing over these enfranchised races to be- come the ultimate prey of men who are bound neither by justice, nor honor, nor mercy in their dealings with mankind. In the German group specially prominent are the Prussians, the Bavarians, the Saxons, and the three Free Towns of Ltibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. The Free Towns were the largest factor in the spread of German influence during the Middle Ages. These three associated with themselves for mutual protection ninety of the principal commercial cities between the Rhine and Novgorod. This association, called the Hanseatic League, or League of the Guilds, from 1241 for more than four hundred years defended the rights of trade and was supreme in northern Europe. .Under normal conditions the maritime and commercial interests of Ljii- beck, Bremen, and Hamburg areimmense. The citizens, proud of their self-governing tradi- tions, are democratic in sentiment. The Saxons are of almost pure Teutonic stock, with slight Slavic admixture. They oc- cupy one of the most fertile regions of Ger- many. Formerly they were renowned for their independent spirit. For thirty-three years they stubbornly fought against Charlemagne, who finally conquered and Christianized them. Dur- ing the nineteenth century they constantly pro- gressed in constitutional liberty until the Prus- Sians occupied their territory in 1866. They rank among the most highly educated people of Europe. Dresden, their capital, is a center of art and industry. More than 95 per cent of the Saxons are Protestant. THE BAVARIANS The Bavarians are racially the most compos- ite people of Germany, being descended from Germanized Slavs, earlier Celtic settlers, and Teutonic Marcomanni and Quadi. The latter entered the country from the east and were called Baivarii, probably from Bojer, as they had come via Bojerland or Bohemia. They inhabit an immense amphitheater, about 220 miles long and 110 miles broad, surrounded by lofty mountains. No other territory of 507 equal size in Germany is enclosed by natural boundaries so distinct; consequently the Ba- varians have developed a character of their own. Physically they are darker, smaller- boned, more natural, and less stiff than Ger- mans generally. They are conservative, re- ligious, and affable. The Passion Play has been rendered every ten years since 1634 by the Bavarian peasants of Oberammergau. Sovereigns and people have fostered music and the drama, and their capital, Munich, is a school of all the arts. The bronze doors of the Capitol in Washington were cast in a Bavarian foundry. Count Rum- ford, philanthropist and man of science, born in Woburn, Mass., and for eleven years Ba- varian Minister of War and Police, reorganized labor and reformed social conditions. Always hostile to Prussia, the Bavarians since their subjection in 1866 have of necessity sullenly submitted to Prussian control. Re- ligious differences intensify the separation, seven-tenths of the 6,000,000 Bavarians being Roman Catholics. THE PRUSSIANS * The Prussians derive their name and origin from the Borussi, a fierce, large-boned people, kindred of the Lithuanians and Letts (see pages 464-465), living in the tenth century on the lowlands of the Oder, Vistula, and Niemen. Almost exterminated by the Teutonic Knights, the survivors besought the intervention of Po- land, which annexed those west of the Vistula. In 1525 Albert of Hohenzollern, grand master of the Knights, declared himself a Protestant and surrendered his lands to the King of Po- land, who thereupon created Prussia a Grand Duchy and made him Grand Duke. His remote descendant, Frederick, having bought the title of king from the emperor at a great price, with extraordinary pomp at Ko6nigsburg, where he was born, crowned himself King of Prussia, January 18, 1701. The Prussians, though completely German- ized, always differed from and were disliked and mistrusted by the other Germans. Von Treitschke says of Prussia, “from its beginning the most hated of German States.” Goethe wrote, “The Prussian was always a brute and civilization will make him ferocious,* “Ihe Prussians have always manifested peculiar traits, possibly derived from their common an- cestors, the merciless Knights and the fierce Borussi. At accession Frederick possessed a kingdom of 40,000 square miles and 1,500,000 inhab- itants, A year ago Prussia comprised 140,000 square miles and 40,000,000 inhabitants. This surprising result was accomplished by a continuous, consistent policy of employing duplicity, violence, or any infamous means to acquire territory and people. While the name * See also, in Nationa GrocRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “Prussianism,” by Secretary of State Robert Lansing, and “Germany’s Dream of World Domination” (June, 1918). 508 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Reds © Press Illustrating Service POLES IN PROCESSION AT THE FUNERAL OF A FAMOUS AMERICAN PRELATE The square-topped caps distinguish the uniforms of the Polish soldiers, while the fore- most private citizen of Poland, Ignace Paderewski, leads this contingent of his countrymen who are paying a final tribute to the late Cardinal Farley. Thousands of Poles in America who had not been naturalized, and therefore were not subject to the draft, volunteered for service against the Germans and were trained at a mobilization camp near Niagara Falls. On the western front the Polish Legion shared honors of war with the famous French Foreign Legion (see also page 499). Prussian is applied to- all Prussian subjects, the great majority belong to States spoliated or destroyed. This system was endured and favored as long as attended by the glamour of foreign military success. In the wars with Denmark, Austria-Hungary, and France, it intoxicated by triumphs, electric in rapidity. great disaster was sure to hurl it to the ground amid the awakened scorn and detestation of the German people. The political delirium now sweeping over Germany is manifestation of this awakening. SLAVIC TRIBES IN GERMANY Slavic tribes, formerly scattered through Germany as far as the Elbe, have been almost entirely absorbed into the German population. The Polabs, once numerous, were probably But. the trst - the last to disappear. The district in eastern Hanover, where their language was spoken as late as the seventeenth century, is still called Wend. In Lusatia, the name derived from the Slav tribe Lusitzi, now belonging to Saxony and Prussia, there are about 170,000 Sorbs, or Wends. In most difficult circumstances they have resolutely retained their language and customs in the midst of a German population eight times their number. Forgotten by the world and gradually becoming Germanized, they were vitalized by a remarkable national- istic awakening at the beginning of the nine- teenth century. Ill-treated in Prussia, they have been favored in Saxony, where their capi- tal, Bautzen, is an intellectual center. Their language is intermediate between Polish and Czech. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ia SCANDINAVIANS * The Scandinavians, or the Danes, Norwe- gians, and Swedes, Teutonic peoples, are so intimately related in race and history that, ex- cept with frequent repetition, it would be im- possible to discuss them separately. Scandi- navian is a term of unknown origin and mean- ing, long used to include them all. The vast, elongated northern peninsula be- tween the Gulf of Bothnia and the Atlantic doubles in breadth towards the south and bi- forks as if to admit the peninsula of Denmark between its extremities. West Denmark and Norway look outward upon the ocean, whose shores the Scandinav- ians were to harry and conquer. East Den- mark and Sweden look inward upon the Baltic and Europe. They planted settlers north of the Gulf of Finland, and east of the Gulf of Bothnia, and placed a Varangian Prince on the Russian throne (see page 457). From the human hive of Sweden, the Goths swarmed to Germany and southern Russia and thence to Italy and Spain, leaving their name everywhere in Sweden, as at Gothenburg and in the fabulously rich Gotland, where “the women spun with distaffs of gold” (pp. 453-4). In like manner, from overcrowded Norway great waves of emigration flowed to the plains of the Rhine and Elbe. The ocean, however, opened larger opportunity. Romance attaches to raids by sea, and the term viking has a lordly sound. But viking, from an old Norse word, means freebooter, or pirate; and nothing more than pirates the heathen vikings were; brave, looting, kidnapping, burning, and then fleeing in their high-pointed galleys. For two centuries they were the curse of the British Islands and of France. Then they began to remain on the lands they had ravaged and to resist later pirates like themselves. The Norwegians today inherit all the bra- very and sea skill of the vikings, without their barbarism and cruelty. In 1913 they had a larger tonnage of merchant shipping than any other country except Great Britain, the United States and Germany. The Scandinavian immi- grants into the United States have been nu- merous and welcome. In 1864 Prussia seized the Danish provinces of Schleswig and Holstein, thus appropriating over seven thousand square miles of territory and a million and a half people. In the Kingdom of Denmark, in 1918, there were about 3,000,000 inhabitants. Denmark possesses Greenland and Iceland. Norway had about 2,400,000 inhabitants in 1910; Sweden, 5,758,000 in IgI6. The great majority of the Scandinavians are fair-haired, blue-eyed, light-complexioned and long-headed. In general the Norwegians and Danes are democratic; the Swedes less so. Christianity was definitely established among * See also, in Nationar GrocrapHic MAGA- ZINE, In Beautiful Delecarlia,” by Lillian Gore (May, 1909). 509 the three nations in the eleventh century after obstinate resistance by the natives. All are now intensely Protestant. The ancient Scandinavians had a common Teutonic language known as Donsh Tunga, called by the Norwegians Old Norsk. This the Norwegians, who settled in Iceland in the tenth century, carried with them. Into Nor- way four centuries later Queen Margaret in- troduced Danish, and Norsk or Norse is now used only by the peasantry. But in Iceland the old tongue survives in purity. Danish, spoken with strong Norwegian accent, is readily understood in Sweden, and Swedish, with greater difficulty, by the Danes. Thorwaldsen, the sculptor, and Hans Chris- tian Anderson, author of the fairy tales, were Danes; Ole Bull, the violinist; the explorer, Nansen, and Amundsen, the discoverer of the South Pole, Norwegians; Frederika Bremer, the authoress; Jenny Lind, the “Swedish Night- ingale,’ and Linnzus, father of botany, Swedes. The three nations, though sometimes under one sovereign, have often fought one another, Norway in heart if not in arms generally on the side of Denmark. Now the three are not unfriendly. None the less, songs and plays, rehearsing victories over the Danes, are al- ways popular in Swedish theaters. OE as AD A tel This name, formerly comprehensive of all the Germans and from all its etymology signi- fying popular or national, is now applied in English only to the people and language of the Netherlands. Their country being below sea-level, they wrested the land from the ocean by dikes. In the sixteenth century they defeated Philip II of Spain while at the height of his power. In the seventeenth century they checked the there- tofore victorious career of Louis XIV and con- tended on equal terms with England for the mastery of the seas. Such achievements by a people numerically weak attracted the atten- tion of Europe and in England made the Neth- erlanders preéminently the Dutch. They were the first people to afford an asy- lum for free thought. People, elsewhere ostra- cised, betook themselves to Amsterdam or Rot- terdam as later to London or Geneva. Our Pilgrim Fathers, persecuted at home, found refuge in the Netherlands for twelve years be- fore sailing for the New World in the May- flower. The long conflict with Philip II revealed and intensified the character of the people. All the Netherlanders