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Severs reer res eT | th 9 Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson aes Pe > — oa LA PA OTA snr. 1921 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE INDEX 7 Wil Eo 4 A Rid AY HN K Keay runayyprn ~ ii Ml tee ered te P| UT A) hii © uillhivutlntiuit yy) ‘gy , in ithwaltinillt x <= au /: We : — July to December, 1921 VOLUME XL tft ( NOV 9 198] PUBLISHED BY THE ~!2R4R IES NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D.C. (Nitin ow sy =F . Ihitiectti iy 4 a Lat edi NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY GEOGRAPHIC ADMINISTRATION BUILDINGS SIXTEENTH AND M STREETS NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D.C. GILBERT GROSVENOR, President JOHN JOY EDSON, Treasurer BOYD TAYLOR, Assistant Treasurer HENRY WHITE, Vice-President O. P. AUSTIN, Secretary GEORGE W. HUTCHISON, Associate Secretary FREDERICK V. COVILLE, Chairman Committee on Research EDWIN P. GROSVENOR, General Counsel EXECUTIVE STAFF OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE GILBERT GROSVENOR, EDITOR JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE, Associate Editor WILLIAM J. SHOWALTER Assistant Editor RALPH A. GRAVES Assistant Editor FRANKLIN LL. FISHER Chief of Illustrations Division J. R. HILDEBRAND, Chief of School Service CHARLES J. BELL President American Security and Trust Company JOHN JOY EDSON Chairman of the Board, Wash- ington Joan & Trust Company DAVID FAIRCHILD In Charge of Agricultural Ex- plorations, S. Department of Agriculture C. HART MERRIAM Member National Sciences OP SAUL Statistician Academy of BOARD OF TRUSTEES WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT Chief Justice of the United States GRANT SQUIRES Military Intelligence Division, General Staff, New York C. M. CHESTER Rear Admiral U. S. Navy, For- merly Supt. U. S. Naval Ob- servatory FREDERICK V. COVILLE Botanist, U. S. Department of Agriculture RUDOLPH KAUFFMANN Managing Editor The Evening Star T. L. MACDONALD ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Inventor of the telephone J. HOWARD GORE Prof. Emeritus Mathematics, The George Washington University A. W. GREELY Arctic Explorer, Major General U. S. Army GILBERT GROSVENOR Editor of National Geographic Magazine GEORGE OTIS SMITH Director of U. S. Geological Survey O. H. TITTMANN GEORGE R. PUTNAM Commissioner U. S. Bureau of> Lighthouses GEORGE SHIRAS, 3p , Formerly Member U. S. Con- gress, Faunal Naturalist, and Wild-game Photographer of Census ME DY EA CaS: SiN; DIINORDE Formerly Director U. S. Bureau JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE Associate Editor National Geo- ' graphic Magazine Formerly Superintendent _ of U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey HENRY WHITE Member American Peace Com- mission, and Recently U. .S. Ambassador to France, Italy, etc. ORGANIZED FOR “THE INCREASE AND DIFFUSION OF GEOGRAPHIC KNOWLEDGE” TO carry out the purposes for which it was founded thirty-four years ago, the Na- tional Geographic Society publishes this Magazine. All receipts are invested in the Magazine itself or ex- ~ pended directly to promote geographic knowledge. ARTICLES and photographs are desired. For material which the Magazine can use, generous remuneration is made. Contributions should be accompanied by an addressed return envelope and postage. IMMEDIATELY after the terrific eruption of the world’s largest crater, Mt. Katmai, in Alaska, a National Geographic Society expedition was sent to make observations of this remarkable phenom- enon. Four expeditions have followed and the extra- ordinary scientific data resultant given to the world. In this vicinity an eighth wonder of the world was discovered and explored—‘The Valley of Ten Thou- sand Smokes,’ a vast area of steaming, spouting fissures. As a result of The Society’s discoveries this area has been created a National Monument by proc- lamation of the President of the United States. AT an expense of over $50,000 The Society sent a notable series of expeditions into Peru to investigate the traces of the Inca race. ‘Their discoveries form a large share of our knowledge of a civilization which was waning when Pizarro first set foot in Peru. THE Society also had the honor of sub- scribing a substantial sum to the historic expedition of Admiral Peary, who discovered the North Pole. NOT long ago The Society granted $25,000, and in addition $75,000 was given by in- dividual members through The Society to the Federal Government when the congressional appropriation for the purchase was insufficient, and the finest of the giant sequoia trees of California were thereby saved for the American people and incorporated into a National Park. THE Society is conducting extensive ex- plorations and excavations in northwestern New Mexico, which was one of the most densely populated areas in North America before Columbus came, a region where prehistoric peoples lived in vast communal dwellings whose ruins are ranked second to none of ancient times in point of architecture, and whose customs, ceremonies and name have been engulfed in an oblivion more complete than any other people who left traces comparable to theirs. Copyright, 1921, by National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. All rights reserved. CONTENTS PAGE Adventures with a Camera in Many Lands. By MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS........... 87 Buenos Aires and Its River of Silver: A Journey up the Parana and Paraguay to the Chaco: Cattle: Country, | By \WaLErAm Roy BAREOURG 25). o tinct eee 393 Empire of Romance—India, The. Color insert. xVI DAES ests gee cot Rata 481 Geography of Japan with Special Reference to Its Influence on the Character of the Japanese People. a he. -By VALTER | WES TONG.) ren ier ae ei oe ae 45 Islands of the Pacific, The. By J. P. THomson, C. B. E., LL. D., Honorary Secretary and Treasurer, Royal Geographical Society Ol AuStialasians a5) issn eee 543 apan- Color imsent: CV Ty platesiee. ye ie eee ee ey ee eee ae crete ee Beedeuse 61 Katmai National Monument, Alaska. Color insert. VIII plates............... i eens 271 Life Among the People of Eastern Tibet. By Dr. A. L. SHELTON..... MS a iis oe ke 203 Life on the Grand Banks: An Account of the Sailor-Fishermen Who Harvest the Shoal ‘Waters of North America’s Eastern Coasts. By FREDERICK WILLIAM WALLACE.... I Marble Dams of Rajputana, The. By ELEANor Mappock........ SR eet hoe ia Pi cgl, ta etn eee 468 Mystery of Easter Island, The. By Mrs. ScoresBy ROUTLEDGE.............00000eeeee: 628 National Geographic Society Completes Its Gifts of Big Trees, The......... ‘figs eee 2=85 Nauru, The Richest Island in the South Seas. By Rosamonp Dopson RHONE.......... 559 Our Greatest National Monument: The National Geographic Society Completes Its Ex- plorations in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. By Ropert F. Griccs......... 219 Site Miaprot the ACM Ci. 8 ie retake wlePin OG toate thes 4 eesen prelates sesinen. cleanest) lohore oP spe meron 647 Outwitting the Water Demons of Kashmir. By Maurice Pratt DUNLAP........-...%. 499 @ver the Andes to Bowota By VRANK M. CHAPMAN: 5. .5222-5. an. tsdgeee eek ee 3353 Over Trail and Through Jungle in Ecuador: Indian Head-hunters of ‘the Interior an Interesting Study in the South American Republic. By H. E. ANTHONY.......... 327 Pilgrimage to Amernath, Himalayan Shrine of the Hindu Faith, A. By Lours—E AHL IESSOP Spee ee rnetiieic ane 3 RRR er Canter aon! ose orortnnea ocho uum ol oou Gaaoe 512 Protecting the United States from Plant Pests. By Cuarirs Lester Mariart, Chair- man, Federal Horticultural Board, U. S. Department of Agriculture...........:.. 205 seenes: fom) Erance. - Insert: _16cillustrations.a.cms ee ne ee een ee 29 Seenesuin: Sout) America. / insert, 16 illustrations: 2 7 mae se sk 375 Soctety soNew. Wap of/South» America, 1 he. c.ca<0h oaccme o eee een ee ee 374 Through the Heart of Hindustan: A Teeming Highway Extending for Fifteen Hundred Miles, from the Khyber Pass to Calcutta. -By Maynarp OWEN WILLIAMS......... 433 Wild Life of Lake Superior, Past and Present: The Habits of Deer, Moose, Wolves, Beavers, Muskrats, Trout, and Feathered Wood-Folk Studied with Camera and Blashlight: “By sAGEORGE 7 SMIRAS, yoda. «2 satus acto Sore Nene Natio Miagers Seon hae eoRe seo cs 113 Yap and Other Pacific Islands Under Japanese Mandate. By Junius B. Woop......... 590 lif INDEX FOR VOL. XL (Juty-Decemper), 1921 AN ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED INDEX. ENTRIES IN CAPITALS REFER TO ARTICLES AND INSERTS Ace Page Ahelards beters (Reference tO ce oi. o'ele « «1516 oclere 447-448 FNDOMMCTMES PATISEDAMIAy cyasalelere elelele) ol lelelie olelelelalels elle 554 Nbonieimes. se acitice OCEAN stele cele ies) oleae slevelelone ) ee 552 Abus Mount; India. ccs: ccc text, Plate XVI, 481- 49° Adams, President John: Reference to..........: ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY 7 LANDS. BY MAYNARD OWEN WILLIAMS 87 Advertisements, aparepeteteeterveieharererstelo ethene ill. 47, 53 PNetiabeVACWS, PTLANCEs) “E:aTISievers.siolele/tels) tale elec ill.. 36-39 Aettu; Rev. Ham: Reference to... ...6..2.0040 602 Afghan border...... text 439; color insert, Plate WINN oseoocgenocoSbouuboooMbadacous Nees 481-491 Afghan camel boys and their commerce carriers of Central Asia....... color insert, Plate XI, 481-496 PATS ATIISEATIwereralcier siieleliei eer NOOO CADW Gotan ED OOS 443 INSTI Cat GOVERMMENtSH Ob alelerafera ciels clei s:oreucleleveney xellelie).« 301 Arica LatitiGdesiO leita srsorc cieleietaover eloretaielereneialiers 374 PMT CISHRN <<] Neve) cic tire oct slouch ou oleheket lovers Lele iatatersiece: cvettrabeid SO Agra, India....ill. 98-99, 454-455; text 448, 459, 461, 499, 513 INS rICIIEIT eH eS CUA OMe cteerctenevalelelehelel al elerenaiel ers 343, 345 Agriculture; Tnidia 2.9.6.6 sc csc ccs es ee eee vines 439 ASriculiures) oe APA aye cie 0 leiene ope s\'e MRT cl teletoyete 46, 59-60 /\esaohanida, “Usbyae aoooagconooouoD dd005 +... 298-209 Ahia, Solomon Islands, Pacific Ocean: Fighting ATA ATI NEO oiescteteren chet apelersiselelotevercuvctotereeteheneretvepeneteiee ill. 544 Ahu Mahatua, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean... .ill. 636 Ahu Paro, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean....+.... 643 Ahu Tepeu, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean...... ill. 642 Ainu Saint Nicholas, Japan AE i ill. 103; text 109 Ajaibgher, Lahore, India,.......... HWA Se IeALI Dic 448 Akbar, Emperor: Fort erected by... ill. 442; text 447 Akbar, Emperor: Reference to. -467, 499, 506, 513, 522 Alaska: Our Greatest National Monument. By Roberts (Hig Griggesicnciatac acei.csisteiecsisterelsteetezcustersene 219 Maskabeninsulay miecireheriercir cok erciepansotsiets sure iele 224 Alaska Peninsula, Map of the base ee ill, (map) 222 Maskas. Southern) shores vOfii1. 41 «.ccnelosiheliee oe 114 Ala-u-din, Khilji: Attempt to capture Princess JEP UCT oeb bol eee SNS ACRE ROT OTGLE CHC R OORT TESTERS PRORR 45. 497-499 Alexander the Great: Reference to.............. 447 Alfaliavsweeval, Wuropean:. i). ccf elec 205, 213-214 Algwuekatmat.: Alaskar ire c:ccs sive crsaneele cece 259 Mi Gaba: VReferenCevitOisiect.ts yee oictcicietethevete nets 445-446 AM iN Tas td sacl 12 ars = crevcuctccovenedcdove re ctevotrenen te kecaia 433, 439 “All hands to the main-sheet’ "3... (.c...c 00s. +10 ill. 6 “All Men’s House,” or Bachelors’ Club, Truk, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean....... out: 607 AMiRSaintss Day wiisctad Ofc.....fescr tein eee ieee ale 342 Allahabad, India..... ill. 456; text 437, 457, 461-463, 465-466 Alleghany Mountains, W. Va............. POLS ToS Allen, Dr. E. T.: Katmai Expedition....242, 249, 267, 279, 285 Wen wD tr. iy. aes Photograph toficase nese ill. 258 PMI PALOTMDECATS aofcirkc, overs ctareisvcreeiere cists ill. 206, 211 Allouez, Claude Jean: Reference to............. 119 Alluvial plateaus, see Karewahs. Almirante, Admiral: Reference to.............. 409 Alsace, (hrance:) Restoration’ of... .02 60) ¢omer 39 - Altars, Tibet: Ceremonial........ ait Re Deo ill. 326 PIMAGOG ah atiatia: MOK. -sforsk ofeciercrenusleve shee tation 357 Mago, URIte! Of... 6.6.c60.6 ieretane alatoneiciuake se oterotore 83 PRIA Kee says ALASKA). <. c/o o.5.6:4 0cdtetticcetereccstssers eons 292 Amalicubay,, Alaska: Islands. ins o4.<2..0..5 6 0 ill. 282 mitadonasnidate, Japan .. «ics. ets des selene es ill. 82 PMUAZOME RAV ED) BEazil s. 2’ Tridias: 4ic.cisc chive Sie ac peeves uel > elelonebenehee ie eens 456 “Anna, Mrs.” see Kubary, Mrs. Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan. By James TOA) arate na: aahatadiong: overeat eve ev ol ataenel Gretel mater ae nen aenenanEE 469 Anthony, H. E. Over Trail and Through Jungle Its Beuad or escicisken! andl ole o.c,.4 0 save eieere Crore omens 327 Anticosti, Gulf of St.. Lawrence.....%.20ccssinaue 28 Antlétsy Deer a c.05 2 siete bo.e one Siciel s10.stolenareueys ieee 185 Antlers, Moose ...... odie oie7ahahereiter qe coteual tate eae ill. 161 Ants, Argentinas os acec icles oaleccl ecatte eevee oxcuepelerenepoieroneNalel 213 Apia, Samoa Islands, Pacific Ocean........- ona eS Aquatic runabout, As oi). « seis olla sicnenevaieislotsnonans ill. 523 Aravalli Hills, Rajputana, Tindiatyeracertinr 469, 473-478 Are de Triomphe,, Paris; France: Aérial view..ill. 38 Archeology, eee Islands, Pacific Ocean..ill. 97-598, 600; text 553-554, 607, 609-611 Archzology, Factor Island, Pacific Ocean. .ill. 628, 632-638, 640-642, 644- -645; text 553-554, 629, 640-646 Archeology, SH ratnrce! feiss cpeicrete «| clereieie ol orekonstoraiane ills Archeology, Nanmatal, Ponape, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean..... ill. 597-598, 600; text 607, 609-611 Argentina: Boundary. claims.)...0. . .s/.<:0 ememcereens 391 Argentina: Buenos Aires and Its "River of Silver By..William R:-Barbottr. \. 2 0 «nje00 cctatexe totais 393 Argentina: Exports ....... uel spanetoreborevaaae 392, 416, 421 Argentina: Imports .....ccccceceveeeee A ankane 391-392 Argentina: Wealth of.. svar ausie’ oXare F CRORES 406 Arica; “Chile: wus cvicieisls a ©. ccecoe ave obs) aanetaaienanetenetelamenna 380 Arinos River, Brace WIS HAS EEA ONO 6 6. ena 7al Arjmand Banu: Reference to...........0e000e- . 461 Arnold, Sir Edwin: The Rajput Nurse. ccicccun 470, 480 Artificial lakes, Rajputana, India....ill. 468, 472-474; text 473, 476-478 ALVANS | oo.c baie om cierdlopealolets ie eteteks @ ete Oa eee 553 Arzobispo Islands, see Bonin Islands, Pacific Ocean. Asados, Argetitina Ee AEA rG Noida oS . ill 28s Asatha-yama volcano, Japan. alah ilege: s/o meena en eae ill. 79 Ash trees, Black...........000. ill. 178; text 126, 197 Ash trees, Mountain............ ws al oarerererovarne ill. 129 Asia: Governments of..... APTI ISO” Bo ubO6D 391 Asoka: Reference to...... aaa ave farbion SO eae enone 465 Assytia: Cunetfotm “stript.... cic. ssa 10+ a/clelsvecenenene 32 Asuncién, Paraguay...... ill. 426; text 411, 420, 424, 426, 432 Asuncion, Paraguay: Description OFS sicvererghenstelee ‘ #9 Athens, Gteece, ... (ee ee HNO oc Attock, India: Akbar’s fort...... ... ill. 442; text Ree Atures, Viertezitela, scisie.ccesletereittarereqsiotevorerenaie en ronan 374 Aurangzeb: /Reference to...............0-:- 448, 459 Australia........ 549, 551, 554-555, 573, 585, 587-588, 591, 647 Australia: Government of.........2.222eeeeeee> 3901 JAustralia:) Watitade (of vis sac cle cinieerden iieieteioneretere 374 Australia: Mandates in the Pacific Ocean...... 558-559 Austrian Commercial Museum.................. 452 Auvergne, France: A woman of.............- ill. 43 INDEX POR VOLUME Xic, 192i Vv Page Avalanchessewatimats “Nlaskarryersiecrererrelerersievereiele ill. 238 Avenida Alvear, Buenos Aires, Argentina........ 395 Avenida de Mayo, Buenos Aires, Argentina..... 393, 395, 397 Avenida Ravadavia,. “Argentinas 25/06 sis: 6 061+ wie «620i 393 Avenue de la Grande Armée, Paris, France...... 38 Aweida, king of Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean..ill. 570 Aybathul of Palao Islands, Caroline Islands, Pa- GCE OCE ATS atsesiore sire ecechtcetace sis) sueterernlsGeuencitieteverers ill. 615 OG) paz ahuls oManrtand,, Iashimir: 6:2). cs cveve gcc cecsire ehorieiels 529 Babylonia, Mesopotamia: Cuneiform script of. 32 “Bachelors’ Club,” Truk, Caroline Islands, Pa- OUT CeO COAL: siecsvavel cele eueie! shel oabuonatthoucre le elads lees oratone ill. 607 Bagpipes, - Lmtd) 4.6 «cress ceicie snore ore eeaker eral Steve ue enenevonere 443 Bagpipes, Dibet: Scottish....-'.... 0.2... il, 207% text 203 Bainbridge, William: Reference to............-. Baked Mountain Camp, Katmai, Alaska....ill. 220-221, 246, 250-252; text 239, 248, 260, 264, 267, 270, 279, 284-285 Baked Mountain Camp, Katmai, Alaska: Destruc- CLOM AOL acer sssseioie » ill. 251-252; text 270, 279, 284-285 Baked Mountain, Katmai, Alaska. .ill. 237; text 253, 285 Baker Island, Pacific Ocean: Ownership of...... 647 Balboa, Vasco Nufiez: Discovery .of the Pacific (OCR EE RS =o OE ORE oar ec eee oC ayers renee eae 549, 647 Balloon-man, Buenos Aires, Argentina........ ill. 413 Baimaceda Glacier, Chile... 222.5... - 2. - =: ill. 390 Baltista rea shin tee peicuerevorctens c:o.csore ion ceeususie wicca secie es 513 valve Sipe cereserecoystoyrer s-scetecoia io seece sist aie mtsisi siers eis lave te onereus gI Baluchistan, India..... ill. 105, color insert, Plate XIII, 481-496; text g1 Banaba Island, see Ocean Island, Pacific Ocean, Bandits, see Brigands and robbers. Baila Passe lndia cis craisiciesna «6 oleiscs sores eine else 517 Pearraar ila, eas hmifis oi. 6 specs sie sosts eos ase ooh 519, 521-522 Barbasco, Hcuadon 2. oon sen: he souls ubsuekomeuat re eepane's 333 Barn benss esha waite DG@iaye spa yecatsictsia.c ects oy cite oats exe 446 Barbour, William R. Buenos Aires and, Its River RRETSTAN CT a eos crd ca ees race ayes tafesane € availa: sookeseantie Deas 393 Bangesss Wa Shinit 2 s.5 svahe wtageecscie sites ooo Gale (sale ill, 508-510 text 353, 357- 358, 372-373 Barranquilla, Colombia....ill. 373, 376; Basinger, Az je: Katmai Expedition®= <5 02.0.0 96: 242 Basinger) "As ject bhotograpia ls «-. e- eeese oc ill, 258 IBatang>, Dibetss 2. «2s ill. 304, 308-309, 312-313, 3243 text 295-296, 298-300, 305, 308, 310, 318-322, 324 Bataniee MibetscAltitude ohare cc cre sipicte soi epee eteuee 296 “Bath-house,’ Ponape, Caroline Islands, Pacific (COS oh dine eotse ata oC op eRe ETE ieee es ere 595 Bathiio; lia pais cacncesiseselereceaecreae meta la Airave Sins caas As 134)” Bbawatis “MASK Mik. d0lo)c'0s c1elricrele)o oloielsro's'« « S520, 5 3075.31 BAaveOLs WOKY.O;) PAPAltersasersitine Coss cose choueesnis 48S ess 51 Bazaars Indiawis s clecieaieen ill, s08 445; text 93, 96-97 Bazaars ehesitawate indians wees ce ee cis oc ere cle ill. 43 Bazaars, sRawalpindi, India. ......2 +. ee 93, 96-97 Bears, Katmai, Alaska..... ill. 268; text 251-252, 256 ; 290-291 Beats leaker sip peri Oteer sieve oie eer Se ete 114 Bean Brummell, (A brown-skin........%.0...%...%. ill. 569 Beaver: dams, Lake Siuperior:..........6%. ill. 177, 202 167, 177-178, 186-187, 189-191; text 197-199 Beavers, Flashlight photographs of...ill. 180, 183-184, Beavers, Lake Superior. .ill. 167, 177-178, 180, 183-184, 187, 189-191; text 190, 193-200 Beds. (Brittatry. Prance.ieca os bots ta eee eno See Un, 33} Beet extract; still jon the: hoof... .ss2ne. +2 es ill. 421 Bemitt. (Syria: “Peep-Shows 2% scsi. 1 s+. oielas Weiw.s ie os WO ai¢e) regucds: Heiadon Ao.deo c 6 6 sa vote overs ie. cers eee 348, 350 Belgitmic) Tnseet peStSio-2 s- «ss ..-.....--.- ill. 40 Costumes, Pacific Islands....ill. 544, 547-548, 550-554, 557, 560, 565-571, 574, 578, 580-582, 586, 590, 592- 593, 602-603, 605-606, 612-613, 615, 618-621, 624, 626-627; text 583, 599, 616, 623 Costumes, Palao Islands, Caroline Islands, Pacific OCCA wisi Seculeieioe crane tele are en terror ni, Gus, Gre Costumes, Ponape, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean ill, 590, 592-593; text 599 Costumes, Solomon Islands, Pacific Ocean....ill. 544, 547-549 -ll. 297-302, 304-305, 308, 322, 324- 325; text 305-306 Costumes, Truk, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean ill, 602-603, 606 Costumes, Tibet.. Costumes, Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean ill. 612; text 623 Cotton, Egyptian: Disinfection of............. ill. 206 Cougars, Ecuador een ecco nc oe ee es ally scx Council-house of -JKorror ehiere Palao Islands, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean............ ill. 616 Coville, Frederick V.: Lake named after......... 287 Coville, Lake, Katmai, Alaska..,.::.........222, 287 Cowboys, South Amiericacs. 6. eee ill. 385, 415 Coyotes; Wake: ...+.6..- ill. 524; text 533 a ermlp Deter «a iayarouckane ole ois tusi eve to: ohatave’ Mabe h ele y wets 320 DOS OID EE KAM RIOR: ctatete cies. ores soe acute cde ill. 299 “Description of Greece.”’ Devil-worship, Tibet FENCED TE ORE CAAT NOE TRON os he, 29 Dhebar Lake, Rajputana, India.. ill. 472-474; text ee 6- ALOE CHAM OT 2h Ole ete aca, cobs cleckrs eee een 119 mubyane sets Or, the Bank © 27. 2212s cc com cr ene ox HOLE 3633 Folklore, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean........ 643, 646 Folsom, Lucius G.: Katmai Expedition.......... 242 Folsom, Lucius:G.: Photograph of...........- ill. 258 Folsom, Mrs. Lucius G.: Visit to Katmai National OR HEE EU TEN NUE Ee 2 6 Me sai 0s" Lavfos cilehers terete 6, hye eure, Seesenlok dete epeesieus 246 Food, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean...... 581, 587, 589 MERSO RSC AG siols oo-al-o-c ie eo teasexeeeco lace 299, 301, 303-304 Page text 505 .color insert, Plate XIV, 61-76 Foot-ball; Kashiniits..0\stsrrs.+ sis 20 oslo: ill. 502; “For the temple bells are calling’... Korestaysail, (of) JUmi0 4. 2). + «leieiele oioeiele-sieleisto els ill. 16 Forests) Heuador.< 200. « o's os. ill. 349; text 348, 350 Forests, Katmai, Alaska....ill. 226, 228; text 224-225, 228-229 Forests, Lake Michigan........ 114-115, 126, 202, 204 Forests) Wake Superioteccin: sec see eee ee oi 115, 119 Formosa, Argentina...........ee00% ill. 425; text 418 Kort Canby, Wiash::) Wind ‘record...:..-..--2- es 132 Rossay Magna Japan cress c sie ’ orieisio ores eisiolelniews ¢ 60 Four-headed and many-armed God Hanuman, Tem- ple of Kankroli, Rajputana, India.......... ill. 478 France’: “Insect: “pests... oe sg felsic. cir oles + wb Oot oS 216 France: Possessions in the Pacific Ocean...... rote 557 France, Scenes from...... insert. 16 illustrations 29 Erench, “Argentinas (aici cc-oie.atenc ove)01e cseinies ovoeloevspnte 431 Fresh fishing, Grand Banks, Newfoundland...... 8, 15 Freshfield: Mountains and Mankind............ 49-50 Friendly Islands, see Tonga Islands, South Pacific Ocean. Frigate-birds, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean....584-585 FTrORS Wows aievee tia deen pains cilenavensiaye b dtavet cane ill. 174 Fruit, Kashmir ...... Ricvera scheme: iets rs cies ister ci oderatolestoe 517 Fruit worm, ‘Oriental jnc5.)iieses aces <6 209, 211-212 Fruit-seller, Rawalpindi, India........... vee 6 lll. 440 Fuel, Argentina: Counting...............+6.- ill. 424 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz: Photograph of........ ill. 366 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz: Reference to........ 361, 369 Fuji belt, see Fossa Magna. Fuji-san, see Fuji-yama, Mount, Japan. Fuji-yama;. Lake, Japan... cc. sce os nics cies ii ea Fuji-yama, Mount, Japan..ill. 54, 81, 84; text 50, 56, e 77, 83 Fukien Province, China: Opium poppy fields. .ill. 104; text III Fumaroles, Katmai, Alaska..... esi, 234-237, 2407 color insert, 272-273, 276, 278; text: 223, 227-228, 231, 242, 247-252, 257, 259-260, 262, 284-285 Fumaroles, Katmai, Alaska: Cooking over....ill. 236; text 260, 262, 264 Funafuti, Ellice Islands, Pacific Ocean: British EXPE GitIOM REO derses eocies delaras avehayeuenceeutee ts ceuehokeneie erence re 579 Fur-clad Indians of Southern Argentina....... ill. 383 Busagasuga:) Colombia 422. .% os mesic eee eee 372 Futami,” Japan): Meotomliwai ao... 10st cera UES ae Gz Gahlots, see Sesodias. Gaton?#Ijama, Tibet .:. <.c06 Sac saew opiate oe 300, 319, 324 Galveston, Texas: Wind record..............:..; 132 Gama, “Vasco da: Reference to............2.000% =O Game birds, Lake Superior..............2--.. 147-151 Game law, -Ohioje ne esse Al eet cee Re Ae HG 149 Gandhi: Reference” toe. -ss.%. sss cise e tem cee Se 445 Ganges River, India........ 433-434, 437, 457, 461-464 Ganges Valley; Indias .< seco er Ph ONO 186, 391 Elivele oats tinanCens crsccienerstess oie Giereione cists coolews ayes sree 29 eda Niount. Colombiaiy. c.ie% «,ceis.06 seuss o tece coo 364 Humaita, Paraguay; Description of.......... 415, 418 ~Human interest on the Northwest frontier........ color insert, Plate’ VIII, 481-496 Humboldt, Alexander baron von: Wax palms.... 371 aamboldte Gumnenthe nai: verre tecelercts seco cleters co 32750 3OL slimmer, rertealorsoonnoonseudodagdaboobTd 347 Hunter worshiping on the summit of erie = . Weg Hunting, parties, Lake Sjiperion.... 33.20... 119-130 iunza, Kashmir. ...:.)... Ab Soca ae sore pee 513 Huron lslandsae Mich aepricrice cr 6 Meee Oo eae 120 biaarons Wakes Speckled trout. cc ade e cies eters 155 Ehimon (River, Michs.........- btawiehcpavetelet a ck twersuesty aus 120 .color insert, Hyderabad, India: Mirrored minarets. Plate II, 481-496 Hydrographic Office, Navy Department.......... 648 OS) (2 lpeyive, (Clolloymltigan ono danoodDonnoOObUmHaOEe 365, pe IES Techy eet oe See cauleherotaree cds es 030 Ge, axolrayfep ape aeausoiaracere aNt Idols, India. .ill. 478; color insert, Plate III, XVI, 481-496 Idols, see also Images. WAGs) BIDE tsi elerece ecsie: ser a oterener ache. «@ivolevensiele 310, 319-320 Metiazit stall segs razilyercreretetey ces etalon) -uctoreesievat) < cccckeke 414 iivokelekel=) ReferencetO. sc). 0c oleieie eens axe 611-613, 615 Ile de la Cité, Paris, France: Aérial view...... wh, Tle St. Louis, Paris, France: Aérial view Ate 1 37, PialceArnn, Watmnat. Alasica).../)c sen 2p lole a> e1siclcis eferals 287 Image ahu, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean: Diagram OLA oe, cece sctole 5 ine teudia situa eesraiareiniet eke ill. 644; text 636 Image from San Agustin, Colombia: Stone..... nls 374 Images, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean: Excavating SEDI Sora o iaie oie cacyaites 4 a0cre fe Newuue eRe aylenauaonemeleys ote’ slates ill. 641 Images, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean: Stone...ill. 628, 632, 638, 640- 641, 644-645; text 629, 64I1- -646 leds. CMAN Gi 2: cain costs (erete ways @roeectoyel eyena toro 328, 352 ic Pe pn NG weigeeesestll. 96, 98-102, 106, 108 India, Empire of Romatjee A oeOs -color insert, XVI plates, 481-496 India: Marble Dams - 6 ‘Rajputana. By Eleanor MiG ¥s ota d eo eee oO 6 CCSD, MOOI ODES MOO OOD 468 India: Outwitting fies Water Denioas of Kashmir. By Maurice Pratt Dunlap... . situa desetlepses alae saclc ows i.) 499 India: Photographing in.....:...105-107, 109, III-112 Page India: Pilgrimage to Amernath, Himalayan Shrine > of the Hindu Faith. By Louise Ahl ‘Jessop... 512 Ridiacaib ink: bollwormy:cuysore vue aeeiseelce caus > nc 206 India:.--Through the Heart of Hindustan. By May- masral (CNyem Wier on conan doododda0es900OA 433 nidianin'@ Geant atir. vs sversyel sscsrae sc. oite ec eeie ote steel oxe ores 558 Indians, Angentinass:-- «> 221 su, 206) 6 ete eo ill. 383, 422 dvanss 3 Olivia se ccisietciesctetesousievens es Opterstets PI i, 377 Indians, Ecuador...... ill, 328-330, 334-344, 347, 382; 333-334, 342, 345-346, 352 115); text 119-120, 130; 141, 179, 196 Invdians Raragitavacrie cee eterna Se, ill. 388 Indians, South America. .ill. 328-330, 334-344, 347, 377, 382-383, 388, 430-431; text 327-329, 331, 333-334, 342, 345-346, 352, 427, 476: 432 ; text 327-329, 331, Indians, Lake Superior. . ill. iar? Ss} greatest caste-destroyet.... re ere cee l. 449 Iindo-Anyian's\.chcters eres ct cis crcueuete ansveieees ee oe 469, 478 HardusaRiviera ANGiarrss. crctpeta cite tecckers ill. 442; text 433 dicastries; Mla tai s.ct ar sat axcrepst oie = erase eto ns oe tarore 439 Industries.’ Wibetso... «tec ccheceses sce se 297-298, 317-319 “lnnocents, abroad? ec siee. s oscil beeen ill. 136 Insect pests: Protecting the United States from Plant Pests. By Charles Lester Marlatt....... 205 Insects, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean.......... ee Insects, Weuador ty oo Lt eee ae ae = tee eve /eVe Insects, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean.......... 586- hl “Inside Passage,”’ AMI Ait 4 nance te 287-288, 291 Tnivasionss india yaiece ctetercc.ctne orth niece eee 469, 499 Teywitos;, Penuc Ales. bees eRe va pees caste zon seenabace 391 A of) 9 ie ea em ey ASSEN A Nemerne Stet «sft ert Pa, 2 ROE Omit Oe 439 Irises, Japan: Gathering....color insert, Plate X, 61-76 Iroquoi Indians ...... Seen rene abe oo ee 119 Iistamabads. INashmitseeeece aie ee 5I7w5235 528 Islands of the Pacific: Map..Supplement, Decem- ber, 1921. Islands of the Pacific: Mystery of Easter Island, The. By Mrs. Scoresby Routledge............ 628 Islands of the Pacific: Nauru, the Richest Island in the South Seas: By Rosamond Dodson Rhone 559 Islands of the Pacific: Our Map of the.......... 647 Islands a ee Pacific: Ownership of the..... 5'50;:-555> 7-559, 561, 564-565, 568-571, 599, 616, 647 | ISLANDS “OF THE PACIFIC, THE.. BY J. P. THOMSON, C. B. E., LL. D., HONORARY SECRETARY AND TREASURER, ROYAL GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY OF AUSTRAL- PASS TAG ooo certe io tee dia shaken el ole eee eae ee one 543 Islands of the Pacific: Yap and Other Pacific Is- lands Under Japanese Mandate. By Junius B. IWiO OGG Saree Gratton arene eee eo ee 590 Islands Under. Japanese Mandate, Yap and Other Pacinic. ssyajumius Ba VWioods ssn snee eee. 590 Isle: Royal ake Superion aces eee ree 186 italiansy -Argentinalves «a eccemcie acieies one COCA Sk Mtalyases WiemiCel cseteve rel Sanede sani enetavateve actor ete neiCe eee ill. 110 Ithaca, N. Y.: Population...... DE Pee tM REIS A Iyeyasu Temple, Nikko, Japan....... color insert, Plate II, 61-76 5) 5 Jacob,. Harry, Es: watmai i xpedition=......-~- 1c 242 Jahangir, Emperor Nur-ud-din: Reference to..... 513 Jai Samand, Lake, see Dhebar Lake, Rajputana, India. Jai Singh: Dhebar Lake, Rajputana, India........ 474 Jai Singh: Wind Palace, Rajputana, India.... Jain Hill of Wisdom, Petrified lace on the.. insert, Plate XVI, 481-496 Jains akemple; -Chitor a lindiabe seers ioeceiciiak ill. 475 Jaipur, India....color insert, Plate III, VI, XIV; 481-496; text 473 Veniceibrovse;, bbe) gaoagoodaadocénuods sooobcandas 469 Wetba eb ety oo cov n sileia okay taciots els Rene Peasered tare Roi te ctor en fe Jaluit lagoon, Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean. .ill. 286 Jaluit, Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean........ ill. 620; text 561, 565, 586, 589, 625 JAammuseiNashmitaeeererieccdecrerrercroitcre crore RiLOy SUS Anz Jarmyud india horton eerie eee 433, 439 Jang: Gorge, Khyber “Pass, India... ... 2... 5..<- ill. 435 SPANBPAUIN 2 vis crezererehever cteratels color insert, XVI plates, 61-7 Mapa: Area’ (Of oven chm ctooie ste eee e eletele ere Arocac-ckonneee 45 Napanics MINSeCt (pestSicrcrsrce oredeusrcecdorereitye isle vous oot 216 Japan: Mandates in the Pacific Ocean....550, 558-559, 616, 647 lapant Brotogeap hing niniyccmiren erie iete os cries 109 Hidpany Sea Obomm cc oere. © SS Are at RBar winitom eens .50, 60 XII Page Japan, The Geography of. By Walter Weston... 45 BITADATICSCHCAUDS 1G" sicteteialeje sicls-s «se /cleuels ov-ays 48-49, 60, 77 Japanese Archipelago: Islands of the............ 45 Japanese beetles...... ill. 207, 2173; text.205, 211, 213- 214, 218 Japanese beetles, New Jersey........ Wa) textyern Japanese beetles, Pennsylvania................-. 211 Japanese, Characteristics of........... 48- 49, ° 51, 59-60 Japanese farmer girl...... color insert, Plate V, 61-76 Japanese girls laving their hands before worship- ing in the Kiyomidzu-dera, Kyoto, Japan. .color insert, Plate IX, 61-76 Japanese Mandate, Yap and Other Pacific Islands Warder Dyn unas Bs WOO ntsc s eiclerericielersrete 590 Jardin Botanico, Buenos Aires, Argentina..... 409-410 Jardin Zoologico, Buenos Aires, Argentina....... 409 Jauteleur Reference toc. cisccle «isles secre ee « 613, 615 Werusalem:, Palestine: 2. s\scrsle satis eielh 6 sis abe: 0/'es4, 506 ill. 94 Jessop, Louise Ahl. Pilgrimage to Amernath, Himalayan Shrine of the Hindu Faith, A...... 512 Jesuit missionaries, Lake Superior............... 119 MESUIES Ss ara ga Viren oil iecicioie cia seller's cbs eieh ep cede ote eforevehs 388 Jhelum River, Kashmir... .ill. 503, 506, 508, 512,: 521; text 506, 517-518 Jinrikishas, Japan: Invention of...text, Plate XI, 61-76 Vipijapa, Mcuador sae cece ss © eevee neucLeven Merete cheaters 346 Jivaros, Ecuador..ill. 328-330, 335; text 327-329, 331, 333, 335 Jockey Club, Buenos Aires, Argentina: Grand stand ill. 405 Wodhpiicelnidiawass recites: seiibs Hone ceaya seat oleae ans 469 Won Valls s (CSuIp)! fee lake «| srebovexarsercuololers vorusporer a6 Utes Johnson, Dr. “Samuel: ‘Rasselaseos..0..5 525 lejos 3 304 Jones, Frank I.: Katmai Expedition..242, 254, 259-260 Jones, John Paul: Reference to.............+.% 3, 409 Journal of the Ethnological Society.............. 639 Juan Fernandez Island, Pacific Ocean........ 631, 639 Jumna River, India...... 98, 105-106, 433, 437, 461-462 ingles ME Cuad OF persis secistescereeicue ys ecettte atersteteistane ill. 349 Hurassic age, Shell-fish of thes... ses. cscs ee 225 SIE? Kabul CAt grhanistanss cccctssscorcceesetes Oe sielers © che eta 453 Kabule Bazaar, Peshawar, elndiairn-cc cle seene 437, 439 Kaiser Wilhelm’s Land, Pacific Ocean........... 557 Kali, Goddess: Reference Lite rate aN none NIA SIP eA ae 466, 529 Kalighat;aCalcuttass lndiar toc «chertisie motels ores 465-466 Kamakura, Japan: Buddha. .color insert, Plate IV, 61 -76 WaimchatkassSibetiamciccysrienctclareln screens eotered noes tals 45 Kamishak bays asatmai Alaska. oe taticicsicies cries 287 KanakaswasouthasearisianGsricmieica ct cei ec ce 575, 627 Wanbals aiashimitigsrpssienssosverevoleterennoteeye roche verekorenes 523 Gariy tite mele be tects, c revere aro cree re ore rsha ero eres 320 Kankroli Temple, Rajputana, India...ill. 478; text 477 Karatutor sa pamiresscchaccts otis be tecrerelene oe crakerenierrane 60 Karewaltssyiashmin (55, a secsislorn clase wioneherstohetorets RAR) iets Kartnerstrasse, Vienna, Austria.....1. ssc... 06. 464 Ia Riza Wak dela Pall vac cickegecthar... css. Ia ceca Wavvetnstece ill. 417 WassGiMies phan a SUA yan ier flere on -)ccre paigeceelesencreeeteners 432 Mactelvone Sound,, Chile eqns ci ci<;. 0+ oie seroiee e erevere 390 Lava-lavas, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean.... 2°. 575 Mavalle aialaiuerfiare aicie «ictese clare elt sie 's we 647 Mageik, Mount, Katmai, XITI Page Magh Mela, Allahabad, India.......... 8 Oe 461-463 Mahabarata, SHE), 12% o's redahovelstopoterabewevors cave susie fotsicsouete © 469 “Maharajah os India: Reference to..... text, Plate III, VI, 481-496 Maharajah of Kashmir, Palace of the. .ill. 510; text 507 Maharajah of Kashmir: Reference to....510, 534, 539 Maharajah of Kashmir, Royal barge of, Baise o roe ill. 509 Maharana of Udaipur, India: Reference to...469, 472, 480, 497-498 Mahlmann, Capt. John J.: Ruins near Metal- IVT chselie: crocs ovo. c ol stchee ce iateneb asehcv ovations cleo ieveteusra stares 609 Maidan, Calcutta; India. ..-......1- sees eee 465-466 Maine: Deep-sea fishermen........2.cecccccsccce 4 Maipures® Venezuelat...,.:. 4 cssierecect cee oases 374 Makatea, Tuamotu Archipelago, Pacific Ocean, 555, 567 Malabar Hull, “Bombay, -India-- = -iu e:- - o eieie o> alee IOI Malacotas River, CUA OL sere rthet tater oie etic ors 335 Malay... Archipelago. 20 ccce cose coc seer ees e 647 Malvina Archipelago, South fines shots eielniaeve oeet 391 Mamoré,, ‘Bolivia. 2... 225 scence seis se ee es oe esate 374 ““Man and Wife Rocks,” see “‘Meoto Iwa,’’ Futami, Japan. “Man twhot was. clea onc teeone tee Eee ee 439 Mana ‘(Ship)- Building of the-.......72:.<.... 629, 631 Mana (Ship): Naming ot thes3.-..-..-25-66e20 631 Manchester, England: Lava-lavas...............- 575 Manchuria: Russo-Japanese War............. pees 2260 Mangareva Islands, Pacific Ocean..............+. 639 MankhattanwlslandsiNie veneer eicieiieeeicite eieeto = 425 Mani piles, Tibet: Sacred....ill. 317-318; text 313-317 Man’s: highest: |towet sii. 1s cers oieievosto se ous re eis ill. 42 Mantras, Allahabad, India: A religious devotee Chamtini gyre Meanie Fret ie revete aleve se ate rereketere ce ill. 456 Maoris: (News Zealands.. seme acces sincioe ee icee 554 Map, Alaska Peninsula................ ill. (map) 222 Map, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean.......... ill. 648 Map, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean...... ill. (map) 630 Map, Islands of the Pacific, Supplement: Decem- ber, 1921. Map, Katmai National Monument, Alaska..... ill. (map) 222 Map, Wake=Supertonascicmc cei error ill. (map) 114 Map; Mannesota 3) 5/c/s0.0) toleisteereeuisjere ee ill. (map) 114 Map of South America, The Society’s New...... 374 Map ofthe: Pacific, ‘Ouré s. ccre «cel erssete eteleierevs ee leiere 647 Map, South America. Supplement: October, 1921. Map, Tibet and border countries.............. ill. 296 Map, Truk, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean,... .ill. (map) 648 Map; | Wisconsin ines ere toisiars tec teats ill. (map) 114 MapleRidge,-Michi.c stsi.res screcasios 0 casters sbeiaia cidicte 137 Miaple’syrup, lakes Superior... mec ee cee ose aiee II5 Maple syrup, New Hampshire................... II5 Maplersyrups. Vermontaj.ceceeiee seen aoe. II5 Maps published by the National Geographic Society 647 MARBLE DAMS OF RAJPUTANA, THE. BY BE BANORSMADDOEK eres oe eee ee se 468 Marble elephants, Jaipur, India...... ill. 472, text 473 Marblehead) «one, Oe nee ene ne eet ee 434 Mont Blanc, “Alps... 2/s.-5)0). cpiais 5 eis ee ee 22 Montecristi, Beuador <2 a, sla nestle eee 340 Montevideo, Wintguay-) acne ate 386, 409, 411, 418 Moonlight effect on the Grand Banks, Newfound- Choke ner RIAMO NOOO MOTO ON DD colo c.2 on ill. 26 Moose), Bullies .c8 cone a okie eae ill. Tes 262 Mioose;) Cowie cme see eine APR cL A. ill. 159, 164 Moose, Lake* Superior.......... ill; 158-159) 102.N1OAs text 114, 185-188 Morgan, L. H. American Beaver and His Works 196 Morning Sitar) (Schooner)... .> 12 eee eee 627 “Morning Till Night Gate,’’ Iyeyasu Temple, Nikko, Japan ecies Los serentaenes color insert, Plate II, 61-76 Morpho; Ecuador \s.0 se © «<0 cele oo cle octane eee 347 Mortlock Islands, Pacific Ocean..............2+: 599 Moslem women, Egypt....... ill. 94; text 97, IOI, 105 Miosleniss Iiddiarecce oa eeieiieeice 437, 456, 475, 498, 528 Mosque; Delhi, -Indiat.. 3)..)-21.. «2+ octeiehee eae 466 Mosques,” Bombay, Indiay... +. se eee ill. 100 Miosqiuesiy) Washi stieetiereieieieeiieeee ill. 506, 52 Mosquitoes, SH cuadoriics 1. «sro sucle el cle + cleiereheneiaeene 347 Mosquitoes, Nauru Island, Pacific Qcean......... 587 Mother and her children crossing the Andes in CHAINS Ma. cso sya oltes anal Seacaitete onnice eye ote Oe eee IONE ill. 367 “Mother Hubbards,’’ Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean 583 Moti bazaar, Lahore, India: A priestess of dance Prete sce lscsjous, oeuerh lors stare duenouey eee. onel atacey here eerenCeNs ill. 447 Miotstindiane seme ercier ee Se text, Plate VII, 481-496 Mount, see Name of Mountain. MiountaintiGodss Vapaniye. 1. + cei iret ener 77-83 Mountains and Mankind. By Freshfield........ 49-50 Mountains, "Greece 421. wees). a cciesriele ek eeee 58 Mountains, Japan....ill. 54, 81, 84; text 58-60, 77, 83 Moving-pictures, Japan) Posters) (Of. eee MN Aly, Moving-pictures, Ponape, Caroline Islands, Pacific OCCA Ne oseleie ids oe So ne Oa Ee 607 Moving-pictures, Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, aisha’ Ge Werdveuclere- sve anevere (e':ctet olcetes a\'s/.euek has ROR 241-242 Mudflow, Katmai, Alaska............ color insert, 277 Mule-drivers, Colombia ...............000ceeeees 363 IMOVIE ERSTE SS ogngoodunuddocUdGCGoaG- pellavAzo Mules, Colombia ......... SO eo ooeio on. 3575 363 Males, “Hcuador .:cm. th. la Sane. «0.0 Seca vom eee 351 Mumtaz i Mahal: Tomb of................000: ill. 99 Municipal Theater, Buenos Aires, Argentina. .ill. 402; text 407 Mural art, New Guinea, Pacific Ocean........ ill..555 Miarrree, Tnidiat ts. Nes ieiouee sane eiees Onereeeherehs 434, 448, 517 Murree Road, India................ ill, 518; text 517 Museum, La Plata, Argentina................ ill. 411 Museum of Fine Arts, Buenos Aires, Argentina ill. 403 Musical instruments, India.................... ill. 108 Muskrats, Flashlight photographs of...... ill. 194-195, 198-199 Muskrats, Homes of........ ill. 193, 196-197; text 200 Muskrats, Lake Superior........ ill. 194-195, 198-200; text 190, 192-195, 199-200, 202 MYSTERY OF EASTER ISLAND, THE. BY MRS: SCORESBY ROUTLEDGE... 35. ae 628 Mythology, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean......... 585 CoN TI22 Nagasaki). Jiapan ivcicve« are, 0 otere ous ereneieloters) lcteier Teketenenelee III Nalkhi Wake) India... o... «1 text, Plate XVI, 481-496 Naknek, Lake, Katmai, Alaska. .ill. 258, 261, 268, 291; text 221, 224, 227, 241, 243, 247; ,257,)2092 Naknek River, Alaska.......... ill. 281; text 265, 291 Nanak, Baba Guru: Reference to............+0- 456 Nanga ceremony, Fiji Islands, Pacific Ocean..... 555 Nangone Island, Pacific Ocean.................. 639 Nanmatal, Ponape, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean: Meaning! Of Mame. « 38 INaizaa Jiapanbirriisserreiers color insert, Plate XVI, 61- Be Nara-Koen, Nara, Japan..color insert, Plate XVI, 61-76 Narcissus bulbs, New York: Boxes of Maier Fic ill. 210 INDEX FOR VOLUME XL, 1921 XV Page Nasimebach gardens) Washimitierreeiecieloie aeicichelsiele 519 National Geographic Society Completes its Ex- plorations in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes:: By, Robert Eee Grigesnecicicss ceo oe ols 219 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY COM- PLETES ITS GIFTS OF BIG TREES, THE 85 National Geographic Society Expedition, Alaska, 191g: Our Greatest .National Monument. By Robert Tey Griggs ett d o.encarcne euensn: ae tonel oe aieloueeneee 219 National Geographic Society Flag........ ill. 238, 2091 National Geographic Society, Wards maintained Guning World War 22sec. > oo sviareels sans cles 38 National Museum, Washington, D. C.: Relics found? on! Paster, Island)... .: 52 bases ill. 628, 646 Natives, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean.......... 627 Natives, Mariana Islands, Pacific Ocean.......... 627 Natives, Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean. .623, 625, 627 Natives, Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean.... 623 Natural resources, South America............... 391 Naulakhal) By; Rudyard eaplingi 3/3 ce csc ienele 497 Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean: Area of...:....... 575 Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean: British occupation of 559, 569-571 Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean: German occupation hE ig tb Go SEE oR Oe ce RenS os 561, 564-565, 568-570 Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean: Guano.......... 550, 566 NAURU, THE RICHEST ISLAND IN THE SOUTH SEAS. BY ROSAMOND DODSON HERA @INGES: Cees co Siere cee were Raia aisle Auer eo eee 559 Natta MO PETs ie eA Merc c5e tic vele. ais oie wie pedeh oo lel bie se oyers ill. 568 Naval bases, Islands of the Pacific Ocean..550, 557-558 Navigator’s Islands, see Samoa Islands, Pacific Ocean. a WNebraskarrAreatOli sci s\ciskews siesevels eos cls deeless eleiale ia 3901 Nectar Pool, Amritsar, India;............-.....- 453 Negaunee, Mich. Ey sere Ka ledetove ine WetstedoeansWetacs rors metehenns 137 INiegombo Gey lo tin csa cisveteralin s euavstor cise svensie wyecene cietebare 109 Nepal, A woman of...... color insert, Plate I, 481-496 Nepali Temple, Benares, India... 3.6.1.5. 065.- ill. 457 Nesbit: Flashlight. photographs...............:.. 179 Nie tells sista nl Ceasar ictere oreiahe Canetsue fexcietavane stererelee sfele 38 INE Wa eOhOrds MASS) Sale. ccecjei clele ie eie os scare duione 5 New Bedford, Mass., Whaling ship from......... 563 New Britain, Bismarck Archipelago, Pacific Ocean ill. 550-551 New Brunswick, Canada: Albino deer............ 185 New Caledonia Islands, South Pacific Ocean...549- 551 New England States: Deep-sea fishermen......... New Guinea, German, Pacific Ocean..... PaaS OOz ase New Guinea, Pacific Ocean..... ill. 552-555; text 547, 549, 551, 555, 559, 566, 569-570, 647 INew Hampshire: -Maple syrup. ...........26000 115 INewnHebrides, Pacilic Ocean ..ise eee. 6 oe 549, 564 News Orleans. Was: -Miausoleums acme cc seek es 405 New Pommern, see New Britain. New South Wales, Australia: Expeditions to Funa- DEBIT = Neh os co Behe raO ie CROCE ORD CREME Cheat ORC me nea nemo 579 News YiorkawA Tea HO bevcierreisve ceo eke dees Diamine Feet 428 INE wae VOD Ket. CCI ye Segoe ett cy reiiete cieust> cou eR a ohe Sieve verovee 147 INewa Vonks Eis lslande ses cierecicvoee cre ore cre chene ill. 208 New York Island, Pacific Ocean, see Washington Island, Pacific Ocean. New Vork=Narcissts: bulbsi....600c.%:6 04.010 die we ill. 210 INI Goby INI Gol eer OPO Cae, Chale Re cio Cer Pare Renan OL ING waevionkes Ne Yee LlOtsenShOwz erick cries oriole 406 Mew York, N. Y.: letters of icredit...¢s0...-5.5; 357 INEwaVorkaNa Yeo Windurecondmss sccias cei sie eens 132 WewsZealatrdtrecsscciec cots cine nle 5475 552s S55) Soo SOL New Zealand: Mandate over German Samoa...558-559 Newroundland: | Cartboserns a. eee eee ce ae 1355) 137, Newfoundland: Life on the Grand Banks. By Bredecick- Walliam™ Wallace .s.5..eji0 «siere1s, ces I Newport, Me.: European earwig........-..2seee5 213 Newsgirls, Japan ..... Loar aRRUse Ur oa aloneders ev ohe Ye Moneta Ane ill, 57 Neatik; (Pacihe ‘Oceatts . oc26 hice e 5 «vs cite care ees 596, 599 Nikko, Japan: Cryptomeria Avenue.............. 459 Nikko, Japan: Iyeyasu Temple....... color insert, Plate II, 61-76 Nikko; Japan: Wegon Hallse 2.2 .2ce)- ill, 80; text 54 “WGC (BRED) coeoeeooagseccogsDnucEooUe ill. 289 ROSES PO CIES 2 oes tre sete qeiatate ete tec cs setae ee a taim ota 89 Napigasn bay+ Oritariow cae cackic oo teh eee ae see 185 Niptson itiver: “Ontatioaie sewn ccs weet eeila 155 Nippon, see Japan. Wishat- Bagh garden, Washinirss 0... 0. fo. win ill. 519 APE ACC! MSCS A CTE 8. 4 6.2 oleesssics deloseyntte cL eiewonge os 381 Mizhmn “Novgorod, “Russias. 322 5 Ae nod a eae ws sieve 453 Page “‘Noddies,”’ see Terns. Nomads, Tibet. .ill. 315; text 297-298, 303-305, 315, 317 Normandy, France: A peasant pitleot-e see. oo. ill. 40 North America: Governments of.............+-. 391 North Platte, Nebr.: Wind record............... 132 North Sea: irawlers of the tiescuge.s so acsies sso oe Notes on the Maoris and Melanesians. By Bishop Wrellitt Sto crss ei sedtohevs ctiela tates dashes setts opie ee 639 Notre Dame Cathedral, Paris, France: Aérial view il; 37 Notre-Dame-de-France, Le Puy, Stague of, France i435 Novayscotia,. (Canada. :t1.15 nc cess oie seieeees 4-5 Novarupta Volcano, Katmai, Alaska...... ill. 230-231; ,text 224, 232, 240 Nuns, Buddha Gaya, India: Buddhist......... ill. 463; text 465 Nur Mahal, Reference to.........---.-. 448, 515, 519 §£6)?? Observation Mountain, Katmai, Alaska........... 241 Ocean Island, Pacific Ocean........ 550, 567, 569-570, 572, 5°7 Ogasawara Island, see Bonin Islands, Pacific Ocean. NTF O seis GTM Op A Wisk o Cholcesicsn se: 0e oie ¢eleueo vaneless om pada = 149 Ohio River...... Sepals detoheferevaraloie cs rels onoekehe inet eon rol erates II9Q Olio; VialleyicePiceotis.... 1. s.6- 2. ie eee 147 Oulskins ee yag oa NOS cies pecoven oie aero ill. 6 Ojibwa Indians: . 0.45.6 ill. 115; text 119-120, 130, 141, 179, 196 Ojibway Indians: Houses of the............... ill. 115 Okuyama, Governor: Reference to.............-- 595 Olympus Mount, Greece. . 2. isos. eee acw te es 50 “Om-marni-padme-bun? 2 << se lees cle, oe cle 312-313, 317 Ongole, Indiav.i:3)5...... Tee eilleeTro6, Test texted at Ontake “Mount: Sapa «io ci-ie1cisedonicle tes cep coeteretaledt 50, 56 Ontario, ;Canadaterene. 4: ceohetrrekevehe 147, 155, 159, 185 Opium: {China se enc. hee ete nial eieeee ae eras 104, III Opolu, Samoa Islands, Pacific Ocean.......... ill. 558 Orakezais wove are weiss e ase en reese ewoeee) Lee 436 Onesie wad ors ces sscvaccecheweneeeee erent ete eee 352 Oriental sanitary drinking fountain........... ill. 102 Oriente: Province, “Bolivian. = ms +e eee eee 374 Oriente Province, Ecuador.:......... 327-328, 331, 350 Orinoco Rivers Vienezuclasceeeeneee ne oe oe eee 374 Ornaments, New Guineay.2-4 2h eee eee ill. 552 Ornaments, Solomon Islands, Pacific Ocean...ill. 544, 547-548 Osaka, Japan tant soe ie as eaie ei tore ee ee eee 53,2 82 Osaka, Japan:.Uncemented fort................. 609 Osborn, Chase S.: Reference to..............00- I19Q OSisms1 fribeEs’.tacis, pctetisias aie, sus tall «a caked Wontar esi oe tee ee 34 Otuquis: River, 2B olivia. y1kcorciens okotseariel eeleiieee 374 Ouap Island, see Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY COMPLETES ITS EXPLORATIONS IN THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES. BY TROBERG by GRIGGSAs.smee es eee ae 2190 OUR GWAR OO} Vhbib SPACKHICl see eeeee 647 OUTWITTING THE WATER DEMONS OF KASHMIR. BY MAURICE PRATT DUN- Cy. ees Arete NY Se Toy ati fer Bron Gres ort sR ae: 490- OVER THE ANDES TO BOGOTA. BY FRANK (M. CHAPMAN. ..29.000.6..c00 0k a5e OVER TRAIL AND THROUGH JUNGLE IN ECUADOR: INDIAN HEAD-HUNTERS OF THE INTERIOR, AN INTERESTING STUDY IN THE SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLIC. BYosER ee AN DHON Yen athens eee 327 OxenssColombiaee cme cca AS.cisteerom ee ill. 365 ©xegarmesy= dri Gide cst vorere oer Dieie hele ees eee ee 517 SSi29 Paanhsien, see Batang, Tibet. Pachisi on the trip from Calcutta to Rangoon, Playing ill Pachu River, Choiseful, Solomon Islands, Pacific OGean Weenies chore See ellors ares oemerwee, cee ill. 556 Raciticy islands Companys cee ieee eee eee 567 Pacific Islands: Map of the. Supplement Decem- ber, 1921. Pacific Islands Under Japanese Mandate. By uNIMSeDs WO OG sie ces ence esisies eho aie Aes oxte es 590 Racine sOurns VMapeoteccaesciee feemeic aioe neces se ee 647 XVI Page Pacific Phosphate Company... cc.cesecersccess 567, 585 Padmini, Princess: Escape from Ala-u-din Khilji 497-499 Pahlgam, Kashmir.....ill. 531; text 532-533, 535, 541 Pajaros, Mariana Islands, Pacific Ocean......... 591 Palace of Justice, Buenos Aires, Argentina.... Palace or Mirrors, Tahore,) Indias... . ois 2. «ie. ill. 446 Palais de Justice, Paris, France: Aérial view...ill. 37 Palanquins, Japan....... color insert, Plate XI, 61-76 Palao Islands, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean jll. 613-6173; text 555, 617, 621-623 Palermo, Buenos Aires, Argentina..............