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VoL. XXIII, No. 7

GUE,

NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC

WASHINGTON

JULY, 1912

2

MIAGAZIINIE

LITTLE-KINOWN PARTS OF PANAMA

By Henry PIrrier

AutTHoR oF “Costa RicA—VULCAN’S. SMITHY”

IN THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC

MAGAZINE

HE usual tourist, fresh from a

visit to the gigantic work now

nearing compleiion between the
cities of Colon and Panama, wiil tell of
his occasional glimpses of the virgin
forest and of his experiences with the
natives, supplementing his narrative per-
haps with pictures of the jungle and of
what he took for aboriginal Indians.

In fact if our friend has followed the
customary route, limiting his itinerary
to a train ride from Colon across to
Panama, with stops at Gatun and Pedro
Miguel, to inspect the locks, and at Cule-
bra to see the big cut, he knows very
little of the real country, and in ninety-
_nine cases out of a hundred his native
Indians are likely to have had kinky
hair and African features.

There is, undeniably, plenty of jungle
and thicket along the future canal, but
it is almost wholly second growth; and
in those places where the primeval vege-
tation has been spared, as in the swampy
lowlands between Gatun and Bohio and
on the steeper declivities of the hills, it
is and has always been more or less
stunted and scarce and so does not give
an adequate idea of the majestic forests
that still cover about two-thirds of the
territory of the Republic of Panama.

If, however, our tourist is a man of
leisurely habits,a stranger to the hurried

derer’s stock, and go tramping over the
excellent roads built parallel to the rail-
road and the canal by the government
of the Canal Zone. He will then meet
occasionally some last vestiges of the
aboriginal vegetation and examples of
the wonderful rankness of tropical plant
life.

Not far from Pedro Miguel, on the
way to Panama, stands a cluster of
Cavanillesia trees, once part of the for-
est, but today shading a pasture (see pic-
ture, page 632). Apart from the strik-
ing effect of their huge straight trunks,
which are out of proportion with their
insignificant flat crowns, these particular
specimens are of especial interest on ac-
count of the fact that they grow nearly
at the extreme northwestern areal limit
of the species. Eastward, in Colombia,
it seems to reach the Magdalena River,
and southward it can be followed along
the coastal plains as far as Peru.

It may be interesting to add that the
fruit affords a good example of the won-
derful contrivances by means of which
nature insures the propagation of the
species. ‘The fruit is an elongate spin-
dle, provided with five broad wings and
very light, so that it travels easily far
away from the parent tree. The small
seeds are imbedded in the woody tissue
of the spindle, and the surrounding cells

ways of the present generation, he may-—are filled with a gum which readily ab-
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LITTLE-KNOWN PARTS OF PANAMA

considerable extent. When the fruit
reaches the ground, the seeds thus find
themselves at once. immersed in an over-
flowing, gelatinous mass of gum, which
furnishes the water necessary to the first
stages of germination.

Another vegetable wonder that grows
among the bushes on sandy flats along
streams is often detected by the delight-
ful odor and the yellow bright color of
its singular fruits. It is the candle-tree,
now introduced into most botanical gar-
dens of the tropics, but a native of the
central part of Panama.* The beautiful
Gustavia superba should also be men-
tioned as a Special feature of the Isth-
mian flora. :

In thus wandering across country, in-
stead of keeping exclusively to railroad
trains, the traveler will have occasion
many times to wonder at the incredible
luxuriance of vegetable life in general
and to observe the never-ending strug-
gle for supremacy.

As to the real Indians, he may succeed
in getting a look at some male specimen
along the wharves at Colon or around
the market in Panama City; but the
chances are that they will mostly pass
unnoticed in the motley crowd of mixed
races of the larger towns. At least eight-
tenths of the native inhabitants of the
Republic show to a more or less marked
extent the stamp of African blood, and
the most extraordinary cases of inter-
breeding are observed everywhere.

East of the canal, however, and not
taking the aboriginal tribes into consid-
eration, the negro element vastly pre-
dominates, the settlements of Porto
Bello, Nombre de Dios, Palenque, and
Viento Frio, on the Caribbean Sea, being
formed, as it seems, by descendants of
both West Indians and Spanish slaves,
and the villages of the Pacific coast—
Chepo, Chiman, Garachine—and _ those
in the Tuyra basin by the latter only.
West of the canal the predominance
of the African element becomes less
marked, at least on the southern side of
the country, as one goes farther toward
Chiriqui, where the whites and the civil-
ized Indians have the upper hand.

Panama is hardly a country for moun-

*See NatioNAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, vol.
SX; ps. 124, LOL.

629

taineering, most of its area being below
the 3,000-foot contour line. The highest
elevations are in the western part, which
is an extension of the Costa Rican sys-
tem. There the Chiriqui Peak, or Vol-
can de Chiriqui, as it is more commonly
called, attains 11,000 feet and is worth
ascending. Farther eastward and on the
_main divide several bold peaks can be
seen from both coasts; they very likely
reach the 10,000-foot line, but they have
never been ascended and their exact alti-
tudes, names, and even their true geo-
graphic position are still to be recorded.
The same can be said of the eastern-
most group of high ranges, on the Co-
lombian border, an undeciphered mass
of domes and peaks, which have never
been explored and whose real relation to
the western Cordillera of Colombia has
never been ascertained. It is almost cer-
tain, however, that they form an inde-
pendent system, and that the old notion
of the South American Andes forming
also the backbone of the Central Amer-
ican Isthmus should no longer appear,
as it often does, in modern writings.
From the naturalist’s standpoint these
highest mountains at both ends of the
Panamanian territory are of special in-
terest. As few or no collectors have
ever visited them, they are likely to be
the abode of many unknown forms of
both vegetable and animal life. They
are also the most advanced outposts of
the fauna and flora of the neighboring
countries. Besides, they are attractive
even to the ordinary tourist, on account
of their beautiful scenery and of the
marvelous changes observed within a
few hours as one rises from the lower
to the upper regions, experiencing at the
same time a corresponding variation in
climatic conditions. This is best seen in
the ascent of the Chiriqui Volcano, the
summit of which can be reached in three
days from David, by way of El Boquete.

ASCENDING THE CHIRIQUI VOLCANO .

David stands at about 12 miles from
the seashore, in an open, slightly undu-
lating country. It is one of the most
rapidly improving towns of Panama, on
account of the varied and abundant
resources offered by the surrounding
country and the affluence of foreign,

Photo by H. Pittier

A FOREST GIANT OVERLOADED WITH VINES, IN THE FOREST NEAR NOMBRE DE DIOS,
PANAMA: NOTE THE MAN

mostly American, settlers. The tidal
belt ends in the neighboring bottoms, and
the plain between the sea and the first
hills is subdivided into two or three ter-
races, the highest of which is about 150
feet above sea-level.

630

The deep ravines, cut through these
terraces by the many streams descending
from the mountains, allow an insight
into the recent geological history of the
district. ‘Thick layers of a fine sand, al-
most horizontal and apparently devoid

LITTLE-KNOWN PARTS OF PANAMA

of organic remains, show that the whole
plain is an ancient sea-bottom, uplifted
at a not very remote time either by some
sudden: cataclysm, or insensibly by the
slow process that governs the emergence
and subsidence of coastal lands all over
the globe.

In former explorations, in the adjoin-
ing part of Costa Rica, I have noticed
the same indications of a general up-
heaval, the neck of the Osa Peninsula
still showing unmistakable evidences of
a recent broad sea-channel, and bluffs,
bearing the peculiar relief due to the
action of the waves, lifted to nearly 300
feet above sea-level.

Most of the flat country about David
is utilized as grazing land, and during
the dry season it is constantly swept by
the strong trade wind, reaching over the
mountains through the deepest depres-
sions of the Cordillera. Only in shel-
tered places along the rivers, behind the
knolls that rise here and there, and
around the houses, is there any show of
arboreous vegetation, among the most
conspicuous representatives of which
may be cited the algarrobo and the
corotu. The tamarind and mango, two
East Indian trees now naturalized all
over the tropics, and the native wine and
plum palms, are the trees most generally
seen around the houses. Extensive for-
ests, displaying the luxuriance and gen-
erous proportions of real tropical vege-
tation, are found only at some distance
to the west, on the lands adjoining the
Chiriqui Viejo River, or to the east be-
tween Gualaca and Horconcitos.

Going north in the direction of the
Chiriqui Peak, one is soon struck by the
peculiar range of low hills running, as it
seems, between the plains and the moun-
tains and parallel to the sea-coast. The
road winds between these and, mostly
following the Dolega River, ascends
gradually toward El Boquete. ‘The gen-
eral incline is so insensible that one
travels nearly 25 miles before reaching
the foot of the volcano, at an altitude of
about 3,000 feet. ‘The ride is mainly
across savannas or through what ecolo-
gists call a parklike landscape.