were equal in love of liberty. But the northern provinces were agricultural * See also, in NAtTIonat GEOGRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “Holland as Seen from a Dutch Win- dow,” by James Howard Gore (September, 1908); “Glimpses of Holland,’ by William Wisner Chapin (January, 1915), and “The City of Jacqueline,” by Florence Craig Albrecht (January, 1915). : - eT ER EN eee a IH BAY ‘SWwOpsuIy Jay}O 9Y4} JNMoOYsSno1y} pesoyeos atom eIssnIg JO SH ‘oN[e_ oy} UO ‘yDeqn’y surof{pe uos0d P43ryy eB opIyM ‘ers 5 eAeg JO JSOMYIIOU pur AIZA & “CIS YON 934} JO ssoyem oy} Aq poysem St Sinquap[C M dIIGUIT ULUIIL) 9} JO SUOISIAIP DAY-AJUIM} OY} JO AULT QIOI ‘AHANAAON NI ANVWUYXD ONIWYOI SHLVIS AHL ONIMOHS dVW V aurTeIIO’T JO Jsvo9Yy}IOU PUNOF oq 0} SI AIO}I19} S}I JO JUSTUSeIF Poyejop stqeiapisuos yo Ayond puesr) ol} FO uorsod sofew ay} a[ryM ‘ojdurexd JOY “paprarpqns usny utr 91a Joydesscjiey ‘peajsuing “fT “yw ra Start ee Rie Ss Pa ee See ee aoe, ee SIUNW JLNLvLS Sunquey Bes JeWIaA, -axes FAR Coley SN N \ % WW yooqni[ | SunquaploO RRS UeMyoS-Funquajyooyy INN \~ S oi | | EP ay SNMOL 3344 S3IHONG GNVvUYS < auressoy-aces|y[__ 3uequeninm [TTI elseaeg SQ GNV1 IvisadHl Auoxes FE eissnig WZ SWOJONIM add: -Bunquneyos BE Sg eh caren eon BHL 40 S31VLS FHL aul] Jaguno,‘ssnay fae | No ia bo as STY Wath eu & pe SLO oe? © B opn Seine eaine A uasnt ,suapuog g -3ungzsemyos & S3ILITWdIONIYd yeyu ey}09-gunqoy-axe | Bunqueyy-exes [fli] q Yi Os 1 \e ueSuluisy -oxes BSS v Uy, ; EIU i x \ Z 4 WX é es) Rh = 3 ‘3: £8, 47 Hf Gis STssnag (e2ahes “Oo = Z NG 4 4 4 W ro) Set UE Mike iA 3 / DET ES 7 WJ ssh - yoImsunig RNS 9-1 FY SA!HONG | Aas 707 ENA YUL N ZV YY) Wf “N ay PUueloZjo, . wyouu 40g 510 - | THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and Protestant and all spoke Flemish or Frisian. The southern provinces were industrial and Roman Catholic and a large proportion of the people spoke French. ‘These conflicting inter- ests resulted in separation. The northern be- came the States General of Holland. The southern remained under Spanish or Austrian rule until the French Revolution. Forced to- gether on the fall of Napoleon, the southern or Belgian provinces broke away in 1830 and formed themselves into the kingdom of Bel- gium. There were in 1916 about 6,600,000 Dutch. The old Frisian element is still strong in the north, though partly assimilated by the pre- dominant Dutch. Despite the influx of for- eigners, the character of the people and the racial stock have been little modified. Hugo Grotius, the father of international law, and Itrasmus were Dutch. The Netherlands had a prominent share in discovery and in the settlement of the New World. New York was long the province of New Netherlands; the city was New Amster- dam. Dutch influence was one of the strong- est factors in shaping American politica] insti- tutions. ‘Two Presidents of the United States were of Dutch ancestry. EEN ISS = The Swiss of today present a more interest- ing subject of study than does the unsolved problem of their remote ancestors, and of the occupants of the pile dwellings in their lakes. They are the direct descendants of the Latin- ized Celtic Helvetii, of the warlike Alemanni who pushed into their mountains from the north, of Burgundians coming from the west after sojourn in France, of Rhetii on the east and of Italians fleeing from the south. Di- versity and tolerance were their characteristics from the first. It was the “Men” of Uri, the “Community” of Schwytz and the “Associa- tion” of Unter-Walden who drew up in Latin their “Everlasting League” in 1201. The story of William Tell and the Oath of Rutli, though they disappear from authentic history, are instinct with the spirit which won “the small battles of immortal memory,” Morgarten, Sembach, Nefels, Morat, Keppel, and innumerable more. Zurich and Geneva have since been centers of culture, but the three Forest Cantons are the synonyms of heroism and liberty. The Cantons have slowly increased from three before 1300, ten before 1500, all in the valley of the Aar, to the present twenty-two. Valais, Neuchatel and Geneva in 1815 were the last additions. * See also, in Nationar, Grocrapoic Maca- ZINE, “In Valais,” by Louise Murray (March, 1910) ; “A Woman’s Climbs in the High Alps,” by Dora Keen (July, to11); “Mont Blanc and the Swiss Alps,’ by W. W. Hyde (August, 1913), and “The Citizen Army of Switzerland” (November, 1915). 511 Fifty-seven per cent of the inhabitants are Protestants and forty-three per cent Roman Catholic. Seventy per cent are German-speak- ing, twenty-two per cent [*rench-speaking, nearly seven per cent Italian, and slightly over one per cent Romansch, all equally Swiss. In the Canton of Grisons, and nowhere else, Ladin is spoken, “a laggard sister of French and Italian.” German, French and Italian are equally official languages. Of the 3,880,000 inhabitants, 550,000 are foreign residents. The area of Switzerland is about the same as that of Maryland and Delaware united. Adjustment of cantonal, individual, and racial interests has not been easy. ‘The Swiss, until within the last seventy years, have ex- perienced internal dissensions and civil war. But the goal of a well-nigh perfect union has been reached. Their “twenty-two small States, differing from each other in nearly every point, re- ligious, political, social, industrial, physical, and linguistic,” constitute a federal republic which in maintenance of public welfare, in- dividual rights and general harmony is unsur- passed among the political creations of all time; Ene, AAT EAN Ss © One of the marvels of human history is the extraordinary Italian race that for 2,000 years. has blessed the world with one succession of geniuses—inventors, musicians, authors, crea- tors of inspiration and advancement—from which all other peoples have benefited. The Italians, like the Americans, are a most composite people. Nowhere else in Europe have so many foreign elements fused with the native element to produce a modern nation. Successive fusion was the practice at Rome from the time the city comprised hardly more than the Palatine Hill, even down to the time it became a world empire. Since then cir- cumstances rather than a basic principle have determined fusion. Roman citizens were the direct ancestors of the Italians. But not they alone. At the time of Christ very many of the inhabitants of Italy were slaves. They were the strongest, most perfect physically, and most capable from among the peoples the Romans subdued. * See also, in Nationat GEocRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “Austro-Italian Mountain Frontiers” (April, 1915); “Frontier Cities of Italy,” by Florence Craig Albrecht (June, 1915); “Italy, the Gifted Mother of Civilization,” by Arthur Stanley Riggs (October, 1916); “Our Littlest Ally” (San Marino), by Alice Rohe (August, 1918); “Little Known Sardinia,” by Helen Dunstan Wright (August, 1916); “A Country Where Going to America Is an Industry” (Sicily), by Arthur H. Warner (December, 1909) ; “Gems of the Italian Lakes,” by A. E. Mayer (August, 1913), and “The Battle-field of Nations and of Nature” (Sicily), by Mrs. George C. Bosson, Jr. (January, 1909). "(g0S esed 4x0} 008) ,, PJOs JO SHejsip YIM UNds UsMOM dy}, SOYA “puer[}O YI A]snopnqe} ay} ur puv Sinquayjoy je se {IspaMS UT a1ayMAIOAS ouleu Jfay} Suravsy ‘ureds pue Aye] 0} 9duay} puke eIssny UsJoyINOs pue AUPUII9y 0} PalieMs syj}OD oY} UapaMg FO ATY ueuIny oy} wodsy,, NadaMs NI SHTIINS AO GVOTALVS V ullmMops ‘5 Aq uderso010yd WG oS io) wm THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Like Nebuchadnezzar at Jerusalem, the Ro- man conqueror chose and carried off “men of valor,’ “the craftsmen and smiths,” but left behind “the poorest sort of the people of the land.’ For centuries at Rome the school teachers were always slaves, their office desig- nated by a Greek title.- The proudest families of Italy have no need to blush that the blood of Roman slaves courses in their veins. From each of the innumerable invasions from the north many permanent settlers re- mained. Foreign interference and domination fills the story of Italy through the Middle Ages and far into modern times, relieved by isolated, brilliant efforts of City States at self-govern- ment and order. Discouragement pervaded all classes of society. And yet, while swinging between despotism and anarchy, Italy evolved the most beautiful of modern languages, a rich and varied litera- ture, and the loftiest expression of art. Fur- thermore, she rendered the world her debtor for inventions and discoveries of the highest rank and for precious contributions to the hu- manities and inductive science. Moreover, from her ancient capital, as the ‘spiritual center of the Roman Church, was radiating the sole humanizing influence in an age of universal turbulence and lawlessness. One shrinks from the attempt to name a few of the greatest Italians. It is well-nigh impos- sible to select from so numerous a host. There is “not a department of human knowledge from which Italy has not extracted glory; no art that she has not adorned”—Virgil, Marcus Aurelius, Dante, Tasso, Columbus, Raphael, Michel Angelo, Da Vinci, Galileo, Canova, Savonarola, Torricelli, Galvani, Volta, Marconi. In 1870 long-disappointed dreams were real- ized and Italy was reunited. She has since lived under a constitutional system which re- sembles that of England more than does the system of any other country on the continent. No mere consideration of material gain in territory and population nerved the Italian arm in the last war, but the burning desire that Tyrolian and Friulian kindred should enjoy the freedom and good government which the eman- cipated in the mother country had won. Italy in 1917 had about 37,000,000 inhabitants and an area of over 110,000 miles. Since then the Italians have conquered the enemy and the Alps, and their brethren, formerly under a for- eign yoke, have been redeemed. Historical causes have produced many differences of dia- lect, which are gradually disappearing. The Tuscan of Florence is the purest Italian. Sicily and Sardinia are of nearly equal size, about 10,000 square miles; but Sicily, with al- most 3,000,000 inhabitants, is four times the more populous. The three islands—Sicily, Sardinia, and Cor- sica—the latter a department of France, have had an existence as chequered as the mainland. In Sardinia, the least disturbed by invasion, there is very small intermixture of foreign 913 blood. The Sardinians are the shortest of the Italians. Hence Sergi infers they are descend- ants of an early pigmy race from central Africa. Corsica and Sicily have been submerged by every wave of Mediterranean invasion and have changed masters many times. Corsica is content as’ part yor Hrance, but in early race and modern language resembles Italy more than do Sicily and Sardinia. All were early inhabited by Greek colonists. The Greeks main- tain that the Bonapartes were of Greek origin, originally called Kalemerida, of which Buona- parte is the literal translation. The islanders are sober, courteous, proud, implacable, and have high sense of honor. Physically they are strong and hardy. THE MALTESE Before the ascendancy of the Greeks and Romans the Pheenician language was supreme in the Mediterranean. In every colony, except one, which the Phcenicians founded, their lan- guage has been superseded and forgotten. But Malta, though a British possession, is still, as it was called by Diodorus Siculus, who lived in the time of Christ, “a colony of the Phceni- Clas. _ One-seventh of the Maltese understand Ital- ian, which is the language of the law courts. One-tenth can speak English, the use of which is increasing. Practically all of them speak daily the lingua Maltésé, once considered “Un arabe corrompu mélé d’italien,” now recognized as not Arab at all, but a Pheenician dialect. This unique survival of an elsewhere extinct language surpasses in interest all the many memorable invasions and sieges which Malta has known. The civil population of the three islands— Malta, Gozo, Comino—was 223,741 in .1017. Though the aristocracy are partly Norman, Italian, or Spanish, the people have been little affected by foreign influence. They are of an alert and well-proportioned figure, with ex- pressive and usually attractive faces, in general lighter than the southern Italians. They are industrious and frugal and are devoted to their families and the Roman Catholic Church.’ The rocky and barren islands afford scant sustenance, so the men are forced to seek em- ployment throughout the Levant, bringing their earnings home after each absence. They claim that Hannibal was born in Malta. At any rate they could attempt converse with him or with Queen Dido or Hiram of Tyre, should those ancient personages return to earth. THE RACES OF THE IBERIAN PENINSULA Geography does not account for the exist- ence of two peoples side by side, absolutely distinct, yet in most respects similar, with no apparent cause for separation. Nature, from the Pyrenees to Gibraltar, from the Mediter- ranean to the Atlantic, indicates common na- A NORWEGIAN MAUD MULLER AT WORK ON AN UPLAND FARMSTEAD Seventy per cent of the area of Norway is barren and more than twenty per cent is forest land, yet the remaining area (less than one-tenth the total) employs directly or indirectly fully forty per cent of the population. 514 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DEMURE DAUGHTERS OF TULIPLAND: There were in 1916 about 6,600,000 Dutch. 515 HOLLAND Despite the influx of foreigners into the Netherlands, the character of the people and the racial stock have been little modified (see text, page 509). tonal interests and a common destiny. There are no outward barriers. The same mountain chains, the same deep valleys, the same rivers, traversing both, create natural bonds (see map on page 500). Only by a sort of mental wrench can the in- terwoven threads of Spanish and Portuguese racial life be torn apart. But the prominence of each, the great role which each has filled in world affairs, require that they be discussed separately. At first, however, we must con- sider what the peninsula bequeathed them in common. Pheenician and Greek traders or colonists, and even the later-arrived Carthaginians, were apparently welcomed by the early Iberi and Celtiberi. Then followed the familiar story of ineffective resistance to Roman aggression. When the Teutonic invaders poured through the Pyrenees or doubled them in their ships, they found a completely Latinized people, en- joying the full Christian civilization of Rome. The Suevi established themselves in the north- west angle, between the Bay of Biscay and the ocean; the Vandals spread along the southern coasts; the Visi-Goths occupied all the remain- 516 ‘Protestant by Hues K, Frank A STURDY, INDUSTRIOUS, (EFFICIENT PRIO“ 1 Y PICA OF? a Fini RACE VHS DWE Crt The world owes much to the folk whose ancestral home is the land The Dutch were the wrested from the sea and preserved by dikes. first people to afford an asylum for free thought. from their own countries betook themselves to Rotterdam and Am- sterdam, as they later did to London, to Geneva, and finally to America. ing country, even across the Pyrenees as far as the Loire, in France. In unusual degree Spanish and Portuguese language, life, and character are the product of historical development. Yet little line of cleav- age between them appears until after the inva- sion of the Moslem Saracens and Moors. That invasion, begun in 710, deluged the entire penin- sula. Charlemagne, hastening to repel the in- vaders, was defeated at the Pass of Ronces- valles and hurled back. The resistance of the Christians, at first hopeless, never relaxed. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE PORTUGUESE * The Portuguese poets attribute the separate ex- istence of their nation and language to the Lusi- tani, who once occupied the west of the penin- sula as far north as the Douro, and are immor- talized by their intrepid attacks upon the Romans. At least from them Lusi- tania, the poetical Latin name of the country, is derived. Portugal was born on the battlefield. That was the age of chivalry. War against the infidels, ante- dating the Crusades, at- tracted the foremost knights of Christendom. Among them was Henry of Burgundy, in prowess little inferior to the Cid. Alphonso of Castile re- warded his valor with his daughter’s hand and created” him “Count of Portus: ales on ahve Douro.) Phe sont oi Henry, Alphonso, against desperate odds, inflicted a great defeat on the Moors at Ourique in 1139. His exultant sol- diers proclaimed him King “of - Portus Kale, now become Portugal. Henry refused the crown conferred only by the army. A States Gen- eral was convened to overcome his_ scruples. That assembly is remark- able. In it, for the first time in European history, representatives of the common people sat and acted as full equals of the clergy and nobles. The assembly showed the instinct of newborn nationality. ~ lts:s emaci= ments frequently repeat Portugal and Portu- guese, as if the words were pleasant. The at- tacks of Castile, which regarded the Portuguese as rebellious vassals, unified the nation. Their less sonorous, more nasal western dialect, here- tofore disdained, was now encouraged as a brand of nationality. People ostracized * See also, in Nationa, GkocrAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “The Greatness of Little Portugal,” by Oswald Crawford, and “The Woods and Gar- dens of Portugal,” by Martin Hume (October, IQIO). WS NS Ne \\ SWITZERLAND RY = LN Dab 4 4 a7 AND COQU / va SELEP COURL ' S a0) c S ~~ cD) n 7 nn om Q, uw oH ¥ (Lf) n Eno = = ao Ui be S Le oe | . maintains ally, i eneral harmony (see text industr composed of twenty-two States differing one from g 517 and and J: 9 and socially ights, zerl wit lly, alr S ica vidu 1 rE 1 1C70 polit ind ’ ly, al republ ious oC fo) i ic welfare The feder ers rel ner the publ the oth 518 Photograph by A, F. Sherman “OPEN MY HEART AND YOU WILL SEE GRAVED INSIDE OF B) Iie CYNON The Italians, like the Americans, are a most composite people. where else in Europe have so many foreign elements fused with the native element to produce a modern nation (see text, page 5I1). The Portuguese have always been a warlike and proud people. The spirit of that first democratic assembly, even when under seeming eclipse, has never been wholly lost. That spirit finally drove out the Moslems and extended their language beyond its natural frontiers. It rendered Portugal in the fifteenth century the foremost maritime, commercial, and colonial power in the world. It sent Diaz, Da Gama, and Magellan across many seas and demon- strated the earth a sphere by circumnavigation. The same spirit today fired the sons of Por- tugal to act their valiant part on the fields of Flanders and made them copartners in sacrifice and victory. (SEE ALSO PAGE 449) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC“ MAGAZINE Camoens, the preémi- nent writer of Portugal, inspired by love of coun- try, in the “Lusiads” em- bodied the romantic “epic of discovery” and shaped and stabilized the Portuguese language. Literary Portuguese is still called “the speech of Camoens.” His work, though less creative than that of Dante, is no less permanent. THE SPANISH * The peninsula writhed beneath the heel of the Moslem for eight hun- dred years. No other people has incarnated a national tragedy so pro- longed. The Portuguese farther west _ suffered less in the intensity of the struggle, which wrought itself into the soul of the Spanish char- acter. To this day Span- ish peasants address one another as caballero, or knight. The struggle produced that rigor and intensity of religious con- viction which found ex- pression in Torquemada and the Inquisition and which could not endure peoples of alien faiths, like the Jews and Moors, on Spanish soil. Ferdinand and Isabella, joint sovereigns of re- united Spain, inflicted the final overthrow upon the Moslems at Granada in 1492. From, that campeaar Granada Columbus, com- missioned by the Queen, went forth to the voy- age that brought to Eu- rope the New World. To the Spanish and the Portuguese of right belong the greatest glory for the epochal discoveries of that marvelous generation. Other nations emulated, but could not equal, their achievements upon the sea. The decline of Spain from her preéminence and the suppression of Portuguese independ- ence resulted from the reign: of Philip II, great-grandson of Ferdinand and Isabella. The many invasions of the peninsula had contributed many additions to the original No- * See also, in NATIONAL GEocRAPHIC MacA- ZINE, “Romantic Spain,” by Charles Upson Clark (March, 1910). THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Iberian race. The Christian kingdoms devel- oped individual differences of habit and char- acter. So did every province or district. In the extreme south, Andalusia, whose name survives from Vandal conquerors, has been partly or wholly occupied by Phcenicians, Car- thaginians, Romans, Vandals, Suevi, Goths, Jews, Moors, and Arabs. There has developed an Oriental type, handsome and languorous, good-tempered and ready-witted. The Asturians may well be proud. ‘Their mountain fastnesses were the only region in the whole peninsula which the Moslems were unable to subdue. The Cave of Covadonga, whence the Christian reconquest of Spain be- gan, is sacred like the Swiss Cave of Ritli. Since 1388 the title of the heir to the Spanish crown has been Prince of the Asturias, and after coronation the king becomes Count of Covadonga. Isolated, hard-working, thrifty, yet by taxation and harsh land laws kept al- ways landless and poor, they retain their spirit of independence and their pride of history and race. Among the Catalans one often remarks blue eyes, flaxen hair, and light complexions, atavis- tic indications of Gothic ancestry. The lan- guage spoken differs from other Spanish, being partly a decayed dialect of Provengal. In it -the troubadours, after expulsion from France, sang their last songs. Catalonia is a hive of universal and well-directed industry. The large-minded enterprise of the Catalans has made Barcelona, in spite of natural obstacles, a city of 630,000 inhabitants and the commer- cial and industrial capital of Spain. ‘They are notable for their revolutionary spirit and their instant opposition to whatever savors of re- action. The Castilians occupy the vast territories around Madrid. Theirs is the purest Spanish, the medium and the test of literary.excellence. They are haughty, cultured, lovers of the arts. The knightly Admiral Cervera was a Castilian. Cervantes and Lope de Vega, Velasquez, and Murillo are great names of Spanish literature and art. : The fifteen Balearic Islands have 320,000 in- habitants, all Spanish. The Moors, who held the islands over four hundred years, have left a marked impression on the physical appear- ance, habits, and language of the people. The language is also mixed with Proveneal. As the Spanish and Portuguese together share in amity the largest of the Mediterranean peninsulas, so do their children share the larger part of the Western Hemisphere. From the Rio Grande del Norto to the extremity of Cape Horn, all Mexico, Central America, and South America, except the Panama Canal Zone, oc- cupied by the United States, and _ British- Dutch-French Guiana, are dominated by the languages and the civilization of Portugal and Spain. Brazil, which includes nearly one-half this area, and joined the Entente Allies in the re- cent war, is Portuguese. The other States are Spanish. 