- 409 Palermo Hippodrome, Buenos Aires, Argentina... 405 Palestine sonic cicteseva ls sacle DS erelehs tare ill. 94, 97; text 87, 90 iRalestine HlarDOnSe sl. celles text, Plate X, 481-496 Palmyra Island, Pacific Ocean: Ownership of.... 647 Palo borracho trees, Chaco region, South America 426-427 Pan American Conference, Fourth.............. 407 [Eatacleniceereparevenatelele versie ional sicienonetelolicye Se ee tet 333) 359, 395 Banamane Bava Ota ANAM Aric) oie! sieielclelohelvicilepeleiere « 357 Ranma Gatlall sen csictsarciscoclsicnes 357, 359, 365, 390, 558 RanamashatseehCuadOrysycociici ure suoucisreisicinie oil ieveracie 346 iIRanamas Usthmuss OL me anamaleci cme lche cis clelelejclelelersre 647 Pandanus trees, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean, 577, 579 Barc hates clr diasipevecseleveirisic cioucreie sie cssdei JES 0n066 107 Papeete, Society Islands, Pacific Ocean........... 589 Paper-weights,; Benares, India...............6.-. 465 Papuans ...... eee ee cece ccc e cece eee eeeeeees 5537554 Paras erkvalleso pounced so go oho Goonus Deeds oouOb ee 374 Paraguay. .ill. 388, 426; text 405, 409, 411, 415, 418-420 Paraguay: Boundary, clarinsi. 00.0 6 « «eceienerereicse)s1 ot ots 391 RAT aAsiay elm POTS reel) onsveleccverere seousielete cleteo ev oue enone 392 Paraguay River, South America. .ill. 424-425; text 388, (414, 418-421, 425-427, 429, 432 Paraguay tea, see Maté. IPATATIVO WEY CLA COTelej crore sieieccuerseste enti cleiehenieeseeeeoiots +334, 370 Parana and Paraguay, A Journey up the. By William Re = Barboureycrcteici tess cisisiersicteteicigelsiedokeiiels 393 Rarana,) Argentinas as sic sicletece claiciesor adolansheketeveteoswone bere 413 Baranal Province, stazile mcs rtorre iia terete ill. 387 Parana River, South America...387, 395, 411, 414-415 PATIS Mn EUTAnlCe steel terse exhereirccre sire ill. ,36-39, 42; text 466 Park of the Third of February, see Parque de las Tres de Febrero, Buenos Aires, Argentina. . Parks, Buenos Aires, Argentina...... ill, 412; text 409 Parque de las Tres de. Febrero, Buenos Aires, ANTES CNIEITIAY focauer sce tels (olevetstaieasiisnslsieicustotedehauoialoteiets 393, 409 Paseo de Julio, Buenos Aires, Argentina........ 393 Ipastaza River, (McuadOr. fi tccs aieiercelo .........c002008 85 Serra, Aguapehy,) Brazil... .- ieee 2 ore eile 374 Serras Azul) Brazil y..c 5 cco etre oe cxsvoverstore serene eet 374 Serra do Dombador, Brazila... 5.2. - sso cee eee 374 Servants, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean........... 587 SeSodtas) jo... 0.5.0.3 Sieieesk.a a ore ela olerecclens epee eee 469 ““Seven Islands of Tdz1? o.0.0) 2. os eyalor, ol cnet eee 60 Sewing machines, India..color insert, Plate XIII, 481- 496 Shadoofs;: Bey pt. s.s «.oel text, Plate VII, Ae -496 Shah Hamadan Mosque, Srinagar, Kashmir.. .ill. 506, 524 Shah Jahan: Reference to. ... .. d<0. cer 457, 459, 461 Shah" Jalan: Tomb) of 5 579s. 585 Synias Nozzled sile/a\ciy ale 'ave exes 646 Thompson, J. P. ‘The Islands of the Pacific...... 543 fhuresnine, BCuaGOLe. wo. +. a6 ill. 344; text 343, 345 Mbmes hinges ibe tava isrelere els) cheleveleloieeic == ill. 324; text 299 Throne of Solomon, ‘Kashmir... 4. ce eee ill. 515 THROUGH THE HEART OF HINDUSTAN; A TEEMING HIGHWAY EXTENDING FOR FIFTEEN HUNDRED MILES, FROM THE KHYBER PASS TO CALCUTTA. BY MAY- NARDEY OWEN Wil AIMS ie cece oiic os cles = 433 Tibet ahd border countries, Map of.......... ill. 296 Tibet, Life Among the People of Eastern. By Dr. iN, iby SUMAN do Gos oeeoon cob bnoDbotioesoD asc 293 Mibetansa Oxiginvoteicciair-piereisieia st oistierereteellele text 296-207 Tidal Waves, Japan....... DOGO COC OUD OOOO S dae 51 Timber- line, Amernath trail, Kashmir......... ill. 533 Times Square, New York, iN ARNG aes Se 465 Timor Island, Malay Archipelago Dremu atete we cahensaiebelicee 647 Timur the Lame: MOMPNO Laievens iacelsneys stems eMelste arstetene 449 Tirthankar Cells, India...... text Plate XVI, 481-496 ‘Titus, Louis: Contribution to Sequoia National Patron Gere syceet cet e nel cecvcier seelistede ys feolierosuctoyerel cl ctteusit= 85 Tobas, Chaco region, South America............. 427 MochewRiver Colombia c ac cereiweveuereereteledecie toheies ill. 370 Moche mvalleya@olombias. ye were ero ercre ieee 371 Tod, James: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan 469 Tod, James: King’s Palace, Chitor, India........ 499 Molima, + Colombia: = Cone sotan ana cle aieiere ieee 372 Tomil, Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean..... ill. 611-612; text 610-617 Tonga islands -Soutlh Pacific ‘Ocean. 2.))0)./s1. 549, 589 Tongariki, Easter Island, Pacific Ocean...... 641, 643 Adopayaaigned baxche laos Game o8 coo6 come oe 513; 516,519, 522 Tools, Easter Island, Pacific Oceans sss: 629, 644-645 Torei, Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean...... 617 Morness otrait, Avstraliaz cites sss oe ae ne elves: ill. 547 Tower of Fame, Chitor, Rajputana, India..... ill. 498; text 497 Traders, New Guinea, Pacific Ocean.......... ill. 554 Tenis, woes soosesosommoponooeeoouooUUODD 350-351 Transportation, Argentina...ill. 397-400, 412, 420, 424- 426, 428, 430 granspontationplotaziler amie tescyreneiiel rey neta ill. 387 MTANSPOKtatlOmm Ci lew agyusarelechelcheere cteenerenel tells ill. 390 Transportation, Colombia. .ill. 358, 361, 363, 365-367, 379, 373) 392 Mransportation. pH CuAdOI... hr. «cr stensets « eteieueter tens 342 Transportation, India..... ill. 434, 449, 452, 462, 464; color insert, Plate III-VII, X-XII, XIV, 481-496; 504, 506, 508-510, 512, 516-518, 522-523, 525, 531, 534; text 439-441, 513, 516, 518 Transportation, Mariana Islands, Pacific Ocean, ill. 618 Transportation, Pacific Islands..... 545, 561, 564-565, 584, 586, 593, 601, 608, 618 MLAnSpPOLLAtioMea WnuUsiiay: ile ocike n gicielets eleicjeic es aril 386 PCES TAHOE IIE 1a aon oedsttels ous cucveutynceoreyevens omerepenats 410, 414 Trees destroyed by beaver...... ill. 178, 182-184, 189; text 198 irees.s aster island, acitic) Oceania i -\cle/o:- 628, 631 Trees, Bp eG VoyeM ais chee chenckoroy ee OO ill. 349; text 348, 350 MESS eT Las cus saree dea aceuely, a ishiavs joreraivece ill. 475, 480, 499 reess abate Straw MOOS) LOtge len sealers os cle ill. 5o Trees, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean.......... ill. 576; text 576, 579 Metairie taleaters sits Sie latersrda vere Grahera sys Crallevenat wleus sip 516-517 Minident Wwolearno, INatmat, Alaskal 4. taaeieicws slo 6 249 sieitonwote the sbacitic, AY. cc.5 oct steere ise. Soon Bee Nrocadero; Palace, Paris, Brance.......- 000.2 ill. 42 Mrophniesvonh ayman-hunt,’ Hcuadotene so sle «i ill. 332 ‘opicallZone.-Colombia..).)... + ies. - 355, 35%): 302, 370 trout isatmar, Alaska. a5 lcs eke ts cee 464 Wife of the Governor of Kham, Tibet......... ill. 293 WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR, PAST AND PRESENT: THE HABITS OF DEER, MOOSE, WOLVES, BEAVERS, MUSK- RATS, TROUT, AND FEATHERED WOOD- FOLK STUDIED WITH CAMERA AND FLASHLIGHT. BY GEORGE SHIRAS, 3d.. 113 Williams, Maynard Owen: Adventures with a Camerainwy Many ands 4 ore lteter 87 Williams, Maynard Owen: Through the Heart of Hindustan: A Teeming Highway Extending for Fifteen Hundred Miles, from the Khyber Pass to VCaleuttarsteee eae aa ee ce es oe eee oe a gee 433 Willow, trees, Natorai Alaskang. ee sneer ill. 256 Wilmington (Gunboat), Trip up the Micon River 391 Wind Palace, Rajputana, India...ill. 473; text 473-476 Wind storms, Katmai, Alaska........ 270, 279, 284-285 Winnowing, Ecuador................ ill. 344; text 345 Winter castles, Udaipur, India................ 478-479 Wireless stations, Nauru Island, Pacific Ocean 568-570 Wasconsinsmerer aoee ae 133, ole me 159, 166 Wasconsin ge Viaprotiecs: cee ener i (map) 114 Witch Doctors, Nauru Island, Pacific oe nyt wine 585 Wola, Truk, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean...ill. 606 Wolvesis si nieg oe lotes ill, 133; text 160-161, 163-166 Wolves, Lake Superior: Timber. .ill. 133; text 163-166 Wolves Michigans tumbena acer eee 163 Wolves, Timber............ ill. 133; text 160, 163, 181 Woman of Nepal at the Darjeeling Bazaar, A. color insert, Plate Ds 481- 496 Women, Chitor, Rajputana, India: Self destruc- FVOTUGO Pao nies pocorn cs eee elon eee 475, 498-499 Women, Ecuador: Treatment of............ 33)15, 383 Womens tibet Position ote. ieee 308 Wood, Junius B.: Yap and Other Pacific Islands under Japatrese=Mandates sac cries cee eee 590 WiorldaWareAncentinaterraeier eee reieicereriee 416 World | Wars iColombiacsiacm cicero cea ueaeretee eens 353 World War: Pacific Island trade after the....... 550 World War: Pacific Islands before the........... 559 Worms,” Wood-bonitigecie centro a dele eres ill. 216 Wotje, Marshall Islands, Pacific Ocean.......... 625 Oe Ximenez de Quesada, Gonzalo, see Quesada, Gon- zalo Ximenez de. Vachow:>; Chinate fie sccic tctesers ee ee eee 305, 313 “Yak we Yuk” (Marshall Islands’ erecting) shateustiets 625 Wakeé-dake volcano, Jiapan.. os... s0ee-+ ccs ues lg ao Yakswiibetscn sees ane a ill. 320-321; text 298-299 Yamanaka,! Lieut: Reference to..............-..- 602 Viamatiasht, Ja panies haces «ie cept neve o.oo snekaveteserancii ote 54 iatma tonite cress cuetees ciel oe otawes Marereeys sua shektac Shap ouee arene 50 Varigtze Rivera Chinas so. see crete seme coe 295 Yangtze Valley, Chinas Was ea cee SES SHO VABTAN DY ODER SPACIEIC ISLANDS” UN- DER JAPANESE MANDATE. BY JUNIUS B. WOOD BR ries See Cet eae eens Pe eer 590 Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean..... ill. 610-611; text 616-617, 621-623 XXII Page Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean: Disasters VASItEG! LIPO eiete sce 0: «4 WARS IO ods CnrOUipIG OF 616-617 Yap, Caroline Islands, Pacific Ocean: Ownership a LaeererePeteta ve Cie Rer aia) ale: scsens ave, clave eleheyere Sie erojevare oie 647 Yari-ga-take, Japan: Hunter worshiping on the Cima: OW sohsgsopooadocpagane ooodSundoase ill. 56 Ybera, Argentina, Lake, see Ibera, Argentina, Lake. PaeOu Aleta. RELELENCE, COssri vist lols era aye aici sielewiens « 602 Gti PITT Etre ess eirereiel a ieils) chetiexsisiarele leielere ill. 311; text 305 Waiairenines I EpEtboh aseada oop Soon ouo Od dooce: 45, 609 Yori, Charles: Katmai Expedition...... 242, 250, 267, 284-285 Womecharies: Photograph Obs ....5.- o's 1.0 sw i ies ill. 258 Young stalwarts, Solomon Islands, Pacific Ocean : ill. 548 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Rage Younghusband Expedition, 1904-1905......... 295, 326. Younghusband, Sir Francis: Expedition to Tibet 295, 326 7 bh Zain-ud-din: Reference t0:...:...«» os »sstsieleeee 532 Zamora, “Hcuadofwe v «cities olsinietaele ein tt ate 334-335 Zamora River, Ecuador, «5 %<« +. sles ys bine 335 Zam-Zammeh gun, Lahore, India.............. ill. 448 Zaruma, Ecuadoti.ic «i. ec\r, «© s+ bye sieleisieletel areata 352 Zies, Dr. E. G.: Katmai Expedition. .242, 250, 279, 285 Zies, Dr. E, G.: Photograph Of. « AS SiR IE HARBOR A’ GLOUCE DN She erican irt seamen of the Am Fathers, Gloucester had become the for stalw erim ’” Samy of the Pil s eg port of the New World and a “nur inl ind 2 c in fish avy—the men whose descendants were to mal Within a few years after the 1 Jones, Perry, Lawrence, B pioneer r such leaders as John Paul eh é, aud Decatur, 7 istor x 4 y unde bridg 111] r c 4 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Herbert B. Turner FISHING CRAFT AT GLOUCESTER At the beginning of the Revolutionary War, Gloucester was . The industry suffered a blow during that period from which it did not fully revive until second only to Marblehead as a fishing port. the Civil War. ployed at sea on board a ship are called “sailors” by landsmen, but seamen narrow the embrace of the term down to those who can steer, equip, repair, and handle the canvas of a sailing craft under sea conditions. All others are deck-hands and seamen. Sailors of the orthodox class even go a step further and designate all the per- sonnel of a steamer as “steamboat-men.” They consider the terms “seamen” and “sailor” to be sacred to ships driven by wind and canvas. It has been my privilege to sail and steam the oceans in many kinds of craft, ranging from the ro- mantic full - rigged clipper ship to the oil- burning greyhounds of twenty-knot speed, and from the grace- ful, sea-kindly Grand Bank fishing schooner to the sturdy steam- trawler of North Sea type; but in all my voyaging I am in- clined to the belief that the only real “sailors” we have to- day, in this mechan- ical age, are tgeee found in the Bank fishermen of North America’s Atlantic coasts. The sailors I refer to are the crews of the beautiful fishing schooners that sail out of the fishing ports of Newfound- land, the Maritime Provinces of Canada, and the New England States of America; and the ports which claim most of them are. Lunenburs: im Nova Scotia, maaid Gloucester and _ Bos- ton, in Massachusetts. These deep-sea fish- ermen are a distinct- ive type peculiar to the North American Atlantic coast. Racially they are from the sturdy pioneer breeds of Highland Scotch, Hanoverian German, West Country English, and West Irish which settled in Newfoundland, eastern Canada, Maine, and Massachusetts when America was young. Landing on the shores of the new land, they made their homes above tide-water and farmed, cut timber, and fished. ‘To reach their markets they had to use the sea, and they built their own vessels to transport their goods. The succeeding generations of men were, therefore, farmers, fishermen, wood- workers, and. sailors. Pik ON Tab GRAND! BANISS In the New Eng- land States this type succumbed to the de- velopment of other industries. Its rep- resentatives deserted the seaside farms and went west or into the cities, where life was less arduous. Nowadays, the men who built and sailed the American sailing marine of 1800 to 1862; who made of Gloucester, Boston, Portland, Province- town, New Bedford, and Nantucket the great fishing and wWinalinie ports of America having dis- appeared, their places have been filled by those of their breed who have succeeded in resisting the allure- ments of the shore industries and the cities. These latter are the Nova Scotians and Newfoundland- eps and they form the greater part of the crews of the Bank fishermen, with a sprinkling of Scandi- navians, Portuguese, and native - born Americans. Thus it is that when a Gloucester fishing schooner is lost, mothers and widows in Newfound- land and Nova Scotia remain to mourn the majority of the vessel’s dead. THE SEA IS BEFORE HIS EYES FROM INFANCY Physically, your American deep-sea fishermen are strong-muscled and able to endure hardship. They are not slum or city products, but are mainly raised in sea-coast villages of the Canadian prov- inces and Newfoundland. At an early age they learn to handle an axe, to work on the land, and to rig and Or ie Photograph by Herbert B. Turner ALONGSIDE THE GLOUCESTER DOCKS During the first half of the nineteenth century, the heyday of the American sailing marine, Gloucester, Portland, Boston, Province- town, New Bedford, and Nantucket were the great fishing and whaling ports of the United States. bait fishing gear. In the summer months the boys usually go shore-fishing or lob- ster-trapping. The sea is before their eyes from infancy; the roar of it in their ears and the smell of it in their nos- trils. Clean air, good, wholesome food, and hard work create a sturdy, hard-muscled youth who usually breaks away to sea in a Bank fishing vessel ere town lads are through grammar school. When he knows enough to “hold his end up” in a dory and aboard a fishing schooner, he makes for Boston and Gloucester, at- tracted by the good money made in Amer- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a “ a tsb ff Wllillleis thi, ZT ‘“aLL HANDS TO THE MAIN-SHEEY” The fishermen practically live in oilskins and rubber boots while at sea. LIFE ON THE GRAND BANKS 7h ~ SAILS SPREAD FOR A RUN TO THE GRAND BANKS ican vessels and the broader allurements of shore recreations in large ports. Some few marry and settle down in American fishing ports, but the majority keep in touch with their birthplaces and journey home once or twice a year. BOTH FARMER AND FISHERMAN ARE WEATHER GAMBLERS Ashore, the Bank fisherman is not con- spicuous. He talks, acts, and speaks pretty much as any other class of Amer- ican worker. He is neither ignorant nor uneducated, nor does he interlard his speech with nauticalisms or wear his sea- boots and oil-skins when strolling up- town. The average deep-sea fisherman Of today is merely ~a healthy, level- headed, intelligent class of skilled worker who regards his particular vocation pretty much as the farmer does his, and the two are much akin. Both are gam- blers, with livelihoods dependent upon the weather. But it is at sea that the Bank fisherman manifests his distinctiveness, and the splendid inherited qualities of the type are seen to advantage—daring, initiative, skill in seamanship, and ability to endure long hours of heavy labor and the rigors of seafaring in small vessels during the varying conditions of weather on the North Atlantic. It may be said that he is no different from the European fisherman in this re- spect ; but comparisons will show consid- erable differences. The deep-sea fisher- man of Europe has practically outgrown sail, and works on powerful steam-trawl- ers, where ability to run a winch, haul and heave a trawl-net, use a netting nee- dle, and dress and box fish are practically all that is required of him. On the few sailing smacks operating nowadays in European waters the trawl-net is also used as well as hook and line and drift- net. All the work is done on board the vessel. DORY FISHING MAKES THE AMERICAN DISTINCTIVE In the North American fisheries the fast-sailing and sea-worthy schooner still remains as the prime means of produc- ing fish from the Western Atlantic “banks,” and the greater part of the fish- ing 1s done from small boats, known as dories, which are carried by the schooner and launched upon the fishing grounds. It is this dory fishing which makes the American fisherman, and by that term ! include Canadian and Newfoundlander, a ) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SPEEDING FOR MARKET: A BANKER IN WINTER RIG “The modern Bank fishing-schooners are undoubtedly the handsomest commercial sailing craft afloat. They are built of wood and range from 100 to 150 feet in length, with a tonnage of from 80 to 175 tons.” distinct type from his colleagues in other countries, and adds to. his vocation 2 hazard and labor which calls for certain sterling qualities to surmount. teisean peculiar tact that the North American fisherman, of all white fisher- men, has stood out longest against mod- ern innovations in fishing methods and equipment. In Europe, years ago sailing smacks and hook and line were dis- carded for the steam-trawler and drifter. The trawler of steel construction, pro- pelled by steam or motor, has only been used in the American fisheries of late vears, and at present there are about sixty of these craft on this side compared to the thousands in Europe. But while backward in changing over to steel and steam, our fishermen have evolved a type of sailing schooner which is the last word in weatherly qualities and speed under sail, and the men who man these vessels are the only real sailors left in this age of steam. THREE KINDS OF BANK FISHERIES There are three distinct fisheries in which the schooner fleets of the Western North Atlantic are employed, namely, fresh fishing, salt fishing, and halibut fishing. Mackerel seining also employs a schooner fleet during the season, but this is not a Bank fishery in the accepted sense of the term. LIFE, ON THE GRAND BANKS o A BANKS FISHING-SCHOONER In European waters fleets of steam trawlers supply the fish markets, but in the North Ameri- can fisheries the fast-sailing, seaworthy schooner is still mistress of the Grand Banks. As most people know, the Banks are vast areas of shoal water lying at vari- ous distances off the eastern coasts of the United States and Canada and south and east of Newfoundland. Upon these Banks, in depths ranging from 15 to 200° fathoms, tremendous numbers of certain demersal species of fish are to be found at various seasons. Cod is the common- est variety caught; haddock ranks sec- ond, while hake, pollock, cusk, halibut, skate, whiting, catfish, wolf-fish, monk- fish, and lumpfish are also marketed. FISHING WITH A LINE NEARLY HALF A MILE LONG In the offshore fisheries upon the Banks, none of these fish are caught by net unless by steam trawling. In the schooner fishery the long-line, misnamed “trawl” by fishermen, and hand-line are used exclusively. The long-line is, as its name implies, a long line, ranging from 2,100 to 2,400 feet in length, and is made of thin, but incredibly strong, tarred cotton. Into fits “back line, or ground line,’ are spliced thinner lines, called “snoods” or “gangens,” at thirty- to forty-inch in- tervals. ‘These snoods are usually from twenty to thirty inches long, and a strong steel hook is bent to each. ‘Thus, on each long-line there are from 600 to 800 snoods and hooks. Each long-line is coiled down in a wooden tub—often made by the fisher- men themselves by cutting down a flour barrel—and every hook has to be baited before the: ‘gear, isesee In halibut fishing a much heavier line and hook are used, and as the snoods are spliced or bent into the ground-line at lengthier intervals, there is consequently a lesser number of hooks affixed to a coil of halibut gear. THE ACTUAL FISHING IS FROM THE DORIES Halibut line is not coiled down in tubs, but secured, when not in use, by a small square of canvas from which four pieces of short rope depend. ‘The coil is placed upon the canvas and the ropes are used to lash the gear up in a compact bundle, the whole being called by fishermen ‘a 10 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 0b M1 Mec WOO try th SIXTEEN KNOTS IN A DECEMBER BLOW The photograph was taken from the bowsprit of an American fishing-schooner a few moments before it became imperative to reduce sail. LIFE ON THE GRAND BANKS 11 skate of halibut gear” in contradistinc- tion to “a tub of cod or haddock trawl.” On every Bank fishing-schooner, ex- cept hand-liners, on which the fishing 1s done from the deck, a number of flat- bottomed, high-sided boats, called “do- ries,” are carried. These dories are from 18 to 22 feet over all and their thwarts are removable, so as to permit their being “nested” one within the other upon the schooner’s decks when not in use. From six to twelve of these dories are carried by fishing schooners, and it is from the dory that the actual fishing 1s done. The modern Bank fishing-schooners are undoubtedly the handsomest com- mercial sailing craft afloat. They are built of wood and range from 100 to 150 feet in length, with a tonnage of from 80 to 175 tons. Their lines are fine and designed for speed, but weatherliness has been so well combined in the model that neither quality has been sacrificed. True, they are terrible craft for jumping about in a breeze and sea, but they seldom ship any heavy water on deck during a blow, unless “knocked down” or “tripped up” by squall or irregular wave. Well-ballasted and drawing a lot of water aft, the Bank schooner stands up to a great spread of sail, the main-boom in some vessels being 75 feet long. The big mainsail is the largest piece of canvas on a fisherman and it is carried until the whole strength and skill of twenty to twenty-five men is required to make it fast in a strong breeze. A CLOUD OF CANVAS IN SUMMER The orthodox Bank schooner is two- masted—there have been three-masters— and the sails carried are mainsail, fore- sail, forestaysail, or “jumbo,” and_ jib. These are known as the four “lowers.” In summer, when the topmasts are up, light sails are set, consisting of fore- and main gaff-topsails, a rectangular main- topmast-staysail, and a balloon-jib or jib- topsail. The two latter are often of great size, and when a Banker has her light sails set she is a veritable cloud of canvas. In winter fishing, the light sails are left ashore and the topmasts are also dis- carded. In heavy weather, which will not permit a reefed mainsail to be set, a small triangular piece of canvas, known as the “riding sail,” or storm trysail, is hoisted on the mainmast. ‘This sail is also set to steady the vessel while lying to an anchor on the Banks or when mak- ing short “shifts” from berth to berth on the fishing grounds. When under riding- sail, foresail, and jumbo, a schooner is said to be “under Bank sail.” EVERY BANK SCHOONER IS A SEAFARING DEMOCRACY Every Bank fishing schooner is a sort of seafaring democracy. The crew works the ship on a cooperative basis, with the skipper as sailing and fishing “boss.” In Canadian and American craft in which the writer sailed, the gang were shipped on the share system, their remuneration consisting of an equal share of the pro- ceeds of the catch after the bills for victualing, ice, salt, bait, cook’s wages, and other incidentals had been paid. The schooner took a quarter or a fifth of the gross stock, and this repaid her owner for the hire of the vessel. Out of this share came the cost of insurance and upkeep, but in good seasons, prior to 1914, many schooners paid their cost of construction within twelve months. In those days, however, a Banker could be built for $12,000; nowadays they cost nearly $50,000. The share system has had many vari- ants. Formerly, in some vessels, it was “even shares,’ where all hands drew the same amount. In other craft it was “by the count,” where each dory kept count of the number of fish caught and the dory catching the greatest number drew the highest share. The lucky dory was known as the “high line” or “high dory”; the lowest count was “low dory,” and in some ships if a pair of fishermen came “low dory” too often they were “fired.” Both of these systems had their draw- backs, and of late years so many new methods of dividing the proceeds of the catch have been instituted in the different vessel fisheries that it would be confus- ing, and possibly erroneous, to quote any one as being the standard. In some vessels a wage is now guaran- teed and augmented by a share; in others, the owner provides food and gear and the fisherman provides nothing. But the share system, in some form or another, / dNJOsqe AIUOOYIS dy} JO Ajapes oy} [UN sev. }I Joop syuegq pues sy} UL ‘or assed uo UOT} AURD JO pvaids 9Y} VINpPs1 0} ISH][E oy} UL UMOYS JOUOOYIS 9 dSMOd AHL AO GNA AHL NWOds BS dy} JO MOIA puodes VY ‘JI Spuvllop A] 1o}JeUL wv SI € ’ 24} YUM oprid jo .- TIIDO Te. viel M\O'Td jou saoddiys WANA V NI SLONM NUALXIS D ¥ EGY, Wp ‘(oz o8vd ‘}X9} 99S) SJOYAIVU sv ‘SoLIT] SULYSY dy} OF payoeye sKonq 9} OF PoNYe ow YIM ,/SsT[eq-3pe[q,, 10 StoAY-YSIy,, 91V SYSIP Yoryq op, “1ouooyIs oy} Aq PaMo} Suloq 91e Sottop dt J, MNVd HHT NO _SQLHS ONIATA 66 99 MS CC 14 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE DORIES ON THE BANK The next dory is barely discernible to the right, in the distance. Sometimes they are strung out behind the parent schooner for five miles. A DORY COMING ALONGSIDE THE SCHOONER The tubs in the stern contain the long-lines (see text, page 9). LIFE ON THE GRAND BANKS - ‘ \ WOON \ Yyy je Uh BAITING HALIBUT LINES WITH FRESH HERRING There are three kinds of fisheries on the Banks—salt fishing, fresh fishing, and halibut fishing (see text, page 8). MDMn'@Ci GW BGC CLUBBING A HALIBUT This fighting fish must be clubbed before it can be taken into the dory. 16 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE TORN TO RIBBONS A forestaysail, or “jumbo,” which was carried away in a squall. REPAIRING A TORN SAIL 1% GRAND BANKS —\ 4 ~~, EON Dr “\ 4 LIE AGE SS ol NAS NWS . S \N N Wy renee \ \ \ XY BENE. AE SARE BOY N WINTER GETTING UNDER WAY I ty YW, 1, Gf oe 4 YY WU, MSs ger of founder lan Ae sie IS) salt th h ice wit i becomes so coated sometimes A schooner DORIES ARE OUT ON THE BANKS EN THE R, WH IN WINTE 18 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE MUZZLING A JIB IN A SQUALL In winter weather, fishing can be carried on only in the lulls between squalls. At this season schooners are stripped for heavy weather, topmasts and light sails being left ashore. still remains, as no orthodox fisherman would work in any other way. They are all born gamblers and always look for- ward to the “big trip.” I have been on voyages where the men drew $70 each for a week’s work, and on others where they made but $45 in two months. The Goddess of Luck has something to do with the fisherman’s re- muneration, but the men who fish steadily throughout the year with hard-working skippers usually make a good income, though it is never commensurate with the risks they take. The crew, or “gang,” of a Banker runs from sixteen to twenty-five men. A schooner “running ten dories’ would have a crew sufficient to man ten dories with two fishermen in each. In addition to these twenty men, there are the skipper, the cook, a deck-hand, and, if the vessel is an auxiliary, an engineer. In some vessels neither deck-hand nor engineer is carried. NO FAVORITES ON A BANK SCHOONER All navigating is done by the skipper. The men are primarily fishermen, but they are under the skipper’s orders and must help to sail the vessel, to steer and keep a lookout, and to set and furl sail. On passages to and from the Banks, the fishermen take regular turns in stand- ing a watch at wheel and lookout. With a gang of twenty men and two men to a watch, this period is not a very long one, as a rule, but in bitter winter weather, with a hard breeze blowing, an hour at wheel and lookout is long enough. [| have known times when ten minutes at the wheel required relief to thaw out fingers and toes numbed with zero frost. When sail has to be set or made fast, all hands are called. 1f the men are asleep and it is only a small job that re- quires four or five hands, the whole crowd is turned out to do it. By doing this, no favorites are made and no one can complain that he is being imposed upon. JI have seen twenty men roused from slumber to take in a jib—a job three fellows could have done—and the skipper saw to it that no man loafed below. : During the run-off to the “grounds” the fishermen are busy overhauling their LIFE ON THE GRAND BANKS 19 A BIG COMBER The Bank fishing-schooner will make “good weather” of a hard gale and mountainous sea. fishing gear. Each man has his dory- mate and his particular dory and they divide the work between them. It is in- cumbent upon them to have their lines in good shape and their dory properly equipped when the skipper sings out, “Bait up!”, the schooner having reached the Bank to be fished. Six to eight tubs, or skates, of gear have to be kept in order and baited by the two dory-mates—a task which calls for much skill and deftness of fingers, when some 2,000 hooks have to be baited with pieces of herring, squid, or capelin every time a “set’’ is made. THE SOUNDING LEAD IS THE SKIPPER’S OTHER EYE The passage to the Banks may be a run of from fifty to five hundred miles and it is usually made in the quickest possible time. When the vessel has run her distance, the “spot” the skipper has been making for is found by the lead. The sounding lead is a fishing skipper’s other eye and he is usually an adept in determining his position by means of it. While there are many fishing captains who can navigate by solar and stellar ob- servations, yet the majority find their way about by dead-reckoning, using com- pass, chart, log, and lead, and their ac- curacy is often startling. The sample of the bottom brought up by the soap or tallow on the lead and the depth of water give most skippers an exact position after two casts. If the gear has been baited and the weather is favorable, the skipper sings out, “Dories over!” The dory-mates who hold the two top dories on the port and starboard “nests” prepare their boats for going overside by shipping the thwarts and jamming the bottom-plugs in. Oars, pen-boards, bailer, water-jar, bait-knife, gurdy-winch, bucket, gaff, sail and mast, and all other boat and fishing impedimenta are placed in each little craft, and it is swung up out of the nest and overside by means of tackles depending from the fore and main shrouds. SETTING THE LINES Two fishermen secure their tubs of baited lines and jump into the dory, which 20 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE f THE WINTER GULLS In winter, is allowed to drift astern. The painter is made fast to a pin in the schooner’s taffrail and the dory is towed along by the schooner. As the other dories are launched, they are dropped astern, made fast to each other, and towed by the schooner (see illustration, page 13). When all the dories are overside, the skipper, at the wheel of the schooner, de- termines the direction in which he wants to set his lines, and the dories are let go, one at a time, as the vessel sails along. A schooner “running” ten dories will have them distributed at equal distances along a four- or five-mile line and Number One dory is often out of sight from the posi- tion of Number Ten. the gulls surround the fishing vessels by hundreds. During the summer they are not so common. When the last dory has been dropped, the skipper will either “jog” down the line again or remain hove-to in the vicinity of the weather dory while the men are fishing. In the dories, when the schooner has let them go, _— one fisherman ships the oars and pulls the boat in the direction given him by the skipper, while the other prepares the gear for “setting.” The end line of the first “tub” of baited long-line is made fast to a light iron anchor to which a stout line and buoy-keg is attached. This is thrown over into the water, and the fisherman, standing up in the stern of the dory with the tub of long-line before him, proceeds to heave the baited gear into the sea by means of a short stick which he holds in his right hand. With this “heaving stick” he dexterously whirls the coils of line and hooks out of the tub and the long-line goes to the sea-bottom. Three or four tubs, the lines joined together, may be set in this fashion, and another anchor and buoy is made fast to the last end. The long-line now lies on the bottom of the sea and is prevented from drifting or snarling up in bottom or tidal currents by the anchors at each end. The fishermen in the dory hang on to the last anchor until it is time to haul the gear, or they may leave it altogether and pull back aboard the schooner again, leav- ing the location of their lines to be marked by a flag or “black-ball” thrust into the buoy-keg attached to the anchors at each end. READY FOR THE HAUL 66 39 The lines may be “set” for periods varying from thirty minutes to half a LIFE ON THE GRAND BANKS Wik day. In the latter case the fishermen will be towed back to their gear again by the schooner and cast adrift when the buoys marking their respective lines appear in sight. The picking up of these tiny buoys and flags, scattered over five or six miles of ocean, is quite a knack, and the fishing skippers seem to possess an uncanny sense of lo- cation in finding them. The writer has known schooners being forced to leave their gear in the water and run to port for shelter in gales of wind, and to return two or three days afterward and pick it up again without much trouble. “When ready to haul the long-line, the fishermen insert a _ lignum - vite roller in the gunwale of the dory and pull the anchor and buoy up. The end of the line fast to the anchor is detached and the fisherman, stand- ing in the bow of the dory, commences to haul the long-line out of the water. His dory - mate stands immediately behind, and as the line comes in it is his job to coil it back into the tub again after knocking off the untouched bait. The fisherman hauling the line over the roller disengages the caught fish by a dexterous twist of the arm. This back- handed jerk whips the hook out of the jaws of the fish and it flops into the bot- tom of the dory. Fish which cannot be cleared in this manner are passed on to the man at the tub, who twists the hook out by taking a few turns of the snood around the “gob stick,” which he thrusts into the mouth of the fish. A VOLLEY OF “SLATS” MEANS POOR HAULS Unmarketable species—sculpins, skate, dogfish, etc.—are knocked off into the sea LeeRNE A NEST OF DORIES AND BULWARKS COVERED WITH ICE by a vicious slat against the dory gun- wale. On a quiet summer’s day there is no more disheartening sound to a fish- ing skipper than to hear a continuous volley of “slats” coming from the line of dories. It means that the dogfish are swarming on the grounds, and that they have taken the hooks intended for better fish. When the lines have been hauled and the last anchor is up, the fishermen row or sail down to the schooner, which is generally hovering around like a hen keeping guard over her chickens. The dory rounds up alongside the vessel, the painter is caught by some one aboard her, and, after. handing up their tubs of long- lines, the two fishermen pitch out their fish upon the schooner’s decks. 2) THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE - é eae | — : * ; ger Prag cere TRE OB QURAN Rtor eH HRT A PEN OF CODFISH ON A SCHOONER’S DECK At the end of the day in the dories the work of “dressing down” the catch begins (see text on this page). Certain sections of the deck have been penned off for the reception of the catch, which prevents the fish from sliding to leeward when the schooner rolls. THE JOB OF DRESSING DOWN THE CATCH At the end of the day, when all hands are aboard, the work of “dressing down” the catch commences. ‘The fish are split and gutted, and some species are be- headed, by the fishermen, standing at tables rigged up on deck. The dressed fish are then washed in tubs of salt water and consigned to the hold, where they are packed away on chopped ice. If the vessel is salt-fishing, the fish are piled upon each other in the hold-pens and liberally covered with coarse salt. After the catch has been cleaned and stowed away, the men bait up their gear for the morrow’s “set.” If the fish are biting freely and the catch is heavy, the fisherman’s day is a long one. Dories will ofte1: be swung overside before sun- rise and the men will finish by midnight. There is very little sleep to be got on the Banks when the weather is fine and the vessel is “on fish,’ and the writer remembers one occasion in winter fishing on a market fisherman where the gang were kept hard at it from Sunday night to Thursday morning with but an hour’s sleep each night. On Thursday a gale of wind came along and it was hailed with pleasure, as an opportunity to “lay off” and catch up on slumber. FOG, THE FISHERMAN’S WORST ENEMY The foregoing description is that of the life on a market or fresh-fishing schooner running her catches to port for consumption in a fresh or smoked state. The “marketmen” seldom remain at sea longer than ten days, but life aboard these craft demands the greatest skill and hardihood on the part of skipper and crew. They waste no time in getting to the fishing Banks, and usually go tearing out under a press of sail. Dories are hoisted over before dawn, and the men often fish all night, with torches aflare on the dory gunwales. They will go over- side in pretty rough weather and will re- main out until the last minute, in the face of fogs and squalls. In summer, fog is the fisherman’s LIFE ON THE worst enemy. Dories may be strung out when it is fine and clear, and before they can be picked up again they are blanketed from view in a wet, sight-defying mist. The skippers are wonder- fully clever at locating the hidden dories, but it often happens that some cannot be found, and their names are listed with the yearly death toll of the Banks. But there are not many casualties, considering the frequency of the fogs, and I can remember one occa- sion when 56 dories were reported astray from their vessels and all were either picked up by other schoon- ers or else rowed in from the Banks to the land. Some of the distances stray fish- ermen have rowed in dories seem incredible, but a pull of 150 to 175 miles in rough weather and without food is not an unusual accomplish- ment. A few years ago, during April, two fishermen got astray from their vessel on @uero Bank and were picked up fourteen days afterward 30 miles north- west of St. Pierre. They had but a little cake and some water to sustain them during that period and only managed to keep from freezing to death by constant rowing. One man’s feet and hands were black from frostbite when picked up. THE SIREN STRIKES TERROR Fog inspires fear in fishermen by rea- son of the danger of being run down by steamers. Many schooners have been sent to the bottom thus, and the roar of a steamer’s siren close aboard in foggy weather will have a crowd of fishermen out of their bunks quicker than anything else [ know of. It is a most disturbing sensation to be lying becalmed and helpless in a clammy mist and to hear a steamer blowing in the A BIG FELLOW: WEIGHING ABOUT 300 POUNDS GRAND BANKS x Y Y Y Y Y Yj Y A GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE HALIBUT vicinity. One never can tell from which direction she is coming, and the fisher- men blow horns, light torches, fire guns, and ring bells when the dreaded blast is heard. During the winter months the Banks- men fishing for market endure some strenuous times. Chilling cold, strong winds, rough seas, and ice and snow make of dory-fishing at this season a somewhat risky and desperately arduous occupation. THE FINEST BOATMEN IN THE WORLD The schooner is stripped for heavy weather, topmasts and light sails are left ashore, and fishing is carried on during the lulls in the squalls. ‘Time is valuable DA THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HOMEWARD BOUND: A BANKER IN WINTER RIG on market Bankers and only a steady gale will keep the fishermen aboard the schooner. If the weather is intermittently squally, the dories go overside and make “‘one-tub sets,” coming aboard the schooner when it is snowing and blowing too hard and setting out again when the flurry eases off. It is in weather like this that one is compelled to give the Bank fishermen taetpa dtc lon sec, tem usivine mire dories overside on a black winter’s morn- ing and pull out over a tumbling sea and set their lines with a torch aflare on the dory gunwale is a most impressive sight. One can see them on a windy day toiling and tossing in their frail craft on a crest- ing waste of gray waters and blotted from sight every now and again by squalls of snow. To set and haul their gear, to pull a heavy dory with a load of cod and had- dock in a broil of wind-whipped combers, demands a skill and hardihood which makes the American Bank fisherman the finest boatman in the world. The low temperatures which often pre- vail in our western waters in winter add to the fisherman’s trials. Dories often become so heavily encased in ice that they are in danger of foundering with the weight of it. Schooners also run the same danger, and it is not an uncommon occurrence for a vessel to be so heavily iced-up that she dare not venture any longer toward the coast, but is compelled to run offshore, to the warmer tempera- tures in the Gulf Stream. BRAVING THE GALE WITH LASHED WHEEL AND BARE MASTS When on the Banks, fishing vessels do not run for harbor every time the barom- eter foretells a gale. The usual thing is to take it hove-to under foresail and jumbo, and this sail can be reduced down to a reefed foresail if necessary. In one tremendous winter gale, we had to haul everything off the schooner, and she lay for four hours under bare poles, with wheel lashed and ali hands below. The modern Bank fishing-schooner will make “good weather” of a hard gale and a mountainous sea and seldom take aboard any water to hurt; but life on a fishing-schooner hove-to in such weather is. by no means pleasant. Its fearful leaps and plunges make it almost impos- sible to walk one step without hanging on to something, and the muscles of the body LIFE ON THE GRAND BANKS 25 become strained and sore with the jolting and swinging. ‘To eat and sleep under such conditions as the fishermen do calls for unusual stamina. The living quarters in fishing-schooners are in forecastle and cabin. ‘These apart- ments are lined with bunks—possibly six- teen single bunks forward and four to six double bunks aft. The galley is located in the after part of the forecastle and the mess-table 1s fitted between the foremast and the wind- lass-pawl-post. All hands eat their meals in the forecastle. The skipper lives aft, in the cabin. In some schooners he has a little room to himself, but in a good many he sleeps in an open bunk like the fishermen. The galley stove keeps the forecastle warm, and a small “bogey,” or base-burner, heats the cabin. As fishermen are constantly wet, the stoves are kept continually fired to dry out sodden clothing. THE FISHERMAN FEASTS LIKE AN EPICURE Though it is a hard, cold, and hazard- ous existence, yet the fisherman’s life has some compensations. ‘The cooks carried are masters of the culinary art and the meals provided are of the most luxurious description. All the staples and all the luxuries go aboard a fishing vessel, and the scale of victualing is Biltmore style without the silver and cut-glass. A fisherman is always hungry, and in addition to three square meals per diem, he indulges in a “mug-up” between times from the “shack locker,’ or quick-lunch cupboard in the forecastle. Tea and coffee are always on the stove. With stoves going below, it is always warm and pleasant in cabin and fore- castle, and a fisherman’s bunk, with a good thick quilt or blanket and a straw mattress, makes a snug sleeping place. One never sheds many clothes on retir- ing; the discarding of boots and jacket is enough. The cabins and forecastles are clean and well kept. Vermin is a fisherman’s horror, and the writer has known men of questionable cleanliness to be sent ashore. There is a certain spirit of independ- ence to the fisherman’s life which makes it attractive. He is under no master but THE BANKER’S COOK This deep-sea chef will feed a hungry crowd of twenty-five men with a plentiful variety of well-cooked food, three times a day, in fair weather or foul. INVA GNVAD AHL NO LOU LHOVINOOW V LIFE ON THE GRAND BANKS He the skipper, whose rule is a fairly toler- ant one. The men obey his orders with- out question. It is he who finds the fish- ing grounds, and the harder he keeps them working, the more money they will draw when the catch is sold. A hard-driving, hard-working skipper can always pick up a crew, while the easy-going vessel master is not likely to be a big * ‘fish-killer” and will never se- cure the best men. THE RACE TO MARKET Then there is the sailing. A smart vessel is a fisherman’s pride, and he will never lose an opportunity to try her out against other craft. Your fisherman is a sail- -dragger. He believes in carrying his canvas to the last minute, just for the fun of seeing her go. To be one of a fleet of Banksmen “swinging off” for market in a stiff breeze is to confirm one in the be- lief that the American fisherman is the finest sailor of the present day. Sail is crowded on the schooner until her decks are like the side of a house and the scuppers are abroil with water. Four- teen to sixteen knots an hour have often been made, and some skippers take a pride in their ability to carry canvas and refuse to reduce sail until the lee-rail is under water. The fisherman is a pretty good helms- man and can, as a rule, steer these quick and jaunty schooners “through the eye of a needle.” Their nerve in steering a vessel running before the wind and sea with the big main-boom “broad off” is often commented upon, as in heavy weather this is the most dangerous point of sailing in a fore-and-after. THE SKIPPER IS A MAN OF MARK IN HIS PROFESSION The American Bank fishing skipper is in a class by himself. He is usually a fisherman with ambition, who comes out of the dory and makes a bid for the com- mand of a vessel. It is a profession that is not overcrowded, and the successful fishing skipper is a man of mark by proc- ess of survival. Many a man takes charge of a fishing craft and fails to make good. ‘There is no come-back for him. Even if an owner entrusted him with a vessel again, it is doubtful whether he would get a crew. Fishermen do not sail with doubtful skippers or known failures. The ability to sail and navigate a vessel is secondary to the ability to find and se- cure fish. Some skippers are lucky, but real hard work spells the story of success. The “high-line” skippers have always been “‘hustlers.’