During the dry season the long stretches,
bare of arboreous vegetation, are con-

631

stantly swept by the north trade wind,
which attains its major intensity between
g oclock a. m. and 32 o'clock p. m., and
is often of such violence that even the
horses find it difficult to stand and to
proceed on their way. Every detail of
the surrounding landscape bears the im-
press of the wind. In the most exposed
places the surface of the soil is submitted
to an active aerial erosion, the minute
particles of the ground being whisked
away the moment they become loose.

The meager sod is characteristic in
appearance, consisting not of a continu-
ous carpet of grasses, as in most sa-
vannas, but of isolated tufts of sedges
and small plants (mainly Leguminosze
and Rubiacez), distinguished by the un-
usual development of their root system.

Many an acre is absolutely bare, and
at places long stretches of stones, run-
ning from north to south, are explained
by the natives as being remnants of
former eruptions of the volcano. They
are really what is left of low ridges de-
molished by the wind.

In hollow places, as along the dry bed
of creeks that flow only during the wet
season, the trees show some attempts at
congregating in small groves; but they
have a stunted appearance, their trunks
are twisted and knotty, their limbs few,
and all strikingly growing in a southerly
direction (see page 636).

The few head of cattle browsing
through these thinned savannas are
shaggy, and even the people and their
dwellings, the former with their large
hats tied upon the head and the tatter
with roofs half gone or mended tempo-
rarily with the leaves of the native royal
palm, show the permanent action of the
wind.

Not to impress the reader too deeply
with the dreary barrenness of the coun-
try, it should be added that the south-
side exposures of the hills and the deeper
valleys offer sheltered nooks, with pros-
perous villages surrounded by patches of
grassy pastures and of forests.

Through this rather desolate region
several rivers have cut deep, narrow
canyons, in which subtropical vegetation
is mixed in a curious way. Oaks are
seen growing next to palms, giant elms

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Litt LE-KNOWN PART

mingling their branches with those of
towering ficus, and, among herbaceous
plants, clematis and nettles side by side
with showy bignonias and fragrant epi-
phytic orchids. Bathed in the perpetual
but never excessive dampness of the
foaming river, sheltered from wind and
strong nightly radiation by the high sur-
rounding walls, and with an atmosphere
incessantly renewed, the hidden recesses
of these gorges assume, indeed, a singu-
larly beautiful appearance. They are,
however, difficult of access, and not only
teem with insect life, but offer favorite
refuge for snakes, which are attracted
by the latter and by the many small
mammals.

Near FE] Boquete the road leaves the
savannas to penetrate into the upper
Caldera Valley. This. is the favorite
summer resort of the Panamanians and
of many Canal Zone Americans, and also
the only coffee-growing section of the
whole Republic. On account of the pro-
hibitive tariff, the latter is one of the
best paying products of native agricul-
ture, and several foreigners have estab-
lished here prosperous plantations. But
El Boquete, half in the windy, semi-arid
zone and half in that of continued rains,
has a very limited producing capacity,
and cannot by far supply the rapidly
increasing coffee consumption of the
larger centers. It is not equipped, either,
for-a summer resort, as the “Hotel de
Lino” is simply a farmhouse, where
abundant meals and a kindly hospitality
are the welcome but sometimes inade-
quate compensations for the lack of
worldly comfort.

To the lover of nature, however, the
surrounding forests are forever a source
of healthy enjoyment, among. which
orchid hunting is not the least exciting.
Several of the most highly prized species
hide on the moss-grown trees, and often
their exquisite perfume is the only indi-
cation of their near presence. Now and
then the eye is attracted by white or pink
patches of Trichopilias, or by the curi-
ously shaped although less conspicuous
flowers of some Catasetum (page 641).

The visit to the Chiriqui Volcano is
usually made from here. It is an 8,000-
foot ascent to the top and is scarcely to

S-OF PANAMA 633

be recommended to ladies. Not that it
offers: any danger or even chances of
dramatic situations, but it is a straight
and exhausting climb, rendered difficult
at times by the unsteadiness of the loose
soil, the intricate thickets, and, even in
the upper belt, by high, tangled grass-
fields. Rocks, all of volcanic origin, are
seen only in deep gorges or near the
top; snow and ice are out of the ques-
tion; and, though still called a volcano,
the Chiriqui Peak is a dead one, in which
only obsolete traces of former plutonic
action are to be seen.

Still, the ascent is worth while, if made
at the right time: Uhe trail leads. first
through savannas and beautiful oak for-
ests, mixed with sweet cedars and other
subtropical trees, and as it goes higher
and higher, always straight toward the
top without any superfluous windings,
the attention of the traveler is distracted
from his toilsome physical exertion by
the successive appearance, in the middle
of a strange vegetation, of many famil-
lar- looking plants, like trailing bramble
vines loaded with luscious blackberries,
less welcome nettles, just like those seen
around old farm-houses in northern cli-
tates, ;alders, andthe like: A. formal
investigation of the flora of the upper
mountain belt would show, in fact, that
it is a mixture of a reduced endemic ele-
ment with representatives of the flora of
our northern countries and of the South
American Andes.

It may be interesting to mention here
that along the trail, between two and
three thousand meters of elevation,
there are whole forests of a Persea tree,
which is a very near relative to the alli-
gator pear. It grows below and above
the frost-line, and we have repeatedly
advised its acclimatization in California,
where it could perhaps be used as a graft-
ing or budding stock. On account of its
hardiness, it is not unlikely that by its
means the extreme limit of alligator-pear
cultivation could be shifted a good dis-
tance northward.

The long ascent to the top is not made
in one day. There is a first camp in a
picturesque gorge, about half way up
from El Boquete, and then another at
the bottom of the large northern crater,

Photo by H. Pittier
Cavanillesia platanifolia, ONK OF THE MOST BEAUTIFUL TREES OF THE ISTHMUS
The wood, however, is spongy, as light as cork, and apparently useless

634

——

Cavanillesia platanifolia, THE CUIPO-TREE

Photo by H. Pittier

The two vertical dark lines are termite tunnels, showing that not even these giants of

_ the tropical forest are safe from the attacks of the destructive white ant.

left is the author’s son and companion.

in one of the nooks formed by the nar-
row gorges leading to the highest sum-
mit. Here the temperature goes every
night near or below the freezing point,
and the cold is very intense to people
accustomed to the heat of the lower
plains.

But during the dry season the air is so
crisp and pure, the sky so blue, the song
of the thrushes and of many other famil-
iar little birds so pathetically lovely, and
the beautiful surrounding nature so ex-

635

The boy at the

hilarating, that one easily forgets small
bodily inconveniences to enjoy with full
heart the beauty of it all.

The crater is a circular plain about
2,000 feet in diameter, surrounded by a
more or less broken ridge that is densely
covered with a forest of myrtles, oaks,
and less familiar trees. ‘The culminating
peak is distant only about two hours’
climb, and as one approaches it the arbo-
real vegetation becomes more and more
stunted and dwarfed, until it completely

Photo by H. Pittier

THE TREE-LIMBS ARE ALI, STRIKINGLY
GROWING IN ONE DIRECTION (P. 631)

disappears, to give place to rccks and
grassy slopes.

In clear weather the panorama from
the summit is splendid: to the south, the
vast expanse of the Pacific and the beau-
tiful lowlands of Chiriqui, all interlaced
forests and savannas; to the north, a
labyrinth of unexplored valleys, covered
totally by virgin forest running down to
the Caribbean Sea; westward, the Costa
Rican mountains familiar to the writer;
and to the east, many a lofty peak of no
despicable prominence and virgin yet of
any white man’s footprints. In our as-
cent we had only glimpses of all this, as
a thick fog was gathering at the time.
From the top we had only a momentary
vision of a far-looking silvery ribbon,
the Rio Chiriqui Viejo, several thousand
feet below us to the west.

The return trip can be effected easily
in one day.

THE ABORIGINAL TRIBES OF PANAMA

Our tramp through Panama now takes
us to scenes quite different from those
we have just described, among what is
left of the aborigines of the country.

In the years 1501 to 1503, when Rod-
rigo de Bastidas and Christopher Co-
lumbus visited the northern coast of the
Isthmus, they found it densely popu-
lated. About ten years later Balboa met
with identical conditions along the south-

ern coast, and all subsequent reports of
early explorers give evidences of the fact
that the whole country was in possession
of numerous clans, the names of many
of which have been preserved.