519 A SENORITA OF SEVILLE This devotee of Terpsichore is a graduate of one of the finest dancing academies of Europe, for Spaniards, like the Russians before the war, pride themselves upon the thoroughness with which their professional dancers are trained. ATS) SR IEEINIG Tale pling French have the most distinct person- ality of any people of Europe. This is partly * See also, in Natrona, GrocrRAPHIC Maca- ZINE, “The France of Today,” by Major Gen- eral A. W. Greely (September, 1914); “The World’s Debt to France” (November, 1915) ; “The Beauties of France,” by Arthur Stanley Riggs (November, 1915) ; “The Burden France Has Borne,” by Granville Fortescue (April, 1917); “Our First Alliance and Our Second Alliance,’ by Ambassador Jusserand (June, 1917); “In French Lorraine,” by Harriet Chal- mers Adams (November-December, 1917), and “Our Friends the French,” by Carl Holliday (November, 1918). ‘sooys sty pue ‘Tred 19uUrp sty Yoxovl sty ssuvy jueseod ay} syeumue yyeIp 247 JO suio UQ ‘1dUIOD dUO UL Paared sso1d v& pur UOH2[AUIOS Sj JO dep dy} sivdq A]TENSN YIOMpOOM jo 9 JO ‘ayoA Surpueysdn ‘opim & JO WAOF oY} UT ‘oUIN}sOD dAeU <6 Y Surysuerq asny oy} usamjoq Sutst1 ‘sad 10 ‘ajod ayy SsIdtojseU OATIUNId sty y, “padres AJoyeioqeja ‘whung », SATUNSIP & TeoM sjuRsvod sy} UeY} Jay}eI uaxo day} [esny1og JO uornses sty} uy OTTHNdAd NVM AHL AO LOMISIG OHNIW HHL NI NAXO JO WVAL V CNV NAWANVaSAH ASanoALNOAd POOM IIzZpoay YINY wos1z Ydesrs0j0Yg 520 THbe NATIONAL GHOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 521 © Underwood & Underwood HOW THE SPANISH MILKMAID GUARANTEES HER CUSTOMERS DILUTED PRODUCT AGAINST AS SCN The scene is a street corner in the residence section of the famous city of Valencia. In the veins of the inhabitants flows the blood of many races which have occupied this region— Iberians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Visi-Goths, and Moors. ‘The Moorish influence has been particularly tenacious, both in the features and in the dialect of the people as well as in the architecture of the city. The first printing press in Spain is said to have been set up here in 1474, due to the complexity of their origin and to the unique situation of the country they in- habit. They are the product, through cen- turies of development, of the basic element, the Celt, early permeated by the civilization of the Greco-Latin and later supplemented by the Teuton. To no other European people have three great races so contributed their best. These contributions are not merely united, but ingrained in the Frenchman’s fiber. France is a territorial belt connecting central and southwestern Europe. Situated between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, its rivers flow into both. Hence it becomes the natural thoroughfare of commerce and ideas. No great idea has taken possession of the world without either originating in or passing through France. Ideas born elsewhere have been car- ried in France to their fullest development. All Frenchmen do not speak French. At the 522 extreme ends of France are four small groups whose mother-tongue is another language—the 200,000 Flemings near the Straits of Dover; the 200,000 Basques in the far southwest; the 250,- ooo Catalans in the eastern Pyrenees; and 1,000,000 Bretons in Brittany—all equally pa- triotic children of France. The Bretons are Celts. Their rugged pen- insula was formerly called Armorica. The in- flux of Britons from Greater Britain, escap- ing from the Angles and Saxons, more than doubled the inhabitants and bestowed the pres- ent name. The area of the peninsula is less than 10,000 square miles; yet in no other re- gion of equal size upon the globe are speakers of a Celtic language in the majority, and here they are constantly decreasing, Some recent ethnologists, basing their con- clusion on skulls found in the country, question whether the Bretons are Celts at all. Until more convincing arguments to the contrary are presented, one is justified in reckoning the Bretons as worthy members of the Celtic race. They are simple and untutored, conservative, religious, fearless, independent, and picturesque. The Langue d’Oui and Langue d’Oc, noted upon the map, do not signify merely local medieval differences in the manner of saying yes in French. Both are legacies—one from the Merovingian Frankish kingdom, which reached no farther south than the Loire, and the other from the Visi-Gothic kingdom, which spanned the Pyrenees along the eastern coast of Spain, and, above all, from Provence, the Roman Provincia. The two coincide with the physical and temperamental distinctions which characterize northern and southern France. To the ethnic composition of the latter not only Celts, Latins, and Teutons have contrib- uted, but prehistoric Ligurians, Phcenician and Greek colonists, and Moors and Saracens from Spain. The dialect hence developed, flowing, exuberant, tempestuous, became the fit instru- ment of the troubadour and of early romance. But that other dialect, which began in a little island of the Seine, where once all of Paris was included, was becoming the real French. Were all histories of France de- stroyed, the whole story would survive in the successive phases of the Langue d’Oui. In 1519 Francis I decreed that Parisian French, already the popular speech, should be the offi- cial’ language of the land. Exact, concise, capable of every shade of polite inflection, it speedily took its place as the organ of di- plomacy and of international relations. It has been said that “the French language made the French nation.” More truly, each made the other. and they struggled to maturity side by side. The language is the Frenchman put into speech—clear, sociable, attractive, sym- pathetic. So, four hundred years ago, the most cosmopolitan of travelers, Marco Polo, desiring in his Genoese prison to secure the attention of the world, decided that French was the fit language in which to write the story of his wanderings. Mention anywhere the French today. One THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE will not think of their literature or science, un- surpassed, or of their immense achievements in every field of thought and industry—of Pas- teur, Lavoisier, Cuvier, Bichat, Voltaire, Rous- seau, Rosa Bonheur, Moliére, Racme, Cor- neille, Victor Hugo, Balzac, Ampére. Instead, a picture will rise before the mind, pitifully inadequate and incomplete, of the men and women of France during these last intermi- nable years. A glory rests upon them, tran- scending all the glory of their past. A great poet, not a Frenchman, once wrote: “France is the soldier of God.” For more than fourteen centuries she has seemed to act, to fight, to conquer for the world. On her soil, and very largely by her sons, were fought the decisive battles of Chalons (451), which broke the power of the Huns; of Tours (732), which overwhelmed the Moslems; of Valmy (17092), which began “a new era in the world’s his- torv'; and of the..Matne. (19014 and= 1618); which crushed a foe more relentless and more frightful than Moslem or Hun. |. Humanity is debtor to the French until th end of time. THE BASQUES The Basques are an interesting people who live on both sides of the central Pyrenees in France and Spain and on the southeast shore of the Bay of Biscay. They number not far from 700,000, of whom more than 100,000 have emigrated to America, mostly to Argentina and Chile, and, unfortunately, few to the United States: They name themselves Eskualdanak, posses- sors of the Eskuara, their native tongue. ‘This language, utterly apart from the other lan- guages of Europe, is a puzzle to philologists. Some think its grammar suggests the Magyar and Finnic. Others consider it a modern form of the otherwise extinct Iberian. They use the Latin alphabet and can speak either French or Spanish. Their origin is lost in obscurity. Devoted children of the Roman Church, they, nevertheless, allow their clergy no influence in political or municipal affairs. Priests and law- yers, as supposedly inclined to despotism, are not eligible to their junta. Conservative, proud, and self-respecting, they are tenacious of their rights and deferential to women. The common saying, “Every Basque a noble,” is justified by the character of the people. Of splendid physique, they are tireless workmen, expert seamen, brave and capable soldiers. From Bilbao, their industrial center, we derive bilbo, Old English for sword. Bayonne, an- other Basque city, gives us the bayonet. Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Jesuit Order, and Saint Francis Xavier, the illustrious mis- sionary, were Basques. ‘The latter, however, with bluish gray eyes, fair hair and beard, hardly five feet tall, did not in physical appear- ance resemble his darker, stalwart countrymen. Marshal Foch, Generalissimo of the Allied forces, is a more typical Basque. Photograph by Emil P. Albrecht THE ROSE WINDOW IN THE CATHEDRAL OF STRASSBURG, FRANCE “And storied windows richly dight, Casting a dim religious light.’”—Milton. This famous church, the pride of the capital of Alsace, was begun in 1176. The name of the architect of the nave, begun in 1250 and completed in 1290, is unknown, but it is certain that he was a diligent student of French architecture, for the resemblance to the church of St. Denis (finished in 1231) is marked. 523 ‘aIof yeysieyy FO apts Joyyo 0} ‘Ieo1 oY} Ul UIdoOjer) [eIoUaX) pure JorjoI[og [eIouay {uos sty pue ‘siteq JO JouIOAOS Arey oy} Yreqnq [e1auey {a1yof -AOS AICP[MU 9Y4} FO Ifrm ‘leqnq owepeyy {Surysisg [etouax) + YOO [PYSIey :IYSI1 0} jfd] WOIT ‘MOI JUOIY 9} UT ‘UustueIssnid JO jeajop oy} ul pedjoy saorsy 9soy} JO [JY ‘(ezS ased 4x0} 99S) , pjiom ay} 10J Janbuos 0} ‘JYSY 0} Joe 0} pouiseas sey sys solinjuao usejMoj uey} VIOW 1047,, ,a0D AO YHIGIOS AHL SI HWONVAT,, >ALOUM AONO ‘NVWHONWYIT V LON ‘La0d LVAaID V pooMispuy, ‘SJUPPUDISIP Jay} pue IZ-OZQI JO JEM JY} JOUIS SJULISIWIUIT UPUIIO) 918 ‘q[@ Ul OOO‘OO£ ‘ysar oy, ‘ooo0'SL Jo JUDSUNUOD v dn aye (Sinoquiaxn’y Jo aJdood oy} pue ‘ssImG “YdUeTT ‘sueiypejy] oy} A[qej}ou) SusTTe sy, “Youely Uddq VARY P[NOM 4IOFAULI FO AJEs1T, 9Yy} JOF Jdaoxo ‘oym pure ‘IZgI ‘I AVP BLOfod sUleIJO’T-soVSsTY Ul UTOq 919M sjUoTed I9y} JO SaAfesuoy} OYM JUSISIP YOuIT~ JO sauresrso’[-sooes[V Ooo'ooS'I sapnpoul uoreyndod siyz “sewypoD JO Ad oy} JO JOAVWL ATJOWIOF ‘EyJUoUIN[ PrAed 0} SUIplodoVy ‘plorZeI sem O61 ut UoNL{Ndod syJ, ‘“puv[AIVpY JO 331g oY} se assey se Jyey UeLY} Ssof ArOjIIO1 B sdvIqQIa sadUTAOId ssaqJ, “petOjset MOU QOURI JO S9OUIAOIA }sO] 9DUO dy} ‘aUIeIIO’T-9deSTY JO afdood ayy Aq wrejsoe sNoAO! YUM po9atodII 9IoM UOTJedNI0 Jo Ate YUSI oY} Ul SN{IOg AYNLINAO V FIVH WALAV ANVWYAD WOU GAYAAITAG MON ‘SLOIMLVd WOOD YIHHL AD GHNOOTAM ZIAW NI NOIWLVdNO00 JO AWAV HONDA AHL AO SYAdNAW POOMIapUuy_) Y poomiapuy O) Nese ee Wy Photograph by A. W. Cutler AN IRISHMAN OF THE “OLD SCHOOL” Although he has appropriated the English language, the Irishman remains a typical Celt—typical in habit of mind, in disposition, character, and to a degree in personal appear- ance. The subject of this illustration, at the age of 83, walks from his home to Galway and return every Thursday, a distance of 10 miles. He clings to the costume of a bygone day. Many of our readers saw this picturesque regalia worn by the Irish division in the great 1918 Fourth of July pageant of the foreign born, held in the National Capital 526 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tek BELGIANS+* {HE WALLOONS AND FLEMINGS The Kingdom of Belgium dates from 1830, when the seven Catholic provinces revolted from distasteful union with the Kingdom of the Netherlands. A spirit of independence, of re- sentment .at injustice, of determination to maintain rights, has always animated this heroic people. The ancient Belge occupied all Gaul from north of the Seine and west of the Rhine. Rheims, Soissons, Amiens, and Beauvais per- petuate the names of the Remi, Suessiones, Ambiani, and Bellovaci, their warlike tribes who fought against Cesar. The Belgians now comprise two main fac- tors—the Walloons and the Flemings. The Walloons, from a common Teutonic word meaning foreign, are found in southern Belgium, where are Li¢ge and Namur upon the Meuse; in the French department of Nord, with its cities of Lille, Douai, Cambrai, and Valenciennes, and in a few Rhenish villages. They speak French and have a strong attach- ment to France. The Flemings are more numerous and occupy the greater part of the kingdom and of the coast of Nord, with Dunkirk. They speak Flemish, a German dialect. Originally German in lineage, they are above all intensely national and have equalled the Walloons in courage and devotion. During the last war the Germans resorted to every artifice to alienate them from the Walloons, but without avail. In 1910, of the 7,571,000 Belgians, 3,221,000 spoke only Flemish, 2,833,000 only French, and 871,000 both French and Flemish. The Bel- gian Government at first opposed official use of Flemish, but in 1878 it was made equal with French in the courts and administration and in 1883 in the schools. The Flemish provinces were made bi-lingual. Full religious liberty is enjoyed. The great majority of the people are presumably Roman Catholic, but since 1891 no questions are asked at the census regarding communion or profes- sion. At the beginning of the world war, in 1914, the area of the kingdom was 11,373 square miles. A Conference of the Great Powers in 1831 determined the boundaries between Bel- gium and the Netherlands. Though obliged by circumstances to recognize Belgian inde- pendence, the Conference did not sympathize with the authors of a revolution. In conse- quence, the boundary line was traced to the disadvantage of the Belgians. To the Dutch were assigned peoples east of the Meuse, who were strongly pro-Belgian; also both banks of the Scheldt, thus cutting off approach by sea * See also, in Nationar, GrocrapHic Maca- ZINE, “Belgium the Innocent Bystander,” by William Joseph Showalter (September, 1914), and “Belgium’s Plight,” by John H. Gade (May, 1917). 