? They hustle the vessel out to the Banks, hustle the dories over the side, and keep the crowd hustling as long as the weather allows. If it comes on to blow, they hang to the Bank until it eases off and swing the dories over while the seas are smoothing down. Even though not particularly lucky in striking big “jags” of fish, yet the hus- tling policy of these skippers tells in the long run. They lose no opportunity to get the lines in the water and always plan to bring aboard some fish every day. After a week or ten days of this work, they invariably hustle off to port with a paying catch. MEN MUST HAVE CONFIDENCE IN THEIR SKIPPER The successful Bank skipper must be a smart vessel-handler, to inspire confi- dence in his gang. They prefer to go out in the dories secure in the knowledge that the skipper can pick them up again if it comes on to blow. The skipper who gets adrift from his crowd in squall or fog will find it hard getting a crew to ship with him again. He must be an optimist and a diplomat, to handle the independent crowd who sail with him. He must never show ner- vousness or fear in dangerous situations and he must be ever ready to do the right thing at the right moment. The men pin their faith on the skipper and trust him implicitly. Should he show anxiety as to his whereabouts in danger- ous waters in thick weather, or become confused when the wrong turn of the wheel may lead to a collision, his crew become panicky and will lose their faith in his ability. He must also be something of a busi- ness man and keep the expenses of the trip down as much as possible. There is no profit in catching just enough to pay the outfitting. He is expected to know where bait can be procured at certain 28 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE seasons and to run in and purchase it at the lowest price and without the loss of too much time, and his good judgment is called for a hundred times during a voyage. To be at once a navigator, a sailor, a fisherman, a diplomat, and a business man makes of the American Bank fishing skipper an outstanding type, and the most of them are splendid fellows. ‘They earn good money, but deserve every penny On at. THE SALT FISHERMAN’S LIFE IS EASIER While we have taken the market Banker as a study in the foregoing, the salt Bank fisherman and halibuter present but little differences. The fishing is carried on from dories in a somewhat similar manner, but the salt fishermen, as a rule, take life easier. The season for salt fishing ex- tends from March to October, and the schooners make from two to four trips during that period. ‘The method of fish- ing by “flying sets’—towing the dories and dropping them over the Bank—is carried on to some extent by salt fisher- men, but these craft usually anchor on the Bank, and the dories row away from the vessel, take up their position, and set the gear. If fishing is good, the lines are left in the water and “under-run’”—+. e., the fish are taken off and the hooks immediately baited again without hauling the whole line up and taking it aboard the schooner to do so. When the fish begin to thin out, the gear is taken up and the schooner makes sail for another fishing ground. Halibut fishing is possibly the most ex- citing of all. Cod, haddock, and similar species are quiet fish, with but little life in them when hauled up from the bottom. But the halibut is a fighter and has to be clubbed by the dory-men before being taken into the dory. In the summer months, when the fish are inshore in shoal water, the halibut is a troublesome fellow to land. I remember while halibut fishing around Anticosti, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the terrible struggles we had with fighting halibut in forty and fifty feet of water. The writh- ing and squirming of a hundred-pounder would give a fisherman all he could man- age in getting him aboard the dory, and very often he would have to cut the snood and let the fish go, lest by his struggling he capsize the boat. Even when the fish has been clubbed into quietness and hauled into the dory, he will wake up and thrash the oars, thwarts, and gear overboard by the smacks of his tail. Old-time halibuters provide for this contingency by lashing the halibut’s tail to the rising-strips of the boat. In deep water, say 100 fathoms, the halibut are not so wild. The long pull from the bottom to the surface has ex- hausted the fish and they are more easily handled. An instance of the daring of fishermen was seen by the writer on a halibut trip when, during a savage squall, a heavily loaded dory was half swamped by a comber. ‘The two dory-mates tied lines to some of the fish and hung them over- board to lighten the boat, while one man bailed and the other kept the dory bows- on to the sea. Unable to row down to the schooner with the fish overside, they remained thus for two or three hours, until the vessel worked to windward of them and picked them up. HAND-CAUGHT FISH ARE SUPERIOR In addition to long-lining from dories, a few vessels fish by means of hand-lines from dories. Hand-line dories are a trifle smaller than the others and one man usu- ally fishes from them. The hand-line is equipped with two or three hooks and a lead sinker, and the fisherman will operate several lines at a time. Cod and haddock caught by hand- line are conceded to be superior to long- line-caught fish, and this method is em- ployed in both fresh and salt Bank fishing. The age of the clipper ship and the seamen who sailed them is gone, but in the American Banksmen we find the smartest sailing craft and the smartest sailormen afloat today. But the steam and motor trawler is coming into the American fisheries and many of the tall- sparred schooners are having their sails and masts cut down and internal-com- bustion engines installed. In a few years from now the schooner fleet will give way to power and the sailor-fishermen who drove these smart and able hookers over the seas will have evolved into sea-mechanics. SCENES FROM FRANCE 29 Viti Yi, Vy A Yy Z TWO BRETON ’M’SELLES The peasants of Brittany wear costumes of the same design from generation to genera- tion. Women and girls wear snow-white. linen collars and lace-bordered caps in a wide variety of shapes. Each peculiarity of design has its meaning, and indicates the home district of the wearer. These two young women live at Huelgoat, a villare in Finistére, the western- most department of France, whose largest city is Brest. ‘P]IOM dy} ]][e 0} peddiys pue sur} ojur poyoed aq 0} ‘saysy dInj}erIUIU JO SpelIAU YM spr] UINjoI pue ‘otoy wo1Z Jno ynd sjeoq Surysy oy Apanjs fo spospunzy “AA}SNPUI IUIPIS JY} JO JoJUID JURJIOTUTI Ue SI ‘VULIY] JO JSvOO JIVURI}Y UsJoy}IOU dy} UO SWeU sUIeS dy} JO Aeq aUY oY} UO pajzeNnys ‘zoudUIeNOG AWHAUdNS SNOWY ANIGUVS WIANOH AHL WHAM "PY ‘porn Aq ydessojoyg rn 30 ysoq Ss SSULIG ‘py } if cca Oo ‘ JO Si uTYSsy oF Iv oy [ ‘ayarng Aq yde ty nb I -OOIT JIA 130}0U gq I } So AJIeVaU 3etY} P Toy Topur YOM NN 21e "19 tulsa Usoq sey Wt pue ‘Karu youd ‘IOJUIM Pivy ev pur ‘uv q ul poor off IUIPIeS oY} UL seos AU 101S UO Jf oY} UL snosolUnuU o1e UOoUTIoYst [HOAT] @ JOF¥ OuIpses oy} uodn puddap udAppIYyD pue ‘udtuOM ‘ud TY ANVIIINUG NI SHNIGUVS DNIAUG ~ \N SN WSs Q O J ULUITe uoyoI¢ J} A] ¢ MX SS 19 Ad} PIATd9I UdoUTedS ‘apdood oy} [[e 04 ssoaysip ON 31 ‘UOILAJSH]IIE SI} UL UMOYS 9U0}sS 9} OpIsaq Spuv}s dS Jt pozipeas oq [JIM Sodoy Joy Jey} SoAotfod Joyyour & IU O} SOYSTA OYM JIM UOJOIG oY], “IVI Ud}OSIOF V JO S}USUIMUOLT dsoy} FO Aaojshut dy} 0} poreduiod usyM oyjduuts 91 viidssy pue viuojAqeg JUorue Jo 4drtos W4oflounys ot} pue ydASyT JO syAATooIIIY OYJ, “Woy} Jnoqe IIe} s}ursved dy} YOM Sat1O}s PsOM ayy aie AULA puv “Stoo UOJ fh JOAO PoJo}LIS IIV SYPYPESOU JEIIS dsay} FO WAIOF IY} Ul SpIh4iq 9} FO Sosy GNAOIT FO GNV'I V SI ANVILTaa PY] ‘91919 Aq ydesso0j0Yyg 22 ~ - = nn Ore > ov ina = emt = S, a | ~ _— ff! Y Ol fey— — —_— OD 5 = - , an & or) cn Dh = Pas) a g& & Fe : , y y S) =: & S SS SEN / YYy/y ry PA OS Le . ee S AO Se = : . : i Yy . ae SL y aa - (Bas ee = — _ ’ 4 i] ct ~ eA = = hang ~~ i ~~ (tf —- Cr hoe a oy = oh _— . ° Y ‘ “- Ss ° = pi} ~ ifters, from wh walls cl ii < umily linen is stored. « ches in the tl f h rough-hewn r y ni it . sed w bl ake il compartment where the lings TON HOME 1excel 4 tl one above another, occup b The beds, or bunks, A BRI Beneath the bottom bunk is usually a ¢ 4y INSIDI icles. 4 % j % ] Z Y % 4 Z Z % Z reton farmhouses have floors of hard-trodden earth =) Me ae) Wwe) Sel 5 om) aw ac >) n Ss} Se Sirs S57 3) 8 a ©) is S -_ ——— gS SS \ RG May DS SSR A MAGKRG G Re YP BL SSSGAAAAVQVuass ee = Wa ~ _ . . SEU . Say WS a} TS) Ss SO. 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GK \ \ \ \ \ SK \ \ BWM A GE AA \ —DRDVMR_RJeREeEC XX RG ‘ : : Se : j ; UU, i \ NN CWC . . me ogee : A ee y é YO , pry NX . DS uns cen pen . \ Y 64 iy WAGES SS. TAQ F RNR WANT HOLE WOK \\ EARL N LEO AAC LRM KGug \S & SN ise) 40 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE s Photograph by Creté, Ltd. A PEASANT GIRL OF NORMANDY hemNonman asia model of industry and thrift, even in France, where the common people are noted for making the utmost of their resources. While the Norman farmer is at work in his fields, his wife and daughters are making butter, tending the poultry, weaving lace, or spinning wool. In out-of-the-way places the beautiful old Norman dress may still be seen. SCENES FROM FRANCE AI Photograph by L. Boulanger THE MEIJE, IN THE DAUPHINY ALPS The scenery in this part of southeastern France, on the border of Italy, is sublime, though desolate, but is rendered accessible by modern engineering in the construction of good roads. This peak, by no means the highest, is one of the group of lofty summits lying entirely within French territory. Among mountaineers its ascent is noted for its difficulties, and to have climbed it is admission to exclusive mountain-climbing circles. 42 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE _~ 2) ra ° ~ = = ° ~ AZ = 1.) 2) Tr. a 5 > n= 2) lt = A= : YU 5p Y Seay 2 om a, = ore 4 = c O 3 pS Ss en SEt - = vw oO (eg Frm | = oo = a) Sed y — ~ Oo = = Re ~~ — my Y a = ~ - _ WD Qs et = n> oe = om) f= 7 as Ck on w~ O = mes) an ees SO m= Oss ma =~ AAD on e0) - iB) — = —_ 2 merely a small wooden hut, ine is The shr ‘yaede Sopit APPL JHOGE IW SOOUPSPOA DATOV OAD OUT, TAPALPNSoA PRONLUTPOYPLUT TPLAL SOWTOD YOY “UAN] UMO SPP FOF GUNSOA SE JOJO OY} OATJOV St UO LOY A “UO ou -UOD URSUBALO}GUS V SE odoy) APUOARdde YOIYM YAY ‘VMLZIMARSL FO JIOSOL JOLULUNS OY} JLOM “BLUeA-VLURSY “ULM) SHOLUPY, O4OLU B SLL oYeP-oYe | MMVG-IMNVA 'NVdVi NI ONVO‘IOA HAILOV LSHHOIH WHY U0JSI AA TOPVAA HOTT YALISOJOY J =_ \ \ AN THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZIN THE KEGON FALLS AT NIKKO, ONE OF THE CHIEF RELIGIOUS CENTERS OF JAPAN The slender ribbon of water is the outlet for Lake Chuzenji, falling 350 feet into a rocky basin. Near the basin myriad minor cascades form a lovely setting. 81 THE GEOGRAPHY OF JAPAN ) that the two larger and the 39 smaller falls bP © Kadel and Herbert -NO-TAKI (“WHITE-STRING WATERFALLS SHIRAITO FUJI AND MT. 3 . S ly of 41 member i ataract 1S lovely c he parents and the children.of a fam 1S f th composing 1t are t . . iption o “The popular descr Aq payovot st ayepiysvy-ou-euy NVavf{ ao ‘ 2yeSC) WOAZ Softut 16 “IVI ‘OPI Joaf COT PUL BSUOT SoTL OM} IEq-pues B UO dAois oud v st odvospury qiodns sty} JO d1nyvoj yediourid ayy, AVI, ) HLVGIHSVH-ON-VWV SLHOTS SQONVA WAHL, HHL JO UNO “ONINWOW AMONS V NO ‘( MOGIaa SN ojourryes rysodry Aq ydessojoyg THE GEOGRAPHY OF JAPAN 83 smoking, with the assurance that I should thereby acquire those attributes of the chamois most desirable in a climber— nimbleness, strength, and mountaineering skill.* They subsequently begged me, as I had been fortunate enough to make the first ascent of the mountain, to build on the summit a shrine in honor of the Moun- tain God, and myself to become its first guardian priest. It always appealed to me as the strangest offer of preferment and the most singular proposal for church-building that I ever received. A frequent cause of delay or ill-success in exploring unfamiliar peaks in these regions has been the inability to obtain the help of the hunters, who alone know the best approaches. A careful inquiry usually led to the discovery either that the men were afraid to bring an alien on the sacred mountain, lest the mountain spirits should in angry retaliation destroy their crops, or that they were absent, en- gaged in the rite of Amagoi, a service of supplication in time of drought. This service usually consisted of light- ing bonfires and discharging guns to draw the attention of the god to the fire in order that he might extinguish it by send- ing the needed downpour of rain. But it is on Fuji-san itself that some of the strangest of such experiences have fallen to my lot. CLIMBING SNOW-CLAD FUJI Many years ago, with two Cambridge friends, then visiting Japan, I climbed the sacred mountain, snow-clad in early spring. We had been warned by the vil- lage priests and policemen that the anger of the Goddess at such an untimely in- trusion (for she was not “at home’ to Visitors except in the depth of summer- time) would surely make itself felt. As an actual fact, we had advanced only a short distance when the weather changed, a typhoon burst upon us, and we were imprisoned for three days in our bivouac half-way up the mountain. However, after the storm came. sun- shine and with it a successful climb, which did not bring us back to our vil- *For an account of a similar superstition among primitive Koreans, see “Exploring Un- known Corners of the Hermit Kingdom,” in THE GrocraAPHic for July, 1914. lage friends again. Their kindly solici- tude, however, soon rendered us the ob- jects of public concern, and the “foreign” newspapers forthwith honored us with the following obituary notice, translated from a well-known Japanese journal (the Flocht Shimbun) : “The foreigners who started to ascend Fuji with two coolies have not since been heard of. The mountain is still covered with snow, and as the summit was hidden in clouds, the visitors were urged to post- pone the attempt. But these foreigners were determined to go. ..A few, “hours afterwards the storm burst, dislodging huge boulders and house roofs. “As nothing has since been heard of them, it is feared they have succumbed to the fury of the gale. Even had they taken shelter, cold and starvation must long since have rendered them helpless. Their nationality is unknown, but we surmise that they are British, for the rea- son that the people of that nation like to do that which is distasteful to them and glory 1m their vigor!” LENE | CEIN DUR Ya NEE bat Sia i Wr Nai ee SiN} FUJ!IS SUMMIT There is one outstanding feature of this beautiful and sacred mountain that differentiates it from any other known; for, ;there / the “Wnromantic realism and materialism of the twentieth century stretches out its hand across a thousand years and draws the tenth century to its side with all its old-world dreams and communings. Almost at the very door of the most sacred shrine on this holy peak the post- office banner flutters in the breeze to beckon the tired but triumphant pilgrim to dispatch to the four corners of Japan the picture postcard that shall announce his successful toil. And as at early dawn you turn from a surprised contemplation of the most up- to-date installation of modern meteorol- ogy on the crater’s edge, your astonished eyes are arrested and held with reverent interest by the sight of the shivering limbs and the adoring gaze of some aged pilgrim, whose white-clothed form en- shrines the flowing devotion of a prime- val worship paid in all sincerity to the splendors of the “Rising Sun.” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 84 A MT. FUJI, IN THE ROLE OF NARCISSUS, VIEWS ITS OWN SUBLIMITY IN THE MIRROR OF LAKE SHOJI widespread countrysides (see text, page 77). Fuji-san, “The Matchless Mountain,” is loved by millions of toilers in busy cities and on hae NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY COM- PEEPS sls HE trustees and officers of the National Geographic Society are deeply gratified to announce to members that The Society has been con- tinuing its effort, begun in 1916, to pre- serve the Big Trees of Sequoia National Park. By a final purchase in April, 1921, of 640 acres of land in Sequoia National Park, these famous trees, oldest and most massive among all living things, the only ones of their kind in the world, have been saved ; they will not be cut down and con- verted into lumber. Were a monument of human erection to be destroyed, it might be replaced; but had these aborigines of American forests been felled, they would, have disappeared forever. The Big Trees could no more be restored than could those other sur- vivals of indigenous American life, the red man and the buffalo, should they be- come extinct. FIRST PURCHASE MADE IN IQI6 Members of the National Geographic Society will recall that, in 1916, Congress had appropriated $50,000 for the pur- chase of certain private holdings in Se- quoia National Park, but the owners declined to sell for less than $70,000. In that emergency the National Geographic Society took the first step toward saving the Big Trees by subscribing the remain- ing $20,000.* ‘Thus 667 acres were pur- chased. ‘The Society’s equity in them was conveyed to the government, and this tract became the property, for all time, of the American people. In 1920, inspired by the first benefac- tion, three members of The Society gave The Society sums equivalent to the pur- chase price of $21,330, necessary to ac- quire three more tracts, aggregating 609 acres. Thus the original area of Sequoias saved from destruction was almost doubled. At the request of the donors, this area was presented to the government by the *See “Our Big Trees Saved,” in the Na- TIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MacAzINE for January, 1917. GIFTS OF BiG RES National Geographic Society in June, 1920. This gift was made possible by the generosity of Stephen T. Mather, _Di- rector of National Park Service, who personally contributed $13,130; by D. E. Skinner, of Seattle, who contributed $5,000; and by Louis Titus, of Washing- ton, D. C., who contributed $3,200. ONE HOLDING REMAINED IN PRIVATE HANDS There still remained one other impor- tant private holding in Sequoia National Park amounting to 640 acres. Through this tract, which is covered by a splendid stand of giant sugar-pine and fir, runs the road to Giant Forest. To acquire this approach to the unique forest and to eliminate the last of the private holdings in this natural temple, the National Geographic Society and friends of The Society, in 1921, contrib- uted $55,000, with which the tract was purchased.) On Aprile. e2n., it was formally tendered in the name of The Society, through Secretary of the In- terior Albert B. Fall, to the American people. This sum of $55,000 includes $10,000 from the tax fund of Tulare County, California, within which the Sequoia Na- tional Park is situated, a practical evi- dence that the people closest to the park -are alive to the importance of our govern- ment owning the land. The contributors and the amounts con- tributed were: Research Fund of the National Geo- SLAP MICe SOCICKY Aye cere ee eee $5,000 W. F. Chandler, Fresno, California... 6,000 George F. Eastman, Rochester, New OY OTEK Ee ag SEE ES EE ee ee 15,000 William Kent, Kentfield, California. . 250 Stephen T. Mather, Director National Parle ISeryiCes aie Seer nek 14,000 Charles W. Merrill, Berkeley, Cali- Orig we te ccs. Ree PN ee Lae «Aen a 250 JAames Ke Motitte can eo ranciscossees 500 John Barton Payne, former Secretary Ol eOhMCCHIOLS wah coe ee ee 2,006 Julius Rosenwald, Chicago, Illinois... 1,000 Rudolph Spreckels, San Francisco.... 1,000 Special Tax Levy of Tulare County, Galtier, SONa eo eyes mere 10,000 $55,000 S6 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Thus the National Geographic Society has conveyed to the United States Gov- ernment a total acreage in Sequoia Na- tional Park of 1,916 acres, purchased at a total cost of $96,330. EVERY MEMBER HAS A PART IN GIFT It should be noted that the gifts were not solicited by The Society. The Na- tional Geographic Society asks its mem- bership for no contributions of any sort. Its publications and its scientific and edu- cational activities are entirely supported by their dues. . Every member of The Society may feel that he had a part in this enduring gift to his country and to posterity, for the funds appropriated directly by The Society for the purchase of the Sequoias came from the fraction of the dues of members set aside for such benefactions. The tender was made in the name of the National Geographic Society because, as the Director of the National Park Service, Ma Mather putcit:) liaisionly proper that this gift should come to the government through the National Geo- graphic Society, in view of the keen in- terest which The Society has taken in the purchase of the other private holdings in this park. It was through direct gifts by your Society that we were able to save the Giant Forest, which contains the finest stand of Sequoia Washingtoniana (Wil WMS Silene SECRETARY FALL ACKNOWLEDGES GIFT Following the presentation, Albert B. Fall, Secretary of the Interior, wrote to Gilbert Grosvenor, President of the Na- tional Geographic Society : Dear Mr. GrosvENor: It was a very pleasant surprise when you called on me on April 20 and, on behalf of the National Geographic Society, presented the title deeds and other pertinent papers convey- ing to the United States the so-called Martin tract of 640 acres in the Sequoia National Park, recently purchased at a cost of $55,000 by your Society, through the generosity of its members, in order that this area with its fine stand of trees might be preserved for the American people. | have already personally expressed to you my sincere thanks and my acceptance of the proffered gift. Your Society on several pre- ceding occasions has stepped in at a crucial moment and acquired several similar areas in this same park, thereby saving from extermi- nation other wonderful trees that would other- wise have fallen under the axe. Your Society is to be highly commended on its substantial expression of a high public spirit, and on behalf. of the United States I again want to express to you, and through you to the contributors, my deepest appreciation of your generous and considerate action. Respectfully, AxBrert B. FA. Mr. Gilbert Grosvenor, President, National Geographic Society, Washington, D. C. To mankind, throughout the ages, trees have been the most human-like, the most companionable, of all inanimate things. - Aristotle thought they must have percep- tions and passions. An infinitely more scientific generation still is sensible to their mystical power. More and more will Americans visit Sequoia National Park to gaze upon the majesty of ‘“Nature’s forest master- pieces” in their last stand. National Geographic Society members may well be proud that they had a part in preserving for all time these mementoes of a past far beyond the records of written history. INDEX FOR JANUARY-JUNE, 1921, VOLUME READY Index for Volume XXXIX (January-June, 1921) will be mailed to members upon request. AP EINE UO Reb Wa 5 CAMERA IN MANY LANDS By MAYNARD Owen WILLIAMS AutTHor oF “Russia’s ORPHAN RACES,” “Tue DESCENDANTS OF CONFUCIUS,”’ “SYRIA, THE LAanp LInK OF History’s CHain,” ano “CZECHOSLOVAKIA, KEY-LAND to CENTRAL EvUROPE”’ With Illustrations from Photographs by the Author The author of the following article has recently returned to America after a year’s tour of Europe and Asia as a staff observer for the Nat1ioNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE. In addition to the countrics of western and central Europe, Mr. Williams visited Egypt, Palestine, Ceylon, southern, central, and northern India, Baluchistan, and Burma. HE snap-shot photograph is the magic carpet which adds a fairy- tale touch to a routine world. It satisfies man’s desire to extend his hort- zon, to reach out into the unknown, and to identify himself a little more closely with the world of which he is a part. Photographing the common people of foreign lands is a fascinating pastime. No fisher is forced to use more patience than the man who seeks through photog- raphy to show the folks at home how the other half of the world actually lives. No hunter can boast of so satisfactory a bag as falls to him who hunts with the clairvoyant eye of the camera. The fo- cusing knob of a graflex is a more thrill- ing bit of mechanism than the trigger of a rifle. THE PHOTOGRAPH IS A BASIS FOR FRIENDLY UNDERSTANDING But photographing the world is not frivolous, nor 1s it merely good sport. If people and places are worth writing about, they are worth picturing. Such work is a step in the visualizing of our distant neighbors and the introduction of strangers to those who know no more about them than the camera tells. All the world is watching how the rest of the world lives. It is habitual to speak of “the mask- like features of the Chinese.” Unques- tionably, when a Chinese wishes to con- ceal his emotions, the Sphinx looks viva- cious 1n comparison, but when a casual observer insists that the people of China never smile or laugh, a few photographs reveal such an error of generalization. NI The Chinese is unusually clever in dis- geuising his feelings when he wants to disguise them; but a frank show of friendship and a readiness to smile in spite of toil, cold, or hunger are among the most prominent of Chinese character- istics (see pages 89 and go). When members of a family are sepa- rated, they exchange photographs. The same method is applicable to the building up of international relations. Photog- raphy, with allots faults, is a social art. It furnishes a basis for friendly under- standing. . About once a year we of the Occident hear of little glass or metal bracelets, such as the girl babies of India wear, be- ing found in the stomachs of slaughtered crocodiles. At times I wish that some one would vary the tale by making the reclaimed property a shirt-stud or a col- lar-button. But when the camera is called in to report on the inhumanity of distant and little-understood peoples it 1s quite as likely to reveal proud mothers in India as in Indianapolis. The camera enthusiast often has the same sort of an alibi as the fisherman. The ones that get away are always the best. Nor is this unnatural. Taking pic- tures requires concentration, and such di- version as a charming subject offers may drive all thought of formule from the amateur photographer’s head. A OUBEN: OF] tHE HOY LAND Coming up through Palestine some years ago I was traveling with an enthu- siast who had read somewhere that the 88 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A PRIEST OF PU-TO SEES HOW IT WORKS The lovely island of Pu-to, or Pootoo, one of the Chusan group, is one of the three most famous sites of Chinese Buddhism. Two thousand or more monks live here. At first they resented being photographed, but after looking through the camera themselves they were delighted to pose for the camera man. ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS 89 “THE FACE WITH THE SMILE WINS” A young bread-seller on a small steamer running between Ningpo and the sacred island of Pu-to (see illustration on the opposite page). “A frank show of friendship and a readiness to smile, in spite of toil, cold, or hunger, are among the most prominent of Chinese characteristics” (see page 87). Chinese bread is usually in a form which can be baked quickly and with the minimum of fuel. Poppy and sesame seeds are often used to decorate and flavor the hard loaves. Millions of Chinese do not know the taste of rice, as it grows only in well-watered tracts and the cost of transportation in a country that lacks railways makes the price of the grain prohibitive in the dry areas in the northern provinces. Poor as the Chinese are, one is seldom far from some vendor of food, whether it be bread, roast chicken or duck, or watermelon seeds, which take the place of peanuts as a Chinese luxury. 90 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE MAKING A HOLIDAY OF RICE-HULLING The ability of the Chinese to work long hours with little food is well known, but no less remarkable is their ability to smile from morning to night, in spite of troubles which would worry less Although this Chinese worker has looked up from his task to register a smile, he has not lost one revolution of The lower wheel is fixed and the upper, mounted on a rude wooden axle, is turned by a raised rod. suspended from a joist above the wooden “millstones” help to steady philosophical souls. his rice-huller. the crank. habit of carrying heavy jars of water on their heads gave to the women of the Lolymvand a queenly carriage. At one of the roadside springs we halted, and after he had looked over a score or so of water-girl candidates for queenly honors, he was the most disappointed man imag- iMmaWiewewiiten the cry ot “All aboard!” rang out and the party was about to con- tinue the ride to Samaria. Around a curve of the road there glided a young woman who fitted per- fectly the mental pic- ture of my friend. Her raven hair was neatly parted on as fair a forehead “as ever carried jet black brows above soft brown eyes. Her oval face was satiny olive, with a flush of red in the cheeks; her teeth were pearls; her nose was finely molded; but the memorable feature was that she really had the form and carriage of an uncrowned queen. My companion made a grab for his cam- era, commandeered my slight knowledge of Arabic, and started off in the direction of his vision in a way that. would hawe frightened a less ca- pable woman. She consented to let us snap our cameras at her, and we dashed back to the carriage. A mile farther on, my friend gave a cry of chagrin. He had for- gotten to withdraw the dark slide from his camera. I had not shared his enthusiasm to such a disastrous extent, with the re- sult: that a- -pictuge of our fair model ap- peared in THE GEo- GRAPHIC several months ago. One of the vexing problems for the pho- tographer is the matter of tips (“back- sheesh”). My own rule is never to offer or give tips to those who let me take their photographs unless they are professional beggars, hardened in their vice. The tourist centers of the world have been spoiled by those who have distributed ex- travagant largesse in return for photo- graphic rights. One can be given privi- leges that he cannot buy. Two small ropes ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS 91 Vetmmcam ts nidesya high horse or a motor ear aid) eet. tanulian close-ups of common folks. The people of the East are suspi- cious of those camera hunters who stalk their game from the cushions of an auto- mobile. CAMERA HUNTING IN BALUCHISTAN From Quetta to Sibi, in Baluchistan, 1 rode on the cowcatcher of a locomotive over one of the weirdest scenic routes in the world. A luxurious seat, up- holstered in leather, had been placed. on Hic EEOnueor the = en- gine for my use, and the station masters whom I encountered were wot sure but what I owned the line. At one station I no- ticed a charming little girl, wearing a lemon- colored scarf with thateserace which western women sel- dom attain, because their drapery is ar- ranged by their dress- makers .and not by themselves. But that lovely Hindu child up there in the bleak regions of Baluchistan was afraid of the black box and its Polvphemus eye. The station master knew that if I had ' a private lounge attached to the engine I must be a Lieutenant-Governor or -a General at least, and he feared that if his daughter balked he might be subjected to censure. He explained and pleaded, but in vain. He even dragged her toward the camera. BUYING A SMILE WITH A TIN BOX Now, the first rule of the photographer should be the Golden Rule; and, in any case, I had no desire to picture that lovely YY, A RELIGIOUS NOVICE IN A FRIENDLY MOOD Under the shade of a tree in the Rawalpindi bazaar, this young Hindu neophyte turned from the silent contemplation of his naked leader, smeared with ashes, to smile into the camera (see p. 97). Chile! tim weenes, Ib wane Inge Wee wim Coe tainer from which a reel of film had been taken. She smiled. I gave her some of the chocolate almonds which constituted my lunch. Again she smiled her thanks. She had no dislike for me personally, but she would not let me point the camera at her, for she feared that it might be loaded, even if I didn’t know it. Then I let her look in at the top and showed her the locomotive and the barren hills and the long-haired Baluchis, with their spinster curls, and the smiling face Onmien father. slices nade heetvarimovic queen, drawing $100 a smile and $1.000 a tear, she could not have been more 92 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE VEILED WOMEN MODELS IN A WORLD-FAMOUS STUDIO It is “the thing” for foreign visitors to have their portraits taken beside the Sphinx; but few are the veiled women who have consented to being photographed there. Women are, however, becoming more independent, even in the morning lands of history (see text, page IOI). magnanimous in letting me photograph her after that. “T PRESS THE BUTTON ; YOU DO THE REST” Time and again I have had to show illiterate people what the mysterious black box really is. One man with whom I traveled suggested that the unwashed people who formed in line to look through my _ graflex would probably breathe a million different kinds of dis- ease germs into the hood of the machine, and he pictured the possibility of my con- tracting pink eye, diphtheria, and other dread diseases as. the result of my ex- periment. | But one can’t get friendship without giving it, and a portrait is not a mechan- ical thing, but a collaboration between subject and photographer. “I press the button, but you do the rest” is one of the slogans to be kept in mind when taking ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS AV SOCRIBE “Ol CATRO™ COMPETE ING? EuE DAY'S RN ~ N Y Y Y) Y 4 Ve GOSSIP Humbly housed in a tiny stall, which looks like the deserted home of an upright piano, the Egyptian letter-writer: plies his trade. Not only all the intrigues of the mystic East are poured into his ear and flow from his fingers, but he conducts such normal business as that of which any grammar-school child would be capable. pictures of Asiatic peoples, upon whose good will the recorder of pictorial geog- raphy must rely. ‘It is this cooperation with those com- mon folks who cannot speak his language which robs many a photographer’s day of loneliness and makes the picturing of foreign peoples a delight such as the lion- hunter never knows. I have never seen a smile on the face of the tiger which has fallen before the rifle of a sportsman, but I have captured many a very friendly smile with my camera. These smiles of brotherhood flashed half way around the world are the sym- bols of mutual confidence and wunder- standing. IN THE RAWALPINDI BAZAAR The Rawalpindi bazaar, by all the con- ventions of guide-book emphasis, is a place oreno) importance atvally \ In the midst of the busy street, a crude rolling- mill turned by hand transformed sugar- cane from ambrosia to nectar. Sitting ‘on a pile of a thousand suits of cast-off ‘usoq Ajjuad01 ATUO Ss pue ‘MoIqo}] Ul pajurid syuR]q UO sluRIso]o} pus JadedsMou Moigay{ peed S ‘onSuo} ALU J19y} Ul suoljeulepooid peot MOU Ue) LWa[esniof Jo UOoTyejndod ysimaf oy} ‘nj AUIYS Y}IM paspe sded ysnid SulieaM pure s Wa Ivsonual duIps aqes suo] UI passaiq NI AWIDAAY MAN AHL YANN NOIWLVNVI00dd V ONIGVAY A ae 2 & - fe ae Be is ysout Aq possozoid [JWs o1e sofa sy} UIaMjJoq UIOM JOOdS Usplos pasul4 93 pue jlo Ayyensn [loz ajqeyoodsas we>seseetst ‘ustIOM UPeIdAS7 b . A yoR]q AAVIY BY} NG ‘UsdadS Ud}jZO SI UsOM YSTyINT Aq uJOM \ ozZnes dHYM IT [IIA dy} 0} SUI[D [JS JdASy] JO usOM 94} JO AULLU ‘JEM JY} SUIMOT[OF Sasueyo [eoIpes JO aids uy ‘TIHA YO MOVId AHL ONIAVAM OATS > JO NVWOM WHISOW V O4 0} ABM Joy} Suryeur “19q0JO Ut U uo speytod asoy}y possed savy OM 998 dJ9Y o1v JowUMs UT sodojs ureyUNOL oY} dn YsSty OS YoryM sx oY SOPIOY SSapJUNOD JOJ 9NOI OY} PoyYsPU sey AIARY Yoo, oy} Uleyunoy]y avow JIMOLSIH V ONO'TV VISV OL, ULV AAW ‘snseoney YON oy} JO sureyd tour ot} as1e] OYJ, “PISW WOsAF JO OF ABM ALOU} SNSvONe) IY} Ul 9sJOS siyy Ysno4styy, WYyy Wy 96 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE PRACTICING CONCENTRATION WITH THE AID OF MIRROR AND TWEEZERS The capacity of the Indian for deep concentration has long been recognized. But a mirror and a pair of tweezers can sometimes lead to greater concentration than 1s usually given to the fourth dimension or the Einstein theory. In Rawalpindi, as in America, the barber is the beauty expert for masculine faces, but there are some things so important that a man prefers to do them himself. So engrossed was this individual in his toilet that he never saw the photographer. army clothing, the city Solomon Levi figured up his losses on the last sale. Fruit venders had their luscious stock displayed in golden pyramids or ruddy cones touched here and there with bits of tinfoil light. Cattle strolled about at will, and, sitting beside the dusty road, a sol- emn personage gave such close attention to his chin that he neither saw my camera nor heard it click. Under a tree whose dense shade lay like a tangible thing in the thoroughfare, two holy men sat beside a smokeless fire which cast a sheen on their naked chests, although beyond the boundary of their leafy shade the sunlight was intense. Around them sat several novices, bright- eyed lads who had not yet attained that air of detachment which characterized their leaders. One of the novices had an enormous shock of hair, which looked like a gro- ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS 97 A CORNER OF THE SMOKING-ROOM OF A MEN’S CLUB AT HAIFA When and if Haifa becomes the main port of Palestine, more modern accommodations may be furnished the visitors in bright head-shawls who visit the port at the foot of Mount Carmel; but no modern improvements can better the Levantine open-air cafés, where thick Turkish coffee and snaky-tubed nargilehs, mixed with a liberal supply of gossip, serve to pass many a pleasant hour. tesque wig. His face was most express- ive. As his eyes and teeth flashed out from the dense shadow, the gamut of passions was reflected on his features. Here was a boy whose life no. one of us could understand, across whose fea- tures human emotions plaved with vivid force. As he smiled over his bare brown shoulder, I snapped the camera. Then he turned back to the contemplation of the smokeless fire and the naked religious leader to whom he had attached himself. I returned to the table d’hote dinner at the English hotel. But for a moment we had smiled ‘into each other’s eyes and for a moment we had understood. GETTING PICTURES OF MOSLEM IN EGYPT WOMEN It is harder to get a man to pose for a photograph than it is to get a woman's picture. On the other hand, one can take a man’s picture without asking permis- sion and run little risk of causing trouble, 98 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE KEEPING GREEN THE SETTING OF ““THE CROWN LADY'S TOMB The beauty of the Taj Mahal is unchanging, but the emerald setting is continually being renewed. Trees become so large that they shut off a view of the gem of all buildings and have to be removed. The “dream in marble” also gains much of its charm from the opal- escent tints which touch the murky waters of the Jumna at sunset time. ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS A HUMBLE SERVANT AT THE TAJ Not every visitor to Asia’s loveliest building realizes how much of its beauty depends upon the perfect care taken of the gardens, which form a splendid setting for the mausoleum in which Shah Jahan and his beloved Mumtaz i Mahal lie buried. The monument is the more remarkable in that it stands in a land where polygamy is common and where women do the most menial labor. 99 L100 TAH NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SCULPTURAL DETAILS OF A BOMBAY MOSQUE With tungsten filament lights in the mihrab, or prayer niche, with electric fans plenti- fully supplied, with clean matting on the floor and a clock to prevent religious fervor from wearing out patience, this Bombay mosque is well equipped to make a strong bid for favor. ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS TWO YOUNG. BOMBATHERS ON THE BEACH Between the Fort and Malabar Hill, at Bombay, there is a long line of beach which is very popular with the natives. costume. There are no bath-houses, but each bather brings an extra One serves as a screen behind which the dressing or undressing is carried on. The wet garments, after the bath, are dropped to the sand within the protecting circle of the clean garments, which are then donned, and a few sweeps of the wet sari against the hot air -serve to dry it thoroughly. : while it is dangerous to take pictures of some of the women of harem or purdah, whether they are veiled or not. In Cairo a Moslem woman with most hypnotic eyes was dictating a letter to a professional letter-writer. She sat. per- fectly still and looked straight into the camera when I asked her in sign language - if I might take her picture. Obviously she was a person to whom I could not offer money, but I thought that such a woman would like to have a copy of the picture sent to her. The letter-writer, it developed, spoke English, and I was so grateful to this fair Egyptian for this unusual opportunity that I asked him to tell her that 1f she would give her address I would send her a print. “Tf her husband know she let you take DICtiic wae! Deatieh sreplicd: te scribe after a hurried consultation. But out at the Pyramids two women 102 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AN ORIENTAL SANITARY DRINKING FOUNTAIN Eastern lands have their advantages, and among antagonistic races and faiths there are ways of living without offense. Syria has its nozzled jug from which one may drink without touching his lips to the vessel, and here in Udaipur, India, a Brahmin is giving water to a Mohammedan without danger of contamination by either, unless the Brahmin’s thumb overreaches the brim of the brass bowl. ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS 103 \ G YUU iy Mj MHijyyp $i AA QGQy Y j j y Z 5 Z Yy Z Gj AN AINU SAINT NICHOLAS OF SHIRAOI, HOKKAIDO, JAPAN The tanbark headdress which this Ainu chieftain wears is a prouder crown than many that are still worn in other parts of the world. Bear hunting furnishes the inspiration for many an Ainu tale, and, when the clans gather, a bear dance, in which grave men and ugly women with moustaches tattooed on their lips join, is always the head-line act. 104 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ELEPHANTS ARE STRONG ADVOCATES OF SHORT HOURS In Ceylon the beasts of labor are worked only during the morning. By noon they are lying in the water of some palm-fringed stream, having their hides softened with plenty of water and coconut husks, briskly applied. Pachyderms do not have tender skins, but care has to be taken to see that they don’t crack. AN OPIUM POPPY FIELD IN FUKIEN PROVINCE In the spring of 1919, when this picture was taken, the Chinese burned millions of dollars’ worth of foreign opium in specially built furnaces at Shanghai; but the Chinese war lords of North and South induced the peasants in the region occupied by their mercenary armies to plant opium poppy in order to afford quick revenue. ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS 105 0 Wl My. AN OBSERVATION SEAT ON A TRAIN IN BRITISH BALUCHISTAN One. of the weirdest scenic rotites in the world hes between Sibi and Quetta. A more direct though steeper route has largely superseded the Harnai loop, but the traveler is well repaid for abandoning the express and taking the trip through the barren hillocks which characterize this part of the world. With the thermometer at 25 degrees, this observation seat affords all the fresh: air and wide prospect that any passenger could ask for, but it is only placed on the engine by special order of the railway officials (see text, page QI). gladiv let me take their pictures, both veiled and unveiled, and although neither would tell me where I could send her a picture direct, I did send photographs to the husband of one, while the other had Net picume sent —to her through her camel-driver ! AN ENCOUNTER ON THE BATHING BEACH AT DELHI At Delhi there is a long sand-bar beside the River Jumna, where thousands of men and women bathe in the murky water. Here and there are small shelters in which the high-caste women change their saris, but the whole riverside is one vast open-air dressing-room, without a trace of immodesty on the part of any one. Food-sellers and hawkers of toys and notions dot the sands and the whole scene is a blaze of color and movement. _ A six-foot foreigner wearing a glaring white sun helmet and carrying a camera has about as much chance of hiding in such a crowd as the man who sneezes while the tenor is climbing to his prize note, but I took several photographs of the crowd without any one showing hos- tility. Then there came up a.man who, by wearing a spotless turban, a well-pressed Prince Albert, and trousers rolled up to his bare knees, and carrying neat button shoes and ungartered socks in his hand, formed a fit subject for a photograph himself. Strangely enough, it did not occur to me or to him that he would do as a model for an art study. He told me that I really ought not to be taking pictures of the people. ‘‘Espe- cially the women,” he said. “Why not?” I asked, just as though I was accustomed to seeing the outside world changed into a boudoir. “All these women are in purdah. No man must look upon them,” was his start- ling reply. “How do you know there women here, then?” I asked. At that moment a dusky queen passed are any THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE A HIGH-CASTE MOHAMMEDAN WOMAN OF ONGOLE, INDIA Although Mohammedans keep their wives in close seclusion, the husband of this Moslem lady was so grateful to a Christian medical missionary for saving the life of his boy that he allowed a friend of the doctor to take her photograph dressed in her best silks and jewelry. The banks of India are wrists, ears, and ankles. us, just as she had emerged from the water, with her gaily colored sari plas- tered to the lower portion of her body and with her well-built figure doing graceful imitations of a quickened Venus. “That woman is in purdah and no man should see her,” he replied, without de- nying that he did see her. “I’m afraid she is not quite what I want, anyway,’ I replied. “But if she really desires seclusion, I think a Mother Hubbard would help a lot.” Women gladly consent to being photo- graphed if they think they are well dressed, but woe to the photographer who attempts to take a picture of a woman in what she considers is not becoming to her! FEMININE VANITY-ON THE BANKS OF THE BRAHMAPUTRA Our motor bus dropped down from Shillong to the banks of the Brahmaputra and stopped beside the little railway sta- ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS 107 Y Y G Y Y Z Y Y Y Y Z Y Y Z GY Y Y y y Y j Y UY Z Y Z AT THE FOOT OF THE SHWE DAGON: BURMA The famous pagoda at Rangoon attracts worshipers from all parts of the East, but at festival times the huge terrace from which the golden bell temple rises is the scene of gaiety. Impromptu picnics are held beside the many shrines which cluster about the main pagoda, a temporary stage is set up for the dances, of which the Burmans are so fond, and the big white cheroot demands a large place in the picture. tion at Gauhati. It was to wait there for a few minutes before going on to the ferry crossing at Pandughat. So I shoul- dered my camera and went off to utilize the time. Seeing a very interesting old woman in the bazaar, I pointed to my camera and asked if I might take her pic- ture. Her reply was to jump up with an alacrity Surprising in one of her years and disappear into her home. Once safe in the shadow, however, she turned and signaled me to wait. Down the village street, the motor bus soon turned the corner with a roar. Knowing that the Assam mails were in the body of the machine, and that time and tide set the tradition for the King’s mails, I started away; but out from that doorway stepped my _ genial friend, proudly bearing up under the greatest weight of jewelry that I ever saw one woman wear. | While the mail waited and the motor horn honked, I took several pictures of the happy old lady, and then, with the last film wound from the roll, I snapped 108 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SAHRA A TELEGU MUSICIAN ACTING AS DRUM CORPS FOR A RELIGIOUS PROCESSION NEAR ONGOLE, INDIA In the East the traveler is seldom out of earshot of some form of a tom tom to whose exotic tempo strangely dressed natives dance, march, or worship. ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS the shutter a half dozen times just to let her know that her kindness and fascina- tion were appreciated. USING A CAMERA IN JAPAN Sometimes a photographer is embar- rassed by official kindnesses. In Shiraot, in Hokkaido, the Japanese were making a well-meant but vain attempt to incul- cate into the Ainu their own love for bathing. As an aid to this object, they had built a bright new bath-house in the midst of the hovels in which the Ainu dwelt. I was the guest of a Japanese official, and the right to take the official photo- graph of this auspicious occasion had been given to a commercial photographer. I had no desire to buy a formal picture of this group, in which the Japanese, clothed in Western dress, mixed with the fine-looking old Ainu chiefs and _ their wolfish-looking sons. I hinted as broadly as possible that I would like to secure some poses of my own, but all in vain. One of the Japanese officials might be smiling or frowning or something, or his frock coat might not be buttoned prop- erly, or his silk hat might not be held at the regulation angle, and an uncensored print let loose on the world might bring the Japanese Government and the M1- kado into disrepute. Wat -the ceremony was over, 1 was not allowed to take a single picture. But afterward I was at liberty to take all the pictures I desired, and secured a portrait of an Ainu Saint Nicholas which satisfied me better than would all the silk hats in Dai Nippon (see page 103). THE SMILE TALISMAN IN CEYLON A smile works in all languages and its power of reflection exceeds that of, many a mirror. If this funny old world is ever to make friends with itself, it will be the face with the smile that wins. And to get a smile onto the face of an unwilling subject is not easy. Sometimes one has to resort to horse-play to get the people in good humor, and even when well- intentioned fun overshoots the mark, it is well to have established an atmosphere of friendliness. One of the great prizes to the people of Asia is the tin container from which a ‘into the water. 109 film has been removed. These can be given away where money would intro- duce an undesirable element into the re- lations. But usually there are several claimants to the tin tube. The tiniest baby is always entitled to ‘first chance, but when the claimants are all of an age, | have had to decide by themancicnt scenic, Meenic. malty, me method, and the result is usually great amusement and profound satisfaction by all concerned. : In Negombo, Ceylon, one small boy suggested that I throw the tube and let them scramble for it. That worked ad- mirably the first time. But there was a small lad who seemed to lack strength or spirit and he gave signs of thinking that that was not a square deal. All the boys were barelegged and I stood near the edge of a shallow pool. This small boy was nearer to the water than the rest; so, while pretending to throw the second tube ahead of me, as I had the first, I tossed it over my shoulder It fell quite near the dis- consolate youth, but others were quicker. A more agile boy rushed for it and, stumbling over a guy rope, fell sprawling into the water. WORKING AGAINST SUPERSTITIONS IN THE ORIENT There was nothing for me to do but laugh as loudly as the rest, and when the boy picked himself up with the prize in his hands and a smile on his face, every one was happy. But I was glad that he did not wear a Little Lord Fauntleroy suit and a broad, starched collar, and that I had made friends with the crowd be- fore the accident happened. Throughout the Orient there are in- numerable superstitions which make it . difficult to secure personal photographs. Not only are Oriental men jealous of their women folk, but there are few places where the illiterates do not have some fear of the evil eye. Many fear misfortune if their picture is taken, and there are still Mohammedans who have a religious’ objection to lending themselves to the representation of living beings. A people who have made caligraphy their ideal of art do not readily lend them- selves to portrait work. IG JO ezzelg om} St YUM [eipoyle: poyquiny vues ep ‘SOMOUIIU Japa} puke SuOoT sosidsut puv.jso1ojur s,su0 san8rI4UI YM soeyd & St yep « PWOleg e’y,, Surkeid st pueq uenousA ev pur ‘SHBYD PUR sSofqe} YUM poaspo st jusudArd e[qreur oY} usyM ‘sowmop sunuezig WIL IY} JO SoyIIv YO dy} Jopun yosed 0, duos savy suods ‘OHeLpVY 94} FO Ajo uvonb ayy sid 94} UsYM “SUIUAAD OY} UT Ing OISEA I910Jaq SABP phoid oy} Yorq Ssuriq ues ‘suouusd Avs sa0U JSTINOF FO JVY MVAjS “[MevYS Posulsjf-doap JOU WIOFIUN IOYION HOINHA XO AMOTO AHL JO VAGNIWAA .