The two principal nations were the
Guaymies, extending from the Chiriqui
Volcano eastward to what is today the
Canal Zone, and the Cuna-Cuna, on the
opposite side of the Isthmus. West of
the volcano, in the valleys of the Chiriqui
Viejo, Changuena and Diquis rivers, and
possibly a little farther east, along the
Pacific Ocean, were the Dorasques, a
warlike and more civilized race, to whom
the beautiful pottery and the gold orna-
ments found in the ancient graves of
Chiriqui are often attributed. As can be
deduced from these relics, the Dorasques
had trade relations with the Niquirans
and Chorotegans, of Costa Rica, and
through them felt in some degree the
influence of the Nahuatl, in far-away
Mexico. ‘Today they have completely
disappeared as a tribal entity.

On the southeastern border of the
present Republic of Panama dwelt the
Chocoes, who are still numerous and ex-
tend from the Pacific coast northward
to and even beyond the Atrato River.
They formed a kind of buffer state be-
tween the Central and South American
nations.

In the course of my work I had the
opportunity of spending many weeks
among representatives of the three
groups still in existence—that is to say,
the Guaymies, the Cuna-Cuna, and the
Chocoes.

THE GUAYMIES

Up in the forbidding mountains and
valleys that form a background to the
landscape for the traveler on the steam-
ers plying between Panama and David
dwell the mass of the present Guay-
mies, about 5,000 in number, in their
homes scattered through savannas and
forests. From the time of the conquest
to the beginning of the past century,
they have been more or less under the
influence of Catholic missionaries, but
have since been left to go back to most
of their ancient customs and ways of
living.

Among the few vestiges left of that
transitory semi-civilized condition under

636

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638

Puosto by H. Pittier

PROVISIONAL SUMMER ROOF, MADE OF THE LEAVES OF THE NATIVE ROYAL PALM
(Attalea gomphococca): NOTE THE LONG PALM LEAVES

religious discipline, perhaps the most
conspicuous. is the flowing gown of the
women, tight at the neck and reaching
down to the feet. In every aboriginal
tribe committed to their guardianship
the first care of the pious fathers seems
to have been to create among those sim-
ple creatures not the sense of modesty
which is innate among them, but a feel-
ing of shame of their physical beauty.
This is why in countries with a con-
stantly warm climate, and where the
rugged topography, the predominance
of brush and bush, and the multiplicity
of rivers make necessary only the scan-
tiest clothing, we often see the poor fe-
males moving awkwardly in their cum-
brous imposed garments, under which,
however, they still wear the primitive
and more practical bark skirt. It is true
that when there is no stranger near the
gown is mostly discarded, and if a rain-
shower surprises a caravan on the trail
the women quickly strip, wrap their togs
in a large Calathea or Heliconia leaf,

place the parcel in their load, and then
continue on their way.

The men do likewise, and _ besides
when they go on a hunting expedition
they invariably abandon their trousers
before starting on a run after some wild
animal. This practice has been adopted
by the other more civilized native in

-some parts, and sometimes one discovers

a whole collection of blue trousers hang-
ing on the lower branches of some tree
at the opening of a forest path. In tis
case the shirt that forms the only other
part of the male wearing apparel is
taken off and tied around the loins.

The Guaymies are usually not of a
very prepossessing appearance. Their
stature is rather variable and their bear-
ing has not the stateliness that is often
noticed among other Indians. Among
the men the face is seldom attractive.
‘The lips ‘are usually thick,: the nose: (is
flat and broad, and the coarse black hair
worn short (see page 644).

Among the women a few were met

639

Photo by H. Pittier

EL BOQUETE, SUMMER RESORT OF THE PANAMANIANS, WITH THE CLOUDED CHIRIQUI
VOLCANO IN THE BACKGROUND SEE PAGE 633)

with who were positively pretty and—
is it necessary to say?—knew it. But
beauty is not at a premium among the
Guaymi females. A woman ought first
to be strong, healthy, and a good beast
of burden and day-worker. ‘The chil-
dren, especially the little girls, also have
frequentiy lovely faces, with a warm
brown, velvety skin and beautiful eyes.
When they reach the age of puberty
tiieir hair is cropped short and not al-
lowed to grow again until the first baby
is born. Maidenhood, however, is a short
stage of life for the Guaymi women,
who not infrequently become mothers
before having reached their twelfth year.

Face painting is a common practice,
restricted apparently neither by age nor
sex, although the women adorn them-
selves thus only on great occasions.
Black, red, and white are the favorite
colors, the latter being obtained, as I
have been told, by the use of an ordi-
nary oil-paint, which the Guaymies ob-

tain at Bocas del Toro. Little girls keep
their faces clean, but boys under twelve
were seen with broad black blotches,
without definite outline, around their
eyes.

In men the decoration is always more
elaborate, and certain peculiarities in the
patterns, as well as the exact repetition
of these by distinct people, lead to the
belief that they had formerly and may
still have a significance as a totemic or
tribal emblem. The groundwork al-
most always consists of two black lines
starting obliquely downward from _ be-
tween the eyes, so as to form on the face
a broadly open A, the apex of which is
on the nose ridge. ‘These black lines are
variously supplemented by white or red
parallels, terminal appendages, and the
coloring in pink, by means of anatto, of
the outline of the lips, which then appear
much thicker than they naturally are.

In certain communities the wealth of
people is estimated by the number of

640

Photo by H. Pittier

THE CURIOUSLY SHAPED FLOWERS OF Catasetum scurra, REDISCOVERED IN PANAMA
BY IIRS. H, H. ROUSSEAU (SEE PAGE 633)

The yellowish-green perianth is purple striated, with a delicately fringed labellum

641

Photo by H. Pittier

THE ANCIENT CRATER IS NOW A GRASSY PLAIN SURROUNDED BY DENSELY WOODED
HILLS (SEE PAGE 635)

their cattle. Among the Guaymies the
number of wives is the standard. ‘The
role of these in the domestic economy 1s
not, however, merely that of a toy, as
among certain Oriental nations. They
constitute the working capital of the
family, and their way of courting the
preference = of «their. master Ais not
through love, but toil. Even thus, and
though they are little more than mere
beasts of burden, they seem to be quite
satished with their lot, and it will be a
long time before they feel the need of
joining in the throng of modern aspi-
rants for sex equality.

The typical Guaymi dwelling is a
round house, about eight meters in dia-
meter, with a conical thatch roof. ‘The
bare ground constitutes the floor, and
the fireplace is either in the middle or at
the side. ‘These houses are not always
walled. When they are they have no
windows, but two doors placed at the
opposite ends of a secant to the circum-
ference of the structure. The walls are

made of erect sticks brought close to-
gether and tied with vines. On the north
side plaster made of cow dung and clay is
sometimes applied so as to afford a pro-
tection against the wind (see page 646).

Benches along the walls are used as
beds, although at high altitudes, where
the temperature is often. very low at
night, the resting place is on a light floor
just under the roof. Large nets, hang-
ing from the beams, are used in lieu of
wardrobes and closets, and the tilling,
fishing, and hunting implements, all of
a primitive type except the guns, com-
plete the house furnishings. Nowadays
the kitchen crockery is mostly imported
ware, the only exceptions being the large
earthen jars used to keep the chicha, or
corn-beer, and the calabashes, of univer-
sal ‘use in/ithe, tropics:

Their dwellings are located either in
the midst of the forests of the lower
belt, in solitary clearings far apart, or
in the high savannas. In the first in-
stance they are always at some distance

642

on a

Photo by H. Pittier

THE TOP OF THE CHIRIQUI PEAK, THE HIGHEST POINT IN THE REPUBLIC OF
PANAMA (11,000 FEET) SEE PAGE 636

from the sea, as the Guaymies, forced
back into the mountains by the Spanish
invaders, have long since lost the art of
navigation.

These forest dwellers are of a quieter
and more submissive disposition, though
their daily contact with the stealthy and
hidden animal life of the woods has
made them more cunning and distrust-
ful than their brothers of the savannas.
These, living amidst rugged hills, in a
relatively cold climate, and enjoying day
after day the magnificent panorama of

643

the surrounding mountains and plains,
framed in gray clouds and blue waters,
are more energetic and open, and also
proud of their undisputed independence.

THE CUNA-CUNA OR SAN BLAS INDIANS

According to historical records, con-
firmed by tradition and by a few local
names, the Cuna-Cuna extended for-
merly as far as the valleys of the eastern
reaches of the Chagres River, and cov-
ered both sides of the continental divide
between the present Canal Zone and the

SMOIHL WV Sd AHL
NVIGNI INAVOND V SHALLOVULLVY WOCTHS SI HOVA AHL NAW INAVOD HHL DNOWV

(ofo anv ‘6£9 ‘of9 saova AUS) dvoud GNV LVI SI ASON AH

Jowwd “H Aq sojoud

644

bays of San Miguel and
Atrato. In the course of
the conquest they offered
a steady and stubborn re-
sistance, and, though they
have been gradually de-
prived of a large part of
their former territory, it
is certain. that, -to. this
day they never have been
really subjugated.