27 On to the great port of Antwerp except through Dutch waters. One cannot doubt that this in- justice will be rectified. Sixteen years ago in his “Living Races of Europe,’ Hutchinson said: “Bravery, intelli- gence, and energy are strong as ever in the Belgians. They excel in the arts of peace, as formerly they were proficient in the arts of war. They now present an attractive picture of a prosperous, peaceable, and thoroughly comfortable little people.” The first two sentences are still true, only intensified. The picture of the last sentence it is the privilege of Europe and America to FEStOLE, Al Tele SIRS tel The word Irish is derived by successive steps from Erin, an early and now purely poetic mame for Ireland. Myths and legends are handed down regard- ing the origin of the Irish, but little is known of them with certainty before the fifth century. Then they were emerging from the control of the Milesians, who had come no man can say from where, and who apparently had long held the greater part of the island in subjection. The Irish, like the Gaelic Scotch and the few inhabitants of the Isle of Man, belong to the Goidelic or Gaelic branch of the Celtic family. This Celtic element is the permanent fact in Irish character and the controlling fact in Irish history. None the less, it is true that few peo- ples are more composite than the Irish. Into their structure are built the English, Scotch, Welsh, Danish, Norwegian, and French. Ex- terminating wars, forced expatriation, enlist- ment of more than 400,000 Irishmen in Furo- pean armies during the space of sixty years, drained the native population. Colonization, many times repeated, brought in hosts of for- eigners, and must, of necessity, have disturbed the equilibrium of racial life. And yet, the Irishman has absorbed the blood of them all and appropriated the language of his conquerors, remaining all the while a typical Celt—typical in habit of mind, disposition, char- acter, and to-a great. degree: in personal ap- pearance. Something in the Irish nature seemed to at- tract the strangers who dwelt in his midst. During the first four centuries after the Eng- lish conquest the English settlers of the island, whether of low or high degree, adopted Irish ways, intermarried with the Irish, and adapted their own names to Irish forms. Many of the Irish names, heard most often, can be traced back to such a source. Nor did this tendency entirely cease, even after the religious rancor engendered by the Protestant Reformation. The Irish were always religious. For six hundred years their country was known as “The Isle of the Saints.” While Latinized lands seemed sinking back into pagan barba- rism, the Irish were founding schools and send- ing missionaries to Scotland, England, Wales, and over western Europe. Saint Patrick, who "SJYSII Id} JO ssueTop dy} UT SurstuorduosunN pue ‘AdeuT}sqo 0} Apinjs ‘snoties ‘possnsi ‘Oryetoowep oie Asyy, *AI} -§99UK JUDIOUR d]qeWIOPU! ITIY} JO AYIOM YIO}s & FO J1B ADY} JY} VOTLZI[eIT IY} [LSIIATUN SOLU JEM P]IOM 9} UI SIIPJOS YSTaM ADYOHO-GAOTTI CIAV uosdwayy, neg Aq yde1rs0j0yg x qd GNV Noswaataf SVWOHL JO SYXHLOUT AVA : NHWHS'THM 528 TEE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Christianized Ireland by persuasion, established at Armagh a school attended by seven thousand students. Saint Columba created at Iona, in the Hebrides, monastic seminaries, a strong- hold of Christian teaching, thronged by foreign youth, who carried back to less favored coun- tries this light from the West. The Irish Christians, long unconnected with Rome, afterward became devout Catholics. The vigorous efforts of Henry VIII and of some of his successors to force Protestantism upon them only embittered resentment. Had the English remained Catholic or the Irish be- come Protestant the heat of later difference might have been partly prevented. The settle- ment of English and Scotch colonists in the northeast corner of the island further compli- cated the situation by the introduction of a hostile religious element. Of the Irish in Ireland, 3,243,000, or three- fourths of the entire number, are Roman Cath- olics. The more than a million Protestants are members of the Protestant Episcopal and Pres- byterian churches. The homeland of the Irish has an area of 32,586 square miles. How nearly one, geo- graphically, are the appropriately called Em- erald Isle and Great Britain few persons ap- preciate. The width of the shallow North Channel, between the Mull of Cantire (Scot- land) and Torr Head, is only 1314 miles. The Irish Sea, between Dublin and Holyhead (Wales), is less than 70 miles across, and St. George’s Channel, at the southern extremity, is less than 50 miles wide. Irish, “the classic language of the Celts,” is fast yielding place to English. Spoken in the middle of the last century by more than half the people, it is now spoken by less than one- seventh. The population is likewise steadily growing less. There were a million more inhabitants in Ireland in 1801 than there are today. A very careful census was taken by the British Gov- ernment on the Act of Union to determine the number of representatives in Parliament to which Ireland was entitled on a basis of popu- lation. The number thus determined was made permanent, because the government wanted the Irish to feel that they would never have less representatives than then, and also because it was believed that the Irish, being prolific, might have in time an inconveniently large number of representatives in Parliament. As it turned out, however, at present Ireland has one representative for about every 42,000 people and England one for about every 70,000 people. Scotland, with several hundred thousand more inhabitants, has about two-thirds as many members of Parliament as [reland. “The claim of blood was the strongest which the ancient Celt knew.” There is nothing finer or more Celtic than the devotion of the Irish in foreign lands to their kin at home. The exuberant nature, the sometimes flighty purpose, the impractical attempt, the daring, generous spirit, the faithful and sympathetic nature, the courtesy and the quickness, the love 529 of poetry and song, mark alike the ancient and the modern Celt. None but a Celtic soul would have chosen the harp as its national emblem. Tae BRELISH * The names, Englishman, Scotchman, Welsh- man, are historic, each invested with precious traditions of its own. Yet each ts a. local ap- pellation, fitly associated with a limited area in an island that itself is small. Because English- men form the majority in the island, the mis- take is often made by foreigners of speaking of the “English ambassador,” “the English army,” “the English navy,’ when in fact there is no such thing. “The meteor flag” is not the symbol of a petty insular distinction, but of the British race. In the larger personality of the Britisher the Englishman, the Scotchman, the Welshman, and many an Irishman are lost and forgotten. Ts 4 W EES EL The Welsh formerly held possession of all the western coasts of Britain from the mouth of the Severn northward for three hundred miles. They are now found chiefly in the Principality of Wales. Though amalgamated with a far more numerous people, they possess a distinct importance of their own. Together with the Bretons of Britanny in France and the Cornish, now absorbed in the main English body (the Cornish language has been unspoken for over one hundred years), they constitute the Brythonic group, or one- half of the once great Celtic family. Brython is the name under which the Welsh include themselves and the ancient Britons. In spite of the marked revival of Welsh literary effort in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Welsh language is steadily giv- ing way before the English. In 1911 only four- tenths of the two million Welsh could speak their Celtic tongue at all. Thirty years earlier it was in daily use by seven-tenths of their people. There was no horror of invasion, no form of resistance, no phase of alternate victory and defeat, which, from the time of the Ro- mans, for centuries the Welsh did not undergo. Finally Llewelyn submitted to Edward I in 1277. The heir to the English throne was to bear the title of Prince of Wales,. and. the grandson of the Welshman, Owen Tudor, be- come King of England as Henry VII and found the Tudor dynasty. Shortly afterward * See also, in NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGA- ZINE, “England: The Oldest Nation of Eu- rope,’ by Roland G. Usher (October, 1914); “Channel Ports and Some Others” (July, 1915); “London,” by Florence Craig Albrecht (September, 1915) ; “One Hundred British Sea- ports” (January, 1917); “What Great Britain is Doing,” by Sydney Brooks (March, 1917), and “What the War Has Done for Britain,” by Judson C. Welliver (October, 1918). 530 Wales was incorporated with England and its people have since enjoyed all English rights and privileges. The Welsh inherit all the higher character- istics of their indomitable ancient ancestry. They are democratic, rugged, serious, sturdy to obstinacy, insistent on education, religious in the highest sense, and uncompromising in defense of their rights. They have given the world Thomas Jefferson in the United States and David Lloyd George, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. THE. SCOTCH A peculiar charm attaches to the word Scot- land. No land is more the synonym of poetry and romance. Its every river and lake has swelled with the lifetide of freedom and its austere mountains are monuments of deeds as imperishable as themselves. Beyond conjecture, no information exists re- garding the origin of the Picts, its first known inhabitants, the formidable antagonists of the Romans. When the Scots, a Celtic Irish peo- ple, arrived, they found the Picts in possession. From the Scots the country, originally known as Hibernia, was called Scotland, while the name Hibernia was transferred to Scotia, which Ireland was called from the third to the tenth century. Thus, curiously, the two coun- tries exchanged names. The Scots and Picts combined in raids upon the Britons, who implored the dangerous as- sistance of the Northmen. Bands of other Northmen rushed in all along the coast. Gradually two Englands emerged; one gen- erally corresponding to modern England as far as the Humber and one situated north of the Humber and extending far beyond the Tweed. Similar bands of invaders, speaking a like English in the making, formed both and were mutually unfriendly and suspicious. The north- ern kingdom was persistently loyal to the Pict- ish kings, who themselves paid nominal homage to the King of England. The northern kingdom, planted athwart the middle of the island and occupying its most fertile and prosperous part, was inhabited by a resolute people who were never conquered, not even by the Normans. Its position determined the subsequent events of English and Scottish