“VZZVId WT +) y % im ge) ADVENTURES WITH A CAMERA IN MANY LANDS Many fear that if their photographs are taken their bodies will waste away. This belief is especially common among the Ainu, and some _ photographers have risked their lives because of their indis- - cretion in photographing those who are obsessed by such fears. When there is a flat-footed refusal of the right to take pictures, one must de- sist; but ignorance of the language spoken by the people helps a great deal. Most people are shy about having their pictures taken, but this shyness quickly melts before a sincere smile, and when to apparent friendliness is added the pitiful spectacle of lingual helplessness, there are few who can refuse the respected foreigner’s request. A PHOTOGRAPH THAT REPRESENTS GRATITUDE Many a Moslem husband has allowed me to photograph his women folk, and the toleration of these people in letting visitors see and photograph their mosque services is worthy of mention; but the most memorable case of Moslem magna- nimity of my experience occurred in Ongole, where a Christian missionary had saved the life of an Indian Moslem’s son, and this man, out of trust and grati- tude, allowed me to photograph his fam- ily, with his wife unveiled, because I was a friend of the doctor (see page 106). Throughout the East there is a hearty response to genuine friendliness. The native 1s not accustomed to familiarity with the white man and at first he resents it, because he does not understand the motives, but I have never met with any- thing other than the utmost politeness -among the common people of Asia. More troublesome than those who re- ent having their pictures taken are those superac tive and ubiquitous imps who in- sist on being in every picture. One lad bothered me a great deal when I was try- ing to photograph a street scene in Buddh Gaya, India, though obviously he had as much right to the locality as did I. Since E could not remove iim, I tried to eet him to loosen up his frame a little and look more like Tom Sawyer and less like a monument. When I had shown him how to do it, and returned to my place, I Wik turned to find him doing a scarecrow dance that would have won plaudits in the “Wiuizard ef Oz’ or done credit to Saint Vitus himself. las the soprine aor burned millions of dollars’ worth of opium, not individually, in small doses, but collectively, in huge incinerators op- posite Shanghai. At that time I was in the interior of Fukien, in the bandit- infested region between the Northern and Southern troops, and passed through wide fields of opium poppy which the people had been induced to plant so as to afford quick revenue to the war lords who were then ravaging the province. A friend, to whom I mentioned my de- sire to get a photograph of this condition of affairs, said that if I attempted to pho- tograph opium poppies the Chinese would probably try to destroy my camera, as they had no desire to be thus convicted of duplicity. I took a score of pictures in the poppy fields, showing the cultivation of the opium plants and the gathering of the milky juice from the poppy pods, but no one showed the slightest objection. In Japan I met a man who was roundly condemning the Japanese for preventing foreigners from taking pictures and who was exceedingly surprised to know that, outside a few fortified areas, a camera can be as widely used in Nippon as in the United States. He had attempted to take forbidden photographs at Nagasaki and had been so badly frightened by the police that he packed away his camera for weeks. Yet even in Nagasaki the government would gladly have furnished him a police officer, under whose surveillance he could have taken any legitimate views. 1919 the Chinese A RACY ENTERTAINMENT AT BEIRUT While wandering around the water- front in Beirut on one occasion, I saw a group of porters paying good money to look at a small peep-show which, judging from the laughter, was not of the most elevating variety. » r \ y .. 1) S* =” Aas er one (To Michigan) ape E 2) o—maml ; «3 Grand Marais z S LF wo Ly; oF “Harbors : Ontonagen £1) ON Eagle River. = Lee Ry) 1 Ld > eo bb > °.,.HURONISLAND ~ MICHIPICOTEN ISLAND | U P Eg C ———~ MANITOU ISLAND C : x je S_ CARIBOD ID O \ 6 sae “- ao pay STANNARDS ROCK ( wv ‘ 4 ‘ = - ~ WA itera p Epe POINT WMO iyke ~ Fon — ~ Le 4G SS @ art \ oo ye ae > Y “Saye Drawn by A. H. Bumstead A MAP OF LAKE SUPERIOR SHOWING NORTHERN MICHIGAN AND WISCONSIN, EASTERN MINNESOTA, AND WESTERN ONTARIO Among the points of interest mentioned in the narrative and indicated on the map are: Marquette, Whitefish Lake, Grand Island and Pictured Rocks, St. Ignace Island, and Stan- nards Rock. sive shapes, resembling battlements and turreted castles, separated by high, per- pendicular cliffs of variegated colors. These cliffs contain caverns into which the larger craft may enter. One group on the southern shore is known as the “Pictured Rocks,’ originally the most famous of our natural phenomena, but now somewhat overshadowed by the magnitude and diversity of the Rocky Mountain region though still without a counterpart in coastal scenery (see pages TIO, WGA) Wins, bal sV))e In topography and scenic beauty the north shore resembles somewhat the southern shores of Alaska, for it is ele- vated, rock-bound, with many clear, tur- bulent trout streams cutting through the dark coniferous forests and plunging down the steep water-shed into the crys- talline waters below. WILD LIFE ON THE ISLANDS Here is also an archipelago of wooded islands, some surmounted by rocky domes of a thousand feet or more, the larger containing moose, deer, caribou, and bear, between which and the main shore are deep, tortuous channels and many safe harbors, affording ideal cruising grounds for the sportsman and tourist. The south shore resembles more the northern Atlantic coast, with here and there precipitous cliffs and rocky prom- ontories, separated by long stretches of sand beaches and deep bays, the islands and harbors infrequent. PRIMEVAL FORESTS AND SUCCESSIVE GROWTHS Circling the coast, the forests are much the same, except that the rotund spruce of Ontario is replaced on the Michigan shore by towering hemlocks, the roots of which turn the streams into a deep wine color; so that the speckled trout, in darker hues of brown, red, and orange, are in characteristic contrast with the silver and pink of those in the lake. When travel by water was the princi- pal means of seeing the lake country, it was assumed that upper Michigan was a vast pinery, for its shores and the interior streams were fringed with green through- THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 1s Ve fp a 4 as WSS ARRRARAAHESHHAN “ A \ ws “WS AY DOME-SHAPED LODGE OF THE OJIBWAYS The Indian to the right is Chief Kawbawgam, who with his family lived on Presque Isle, now a suburban park of Marquette. He reached the unusual age of one hundred years, and now a large boulder is his monument in the park. The standing figure at the left is Jack La Pete, who acted as guide for four generations of the author’s family. Such longevity was most unusual among these Indians. ninety-eighth year. out the year, and visible in the open months were the buoyant pines floating down many streams to be rafted on the lake for the eastern market. When the railways and the logging roads reached the higher ground, extraor- dinary forests of hardwood were dis- covered, consisting of millions of acres of sugar or hardwood maple in solid stands, with an abundance of beech, yellow birch, basswood, ash, and elm, resulting in the development of many woodworking es- tablishments and the largest wood char- coal furnaces in the world (see page 122). The abundance of sugar maples at the present time warrants a syrup production exceeding Vermont and New Hampshire, where generations of thrifty farmers have tapped evéry scattered grove in con- serving nature’s sweetest offering. He died in his Nowhere, probably, on the continent is the fall foliage more beautiful in bril- liancy or contrasting colors. Much of this gorgeous display is of recent origin, for with the removal of the older forests, the increase of rural clearings, and the unending vistas of the interior driveways came a second growth of low-branched, symmetrical trees, one of which, the soft maple, is spreading rapidly; for, when cut to the ground, from the stump springs a spray of green saplings, in the autumn turning to a fountain of pink and red, many of the leaves splotched like a painter’s palette. Equally abundant is the yellow-leafed poplar, fluttering in the slightest breeze, while the bronzed beeches and the laven- der of the wild cherry are interspersed with the mountain ash, bending beneath Iyud poydse oy} uo stusiid Juepuad stus0F pue ‘Q01 YIM SodTAdID TOMO] OY} ‘ oa ae ee 1,306 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE T QOL 7 34 eee ee 1,532 [Q023.25. sta Bites ween 1,749 LQO?'s's alctstu gh sth eae 1,942 TQO4 5) a. eee ete Seen 2,000 EQTO 2s 16:5 Seeteen a ee 3,379 This extraordinary increase from about 300 before licenses were issued to more than 3,300 hunters in a single county seems to have no other explanation than the one given. ‘The system has brought about the destruction in the State of more than two hundred thousand deer that would otherwise have escaped and has continued indefinitely a well-organized band of hunters. However, the license system in vogue throughout the most of the country has been of greatest value, supplying each State with ample funds for preserving the game and in many other respects proving of inestimable service. It just so happened to have had the opposite effect with Muichigan’s one big-game animal. TEN DOES WILL HAVE I,510 DESCENDANTS IN TEN YEARS The white-tail is the one big-game ani- mal whose perpetuation means more to the sportsmen of the entire country than any other animal. The first and foremost necessity is a buck law to protect the females and fawns in every State containing any ant- lered animal.* Just let it be understood that when a buck is shot the number for the following year is lessened by only one, whereas he who kills a young doe destroys, by a single shot, potentially 151 bucks and 151 does! For it has been shown, upon a strictly scientific basis and by an accurate mathematical calcula- tion, that a doe and her descendants in a period of ten years, not counting out the natural casualties, will produce a total of 302 deer, and by the death of this an- cestral mother the link is broken, with the irrevocable loss stated. The same proportion holds true with a larger number, for ten does and their de- scendants will produce 1,510 bucks and 1,510 does, showing that when the female is protected more deer can be killed each year, beside leaving an increased number in the woods. Such a result is not, after all, so mys- * Twenty States have passed this law. Tie WikDP bth kh OP SAKE, SUPERIOR Reared in company with the red fawn. 147. Photograph by George Shiras, 3d WHITE FAWN FOUND IN 1916, WHEN A DAY OR TWO OLD The usual row of white spots can be seen on the white body (see page 183). terious, if we keep in mind the methods of reproduction applicable to domestic animals; for if a farmer had as many bulls as cows, as many roosters as hens, and killed them indiscriminately of sex, he would, of course, be classed as demented. Just because our wild animals bear their young in remote thickets, we seem to think their maintenance is based upon a different method, and go on killing the females year in and out under the blind assumption that it can make no particular difference in the future supply, whereas it represents the difference between ex- tinction and perpetuation. In my boyhood days it is doubtful if there were a thousand deer in the wilder portions of Pennsylvania. Last year 3,000 bucks were killed in that State, and this number will increase steadily, the only limitation being a sufficient area to sustain such a multiplication of the spe- cies. But in this State, like New York and Vermont, the second growth in rough and mountainous portions has been restocked with game and properly safe- guarded, showing how the older locali- ties have already taken advantage of the favorable change in environment (see page 204). CHRDAIE IIE IE, IAW! THE SUDDEN DISAPPEARANCE OF THE PAS- SENGER PIGEON IS THE GREATEST OF ALL BIRD MYSTERIES The final stand of the passenger pigeon was made in northern Michigan, Wiscon- sin, and western Ontario, and in this gen- eral localitv I witnessed the demise of a once countless species. Gradually the flocks had been driven from their haunts in the Atlantic coast states and about the Ohio Valley, but from the time I first went to Lake Superior to the date of their sudden disappearance, the wild pigeon seemed to be present each season in its usual abundance. For a species that far exceeded any other game bird, a gradual decrease 148 Observed first in 1912 Body mounted as above. Spread of antlers, 2 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d THE ANCESTOR OF THE ALBINO DEER HERD OF GRAND ISLAND ; killed by a pot-hunter in 1914, when about seven years of age. feet 2 inches; weight, 150 pounds. It has had nine white descendants so far (see page 182). might be attributed to several reasons apart from the various and continuous methods of destruction, namely: the range was always east of the Great Plains, thereby permitting concentrated hunting in the more accessible regions. Furthermore, each pair had but one young, in contrast to the domestic pigeon, with double the number. However, their unexpected and inexplicable extinction in, perhaps, a single season constitutes the greatest of all ornithological mysteries. The birds came in vast flocks to Lake Superior in May, and before colonizing for nesting they were killed by natives, who fired into the passing flocks as they swept low along the shores, this being the only period when wing-shooting was in- dulged in. After the birds had selected a breeeding place, usually in the same locality each year, the slaughter began; for, besides the local hunters, the professional trappers were quickly notified of any gathering place, and were soon on hand netting or killing these birds by the thousands for the eastern market, besides shipping them alive in crates for trap-shooting tourna- ments. BIRDS SLAUGHTERED BY FIRELIGHT I never attended any of the holocausts at the breeding places, for such they often were, since circular fires were built around the roosts after all the birds had assembled for the night, and in the con- fusion of the smoke and flames they were beaten down and destroyed in the most relentless manner. About the middle of July the survivors, with their young, dispersed over much of the surrounding country, gathering par- ticularly about huckleberry plains and burnt - over districts, where ground food—huckleberries, alder-berries, wild cherries, and service-berries—were abun- dant. After the wild fruits were gone many THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 149 Photograph by George Shiras, 3d FIRST ALBINO FAWN, AT THE AGE OF THREE YEARS, IN ITS SUMMER COAT, WHEN THE PINK SKIN SHOWS PLAINLY THROUGH THE THIN, WHITE HAIR (SEE P. 185) flocks moved into Canada, where a later berry season was the attraction, and by October all departed for the south, unless a heavy crop of beechnuts led some to linger. It was in August, 1885, that I made the usual trip to some large plains covered with huckleberries, ten miles up the shore from Marquette and inland about a mile, where it was my custom to kill, once a year, a large number of pigeons for dis- tribution among friends. Such an expe- dition differs from the ones where shoot- ing was limited to a few for camp use. Selecting the young, so readily told by the immature plumage, it took only a few hours to accomplish my quest. At this time the birds were in their usual num- bers, and I returned under the belief the wild pigeon would continue for many years in this region. BIRDS SUDDENLY VANISH The next season I saw a single bird; but, like the rest of the hunters, con- cluded that for some unforeseen reason the pigeons had gone elsewhere and would surely return the following year. But not one, to my knowledge, has been seen since along the Lake - Superior shores. | When the unfortunate history of this bird 1s examined, it is not hard to see that it was doomed because it was a migrant. The rule in each State was to have an open season when such migrants were present and a closed season, if any, after they had gone. ‘This meant, of course, continuous shooting throughout the year. In 1857 the Ohio legislature enacted a law protecting local game birds, and the committee report gave as a reason for not including the wild pigeon the following: The passenger pigeon needs no pro- tection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the north as its breed- ing grounds, traveling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is here today and elsewhere tomorrow, and no ordinary destruction can lessen them or be missed from the myriads that are yearly pro- duced. The fact that migrant game birds, above all others, needed protection was not seen at that time, and not until long afterward, when the passage of the Fed- eral migratory bird law made possible an 150 SECOND WHITE FAWN AND THE NORMALLY COLORED MOTHER Both are wild and unapproachable (see page 183). adjustment of the open seasons through- out the country consistent with the pro- tection of this class of birds.* An epidemic or some convulsion of the elements, such as an offshore gale, with the clouds raining down heavy hailstones, may have accounted for their sudden dis- appearance, but from information avail- able one can only guess as to the imme- diate cause which brought about their un- timely end. RUFFED GROUSE MOST HIGHLY ESTEEMED OF UPLAND BIRDS The most highly esteemed game bird of the northern uplands, whether for sport or the table, is the ruffed grouse. Clothed in rich gradations of brown or gray, the neck encircled by a ruff of iri- descent black, erect in figure, with. a sweeping fan-like tail, its presence is often disclosed by a sudden whirr and a meteoric flight, startling even to the ex- pectant hunter or the trailing fox. With the extinction of the passenger pigeon, once so numerous about Lake * Mr. Shiras has refrained from stating that in 1904, when a member of Congress, he was the author of the original migratory bird bill, the later enactment of which has insured not only the perpetuation of our wild fowl and insectivorous birds, but has already led to a greatly increased number. This measure is generally regarded as the most important game legislation that has been passed by State or nation.—Eprror, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Superior, and the rar- ity with which shore birds or wild fowl venture across broad waters with unsighted shores, the perpetua- tion of the ruffed grouse as the sole resi- dent game bird of the region becomes un- usually important. On my first camp- ing trips the grouse were found in many clearings, second- growth thickets, and about old lumber roads; for berries, in- sects, seeds, and sun- light induced such gatherings. For years I was under the im- pression that this bird was well distributed and numerous. Later I found that in the main forests and in localities where water was distant more than a quarter of a mile scarcely a grouse could be seen, except when midwinter drove them into the heavier timber. After the local hunters increased ten- fold and the automobile gave access to the more remote places, the grouse of upper Michigan declined to a point where extinction was imminent and appeared certain when two cold, wet springs oc- curred and hardly a young bird survived. A REMARKABLE INCREASE IN BIRDS In 1917 the legislature closed the sea- son for two years, and the result exceeded all expectations. The ensuing year showed a great many scattered coveys, and the next they more than doubled, while in the spring and summer preceding the open season the birds were found in num- bers never known before in the history of the country, automobiles being stopped frequently by birds dusting themselves in the woodland roads. With a daily limit of five birds and a total of 25 for the season, one might have supposed that the number killed would hardly have equaled the best years of the earlier days. But they were brought in the first day by the hundreds, by thou- sands the next week, and then by tens of thousands, exceeding a total of one hun- dred thousand in the shortest season. THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR In Minnesota in 1920, under a similar closed season, but with larger bag limits, the kill was unparalleled, with a total exceeding 500,000 grouse. THE GROUSE THRIVED IN CLEARINGS Many might natur- ally think that this wonderful increase was wholly due to the previous closed sea- sons. While undoubt- edly making such a showing possible, in the writer’s opinion the result was prima- rily due to another distinct and, fortu- nately, permanent cause, namely, a gradual and favorable change i in environment during some thirty . years preceding. By reason of overshooting and un- favorable weather, the grouse of Michi- gan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and western Ontario had been greatly reduced, only a scattered bird being found here and there. With a two years’ closed season the remnant had an opportunity to establish itself in the thousands of clearings where few birds had ever had a chance before. The fact that one pair and their offspring would produce some 200 birds during the period they were thus protected indicates how the grouse was able to spread quickly through the entire region. BIRDS NOW SHOT ON THE WING The daily limit of five birds has re- sulted in a new form of sport in northern Michigan. Accustomed in this region to killing the grouse on the ground or in the trees, the hunters soon found the limit of five birds might be reached shortly after discovering a well-filled covey, and the day’s sport ended in a moment. Therefore, for the first time, many be- gan shooting on the wing, using thou- sands of shells without much damage to the fleeing birds, but greatly expanding the day’s sport. “A dead bird tells no tales,’ but the many survivors of this aerial bombard- 151 Photograph by George Shiras, 3d SAME WHITE FAWN AND COMPANION IN FALL, WHEN EACH HAS LOST THE WHITE SPOTS (SEE PAGE 183) ment have received a greater education regarding the use of gun than any of their predecessors, many finally acquiring the alertness and caution of the grouse of the Eastern coverts. PECULIAR HABITS OF THE GROUSE In the temperate months the grouse has an excellent choice of food, consist- ing of a great variety of berries, small fruit, seeds, buds, clover, beechnuts, grasshoppers, and a multitude of young, tender leaves. In the winter one wonders at their survival; for now the fall flight of the robins completely exhausts the berries, which were wont to linger and ripen well into winter, compelling the grouse to depend largely upon yellow birch buds, with many a forced meal on an evergreen. Fortunately, whenever the temperature is far below zero the sky is usually clear and the grouse are active and uncon- cerned, but if the days and nights are dark and cold or the air filled with merci- less pellets, they have the habit of plung- ing from a higher branch head foremost into deep snowdrifts, where a foot below the surface the heat and weight of the body form a globular retreat, in which they remain comfortably until the storm clears or hunger forces an exit. Once when seated in a tree watching for deer, several days after the conclusion THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d SECOND ALBINO BUCK, CAPTURED IN 1915, WHEN THREE YEARS OLD; WEIGHT, 160 POUNDS | Shown above with three normal deer and fawn. Note white velvet on the growing antlers (see page 185). with one forked. of a heavy snowstorm, I saw what looked like a small mouse at the base of a maple tree, and then this dark object elongated into the head and neck of a grouse. Find- ing the weather to its taste, it emerged, clucking and spreading its tail before taking flight for a repast upon the swollen buds of a near-by birch. Many years later, while hunting the varying hare, just as a blizzard came sweeping in from Lake Superior, I saw the swift descent of a dark body from a tree ahead and a slight disturbance in the snow. Noticing a grouse in the same tree, I knew its companion had sought warmth and protection in the coverlet be- low and I withdrew without disturbing either. Sometimes in winter or the early spring there may come a rain or a warm day that melts the surface snow, followed by severe weather, and then thousands of grouse are imprisoned and the heretofore Antlers each year in the form of long spikes, safe retreat becomes their tomb, should weeks pass by before the seal is broken. CHART Ras EXTRAORDINARY CATCH OF LAKE TROUT WITH TROLLING LINES In 1872, when 12 years old, I had an early introduction to lake trout. A report was brought to Marquette by a lumber- laden schooner, becalmed for a while in the vicinity of Stannards Rock, a sand- stone reef lying a few feet below the sur- face, some forty-five miles northwest of the town, that the waters about the reef were surrounded by immense schools of lake trout. It was said that the fish could be hauled aboard the schooner by simply casting a trolling spoon overboard, when there was such a rush by the fish that one could imagine it was a contest to see which one might be caught first. An enterprising captain of a local ex- THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 153 Photograph by George Shiras, 3d WHITE BUCK WITH A MIXED HAREM OF WHITE AND RED DOES This buck never recovered from the shock of its capture, remaining wild and lame (see page 182). cursion steamer thereupon advertised an expedition to this vicinity, and about seventy-five persons, including women and children, departed under bright skies and unruffled waters. At noon the dan- gerous reef was approached cautiously, and the steamer anchored in about thirty feet of water. Soon ten boats were lowered over the side, each expectant fisherman having a trolling line, as many as four or five lines trailing behind each boat. In a few min- utes there was a rush of eager fish, and to my youthful mind there never were such scenes of excitement, for as the boats circled about the reef the long lines were diverted at various angles by the larger fish, becoming entangled, while the con- tinued flopping of those captured caused the women and children to shriek in triumph or dismay. Several times I had on a fish weighing over twenty-five pounds, which only with the aid of stronger arms could be lifted free of the water. In one instance a spoon that became detached was cast overboard and a near-by fish bolted it and went off in triumph! In several cases tin-tipped oar-blades were seized, so anxious were the fish to try anything having a resemblance to living prey. In less than three hours a thousand fish were taken, averaging ten pounds, and then this riot of destruction came to an end, for it finally became apparent how difficult it would be to give away five tons of trout among the friends and neighbors of the participants. The results of this expedition soon reached the ears of the local fishermen, and for several succeeding seasons immense catches were made. Now a towering lighthouse surmounts this rock as a warn- ing to the mariner and a fitting monu- ment to the myriad of fish that have long since passed away. AN IMPROVISED COOKING OUTFIT On one of my earliest camping trips for speckled trout, with old Jack as guide, we rowed about three miles when it was discovered that the box containing the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Shi Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A PIG-LIKE ALBINO BUCK AND TWO WHITE FAWNS: GRAND ISLAND (SEE PAGE 182) cooking outfit had been left behind. Nat- urally, I suggested returning for it; but Jack promptly said it would bring bad luck to do this after once having made the start, and, besides, with our pocket- knives it was easy to make what was needed. In about three hours Shot Point was reached, the first rocks to the east, where I began fishing, leaving Jack to put up the tent and start the fire. MAKING A FRYING PAN FROM A CAN On returning with a creel of trout, I found Jack had already replaced the missing outfit. From large sheets of birch bark he had fashioned plates, while cups and other containers were made of the same material, with knives from hard- wood and forks of double-jointed twigs. In the fire was a can of tomatoes per- forated in the top to let out the steam, while well beneath the glowing coals half a dozen potatoes were baking. Alongside he placed the dressed trout, wrapped in wet, brown paper. ‘Then the tomato can was emptied into a birch-bark dish before ‘the fire, and with a piece of wire a bail was made for it, and soon the tea was boiling. : At-the next meal, after heatme avcam of beans and removing the contents, it was cut and flattened into a frying-pan, with a handle made of a split stick, serv- ing thereafter for frying trout or bacon and the all-important flapjacks. On suggesting to Jack that several of these fireside conveniences depended upon having canned goods, he thereupon picked up a small boulder and explained that, after heating several of these in the coals, by putting them into the birch-bark bowl one could brew tea, make soup, boil fish, or have a stew. This was my first lesson in the ease with which supposed essentials might be left behind, proving a useful experience when forced to travel light, or a capsize of the canoe sent the outfit to the bottom. THE SPECKLED TROUT OF LAKE SUPERIOR Prior to 1890 the range of the speckled trout included all of the shore waters for more than a thousand miles, except in places where sand beaches lacked coarse gravel or boulders, or continuous cliffs TeV wl OF WAKE SUPERIOR made the steady surge of the receding waves an unsuitable location for a fish particularly disliking turbid or unshel- tered waters. Every tributary stream contained trout as the permanent and almost sole occu- pants, with the temporary addition of all in the lake during the spawning season, unless flowing from headwater lakes, in which case the higher temperature and the existence of pickerel or bass discour- aged their presence. Consequently, good fishing was within easy reach of every settlement and camp- ing place, the trout occupying a narrow strip within 50 feet of the shore or near- by islets and reefs, for beyond were the giant lake trout, which, while respecting absolutely the riparian rights of their more aristocratic kin, allowed no trespass in their own domain. On the other hand, just to the east, Lake Huron, including Georgian Bay and the southern portion of Ontario, con- tained no speckled trout except in an 1so- lated case or two, for bass, pickerel, pike, and land-locked salmon abounded, the less abrupt watersheds favoring chains of lakes with sluggish, interconnecting streams of a high temperature in summer. A TROUT FISHER OF 7O YEARS AGO In 1849 the paternal grandfather of the writer first came to Lake Superior, intent solely on trout fishing, having heard from pioneer business friends of the beauty and healthfulness of the re- gion and the wonderful trout fishing. At the time of his earlier visits it was neces- sary to transfer around the Sault rapids, taking a small steamer that had been as- sembled beyond, when visiting any of the few settlements on Lake Superior. To one who had fished only the brook trout of the Alleghany Mountains, the size, brilliancy, and activity of those in the lake were in striking contrast, and in the long period following he seldom vis- ited any stream, for the smaller fish and their ease of capture did not appeal to him. Accustomed to making his own bam- boo rods, flies, dip-nets, or seines for catching minnows, he either fished from a little rowboat, anchored in a suitable location, or from some of the many points Photograph by George Shiras, 3d ALBINO DOE IN HEAVY WINTER COAT She was brought from southern Michigan in 1918; eyes pink and very susceptible to light; hoofs and nostrils white (see page 183). separating bays, where there was a steady movement of the larger trout. It seems worthy of mention that family records covering 65 years, and supple- mented by other contemporaneous data, showed that the maximum weight of any trout taken was 514 pounds, the average of the larger ones ranging from 4 to 4% pounds (see page 131). On the northern, or Canadian, shore the larger fish averaged about a pound less in weight, except in the Nipigon River, where specimens reaching ten pounds were not unusual. Now that the trout along the southern shore are approaching extinction, a trag- edy assured by the improvident custom of catching the remnant at the mouths of spawning streams, it is rather surprising to learn that occasionally a fish is taken weighing 614 pounds, the explanation be- 156 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d THE THREE ADULT ALBINO DOES UPON WHICH THE PERPETUATION OF THE HERD LARGELY DEPENDS (SEE PAGE 185) The eyes of two are light gray, and the other red, in striking contrast to the black eyes of the normal deer. ing the greater proportion of food for the few survivors. INTRODUCTION OF THE ANGLEWORM ON LAKE SUPERIOR The hooks used by this ancestral fisher- man were long, slender, and _ slightly curved, allowing the tying on of different feathers well up on the shank, and in- cluding almost invariably a strip of red flannel or a piece of similarly colored yarn, beneath which was room for one or two large angleworms. In those days the use of live bait, and especially angle- worms, was regarded as sportsmanlike, and apparently justified in the case men- tioned, for the fish sought were those lying deep below the surface, on a rocky bottom. ‘To hook these big fellows was only an incident in the long, hard contest with a slender rod. Every spring, and while the angle- worms were still near the surface, small boys were engaged to dig an ample sup- ply in the vicinity of Pittsburgh, and these were taken in a two-gallon can to Lake Superior, where they were placed in a large wooden box filled with black earth and protected against a too-miscel- laneous use by lock and key, for the angleworm was not to be found any- where along the entire lake or adjoining territory. ‘Toward the close of each sea- son the remainder, if any, was distributed among eager applicants, and finally found an end within the gullet of equally eager trout. ‘SA SERPENT OF DISSENSION” How this apparently harmless earth- worm became a miniature serpent of dis- sension happened once when the surplus was turned over to an elder of a village church, with directions to apportion the supply equally among his associates. Some time later word came that a great row had developed over their distribu- tion, followed by a secession of a part of the congregation and the building of an- other edifice. Tak Wil D Linh OF LAKE SUPERTOR Photograph by George Shiras, 3d AUTHOR'S CAMP, ST. IGNACE ISLAND, NORTH SHORE, ONTARIO Here the tents faced 160 miles of open water, where many medium-sized trout were taken within a hundred yards, but most of the larger ones became the victims of a gill net extending to the shore, ostensibly set for lake trout of the deeper waters (see page 187). This ancient fisherman was never able to determine satisfactorily whether he was to blame for such a breach or was to be congratulated on having brought about the establishment of two churches where there had only been one before. In 1878, on receiving a larger remnant of angleworms than usual, I planted them in the neighborhood, with the hope that in a short while the local supply would meet future demands. At the end of three years they became very abundant in this little preserve ; so some were taken to Whitefish Lake and placed in rich, deep soil near old Jack’s cabin. These grew to extraordinary size and far ex- ceeded their Pennsylvania progenitors. Some reached the headwaters of near-by streams and were carried down each spring, until most of the region showed their presence. THE ROBIN BENEFITS BY THE ANCLE- WORM’S INTRODUCTION Meanwhile Marquette had become a systematic point of redistribution, and for a considerable time the angleworm has been found scattered along the entire south shore and at either end of the lake, there still being about 150 miles in the central portion of the north shore where I have neither seen nor heard of their presence. If the fly fishermen are no longer con- cerned about the coming of the angle- worm, the history of their naturalization may prove of interest to the scientist. The robin, however, is still a bene- ficiary, for these worms constitute their chief diet in May and June, before the coming of the berries, and are the sole food of their first brood. Moreover, it has been noticed in the last decade that the woodcock, which once stopped briefly on their migratory flight, now linger for weeks in the alder thickets near the streams where they can always find a bountiful supply. The gardener, too, has found a friend in this little borer, for they assist in the breaking up and enrichment of the sur- face soil, as the casts of this active feeder contribute much toward the quality and fruitfulness of the garden patch. The angler and commercial fisherman, together with a large part of the public, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d LARGE BULL MOOSE AT A SALT SPRING ON ST. IGNACE ISLAND The saline waters came from beneath a red sandstone stratum a few hundred yards behind the camp (see page 188). are interested in maintaining a bountiful supply of fish, high in quality and rea- sonable in price, justifying their support of an effort now being made to rehabili- tate the fisheries of the Great Lakes. The recent introduction of the steel- head salmon has added another fine and adaptable fish, which, spawning in the spring, can utilize the streams for this purpose, and when unoccupied by the brooding trout in the fall. THE SPECKLED TROUT IN DANGER OF EXTERMINATION The species found in Lake Superior are limited in number, for the depth and purity of its water and the low tempera- ture throughout the year have barred the coarser and less desirable kinds. At one time the speckled trout, the lake, or so-called Mackinaw, trout, and the whitefish were present in extraordi- nary numbers, each occupying a some- what different portion of the lake, ac- cording to the depth and character of the water, and all living in comparative har- mony. The speckled trout depended upon minnows, insects, and crustaceans near the shore, the lake trout had an ample supply of herring, while the whitefish, a bottom feeder, in nowise interfered with the others. There was a hardly appreciable decline in the speckled trout during the fifty vears herein recorded, until it was un- fortunately discovered, that during the month of August all the trout living in the lake congregated in particular streams for spawning, and these localities were then visited by an increasing number, some fishermen taking in a single day a hundred pounds of sluggish and inactive fish and often salting down the surplus for winter use. In this onslaught others reluctantly joined; for, as the fishing became poorer each season in the open waters, they yielded on the theory that if the end were approaching, one might as well have a share in the final distribution. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE The prompt termination of this inde- fensible practice, and the equally bad one of running gill nets to the shore, would in a very few vears restore the finest of fresh-water game fish to approximately their former numbers. WHITEFISH FISHING WANES AS HERRING INCREASES The whitefish, especially those of Lake Superior, have been generally esteemed as the most delicious of all fresh-water species, and when the nets were few and far apart and the methods of transporta- tion and distribution unsatisfactory, mil- lions of pounds were taken each season, while today, with a hundred times greater number of nets, a much higher market price, and rapid means of distribution, but a fraction 1s caught. The following figures, furnished by the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, tell the story: Whitefish, 1885, 8,000,000 pounds; 1918, 300,000 pounds. Thus it is apparent that this excellent fish is commercially extinct, but with a sufficient remnant left, if pro- tected for a while, to be restored in waters always favorable for their sup- port. Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A COW MOOSE AT THE SAME SPRING . Here a bull moose had been illegally killed by natives just before the party’s arrival and its festering body soon drove the other animals away (see page 188). At one time the lake trout were in little demand, for the whitefish dominated the western markets, yet even then, with a few nets set, the annual catch approached 3,000,000 pounds, so abundant were they everywhere i in Lake Superior. The fishermen of Michigan, Wiscon- sin, Minnesota, and western Ontario now use sail-boats, launches and tugs for gathering the daily catch, setting gill and pound nets in all parts of the lake, some- times two hundred feet below the sur- face, while larger steamers collect those taken in the more remote localities. A DOUBLE DISASTER Notwithstanding such a combination of efforts, the present total does not equal the number so readily taken forty years ago, with the result that the proportion- ately greater expenses could not now be met were it not for the extraordinary number of herring taken each fall, and these figures are significant: Herring, 1885, 300,000 pounds; 1918, 8,000,000 pounds, showing how this small and much inferior species has exchanged places with the whitefish in precisely the same period. 160 The present rapid consumption of the herring has become doubly disastrous, for it helps financially in maintaining the fishing fleet during their concluding at- tack on the lake trout, and then, with the herring gone, any future effort to restore the lake trout becomes increasingly diffi- cult, as the latter’s main food supply is thus destroyed. Would it be possible to imagine condi- tions better adapted for the permanent exhaustion of the game and commercial fish in the finest and largest lake in the world? It has long been recognized that the lack of codperation on the part of the States and Canadian provinces bordering on the Great Lakes accounts for this situation. With each acting separately and each naturally disposed to have laws equally liberal toward their local fisher- men, it follows that the State or Province spending the least money in fish culture, or having the most improvident regula- tions and the least efficient system of en- forcement, sets the pace for the others, while the governments of each country must sit supinely by, because lacking any authorized jurisdiction over international waters in which their respective citizens have a common interest. CANADA WILLING TO REVIVE THE TREATY It was to meet this unfortunate situa- tion that the United States and Great Britain negotiated and ratified a boundary waters fishery treaty, but in 1914 failure of the U. S. House of Representatives to pass an enabling act, on account of minor differences of fishermen in southern Michigan and jealousy over the proposed withdrawal of local regulations, has post- poned indefinitely the operation of this beneficent agreement. It is understood that Canada is still willing to see the treaty revived by the passage of appropriate legislation if our country will now make a move in this direction. By such coordination of authority and cooperation in activities, the problem can be readily solved; for it is not a local question in any sense, but one that is in- terstate, national and international in scope. That such a conclusion is reasonable THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE and not speculative has already been es- tablished by the Migratory Bird Treaty, under the recent operation of which our wild-fowl are being rapidly replenished, and the more valuable insectivorous birds protected permanently in behalf of the agricultural interests of each nation. CHAP TE Re wvea THE TIMBER-WOLF AN ANIMAL OFTEN MISREPRESENTED From nearly every standpoint, the timber-wolf is an interesting animal, the only drawback to gaining an intimate knowledge of its habits being the extreme difficulty in finding any range where it may be successfully studied; for to a large extent its habits must be inferen- tially determined, this prowler of the night seldom coming under direct obser- vation. No animal possesses greater sagacity in avoiding its only enemy, man, and few show greater cunning and persistence in seeking their prey. If I were to be asked to give a predominating characteristic of the gray wolf, it would be its fear of man. Accustomed from our early child- hood to hear of its savage nature, and see- ing frequently in the press the harrowing accounts of men being pursued by these bloodthirsty creatures and escaping only by nimbleness in ascending a tree or per- haps by barricading a wilderness cabin, so conveniently at hand in such stories, it is not strange that in the popular mind the timber-wolf is still regarded as the arch enemy of man. But there is the best of proof to show that man has thoroughly terrorized this animal. TWO GREAT CONTRASTS: THE WOLF AND THE DOG The wolf and its descendant, the dog, present the greatest contrast in their respective attitudes toward man. One is distrustful and cunning, skulking in the shadows of the night, intent upon rending to pieces any less powerful animal, but having a dread of man so overpowering that they often die of their overexertion in desperate efforts to escape within a few hours after being trapped; and the other affectionate, loyal beyond compari- son, intent upon faithfully performing Tat WV iL Dain Or LAKE, SUPERIOR 161 TWO PAIRS OF MOOSE ANTLERS INTERLOCKED Each of fifty inches spread, inextricably joined in the deadly rivalry of the mating season, where both contestants were vanquished forever. Ignace Island (see page 188). every service as a companion or assistant. in the labors or pleasures of the day, representing the highest and most intelli-.-. gent response to kindly treatment. Re-: version from dog to wolf begins under a cruel master or when half starved and ill- treated by the many barbaric tribes em- ploying the dog as a mere beast of burden. The wolf has had every occasion to fear his human foe, for it has been trapped, poisoned, snared, shot, harassed by hounds, and a price placed upon its head. The survivors know that however much Found near the center of St. the other animals of the forest may stand in awe of them, man is ever their relent- less and successful enemy, and only by the exercise of all their highly developed senses can they hope to escape the same miserable death they so ruthlessly inflict upon their prey. THE COURACE AND FEROCITY OF THE WOLF GREATLY EXAGGERATED In the years spent in some of their many ranges on the northern continent, I have never seen more than twenty wolves, 162 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE IT REQUIRED THREE PADDLERS TO KEEP ABREAST OF THIS STURDY SWIMMER Who was feeding on water plants eight feet below the surface when disturbed by our approach (see page 188). Photographs by Paul Switt BREAKING THE SPEED LIMITS! Same bull approaching the shore. Both pictures were taken with a small hand camera by one of the anglers of the party, showing what can sometimes be accomplished with a small instrument. Tat WILD’ LibE Or LAKE SUPERIOR ——— tie Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A BEAUTIFUL LAKE ON ST. IGNACE ISLAND This lake, four miles long and nearly dividing the island, is the largest of some fifty ponds and lakes. plants, six feet below the surface. been eaten by the moose (see page 187). although hearing them howl upon hun- dreds of occasions and seeing their tracks in every direction. Northern Michigan was, and still 1s, one of the favorite resorts of the timber- wolf, owing to the dense forests and the abundance of deer and rabbits. Here I have shot a few and trapped or poisoned a dozen or so about the camp, a favorable record, considering that of the myriad of hunters roaming this section every fall, many of them, in more than half a cen- tury of hunting, have yet to see or kill their first wolf, although they number thousands about Lake Superior (see page 133). Nowhere in America have I ever been able to get an authentic account of a man being deliberately pursued or injured by a wolf, although out of the multitude of such stories it may be that one or two are true, for the possibility always exists of an individual animal lacking the caution of its forebears or where living in a totally uninhabited country it has not in- herited any suspicions of man. The western shores are high and rocky and the eastern low, with shallow bays, where forty moose were seen in two days. Many of the animals feed on the water While the forests look dense, all the lower limbs have Probably the most conclusive proof of the wolf’s fear of a human being is the fact that every season thousands of deer carcasses in the Lake region are left over night on the ground or hung from a branch within reach, and yet are undis- turbed because of the slight scent left by the hunter. Even the entrails remain un- touched until all human trace has disap- peared. A] WOLF “SHUNS Ay DEER (THAT MAN TOUCHED HAS Venison is the principal: diet of the Lake Superior timber-wolf, for they think and dream about it from puppy- hood days, yet these keen-nosed creatures, when the air is filled with bloody odors, refrain from touching the unguarded car- casses. This should convince the most skeptical that such an animal on detecting the presence of a traveler in the woods is not likely to attack him in the flesh, since it shrinks in terror whenever dis- covering anything indicating human scent about a slain deer. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d NIGHT PICTURE OF A COW MOOSE TAKEN BY SET CAMERA AND FLASHLIGHT This basin of clay, impregnated with salt, had been eaten five feet below the surface. Note absence of lower branches (see page 187). A quantitive analysis of the water showed: calcium oxide, 376 parts; magnesium oxide, 22; potassium chloride, 17; sodium, 615; total chlorine, 576 parts. Such fictitious tales never come from reliable sportsmen or from experienced trappers, but are circulated by lumber- jacks, land-lookers, homesteaders, inex- perienced hunters, and by sensational writers, unable to tell the difference be- tween the hoot of an owl or the cry of a loon from that of a wolf, and, besides, are ever prone to imagine or enlarge upon the supposed perils of the forest. Twice, however, I have had a carcass of a deer eaten by wolves when left out overnight—once where the animal was shot across a small lake and I did not go to it until morning, when I found only a few scattered remnants, and again, when trailing a wounded buck in the snow, the search was suspended at dusk, and on renewing it the next morning I found several wolves ahead, but beyond where I had stopped the night before. In a few minutes there came in view the blood-stained snow, and only the bones stripped of flesh remained. In both in- stances there was, of course, no trace of human scent, so the wolves had no hesita- tion in devouring the carcass. A WOLF THAT DIED OF FRIGHT On one occasion, many years ago, wolf tracks were seen on the sand beach at the end of Whitefish Lake; so a large steel trap was set in the water of the creek where a deer runway crossed it, and the same night I heard a wolf howling in that direction. In the morning, on entering the slough, I fired at a pair of black-ducks passing overhead, and on reaching the place where the trap had been set, found it gone, some of the alders in the vicinity being uprooted, caused by the temporary catching of the clog. Upon reaching the opposite bank I found other alders had been torn to shreds, many of them still dripping with blood from the torn mouth of the wolf as it frantically tried to es- cape. Believing a rifle might be needed in the more open ground, where the clog THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR Photograph by George Shiras, 3d VIEW OF AUTHOR'S CAMP FROM THE SWIMMING POOL: WHITEFISH RIVER The pictures of deer and other animals in the garden were taken between the two upper buildings shown on either extreme, while the beaver, muskrats, mink, and raccoons, as well as some deer, entered by the river front (see pages 188-193). could be dragged readily, I returned to the camp for one. Taking up the hunt again, I soon noticed a large wolf lying | on the ground with its head between its paws, almost as if asleep. On approach- ing the animal it was found to be dead, its body still warm. It had probably been held fast by the clog when it heard the shot fired at the ducks, which accounted for the bloody alders, as the animal frantically renewed its efforts to escape. On reaching the hilltop the accumulating terror of its position undoubtedly resulted in death. THIS WOLF COLLAPSED WHILE BEING PHOTOGRAPHED That this instance is not exceptional was proved three years later in the same locality, where a wolf was trapped one night and again it howled. On the fol- lowing morning, with rifle and camera, I visited the spot. The trap was missing, but the animal had not gone more than twenty yards when the log attached to the chain caught, and as I approached, the wolf raised itself to a sitting position. While I was clearing away the thick alders for a picture, it sank to the ground, with every appearance of complete ex- haustion, and only by a severe prodding would it arise. On the first snap of the camera, the animal collapsed, refusing to stir again. Iicertainly never expected ao) bessorty over the plight of such a marauder; but its bloodshot eyes, protruding tongue, the entire lack of resistance, and the dreadful sight of the broken skin clustered white with the eggs of the blue bottlefly would have appealed to the sympathy of its most relentless enemy; so a shot hastened the end. From its condition it was plain that the animal was in the throes of death, due not to any injury, but to an overpowering mental strain, producing a complete phys- ical collapse, and that, too, of an animal weighing eighty pounds and in the best of physical condition. RESOURCEFULNESS OF THE TIMBER-WOLF An illustration of the elusiveness and endurance of the timber-wolf occurred when one was found on Grand Island, in the fall of 1896. The first snow showed its presence, besides disclosing a large number of deer carcasses, including several of the imported black-tails. Thereupon a large number of traps and poisoned bait were set out, but without result. Then, to insure its destruction, a dozen of the best shots in the vicinity were em- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A LARGE MINK TAKES ITS OWN PICTURE AT NIGHT This is a representation of the animal that took, on a number of successive days, a victim from among the white ducks in the swimming pool, Whitetish Lake (see page 190). ployed to hunt the animal. Taking up the trail in the snow, it was followed con- tinually in the daytime for four days, when the animal was slightly wounded, which only increased its watchfulness. At the end of nearly two weeks, with relays following it all day and sometimes at night with lanterns, the wolf was finally killed. With the wages paid and the loss of deer destroyed by this single animal the cost was estimated at $1,500. That an animal on an island, where it could be readily followed in the snow, was able to escape such a number of ex- perienced hunters during this length of time shows how hopeless would be a sim- ilar pursuit on the main shore, where the avenues of escape are infinitely greater. In the past fifteen years the coyote un- expectedly appeared in northern Wiscon- sin and Michigan, coming from Minne- sota. It has since become very numerous, feeding on rabbits and killing many young deer, besides threatening the sheep introduced in the cut-over lands. Some twenty of these animals have al- ready been trapped on Grand Island, a game preserve described in subsequent pages, and many are taken each year to the mainland: In weight they Mexeced those of the prairies, evidently respond- ing to the heavily wooded area and the Natune Or tnein prey. CEA a Re avalal USE OF -THE CAMERA IN THE DAYIIME In previous issues of this Magazine* I have described with considerable detail * See, in the Nations, GrocRAPHIC MaGaA- ZINE, “Wild Animals that Took Their Own Pictures by Day and by Night,” July, 1013; “A Flashlight Story of an Albino Porcupine and of a Cunning but Unfortunate Coon.” June, 1911; “One Season’s Game-bag with the Camera.” June, 1908, and “Photographing Wild Game with Flashlight and Camera,” July, 1906. THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 167 ae ae Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A BEAVER VISITING THE BOAT-HOUSE IN FRONT OF CAMP: WHITEFISH RIVER This large beaver discovered a couple of young black ash and was tempted to visit the camp clearing. Where is its tail? daytime (see page I90). the methods employed in nature photog- raphy, both by day and night, but have omitted largely the history of its gradual development, or how it has been used by the naturalists and sportsmen as an aid to science or the establishment of a new pastime; so some additional information is not out of place. In looking over my diaries, beginning in 1878 and continuing to date, the fol- lowing brief entry appears in 1886: “WHITEFISH LAKE, July 7-9.—First day wounded bear on the way out; saw two deer in camp clearing. Second day photographed a deer. Guide, Jake Brown.” At the time indicated I owned a 5 x 7 landscape camera with a single lens, of slow speed, which had to be uncapped when an exposure was made; so a tripod was generally necessary. In some re- spects this instrument proved more satis- factory for scenic pictures than the mod- ern outfit, for the use of the tripod in fo- cusing and in the study of the field to be included, besides the small aperture of the diaphragm, resulted in well-defined At no time in six years have the river beavers been seen in negatives and also precluded the care- lessness so customary with a snapshot camera. When the time finally came that the vacation was limited to the summer months, with an occasional brief hunt in the fall, the opportunity for outdoor sport was greatly reduced, but the “call of the wild” became intensified by the confinement and exactions of city life. On these summer trips, in seeing the wild animals in the woods and about the waters, there was a lamentable lack of the interest aroused when the gun was in use. To paddle within range or cau- tiously approach some clearing and then see an animal slink away became mo- notonous to one accustomed to a keener and more exciting sport. TEES ESERS TAC hE VPA sO) 2 EO TLOERARE A DEER Likely it was this feeling which led to my suggesting to Jake Brown (the worthy successor to Jack La Pete) the possibility of photographing a deer. So one afternoon the flat-bottomed hunting Re & Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A VARYING HARE IN A STRIKING ATTITUDE Rarely is this animal seen in sunlight, for it feeds by night, but the white clover in the camp garden made it a frequent daylight visitor (see page 190). skiff was prepared for the experiment, with a few green boughs in front screen- ing the camera. On entering the lake, an unusually large buck was seen standing upon a sub- merged rock opposite. Paddling through the reeds slowly, we came to open water fronting the animal, and as the bow cleared the reeds we were within forty feet of it, as it stood in a striking atti- tude. At this instant the boat, fortu- nately, ran on top of a sunken log, steadying it for the picture. Quickly the cap was removed from the lens and then replaced. The deer, how- ever, detecting this slight movement, ran a short distance, when it stopped, with head high in the air, gazing anxiously in our direction. TWO PICTURES SPOILED AT ONCE Meanwhile I had replaced the slide, reversed the plate-holder, and had time to make a second exposure, when with a THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE single leap the animal cleared the bushes fringing the water. More excited than if I had killed this splendid specimen, the slide was picked up to cover the last exposed plate, when I was stunned at seeing the light-colored negative staring me in the face, for I had withdrawn the outer slide while watch- ing the deer moving off, thereby destroy- ing the first negative and not exposing the second. Jake, of course, could not understand how it was possible to spoil two pictures by a single mistake; so, without any undue discussion about the manner in which I had blundered, the boat was headed for the slough, where a large doe was ready for the next effort. Some- what suspicious of the partly screened boat, she allowed time for the removal of the cap, but before it could be replaced she ran back into the forest. On devel- oping the plate, there could be seen the faint outline of the doe, and then a long white streak representing her retreat. Following this short experience, it was apparent that only by the best of luck was it possible to get pictures of deer with such an outfit, and while just such luck had favored the initial effort, “buck fever” of the earlier days had brought almost complete failure. THE FIRST PHOTOGRAPHIC APPARATUS OF ITS KIND Several seasons previously, a friend of mine had procured a 4 x 5 outfit, called the “Schmidt Detective camera,’ having a high-grade, rectilinear, Dallmeyer lens. with a fairly rapid shutter, which could be set and released by a string and button on the outside of the box. This appara- tus, which was the first of its kind, equaled the modern ones in effectiveness, and for my purpose proved very much better, for the plate-holders and lens were inclosed in a light, tight, waterproof box. Using this camera, during the next season I was able to get several good pic- tures of deer. The lens, however, was of short focus, so it was necessary to get within about twenty-five feet of an ani- mal for satisfactory results, and this was difficult in bright sunlight. So then J tried sitting in a blind near a runway or THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A GREAT BLUE HERON OPPOSITE THE AUTHOR’S CAMP Frogs in the reedy shore across the stream attracted the blue herons, but the camp was watched closely by these cautious birds, Whitefish Lake (see page 190). where the deer came to feed, but the shifting currents of the air usually indi- cated my presence before the quarry ap- proached close enough, showing the dif- ference between shooting an animal some distance away and trying to photograph it within a few yards. ANIMALS MAKE THEIR OWN PORTRAITS During subsequent seasons this diff- culty was overcome by running a thread across a runway or the beaches, with the camera concealed a short distance away, and in this manner pictures were ob- tained without effort and of very excel- lent quality. Later, when leaving the camera out all day, it could be reset for night with a flashlight, and thus it was at work twenty-four hours—an important advantage when in the remote wilderness for a brief time. Another method was to place two or three cameras in different parts of the slough, and when an animal passed in front of one the shutter was released by pulling a string suspended through screw- eyes on saplings and running thence to a scaffold in a tree overhanging the water, where I could release the shutter of a camera by pulling the right string, the deer always stopped when I gave a shrill whistle (see page 134). It seems odd now that in the beginning I had selected as an object for the first camera hunts the most cunning and elu- sive of the deer family instead of trying an easier subject, like a porcupine, a squirrel, or some of the many semi-tame birds nesting in the clearing about my camp. Of course, the explanation lay in the fact that I simply wanted to hunt deer, and the camera gave the means of gratifying this desire. A QUOTATION FROM THE PAST Soon the real and lasting merits of this instrument as a sportsman’s adjunct became more and more apparent, and in such belief I wrote in advocacy of this new pastime an article published in 1801. It indicates a violent reaction against use- less destruction, but it at least bears wit- ness to a confidence in the camera as the sportsman’s best friend. 170 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A DEER FAMILY FEASTING ON MOUNTAIN-ASH BERRIES BEFORE THE BOAT-HOUSE These wild berries were so placed that deer passing toward the garden would fire the flashlight, showing the boat-house in the background (see page IQI). (x9 A sportsman’s life consists largely of three elements—anticipation, realization, and reminiscence. The look forward to the trip by rail, by canoe, and then per- haps a tramp on foot into the heart of the wilderness; then the camp and its pleasant surroundings, and that memor- able day when the early morning sun casts a glint upon the branching antlers of a mighty moose as, half concealed in the thicket, he furtively browses his way along; the breathless wait until the neck or shoulder becomes exposed; the shot, and then—success—that is, sudden death, or perhaps delightfully intensified by a hasty scramble after the wounded beast on a blood-stained trail, at the end of which we find our victim dead or dying. “Would that we could realize that what is game to the rifle is game to the camera! Nearly every sportsman will admit that the instant his noble quarry lies prone on the earth, with the glaze of death upon the once lustrous eye, the graceful limbs twisted in the rigors of death and the tiny hole emitting the crimson thread of life, there comes the half-defined feeling of repentance and sorrow. “The great desideratum, after all, con- sisted of neither meat nor antlers nor hide. Therefore the conclusion is reached that much of the large game, when suc- cessfully hunted, is the victim of an ab- normal incentive. “Surely we do not travel a thousand miles, indifferent to time, labor, and ex- pense, to get a few hundred pounds of wild meat, probably not half so tooth- some as the domestic cuts in the market stalls of our own town and costing very much more. THE THRILL OF THE CAMERA SEEUREE “Every camera hunter will admit, even though once a successful sportsman, that there is more immediate and _ lasting pleasure in photographing a deer at twenty yards than in driving a_ ball through its heart at one hundred yards. Then, think of the unlimited freedom of this noiseless weapon. No closed season, no restriction in numbers or methods of transportation, no posted land, no pro- fessional etiquette in the manner of tak- ing your game. “You can pull on a swimming deer or an elk floundering in the snow; take a crack at a spotted fawn; bag the bird in its nest or string your cameras out with a thread across the runway and gather in DAE Wik erilh OF TAKE SUPERIOR 1 eS ._ . -.. ee ee 0 Ma =: “Ps - os ea eat 5 a = ou so ~I jal OL scl, ih, Photograph by George Shiras, 3d VISITING THE CARROT PATCH This doe selected its favorite vegetable within ten feet of the cabin containing the dining- room, wherein many a haunch of venison has been served during the hunting season. time are these night visitors seen in or about the garden in daylight. At no Cautious as they are, many of them lose their lives in the hunting season, a few months later, in which hunts the writer no longer participates (see page IQI). the exposed game-laden plates at night- fall without any scruples of being called a pot-hunter. “By and by you will have a collection of pictures affording more enjoyment than all the mental ghosts of slaughtered quadrupeds and all the moth-eaten relics of the gun; for, when one covers an elk or a moose with his single barrel, close shooting, long-focus lens, there is no pulling off the hide while the coyote and the birds of prey feast on a thousand pounds of meat too rank in the rutting season for food or too cumbersome, if edible, to be generally available. “In each essential particular the cam- era requires all the proficiency and af- fords all the pleasure that a steady hand and a deadly weapon ever gave a lover of field sports, and more besides. : “It is only within the last few years that compact photographic appliances, quick shutters, rapid dry plates and films have made possible successful work on large game, or otherwise some of us might have reformed before.” Whatever may have been the writer’s particular contribution toward wild-life photography in the daytime, it was of a non-essential character, so far as the im- mediate future was concerned, for the method would soon have developed nat- urally on the coming of proper apparatus. A year or two later Wallahan, of Colo- rado, on his own initiative and with an ordinary tripod camera, succeeded in get- ting a remarkably beautiful series of the mule deer during their descent from the mountains each fall, and later, with better equipment, photographed many _ other animals in his State. Then Chapman, our leading ornitholo- gist, began picturing birds, his collection not being surpassed by any individual at the present time; followed by Kearton, of England, who soon became the fore~ most bird photographer across the seas. The next effort of the writer was to 172 try photographing animals at night by flashlight, about the waters in the vicinity of his camp. In this experiment many difficulties arose, which may best be con- sidered as a separate subject. WILD LIFE PHOTOGRAPHY BY NIGHT In the earlier days, about Lake Su- perior, the old Indian method af “fire- hunting” deer proved most fascinating. True, this practice has long been outlawed as unsportsmanlike, since it required little skill and became very disastrous when followed systematically by market hunt- ers. Even at that time, the real pleasure in hunting at night, to most of us, was not so much the actual shooting as the keen enjoyment derived in paddling quietly along the winding streams or the well- wooded shores and bays of some inland lake, where in the quietness of the night every sound was audible, and one readily learned to know the different animals be- fore they came within the circle of the light. Unless the primary object was obtain- ing meat for camp, it was disappointing if a deer were killed within the first half hour, thus ending the trip. Another method of night hunting was the use of a headlight on shore, the hunter quietly wandering about in the blackness of the forest looking for a pair of gleaming eyes, fifty or more yards away, and then with a rifle trying to put a ball between the few inches separating these brilliant orbs, requiring an accuracy of aim, a knowledge of the woods, and a skill in still hunting quite up to the stand- ard in daylight shooting. But here again the market hunters be- came so proficient under conditions al- ready described that this method also had to be prohibited. THE IDEA OF NIGHT PHOTOGRAPHY CONCEIVED Having taken daylight pictures of deer in various ways, the question then arose whether there was any possible means of doing this at night, when the deer were much more active and could be ap- proached more easily than at other times, thus reviving, in a harmless but interest- ing way, jack-light hunting, so little known by those of the present day. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Assured by an extended experience in both methods of hunting under the light, there seemed little doubt about getting close enough for pictures, provided the magnesium powder was a_ sufficiently powerful illuminant and had the requisite speed. “SHOOT THE DEER FIRST” This new endeavor was mentioned to Jake Brown in the summer of 1889, but he was still a trifle irritated over an ex- perience of the previous fall, when, after the season had opened, I photographed a fine buck and shot at it afterward, result- ing in badly wounding the animal as it ran away, entailing a half day’s search before it was overtaken and put out of misery, for the lower jaw had _ been crushed by the rifle ball, giving a pitiful illustration of how some animals must suffer in the name of sport. This led Jake to exclaim that if the camera must be used, the best thing to do was to shoot the deer first and photograph it afterward! However, as the season would not open for several months, he got the boat ready for the night, while I attempted to devise some sort of a flash- light apparatus. A small hole was made in the center of a tin plate, in which was placed a strip of oiled paper that would burn readily when ignited underneath, and on top was placed the magnesium powder. The approach was to be made in the usual way, with a jack-light. FIRST ATTEMPT PARTLY SUCCESSFUL This first effort was entirely successful, so far as getting within range; but just as the lower end of the paper fuse began burning, the deer ran off with a snort of disapproval, the flash taking place after it was out of sight. Jake, as might have been expected, indulged in his usual guffaw, while I hopefully began prepar- ing another charge. At the left-hand corner of the sand beach stood a large doe, much interested in the approaching light, and soon the boat came within 25 feet, the flashlight being fired when the animal was ap- parently motionless. On developing the negative the body of the deer was satisfactory, but the head had moved so violently the animal seemed decapitated. THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR it was doubtless momentarily disturbed by the explosion. ~ wee) Photograph by George Shiras, 3d FINISHING UP THE BRUSSELS SPROUTS This deer took its picture at midnight before the cottage of the caretaker, whose sleep But, as such raids were a continual strain on the temper of the gardener, he always welcomed the sound of the flashlight (see page IOI). This unexpected result was discouraging, so several trials were made the following night ; but again the pictures were nearly worthless, for the same reason as the first, showing that the powder was too slow for an active creature like a deer when facing a slowly exploding illuminant. Later experiences proved, however, that even with this crude apparatus a good picture might have been taken occasion- ally had the flashlight been discharged when the deer had its head down or was turned away from the water. During the ensuing winter I learned of a flashlight apparatus designed for taking pictures in theaters, ball-rooms, or other large interiors, consisting of a metal standard supporting three circular alcohol lamps, into the flames of which could be projected a spray of magnesium powder by means of a rubber bulb connected by tubing with a receptacle containing enough powder for half a dozen flashes. This apparatus, with its great power of illumination and ease of manipulation, seemed suitable for solving the problem. UNEXPECTED PYROTECHNICS On the first dark of the moon the fol- lowing July I left camp in a canoe with the new outfit in the bow and the ever- faithful Jake astern, going downstream from camp to avoid the winds of the open lake. A reflector had been placed behind the three lamps with the idea of covering the jack and utilizing the other light when finally approaching a deer. In one place it was necessary to lift the canoe over half-submerged rocks; but, as we both wore gum boots, this was easily done. Shortly afterward it was realized that this little portage had prob- ably saved the flashlight hunter from severe injuries. On rounding the next bend a pair of 174 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A DOZEN FROGS CATCH NEARLY ONE THOUSAND BUTTERFLIES Early in August, 1919, the half dozen little Leopard frogs living in the camp water garden near Whitefish Lake were seen catching, every few minutes, butterflies known as “the little 9 white-banded blues, quent observation during a week indicated the killing of fully 500 butterflies. as each alighted on a row of forget-me-nots bordering the water. Fre- On the bank of the stream was a bed of sweet-william, where another set of the little green frogs lay in wait, these catching a brown species (shown above) almost as frequently. It is worthy of note that two distinct species of butterflies fed exclusively on two different species of domestic flowers. stream, but beyond reach of the frogs. The brown butterflies, however, fed by the hundreds on joe-pye weed along the The photograph was made from above, causing the butterfly (drgynnis aphrodite) to appear disproportionately large. glowing eyes attracted attention, and in a moment the three lamps were ablaze and the jack-light covered. On approach- ing, the deer jumped to one side, requir- ing the canoe to change its course, for I had not then in use a revolving table capable of covering any quick movement of an animal. in turning to whisper instructions to Jake, my elbow unfortunately caught on the rubber tubing, toppling the entire ap- paratus into the bow, where the cap of the reservoir became detached, permitting the escape of all the powder, part of which clung to the wet surface of the rubber boots, the remainder going into the bow, where a portion was set on fire by the overturned lamps. There was a tremendous explosion of the drier powder, and the damper portion gave forth a brilliant spluttering, com- pelling me, in a cloud of stifling smoke, to leap overboard in order to extinguish the blaze on the boots and later in the boat. Having been turned toward the paddler when the mishap occurred and because much of the powder was wet, my eyes were protected, affording an early warn- ing in the handling of such an explosive. JAKE GETS A DUCKING When Jake learned that no particular harm had been done beyond the punctur- ing of a chimerical scheme, he gave vent to unrestrained mirth. Standing waist deep in the slowly moving current, my hands smarting from the touch of the fiames, and the little camera floating about in the murky waters, any humor THe WILD LIke OF TAKE, SUPERIOR in the affair was not particularly notice- able to at least one member of the party. Opening the cover of the jack-light and turning the rays toward the stern, the sight of Jake in a state of hilarity, with _a superabundance expressed by whacking the paddle on the water in rhythm with each outburst, I gave an upward pull on the already-elevated bow of the canoe, and down went the stern to the bottom, only Jake’s eyes showing above the surface, stifling every sound except a little spluttering. As Jake struggled to his feet, a grin- ning countenance showed his willingness to take good-naturedly this somewhat rude form of reprisal. In a few minutes the boat was ashore, the water removed, and the camera found on a near-by sand- bar. While returning, my now sympa- thetic assistant attempted a diversion by pointing out in graphic language how surprised the deer must have been “when the moon blew up,” but the monologue was not interrupted. A SUCCESSFUL FLASHLIGHT APPARATUS IS DEVISED In the succeeding months experiments were made with a new powder, called Blitz-pulver, a compound possessing great brilliancy and rapidity, and only requiring an apparatus that could be quickly and safely handled to insure satis- factory results. Sportsmanlike, the idea of a pistol flashlight then suggested itself. During the winter I had made a tin box an inch deep and sever by four inches wide, containing an iron bed-plate on which a_ spring-actuated firing-pin could be released by a trigger beneath the box, using for ignition a capped, but empty, pistol cartridge, which extended through an upright shoulder far enough to penetrate an opening in a pill-box con- taining half an ounce of powder. This contrivance, when tested, showed it could be fired with the quickness and certainty of a gun, the strong metal bed- plate protecting the hand when the ma- chine was held overhead. On next returning to camp in the sum- mer of 1891, I found that Jake would be occupied several months building a hunt- ing cabin for a relative of mine on a little lake several miles to the west; so yes the next experiment had to be tried with a different paddler in the stern. Fortunately, a good substitute was at hand, for some years previously I had employed, occasionally about the camp, but more frequently in fishing along the shore, a Norwegian named John Ham- mer. Although a machinist by occupa- tion, since coming to this country, in the early eighties, his racial fondness for the “water led his employers to take him on camping trips, where his expertness as an oarsman, a paddler, or in running a naphtha launch finally led him to act as a guide during the summer and fall months. Sending for John, I explained that he was to take on a novel occupation, that of “a flashlight guide,” and for an in- definite period, little anticipating his con- tinuance in that capacity to the present date, a period of more than thirty years and covering expeditions throughout much of the northern continent. John accepted this invitation with sur- prising cheerfulness, for in those days the idea of using a camera instead of a gun did not take very, well with most guides, who naturally thought that in hunting big game there should be some- thing more substantial to show than the image of what, in the flesh, represented a fine stew or roast. Perhaps part of the explanation lay in the fact that at his own former home in Christiania he had served as an apprentice in an optical works and had always felt a considerable interest in photography, thereby viewing his new duties with a seriousness and appreciation speaking well for my future efforts. One night about the middle of July, in the following year, the new apparatus was put into the canoe and a start made up the river under the confident belief of a greater measure of success than had heretofore fallen to my lot. THE FIRST SUCCESSFUL FLASHLIGHT OF A DEER On the way to the lake several deer bounded off, but too far away for a pic- ture. Passing along without looking for any animals in the reeds, as the open shore of the slough afforded a less ob- structed view, we entered it with no idea of seeing a deer for several hundred yards, and were, therefore, surprised on 176 discovering a pair of shining eyes of what proved a yearling buck, only a few feet beyond old Jack’s landing, where, as a boy, I had brought in triumph a little buck as the first victim of the gun. What a coincidence if, on the same spot, I could now obtain an image much more lasting than the vanished one of years ago! The deer viewed the approaching light with unusual curiosity, raising and lower- ing the head as if to look under or over the jack-light. Just as the neck was craned and the head elevated, the flash was fired, the camera hunters and the deer being equally blinded, for at that time we had not learned the advantage of closing one eye when the explosion took place. Before our vision had returned the deer was heard struggling through a mass of alders, and then, without making an- other trial, we hastened to camp, where the developed plate showed the little buck in the center of the scene, with a fore- ground of reeds and a background of alders and cedar, depicting the first suc- cessful effort in the recording of an animal on its midnight rambles (see page 135). THE LURE OF NIGHT HUNTING WITH A CAMERA Having, therefore, learned in the suc- ceeding year that night hunting with the camera possessed a greater attraction for the average sportsman than when the object was the death of the animal, I en- deavored to show this through the col- umns of an outdoor magazine, and as a part of the present record its reproduc- tion may be in order, especially as these early views have been more than sus- tained in the twenty-five succeeding years: “Selecting a dark, warm night, a flash- light hunter prepares his cameras, lights the jack-lamp, loads his flashlight appa- ratus with magnesium powder, and in his canoe pushes out into the silent waters of the lake or river. The paddle sends the slight boat ahead so easily that no sound is heard except a gentle ripple, un- noticeable a boat’s length away. The wooded banks are wrapped in deepest shadow, only the sky-line along the crest showing their course. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE “At the bow of the boat the bright eye of the jack-light is turning from side to side, cutting a channel of light through the waves of darkness, showing, as it sweeps the banks, the trunks of trees and tracery of foliage with wonderful dis- tinctness. “Soon the quick ears of the men in the boat detect the sound of a deer feeding among the lily beds that fringe the shore. Knee-deep in the water, he is moving contentedly about, munching his supper of thick green leaves. “WO BRIGHT BALLS SHINE BACK” “The lantern turns about on its pivot and the powerful rays of light sweep along the banks whence the noise came. A moment more and two bright balls shine back from under the fringe of trees; a hundred yards away the deer has raised his head and is wondering what strange, luminous thing is lying out on the surface of the water. “Straight toward the mark of the shin- ing eyes the canoe is sent with firm, silent strokes. The distance is only seventy- five yards, now it is only fifty, and the motion of the canoe is checked till it is gliding forward almost imperceptibly. At this point, if the hunting were with the firearm, there would be a red spurt of fire from under the jack-light, and the deer would be struggling and plunging toward the brush; but there is no sound or sign of life, only the slowly gaining light. “Twenty-five yards now, and the ques- tion is, Will he stand a moment longer? The flashlight apparatus has been raised well above any obstructions in the front of the boat, the powder lies in the pan ready to ignite at the pull of a trigger; everything is in readiness for immediate action. Closer comes the boat, and still the blue, translucent eyeballs watch it. What a strange phenomenon this pretty light is! Nothing like it has ever been seen on the lake during the days of his deerhood. “A CLICK, A WAVE OF LIGHT, THEN DARKNESS” “Fifteen yards now, and the tension is becoming great. Suddenly there is a click, and a white wave of light breaks out from the bow of the boat—deer, hills, THE WILD LIFE "OF TAKE SUPERIOR 17 . ole | Photograph by George Shiras, 3d See RN BEAVER REPAIRING DAM AT NIGHT For the purpose of showing a dam and the beaver at work on it, a break was made one afternoon, and when the animal came after dark to investigate the cause of the falling water, a set camera and flashlight pictured it within the break. west of Marquette (see page 197). trees, everything stands out for a mo- ment in the white glare of noonday. A dull report, and then a veil of inky dark- ness descends. “Just a twenty-fifth of a second has elapsed, but it has been long enough to trace the picture of the deer on the plates of the cameras, and long enough to blind for the moment the eyes of both deer and men. Some place out in the darkness the deer makes a mighty leap. He has sprung toward the boat and a wave of water splashes over its occupants. Again he springs, this time toward the bank. He is beginning to see a little now, and soon he is heard running, as only a frightened deer can, away from the light that looked so beautiful, but was in fact so terrifying. “What an account he will have for his brothers and sisters of the forest of a thing which he himself would not have Taken in October, 1912, 45 miles believed if he had not seen it with his own eyes. In the boat, as it slips away from the bank, plates are being changed and the cameras prepared again for an- other mimic battle.” MAJORITY OF WILD ANIMALS ARE NOCTURNAL In the course of time it became plain to the writer that the easiest and most satisfactory method of picturing wild game was through the use of the flash- light, for by far the greater number of wild animals are nocturnal, and when oc- casionally seen in the daytime can rarely be approached sufficiently near with a camera or when the light is favorable. However, it was many years before any one else could be induced to make the effort, for it seemed hard to find one who was both a naturalist and a photographer, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE i ‘ \ \ : $ Ss it Photograph by George Shiras, 3d BEAVER CUTTING DOWN A BLACK ASH AT NIGHT: THE FIRST PICTURE OF ITS KIND For two weeks the camera and flashlight faced this partly cut tree without result. Then one night the beaver came, leaving his picture as well as the tree, for it stands today unfelled, proof that a single animal does the work (see page 197). He was too frightened by the flash to return that season. THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR or, being such, had any knowledge in the use of flashlight powder and the means of approaching animals at night. _ Finally, many years later, Nesbit and Dugmore, of this country, became inter- ested, followed by Schilling, of Germany, the latter two of whom obtained remark- able night pictures on their African ex- peditions. Then came a host of others, whose fine and ever-increasing collections indicate the success and permanency of this method of night photography, both as a-sportsman’s pastime and for the scientist, when desirous of presenting wild life in its natural habitat. PHENOMENA OF FLASHLIGHT COMPOUNDS The range of illumination, out-of- doors, of the modern flashlight powders is limited in animal photography to about fifty feet, unless a very heavy charge is used, in conjunction with a long-focus lens. However, the direct and collateral rays of this powder have an extraordinary range. Homesteaders living four or five miles beyond the author’s camp for some years have noticed the sudden glare of light on the sky overhead, and by inquiry finally traced the origin to the flashlight pictures being taken at or near the camp. This led to a careful and more ex- tended test. By prearrangement, an ounce or so of flashlight powder was fired one night in the camp, surrounded by high trees, while well below the horizon at Marquette, 20 miles distant, spectators were to report the result. They noticed a bright illumination, not only above the camp site, but its extension apparently for five or six miles along the horizon, resembling heat lightning, except for its steadiness and straight lines. Sub- sequent trials did not vary. Flashlight rays will penetrate clear water for a considerable distance at night, making possible subsurface pictures, so difficult of accomplishment in the day- time, and will also permit the photo- graphing of the interior of a room through closed windows, when the camera and flashlight are at a considerable dis- tance on the outside—an impossibility in daylight (see picture, page 191). Moreover, when these rays come in contact, at right angles, with those of a 179 strong searchlight, a mile away, there appears a peculiar and very noticeable fluttering at the junction, not unlike heat lightning. ‘This too, was tried a number of times. Apparently flashlight powder possesses properties unlike any other artificial light, and warrants an investiga- tion by a physicist, or at least an explana- tion from one. So far no solution has been offered of the last phenomenon. (CISVAUEARI I WADtt GRAND ISLAND AND ITS HERD OF ALBINO DEER Doubtless many former readers of “Robinson Crusoe,” who later have had occasion to explore remote places on land or sea, retain a special interest in islands, more particularly when such places are in a primeval condition, with a variety of plant and animal life. Physical barriers serve not only in pre- serving the purity of a given species, but are often the means of furthering the origin and continuance of new forms; for all organic life has its abnormalities, and some may develop a freakish mani- festation into a permanent character, just as others yield gradually to environ- mental influences, especially where not indigenous to the region. Lying athwart the entrance of one of the few deep bays on the southern shore of Lake Superior is Grand Island, true to its name in size and beauty. ‘Terminat- ing the westerly end of the famous Pic- tured Rocks, its giant sandstone cliffs on the north end face the widest portion of the lake, while the nearly land-locked waters on the inner side afford the only natural harbor for many miles (see map, page II4). CAMPING PLACE OF OJIBWAY INDIANS FOR CENTURIES This was the camping place of the Ojibway Indians for many centuries, and later a trading post was established, with the interesting life incident thereto. When tourist travel began, in 1855, on the completion of the first lock at Sault Ste. Marie, this precipitous part of the coast, with its multicolored cliffs and castellated rocks, was seen at close range from the deck of passenger steamers. Grand Island, with a shoreline of about 180 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d NIGHT PICTURE OF A BEAVER PLASTERING HIS HOME WITH MUD In the fall these animals renewed the covering of mud on their house, not only for com- fort, but as a protection against marauding animals, which cannot tear the structure apart when cemented with frozen mud. The picture shows the home of the beaver colony living on the river half-way between the author’s camp and Whitefish Lake (see page 197). 