- The history of the last
four centuries shows not
only many instances of
their bloody struggle
against the hated invader,
but also proofs of their
ability for political in-
trigue. During the pirati-
cal warfare of the bucca-
neers, or free-booters, the
Cuna-Cuna were their
constant allies against the
Spaniards, because they
well understood that while
the latter had come to
stay, the former had no
idea of securing a perma-
nent foothold in the Isth-
mus.

When in 1608 Patter-
son landed on the beach
of Caledonia Bay with his
small army of settlers, the
Cuna-Cuna received him
with open arms, readily ceded the re-
quired portion of their land, and were
to the end the trusted and trusting allies
of the luckless Scotchmen.

Today, after 200 years, the natives of
the San Blas coast still keep in their heart
a warm feeling not only for the latter,
but for the British in general. The late
Queen Victoria is revered among them
almost as a divinity, and even vested by
some with the attribute of immortality.
Two or three times, indeed, during my
short stay among them, I was asked the
question: And Queen Victoria—how is
she? And my assertion that she had
been dead for several years was always
received with the utmost incredulity.

Their diplomacy has been shown fur-
ther in the course of recent events, when
the secession of Panama was followed
by the advent of the Americans in the
Canal Zone, who from the beginning

645

.

Photo by H. Pittier

THE LITTLE GUAYMI GIRLS OFTEN HAVE SWEET FACES
AND BEAUTIFUL EYES

have been looked upon by the Indians
as new and formidable conquerors, more
dangerous to their race than the Span-
iards of old. Such an impression, origi-
nating in reports from the Colombian
side, could but be confirmed and intensi-
fied by the many men of Nargana, Ur-
gandi, and other places along the coast,
who had repeatedly come to this country
and stayed in it for longer or shorter
intervals, thus becoming eye-witnesses of
its might and irresistible power.

So the San Blas people were thor-
oughly awed, and, as they distrusted the
capacity of little Panama to give them
the protection they needed, they turned
to their former masters, for whom they
felt all at once a love and loyalty which
years of involuntary and passive submis-
sion had not been able to foster.

The venerable chieftain Inanaquina
undertook the long voyage to Bogota to

Photo by H. Pittier

GUAYMI HOUSE IN THE FOREST: NEAR BY IS A CLEARING, WHERE PLANTAINS, YAMS,
CASSAVA, AND OTHER FOODSTUFFS ARE GROWN (PAGE 642)

put himself and his people under the
protection of the Colombian government.
He never reached the goal, however.
His adviser and interpreter having died
of smallpox at Honda, the frightened
old man turned in his tracks and suc-
cumbed to the same disease in Cartagena.

It was then that a serious blunder was
made by the new régime at Panama.
The hereditary successor of Inanaquina
was his nephew, Inapaquina, and follow-
ing the news of the former’s demise, he
was effectively proclaimed as such and
acknowledged in most villages. The
Panamanian government, however, ig-
noring the respected tradition, appointed
as supreme authority on the whole coast
Charlie Robinson, a native of Nargana,
who as a child and young man had spent
many years in the United States and ful-
filled perhaps better than any other one
the desired conditions for the office, but
who, in the eye of the Indians, had no
right to it.

646

This resulted in a splitting of the
community, the more conservative part
of which, from Playon Grande east-
ward, continued under Inapaquina and
the Colombian flag, while the Mandinga
Bay natives indifferently accepted the
tule of Robinson. Thus inopportune
intervention has resulted mainly in the
awakening among the majority of the
San Blas Indians of a warm feeling in
favor of Colombia.

The often circulated reports of the
difficulty of penetrating into the territory
of the Cuna-Cuna are true only in part.
The backwoods aborigines, in the valleys
of the Bayano and Chucunaque rivers,
have nourished to this day their hatred
for all strangers, especially those of
Spanish blood. ‘That feeling is not a
reasoned one: it is the instinctive distrust
of the savage for the unknown or unex-
plicable, intensified in this particular case
by the fear of reprisal for injury or
crime committed on several instances,

iS

Photo by E. D. Christopherson
THE CUNA-CUNA OR SAN BLAS INDIANS ARE OF SMALL STATURE: PANAMA

Photo by E. D. Christopherson

SAN BLAS (CUNA-CUNA, OR TULE) INDIANS OF SHIATINAKA
Note the heavy gold disks hanging from the ears of the man on the left (see page 655)

ow GEG OO ree ™

,

ek G
7 ¢
oy i

j
'

Ly ae Se i x

Photo by H. Pittier

SAN BLAS WOMEN AND CHILDREN, PANAMA: EVEN THE SMALL BABY GIRL HAS HER
NOSE-RING DECORATION (SEE PAGE 657)

and also by the tradition of a long series
of wrongs at the hands of the hated
Spaniards.

So they feel that isolation is their best
policy, and it would not be safe for
anybody to penetrate into their forests
without a strong escort and continual
watchfulness. Many instances of mur-
ders, some confirmed and others only
suspected, are on record, and even the

648

natives of the San Blas coast are not a
little afraid of their brothers of the
mountains.

Of late, however, conditions seem to
have bettered, owing to a more frequent
intercourse with the surrounding settle-
ments. A negro of Wa Palma, at the
mouth of the Tuyra River, told me of
his crossing, some time ago, from the
latter place to Chepo, through the Chu-

cunaque and Bayano territo-
ries, gathering rubber as he
went along with his party. At
the headwaters of the Canaza
River he and his companions
were held up by the “bravos,”
who contented themselves
with taking away the rubber
and part of the equipment,
and then let their prisoners go
with the warning not to come
again.

The narrative of that expe-
dition was supplemented by
the reflection of an old man
among the hearers that 20
years ago none of the party
would have come out alive.

Among the San Blas In-
dians, who are at a far higher
level of civilization, the exclu-
sion of aliens is the result of
well-founded political reasons.
Their respected traditions are
a long record of proud inde-
pendence; they have main-
tained the purity of their race
and enjoyed freely for hun-
dreds of years every inch of
their territory. They feel that
the day the negro or the white
man acquires a foothold in
their midst these privileges
will become a thing of the
past. This is why, without
undue hostility to strangers, they dis-
courage their incursions.

Their means of persuasion are ad-
justed to the importance of the intruder.
They do not hesitate to shoot at any ne-
gro of the near-by settlements poaching
on their cocoanuts or other products;
the trader or any occasional visitor is
very seldom allowed to stay ashore at
night; the adventurers who try to go
prospecting into Indian territory are in-
variably caught and shipped back to the
next Panamanian port.

To the war vessel anchoring close to
their coast they send a polite request to
leave, and when a high official of the
Isthmian Canal Commission asked to
buy the sand of Caledonia Bay, to be
used in the building of the Gatun locks,
he was courteously refused, with the
following reply from the old chief:

Photo by H. Pittier
SAN BLAS WOMAN IN DAILY ATTIRE

“He who made this sand made. it for
the Cuna-Cuna who live no longer, for
those who are here today, and also for
the ones to come. So it is not ours only
and we could not sell it.”

To judge by the density of the popu-
lation in the few villages visited by the
writer, the San Blas Cunas, who also
call themselves Tule, aggregate eight to
ten thousand on the stretch of coast
between Punta Escribanos and Cape -
Tiburon. Excepting Bocas del Toro, no
other part of the Panamanian littoral is
so densely populated, and there is no
more orderly community in the whole
Republic.

It is a great mistake to consider these
Indians as mere savages. At least one
man in every ten has traveled exten-
sively as a sailor and has seen more of
the world than the average Panamanian.

649

Many have come to the United States
or to’ Nova Scotia as children and
have gone back grown men, with a
relatively high degree of education.
English is generally spoken along the
coast, even to a larger extent than
Spanish. The commodities of San
Blas life are an incongruous mix-
ture of native products and imported
goods..

Primitive ways are perpetuated by
the women, who have not been al-
lowed-as yet to have even a glimpse
of the outer world and are, although
perhaps to a lesser degree than among
the Guaymies, the drudges of all
work. In justice to them it must be
said here that the often-repeated as-
sertion of their hideousness is as
wrong.as it would be to affirm that
all American females are beauties.
The remarkable facility with which
the San- Blas men return to their
simple and secluded life after stay-
ing for years ina more civilized en-
vironment must be attributed largely
to feminine influence.

Times, however, are fast changing.
Elementary schools, open to little
girls, have already been established
at Nargana, under the guidance of a
Catholic priest, and it is apparent
that woman will.soon turn out to be
the progressive element of the coast
of San Blas, as she is in most com-
munities of Central America.