history. The fierce border raids, the aggres- sions of the English crown, and the frequent wars, Sir William Wallace, Robert Bruce, Ban- nockburn, and Flodden, were natural results. The inhabitants were early Christianized, as were the Picts, by Irish missionary monks who acknowledged no dependence on Rome. Thus early was imparted that bent toward religious independence and with it that tendency toward personal examination which have illustrated Scottish character. Though in time they were to enter the Roman communion, there never was any change, either as Catholics or later as Protestants, in the attitude of the free-thinking Scottish mind. The Highland Scots absorbed the Picts, but THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE were harassed and weakened by repeated in- cursions of the Northmen, who forced them farther inland and themselves occupied all the coasts. They peopled also the Shetlands, Orkneys, and Hebrides. To the northern county of Scotland, as south of Norway, they gave the name of Sutherland, which it still re- tains. Except in the mountain fastnesses, Norse crowded out the Gaelic and, though no longer spoken, left many place-names and me- morials of its one-time supremacy. The sharp division of the Highlands and Lowlands has profoundly affected the life of the country. Of different race and language, the inhabitants of each section long regarded the other with condescension approaching dis- dain. Both are equally Scotch in pride of an- cestry and national feeling. Both in marked degree are of composite racial stock, though in the Highlander the Celtic element and in the Lowlander the English element predominates. The steady progress of the English language contributes to assimilation. Today less than one-twentieth of the Scotch can speak Gaelic and only one-tenth of that twentieth speak Gaelic only. In all the Shetland and Orkney islands, only 120 persons speak Gaelic at all. Gaelic is, however, predominant in the fast de- populating Hebrides. The Scotch in general are thrifty, cautious, and frugal. But no people are more just, more generous, more quick to imperil life or prop- erty or position at the call of duty. Nowhere are there more incisive minds. Nowhere is the reasoning faculty more developed. A Scotch name is significant of sterling qualities of heart and character. There is no high place of philanthropy, statesmanship, or world achievement that Scotchmen have not filled—Walter Scott, Car- lyle, Hume, John Knox, Robert Louis Steven- son, Alexander Graham Bell, Watt, Robert Burns, Gladstone, Balfour, Bryce, Haig, and Beatty. THE ENGLISH It is said that the Arabic words in English (such as algebra, alchemy, coffee, alcohol, etc.) have exercised more influence on the language than all the Celtic words in the vocabulary. However, the words, Britain and British, come from the name the Celts themselves gave the island. Names of hills and rivers in England and those ending in ford (crossing), ton or don (farm) and ham (home) are almost all Celtic. Thus the Severn, Dee, Ouse, Thames, London, Epsom (Ebba’s home), Horsham (Horsa’s home), Oxford (ford of the Ouse) are daily unheeded reminders of the Celt. Otherwise Celtic hardly exists in the English language and still less in English blood. The utter disappearance from England of the race that withstood the Romans and produced Boadicea and Caractacus is surprising. Prob- ably the sea-kings were by nature no more cruel than the barbarians of the continent. But the Celts, or Britons, were obstinate, numer- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Do ii Photograph by William Reid A YOUNG SCOT In the race name “Scotchman” this kilt-clad boy possesses a priceless heritage, for it is synonymous with sterling qualities of heart and character. “The Scotch in general are thrifty, cautious, and frugal. or property or position at the call of duty.” ous, and powerful, while the bands of sea- rovers were small, not united, and in the utmost peril. Only by terrorism or extermination could they overcome the Britons. Green states that “when the conquest of the bulk of Britain was complete,’ one hundred and twenty-eight years after Hengist and Horsa landed at Ebbs- fleet, “not a Briton remained as subject or slave” in the conquered territory. According to the Saxon chronicler, in 800, Egbert, the first king of the country for the first time united, decreed it should henceforth be called Anglia, or England. Then followed two hundred and fifty years, filled by ever fresh invasions and by the illustrious names of Alfred the Saxon and Canute the Dane. At last, on the field of Hastings all those racial elements were in presence on which the future of England depended: the English peo- ple with its character forged by six centuries of incessant and desperate struggle; and the But no people are more just, more generous, more quick to imperil life Normans, no less strenuous and valiant, but tempered into finer steel by two centuries of residence in France. For hours after the battle was lost the English fought on around their dead king, and for years from retreats in the forests and hills they broke forth in fierce, hopeless rebellion. Not until the Hundred Years’ War with France were the English people and the Nor- man conquerors welded into one and the Norman-French replaced by English as the language of law and the court. Crowds of later immigrants, like the fugi- tives from the Netherlands and the Huguenots from France, were to increase England’s in- dustrial strength, but not to impair or modify her racial stock or character. It was .the forces that clashed at Hastings which, after generations of stress and struggle, culminated in the greatness of the modern Englishman. Painting by Abel Boye THE DAUGHTER OF A RACE OF EMPIRE-BUILDERS An English girl, hers is the language of two hundred millions of the world’s inhab- itants; her forefathers were the champions of liberty, winning the Magna Charta on the field of Runnymede; her brothers of the British Isles, of North America, of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa do now and will keep the faith—defending the weak, succoring the needy, maintaining order, and advancing the day of which her poet laureate sang: “One God, one law, one element, And one far-off divine event, To which the whole creation moves.” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 53 It is common to speak of the English as an Anglo-Saxon people, though the expression is false and misleading. All Anglo-Saxons are English but multitudes of the English are not “Anglo-Saxon. In his ode to Alexandra, Ten- Mysomestnikes: a truer note, “Norman and Saxon and Dane are we” The main work of the Saxon was accom- plished in the occupation and populating of Greater Britain. He furnished the basic mass of a vigorous, resolute, enduring people. The Scandinavian, who was Norseman, or Norman, was the most independent and venturesome of all the. early makers of modern Europe. Through the vast expanse of land and ocean, from Russia and the Black Sea to remote Ice- land and Greenland, there was no region which his passion for discovery and conquest did not attempt. The English, sprung from the loins of the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman, inherit whatever was best in their progenitors. Unparalleled achievements on land and sea, the building of an Empire in comparison with which the Roman Empire was small, creation and development of Magna Charta and of constitutional government and law and, as basis and compeller of such achievements, the grit that brooks no defeat, are the contribu- tion of no single tribe or group of ancestors but proceed from the combined spirit of what is enduring in them all. A brilliant French- man finds the key to English character in the one word, “self-reliance.” This war has not created the Englishman. He is no different now from what he was be- fore it began. It has simply afforded fresh revelation to himself and to us of what he is: Often arrogant, but seldom vain; fair in fight and just in victory; warm-hearted under a cold demeanor; fundamentally conservative when most radical; insular and narrow, yet with the genius of world-rule; seldom loved abroad, but loved and lovable at home; despising meanness and deceit and himself loyal to the last. Were the Italians, the French, and the Brit- ish to enter into comparison, no jury could be found competent to determine which stood foremost in the products of the intellectual life. There is, however, one transcendant name, an English name, though it seems not so much to belong to one race as to all races— Shakespeare, the interpreter of humanity, myr- iad-minded, and of all writers the most un- translatable and the most easily understood. From the British Isles the British race, in circles ever widening, has encompassed the earth. More than any other race in all the past, it has carried with it civilization and equal op- portunity and liberty. Under its protection in the farthest continents and seas its offspring have erected self-governing Dominions and Commonwealths, whose proudest inheritance is their British lineage and their British loyalty.* * See also, in the Nationat, GEOGRAPHIC Macazine, “Great Britain’s Bread Upon the Waters,’ by ex-President William H. Taft (March, 1916). CO THE ENGLISH-SPEAKING PEOPLES Its medium of communication is the English language, spoken by well-nigh 200,000,000 per- sons as their mother tongue. ‘Those 200,000,000 as a body are the most enterprising, most wealthy, most intelligent in the world. No other language, even in China or Hindustan, is spoken by half as many. Beside the enormous host of whom it is the birthright, its diffusion among other millions is rapidly increasing. One is startled as he hears it in the commands on Eastern steamers, or in interviews between foreign magnates, or in remote villages where presumably no British person has ever been. In the heritage of that well-nigh universal language the American has his share. In the bonds and sympathies created by it he finds his keith, ands kin: Eloquently were these inheritances recalled by the modest gentleman who presides over the British Dominions, in his address welcoming to Great Britain the President of the United States : “We welcome you to the country whence came your ancestors and where stand the homes of those from whom sprang Washington and Lin- coln. You come as the official head and spokesman of a mighty Commonwealth bound to us by the closest ties. Its people speak the tongue of Shakespeare and Milton. Our litera- ture is yours, aS yours is also ours, and men of letters in both countries have joined in main- taining its incomparable glories. “To you, not less than to us, belong the memo- ries of our national heroes from King Alfred down to the days of Philip Sydney and Drake, of Raleigh and Blake, and Hampden, and the days when the political life of the English stock in America was just beginning. You share with us the traditions of free self-government as old as the Magna Charta. “We recognize the bond of still deeper signifi- cance in the common ideals which our people cherish. First among those ideals you value and we value freedom and peace. Privileged as we have been to be the exponents and the examples in national life of the principles of popular self-government based upon equal laws, it now falls to both of us alike to see how these principles can be applied beyond our own bor- ders for the good of the world.” In the goodly fellowship of the Entente Allies, British and Americans, for the first time in all their history, have bared their breasts side by side against a common foe. They have bled together as champions of those who cherish their own individual rights and respect the rights of mankind. No formal parchment, however drawn up and _ signed, could further strengthen and hallow such alli- ance of heart and purpose. As General Pershing has well said in his re- port after the conclusion of hostilities, “Alto- gether it has been deeply impressed on us that the ties of language and blood bring the British and ourselves together completely and insep- arably.” eee ee URIS SMAT ONAN = Qe 5 os a Se UIQ IOG Gk ht ee eo CASRN 6 COP a2 et UU ISON 1 COIS): CO pe Se ae OSS OM) SOGRGQT 6 acl os pee TS AN OSG= 2 eee es eh es TOONS COp (s- "= | melissa opis PCP-EGp © Se oe ee Fe Ow) 6zE saeheue cust sary er ek AtLRe TT SUTO@) GEC pecs ort OS eres e TTS TOY EOF “ccc ccc OITA ‘UBISSnyYy COP oe eee SE ee Se uBliuenyiry Lae Se Se ea ele cathe eee TOO TOS) Teg ‘OGR °°: Sai ey tte eee OG) ee ie > TOOTUM COT °c Opry “URISSNY | POR. °° SO ate. 0G (aon ap pone) Mae es ie es Se OBL A. 