40 miles, heavily forested, containing lakes, ponds, and overflowing streams, was always the resort of wild game, the deer in particular being attracted by sev- eral natural salt licks near the center of the island. When a youth, I camped each season with older members of my family on the opposite shores, where so abundant were the trout, deer, wild pigeons, and grouse that only on rare occasions was the island visited. THE ISLAND CONVERTED INTO A GAME PRESERVE Whenever I ventured into the dark, tangled forests, it seemed that the deer had inherited a greater degree of sagacity than those roaming in comparative safety throughout the unbroken wilderness ashore, due, doubtless, to the peril of island segregation and the inherited fear of the Indian and the fur trader, who made this locality a general rendezvous and hunting ground. Providentially, in modern times this beautiful island has been saved from the ravages of the axe and the too deadly use of the gun, for a number of years ago it was acquired by a mining and lumber company in the purchase of a larger tract ashore. Unlike many of the pioneer corpora- tions of the West, this company has al- ways shown a commendable interest in the welfare of the various communities in which it has operated, leaving more than a fair equivalent for that which must be destroyed. It was this spirit which led to an extensive effort to protect the native wild game and to introduce new or foreign species most likely to suc- ceed in a northern country. Starting with a hundred or more na- tive deer, moose were introduced, to- gether with elk, caribou, black-tail deer, Tie Wil De ribh OL WAKE. SUPERIOR € Photograph by George Shiras, 3d THE LODGE OF THE RIVER COLONY OF BEAVERS Showing a great collection of brush and small logs stored in the pool before the house for their winter supply of food (see page 181). antelope, and several hundred pairs of Scandinavian game birds. For the use of the last-named, thousands of young Scotch firs were successfully planted, to provide their natural winter food. The results of this experiment are interesting and of value for the future. The Scandinavian birds, principally capercailzie, raised a brood or two, and then fell victims to birds of prey and ground vermin, showing their inadapta- bility in a country otherwise suitable. Their foes were too numerous and were different from those across the sea. A HERD OF CARIBOU PLUNGES TO DEATH The first herd of Newfoundland cari- bou on a stormy winter night went head- long to their death when pursued by a stray timber-wolf. They leaped from one of the higher wooded cliffs into Lake Superior, under the sheep-like influence that causes these animals to follow a leader and to regard the distance traveled rather than cunning evasion the best means of eluding a pursuing foe. The entire herd perished (see page 144). The next importation of caribou de- veloped both species of bot-fly that have always proved such a dreadful and un- sightly affliction on their native island; but, unable to suffer and recover, as in their original habitat, these animals also came to a pitiful end. Again, a wolf crossed on the ice and, getting beneath the game fence confining the animals to the higher ground, soon put an end to the black-tail deer, for they lacked the elusiveness of the white-tail; while the antelope, as rather expected, found the few clearings too small for their roaming habits, and in the deep snows characterizing the upper lake re- gion they gave up the struggle for exist- ence. THE MOROSE MOOSE VANISHED, TOO The moose at first thrived and bid fair to succeed in a country adapted to their ways, but on the tremendous increase in the white-tail deer and elk, they refused to travel the runways of their uncon- genial rivals. ‘They secreted themselves in a swamp bordering a small lake, where lack of range and food brought on dis- ease, and then these morose and stolid animals vanished, the usual result with moose when too confined—a fact which accounts for the rarity with which they are found in zoological parks. The native white-tail, therefore, won the day against all enforced intruders ex- cept the elk. Consequently in these two species we have the ones best adapted for From 25 to 30 ash are in different stages of felling or beavers do Average dismemberment, showing that these finish one tree before beginning on another. time in felling a tree, ten days (see page 197). the unoccupied ranges throughout the more easterly part of the country. A closed hunting season on any island, however big, will finally bring most ani- mals face to face with an unavoidable enemy—starvation. ‘Thus it became nec- essary to supply some food in winter, be- sides shipping hundreds of deer and sur- plus elk to parks and game preserves, followed still later by an open season on deer: THE BEGINNING OF THE ALBINO DEER COLONY If, however, this long and costly effort to make Grand Island the permanent | Photograph by Geonce Shuas ad | A TYPICAL SCENE ON WHITEFISH RIVER THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE home of many immigrant species | has proved disappointing, an un- expected reward has come, which may eventually prove of greater value than the fulfillment of the original plan, namely, the estab- lishment of a beautiful herd of albino white-tail deer. A characteristic of the Michi- gan deer has been the general uniformity in physical appear- ance; for, though more deer have been killed in Michigan during the past fifty years than the ag- gregate elsewhere, there are very few freaks in antlers or extremes in weight, while albinism has been equally rare. Some ten years ago word came that a fine albino buck had been seen frequently on Grand Island coming to. a little pond on the easterly side. Taking a camping outfit, a canoe, and my guide, several days and nights were spent watching the pond, and al- though other deer came during the day or were seen under the jack-light, the white buck did not appear. The next year the quest was no more successful, and when [| heard that on the opening of the season the white buck had been killed, it was a consolation to know that the body was in the hands of a taxidermist, prepara- tory to being added to the little museum of the island hotel. There, later, I took the meas- urements of the antlers and body, and then, to show what a striking picture such a marbled figure would present with a background of black, the mounted ani- mal was carried one evening to the edge of the forest where once it had roamed and the flashlight fired (see page 148). Feeling quite confident, from the age of this buck, that white descendants would sometimes be found, a careful watch was maintained throughout the island. Finally, in the fall of 10915, "a) suede sized albino buck was noticed loitering about the box traps set for capturing deer to be shipped away. With little effort it was taken. Upon the removal to temporary quar- not THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR 183 Phot seeaah by Gioiee Shiras, eA FELLING A TREE UNDER DIFFICULTIES A beaver cuts through the average tree in a space between 18 and 25 inches above the ground. After cutting on the opposite side this beaver had to finish the job while seated on a log. Note its resemblance to a large muskrat (see page 194). ters it was found that the buck was suf- fering from an injury to the spine and was unable to stand. Recognizing the rarity of such a cap- ture, a regular attendant was placed in charge, and daily it was fed and watered in a reclining position. After a month it recovered sufficiently to walk about, and by spring was in good condition. DEER WOULD NOT ALLOW KEEPER TO CHANGE HIS COAT Then an odd thing happened. The faithful caretaker, on approaching the stall one morning, was surprised at the buck showing the greatest terror, plung- ing about in a way to threaten new in- qucies. Retiring at once, the question arose as to the cause. Remembering that for the first time he had not worn his winter fur coat, it was replaced, and the buck became docile at once, showing how animals, usually dependent upon scent, may associate an outward garment with identity. Possibly this old fur coat had an odor of its own! Then the idea of establishing a herd of white deer suggested itself, and with this in view four red does were captured and placed in a good-sized range with the white buck. A WHITE FAWN FOUND A few weeks later the project was fa- vored by finding a female white fawn, a day On two old, im a tiaicket near =the island hotel. With careful attention and in the company of another fawn, it grew rapidly. During the earlier months this fawn had the usual row of white spots on the back and sides, and although there was no difference between these and the body color, they were conspicuous in the same way that satin needlework in a single color may carry a varied pattern (see page 147). The following year one of the red does in the Clase. bore an albino doe fawn, which lacked, however, the brocaded white spots characterizing the previous one. 184 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d CUTTING DOWN A GREAT BLACK ASH: WHITEFISH RIVER The principal winter food of the beaver on the lake and river is obtained from the hun- dreds of black ash growing only a few inches above the water level and reached by side channels or sometimes artificial canals. siderable size. After the smaller ones were cut came others of con- The tree in the picture is 91 inches in circumference, and for three years different beavers have attempted to cut it down, but the flashlight has discouraged the com- pletion of these efforts. By this time the first fawn had become a yearling and was placed in the same in- closure. Three years ago I learned that there was a yearling albino doe at the State Game Farm, and in a few weeks it was safely transported to Grand Island, where such an addition in new blood has proved of undoubted value. Then came a telegram in 1919 that the white buck had died suddenly in Novem- The animals store the branches of the tree and eat the bark. ber, leaving only a buck fawn as the fu- ture head of the herd. In the following spring, however, a posthumous white fawn was born, fol- lowed by the favorable news that a large albino doe and two white fawns had been seen on several occasions in a remote part of the island, and these latter can be placed in the inclosure if deemed advis- able. THE WILD LIFE OF LAKE SUPERIOR It may be of interest to note that the original buck weighed about 150 pounds and possessed a rather extraordinary set of antlers, spreading 26 inches, with the terminal points much farther apart than any other I have ever seen. VELVET ON ANTLERS WAS SNOW-WHITE The velvet on the antlers of both bucks was snow-white, giving them a most statuesque appearance amid the green foliage of the forest. The eyes of the native albinos are a very light gray-blue, while the doe from the southern portion of the State has the usual red eyeballs. The lack of any pig- ment in the layers of the retina of this latter individual discloses the red blood- vessels characterizing most albinos, mak- ing it very susceptible to a bright light. The second buck differed from the original one in being somewhat larger, but had only two long spikes of about eighteen inches, the left one slightly forked each season. The albino deer shed their white sum- mer coat at the usual time, and it is re- placed by a heavier and thicker covering, though not quite so long as the winter gray coat of the normal deer. The skin is a light pink, showing plainly through the thin summer coat, in contrast with the almost black epidermis of the other deer. The hoofs and skin of the nostrils are a pearl-gray, instead of black, while the velvet on the growing antlers is white, but when freed from this covering the antlers have the usual brownish-yellow coloring, the only exterior part of the white deer resembling the normal ones. THE FIRST ATTEMPT TO PERPETUATE ALBINO DEER Up to the present time, the effort to perpetuate an albinistic strain has been largely confined to white mice and rats, white rabbits, and poultry, for in the larger animals this occasional recession from normal only results in the killing of such conspicuous objects, man and predatory animals being alike responsible. Moreover, when occasionally captured, it rarely happens a mate can be found of similar color. This white phase is found in all organic life, as, for instance, elk, deer, porcupine (see page 121), beaver, muskrats, squir- 185 rels, many wild-fowl, robins, swallows, crows, blackbirds, woodcock, and in frogs, fish, insects, and several forms of plant life, due to the absence of pigment. This deficiency in coloring affects only the outer skin, the hair, or feathers, as well as the retina of the eyes and the hoofs of most quadrupeds. Partial al- binism is frequent, and in New Bruns- wick I saw a number of deer splotched with white of various patterns, giving some of them a strikingly odd appear- ance. The writer has been under the impres- sion that the first offspring of albinos were usually white, and on and after the third generation uniformly so, following the rule in silver and black foxes. Several biologists, however, have contended that “albinism being a purely recessive char- acter among mammals, albinos should breed true from the first.”” That this con- clusion 1s sometimes a mistake was shown a year ago, when one of the white does bore a normally colored fawn, the white buck being the only male in the inclosure. There are many nature lovers, vitally interested in the efforts of science to pro- duce and perpetuate new variants of ex- isting species, who will be gratified to know that as time goes on specimens of this new and beautiful phase of the white- tail may find representation in other parts of the country. The various members of this original albino colony are shown herein at different ages, in varied atti- tudes, and in contrasting seasons. Clee MNBIR IDX MOOSE ON ST. IGNACE ISLAND Diagonally opposite Marquette and on the north shore is an interesting and beautiful group of islands, the largest of which, St. Ignace, occupies the entrance to Nipigon Bay, into which flows the most famous of Canadian trout streams. On a trip west of Port Arthur, in 1916, for the purpose of studying the moose along the international waters between Minnesota and Ontario, I was told that several of the larger islands near the Nipigon contained an incredible number of moose, but as at this point the line of the Canadian Pacific follows the shore, in sight of the islands, the report seemed somewhat doubtful. However, in the 186 THE N JATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d FLASHLIGHT OF A BEAVER TOWING A SAPLING, WHICH IS TO BE ADDED TO ITS STORE OF FOOD FOR WINTER Unlike the muskrat, with its body well out of the water (see page 199), the beaver swims nearly submerged, with only the head showing (at the right). Ata distance it 1s sometimes hard to tell one from the other when swimming, except by the greater speed and wake of the beaver. following year it was decided to investi- gate, for except on Isle Royal, the largest island in the lake, the moose had.not been authoritatively reported as island occu- pants. It should be stated that for some years after the writer came to Lake Superior moose and white-tail deer were unknown on the north shore, although caribou were abundant, especially 1 in the “fall and winter. MOOSE MIGRATED FROM QUEBEC About 1885 a steady movement of the moose westerly from Quebec was_ ob- served and a slower easterly migration from northern Minnesota. Eventually these animals commingled and took pos- session of the entire shore, later extend- ing into the interior until they reached the waters flowing into Hudson Bay. Following the moose came the white- tail deer and many timber-wolves, when the caribou began yielding the possession of centuries. After the construction of the railroad, extensive lumbering and many forest fires changed the face of the country, large clearings and a mixed vegetation succeeding dense evergreen forests, and to this change may be principally attrib- uted the influx of new animals and birds. Most of this land being unsuitable for settlement insures a permanent and widely extended range for many of the big-game animals suffering eviction in districts valuable for mining or agricul- tune. In September, 1917, our party arrived at Rossport, a little fishing village be- tween the railroad and a bay opposite Simpsons Island, next in size to St. Ignace. Here provisions and canoes were obtained, and a few hours later the little tug was on its way, the party alert to de- tect the first island moose, the pilot hav- ing given assurance that before reaching the camp site several would be seen. MOOSE FOUND FEEDING IN THE LAKE When passing through the broad chan- nel separating the two larger islands, three moose. were noted well out in the shallow water at the end of a long bay, the first time in my experience that any such game animal was found feeding in the waters of Lake Superior, which, by reason of its depth and temperature, con- tains little aquatic vegetation. Along the winding shores was noted a great variety of second-growth trees particularly suitable as browsing material for the moose, such as poplar, cherry, THE WiLD Pike OF LAKE SUPERIOR PARENT AND YOUNG BEAVER EATING THE BARK Photograph by George Shiras, 3d OF A POPLAR LOG USED BY THE AUTHOR AS BAIT Only once did more than one beaver appear on the negative. Here a small poplar log attracted the mother beaver and her youthful offspring. birch, soft maple, mountain ash, and balsam, while interspersed the dense for- ests of spruce offered a safe retreat from the hunter and an excellent shelter in the winter, being the only tree never eaten by moose or deer in this region. WATCHING FOR MOOSE AT THE SALT LICKS However, the apparent abundance of arboreal food was misleading, for it was now seen from the boat that all the lower limbs of the trees referred to had been eaten or destroyed by the animals for some ten feet above the ground, account- ing for the moose just seen in a shallow bay, where the temperature permitted an unusual growth of water plants (see page 163). Unlike Grand Island, with its precipi- tous cliffs to the north, most of the ex- posed shore of St. Ignace Island was low, with many bays separated by narrow, rocky points offering suitable camping places, where reefs and shallow waters seemed favorable for the best of trout fishing, while inland were high, rounded hills approaching an altitude of fifteen hundred feet, besides several rocky ridges dividing the island into many basins filled with the purest water, ranging from ponds of an acre to a lake four miles long, totaling nearly fifty on an island eight miles by five in size. The tents were pitched on a level bank in a well-sheltered grove, at the edge of which flowed a fine trout stream leading from the largest of the interior lakes (see page 157). Although facing the widest portion of Lake Superior, it was our intention to spend most of the time looking for moose in near-by ponds, as well as watching for them at several natural salt licks in a deep valley behind the camp. BIG MOOSE HERD LIVING ON WATER PLANTS These licks were discovered by two members of the party fifteen -years be- fore, when a yacht in which they were cruising ran on a reef. While awaiting the assistance of a tug the island was visited, where numerous caribou tracks about muddy pools indicated the presence of salt springs. It was due to this rather ancient record that we expected to find the moose as successors to the caribou at these resorts, which calculation proved correct. What the camera captured is best told by some of the illustrations ac- companying this article. 188 In a week one hundred and fifty moose were seen, all apparently depending upon water plants for support, the numerous ponds and lakes yielding a sufficiency, though often the animals were forced to feed in water well over their backs, as they dived out of sight in search of food (see page 1602). Only on the face of inaccessible cliffs was the vegetation undisturbed, and just how these animals survived the long winter, when the waters were closed, was a problem, though many of them may have crossed to the main shore and re- turned in the spring. Ina patch of spruce were discovered two large pairs of inter- locked moose antlers, where these ani- mals, in the fierce rivalry of the mating season, had gone down in mutual defeat forever (see page 161). At the time of our visit no one was living on any of these islands, but near- by inhabitants supplied themselves with moose meat regardless of the law, justi- fying it on account of war conditions. At a salt spring several hundred yards back of the camp I located the first blind, where it was disturbing to see a four- year-old bull moose lying dead within thirty yards, killed but a few hours before and abandoned by reason of our proxim- ity. Here, festering in the sun, it soon drove away any of its surviving associates (see page 159). MOOSE DIG A BASIN OF CLAY AT SALT SPRING Several days later another blind was placed opposite one of the best natural licks I have ever seen, located a mile up the stream from the first. Here the moose during many years had dug out a large clay basin, into which trickled a salt spring from the adjoining bank, the mixture resembling liquid mortar. very time we passed the place one or two moose would leave hurriedly, but a trial in the daytime showed that the scent circled toward the lick, covering every approaching runway; so a flashlight and camera were set up, and on the night fol- lowing a large cow moose took its own picture at a distance of fifteen feet. The analysis of this salt lick is given in the text beneath the picture (see page 164). On several islands adjoining, the moose were numerous and tracks proved the THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE presence of a considerable number of caribou. %* z > Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A COMPLETED MUSKRAT HOUSE (SEE ALSO ILLUSTRATION ON OPPOSITE PAGE) This flashlight shows the pair of muskrats putting the finishing touches to their home. suppose that the beaver primarily de- pends on bark, and that such soft vege- tation as it feeds upon is incidental and iecoulac. —lhiseaise amyerror | for the beaver in its extensive ranges relies upon bark only during the months when other food cannot be easily obtained or stored. By adaptation to the seasonal food sup- ply, the beaver resorts to the more perish- able aquatic growths from May to Octo- ber, and to the many varieties of land plants, bushes, and vines, thereby con- serving the arboreal supply for a time when the deciduous plants yield to the frosts or gradually chilling waters. In higher altitudes, where spring or glacial streams are often too cold for vegetation, the beaver depends upon bank willows, weeds, and the other small growths, though occasionally the bark of poplars or birch is eaten at the base, the tree sel- dom being cut before fall. Prior to 1700 the beaver was seldom molested by the Indians of the upper lakes; for, aside from decorative pur- poses, they preferred larger skins for domestic use. The early explorers found the usual meadows and alder-covered flats, where the original forests had been killed by the flooding caused by beaver dams; but, as the watercourses were fringed almost entirely with conifers, the lake region in the beginning was not a particularly good beaver country. When the aquatic plants, willows, alders, and black ash, constitut- ing their principal diet, became exhausted, the animals migrated elsewhere, and thus these cycles of occupation and abandon- ment were regulated entirely by the ques- tion of food. On the arrival of the trappers it did not take long to reduce these numerous but scattered colonies, and for a hundred re 196 NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 4 Photograph by George Shiras, 3d MUSKRATS LIKE HOUSE-BOATS A cedar raft built for the muskrats to use as a float for their winter home. Anchored in the slough at the south end of Whitefish Lake and now in use three years (see page 1096). and fifty years there was a succession of good seasons, followed by a relapse. A NOTEWORTHY STUDY OF THE BEAVER When the writer first came to Lake Superior not one stream in a dozen showed any recent signs of beaver, most of the animals being found at the head- waters of the streams and on little lakes well inland, where the Ojibways never lived and the white trapper sometimes overlooked them. In 1867, three years before my arrival, there appeared in print a monograph on “The American Beaver and His Works,” by L. H. Morgan, the most original and valuable biography ever written about this animal, and still regarded as a classic in zoologic literature. Mr. Morgan re- sided in Marquette County for a number of years, associated in the building of railroads and furnaces. On his many trips into the woods he always employed Jack La Pete as his principal guide, and from the latter I learned much about this indefatigable investigator. Mr. Morgan’s collections of skulls and bones led us to nickname him “the fossil” ; for, boy-like, we thought such relics savored of mental antiquity. It is now a pleasure to join in the public com- memoration of this remarkable produc- tion and to be able to note the great changes taking place in the same locali- ties he visited. About 1885 the last beaver disappeared from the waters about camp, and for twenty years thereafter none was seen. Finally, a long closed season saved the remnant in upper Michigan. Six years ago I found fresh cuttings and later located a beaver burrow deep within a bank at the south end of the lake. The next year in enlarging the chamber it broke through the surface soil, which was then covered with a mass of sticks. HARD TIMES IN THE BEAVER WORLD The same fall the eviction of the two- year-old beaver led to the establishment of a colony on the river not far above camp, where a large house was built of sticks and covered with mud (see page 180). This new home, however, was not finished until the middle of November, when the ice prevented the collection of the winter supply of food. TAB WiLD VikbeOr bAKH SUPERIOR Photograph by George Shiras, 3d BEYOND REACH OF WOLF, FOX, OR LYNX A raft similar to that shown on the opposite page, anchored in ten feet of water, where it swings freely with the wind. These floating foundations permit the building of the super- structure a month earlier than where the animals are delayed through the fluctuating levels of the lake each fall. The next year their plight was dis- closed by the stumps of half a dozen black ash cut five feet above the ground, indicating the snow level at the time of their desperate harvesting. In the spring the melting of ice released and brought to the surface a large number of yellow lily roots, some of them six feet long, from which the tender shoots and the outer covering of the roots had been removed, indicating the beaver had passed beneath the ice-covered stream to the lake in search of food at a time when zero weather may have prevented forays above ground. No lumbering having been done on the river and lake except the removal of a few large pines, there was an absence of all second growth, the beaver depending largely upon the long stretch of black ash bordering the river and parts of the lake. After the smaller trees had been cut, the remainder, varying from 40 to 9o inches in circumference, came next. When the river colony was estimated to contain eight animals, there were two seasons, 1918 and 1919, during which from 25 to 30 trees were in the process of felling at the same time, showing that few, if any, of these animals continuously confined their efforts to a single tree until One raft house is built of moss, the other reeds. the work was finished. On an average it took from ten to fifteen days before large trees were felled, by reason of this inter- mittent cutting. BEAVERS WERE NEVER SEEN IN DAYTIME The beavers on the river were never seen in the daytime, for the narrow and shallow waters deterred such excursions, but on the lake it was not unusual to see some swimming about late in the after- noon. It was some years before this, in Octo- ber, 1912, and on a stream west of Mar- quette, | got a flashlight of a beaver repairing a dam which had been broken during the afternoon, for the purpose of getting a night picture as the animal at- tempted its repair (see page 177). But those about camp had no dams, or -at least were not permitted to block the river with one, and consequently the idea of taking a flashlight picture while a tree was being cut seemed to offer the best chance. For three weeks an outfit faced a half-cut tree without result. So, on departing for the East, I told John to leave the camera out a few days longer. A night or two later a loud explosion was heard up the stream and the unde- veloped plates were sent me with the hope 198 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d FIRST COME FIRST SERVED Here a pulling string connected with a flashlight and camera was baited with carrots and fish, for either muskrats or mink. The muskrat fired the flash first, and later a mink remoy ed the fish, as shown by its tracks in the snow the next morning. that a beaver would be found at work. This proved to be the case, giving much encouragement for continuation of the efforts the next season (see page 178). While luck varied during the ensuing years, it was not long before I had a dozen or more pictures showing some of the animals erect, busy gnawing away, and others walking about at the base of a tree (see page 183). PHOTOGRAPH SOLVES A PROBLEM These photographs made possible the determination of the much-mooted ques- tion whether more than one beaver assists in the cutting of a tree. In not a single instance was more than one beaver shown at work or in the vicinity of the tree, nor was that tree touched again during the same season. From the very beginning, the river colony tried every fall to block the sluice- way in an old lumber dam several hun- dred yards above camp by filling it with water-soaked logs and branches, the pur- pose being to flood the river bottom when cutting down the tree. Fach fall and to the present time it has been a case of “pull out in the morning and fill in at night.” his effort to utilize the dam was a very practical conception, only it conflicted with prior rights at camp by preventing access to the lake (p. 190). This almost daily removal of a great mass of sticks and brush caused John to figure on some way of discouraging their nightly activity, so a lighted lantern was placed in the middle of the dam, with the expectation that this would end their endeavors. ‘The first night the plan was a success, but on the following one the animals were busier than ever. ‘Then the lantern was lowered to the surface of the water, and they paid no attention to it whatever. WATCHING THE BEAVER AT WORK AT NIGHT Taking advantage of this situation, we visited the place at night to witness the beaver at work. Such a close view and under a strong light revealed perfectly their methods of construction; so a night later the flashlight and camera took our THE WilD Tih k OF TAKE SUPERIOR Vi tity, jy; Photograph by George Shiras, 3d A MUSKRAT HEADED FOR THE CARROT PATCH (SEE PAGE 192) The muskrat differs from the beaver by swimming with its body well above the surface. Contrast this photograph with that of the beaver on page 186. place, in order that the scenes visible to a few might be put in a permanent and more available form (see page 177). In 1919, after the beaver became abun- dant in a number of upper Michigan counties, the season was opened, result- ing in all the trappers concentrating in these localities and in the rapid decline of the new-comers. A much better policy would have been the trapping alive any surplus and the distribution in those dis- tricts containing hundreds of thousands of acres of worthless second growths along the banks of streams and lakes where the beaver had not yet come. Such a system, in a few years, would enlarge the beaver population to a point probably never reached in the region be- fore; for the greatly increased food sup- ply and well-balanced regulations in trap- ping would regulate and perpetuate a contribution of nature such as man never attempted before on such a suitable range. The muskrat is much more versatile in the variety of its retreats than the beaver, possibly because of its smaller size. Often it takes possession of the over- hanging and lower portions of a beaver- house, living there in peace with the larger landlord, or it may use the wing of any old lumber dam for an all-year home. THE ABODES OF THE MUSKRAT ON WHITEFISH LAKE The muskrats of Whitefish Lake have an unusual number of domiciles; for, in addition to those already mentioned, they resort to hollow logs with an entrance under water, or tunnel beneath a fallen trunk extending beyond the bank, this latter retreat being, I believe, a very com- mon one. One morning, on a Wyoming lake, I found a pair of muskrats asleep in a newly made nest of grass beneath a flat- bottom rowboat, where the bow extended above the water, and two succeeding nights the same thing happened. Such a home is easily constructed, besides being warm and secure. The logs along the shore are often the 200 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d MUCH ENGROSSED Daylight picture of a muskrat on the edge of new ice, feeding upon moss taken from the bottcm of the lake. foundation of the superstructure, and in one instance the animal entered the hol- low end and then, through a hole in the top of the log, reached the house (see page 194). A MUSKRAT HOME ON A RAFT Probably the strangest of all these homes are depicted on pages 196 and 107, where the animals used large rafts an- chored in the lake and put there for that purpose by the writer. Sometimes the house material used by the beaver and muskrat 1s completely re- versed, for when reeds and moss are scarce the muskrat occasionally builds a house out of sticks and mud (see page 193), while the beaver, in a prairie coun- try, has been known to construct its lodge entirely of aquatic vegetation, resembling that of the muskrat except for its size. Both these animals are particular in having one or more entrances to their homes beneath the water, and when the water recedes the canals are deepened, so as to maintain subsurface approaches. The muskrats of Whitefish Lake have a habit of building small houses out of moss on the ice-covered lake, using them as resting and feeding places when seek- ing water plants in the winter. In many parts of its range the muskrat is supposed to raise from three to four litters a year. Along a great portion of the southern shore of Lake Superior I have never seen any evidence of more than one set of young a year. In this section occurs one of the deepest snow- falls of the country, and this unusual con- dition doubtless affects the muskrat. About Whitefish Lake the waters re- main cold and high until after the mid- dle of May, when vegetation responds. rapidly to the many hours of sunlight. The first young are seen the middle of July, and from that time on until the early frost or the coming of the ice I have never felt sure of having seen the young of a second litter. THE EDIBILITY OF THE MUSKRAT In recent years the flesh of the musk- rat is becoming more and more esteemed. Its unfortunate surname—rat—has done more to excite a prejudice against its use than all the other causes combined, es- pecially among the feminine members of the family. Its meat is dark red in color, fine- grained and tender. According to the Biological Survey, any unfavorable opin- ion as to its flavor arises, probably, from. Tp wi ibe Or TAKE SUPERIOR 201 PORCUPINE AND VARYING HARE TAKING THEIR OWN PICTURES AT NIGHT Rock-salt was placed between stones, to attract the deer. When the flash was fired, the developed plate showed in front a salt-loving porcupine, while in the rear is a varying hare, of similar taste, in the act of running into a string attached to the stake behind. Photographs by George Shiras, 3d DIFFERENT VISITORS ON THE FOLLOWING NIGHT: WHITEFISH LAKE To prevent small animals firing the flash, as shown in the picture at the top of the page, a balsam top was placed over the salt, raising the string several feet, where it was not so noticeable in the mass of branches. Such contrasting and unsuspected scenes illustrate the fascinations of the automatic flashlight THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by George Shiras, 3d THE BANK ON THE LEFT, COVERED WITH SECOND-GROWTH TREES, IS AN ANCIENT BEAVER DAM 1,500 FEET LONG, PROBABLY 400 YEARS OLD, AND FORMING THE LAKE ORIGINALLY The picture shows the western end of Echo Lake, which occupies a mile in the center of Grand Island. the lack of skill in cooking or from care- lessness in skinning the animal. It can be fried, roasted, or stewed, only having a slightly gamy flavor, which can be re- moved by soaking the meat over night in salt water. I have found it comparable to tender chicken. For years it has been served, highly seasoned and flavored, under the name of “Maryland terrapin,” without exciting any suspicion on the part of connoisseurs, who pay a fancy price for it. The use of a few terrapin bones in the dish when served has likely aided in this deception. In some of the Eastern States the carcass brings from 30 to 40 cents, more than double the price once paid for ‘its pelt. It seems unfortunate, therefore, that several million pounds of available food must go to waste annually; yet for many years its coat was rated among those of the humblest of fur-bearers, and at times the traders of the North refused to take them from the trappers, the skins being practically valueless in the market. It is largely frequented by deer and elk. In recent years the really beautiful fur of these animals has become more and more appreciated. In 1920, at the crest of high prices, muskrat skins were sold in fur auctions up to a maximum price of $7.50 each. Today the muskrat, on account of the enormous number of its skins and their appreciated price, has become the most important of North American fur- bearers. Thus it is apparent this American fur- bearer has reached the top in the total value of its pelts and in striking contrast to its status a few years ago. Restore to it the old Indian name of musquash and the prejudice against the use of its fur or its flesh for food will rapidly disappear. BIRDS AND ANIMALS MULTIPLY IN (CUa= OVER AREAS Partly because the subject has seldom been considered in print, and again be- cause its significance is so little under- stood, the wonderful part that second- Latin DMihh Oh WAKES SUPE RTO: toy f wey Qa < NS NS yy N ° YW, Y Photog raph by George Shiras, 3d A UNIQUE NIGHT PICTURE OF A LYNX This animal can seldom be photographed in the daytime and at night has a strong aversion to artificial light. In this instance, however, the subject sat erect on the edge of the bank watching the approaching jack-light, its reflection in the water doubling the image. Taken on a small lake in western Ontario. 204 growth vegetation in deforested areas plays in the distribution and_ relative numbers of birds and animals is worthy of further comment. In the thousands of miles of wilderness surrounding Lake Superior, the present conditions, so far as Nature is concerned, are better for its wild life than before the coming of the white man, centuries ago; for there is a larger and greater variety of food and better shelter than ever be- fore—two great factors in a_ suitable habitat. Other factors of importance are the favorable climatic conditions which about Lake Superior are stabilized and devoid of extremes through the influence of the deeper waters of the lake which remain close to 39° throughout the year. The prevailing northwest winds of summer are cool and bracing, without rain or noticeable humidity, for the warmer and drier air ashore readily absorbs the mots- ture in the air from the lake, producing the exhilaration of high altitudes, free from the heart strain of a rarefied atmos- phere. Once unbroken evergreen forests cov- ered much of the land. Back from the waters the tops of the towering pines and hemlocks, interlocking, excluded the warm rays of the sun and the bountiful dews; so that only a scant vegetation struggled in the perpetual shadows and in the sour soil, brown with the successive fall of needles. In these primeval forests there was little food or shelter, for the giant trunks were almost limbless to the green canopy above. In the other sections, where hard- wood forests predominated, conditions were equally unpropitious; for neither tender bark, leaves, nor budding branches were in reach of browsing animals. In the early lumbering operations only the largest trees were cut, the removal hardly leaving a trace, and when one passed through this densely timbered land he seldom expected to see a living thing beyond, perhaps, a porcupine, a_ red squirrel, or a woodpecker drilling on a dying tree. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Finally came the period of intensive lumbering, where trees of every kind vielded to the axe or went down beneath the crash of a larger neighbor. Many times came the warning from experienced hunters that the game was doomed; for the sight of cut-over land piled high with wreckage, the discarded limbs smothering all vegetation and dis- couraging any of a different kind, cer- tainly gave color to these views. But in a few years fires or decay prepared the devastated areas for a new growth, giv- ing assurance of better things. Where once stood solid forests of pine, cedar, balsam, and hemlock, these were reproduced, the young trees, however, being low-branched and thick, blocking the driven snow and cutting winds, thus sheltering the game from the eye of man and putting food within easy reach. LARGE CLEARINGS CREATED Later came the removal of the ma- tured hardwood maples, in hundreds of tracts of twenty to forty acres, creating clearings of unusual. size, where the succeeding deciduous growths differed greatly from the original stock, consist- ing of rapidly growing trees like the pop- lar, white birch, cherry, alder, and moun- tain-ash, interspersed with a great variety of berries and low-growing plants, in- cluding clover and timothy, introduced by the wind-scattered fodder of many a logging team. Here came the deer, .rabbits, bears, grouse, and hundreds of berry- and in- sect-eating songsters, many of them new to the land, while the beaver took posses- sion of streams and lakes bordered with these new growths. In this region Nature, despite man’s grasping ways, provides more abundantly than ever food and shelter for the birds and animals, and these bounties should be met in an appreciative way, making it pos- sible for the wild life of the upper region to continue furnishing its valuable quota in meeting our necessities and in the gratification of our outdoor pleasures. PROTECTING THE UNITED STATES FROM PEANT “PESTS By CHARLES LESTER MARLATT CHAIRMAN, FEDERAL HorTICULTURAL BoarpD, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE With Photographs from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Some ten years ago the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, by the publication of anarticle on “pests and parasites,’ aided materially in securing the passage of a national law to prevent importation of insect-infested and diseased plants.* The accompanying article and the illustrations indicate the character of plant pests which are being intercepted by this law. RIOR to 1912 there was no au- Peers in law to protect the United States from the entry of new plant enemies or to control and prevent the dis- tribution within the United States of any such enemies which may have gained limited foothold. Not only could plants be imported by nursery and florist establishments without regard to their freedom from pests, but, in the absence of any protective legisla- tion, America became a dumping ground for the plant refuse of other countries. It was common practice of big nursery establishments abroad to consign, without order, tons of their culls to department stores, to florists, and even to auctioneers of this country, to be sold or given away by such stores or auctioned for what they would bring. This freedom of entry, in the absence of authority for inspection or other in- surance of freedom from insect pests and diseases, has resulted during the last cen- tury in the establishment in the United States of an enormous number of foreign plant pests which are, and will remain, a tremendous burden on the garden, field, and forest productions of this country. Gi FOOD Bilt OF PLANT PESES OF FOREIGN ORIGIN Several years ago the Department of Agriculture issued a careful analysis of the losses caused to the principal crops Or tie United States “by insect pests, * Pests and Parasites; Why We Need a National Law to Prevent Importation of In- sect-Infested and Diseased Plants. By Charles Lester Marlatt. Nationat, GrocrAPHIC MAGaA- ZINE, April, IQIt. showing that these losses amounted to upward of a billion dollars a year, a sum at that time more than sufficient to meet the entire cost of the administration of the Federal Government! That was undem the -old price 10 crops, a) Under recent prices these losses would approxi- mate two billion dollars annually ! + These estimates relate solely to losses due to the insect pests and take no ac- count of the losses due to such plant dis- eases as the grain rusts and smuts and the mildews, blights, and hundreds of other diseases affecting every important crop and also many forest trees and orna- mentals. Such plant diseases probably occasion losses fully comparable to those due to insects. These losses are caused by a host of pests, insect and fungous, that affect fruits, farm crops, and forest trees, but more than 50 per cent of these losses are due to insect and diseases which have come to us from foreign lands. Among these are some of the worst enemies of our principal crops. Examples of such are the Hessian fly, the boll weevil of cotton, the alfalfa weevil, the Japanese beetle, the San Jose scale, and such plant diseases as the wheat smut, pine blister rust, citrus canker, potato wart, chestnut blight, and many others. tee Altogether, these unwelcome immui- grants, insects and diseases, include up- ward of 100 important plant enemies and + The detailed discussion of these losses is published in the Year Book of the Department of Agriculture for 1904, and a later summary is given in the report of the Roosevelt Na- tional Conservation Commission. 206 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE cnet DISINFECTION OF EGYPTIAN COTTON TO EXCLUDE THE PINK BOLLWORM The worst of all cotton pests is the pink bollworm, the larva of a minute moth. The larve feed in the bolls and destroy the forming lint. This pest originated in India and reached Egypt about 15 years ago with some importations of cotton, and has since been distributed with Egyptian cotton seed to practically every cotton-producing country of the world. It reached Texas via Mexico in 10916, and since that time Congress has appropriated upward of $2,500,000 to be used in an effort to exterminate this pest. This illustration shows the method of disinfecting Egyptian cotton. The entire row of cotton bales is carried at one time into a huge steel cylinder, shown at the end of the picture, by means of a movable platform. The cylinder then is hermetically closed and the air exhausted, creating a vacuum. The poisonous cyanide gas is then allowed to enter the cylinder, and the vacuum insures penetration of this gas to the very center of the bale, destroying all insects. This is the largest fumigating plant in the world, and each cylinder has a capacity of over 100 bales of cotton at one time. A SPECIAL SENSE MUST BE DEVELOPED BY THE PLANT INSPECTOR This photograph illustrates an effort to bring alligator pears into the United States from Mexico imbedded in partly baked loaves of bread, in violation of a Federal embargo on account of pests. ' PROLEPCIING Le UNM ED sal Bs: PROM PLANTI- PESTS 207 : 7 Yy NATIVE POTATO WEEVILS FROM THE ANDEAN REGION OF SOUTH AMERICA The Irish potato and the Indian corn are the two great food crops of the world of American origin. The potato is supposed to have come originally from South America. It is now discovered that in the Andean region this tuber is infested by a number of native weevils, which mine through the potatoes and render them worthless. It is a piece of tremendous good fortune to the world that the distribution of the potatoes has been from North America, where these weevils do not occur. Recent shipments of potatoes from the Andean region have resulted in the discovery of no less than four such weevils, one of which, with its work, is illustrated in the accompanying photograph. COLLECTING JAPANESK BEETLES FOR WAGES Boys earn modest wages by collecting Japanese beetles with nets in the heart of infested territory. The object is to reduce their numbers along roadways, so as to lessen the risk of their being carried by passing automobiles. The collected beetles are destroyed with oil. 208 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE EXAMINING PLANT IMMIGRANTS TO SEE WHETHER THEY ARE HEALTHY More than 10,000 naturalized plant citizens of the United States have been brought from every quarter of the world by plant explorers of the Department of Agriculture. All of these plants, as well as commercial importations, are carefully examined for injurious insects and plant diseases. If necessary, such plants are disinfected by fumigation, or destroyed if fumigation cannot be relied upon to eliminate any accompanying pests. A SEARCH FOR FUNGI AND INSECTS AT A HORTICULTURAL “ELLIS ISLAND” These lilies-of-the-valley roots may neither toil nor spin, but they require patient work on the part of experts from the Office of Plant Introduction to prevent the admission to the United States of undesirable parasites. j Vc i Cie iy ‘ A BIG DRUM IN WHICH PLANTS ARE FUMIGATED The inspection and disinfection to which plants imported by the Office of Plant Intro- duction of the Department of Agriculture are subjected has during the last year been extended to most of the commercial importations. The room shown in this illustration. is equipped with a cylinder for fumigation under vacuum conditions, and with other disinfecting chambers and apparatus. many hundreds of lesser importance, and their board and lodging, as just noted, costs this nation nearly a billion dollars annually. THE COST OF SOME INDIVIDUAL LODGERS The San José scale, which was intro- duced with flowering peach from China some 40 years ago, is now costing this country at least $10,000,000 a year for the spraying of orchards and in reduced output and value of fruit crops. Very conservatively estimated, this means an unnecessary food bill of $200,000,000 which we have paid out during these 40 years, upon the basis of one-half the an- nual charges for the last 20 years. Similarly, citrus canker, introduced with Japanese trifoliate orange stock some 13 years ago, has cost in actual expendi- tures of Federal and State moneys in control work approximately $2,130,000, of which $1,273,000 were appropriated by Congress, and in value of orchards and nurseries which have been burned to the ground in the effort to exterminate this disease in Florida and other Gulf States, $11,063,000, or a total of $13,193,000! Furthermore, this estimate makes no account of the losses chargeable to re- duced orange and other citrus crops on account of the disease and orchards de- stroyed. That is paying very dearly for a few plants of trivial value which in fact, easily and without risk, could have been grown from seed. THE ORIENTAL FRUIT WORM CAME WITH THE JAPANESE CHERRY The Oriental fruit worm, brought to this country with flowering Japanese cherries about 1911, when a widespread 210 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE LESSON OF A CRACK IN THE BARK This bit of bark, to the unaided eye, had the appearance of any normal bark filled with numerous cracks; but many of these apparently harmless-looking cracks, when examined under a magnifying glass, proved to be filled with the eggs of a camphor thrips, a pest which now threatens failure to what was believed to be a promising camphor industry in Florida. Pests introduced in this obscure manner may cost the country millions. EIGHTEEN MILLION NARCISSUS BULBS IN FIFTEEN THOUSAND CASES! Unlimited importation is still permitted of the more popular bulbs, including narcissus, tulip, hyacinth, lily, and crocus. The photograph illustrates a single shipment of narcissus bulbs on the dock at New York awaiting distribution. There is still some risk of the entry of new pests, even with such clean bulbs, and it is hoped that the time may soon come when these bulbs will be produced in this country in sufficient quantities to meet home needs. PROTECTING THE. UNITED STATES FROM PLANT PESTS popular demand for this beautiful flower- ing tree developed, promises to be one of the most serious checks that has ever threatened our common deciduous fruits— peach, plum, prune, apple, pear, ete It is now firmly established in some half a dozen eastern States and probably has been even much more widely distributed through the agency of miscellaneous im- portations of flowering cherries, so that its ultimate spread throughout the United States cannot now be prevented. ‘This insect is another serious pest introduced with ornamentals that will in a few years cause a continual annual charge to fruit production of millions of dollars. The Japanese beetle is another new pest of wide range of food habit and likely to cause in the near future tre- mendous annual losses to all kinds of fruits, including not only apple, pear, and plum, etc., but also grape and small fruits. lt not only destroys the foliage, but eats into the ripening fruit and renders it unsalable. It breeds in garden, lawn, and pasture lands as a soil-inhabiting white grub. The evidence indicates conclusively that it was introduced about a decade ago in soil with an importation of Japanese Iris roots, and has now spread over a fairly large section of New Jersey and into contiguous portions of Pennsylvania. There is now no possibility of extermi- nating it, and its board bill will be a continuing charge, perhaps ranking ulti- mately with that of the San José scale. The introduced diseases of forest trees, such as the pine blister rust, the chestnut blight, and the insect and disease enemies of the cereal and forage plants, are vastly more expensive lodgers than those just mentioned and, as already indicated, fur- nish the larger items making up the half billion to a billion dollar annual cost due to imported plant pests. These undesirable immigrants we must lodge and board forever, but we want to shut the doors 1f we can to their brothers and sisters and cousins and aunts! MANY OTHER PLANT ENEMIES TO BE EXCLUDED These hundreds of foreign pests have become permanent factors in American agriculture and horticulture. They ought to have been kept out, and America 211 7 Uy Z Yi (aeear YY SMUGGLING CONTRABAND “FRUIT” A customs inspectress at Laredo, Texas, has taken a bag of alligator pears hidden in a woman’s skirts) The smaller bag contained evidence of violation of the Volstead Act. would then have enjoyed a tremendous advantage over the old world; but late as the action was taken, it was still op- portune. The Department of Agriculture re- cently compiled and published a cata- logue of the more dangerous insect ene- mies of plants in foreign countries which for the most part have not yet gained entry into the United States. This cata- logue was issued as a hand-book for the information of the plant quarantine in- spectors, Federal and State. In it are listed some 3,000 different foreign insect pests! ‘These include in- sects injurious to forest and shade trees, to fruit and ornamental trees, and to the various farm and garden crops. A similar manual, which is in course of preparation, lists the known foreign fungous diseases of plants, and will de- scribe and catalogue, when completed, THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ITALIAN BROOM-CORN INFESTED WITH CORN-BORER It is now pretty well established that the FKuropean corn-borer reached this country through shipments of Italian and Austro-Hungarian broom-corn. This picture shows a shipment of Italian broom-corn which arrived at New York in February, 1920, and on examination proved to be infested with this dreaded European pest. All foreign broom-corn is now subjected to steam cooking as a condition of entry. This does not injure it for broom manufacture, but kills any harbored insects. The corn-borer illustrates the continuing risk of the entry of new pests with almost any sort of plant material; whether for manu- facture or as packing for other articles of commerce, and indicates the breadth of the field which must be guarded if foreign plant pests are to be excluded (see next page). probably as many diseases as there were insects included in the insect-pest cata- logue. Many of these insects and diseases are known to be as serious enemies as many of the worst of those already introduced. These catalogues and lists will, how- ever, enumerate only the known plant enemies. Most of the recent introduc- tions from foreign lands of important pests have been of insects or diseases of which literature and available records gave us no warning. Enormous areas in the old world have been little or not at all explored with re- spect to such plant enemies. This applies particularly to China, Africa, and even to much of Europe, and from these areas particularly have come pests like the San José scale, the Oriental fruit worm, the citrus canker, and the chestnut blight, none of which were recognized as impor- tant plant enemies prior to their importa- tion and establishment in this country. LIVING PLANTS COMMON CARRIERS OF NEW PESTS Most of these introduced plant enemies. have come to this country in connection with living plants and many of them with florist and ornamental stock. In many instances the imported ornamental or other plant has been a mere accidental carrier of the new enemy. For example, PRODECIING HE, UNIZED SLATES FROM PLANT PESTS the European alfalfa weevil, which 1s now largely reducing the output of al- falfa in half a dozen States in the middle West, was undoubtedly introduced with soil about imported plants. This weevil hibernates in the soil, and the only known means by which it could have reached the State of Utah, where it got its first foot- hold, is in soil with imported plants. Other weevils of foreign origin, affecting clover and other plants, have undoubt- edly been’ similarly introduced. The Japanese beetle is a recent instance of such introductions. The European earwig was also intro- duced in soil with imported plants and is perhaps an exception to the rule, in that it has been very troublesome to orna- mentals in the highly developed estates of Newport, where it got its first foot- hold. It is notably a pest of garden and ornamental plants as well as a very ob- noxious house pest and promises a very unsavory future record. These instances are, perhaps, sufficient to illustrate the danger of bringing in pests with wide possibilities of damage more or less accidentally with ornamen- tals or other living plants. Some of these foreign plant enemies have come in in other ways: The Hes- sian fly with straw; the Argentine ant possibly merely as a stowaway in the cargo of some ship coming to New Or- leans; and the corn-borer with imported broom-corn. It is entirely possible, how- ever, for both of the latter pests to be carried by living plants—the Argentine ant in soil and the corn-borer in any of the many ornamental plants which it is known freely to infest. But looking over the record of these introductions, from early colonial times to the present, it is apparent that 90 per cent of these foreign pests have come in with living plant material of one sort or another. FOREIGN COUNTRIES LONG PROTECTED For some 30 or 40 years prior to 1912, when there was no authority in law to control plant importations into the United States, the more important exporting European nations which were finding free markets in this country for their plant products—wiser than we—to pro- tect their own cultures, were prohibiting 213 THE WORK OF THE EUROPEAN CORN- BORER IN AN EAR OF FLINT CORN This European pest was brought to the United States in 1908 or 1909 with importa- tions of broom-corn, and gained footholds near Boston and in western New York and also in southern Ontario (see preceding page). THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE SOIL ABOUT PLANT ROOTS A COMMON MEANS OF ENTRY OF PESTS Moist earth such as comes about many plants has been the source of entry of a host of cur worst plant enemies, such as the Japanese beetle, the alfalfa weevil, and many others. No method of disinfecting such earth with poisons is possible without killing the plants. Moist earth is one of the best “gas masks,” and many lives undoubtedly could have been saved in France if the soldiers, before the gas masks had been devised, had filled their handkerchiefs with moist soil and breathed through these at times of danger. The photograph is of Japanese iris roots, and in the surrounding soil are the grubs of a pest unknown in the United States, related to the Japanese beetle. entire shipment was destroyed. entry of living plants from the United States. These prohibitions, first based on the grape phylloxera and later more widely extended on account of the San José scale, were usually absolute and therefore much more drastic than the ones now enforced under our own quar- antine law. For example, no living plants from America have for many years been per- mitted to enter France, Germany, or Holland, while similar or modified re- strictions have been long enforced by other European countries. APPROGH CLIVE LAW FOR THE UNITED STATES The need for national quarantine legis- lationgeforsine protection ot the farm, Needless to say, this garden, and forest interests of this coun- try from further invasions by foreign pests was long appreciated, but the secur- ing of this legislation necessitated an ex- tended period of earnest effort. Toward the end of this period this leg- islation was hastened by the increasing numbers of gipsy and brown-tail moths found during the years 1909-12 on 1m- ported plants, and also by many other in- sects and plant diseases and by the need, which began to be generally appreciated, of excluding such other important pests as the Mediterranean fruit fly, the potato wart, and the white pine blister rust. The movement was aided also by the experience with the chestnut blight and the. San.