- Besides being excellent sailors and

fishermen, the San Blas Indians ex-
cel. in agricultural pursuits. - The
whole coast, as well as the numerous
islands of Mandinga Bay and _ far-
ther east, are lined with extensive
cocoanut-palm groves, of a variety
remarkable for the superior quality
and shape of the nuts. Vast areas
of the forests are covered with the
native ivory-nut palm and the larger
growth abounds in balata or bully-
tEees:

The last three products—cocoa-
nuts, ivory-nuts, and balata—which
are sold or bartered either to local
merchants or to trading schooners.
plying between the coast and the
United States or New Brunswick
and Nova Scotia, are the main

Photo by E. D. Christopherson

THE VILLAGE OF PLAYON GRANDE, ON THE SAN BLAS COAST, 85 MILES EAST OF THE PANAMA CANAL

i
be

The houses are about 150 x 50 feet and each shelters 16 to 20 families (see page 657)

ke
:
Fe
t
&

Seere
Roe

650

Photo by H. Pittier

PILYSICALLY THE CHOCOES OF PANAMA ARE A FINE LOOKING AND HEALTHY RACE:
CHIEF DON CARLOS AND HIS SON (SEE PAGES 657-659)

Photo by H. Pittier

CHIEF DON CARLOS’ LADY, WHO, NOTWITHSTANDING HER AGE, HAS PRESERVED
HER GOOD LOOKS

sources of wealth of these natives, among
whom money is never scarce and poverty
an unknown thing. The staple crops for
local consumption are raised in smali
clearings scattered through the forests of
the interior and reached by water from
the coast; besides most of the usual
fruits of tropical America, these include
plantains, corn, rice, cassava, yams, and
some cacao.

The land belongs undivided to the
community, so that any encroachment is
considered as a public damage. Annual
crops are seldom produced several years
im Succession on the same piece of
ground, but once this is cleared and
tilled it belongs to the individual or
family who have done the work, until it
returns to the public domain through
voluntary abandonment.

Any cacao, orange, or other fruit-tree
planted by hand becomes an hereditary

possession, transmitted through the fe-
male line. I was unable to ascertain the
traditional laws regulating the owner-
ship of the cocoanut-palm plantations,
but was led to understand that it is the
same that obtains for any kind of fruit-
tree as well as for plantain groves.

They do not seem to have any re-
ligious system, but there are indications
of their holding to the notion of a su-
perior being, the author of all things
and the embodiment of goodness, and
also of a bad spirit, governing all evil,
whom they fear and revere more than
the former. ‘Their Jele, or sorcerers, are
at the same time the medicine men and
the representatives of that genius of
evil—a sensible combination—since they.
are supposed to have the power to check
the harm caused by the latter.

At the time of the blossoming of the
fruit-trees, and when the yearly seeds

652

Photo by H. Pittier

THE CHOCO GIRLS ARE FAT AND FULL OF MISCHIEF: THE PAINTING OF THE BODY
IS ABOUT AS EFFECTIVE AS A PEEK-A-BOO WAIST: PANAMA

This picture represents one of Don Carlos’ daughters, who is very fond of finger-rings

1 SS aT i EAN AERO La IE

Photo by H. Pittier
CHOCO INDIAN WOMEN OF THE SAMBU VALLEY IN THEIR SIMPLE, EVERY-DAY
DRESSES: PANAMA

Note the peculiarity in the toes. With their feet they can pick up the smallest objects from
the ground

are trusted to the earth, invocations in
the. form of recitals are sung by the
men, and possibly offerings made, to
propitiate the evil genius and call the
blessing of the kindly God. I succeeded
in obtaining a part of the invocation re-
ferring to the cacao crop. It seems to
consist of an enumeration made to the
lele of the several varieties of the cacao-
pods, and of an appeal to a being per-
sonified by the ever-traveling sun.

The San Blas Indians are of small
stature, with the body unusually long
and broad-chested and the limbs short.
The head is round and large and cheek
bones very high, the nose long and often
aquiline. The skin is dark reddish
brown in the men, a few shades lighter
in women. ‘The hair is jet-black and as
a rule cropped short, though a few of
the girls wear it rather long, and the
men have sometimes the whole mass of
it cut straight, or bobbed, at the neck.
Most women have remarkably fine white
teeth:

Polygamy is allowed, but seldom prac-
ticed nowadays.

As a result of their frequent inter-
course with the outside world, the San
Blas men have adopted the ordinary
garb of civilized people, reducing it to
the simplicity required by the warm cli-
mate. ‘Their native hats are peculiar in
having the form much smaller than the
head of the wearer, so that they are
kept in place only by the stiff, short hairs
acting as a sort of clinching spring.

Many men wear hanging from their
ears large gold disks, often of the size
and thickness of a $20 gold-piece. They
are reticent as to the origin of the metal.
In old times they probably obtained it by
washing the sand of the rivers, several
of which are said to be auriferous, but
at present they very likely use for their
personal adornment American and Eng-
lish treasure, having it modified to suit
their taste by the native gold and silver-
smiths established in almost every vil-
lage (see page 647).

The custom of face-painting is rapidly
disappearing. At one of the villages
some boys were seen wearing a single
blue line along the ridge of their noses,

A CHOCO INDIAN MAN OF THE SAMBU
VALLEY IN EVERY-DAY DRESS

and the Jele, or medicine man, of Shia-
tinaka had evidently rouge (anatto dye)
on his cheeks. ‘These were the only in-
stances of this kind of ornamentation,
formerly of much more general vogue.
The Chucunaque and Bayano Indians,
who, their scant clouts excepted, dis-
pense with clothes, are reported to paint
their whole body jet black before start-
ing on their hunting or fishing expedi-
tions.

Be

rye

SUIOD JO ddBTYOU 9}ON ‘pueq pasoprloiquid-jiead e& YIM pot} st sey SIFT
VINVNVd JO O1TdNdauY : AWTIVA AAWVS AHL JO NVIGNI OOOHO V

Toni “H Aq soqoyd

656

LITTLE-KNOWN PARTS OF PANAMA

For every-day wear, the apparel of
the Cuna women consists of a short
skirt, red or blue, extending from the
hips to the knees.. The upper part of
the body is covered with a kind of loose
blouse, the sleeves of which do not
reach the elbow. Over these two gar-
ments there comes a second skirt, reach-
ing from the waist to the ankles.

Of course, with reference to skirts, it
must be understood that the word is used
only for convenience sake, not meaning
the rather complicated piece of civilized
woman’s raiment, but a single seamless
piece of calico, not over four yards long,
and rolled around the body.

The necks of the women are loaded
with necklaces made of red,
blue beads, to which are added old Co-
lombian silver coins. They also wear,
occasionally, in their ears gold rings or
disks, these latter like those of the men,
and in their noses always another ring
of the same metal, which is seen even on
suckling baby girls, and is never re-
moved at death (see page 648).

At Armila an opportunity offered it-
self to study the gala wearing apparel
of the chieftain’s “wife, who was evi-
dently the village belle. She had on
some sort of short “sheath skirt’ of
white materials, and a long coat made of
the appliqué work which is a peculiar
product of the Cuna-Cuna_ handicraft.
Her head was covered with a bright
bandana handkerchief.

Besides her ear-disk and nose-ring,
she wore on each arm a broad. cuff at
the wrist and a narrower band at the
elbow; her legs were incased each in
three tight bands, bound together by
three vertical strings. Through the
broad intervals the muscles were bulg-
ing abnormally, showing that the bands
had been placed long ago and never re-
moved. All these latter ornaments were
made of white beads sown closely to-
gether on a piece of strong canvas.

There seems to be much variation as
to the size of the Cuna houses, but they
all have the naked beaten ground as floor
and a high gable roof.

The two islands at Nargana are liter-
ally covered with large dwellings about

150 feet long by 50 feet broad, the long

white, or

657

ridge of the palm-covered roof being 30
to 40 feet from the ground (see photo,
pase 650). Directly under this ridge
there is a large alley, running between
two ranges of high pillars, which sup-
port the middle part of the structure.
On each side other upright posts divide
the space into square compartments,
each of which is occupied apparently by
a separate family. There are only two
low doors at each end of the building,
and the side walls are made of sticks
tied together, as are all. parts of the
building, with mountain vines.

These houses are packed so close to-
gether that there is no space left be-
tween them. Each shelters from 16 to
20 families, the exact parental relations
of which would be an interesting demo-
graphic study.

THE CHOCOES

“Les peuples heureux wont pas d’his-
toire!” While the history of the Cuna-
Cuna could be written, at least for the
post-Columbian period, by putting to-
gether the brief accounts of the Spanish
chroniclers, the quaine narratives of old

writers like Wafer and Dampier, and
oral tradition still current among the
people of the tribe, we know almost

nothing of the Chocoes They are sel-
dom referred to in ancient records, and
in modern times they have been visited
by only one or two travelers, who have
gathered but scant information. Our
own visit among them was a short one,
limited to the lower and middle part of
the Sambu Valley, in the Panamanian
section of southern Darien.