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In- stead of employing colors merely to represent definitive ethnographic and lin- guistic territories, an effort has been made to enable the student to determine the racial affinities of distinctive groups by the relation of the shades of color them- selves (for index see opposite page). The four great trunk branches of the Indo-European, or Aryan, race are pre- sented in four basic colors—brown for the Greco-Latins; yellow for the Celts; red for the Teutons, and green for the Slavs. The Greco- Latin subdivisions (Albanians, Greeks, Italians, Spaniards, Portuguese, French, Walloons, and Ru- manians) are distinguished one from the other by the intensity of the brown shades. Likewise, the eleven families of common Teuton stock are represented by tapeessnades ot red. The great Slav group, with its eastern, southern, west- ern, and Baltic subdivisions, is shown in green of varying shades. The Basques, Pre-Aryan Caucasian people, are represented by blue, and their complete detachment from other races of Europe is emphasized by the fact that no gradations of blue are used to indicate the territorial bounds of any other people. The purple patches which clutter the face of Europe signify the presence of the Ural-Altaians; the dark purple in- dicating the Turks, Tatars, and Kal- mucks ; the lavender marking the bounds of Magyar dominance, and the pale lav- ender showing the territory inhabited by the Finno-Ugrian Finns, FEsths, and Lapps (see also page 448). The land of the Armenians in Asia is represented by diagonal rectangles in.a shade between the green of the Slavs and the yellow of the Celts. AREAS WHERE CONTIGUOUS RACES INTERMINGLE Hatchwork, of course, indicates areas where the contiguous races intermingle 535 RACKS OF EUROPE inseparably, as in northern and_ north- eastern Italy, where German and Italian reside side by side; in western Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, where the Celts and the British mingle; in eastern Poland, where the Western Slavs (Poles) and the Eastern Slavs (Little Russians) re- side together; on the border between eastern Lithuania and western Great Russian territory; and where Magyars, Tatars, Finns, and Slavs form confused racial masses throughout the dominion of Furopean Russia. This map represents a unique achieve- ment in its unusual legibility, in its sharp definition of political as well as racial boundaries, shorelines and rivers, the clarity of its color key, and, withal, in the convenience of its size. A map of twice these dimensions would not show in greater detail any facts of importance, whereas this supplement enables the reader to study it closely as a whole in- stead of by sections. An: titeréstins. feature of the map cis the accuracy with which the racial islands are revealed, set amid seas of alien peo- ples. For example, it is important to note the two groups of German colonists set down in the midst of the mingled Little Russians and Rumanians in Bessa- rabia. An important colony of Germans is also shown just to the north of Fiume. Close students of events in Furope during the last few weeks will recall that shortly after the signing of the armistice these Germans, entirely surrounded by Jugo- Slavs, announced that they would peti- tion the Powers to permit them to set up a separate autonomous State, fashioned after the miniature republics of San Marino and Andorra. The colors of this map show at once how extraordinary is such an appeal; for whereas the San Marinesi are the racial brothers of the Italians who surround them, and the Andorrans are similarly of the same blood and language as the Span- iards who encircle them, the red of this Teuton colony is seen to be in clashing 536 disharmony with the dominant green of the encompassing South Slavs. In other words, the colors tell their own story of the kinship of the races which they sym- bolize. A MONOGRAPH OF PERMANENT EDUCA- TIONAL VALUE Dr. Grosvenor’s text, which elaborates the facts set forth in such graphic form by the map, constitutes, with the scores of illustrations, a monograph of perma- nent educational value and ever-recurrent human interest. The entire number is a fitting contribution to the important monographic brary which the National Geographic Society 1s gradually creating for its members by issuing in magazine form such noteworthy numbers as “Flags of the World,” the Larger Mammals of North America, the Smaller Mammals of North America, ~ Phe Wand of the-Best:7 (a bird’s-eye view in text and pictures of the resources and advantages of Amer- ica, and several numbers’ devoted to American birds. “The Races of Europe” not only pro- vides material of fascinating interest to the casual reader, but contains the au- thoritative groundwork for the student of the most intricate and at the present time the most vital problem which diploma- tists, statesmen, and humanitarians have set themselves to solve. It is confidently believed that this num- ber of the GrocrRAPHic will prove a work of lasting value; for however political boundaries in Europe may be changed by treaties or by conquest, and however eth- nographic delimitations may be affected by migration and immigration, racial characteristics and traits are fairly con- stant from generation to generation and are materially modified only through the centuries. EFARLIER GEOGRAPHIC ARTICLES HAVING RACIAL SIGNIFICANCE For the convenience of those readers of the GrocraAPpHic who preserve their files, footnotes have been added under the various race headings in order that more detailed presentations of peoples and lo- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE calities, described in earlier issues of the magazine, may be used for reference. In addition to the articles thus enu- merated, those who find the races of Fu- rope a subject of engrossing interest will derive pleasure and profit from reading again such authoritative and entertaining articles as Col. Theodore Roosevelt’s “How Old Is Man?” (February, 1916) ; “The Sea-kings of Crete,” by the Rev. James Baikie (January, 1912)5 “From Jerusalem to Aleppo,” by John D. Whit- ing (January, 1913) ; “Megaspeleon, the Oldest Monastery in Greece,” by Carroll Storrs Alden (March, 1913) ; “The Res- urrection of Ancient Egypt,” by the Rev. James. Baikie (September, 19613 )p-) Val- lage Life in the Holy Land,” by John D. Whiting (March, 1914) ; “Where Adam and Eve Lived,” by Frederick and Mar- garet Simpich (December, 1914) 7 “tm- pressions of Palestine,” by~- Viscount James Bryce (March, 1915) ; “The Gates to the Black Sea,” by Harry Griswold Dwight, and “Homer’s Troy Today,” by Jacob 'E,.. Conner (May, 1915) ; “Venice,” by Karl Stieler (June, rors); estore Islands and Shores of the A’gean Sea,” by Ernest Lloyd Harris (September, 1915); “The Cradle of Civilizatrom: an account of Mesopotamia, by the Rev. James Baikie, and “Pushing Back His- tory’s Horizon,” an account of arche- ological explorations in Assyria and Baby- lonia, by Albert T. Clay (hebntats: 1916) ; “The Hoary Monasteries of Mit, Athos,” by H. G. Dwight (September, 1916); “Lonely Australia,” by Herbert FE. Gregory (December, 1916) ; “Our lor- eign-born Citizens” (February, 1917) ; “On the Monastir Road,” a war-time pic- ture of Macedonia, by Herbert Corey (May, 1917) ; “European Famines of the Past,’ by Ralph Graves, and “Letters from the Italian Front,” by Ethel M. Bagg (July, 1917) ; “Andorra, a Unique: Republic in the Pyrenees,” by Herbert Corey (March, 1918), and “Under the Heel of the Turk,” by Willtameall eal (July, 1918). Extra copies of this “Races of Europe” number, including the Map, may be ob- tained from the office of the National Geographic Society at fifty cents each. Bi For'the boys inthe service _ “% The Victrola's = priceless service Yo ‘ =< tn home and camp Victrola vVI- Mahogany or oak Measured by every standand, what could be more va/uable, more concretely useful, as well as more delightfully entertaining than the Victrola? Second only to the actual physical needs of the body is the im- perative hunger of mind and spirit for their essential ‘‘foods’’—music, literature, inspiration, education, comfort and laughter. The Victrola is their tireless servant, bringing to them at any place, any time, the greatest art and entertainment of the whole world. Victrolas by the tens of thousands are in daily use by our military forces on land and sea. In more than 25,000 public schools the Victrola is helping to build Young America into a better citizenship. The Victrola has taught French to our soldiers, wireless to our sailors and aviators. In millions of homes the Victrola is educating, refining, uplifting our mighty democracy. Send the Victrola to the boys in camp to cheer and inspire them! Place it in the home for the benefit and pleasure of young and old alike. Prize it for its va/ue,its usefulness, its service, as well as for its unlimited, wholesome pleasure. There are Victors and Victrolas in great variety from $12 to $950. Any Victor dealer will gladly demonstrate the Victrola and play any music you wish to hear. Victor Talking Machine Co., Camden, N. J., U.S. A. 2°) For the folks One of Americas gteat contributions to the advancement of mankind New Victor Records demonstrated at all dealers on the 1st of each month “Victrola” is the Registered Trade- mark of the Victor Talking Machine Company designating the products of this Company only. 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They are fabricated at the Bossert Bossert Houses are shizped complete plant—a method of construction which from our factory—even with doors and insures uniform quality throughout and windows hung and hardware attached. lowers construction costs. Price of Pocono Hills Bungalow, $575 f. o. 6b Brooklyn. Send check or money order for $143.75 Pay balance of $431 25 when notified bungalow is ready for shipment. Send 18c for catalog showing the full line of Bossert Houses. LOUIS BOSSERT & SONS, Inc., 1313 Grand St., Brooklyn, N. Y. In again offering our Home Garden Collection of Vegetable Seeds, we have given critical attention to the varieties, selecting only those which have been tried and proven of excellent merit under widely different conditions of soil and climate. This Collection if purchased separately from our Catalogue would cost $1.65. ONE PACKET EACH OF THE FOLLOWING FOR $1.00 Beans— Boze¢7fu2 Cucumber—/?Azte Spine Radish—Scarzet Globe Beans—New Hardy Wax Lettuce—Alack Seeded Simpson Radish—Long White Icicle Beans—Fordhoo Bush Lima Lettuce—A/ay King Spinach— New Zealand Beet— Detroit Dark Red Onion— iV A2te Portugal Swiss Chard— Gzaret Luculus Carrot—Selected Chantenay Parsley— Double Curled Tomato--SeZected Stone Corn— Golden Bantam Peas—/cLean’s Little Gem Turnip— Wxzte Globe NOTE--With each collection we will include a copy of our interesting and instructive booklet, 16 pages and cover, devoted exclusively to vegetables and their culture, ORDER YOUR COLLECTION NOW Mail this advertisement with Check, Money Order. Dollar Bill, or Stamps, and secure this exceptional collection, sent prepaid to any point in the United States east of the Mississippi. For points west thereof and Canada, kindly include an additional 25 cents to cover cost of delivery. Our 1919 Spring Catalogue sent on request. St I } @ 30-32 Barclay Street Tunyyp 6 Lobe, New York ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ (Ss SSS KK —not the name of a thing, but the matk of a service / | DA MAZDA is the trademark of a world- : ; wide service to certain lamp manu- *‘Not the name of a thing, but the mark of a service”? facturers. Its purpose is to collect and select scientific and practical information concerning progress and developments in the art of incandescent lamp manufacturing and to distribute this information to the companies entitled to receive this service. MAZDA Service is centered in the Research Laboratories of the General Electric Company at Schenectady, New York. The mark MAZDA can appear only on lamps which meet the standards of MAZDAservice. It is thus an assurance of quality. RGNINZ Oram fon overs purpose This trademark is the property of the General Electric Company. 