-José. scale. .. The entry- of the citrus canker, the Japanese beetle, and PROTECMING, THE UNITED STATES: FROM PLANT PESTS DAYS, PROTECTING CUCURBITS FROM ATTACK BY MELON FLIES No effective control of this pest 1s possible except to enclose the young fruits in a paper sack immediately after the bloom has been fertilized. The illustration shows this method as employed by Oriental market gardeners in Hawaii. the European corn-borer all occurred during the last years of the effort to se- cure this legislation and before it was actually enacted, although the fact of the entry and establishment of these pests Was not determined until several years later. The Plant Quarantine Act of 1912 was the final outcome of this 14-year effort to secure authority to protect the United States, so far as possible, from further entry of plant pests. In connection with broad quarantine and regulatory powers, this act makes specific provision for the regulation of the entry of nursery stock and other plants. ADEQUATE CONTROL BY INSPECTION AND CERTIFICATION PROVES IMPOSSIBLE During the first seven years of the en- forcement of the act an effort was made to prevent the entry of new plant pests by relying as safeguards on foreign in- spection and certification. These were made in the countries of export by the most expert officials available, and as an additional safeguard provision was made for reinspection of these importations at destination in this country, either by Federal or by State inspectors. ‘This re- inspection has given us a fairly just ap- preciation of the continuing risk with the entry of such inspected and certified plants. It is true that under this system, in which the best skill both abroad and at home was employed, much improvement was made in the health status of the im- ported plants, and infection was undoubt- edly reduced to probably as near a mini- mum as 1s humanly possible. The record, however, of the seven years of interceptions of plant pests in connec- tion with imported plants indicates very clearly that in spite of these safeguards numbers of injurious insects and plant 216 LIVING WOOD-BORING WORMS IMPORTED AS “‘MEDICINE”’ The plant quarantine service of the Department of Agricul- ture calls into cooperation many other departments of the govern- ment, such as the Post-Office, State, and Treasury Departments, The larva shown in this photograph was one of a shipment from Japan invoiced as “medicine” and intercepted and turned over to the Federal inspectors by the postmaster at San Francisco. etc. diseases were being brought to the United States every year and with almost every considerable importation of plants. These records are, furthermore, by no means complete, inasmuch as many of the States were unable to inspect all of the shipments at destination and, further- more, no inspection, however expert, can be relied upon to discover and eliminate all instances of infestation or contagion. Inasmuch as it has been urged that adequate inspection abroad would elimi- nate these dangers, it is, perhaps, oppor- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE tune to introduce at this time a summary of the plant pests intercepted on such importations from the principal exporting countries of the world during these seven years. INJURIOUS INSECTS IN- TERCEPTED IN RECENT YEARS The countries made the subject of these records are those having the best and most expert inspec- tion service and from which the plants coming to us have been in the best condition as to free- dom from pests and gen- eral sanitation. During this seven-year period, 1912-1919, there were received from Hol- land 1,051 infested ship- ments, involving 148 kinds of insect pests; from Belgium 1,306 in- fested shipments, involv- ing 64 kinds of insects; from France 347 infested shipments, involving 89 kinds of insects; from England 154 infested shipments, involving 62 kinds of insects; from Japan 291 infested ship- ments, involving 108 kinds of insects. and from Germany 12 in- fested shipments, involv- ing 15 kinds of insect pests. As already indicated, these records are by no means necessarily complete, and, furthermore, in the in- stance of the State of New York, which receives the bulk of the foreign plant shipments, reports were made to the De- partment of Agriculture only of the most important findings. Many of these inter- cepted insects are not now known to be established anywhere in this country, and numbers of them, if established, would become important farm, garden, or forest pests. Discussing briefly some of these inter-- ceptions, the European tussock moth, Notolophus antigua, an injurious for- est and ornamental plant insect, was found in con- nection with no less than 67 different shipments of plants from Holland, in- volving some 16 different kinds of ornamental plants. Such important and easily detected pests as the gipsy and brown- tail moths were found re- spectively, in the egg and larval stages on no less than 63 different ship- ments of plants. These are merely typical illus- PaditOms Ot Of taa my which could be afforded. Practically allsot these injurious insects which have been thus inter- cepted have been carried by the aérial portions of the plants and include hew, iit atly,-of the oiten more dangerous species hibernating in the soil about plants imported in balls of earth or in pots. It is not possible, with- out the destruction of the plants, to disintegrate and make an adequate examination of such soil, and no disinfection of such soil has proven possible without killing the plants. AMete PLANT DISEASES INTERCEPTED SINCE I9Q12 There is risk of entry through the medium of soil of a vast number of in- sects which, as elsewhere indicated, may have no relation to the plants imported, but may become important enemies of various field crops. The possibilities of such introductions of insects with soil are very large and are not theoretical, as in- dicated by the examples of such importa- tions already given. It is even more difficult to exclude plant diseases than it is insect pests, and in the case of many such diseases 1n- spection is very often a safeguard of lit- tle importance. Many of these diseases are not discoverable by inspection or may JAPANESE BEETLE BREEDS IN DETR, SOL, A spadeful of soil taken in a New Jersey meadow in the infested district is illustrated above. beetle are placed in the soil in pasture and other uncultivated lands during the summer, and the insect develops as a white erub, and later transforms into a pupa or chrysalis, and eventu- ally into the mature beetle. weevil in the soil is by soaking it with powerful poisons—a very expensive and not altogether effective treatment. The eggs of the Japanese The only method of reaching the develop to a visible stage only after a period of months or even years after the plants have been imported. The pine blister rust, for example, can- not be determined often for five or six years, and other similar diseases may be in the tissues of the host plants and re- main wundiscoverable by any _ technical method except by planting and growth for a long period in quarantine. With respect to the risk of introduc- tion of dangerous diseases from Europe, it is significant that of the three serious diseases of forest trees that have been introduced into this country in recent years, two of them—the white pine blister rust and the European poplar canker—have come from Europe, where both of these diseases are well known, and in spite of the protection of Euro- 218 pean inspection service. The chestnut blight and the citrus canker similarly came from Japan, but in the case of these diseases no recognition of them had been made prior to their gaining foothold in this country. INADEQUACY OF SPECIAL QUARANTINES To prevent the entry of plant pests, quarantines and restrictions have been applied under the Plant Quarantine Act to all important dangers as they appear, and in this piecemeal fashion some twenty-two restrictive orders and quaran- tines are now in force against foreign plants and plant products. Such piece- meal action can be taken, however, only when the enemy is known, and gives no security against such unknown or un- anticipated enemies as the San José scale, the Oriental peach moth, the Japanese beetle, the chestnut blight, and the citrus canker. After having studied this subject, as indicated, for many years and after hav- ing given earnest consideration and a practical test of the possible alternatives of inspection and disinfection of plant imports, the experts of the Department of Agriculture and of the several States reached the conclusion that the only pos- sible solution of this problem, which was constantly becoming more serious with the widening of commerce, is the policy of practical exclusion of all plant stock not absolutely essential to the horticul- tural, floricultural, and forestry needs of the United States. The existing control of plant importations is based on this principle. It is perfectly evident that no other system will give adequate protec- tion to the great plant interests of this country. ANY NEEDED PLANTS MAY BE IMPORTED Ample provision has been made for the importation into the United States of any plant whatsoever, whether for introduc- tion, experimentation, scientific, or other purpose. In other words, no plants are abso- lutely denied entry into the United States under this or any other Federal quaran- tine, nor does the Department wish or intend now or at any time to make it 1m- possible to secure new or old plants for THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE which any reasonable introduction need can be indicated. In addition to the provision in the quar- antine for unlimited importation of cer- tain classes of plants which are deemed essential to the horticulture and floricul- ture of this country, some 650 permits have been issued for the other, or so- called “prohibited, plants,” for the pur- pose of establishing new plant-propagat- ing enterprises which shall in a reason- able time supply our future needs. Under these permits, entry has been authorized of upward of 16,000,000 of these so-called “prohibited plants,’ in- volving approximately 5,000 different kinds of plants. These importations are now being propagated and reproduced in hundreds of establishments in some 25 different States. TRYING TO LESSEN RISK It is the intention of the Department to continue to permit such entry of any necessary plant for the purpose indicated, to eliminate as soon as possible depend- ency on foreign countries, and thus at- tain the main purpose of the quarantine, in greatly lessening the risk of entry of new plant pests. The existing restrictions on the entry of plants have been modified several times, and are subject to future modifica- tion upon presentation of adequate rea- sons therefor, and when such action can be taken without opening dangers which the quarantine is designed to guard against. It would certainly seem to be good business and practical common sense to restrict as far as possible importations of plants which in the past have proven so disastrous to the agriculture and horti- culture of this country. It is certainly unthinkable that the farm and garden and orchard and forestry interests of the United States or that any plant lover should want to return to the old system. The plant life of America merits the same protection that is given to animals and man to ward off foreign scourges. If the average American knew as much of plant diseases as he does of human and animal diseases, the necessity of a quarantine against infected plants would not need to be sustained by argument. Vor XL, No. 3 WASHINGTON SEPTEMBER, 1921 THE NATIONAIL GIEOGIRAPIAIC MAGA ZINIe COPYRIGHT,1921,BY NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY. WASHINGTON, D.C. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT ?* The National Geographic Society Completes Its Explora- tions in the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes By Rospert F. Griccs DIRECTOR OF THE KATMAI EXPEDITIONS oF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY ROM the first accounts: of the J exicser of Katmai Volcano, in Alaska, in June, 1912, it was clear that it must rank among the dozen great- est historic eruptions. Nevertheless, these early narratives contained no accounts of the events of the eruption itself, but were confined to the description of its effects at great distances. Closer inspection was not needed to establish the rank of the eruption, for it was evident that a cataclysm which buried towns a hundred miles away under a foot of ashes, whose concussions were so loud as to excite the comment of people at a distance of 750 miles, whose explosions threw such a quantity of dust into the upper atmosphere as seriously to diminish the intensity of sunlight for many months throughout the whole Northern Hemi- sphere, must have been among the great- est known to man. Yet, tremendous as must have been the outbreak that produced such effects, it has gradually become certain, as the ex- peditions sent out by the National Geo- graphic Society have explored the country round about, that the explosion of Katmai itself was by no means the most remark- able feature of this tremendous eruption. It is too much to claim that the eviscera- tion of Katmai was only a subordinate outbreak consequent upon the main dis- turbance, yet it is certain that before Katmai blew up another eruption, itself of the first magnitude, had already oc- curred at a distance of some miles from that volcano. EXPLOSION OF KATMAI MERELY FINAL ACT IN THE ERUPTION However the relative importance of the eruption giving rise to the Ten Thousand Smokes as compared with the explosion of Katmai may be judged, it is certain that the disturbance did not begin, as would naturally be supposed, with the big explosion. ‘That was rather the closing act in the drama, the sequel to eruptions from the floors of valleys at a consider- able distance from Katmai. This is proven by the fact that the *Members of The Society will recall that the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes was dis- covered by a National Geographic Expedition. expeditions contain all the information that has been published covering the district. The reports of The Society’s six Katmai (See the Nationa, GrocrapHic MaGAzIng for January, 1917, and February, 1918.) These accounts gave such clear evidence of the unparalleled interest of the region that, by proclamation of the President of the United States, it was promptly added to our National Park System as the Katmai National Monument. (See NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MaGAzINE for April, 1919.) The only comprehensive account of the eruption was likewise prepared by a National Geographic Society Expedition and published in The Society’s Magazine in February, 1913. ‘(itz a8vd das) pues Jusdsopuvout yo Moy oy} Aq doap yooy Aueur pay]y stay sem AaT[eA OY} IOF ‘QovjINS JUIsaId OY} URY} JOMO] YONU UOTPA[I Ue Je 4nq ‘oInjoId Sty} FO S[PPIUt 9Y} Ieou Poo}s A]AOULIOF JY} Seysnq FO YUN e aptseq podures DALY SJajaavi} Auepy ‘AopjeA uds1s v seM Sty} UONdNJo oy} o10foq “punoddyoeq oy} UL UNseYY JUNO]Y YAM ‘duivy ureyunoyy poxeg St styy, SIMOINS GNVSOOHL NAL dO AYTIVA AHI NI AVIS SLI DNIUNG NOWIGAIdXA IVWIVM. LSHLVT S ALAINOS ODIHdVaD0ND ‘IVNOILLVN HHL HO SWALUVAOGVAH AHL s33y “yt yy Aq ydess0j,04g 220 (Che wovd WAS) ,NOILVZUAIO TO SHIMAXAT WH TIV,, WAAVONd OF, TEV AA NOTLIA MIX AH IO SWAIN WH, ‘AYOd WAMOd AM GUTddAS “AMMHM “ANV'T WINMVN AO GVAH AH LV WSHMOW WM NI dWVO wSVi LIL, arke9 “qq *f Aq ydeasojoy gd (Qzz HOVd AHS) AVMV SII NHZOd V ‘VHUV GANUNT AM, AAISLNO WONA MOVA-NVW NO NI GH99N'T Ad OL GVH dWVO NIVINOOW GUMVvad YOd ONIN LATIAN qIosT *d “a Aq yders0j0Yg SAYS 221 8s ‘BYSLPY JO Ceul Josur oY} UL UMOYS o[Suvjood Yousq |[euUIs ay} Aq payeoipur si dew 95AL] OY} UL PItdAOD ATOPALI} IL Uo, JO Ad][eA 9Y} SI Bole poyHop oyp, *(z6z 0} Oxz sosed ‘SUOIBAISH][L Pue 4X9} 99S) PRoIOUTY PUB “JIAO “AOUDASOILD) SoyR’] ‘A0qie}y oIydesS0ax) poppe sary LI, “Seyowg puesnoy ys 0} UoHippe ut ‘pur Aryjunod poddewun o19y}1Y4 Jo (HON FO deur sy} 0} ad105) wT “VP pue syoorg ‘SOYOWUG puRsnOyy, Uf, JO AeA oyy pur OUBITOA TeUI}eS], JO Soaipnys YYTUIIOS Soyitu OOO'L ueYy} d10UI poAdAINS aAPY SUOTJIPAdxa IBLUL}E S| S$ AJOIIOG ITYAPAGO9*) JeuolyeN oy, AUYLNNOD ONINIOLAV AHL GNV LOMLSiId IVNIVM 2H, To SHVALVAT YOlVW AHL ONIMOHS “V’TNSNING#d VaISV-LY En, aon. peojsuing "yy *y Aq uM USVa el TO dVN V 2s| esi +S | SSI anon. 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The discovery of the Ten Thousand Smokes, as described in THE GEo- GRAPHIC, furnished the first suggestion that there were other phases of the erup- tion of greater interest than the explosion of Katmai; but any understanding of what really occurred in those days of early June, 1912, involved so much study that it has not been possible until now to give any clear idea of the real nature of the eruption, and even yet there is much that must be left to conjecture, although the general features stand out fairly clearly. The task of interpreting the events of this great eruption has been much the more difficult because, so far as can be found, nothing resembling it closely has ever been recorded before. Since there were no witnesses of the catastrophe, we are limited in framing our account of its events to deductions from the study of its effects on the sur- rounding country. Indeed, it is hardly probable that any observer would have survived to tell the tale if he had been near enough to see what actually hap- pened. It will be understood, therefore, that our account must of necessity be made up. of reasonable inferences and necessary conclusions from evidence left behind rather than of the narration of a series of observed events, and it must be read in this light. A GREEN VALLEY SUDDENLY TRANSFORMED INTO A. NEST OF VOLCANOES Some time before the beginning of the terrific explosions whose sounds first an- nounced to the world that an eruption was in progress, a host of small volcanoes burst open in the floor of the green valley through which ran the Katmai Trail. The date is unknown, but was probably near to the first of June, 1912 (see page 271). In the very formation of these vents, the eruption presented a feature unusual in volcanic phenomena; for this was no reawakening of dormant vents, such as constitutes the vast majority of eruptions, but rather the formation of new vol- 223 canoes in areas where none had existed previously. If there had been nothing else remarkable about the eruption, this alone would have set it off as a note- worthy event. These new volcanoes consisted simply of holes blown through the floor of the valley, not of hills or mountains with craters at their tops. How many of them there were or how they may have looked and acted when they first burst open, we have no means of knowing, but there is reason to believe that they constituted literally a host in number, and that they consisted at first merely of lines of cra- teriform holes blown through the floor of the valley, resembling, perhaps, the close-set shell-holes of a battlefield, though, of course, much larger than the craters produced by the explosion of even the biggest shells. Whatever their origi- nal appearance, it is certain that soon after their formation they began to throw out ash and pumice in enormous quanti- ties. A SPRCTACH TEAT “PASSES! DEE, POWERS OF THE IMAGINATION The Ten Thousand Smokes, wonderful as they are at their best, can give no idea of what the valley must have looked like in this initial stage. In addition to myriads of fumaroles, probably greater than any that now remain, scores or hun- dreds of vents must have been belching forth incandescent material in veritable torrents of fire. Prodigious quantities of red-hot solids and liquids, sand and stone, masses of fluid or semifluid lava, issued from the vents and poured out on the ground, fol- lowing the slope in rolling, tumbling fiery torrents that consumed everything they touched. In the first stage, if one could have seen it, many separate volcanoes would have appeared in different parts of the valley, each pouring forth its own con- tribution to the general chaos. From each there was probably a great black cloud rising to a considerable height in innumerable, ever-expanding, lobulated convolutions. From analogy with other eruptions, we may suppose that electrical displays of weird grandeur accompanied the clouds rising from the various vents. On careful observation it would have PROOF THAT THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES OPENED BEFORE KATMAI BLEW UP Beneath the three layers of ash from Katmai is seen the massive sand-flow, which must already have run its course before the ash This picture was taken close to the terminus of the sand-flow. The charcoal log, a foot in diameter, is striking evidence of the heat still retained by the sand 16 miles from the head of the It began to fall. flow at Novarupta (see page 229). become evident that the source of the cloud was the mass of incandescent ma- terial around the vents. It was in fact produced by the gases that boiled out of the mushy semi-molten lava. ‘The quan- tity of gas given off was so great that the whole mass of lava was puffed up into frothy pumice and entirely disrupted into small fragments by the expansive force of the escaping gas. If any other of a score of valleys in the vicinity had been the seat of the dis- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE turbance, it would probably be impossi- ble to gain any infor- mation of its charac- ter before the erup- tion, for the whole country roundabout was an_ unexplored wilderness; but, as it happened, the erup- tion occurred in the one valley of the dis- trict about which something was known; for this par- ticular valley was the route by which a well- known trail crossed the Alaska Peninsula from the Pacific to the Bering Sea. For ages past this trail had been an in= ter-tribal highway be- tween Katmai Vil- lage, on the Pacific, and Sabanoski, at the head of Watkme Lake, whence passage downstream to the Bering Sea was an easy. matter. More recently it was much used by both Rus- sians and Americans, so that there are many men still alive who traversed the valley and camped within its confines before the eruption (see p. 220). is certain gar none of these travel- ers, among whom was at least one able geologist, ever suspected that this peaceful valley might become the theater of such an eruption. There was no indication of volcanism outside the chain of old volcanoes form- ing the axis of the peninsula, and these had not been active for ages past, except for occasional smoking. The valley was overgrown, up to an altitude of nearly 1,500 feet, by a dense forest of spruce, poplar, and_ birch, broken only by ponds and tundras in the ¢ * * % ee # ae ? ‘ = ~# a ! %; “al ae a OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT low places. Above the timber - line there was still abundant tundra vegetation, with occa- sional clumps of bushes close up under the vol- canoes themselves. Except for the ancient lava flows poured out at the head of the valley from these old volcanoes in prehistoric times, the rocks of the valley are not volcanic, nor even igneous. ‘They consist rather of horizontal sedi- mentary strata, of sand- stone and shale, full of fossils of marine shell- fish of Jurassic age. While a _ geologist might have predicted an early eruption from Kat- mai or from Mageik, the possibility of such a cata- clysm as broke loose in the floor of the valley would never have oc- curred to him. SLORY, (OF THE ONLY EYEWITNESS Although the pass was frequently crossed by travelers, there was no permanent settlement in the valley. About half- way up, however, was a group of native huts known by the name of Ukak. These seem to have constituted a sort of hunting lodge, used by the natives of the village of Savonoski, for the valley was formerly the abode of abundant herds of caribou, as well as moose, bear, and fur-bearing animals. Warned by preliminary disturbances, of whose character no clear account is given, beyond the statement that there were frequent earthquakes, “American Pete,’ chief of the Savonoski natives, had gone to Ukak to remove his gear and was on the trail when the eruption oc- curred. He was thus the only human being who had any opportunity of ob- serving what happened in the valley. Photograph by Frank I. Jones KNIFE CREEK CANYON The streams have cut most curious sinuous canyons into the stiffened mass of the sand-flow. Although in places these can- yons are a hundred feet deep, they do not cut through the flow to the soil beneath, except in the lower part of the valley. This fact gives an unusual interest to his story, since, meager as it 1s, it consti- tutes the only scrap of direct evidence concerning the beginning of the Ten Thousand Smokes that can ever be se- cured. He was interviewed by Mr. P.R. Hagelbarger, of the 1918 Expedition. At that time he was an old man, in the last stages of tuberculosis, and it was difficult to get him to talk freely. “The Katmai Mountain blow up with lots of fire, and fire come down trail from Katmai with lots of smoke,” he said. “Me go fast Sabanoski. Everybody get in bidarka [skin boat]. Helluva job! We 226 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE THE EDGE OF THE CHARCOAL, FOREST ABUTTING UNINJURED TREES ABOVE THE - EDGE OF THE ONCE FIERY TORRENT (SEE PAGE 229) Photographs by R. F. Griggs STUMPS OF TREES BURNED OFF BY THE HOT SAND-FLOW ; EXPOSED BY EROSION Near the terminus of the flow, where this picture was taken, the sand had so far cooled as not to burn the trees clear to the ground. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT 227 STATUTE MILES Photograph from a model by A. H. Bumstead A MODEL OF THE VALLEY OF TEN THOUSAND SMOKES AND THE VICINITY The illustration shows the old volcanoes, the character of the incandescent sand-flow, and the base camps of The Society’s parties. The fumaroles are omitted. Sculptured by A. H. Bumstead from a survey by the National Geographic Society’s Katmai expeditions. come Naknek one day; dark; no could see. Hot ash fall. Work like hell. Now I go back every year one month, maybe, after fish all dry, and kill bear. Too bad! Never can go back to Sabanoski to libe again. Everything ash. Good place, too; you bet! Fine trees, lots moose, bear, and deer; lots of fish in front of barabara |house]. No many mosquitoes! Fine church. Fine house. Naknek no good.” Realizing the importance of the testi- mony of this man, Mr. Hagelbarger en- deavored by questioning to elicit further details, but none were to be obtained. He and his associates were too badly frightened and too much concerned with “fleeing from the wrath to come” to make any detailed observations. He must have left Ukak before the eruption was fairly under way. Indeed, it is probable that 228 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Apra - P. is Haven aes THE EDGE OF THE HOT SAND-FLOW The lower ground, exposed in the drainage gullev, was originally covered with forest like the bank on the left. Here and there a burned stump remains to show what happened when it was overflowed by the hot sand. The destruction shown in the right half of the picture is complete and total (see page 229). he could not have escaped if he had been a little later. Ordinarily stories of “fire” in connec- tion with eruptions are to be discounted, for it is generally the flow of molten lava rather than the flame of combustion that has been seen. But in this case: Pete’s statement that “fire come down trail from, Katmai’ is :literally, true; for the red-hot ash and pumice thrown out on the ground started fires of such intensity that they swept over the adjoining moun- tain sides, consuming every vestige of vegetation throughout the area surround- ing the upper valley. So completely were the plants de- stroyed in this area that there remains today not a scrap of charred wood or Oiler vevidence to indicate their former presence. Around the head of the valley all plants were completely consumed and their ashes long since scattered. Along the far side of the valley, where the fires were somewhat less intense, the roots of the former abundant vegetation remain in the soil, but the fire made a clean sweep of everything above ground. On account of the complete destruc- tion of everything combustible, whatever we needed at our camps had to be carried in on man-back from outside the burned zone, a dozen miles away. The ordinary outdoors man can hardly realize the barrenness of the valley as to everything which he expects to find any- where. Every tent-pole and every walk- ing-stick had to be lugged in from a dis- tance, with the expenditure of no little time and energy. So simple a thing as providing stakes to mark the fumaroles under special observation required a very considerable amount of forethought and labor (see page 221) If it had not been for Nature’s fires, it would have been impossible for us to cook. It was, of course, out of the ques- tion to carry in fuel for any sort of a fire. Long before the fires that consumed the surrounding vegetation had time to run their course, the masses of incandes- cent fragments accumulating round the separate vents coalesced until they cov- eered the whole area of the valley, con- verting it into a single fiery torrent of seething, swirling masses of red-hot sand and rock, which soon began to roll down the valley under gravity. Before it finally came to rest, this fiery OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT 229 Vijij jy Photograph by P. R. Hagelbarger LOOKING ACROSS THE SAND-FLOW NEAR ITS TERMINUS This illustration is panoramic with the picture on the opposite page. The massive char- acter of the flow and its relations to the undisturbed forest covering the hills beyond its reach are evident. torrent ran down the valley for about 17 miles. Even at that distance it was so hot that, although it no longer utterly consumed the forest nor started fires up the mountain sides beyond its reach, it still reduced every stick it touched to charcoal (see page 224). The charcoal forests, uncovered where the streams have later cut into the sub- stance of the cooled and stiffened flow, are extremely impressive witnesses of the fiery avalanche that overwhelmed them— far more striking than the utter barren- ness of the upper valley, where the work of destruction was so complete as to leave the imagination powerless to recon- struct the original scene. ESSENTIALLY DIFFERENT FROM A LAVA FLOW In many places one can see the trunks of the overwhelmed trees standing where they grew, rooted in the ground, but turned to columns of black charcoal. Such charcoal logs are sometimes a foot in diameter. In other places the mat of vegetation that originally covered the ground is preserved as a conspicuous stratum of charcoal on top of the old soil (see pages 224 and 220). The fiery torrent consumed everything it touched (see page 241). Although the description will undoubt- edly call to mind the condition of an or- dinary lava flow, this fiery mass cannot be properly compared with a stream of molten lava, for it differed from a lava flow in many essential particulars. Al- though undoubtedly lquid in the begin- ning, it did not long remain so, for the escaping gases promptly converted it into a suspension of innumerable solid frag- ments buoyed up by the enormous quan- tities of gas which were being given off from within their substance. The physical behavior of the resultant fluid was very different from molten lava, for lava under the most favorable cir- cumstances is a viscous liquid, moving slowly, like stiff tar, whereas such a sus- pension may run like water. Had the quantity of gas been less, the material might have remained a liquid lava of the conventional kind and _ hard- ened into solid rock on cooling, but the heavier constituents were so completely disrupted that on cooling they became ash and pumice similar to that formed in the typical explosive eruption. When the flow came to rest and cooled down, there- fore, it became a fine-grained friable tuff, easily cut into by running water, rather *(€zz aBed 4x9} 29S) USA Sty} WoIF oe Pues JUSISI9pURIUL JY} JO UOlJIVIF V[qeIopIsucod we yey} aiqeqoid SI JJ “adUd}SIX9 S}t UBSIq OUITOA Sty} YIyM YUM I8vjs dAIsOjdxd IY} UL MO UMOAY} [eItoyeUL FO suit @ Aq poepunodsins st snjd BAe] [e1UI9 9, NIVINOQOW ONITIVA JO AdOIS HHL WOa VIdNUYVAON qIoM “OD “a Aq YdesB0j,0Yg 230 “APULOIA SITY} UL PUNOF Ud9q DALY Sounjesadwis} YSsiy ApowWos}x9 dy} JO 9UOU yey} “TOAIMOY OVI WROUIUSIS L ST “€q [WOU SOTOARLUNT DAISSOIGWI PUR ISIL]T AULUT IIR I1OL *AOTILA OL O AjIAI}De OL O XRUITD 9U1 9qG OF Sieodde Yluol I I I TAT [ I {} 9q OF VLdANVAON HO WIN AHL WOU SHMONS ANVS qIon, *O “Sy Aq ydeasojoy WAIWQ S SS MG NOHL NUL JO ANTVIVA AHL JO YANAXOO V SSOMOV DNIMOO'I eydnsieao ny 231 KOLB IN THE THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ROLE OF SAMSON Balancing such a “rock” in the air is not so much of a feat as it appears, for the mass is a chunk of pumice blown so full of bubbles by the gases of the eruption that it might float on water. Such large pieces of pumice are confined to the vicinity of Novarupta. All the ejecta of Mount Katmai itself are very finely divided because of the greater violence of its explosion. than the solid rock of a hardened lava flow (see page 225). VALLEY SURROUNDED BY “‘HIGH-SAND MARK” OF THE FIERY TORRENT One of the most conspicuous features of the valley as it stands today is the clear-cut margin of this great mass of once incandescent sand, which stretches in a practically continuous high-water mark all around its margin. The con- tinuity of this “high-sand mark” shows clearly that the incandescent mass was not poured down one of the adjacent mountain sides into the valley, but must have originated from vents within its confines. This is clearly evidenced by many additional facts which cannot be detailed here (see page 220). During the whole period of flow the mass was probably kept in a state of con- stant turmoil by the continued evolution OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT 233 hud Ve VLE thy, y, Yy “ey Photograph by Frank I. Jones a A STREAM FROM A HOT SPRING MADE THIS NATURAL BRIDGE OF SNOW Hot water emerges from many openings in the valley leading up to Katmai Pass. ancient hot springs were well known to the natives. These They constituted almost the only sign of volcanic activity in the district before the eruption of 1912. of gas from the substance of its solid components. After the forward motion had ceased, explosions continued for a time, tearing great yawning holes in the surface of the smooth valley floor—the present craters which dot its surface. Some of these are isolated; others stretch out in long lines like beads on a string, indicating prob- ably the seat of fundamental fractures in the rocks beneath. In other places they are so thickly peppered over the surface as to coalesce and form compound nests of craters. Two of these measure half a mile in diameter (see page 246). The explosions responsible for the val- ley craters were insignificant in violence as compared with the great outbursts of Katmai, for all the debris fell in the 1m- mediate vicinity, no recognizable quantity having reached the sides of the adjacent mountains. Still, explosions capable of tearing up pieces of ground half a mile square and upheaving them in a series of fountains of red-hot rocks thrown in all directions would, from the human stand- point, form about as awe-inspiring an exhibition of titanic forces as can well be imagined. The fiery flow at its height must indeed NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by E. G. Zies DROPPING THE THERMOCOUPLE INTO A DEEP HOLE of a ASSN Photograph by Frank I. Jones CHEMISTS PREPARING TO COLLECT THE GAS FROM ONE OF THE FUMAROLES A complete knowledge of the gases given off by the fumaroles could not fail to add greatly to our understanding of the problems of volcanism. ST NATIONAL MONUMENT 4 4 i OUR GREAT] 1ggs Photograph by R. F. Gr APPROACHING ONE OF THE BIG FUMAROLES 1es iz G graph by E STEAM RISING FROM HOT SPRINGS IN THE LOWER END OF THE VALLEY Photo thout warming the surface waters. ir wi . These streams were running cold in 1917 and 1918. At that time the hot springs of I919 were fumaroles, whose steam escaped into the a 236 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE FRYING BACON OVER A FUMAROLE It is hard to appreciate the situation from a still picture. The steam is so hot and dry, as it rushes forth, that it is perfectly clear. The pressure was so great as to lift the frying- pan high in the air. It had to be held down against the outrushing steam (see page 262). a8 ie 3 Photographs by E. C. Kolb OUR DRINKING POOL AT THE MOUTH OF A SNOW CAVE By moving the tents a few feet back or forward, we could obtain any desired floor tempera- ture. Only a few rods beyond the tents was our cookstove. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT Wet yj yy A BONFIRE KINDLED BY WATER (SEE PAGE 250) One of the fumaroles was so hot and dry that shavings burst into flame after being plunged for a moment into its hot vapor. Since this consisted of almost pure steam—that is to say, water—what we really did was to kindle a fire by poking a stick into the water. Temperature measurements by the geophysicists showed that it was 645° C. (nearly 1200° F.). Yj Photographs by R. F. Griggs FUMAROLES AT THE CORNER OF BAKED MOUNTAIN We all wanted to come down at night and see if the throat of the fumarole shown in the upper illustration was red hot, but no one cared to try to find his way around in the dark. 238 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE pe Photographs by R. F. Griggs FALLING MOUNTAIN FROM ACROSS THE VALLEY Avalanches continued their galloping succession down the gouged-out face of Falling Mountain with quite enough frequency to satisfy the newcomers, although they were a little less regular than in 1917 (see text, page 248). OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT Ds Wy vy MW 2 Y Photos pe by IR ae Griggs ONE OF THE GAPING FISSURES ALONG THE MARGIN OF THE VALLEY WY SSS Photograph by Frank I. Jones MOUNT MAGEIK FROM BAKED MOUNTAIN CAMP The towering form of Mount Mageik, with its pillar of cloud rising high in air, is a landmark for the whole region. It stands directly across the head of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes. [eojIVA ysowuye st sdojs ay} apisu~ “FOOL pojqve & se dieys se St WII Jo}vIo ayy, ‘UOTPNIAsOp 0} VSpa dy} UO UeU 9Yy} VsuNTd pynomM dojs sJsuIs VY GIOM AHL NI YALVUO AAILOV LSALVAID AHL ‘IVNLVA OLNI NMOdG DNIMOOT arkeg “qf Aq ydeisoj0yg VLdNUVAON UVAN SHANSSIA ONINVALS S83 “yy yy Aq ydeisojoy J 240 OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT have presented a spectacle, if it could have been seen through the impenetrable black cloud that rose from its surface, far surpassing the weirdest image of the infernal regions ever conjured up by poet or preacher in an effort to picture the place of everlasting torment. ‘he=spectacle presented by this tre- mendous outflow of incandescent sand was not seen by human eye. But even the stiff, cold mass lying on the ground where its movement ceased is one of the most impressive features of the Katmai National Monument (see page 228). A CUBIC MILE OF INCANDESCENT SAND Not only did the flow continue down the main arm of the valley toward Nak- nek Lake for 17 miles, but it also ran back across the divide behind Novarupta Volcano and completely encircled the Broken Mountains, coming down a side valley under Knife Peak to join the main flow again several miles downstream. More surprising yet, a quantity of it was poured out high up in Katmai Pass, whence it ran both ways, sending one tongue down to the base of Observation Mountain on the’ Pacific side, of the range, while another flowed down into the main valley between Cerberus and Falling Mountain (see map, page 227). Its greatest length is thus 20 miles, while its greatest breadth is 9 miles. The total area covered is 53 square miles. Over most of this area the depth of the flow is so great that no indication of the original height of the ground remains. It is impossible, therefore, to estimate the thickness of the mass. Only around the edges and near its terminus can one find any stream canyons or fissures that cut through it (see page 229). The deepest canyon exposes a section about a hundred feet thick, but there are the best of reasons for supposing that its thickness must be much greater than that over the larger portion of the valley. It seems quite safe to estimate its total volume as greater than a cubic mile! A cubic mile of incandescent sand! The figure is so large as to pass compre- hension. If a gang of contractors with steam-shovels should start to load it onto flat cars, they would find that before they had finished they would have filled a train 241 that would reach entirely around the world and still leave a considerable pile of it untouched. Pulverized as it is, the material may justly be compared with crushed stone, for in composition it is similar to granite. If it had been permitted to crystallize deep down in the interior of the earth, it would have become granite. In seeking to gain some conception of the magnitude of the operation by which it was produced, we may inquire how long it would take our stone-crushers to pulverize a similar mass of granite into road-making material. The answer is that the sand flow is equivalent to the output of all the stone-crushers in the United States for a period of one hun- dred years! OBJECTIVES OF OUR LAST’ EXPEDITION In piecing together a narrative of the events of the eruption that gave birth to the Ten Thousand Smokes, we have in a certain sense put the cart before the horse, for the sifting of evidence that has made the preceding account possible required a large amount of time and study. The various aspects of volcanism de- scribed by previous expeditions are so exceptional and so helpful to an under- standing of many puzzling problems of the volcanic mechanism that I felt our findings were too important to stand alone without corroboration by other ob- servers. The scientific world would in- deed be justified in some skepticism over such remarkable reports until they were independently confirmed by other ob- servers. After a survey of the field, it was de- cided that no other organization was so well equipped to handle some of the varied problems encountered as the Geo- physical Laboratory of the Carnegie In- stitution. Accordingly, this institution was invited to send a party with the Na- tional Geographic Expedition of 19109, under a cooperative agreement, whereby the National Geographic Society under- took to assume the field expenses of the party, while the Geophysical Laboratory agreed to work up the results on the return. The production of a moving-picture record of the wonders of the region occu- 942 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Rukok desi aces Bigtoaaan a L. CG. ees THE ONLY WOMAN WHO EVER BEHELD KATMAI CRATER Mrs. Griggs, spurred by an unconquerable optimism, climbed through the fog all the way, while a party of the men lingered behind, waiting in vain for a break in the clouds. She was rewarded by coming into clear air just before reaching the rim, but some of the men went home without having ever beheld this wonder of wonders. pied almost as important a place in our plans as the more technical scientific ob- servations. Still pictures at best can give only an inadequate conception of the place. But the motion pictures brought back by the expedition, showing the ma- jestic rolling columns of the big volca- noes, the sizzling fumaroles, and the leap- ing salmon, are the next thing to a view of the marvels themselves. The mem- bers of The Society, some of whom have had opportunity to see these films, will be glad to know that such a record of these unique phenomena has been pre- served. The activities of the expedition were so varied in 1919 that the men were kept scattered at different camps throughout the season. It thus happened that some of the men hardly saw each other during the whole summer. Folsom, for example, did not meet Sayre until August 21, when the season’s work was almost done. At no time were all the members of the expedition assembled on one spot. ‘The largest group was assembled at Kodiak, after the field season (see page 258) ; but there were three faces missing, for Jones had been compelled to leave early and Jacob, with Ralph Hagelbarger, had returned through the Bering Sea with a cargo of specimens too heavy to be car- ried over the pass. PERSONNEL OF THE EXPEDITION There were nineteen of us in all: The Director; the Geophysical Party, consist- ing of Dr. E. T. Allen, chemist; Dr Gane Fenner, petrologist, and Dr. FE. G. Zies, chemist; Prof. J. 5. Hine, of they@ing State University, zoologist; J. D. Sayre, topographer; Paul R. Hagelbarger, to- pographer; Emery C. Kolb, of the Grand Canyon, motion-picture man; Frank I. Jones, of Portland, Oregon, color pho- tographer; Lucius G. Folsom, assistant to the Director; A. J. Basinger inalpi Hagelbarger, Richard F,. Helt, William L. Henning, Harry E. Jacob, August E. Miller, Julius Stone, Jr, He Ne Wallace and Charles Yori, assistants. It would be hard for any one who was x. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT maa Sa Oe ae Photograph by E. C. Kolb MOUNT MAGEIK FROM THE ASH FLATS The elderberries and bunches of grass have come up through a heavy blanket of ash and pumice. not along to realize how these men worked for the success of the expedition. No task, however difficult or disagree- able, was too great, whenever it was recognized that it was for the good of the expedition. Many of the tasks for which there were volunteers in plenty would have been altogether unreasonable in the eyes of any except men who were there for the love of overcoming difficulties. In addition to the regular members of the expedition, visitors were received for the first time. The first “tourist” to visit the Katmai National Monument was Rodney L. Glisan, of Portland. Later in the summer the wives of the three mem- bers of the expedition whose families were at Kodiak—Mrs. Griggs, Mrs. Fol- som, and Mrs. Kolb—also came across and visited the valley, thus proving that, despite the necessarily primitive condi- tions, the place is by no means impossible for women (see page 242). “TINING SUPPLIES UP THE RAPIDS Although there was some uncertainty in advance as to the possibility of “track- ing’’ our supplies through the rapids by lining the boats, it had been decided that the chances were favorable to success. When the Naknek section of the expedi- tion, under the leadership of Sayre, ar- rived, jthey “tomnd) the river extremely low—so low that there was considerable difficulty in getting the boats over the bars. Nevertheless, it was found that as much as. 1,500 pounds could be tracked up in a single load, which was far more than we had dared anticipate. — At the time, the low water, with its shallows, was con- sidered a considerable handicap, but, as we found later, to our sorrow, it was ex- tremely lucky for us that there was no more water. Any one who has tried it knows that lining a boat through swift water is hard work. It took three men, two on the tow- line and one to fend off, at the bow of the boat, and in many places the water was so swift that the combined efforts of all three were barely sufficient to move it against the swift current. Yet, with all its difficulties, a day of this work is much easier than a day with a pack on one’s ‘suonipedxa d1ydeisoar jeuoneN 2y} 0} JON jou SI}] ‘JooF poipuny [e1ados Aq }Sa1 9} [Je puv Yloovy (Lez a0vd ‘dv CLS ) AWTIVA XHL JO WUV NYTHLAON AHL SONVHYXAO HOIHM ‘ONVO'IOA AAINY yuosaid je ‘paydessojoyd useq JoAa J pey Jou ‘ouBd[OA & se UMOUY OU SBA UIeJUNOW sity} ‘jnoqe PUNO. surTeJUNOUL 194}0 oY} JO Aue WOIF ULY} JOMOOS syULY Ss} JO Syour mous oy} ynq ‘QATIOV Y Suiddoj19a0 ‘UOISaI TeWyey[ IY} UL UTe}UNOUT jsoysty VY} SI OUBSTOA sIYyy, ¥ 4Ooc 244 “"yOnO} 94} 0} WIVM ATPLNIOV SOUITPOWOS St JFLIPMOUS SUP OY} JOpUN WOAF JNO SuTWIOS J9}eM OT, “MOUS Ol} UL SPOULN} yeo1s JNO S}JOWI puNOAS dy} WOIF Jeoy OUT, SIMOINS GNVSNOHL Nia JO AWTIVA HHT JO XOGH AHL NO LAITHaMONS CHAITAOO-HSV NV ~ \\ wr 245 246 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Frank I. Jones FUMAROLES IN FRONT OF BAKED MOUNTAIN CAMP es Tnaaesan by R. E. Helt ONE OF THE MANY CRATERS IN THE SAND-FLOW The presence of these craters is evidence that explosions occurred after the general body of the hot sand-flow had come to rest. The whole surface of the east arm of the valley is pitted with craters like this. Many of them are the seats of vigorous fumaroles. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT back; and, besides, one has the satisfac- tion of knowing that he has accomplished three times as much. But when the wished-for high water came we found that it was another story. Later in the summer the river rose three feet, covering all the shoals and rising up over the grassy bank. ‘Then we had our troubles, sure enough. The last time we tried the rapids was when Kolb, Helt, and I had gone down to Naknek to attend to some business at tne cannery, late im july. We. tound at once that the increased swiftness of the water far outweighed the advantage of greater depth. In many places where we had been able before to find good footing on the bare gravel bars, we were now driven to cling to the steep, slippery bank with water, too swift to stand against, racing beneath. Many were the places where, in spite of our best efforts, we slid off into the river with a splash. If there had not been two of us we could never have held the line, much less hauled the boat for- ward; but when one fell, the other held, often having to take a turn around one of the tree trunks, which were otherwise un- mitigated nuisances, as we clambered under and around their leaning branches. But, to our surprise, we found the worst going along the comparatively level grass banks, where the water, working among the clumps of grass roots, had eaten away great holes which could be neither seen nor avoided. As we went pushing along, shoulder deep in the tall grass, splashing through shallow water, we would suddenly drop clear out of sight into a little pocket of a hole deeper than it was wide. Out again, over a yard of resistent grass roots, and then plump into another hole! In places there were stretches of up- ward of a hundred yards where the ground was honeycombed with holes of this sort. Long before we reached the head of the swift water we were dog tired, but there was nothing to do but keep on. Toward the end our incentive to keep going was the knowledge that if we could only stick to it a little longer we could go ahead across the lake on the morrow with- out further occasion for getting wet—no 247 small matter when we had only one change of clothes and no chance of dry- ing out. We were surprised to find that the sea- son was later on the south side of the peninsula than on the Bering Sea side. We had feared that the lake might not break up in time to permit Sayre’s party to reach the head of navigation at the appointed date. But, as it turned out, it was we on the other side who were de- layed. It was the first day of June before we were ready for a try at the pass and the valley beyond. URS Vi REP PL Or PEE SMOKES The calm of the early morning, which had induced us to believe it a suitable day for the attempt, gave way soon after we had started to squalls of rain, sleet, and snow, which, driven by fierce cold wind into our faces, made us almost sorry we had started. FE\verywhere, except on the lowlands close to camp, the ground was covered with soft, wet snow, through which we had to plow our way, sinking halfway to our knees at every step. In the monotony of the weary grind up hill we scarcely realized how hard we were working until, coming to little patches of bare ground where we could swing out free, we felt as though we had suddenly taken wing, so great was the relief. As we neared the pass our nerves tight- ened with expectancy—Kolb, who alone was with me, wondering whether the thing would after all be as wonderful as the stories; and J, my mind full of the picture of that memorable day two years before, when I had taken leave of my wonderful valley, anxious to see what changes time had wrought. When we reached the pass we found the upper flat all blanketed with snow. The little twin fumaroles that had first beckoned me into the valley were no- where to be seen. I knew that they had maintained faithful watch all through 1918, but I could not help wondering whether they had really gone out or whether they were merely overcome by the mass of snow that had drifted over them. I peered over the rise, half a mile be- 248 MOUNT MARTIN FROM BAKED The crater is thirteen miles distant in a straight line. five miles away, our path led entirely over ice and snow. extremely hazardous (see text, page 267). yond, that hid the valley itself. Nothing was to be seen. Had it, too, succumbed? But, as I looked, a puff of vapor rose up and joined the clouds above. No, the Smokes were still there. Saying nothing to Kolb, for I wanted him to be taken by surprise, I pressed on. But the puffs kept coming, another and another, so that it was not long until he saw one for himself. When finally we surmounted the rise and looked over, there they lay, spread through the whole valley, exactly as when we first beheld them. No snow there! (see pp. 237, 272). THE TEN THOUSAND SMOKES IN IQIQ What a contrast to the snow-covered valley leading up to the pass! Except for a few patches in cool spots around the margin, it was as clear and bare as in midsummer. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Frank I. Jones MOUNTAIN CAMP After leaving the first slopes, Some of the glacier-work was The general appearance of the valley was the same as it had been in 1916, when first discovered, but after we had had time to examine it somewhat in de- tail, we could observe some slight indica- tions of a slackening of activity around the edges. The little fumaroles between Cerberus and Mageik, at the head of the valley, of which there were about a hun- dred in 1916, 1917, and 1918, were re- duced to two or three in 1919. At the foot of the valley a large num- ber of springs of boiling water had started up in areas where there had been nothing but steam previously. The tem- peratures of some of the fumaroles in the same area were markedly lower than the year before (see page 235). Falling Mountain, likewise, though active enough to satisfy the newcomers, did not shoot forth its avalanches with OUR GREATEST MOUNT NATIONAL MONUMENT Photograph by R. F. Griggs MARTIN FROM THE PACIFIC SIDE Three times we climbed this voleano and once descended inside its crater, but in our attempt to study it we were baffled by the fog, which each time shut down and kept us from seeing what we sought to observe (see text, pages 269 and 270). quite the same frequency as in former years. The old volcanoes—Katmai, Tri- dent, Mageik, and Martin—also were less vigorous than in 1916 and 1017. It is by no means certain, however, that this indicates that the activity of the region is dying out. The big volcanoes, which alone were known at that time, had a similar slackening in activity in 1915. We could not be certain that year whether Katmai was active at all, and the steam from Trident could not be seen except under favorable atmospheric con- ditions. But the two following years the activity of both these vents increased measurably, so that no one would have questioned the reality of the steam clouds issuing from them. Whether the slackening of the activity of the valley vents observed in 1919 was simply such a temporary fluctuation or whether it represented a permanent quieting down can only be judged by the future. In either case, there is no reason to expect any sudden extinction of the Smokes, for the changes observed were so slight that we could not be certain that there was a real slowing down of activity until after many days of obser- vation and comparison. Although some signs of a diminution of activity were detected around the edges of the valley, the geophysicists found temperatures very much _ higher than any that had been measured be- fore—higher, indeed, than any of us had believed to exist in the valley. MELTING LEAD AND ZINC IN THE FUMAROLES It was late in the season before any of these hot places were discovered, and all felt that if only there had been more time certainly more hot ones and _ probably others with even higher temperatures would have been found; but the increas- ingly bad weather put a stop to further efforts in that direction. Well do I remember the excitement when Dr. Allen, coming in late one even- ing, announced, “Three times have we melted zinc this day.” They had found three widely separated fumaroles with temperatures above the melting point of zinc (419° C., 784° F.). The hottest of these was practically five hundred de- a) THE “DEFENSES” THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by R. F. Griggs OF BAKED MOUNTAIN CAMP Profiting by several sorry experiences, Yori finally shored up the tents so thoroughly as to’ bid denhance to: the winds, -but it ‘was no. use: The condition of the camp when the next storm cleared away is shown on the opposite page (see text, page 270). grees centigrade (496° C.,915° F.). This was found in a fumarole where the steam broke through a myriad of small holes in the roof of a bridged-over fissure. The volume of gas coming from any one of these was so small that it could be approached as closely as might be de- sired. One could readily reach into the hole with the end of a foot rule held in his hand. Within five seconds the stick would begin to smoke violently, and when drawn out its end would be a glowing coal. In less time than that a bar of lead tied to the stick slumped down and melted away (see color plate, page 275). KINDLING A FIRE BY PLUNGING A STICK INTO WATER Even this performance was eclipsed next day when the chemists came in, re- porting several temperatures far above 500° C.; the highest was 645° (nearly iZOOe ks). . his was measured in a small orifice, not over two inches in di- ameter, located at the bottom of a crater- ike pit-eight or fen feet across. *lt was so inconspicuous as never to have excited the curiosity of observers, although it was but little removed from the trail which we used constantly as we traveled up and down the valley. The gas, which appeared to be almost pure steam, was, however, so blue as to arouse Dr. Zies’ suspicion and so resulted in the discovery of its temperature. If it had not been located at the bottom of a pit, this fumarole also might have been reached with a foot rule, but on ac- count of its situation it was not quite so accessible. When we put an aluminum cup into this steam it was quickly softened, so that it could be cut with a knife like pewter; yet it showed no signs of fusion, for the temperature was still somewhat below the melting point of aluminum. ‘The tinned handle was vigorously attacked by the gas, but the body of the cup itself was neither corroded nor tarnished in the least degree. Then we cut the end of a walking- stick into a brush of shavings and thrust it into the steam. Instantly it began to smoke and char, but nothing further hap- pened until we jerked it quickly into the air, when it burst into flame. We had, OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT D5 THE WRECK OF BAKED MOUNTAIN CAMP Photograph by R. F. Griggs Nearly a thousand feet of cordage had been used in lashing the poles together to resist the weather. The wreck was so heavily drifted over by flying pumice that it took the combined strength of two of us to peel back the fallen roof and get at the duffle on the floor. therefore, the very curious sensation of kindling a fire by plunging a stick into water (see page 237). A RED-HOT FUMAROLE All of the high temperatures measured were found in such relatively small and inconspicuous fumaroles as these, rather than in the big vents, which would at first impress any one with their tremendous heat. The real temperature of the gas in the big vents when it first emerges is probably quite as high as in the little ones, but the wide-open throats which the force of the escaping gases has blasted out per- mit the emanations to cool down consid- erably before reaching the surface. On this account the biggest and most impressive vents, those which are actually delivering by far the greatest quantities of heat, are seldom more than two or three times as hot as ordinary steam. Their temperature, although far beyond that ever found in a steam-boiler, and so high that the steam is perfectly dry and transparent as it comes forth, 1s yet far below the kindling point of wood. In the hottest vent the steam is not only so dry as to show no signs of condensing for a long distance, but is so _ highly heated that in the dark the orifice from which it comes must glow with a faint redness. Indeed, one could almost call it “red-hot steam”; but by reason of its transparency no glow would be visible in a small body of it. All of us would have liked to see a red-hot fumarole, and there was much talk of going down to the vent to observe it at night; but when it came to making the trip no one was exactly ready to undertake the job, for none cared to try to pick his way among the fumaroles in the dark! (see page 237). BEARS INVESTIGATE THE FUMAROLES In the seven years since the formation of the fumaroles, the country round about has gradually become populated by a new generation of bears, which, having grown up in the vicinity of the valley, have come to regard it as one of the normal elements of their world. When first discovered, the active area was as absolutely devoid of living crea- tures as can be imagined. ‘The next year 252 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ° Photograph by L. G. Folsom SORTING OUT THE WRECKAGE AFTER THE STORM AT BAKED MOUNTAIN We looked and felt very much like rag-pickers on the dumps, but among the wreckage were many of our most cherished possessions (see page 285). we found the track of a single bear which had ventured to cross the valley. But in 1919 bears were frequent visitors, com- prising, indeed, the only tourists that had yet visited its confines. Not merely here and there, but in many places, their tracks were to be found all through the valley. It was not the work of any single bear, nor made at any one time, for the tracks were of many sizes, showing that most of the bears of the region probably enter the place from time to time. They were not satisfied with merely crossing through the steaming areas, but were apparently attracted in some degree by the Smokes. ‘Their tracks were often to be found close around the largest vents, even far up toward the head of the valley, where they were many miles from any possible food. From their behavior, indeed, it seems not at all impossible that they may have been attracted by the warm ground and have sought out good places to enjoy the heat, just as a dog stretches out in the hottest place behind the kitchen stove. . But we could not assure ourselves on this point, for we never caught sight of them in the valley, and the ground around the big fumaroles 1s baked so hard by the heat that only claw-marks remained to show where bruin had walked. If he lay down, his shaggy coat left no mark on the hard crust, so we could not follow all his activities. | BRUIN STARTS A FUMAROLE OF HIS OWN It was not unusual to find tracks of a bear leading straight up to one of the large vents, where he had evidently stop- ped to peer into the mysterious hot hole. In one of the steaming areas Hagelbarger found places where the hot ground had evidently excited the bear’s curiosity, for he had dug into it with his claws until he started a small fumarole of his own. The appearance of a cloud of steam under his claws as he broke into the hot crust must have provided bruin with a great surprise, but it did not scare him away, for he was not satisfied with a sin- gle experiment; he tried again in several places, each time digging down till he started the steam. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT i rotates ‘ ae Ew. Photograph by E. G. Zies UKAK CAMP The refuge to which we fled during the storm at Baked Mountain (see text, page 279). SY GRE = “Ss & s SG ws ss Photograph by W. L,.. Henning EROSION IN VOLCANIC ASH ; We cut off the top of this tree in 1917 at a then convenient height above the ground. So much ash has washed out in the ensuing years that the cut end now stands nine feet above the ground. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Photograph by Frank I. Jones A JOB FOR A TIGHT-ROPE WALKER ot ; se 3 . age THE BRIDGE OVER MARTIN CREEK All the materials for color photography were in this pack; if Jones had slipped there would have been no illustrations in color (pages 271 to 278) to show the members of the National Geographic Society. Some of the boys hesitated a long while before trusting them- selves on those wet, slippery logs. I am proud to say, however, that when Mrs. Griggs came to it she marched right across, just as though it were a yard wide. OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT LUPINES COMING UP IN AN AREA OF DEEP ASH SS Phot FRUITING LUPINES GROWING IN DEEP ASH DEPOSITS These plants are the most successful pioneers in the process of revegetation, because, on account of their root tubercles, they obtain nitrogen from the air, while most other plants are dependent on organic compounds. The vigor of the plants and the abundance of the fruit in the Katmai region afford ample evidence that soil conditions are not unfavorable in areas where plants are not killed by sand blast. 256 \ bn | we < % Ps k~ > \ | ll ™~ id as j a WILLOW OF ITS BARK All of the season’s growth has come from the buds on the lee side of the twigs. In addition to the bears, which never entirely deserted the region about the devastated country, many other forms of animal life are coming in. On one of the little ponds we found not only several loons, but two or three pairs of golden-eye ducks, geese, and even a swan, which contributed an ele- ment to our larder that had been sadly lacking in former years; for we were thus permitted to enjoy swan cooked by the steam of the fumaroles. Better meat was never served at any table. On the hillside round about, ptarmigan were nearly always to be found, while there were a number of colonies of Photograph by R. F. Griggs SAND BLASTS HAVE STRIPPED THIS ALASKAN THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ground squirre’s, each with sev- eral hundred individuals, like a “town” of prairie-dogs. To com- plete the fauna were many short- = tailed mice, busy about their af- fairs as they worked along the ground with little heed to the footsteps of the approaching ex- plorer. THE MARVELOUS COLORATION OF THE VALUBY For the author, one of the most interesting incidents connected with the expedition was the won- der of the new members of the expedition when they saw for the first time the marvels of which they had read. While it was generally agreed that the pictures and descriptions had given them a fair idea of the Smokes them- selves, they were unanimous in their opinion that the printed ac- count conveyed no adequate con- ception of the coloration of the valley. The previous articles had, to be sure, stated that the ground was painted with “all the colors of the rainbow,” and that the “fissures were baked bright red for miles at —a- stretch =seome somehow it was imagined that these must be wild exaggerations rather than literal statements of fact. COLORS BRIGHTER THAN THOSE OF THE GRAND CANYON No one was more impressed with the colors than Kolb, who, having lived for years on the brink of the Grand Canyon, was not oversusceptible to striking colors. Along with most people, he had supposed that the canyon represented the climax of nature’s colorings and had never ex- pected to see anything more brilliant. The color is, however, so altogether different in character from that of the canyon that the two cannot be properly compared. In the canyon it is in the dis- tance that the color is most remarkable: In the valley it is in the foreground. There are no bright and sharply contrast- ing masses of rock in the walls of the valley. On the contrary, the valley it- OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT self, seen under the heavy clouds which usually cover it, is apt to convey an idea of somber coloring. But, when one comes up to the fuma- roles, he is almost over- whelmed by the indescribable riot of color (see page 273). The colors of the canyon are almost entirely due to the wonderful atmosphere and the brilliant light which floods lies) recesses. Under such leaden skies as usually prevail in the valley, even the canyon itself would show to very poor advantage. The reason why the valley fails for the most part to show much color at a distance is due in large meas- ure to jthe fact that all) the colors of the spectrum lie close together, so intermin- gled as to blend into neutral grays or browns when seen from a distance. But, while thus largely losing their ef- fectiveness at a distance, the colors are for this reason all the more striking when seen close up, for then each is heightened by contrast with the other (see page 273). The throats of the fuma- roles and the ground around them are most often burned into some of the various shades of red which are fa- miliar in the different tints of brick in common use. Sometimes it will be a light, pinkish tone; again a bright scarlet; or, in still hotter places, rich crimson passing into purple and black in some of the very hottest vents (see page 278). With such deep-burned purple patches is frequently associated a bright orange deliquescent incrustation of the greatest richness. These two colors are most often found together in fumaroles bear- ing so high a concentration of acid as to have eaten away all soluble constituents, leaving spots of purest white silica stand- ing in most pleasing contrast with the purple and orange. In some places considerable areas are leached out to a gleaming white by the Photograph by R. F. Griggs THREADING A WAY THROUGH ONE OF THE CANYONS IN THE SAND-FLOW The sand-flow fills the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes Gee text) page 241))- acid fumes. When to this are added faint tinges of pink and yellow, there re- sults a beautiful flesh color of the great- est delicacy. Again, the ground color of red, white, or gray may be overlaid with copious deposits of pure yellow sulphur. Bright colors are by no means limited to the large and vigorous fumaroles. Over many hundreds of acres in the val- ley, where steam is everywhere seeping up from beneath, the ground glows with the most brilliant colors imaginable. Sometimes it is black with the character and consistency of asphalt. This grades through various shades of blue into deli- cate light pearl grays or alternates, as 258 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE a Ot ig Bi ages “a bs ee pS alla Dis. aph by Mrs. E. C. Kolb Tne THE LARGEST GROUP OF THE EXPEDITION ASSEMBLED IN ONE PLACE Three men—Jones, Jacob and Ralph Hagelbarger—had left before the others. came together. From left to right are Helt, Sayre, Paul Hagelbarger, Kolb, Yori, Griggs, Folsom, Fenner, Allen, Miller, Zies, Hine, Wallace, Basinger, Stone, and Henning, lpheroseaen by R. F. Griggs THE BASE CAMP IN THE FOREST AT THE HEAD OF NAKNEK LAKE We were much surprised on finding such forest within a dozen miles of the Smokes. A fox used regularly to bring her little family to our garbage pile, and Wallace shot a bear on the bench in front of camp. The Katmai National Monument is destined to become one of the great game preserves of the world (see text, page 285). OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT the chemical conditions change, with the various shades of red, while round about are the more ordinary ochraceous yellows and browns (see page 275). SHOES DAUBED WITH VARIEGATED MUD AS FROM A PAINTER’S PALETTE After a trip across such an area one’s shoes, covered with the _ parti-colored muds, take on a resemblance to an artist’s palette daubed with all possible colors in a confused medley. mud is indeed so similar to artist’s pig- ments that it may be readily used as a substitute for them. With no other ma- terials than mud from the valley and a piece Of. canvas from a ruined tent, Mr. Kolb painted several pictures that excite the interest and admiration of all who see them. Where the ground is not too hot to pre- vent their growth, such places are cov- ered with a layer of bright green alge, adding the last color needed to complete the spectrum. One of the most striking color combi- nations in the whole valley was produced by the growth of such algz in one of the great conical craters whose general ground color was a bright orange ochre. In another place I came across a trail made a few days previously, where the depressed tracks had served to collect a little water which had so favored the growth of alge as to make the tracks stand out green against the general brown surface. Occasionally, too, the incrusta- tions have a coppery green color, but such deposits were never seen in quantity. In other places one can find the most astonishing combinations of reds and blues and yellows by digging into the loose ground in the vicinity of a fumarole. The brilliancy of colors of such freshly exposed blocks is indeed quite beyond be- lief. One can simply stand and marvel at the never-ending variety of shades he uncovers, for each block is different from all the rest (see page 273). But to convey by verbal descriptions any adequate conception of the gorgeous coloring is impossible. Even pictures colored as carefully as might be on the ground would not do, for the most gaudy mixture of colors that could be daubed over the canvas would not surpass the shrieking effects presented by our im- The fine-grained © 259 pressionistic artists as their idea of the coloration of the most drab and somber landscapes; wherefore, many would doubt the accuracy of any painted pictures. Ever since I first beheld the wonderful display of colors in the valley, I have been extremely anxious to have them re- corded by color photographs which should present what we had seen without the possibility of the personal equation Cmte mime. 10: The problem was by no means easy of solution, for the obstacles to successful color photography, which are difficult to overcome at best, become greatly intensi- fied in such a region as the Ten Thou- | sand Smokes. The plates are sensitive to the adverse climatic influences, and must be guarded from the hot, damp ground with the most jealous care. The dust clouds which are frequently stirred up by the wind are so all pervasive that it 1s extremely difficult to keep things clean, and dust is much more serious in color photography than in ordinary black and white work, for, while films can be changed just before exposure, plates must be loaded beforehand. On a black and white picture it is easy to touch out a spot, but in the Paget color process, which we used, any imperfec- tions on taking-screen, plate, or viewing- screen must remain a permanent blotch on the picture. THE COLOR PHOTOGRAPHS Success in ordinary photography is de- pendent on one’s ability to coordinate two or three mechanical processes—shut- ter speed, diaphragm, etc.—and at the same time to watch the subject and take the picture when conditions are just right. But in color work the number of mechanical factors is greatly increased, . and the demands of artistic conception by the operator are greatly increased. It is, therefore, a rare man who can do such work successfully in the rough-and-ready conditions under which we were forced to" lives: The difficulties were so great that I felt it wisest not to make any promises in advance of what could be done; but the results are so beautiful and preserve the natural colors with such perfect fidelity as to reflect the greatest credit on Mr. Jones for his careful patience and his artist’s 260 vision (see color plates, pages 271 to 278, inclusive). LIFE AT BAKED MOUNTAIN CAMP When we first camped in the valley, in I9I17, we were so overawed by its volcanoes that our guiding maxim was “safety first’; but when we returned in I9QIg we were willing to take a chance and experiment with things we had not dared attempt before. At the suggestion of the photographers, the camp was placed at a corner of Baked Mountain, close beside some of the big- gest vents in the valley, in a situation that commanded magnificent views of Mt. Mageik and Mt. Martin, and was at the same time convenient of access from all directions (see map, page 227). Although this position proved unten- able, as we afterward found from a series of disastrous experiences, it per- mitted camera men to secure some mag- nificent photographs which could not otherwise have been obtained. Pictorial conditions in the valley are so dependent on fleeting light effects that one cannot hope to obtain the pictures he wants except by camping on the spot and rushing out with his camera at favorable moments. The light is usually best either early in the morning or late at night. Our most successful pictures were taken at these times. The Alpine glow on the volcanoes reproduced in its natural color on page 277 1s limited to a few moments after sunset, which in July occurs about 10 pam: im the valley. ACID FROM THE “COOK-STOVE” EATS THE POTS As far as the conveniences of the camp were concerned, this location was all that could be desired. The big fumaroles in front furnished any degree of heat that might be needed for cooking, while the snowdrift directly behind the tents sup- plied an abundance of good water, as well as facilities for refrigeration. The different situation required meth- ods of cooking somewhat different from those we had employed previously. We soon found that it was impossible to hang a pot down into the fumaroles here, as we had done before. The steam from this group of fumaroles was_ highly THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE charged with acid (either hydrochloric or hydrofluoric), which in the course of a few minutes attacked the rope to such an extent that it fell to pieces when we tried to pull out the pot. More embarrassing still was its effect on the pots themselves, for it was not long before they developed holes where the fumes had eaten away the aluminum. Instead of attempting to hang the pots into a fumarole, therefore, we dug holes in the hot ground and banked up the steaming earth around them. ‘The differ- ent holes we used stood at different tem- peratures, so that we were able to vary our procedure according to the results desired (see page 278). If on leaving in the morning we wished to provide supper against our return, or if we wished simply to keep a pot warm, we would select a “slow” hole; but if we were in a hurry for something, we would put it into a hot place, where it would boil away vigorously. In the hottest places our food would burn up if left too long, just as when cooked over a fire; but a pot could be left indefinitely in the slow holes without harm. Once, when driven out by storm, we found the oatmeal that had been put on for breakfast in prime condition on our return two days later. The wind had been so fierce as to bury the pot entirely in drifting pumice, so that it had to be dug out with a spade; but it was none the worse for having simmered away nearly ten times as long as intended. With no temperature at our command greater than that of ordinary steam, we had been compelled in 1917 to limit our menu to boiled dishes; but the range of temperature at Baked Mountain was great enough to provide any sort of cookery we might desire. CORN PONE A LA FUMAROLE The situation of the “cook-stovye;” which made such varied temperatures readily available in a short compass, was characteristic of many areas in the val- ley. It was located on the roof of one of the great bridged-over fissures which en- circle the margin of the valley. In several places this fissure stood gaping open ten feet wide—a great cleft, narrowing be- OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT 261 WH rg lap Ona o (e) gq 3 io) a I of tS nw eo a an 0Q GQ S) ‘ ty 2 : 5S A UNLOADING SUPPLIES AT THE’ HEAD OF NAKNEK LAKE With power boats it was possible to bring all sorts of heavy freight up as far as the base camp (see text, page 243) THE FIRST PERMANENT BUILDING WITHIN THE BOUNDARIES OF KATMAI NATIONAL MONUMENT This pioneer structure was built to house the surplus equipment of the National Geographic Society’s sixth expedition to the Katmai volcanic region. THE NATIONAL GEOG bo o> bo Photograph by E. C. Kolb THE LAST LEAP IN THE DESCENT INTO KATMAI CANYON The canyon is 4,000 feet deep. The descent is not so difficult or hazardous as might be sup- posed from this picture. Before taking off, I took good care to see that there was a way back. RAPHIC MAGAZINE arched bridge of ash which in some way had been stretched across _ it, forming a span quite strong enough to support the weight of a large party, although when soaked up by a violent gehbou its ‘caved i in in places, forming new and impressive fumaroles as the hot steam rushed forth from the new out- lets thus formed. The cavern immediately beneath the bridge was, of course, full of highly heated gases pressing up to issue in one of the fumaroles. Under these circumstances every little crevice in the arching bridge was the path for a small seepage of steam, the tempera- ture of which as it emerged depended on the volume. The slow cookers were dug in places with little seepage; the hot spots had close connection with the steam below. It was not always possible to tell by looking at a hole how effective it would prove as a cooker, for there was little visible emanation from any of those we used. BACON FRIED IN STEAM In the hottest of our “stove-holes” the temperature was high enough to fry bacon or bake bread with ease. For some reason, the tastes of the party centered on johnny-cake rather than on white bread or biscuits, al- though the latter were occasionally made with equal success. The pro- cedure was to put the batter inside one of the covered aluminum cooking pots, which was then simply set on the ground in the proper place and al- lowed to bake. Baking over the fumarole requires somewhat the same sort of skill as it does anywhere. It would not do to go off and forget the corn bread, as we did the oatmeal; for if it was left longer than the allotted hour, it was burned up, just as it would have been in any other oven; but when taken off at just the right time, it came out with low, but reaching down farther than we beautiful, crispy brown crust, as fine could see into the depths. corn bread as was ever seen anywhere From such openings issued enormous volumes of superheated steam, forming some of the greatest smokes of the val- ley. For the most part, however, this fissure was not open, but closed by an (see page 273). For frying bacon we found it most convenient to repair to “Fumarole No. 5, at a little distance trom the camam Here a column of very hot steam came OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT 263 EAGLETS IN THEIR NEST AT THE ENTRANCE TO GEOGRAPHIC HARBOR This nest was built in the top of the tree shown at the right on page 282. tate” 5, Fe PS, rpg Mg 4 Es oe Ze Me jag Cae QV tthe LOD le SVRAAWUKKW’ Photographs by E. C. Kolb SS BIRDS COLLECTED BY THE EXPEDITION (see illustrations, pages 284, 286, and 288) are quite The birds of the lake country Among them were some familiar friends, such different from those of the Pacific Slope. as robins like those of the Eastern States. 264 Photograph by J. D. Sayre A WILD SWAN CAPTURED ALIVE BY MILLER Being at the height of its molt, it was unable to fly, and so was easily overtaken and cap- tured by the power dory. It made such a disturbance with its great white wings that the captor was glad to let it go. out, under considerable pressure, from a round hole about a foot and a half in diameter, in such a way that it could be readily approached. The emerging gas from this place was so hot and came out with such a rush that when wetried to pour a cup of water into the hole it never reached the ground, but was caught up by the outrushing steam and carried away before our eyes, vaporizing within a few inches. When we threw our hats into it they would go sailing away thirty feet into the air be- fore coming down again. The fry-pan had to be held down against the steam. Even the weight of THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE the long stick we employed as a handle was not sufficient to balance the pressure of the fumarole, for it would keep wob- bling around, up and down, in and out of the rushing steam unless firmly held. Needless to say, the bacon began to sizzle promptly and was soon as well crisped as when cooked over the best of camp-fires. While experimenting to find the best place to hold the pan, we tried pushing it down into the cavern below the orifice; but no sooner had the fry-pan passed be- low the surface than—piff—the bacon was whisked out of the pan and went flying in every direction through the air, to be eagerly caught and devoured by the wait- ing spectators, who howled with delight at this sudden turn of events, which, after being discovered accidentally, was repeated again and again, until we tired of chasing the flying slices (see p. 236). With such facilities at our command and a full stock of dehydrated fruits and vegetables, there was little in the way of “srub”’ that could not be supplied at Baked Mountain whenever occasion de- manded. The staples were oatmeal, rice, beans, corn-bread, dehydrated potatoes, with abundant butter, cheese, and pilot-bread. These were varied with an occasional mess of corn-beef hash, or of trout when some one brought them up from the lake. For green vegetables there were string- beans, spinach, and “boiled dinner vege- tables,” the latter soon becoming a joke because of the superabundance of carrot, of which every one quickly tired. Our fruits included apples, raisins, peaches, pears, apricots, loganberries, cranberries, and cherries, the last being such a universal favorite that they were soon used up. One hot day we even in- dulged in iced tea, but for the most part we preferred hot dishes. A DOUBLE-ENDED FUNNEL FOR STORMS All went well at Baked Mountain camp as long as the weather remained good, but when the storms struck we encoun- tered a fury that no tents could withstand. Katmai Pass, which stands at the head of the valley, has always had the unsavory reputation of being one of the windiest places in the whole world. ‘The con- formation of the mountains is such that the pass is a double-ended funnel, through OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT which the wind sucks with terrific vio- lence, whichever way it blows. Curiously enough, it is not on the wind- ward, but on the lee side of the pass where the heavy “williwaws,” or “wool- ies,’ as the boys called them, are ex- perienced. Thus, while the northwest winds are unendurable on the Pacific side of the pass, it is the northeasters that are dreaded on the valley side. We were blown out four times before we finally learned our lesson and moved camp to a safer, if less convenient, loca- tion. Fortunately, these storms came in a series of increasing violence, so that each time we were better shored up against trouble than before; otherwise they would have been even more dis- astrous than they were. ALLEMPIS TO OBSERVE’ THE CRATER OF MT. MARTIN One of the plans, which stood first among the intended projects of the ex- pedition, was the exploration of Mt. Mar- tin. This volcano, the existence of which was first made known by the expedition of 1915, being much the most active vent in the whole district, challenged our in- terest from the first. But it had always stood as a sort of hoodoo which had re- sisted our efforts (see pages 248-240). As it is located in the most inaccessible part of the range, to get within striking distance was somewhat of a problem in itself. Moreover, it is so placed that it is the last peak to clear up and the first to cloud over in bad weather. Worse yet, the very strong updraft created by the ascent of its tremendous column of steam sucks up from the lowlands a body of warm air whose moisture promptly con- denses into dense clouds when it reaches the heights. Thus, while it is frequently clear for a little while morning and evening, it 1s often swathed in clouds during the middle of the day. One very often starts out in the morning with the best of prospects, only to find his labor wasted when he scales the heights. Knowing something of these difficulties in advance, we planned to make the ascent early in June, when the weather is the most favorable. But here again we were balked, for we found that the snow per- 265 Photograph by W. L. Henning GIANT RAINBOW TROUT FROM NAKNEK RIVER The fishing is such as would make Izaak Walton turn green with envy. We never had to cast more than once or twice before we had a strike that kept us busy. The trout average about 24 inches long, but some are much larger. Our largest catch measured a full 32 inches (see page 290). sists longer around the head of Martin Creek than anywhere else in the district, so concealing those features whose study was our object that a climb at that season would have been fruitless. WITHIN A FEW MINUTES OF SUCCESS Accordingly, it was not until August that we camped at its foot, waiting for a chance.) Une crater was. clear icarly in the morning of the first day after my ar- poyeurjss 9M 4YUNOD [NJoled 19pV qioy, “Dd “aT Aq ydessoj0Yg (Zgz aSed 90S) IMOY ue OOZI JO d}e1 DY} Ye SuIpUD ‘Q0u0 3e SMOOUA J1@ dy} UL XIS MOYS SOUTTJOWIOS SU IInjoId-uooUL sy J, AMIVI NI NMVdS OL STIVA AHL DONIC ISB IIIM VOUS dsdq} Jey} ‘soinjoid [[Ws ul NAOSV NOW IVS INIA VAI Woy} yoed 0} prey sem I] 266 OUR GREATEST NATIONAL MONUMENT rival, and so up I started, without wait- ing for Hagelbarger and Henning, who were to meet me; but before I had gone far it commenced to rain so hard that, though I could still see the volcano, it was of no use to try to take pictures. Never- theless, the day was not wasted, for I was enabled to pick out the best route to the summit and to study the general situa- tion of the mountain. On the second attempt to climb, clouds settled down on us at the 3,500-foot level; but, thanks to bearings secured the first time, we were able to continue on across the glacier, through the obscurity, for another hour, in hope of a break that would permit us to scale the summit. Finally, having gone as far as we dared beyond the previous observations and reached the main divide of the range, we sat down and ate our lunch, hoping in vain for a rift in the clouds that would permit us to get new bearings. Later we found we were directly under the last steep pitch of the cone, and if we had only known the way could have climbed on to the rim in a few minutes more. But it would have been an empty stunt to have reached the top under such conditions, for we could have seen noth- ing when we got there. It was a mournful “bunch” that de- scended the mountain that evening, for the demands of other work were impera- tive and camp had to be broken next day, with the crater yet unseen after two weeks of waiting for a chance to climb. CLIMBING MARTIN FROM THE WRONG SIDE Five days later, as I lay awake at Baked Mountain camp, I crawled out into the night to look at the valley and the vol- canoes in the spectral light of a wonder- ful full moon. There was Martin puffing away, beautifully clear, its unconquered steam column rising majestically over all. Why not do it tomorrow? (see p. 220). We were now on the wrong side of the range and so far from a favorable starting point that it was uncertain whether we could make it; but it was the only chance, for there were unmistakable signs that the good weather that had favored us for two days was about to change. It meant covering a mile in altitude and 30 miles in distance; but I was not to be 267 turned back if there was any possible way of getting there, and I knew Charlie Yori was as anxious as I to try it. Indeed, I should never have dared attempt to cross the glaciers that. guard it on the valley side without his guidance. So I waited until a decent time to rouse the camp, and then interceded with Dr. Allen, for Charlie was his man, for his release that day. This was readily ob- tained, for the chemists needed to pause in their field-work and rig up some new apparatus anyway. So Fenner and I got ready in a hurry and started off with Yori double quick, in our eagerness to get to the top before anything should happen. The whole of the course after the first slope lay across glaciers and snow-fields. For the most part, going was not difficult, except that we had to waste much time winding in and out around the irregu- larities of the ash-covered glaciers—here following a drainage gully, there cutting across the ridges. But before we reached the high snow- fields that surround the summit, we had to cross an area all cut up by close-set crevasses. As we entered this, Yori re- marked, “This is a real glacier, all right enough.” | With his customary hardihood, he pro- fessed to scorn a rope and took a sort of fiendish glee in trying me out in the most “ticklish” places he could find. I will not deny that I was somewhat skittish, for my hob-nailed boots were worn out and I had been compelled to come in rubber-soled shoe-packs which could get no grip on the slippery sur- face—a fact that bothered me greatly, though the ice-axe which I carried prob- ably counterbalanced the disadvantage. Our way lay, as Fenner expressed it, “along the ridge-pole,” following narrow crests, themselves sloping both ways, be- tween bottomless crevasses on each side. Any slip would have meant certain death, and that glaring blue ice was deucedly slippery; but we crept along, using all the care we could, and finally reached the névé above without mishap. AT THE EDGE OF THE CRATER RIM Without stopping for the pictures we so much desired, we pressed forward feverishly in our anxiety to reach the ‘uy poinjded Ajisea pur aseyd VARS YIYM ‘posmirAy ayy poweu Ajayetsdosdde ‘yeoq ses ino Aq UINL}JIVAO SEM DY ‘PURIS! 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L SOUTH AMERICA ha qyolsor eectieee fat = a i Scale of Miles Pee), weno! | Re : ATI DEPTHS 199, 200 00 <0u 890 1090 ee pe 77 C.Virgenes pee é 5 4 eS < : “sf Sea | N ae = State op ay, - Magellan ree et : EAS, = a : | KEY TO COLORING evel ta Nacatad Be pail tasallanza) Ze ote oo oy 2 j pie YC G.0f St.George : | jah i — x Re eesPiritu Santo bios | : —~ | OLATI als pias fs =) C.Blanco —— > Be | Pee: / Va laremoslpta.de Arenas Eh aeeeay a : De.Blan —— Sind Hides = 2 7 wn Sebastian Bay F 3 Z Sy ___xbs\o.San Sebastién E ° a3 Silver A fr a Za ie | _ Of — ob 50 50 7 = trate of Soda A Sugar act SS Copper Z lk reer es VA MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURE : toe By ae ari ere IN NORTH AMERICA AND j E ; sa pie Axenan i SOUTH AMERICA E se de sour ceghoia 1. | : STATENS La The temperature figures are a : =, s = in Fahrenheit Degrees thus; 70 F. , in - RET toe Gt CLAIMED) BY, CHILE) Scale along the Equator 55 0 1 5 J. 2 G : Ae NOX 1. 90 140s aqoomites “70° Longitude G0" West from GC? Greenwich 40> 80° 20° | a g BOUNDARY CLAIMED BY ARGENTINA = EE. eon G70" 160? 150° T40?_—«130" «1207 «10:00 90 000" | 100° 5° 30° 35° 1 SS eae SS = 7 = — | SSS a Box u (Gide Hornos)_ 65 5 60 Longitude’ 6 West 55° from 7 Greenwich 50' 8 45° 9 40°C 10 35° 15° ' ‘ t c a f epeeeve . eade | eene cone Peed eee ae te ir f } wees Ceeeccoen ee peee ‘ epee eeenees . coaens ma eeeuete eo eaee tere beeen are ’ eaeeeeey pee 5 cred eeeereree . bere ys eeee euenr veene ee vont ver peeses ‘ weer eden ee eee chee eete ' ’ eevee eree ' eer ' weereye ’ ' a ’ a ’ fn vee on peeee aeeeeer peeeers ' tree ereee ‘