Never in our 25 years of tropical ex-
perience have we met with such a sun-
loving, bright and trusting people, living
nearest to nature and ignoring the most
elementary wiles of so-called civiliza-
tion. They are several hundred in num-
ber and their dwellings are scattered
along the meandrous Sambu and _ its
main reaches, always at short distance,
but never near enough to each other to
form real villages. Like their houses,
their small plantations are close to the
river, but mostly far enough to escape
the eye of the casual passer-by.

SUAMOTT THOME HALIM
To 'H Aq sojoyg

SHINO YWAA'TIS GVOU AHL ALON : ISaNOT AHI TO
GaNUOdV SI:GVAH SIH :VNWVNVd WO OI1dNdau ‘AWTIVA AINVS

=

|

HHL IO NVIGNI OOOHDS V

LITTLE-KNOWN PARTS OF PANAMA

Dugouts drawn up on the beach and
a narrow trail breaking the reed wall
at the edge of the bank are the only visi-
ble signs ‘of human presence, except at
the morning hours and near sunset,
when a crowd of women and children
will be seen playing in the water, and
the men, armed with their bows and
long harpooned arrows, — scrutinizing
the “deeper places for fish or looking for
iguanas and crabs hidden in the holes of
the banks.

Physically the Chocoes are a fine and
healthy «race. They are tall, as com-
pared with the Cuna-Cuna, well pro-
portioned, and with a graceful bearing.
The men have wiry limbs and faces that
are at once kind and energetic, while as
a rule the girls are plump, fat, and full
of mischief. ‘The grown women pre-
serve their good looks and _ attractive-
ness much longer than is generally the
case in primitive peoples, in which their
sex bears the: heaviest share of every
day’s work (see photos, pp. 652, 653).

Both males and females have unusually
fine white teeth, which they sometimes
dye black by chewing the shoots of one
of the numerous wild peppers (Piper
sp.) growing in the forests. The skin
is of a rich olive-brown color and, as
usual, a little lighter in women and chil-
dren. Though all go almost naked, they
look fairer; than’ the San Blas Cunas,
and some of the women would compare
advantageously in this respect with cer-
tain Mediterranean types of the white
race.

The hair is lett by all to grow to its
natural length, except in a few cases, in
which the men have it cropped at the
neck. It is coarse and not jet black, as
reported of most Indians, but with a
reddish hue, which is better noticed
when the sun is playing through the
thick mass.

In young children it decidedly turns
at times to a blond color, the only differ-
ence from the Caucasian hair being the
pronounced coarseness of the former.
As there are no white people living
within a radius of 50 miles, but only ne-
groes, mulattoes, and zambos, this pecu-
liarity cannot be explained by miscege-

659

nation and may therefore be considered
as a racial feature of the Choco tribe.

In men the every-day dress consists
of a scanty clout, made of a strip of red
calico about one foot broad and five feet
long. This clout is passed in front and
back of the body over a string tied
around the hips, the forward extremity
being left longer and flowing like an
apron. On feast days the string is re-
placed by a broad band of white beads.
Around the neck and chest they wear
thick cords of the same beads and on
their wrists broad silver cuffs (see photo,
page 658). Hats are not used; the hair
is usually tied with a red ribbon and
often adorned with the bright flowers of
the. forest.

The female outfit is not less simple,
consisting of a piece of calico less than
three feet wide and about nine feet long,
wrapped around the lower part of the
body and reaching a little below the
knees. This is all, except that the neck
is more or less loaded with beads or sil-
ver coins. But for this the women dis-
play less coquetry than the men, which
may be because they feel sufficiently
adorned with their mere natural charms.
Fondness for cheap rings is, however,
common to both sexes, and little chil-
dren often wear earrings or pendants.

The scantiness of the clothing is
remedied very effectually by face and
body painting, in which black and red
colors are used, the first exclusively for
daily wear. At times men and women
are painted black from the waist down;
at other times it is the whole body or
only the hands and feet, etc., all accord-
ing to the day’s fashion, as was ex-
plained by one of our guides. For feast
days the paintings are an elaborate and
artistic affair, consisting of elegantly
drawn lines and patterns=_ted and black
or simply black—which clothe the body
as effectively as any costly dress.

From the above one might conclude
that cleanliness and modesty are not the
rule among the Chocoes. As a matter
of fact, the first thing they do in the
morning is to jump into the near-by
river, and these ablutions are repeated
several times in the course of the day.

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660

661

Photo by H. Pittier

PASSING CANOES

4

4

SELDOM VISIBLE TO THE

EF BUILT HIGH UP ON THE RIVER BANK AND ARE ‘

»
Xs

HOUSES OF THE CHOCOES ALI

4
4
4

Aneel

The kitchen utensils
are always thoroughly
washed before _ using,
and; contrary’ to. our
former experience, their
simple dishes, prepared
mostly in our presence,
looked almost always in-
viting. During our stay
among these good people
nothing was noticed that
would hurt the most deli-~
cate sense of decency.

The Chocoes seem to
be exclusively monoga-
mist and both parents
surround their babies
with tender care, being
mindful, however, to
prepare them: early. jor
the hard and struggling
life ahead of them.
Small bows and arrows,
dexterously handled by
tiny hands, are the fa-
vorite toys of the boys,
while the girls spend
more time in the water
playing with miniature
dugouts, washing, and
swimming. The only
dolls seen among them
were imported ones, and
they. seemed “ton be) as
much in favor among
grown women as among
children. . These. latter
go naked until they are
about 5 years old, when
the girls receive a large
handkerchief to be used
as a “paruma,” or skirt,
and the boys a strip of
some old maternal dress
for a: antia,;”-orr clout.

The houses of the Cho-
coes are built on a better
plan, as far as. hygiene
and comfort are con-
cerned; than those*of
either the Cuna-Cuna or
the Guaymies.. Placed
high up on- the river
bank and seldom visible
to the passing canoes,
their structure is almost

662

uniform, although the dimensions vary.
That of one of the leading men of the
Sambu Valley is rectangular and meas-
ures about 50 by 30 feet, the longest side
facing the river.

The floor is raised eight feet from the
ground and supported on each long side
by a row of four palm posts, which ex-
tend through it and bear the weight of
the roof. -Irunks* of the: Iniartea. palm,
split open and flattened, form the floor-
ing. The roof is palm-thatched and with
four sheds, two of which correspond to
the long sides of the houses and join at
the top in a gable 12 feet long, while the
two remaining ones at the ends of the
building are triangular. There are no
walls (see page 661).

Access to the floor is by means of a
notched pole, which is turned over when
the dogs are not wanted around, or also
to indicate the absence. of the::family:
The kitchen hearth is built at the corner
least exposed to the prevailing wind, and
consists of a square frame filled with
clay, with a few loose stones on which
to: set the; pots: ° Such a house has:an
ideal ventilation and affords at the same
time a good shelter against rain and the
excessive dampness of the soil.

At night the floor, which is kept scru-
pulously clean, is turned into a family
bed. Long sticks are inserted between
the slats and made to reach the ground

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

below, and on these mosquito bars are
hung. Bark mats form the bedding.
The largest space is the parental nook,
occupied also by the babies, while the
elder girls and boys each have their own
sleeping corner.

The Chocoes are very industrious.
During the -dry ‘spells: their lite ot
course, is an out-of-door one, planting
and watching their crops, hunting, fish-
ing, and canoeing. But when the heavy
rains come they stay at home, weaving
baskets of all kinds—a work in which
the women are proficient—making ropes
and hammocks,’ carving’ dishes, mortars,
stools, and other objects out of tree
trunks. Has

And right;:behind the house is the
ereat forest, never yet violated by the
civilized. man’s ax... There the™ evant
monkey-pot tree_raises its crown 150
feet above the ground, extending its
protecting branches over many other
portly trees unknown today, but which
may sooner or later find their way to
the mills and shops of civilized nations.
Under their shadowy tops high palms
with elegant stems, ariza-trees whose
trunks are hidden under hundreds of
scarlet flowers, vines whose enlacing.
stems. extend from branch to: branch:
and epiphytic plants that fill every avail-
able nook, all compete in luxuriance and
beauty.

THE FIGHT AGAINST FOREST FIRES

By Henry S. Graves
Cuter oF U. S. Forest SERVICE ’

HE, first step necessary in estab-

lishing the practice of forestry is

the prevention of forest fires.
Until recently there was no organized
effort in the United States to prevent
forest fires. In many sections they were
regarded as a matter of course, and al-
most no consideration was given to their
consequences.