4648 RESEARCH LABORATORIES OF GENERAL ELECTRIC COMPANY ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ _ Tw3a1S397 igBusiness" IT TIPLEX| fod fod € bal ED HAN NG MACHINE” **‘Many Typewriters in One’ The business executive will appreciate the force of emphasis permitted by the interchangeable type system of the Mul- tiplex Hammond. Statistical reports, loose teaf anuals, index cards, etc., revolu— tiont zed through the ability of the mewMul tiplex to condense typewri ting to 1/4 the space usual ly occupied. The Multiplex Petit Gothic type sample reproduced above (exact size) shows the possibility of conden- sing your work in perfectly clear manner to one- quarter the usual space. This is invaluable for executives’ manuals, analytical statements, index cards, etc. No other typewriter can do this: By “‘Just turning the Knob”’ you can change from one style or size of type and spacing to another. ere are over 365 different arrangements of types and languages to select from. Business letters written in the beautiful Hammond Roman, with the emphasized portions in striking italic, invariably compel attention and respect. Verily, the Multiplex is the— Typewriter of Personality Because of the instantly interchangeable type, the perfect alignment, the uniform impression, an many other exclusive features, the Multiplex Ham- mond is famous throughout the world as the type- writer par excellence. Our free booklet will be sent upon request, if you are a business executive. Mail the coupon NOW. Sent free Multiplex in the Home {upon request and for Traveling Weighs only 11 pounds. Full capacity. Write for special folder. y The Hammond Typewriter Co. 637 East 69th St., New York City Please send free folder to: @ccupation =) 40 eee ee Ask about special terms to professionals E suspicious of any tender- ness or bleeding of the gums. Thisis usually the first stage of Pyorrhea—an insidious disease of the gums that destroys the teeth and un- dermines bodily health. Gradually the gums become | spongy. They inflame, then shrink, thus exposing the un- enameled tooth-base to the ravages of decay. Tiny open- ings in the gums form gateways for disease germs to enter the system. Medical science has traced many ills to these infect- ing germs in the gums weak- ened by Pyorrhea. They are now known to be a frequent cause of indigestion, anzmia, rheumatism, and other serious condit!ons. So watch carefully for that first tenderness or bleeding of the gums. Try Forhan’s im- mediately. It positively pre- vents Pyorrhea(Riggs’ Disease) ifused in time and used con- sistently. And in preventing Pyor- rhea it guards against other ills. Forhan’s (For the Gums) cleans teeth scientifically as well. Brush your teeth withit. It keeps the teeth white and free from tartar. PRESCRIPTIO DENTAL PROFE If gum-shrinkage has al- ready set in, start using For- han’s and consult a dentist immediately for special treat- ment. 30c and 60c tubes All Druggists FORHAN CO. 214 6th Avenue, N. Y. The Largest Unexplored White Spot in the World Far off in the Northwest lay the largest unexplored white spot on the surface of the globe—one-half a million square miles. That was the goal for which Donald MacMillan set out in the year 1913. He knew that before him and his companions lay ‘two years of uncer- tainty, of adventure, of wonderful and strange sights, of extreme happiness and abject misery,’’ and the two years stretched to four. But the goal was reached; the work was done. The story of those four years is told in his new book FOUR YEARS IN THE WHITE NORTH By Donald B. MacMillan MacMillan was with Peary when he found the Pole. The MacMillan Expedition was known as the Crocker Land Expedition, and was sent under the auspices of the Museum of Natural History and the American Geo- graphical Society. It explored the unknown Jand—found records of Peary and other great explorers—and much other material here published for the first time. This is truly an epoch-making book. Get it at your bookseller’ s— $4. Read it and pass it on to a soldier. HARPER & BROTHERS TRAVELERS’ LETTERS OF CREDIT Special Service Many Americans still remain on the other side. To those in the Army, Navy, Red Cross, Y. M. C. A., or other simi- lar organizations we issue LET- TERS OF CREDIT free of com- mission. Special American representative in Paris at the office of Credit Com- mercial de France, 20 Rue Lafayette, Paris. His services and advice are at the disposal of our friends. BROWN BROTHERS & CO. 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THE MAGNIPHONE CO., Dept. 53, Chicago 29 E. Madison St., Room 1303, Cor. Wabash Tell me, without obligation, all about the Magniphone and how it becomes mine. ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ DUES RECOMMENDATION FOR MEMBERSHIP Annual membership in U. S., $2.00; annua] membership abroad, IN THE $3.00; Canada, $2.50; life membership. $50 | DNTATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY payable to Nationa ] Geographic Society, and P 2 A if at a distance remit by The Membership Fee Includes Subscription to the New York draft, postal i 7 : or express order. National Geographic Magazine PLEASE DETACH AND FILL IN BLANK BELOW AND SEND TO THE SECRETARY To the Secretary, National Geographic Society, Sixteenth and M Streets Northwest, Washin§gton, D. C.: I nominate AGAUrESS 2 sc in ec Sie See SE Pe eee See for membership in the Society. Name and Address of Nominate Member BRONZE MEMORIAL TABLETS DESIGNS. ESTIMATES. ILLUSTRATED BOOKLET. FREE JNO. WILLIAMS. INC. BRONZE FOUNDRY (EST. 1875) 556 WEST 277# STREET, NEW YORK Dept.T” » BRUSHES > Disgusted with the Brush you are using? Some brushes have no excuse for being on earth. Have you one of this kind ? Try a WHITING-ADAMS BRUSH Do you know what WHITING-ADAMS means? It means satisfaction in brushes, good work, long wear, best results. Send for Illustrated Literature. JOHN L. WHITING -J. J. ADAMS CO., Boston, U. S.A. Brush Manufacturers for Over One Hundred Years Whiting-Adams Brushes Awarded Gold Medal and Official Blue Ribbon, the Highest Award at Panama-Pacific Exposition, 1915 Ita =A Ne A WEBSTER‘ S NEW Whatever your question; — be it the pronunciation of Cantonment; th ll 1 d: INTERNATIONAL ii. nelocation of Zeebrugaas ive meaning en _ Qh DE DICTIONARY Ne blighty, ace ,tank,etc., this Supreme <2 - fp | 2) Aeon Contaane an accurate, final answer G’& C.MERRIAM CO., SPRINGFIELD, MASS, "&ut4? AND nola-Parer eas aap ra lp phe Ee ee MI eS Son AAU 7 Words Defi ned Please send me speci SSNS SHS "2700 Pages pine Se pias ert Nese Laaieere CNet eG. Sc SAS ae ATES og oS RO BEF 6000 itustrations = Ey) men pages an Sy} FREE POCKET MAPS\ADDRESS..... saeaapeise saw esee crane coset ete esse et eee eae a ee ee ee Nat. Geo. - SW SOMO E}OUIIUUOUUTEUHOVOUQOSOUUTOLOSUUD ONO OOOA ate FLUUUSAAUUNAAUI REE POCKET MAPS\ADDRESS “Mention the Geoeeanhiona identifies you.’’ How Scientists Clean Their Teeth All Statements Approved by High Dental Authorities The facts stated here have been widely known for some years among dentists and scientific men. But they were not presented to the public until proved beyond dispute. People who know—by the hundreds of thousands — are changing their teeth-cleaning methods. And these are the reasons: The old methods proved inadequate. The best-brushed teeth too often discolored and de- cayed. Despite the wide use of the tooth- brush, statistics show that tooth troubles have constantly increased. Science found the reason in a slimy film. You can feel it with your tongue. It is constantly forming, and it clings. It gets into crevices, hardens and stays. That film is the cause of most tooth troubles, and the old methods could not end it. That film-coat absorbs stains, and the teeth seem discolored. It hardens into tartar. It holds food substance which ferments and forms acid. It holds the acid in contact with the teeth to cause decay. Millions of germs breed in it. They, with tartar, are the chief cause of pyorrhea. Also of many other serious diseases. It is therefore best to brush the teeth in ways which can end the film. Four years ago a way was found to combat that film efficiently. It has now been proved by thousands of tests. Today it is embodied in a dentifrice called Pepsodent, and we ask you to test it yourself. REG.V.S. Return your empty tooth paste tubes to the nearest Red Cross Station (153A) CUCU UAT N TUTOR OU EEEU TEEN DETER DUNE CCERTENDORESUDDOGRUORDEGRSONOUD Péepsadent The New-Day Dentifrice A Scientific Product — Sold by Druggists Everywhere Make This One-Week Test Pepsodent is based on pepsin, the digestant of albumin. The film is albuminous matter. The object of Pepsodent is to dissolve it; then to constantly prevent its accumulation. This is not as simple as it seems. Pepsin must be activated, and the usual method is an acid, harmful to the teeth. So pepsin long seemed barred. It is now made possible, be- cause science found a ‘harmless activating method. Five governments have already granted patents. That method is employed in Pepsodent. Many teeth-cleaning methods, widely pro- claimed, have later been found inefficient. So Pepsodent was submit- ted to repeated clinical tests, under able author- _ ities, before this an- nouncement. Today it is proved beyond ques- tion. And the object now is to bring it quickly into universal use. Our method is to offer all a free tube for test. Send the coupon for a one-week tube. Use it like any tooth paste, and watch results. Note how clean the teeth feel after using. Mark the absence of the film. See how teeth whiten—how they glisten—as the fixed film disappears. Let Pepsodent thus prove itself. See its unique results, know the reason for them. After that you will not be content to return to old methods of teeth-cleaning. Cut out the coupon now. ) ONE.WEEK TUBE FREE! THE PEPSODENT CO., | Devt/ 375. 1104'S. Wabasu Ave. Chicago All | Mail One-Week Tube of Pepsodent to | | | PAT. OFF SOG OI CIO ener eo Se See oS See Sees Seas ME a Meer a a ig tay a aes eg ‘‘Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ Dark Barre—‘‘Rock of Ages” Neither time nor the elements can efface the memorial cut in this beautiful and enduring, stone. Whether for monument, mauso- leum or simple marker, specify Dark Barre Granite. Your monument dealer will sive you a certificate with the Dark Barre Gran- ite monument which he sells you. This certificate is a pledge that the monument is made of genuine Dark Barre Cranite—The Rock of ABes—and that the cuttin and pol- ishing of tne entirejob have been passed upon and approved by a competent in- spector. This inspection also applies to the rough stock as it comes from the quarry. Insist upon such a certificate from your dealer so that you may know your monument is of this superior type. In ‘‘The Rock of Ages,’” our booklet, numerous examples of famous memorials are shown. Sent free on request. BOUTWELL, MILNE & VARNUM CO. Address: MONTPELIER, VERMONT Quarries at BARRE, VERMONT The Granite Center of the World ‘*Mention the Geographic—It identifies you.’’ OS Rapa bt ei Ay, “DAT’S MAH BOY.” Painted by Edw. V. Brewer for Cream of Wheat Co. Copyright 1911 by Cream of Wheat Co. Press oF Jupp & DETWEILER, INC. WASHINGTON. D. C. oer eten, e RNS > rs 2 >, m2 O i” i- Z 2 | 2 : Z 5 ne fx) D O — ; C ee * ea. ; a J a LEGEND PRE-ARYAN Basques GRECO-LATINS Albanians Greeks Italians. Spanish, Portuguese French, Walloons, Rumanians CELTS TEUTONS Scandinavians, Dutch Germans British SLAVS Great Russians Little Russians or Ukrainians 7 Star goo G Western Slavs Jugo - Slavs BALTO-SLAVS J} Lithuanians. Letts (eZ4 ARMENIANS, URAL- ALTAIANS