Forest fires are by no means confined
to recent periods, although the greatest
damage has taken place since the de-
velopment of the country began. There

are relatively few forest regions of the
country where some traces of forest fires
cannot. be found. Sears at the basevot
trees, the presence of charred wood, pe-
culiarities in the character, composition,
and form of the forest indicate to the
forester that there has been fire of greater
or less severity.

It is probable that nearly the entire
forest area: of: the’ country, has-been
burned over by fire at some time or
other, although in many places the fires
may have merely burned over the ground

A FOREST

without serious damage to the largest
trees:

The ancient fires were started by light-
ning and by Indians. ‘Traces of injuries
to the big trees in California are found
dating pack over I,000 years.

It is a common belief that the virgin
forest represents the maximum product “of
the soil. This is because there are present
many large and old trees. Most virgin
forests, however, in this country have
been thinned by repeated fires, and the
present product does not by any means
represent what might be standing on the
ground if there had not been any such
injury.

Many illustrations of this are found in
the mountains of the West, where past
fires have left the forests open and
broken and with a greatly depleted yield
of timber (see photo, page 664). As
Soom as these? forests were put under
protection by the national government
an immense amount of young growth
began to spring up in the open stands,
indicating possibilities for production of
timber entirely beyond anything repre-
sented by the virgin stands.

FIRE SWEEPING UP A SLOPE IN

THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

With the opening up of the forest re-
gions by settlement, railroad construc-
tion, lumbering, and other development,
forest fires began to increase at an enor-
mous rate. Lumbering was almost in-
variably followed by fire, and many of
the most disastrous conflagrations have
resulted from fires which gained their
first headway in the dry tops left after
logging.

im. every forest» there “is-a: certain
amount of inflammable material, consist-
ing of dry leaves, decayed vegetable mold,
branches, twigs, cones, dry grass, and
other litter. The most common type of
fire is that which runs over the surface
of the ground, consuming this material.
This is calied a surface fire. Sometimes
a fire may start when only the upper
layer of leaves is dry, and may run
slowly through the woods without seri-
ous injury. ‘More commonly they occur
in very dry weather and burn all the
ground cover, destroying all small trees
and either killing or injuring the larger
ETees.

Repeated fires of this character rapidly
reduce the density of a forest, for some

663

THE EFFECT OF FOREST FIRES IN MAKING A FOREST OPEN AND BROKEN

A forest of yellow pine in California.
finally destroys the forest.

Every fire kills some trees, and, if continued,
This forest has been opened up and has only a relatively small

yield of timber as a direct result of past repeated fires.

trees die as the result of each fire, and,
as the young growth is also killed, the
forest becomes more and more open and
broken. This explains why in many re-
mote forests, where there has never
been any cutting at all, the trees stand
far apart and the yield in valuable mate-
rial is -small. Frequently in a* virgin
forest the yield is not over one-fifth to
one-tenth of what it would have been if
fires had not occurred.

In some regions, particularly in the
North, there is in the forest a deep layer
of decayed vegetable mold, or humus,
frequently one to three feet deep. When
this becomes thoroughly dry a fire burns
slowly and persistently through it, kill-
ing the roots of the trees. These are
called ground fires and are exceedingly
difficult to extinguish. They have been
known to smoulder for long periods
under the snow (see photo, page 667).

The most destructive fires are those
which not only burn over the ground,

604

but sweep up into the tops and actually
consume the crowns of the trees. These
are called crown fires. They are com-
mon in forests composed of coniferous
trees, as the forests of the Fast and the
Lake States and the coniferous forests
of the far West. The crown fire usually
starts asa surface fire; but, under the
influence of a strong wind or when
burning in a mass of old, dry tops or
other débris, the flames are carried into
the crowns. With conditions just right
the green crowns are ignited, and a con-
flagration develops which sweeps every-
thing before it.

TERRIFIC FIRES WHICH KILLED HUNDREDS
OF PEOPLE

There have been a number of great
fires which have attained historic impor-
tance. One of these occurred in New
Brunswick, in the fall of 1825, on the
Miramichi River, during a season of
great drought. Many fires of greater or

A TYPICAL VIRGIN FOREST IN WASHINGTON UNTOUCHED BY FIRE
The principal tree is Douglas fir, three to eight feet in diameter and 200 to 250 feet

high.
together.

less proportions were burning through-
out that region, and it is probable that
but little effort was made to extinguish
them. Early in the afternoon of Octo-
ber 7 the various smaller fires began to
sweep together and formed a single fire
of enormous proportions.

Within nine hours the fire had burned

665

Forest fires have done but little serious damage.

Trees of all ages grow mingled

over a strip of forest 80 miles long and
25 miles wide, destroying every living
thing in its path. One hundred and sixty
persons perished and nearly 1,000 head
of stock. Five hundred and ninety
buildings were burned and a number of
towns were destroyed, including New-
castle, Chatham, and Douglastown. It is

SLASH LEFT AFTER LOGGING: THE GREATEST MENACE FROM FIRE

In all timber sales on the national forests this débris is destroyed

related that even great quantities of fish
in the river were killed by the heat of
the tire:

Another historic fire was that which
occurred in Wisconsin in the fall of
1871. A single fire swept over an area
of more than 2,000 square miles. It de-
stroyed the town of Peshtigo, and be-
tween 1,200 and 1,500 persons perished.
That same year the damage by fire else-
where in the country was enormous.

Still another fire, which is still remem-
bered by many persons, was that which
destroyed the town of Hinckley, Minne-
sota, in the tall'of 1894." As. in: other
cases of great fires, there was a season
of exceptional drought. The woods be-
came very dry, especially on those areas
which had been recently cut over by the
lumbermen, where a great mass of tops
and other débris was left upon the
ground. Many fires were constantly
starting during that fall, but there was
no effective effort to extinguish them.

Forest fires were so common that there
was no special fear of possible danger
until it was too late to meet the situa-
tion.

As often happens when there are many
fires burning under these conditions and
a high wind springs up, the different
small fires were suddenly merged to-
gether, and a great crown fire resulted
which swept over the town of Hinckley
and six other towns, entirely destroying
them, killing 500 persons, and making
over 2,000 more entirely destitute. The
estimated loss in property by this fire
was more than $25,000,000.

THE GREAT CATASTROPHE OF I910

The most recent great disaster from:
forest. “hires _ occurred “in the = Racine
Northwest in 1910. That year was the:
driest ever known in the West, particu-
larly in northern Idaho and northwest-
ern Montana. Practically no rain fell
from early spring until October. The

ri

HE arene

AFTER A FOREST

FIRE

sec tp poe ences rn A eet oer
iinet

IN WISCONSIN

This forest of larch was destroyed by a ground fire burning in the deep vegetable mould.
The roots were killed and the trees uprooted by the wind

forest became dry as tinder and there
were fires springing up here and there
throughout the forests. Many fires were
started as early as May and by the mid-
dle of June the situation became serious.

The national forests in this section
are in many cases still without roads,
trails, and other means of communica-
tion, so that although the forests were
equipped with a force of patrolmen
many fires started at remote ~points
which it was impossible to reach until
the fires had gained considerable pro-
portions and were very difficult to extin-
guish.

One july.-23.a severe ‘electric: stom,
practically without rain, passed over the
northern Rocky Mountains, setting a
large number of fires. The Cceur d’Alene
Mountains in particular suffered from
theseminies:. In three days the forest
rangers put out nine fires set by lght-
ning in the Cceur d’Alene National
Forest.

Five others from the same cause and
same storm started in remote and in-
accessible places which could not be

667

reached until they assumed large pro-
portions. From one cause or another,
many other fires were set. Heroic meas-
ures were taken to extinguish them.

At one time 1,800 men, besides
companies of soldiers, were fighting fires
in the Coeur d’Alene forest alone, and
large crews were fighting fires in other
parts of the northwestern forests. The
men fought stubbornly, working day and
night building trenches around the fires
and gradually confining them to a small
area.

All fires seemed to be under control,
when on August 20 a terrific hurricane
sprung up, sweeping all the separate
fires together and making a gigantic wall
of flame many miles long. Many of the
fire fighters were directly in the path of
the fire. Seventy-nine fire fighters were
killed, and if it had not been for the skill
and the nerve of the forest rangers in
charge of the crews a very much larger
number would have perished. As it was,
about half of the number killed lost their
lives because of their failure to obey the

two

A FOREST CF NOBLE FIR IN WASHINGTON DESTROYED BY FIRE

This forest contained 20 to 40 thousand feet per acre of valuable timber

orders of the forest rangers in charge of
the parties.

HEROISM OF FOREST RANGER PULASKI

Many instances of heroism occurred
during that fire whose recounting would
fill many pages. One case will serve as a
typical illustration of the sterling quali-
ties of the men making up the force of
rangers protecting our national forest
property.

Forest Ranger Pulaski was in charge
of about 150 men, distributed over a dis-
tance of several miles along the divide
between Big Creek of the Cceur d’Alene
River and. Big Creek: of. the St. ‘Joe
River. As the peril became imminent he
brought together about 40 of his men
who were in the danger zone and started
with them down the mountain toward
Wallace, Idaho, a distance of 10 miles.
When about half way down the moun-
tain he found that he was cut off by new
fires.

His men became panic-stricken, but he
assured them that he would still get
them to a place of safety. Being thor-
oughly familiar with the region, he knew

of two prospect tunnels near by, the
shorter being about 50 feet and the
longer about 100: feet in- length.» . Not
being certain whether he could reach the
largest and safest, he put a wet gunny
sack over his head and worked his way
to the largest tunnel. Finding that it
was safe, he rushed back to his men and
hurried them to the tunnel, arriving just
in time to get them inside before the fire
reached them. At this time he had with
him 42 men, all of whom-he managed to
get into the tunnel with the exception of
one, who had fallen behind and was
caught by the fire before he could catch
up with his comrades.

The timbers supporting the tunnel
caught fire, and Pulaski, standing guard
at the mouth of the tunnel, managed to
catch with his hat some water from a
little stream that flowed from the bottom
of. the tunnel; which he kept dashing
upon the burning timbers until he him-
self was so badly burned that he fell
unconscious. Prior to losing conscious-
ness he commanded his men to lie on
their faces for protection.

Probably all of the men were uncon-

668

pe

Ls ee

sees

meas p
won

A TYPICAL SCENE OF DESOLATION AS THE RESULT OF FOREST FIRES:

scious for a time, but finally one who
had received less injuries than the others
was able to crawl out of the tunnel after
the fire had passed over them and drag
himself into the town of Wallace to
notify the forest office of the situation.
This was about 3 o'clock in the morning.

A crew was immediately organized
and sent to the tunnel. All of the men
were saved with the exception of five,
who had been smothered before relief
came. Had not Pulaski known of the
location of the tunnel and handled the
situation with the skill and courage that
he did, his entire crew would have per-
ished.

ONE HUNDRED MILLION DOLLARS
DESTROYED EVERY YEAR BY

FOREST FIRES

During the same year there were many
fires throughout other parts of the West,
including California, Oregon, and Wash-
ington. ‘These occurred both on private
lands and on the public forests.

On the national forests alone there
were over 5,000 fires. Most of these
were extinguished by the organized
force of rangers, the chief damage being
done by a few fires which could not be

MINNESOTA

controlled on account of lack of trails,
telephone lines, and other improvements.
The damage to the public forests alone
amounted to over 14 million dollars in
the destruction of timber, besides exten-
sive damage to young growth.

If there had been no organized force
of men to fight the fires, practically the
entire forests in many regions would
have been destroyed. It is certain that
the damage would have reached 100
million dollars and perhaps twice that
amount.

But the great loss by forest fires is not
by any means confined to these great
conflagrations. The scattered smaller
fires destroy also a large amount of mer-
chantable timber, but the very greatest
damage, often overlooked, is in the kill-
ing of the immature and small trees and
the prevention of new growth.

The indirect injury by forest fires is
also enormous. ‘The fire risk removes
incentive to the practice of forestry by
private owners. The rapid destruction
of the forest by fires results in the short
life of many industries, a reduction in
land values, and after a time the actual
depopulation of forest regions. Still
another serious result of forest fires in

660

670

S: SAN FRANCISCO MOUNTAINS, ARIZONA

A FOREST AT THE FOOT OF MOUNT SHASTA, CALIFORNIA: THIS CONDITION IS THE
RESULT OF REPEATED FIRES

mountain regions is the disturbance of
the regularity of water flow and the
erosion which under certain conditions
causes great damage.

The total annual damage from forest
fires, including the destruction of timber
and other property, the destruction of
young growth, the prevention of young
growth, and all the indirect injurious
effects, is difficult to estimate. It has
been generally accepted that the damage
to timber alone has amounted to at least
25 million dollars annually. The annual
destruction of immature trees and young
growth probably totals fully 20 million
dollars, while the injury resulting from
the actual prevention of reproduction is
at least 60 million dollars more. This
must be considered in connection with
the drain on our forests for products
actually” used in the form of timber,
poles, ties, mine props, fuel, etc.

It means but little to the layman to say
that we use each year over 40 billion
feet of lumber, or 23 billion cubic feet
of all classes of wood, including fuel.
Suffice it to say, that it requires 8 to 10

671

million acres of well-stocked forest, such
as occurs in the East, to provide one
year’s supply.

FOREST FIRES CAN BE PREVENTED

When the reader realizes that the pro-
duction of timber by growth is only
about one-third the amount used (and
in this statement no account is taken of
the vast destruction by forest fires), he
will appreciate how imperative it is that
we stop the fires and also that we intro-
duce forestry methods, in order that we
may produce new supplies to meet the
needs when the virgin stock is exhausted.

The? old view, that forest~ fires: are
inevitable and that no system can be de-
vised to prevent them, is obsolete. It has
been clearly demonstrated within the last
few years that by proper organization
forest fires can be prevented. But if the
forests are neglected forest fires cannot
be prevented, any more than city fires
can be prevented without an efficient and
well-equipped fire department.

We have had great losses
fires because adequate steps

by forest
have not

re
aa

FALLEN DEAD TREES IN A LODGE-POLE FOREST IN MONTANA

This dead material makes dangerous fuel for fires, renders travel slow, and fire-fighting very

difficult

been taken to prevent them. In many
cases the laws are entirely inadequate.
The chief trouble has been the unwil-
lingness to spend the money necessary
to do the work. There should be much
more liberal appropriations for the pro-
tection of public forests and for promot-
ing forestry among private owners, and

67:

private owners should take better care
of their timbered and cut-over land.

It is simply a question of reasonable
insurance against great financial loss.
Thus the national forests represent a
value of over two billion dollars at the
most conservative estimate. The annual
gross expenses of administration, protec-

FALLEN TIMBER IN A WASHINGTON FOREST

Many virgin forests in the Northwest have an immense amount of down timber, making fire
protection extremely difficult

CHAO LSA

MAM

SONICTING

OOZ LNOAV :OI6I JO ANIM LSANOT AU WALav ‘ouvat “TOW TIV MM

674

—

THE FIGHT AGAINST FOREST FIRES 675

tion, permanent improvements, and all
other work upon them amounts to only
about two and one-half cents per acre,
or about two and one-half mills on each
dollar of valuation. The net cost, after
deducting receipts, cuts this in two, and
in a few years there will be no drain on
the government at all, as the receipts will
more than balance the expenses.

In this connection it may be added
that Prussia spends about $2.50 per acre
annually on its public forests, and France
about $1 an acre. Even British India
spends over twice as much per acre on
its public forests as the United States.

PROTECTING OUR NATIONAL FORESTS

The protection of the vast domain of
our public forests has been a gigantic
task, inasmuch as the national forests
are located chiefly in the mountain re-
gions of the West, and, including the
forests in Alaska, comprise a gross area
of about 190 million acres.

These forests are still, for the most
part, in a state of undeveloped wilder-
ness. When first organized there were
in the forests almost no means of trans-
portation and communication ; thousands
of square miles were almost inaccessible
for patrol or for transportation of men
and supplies in case of fire. The forests
themselves are chiefly composed of conif-
erous species, a type of forest far more
exposed to serious fires than those com-
posed of hardwoods. In many sections
there is a prolonged dry season in the
summer, during which the fire danger is
critical.

The first step taken was to organize a
force of men, properly distributed, to
patrol the forests and to fight such fires
as occurred. Accordingly the forests
were divided and subdivided into such
divisions and districts as were necessary
for effective organization. The effort
was at once made to remove as fast as
possible the causes of fires, because the
aim of organized protection is to prevent
fires from starting at all. This condition
is, however, a long way off, and in the
neantime preparation must be made to
reach quickly fires which may occur, and
with the necessary means to extinguish
them.

The causes of fires may be well illus-
trated by the record of those occurring
on the national forests in the year 1911,
as follows: Railroads, 33 per cent; light-
ning, 14 per cent; incendiary, 6 per cent;
brush-burning, 6 per cent; campers, 123
per cent; saw-mills and donkey engines,
I per cent; miscellaneous, 5 per cent;
unknown, 22 per cent. These are all
preventable causes, except lightning.

The principal danger from lightning
les in the fact that there are through-
out the forests standing dead trees and
old snags which are dried out and easily
ignited when struck. Ultimately, when
the forests are fully opened up and de-
veloped and these old snags are removed,
the principal danger from lightning fires
will have been removed.

Railroad fires will be eliminated when
it is a requirement for locomotives to
burn oil or carry adequate spark arres-
ters. Pending the time when this can
be accomplished, the forest service is re-
quiring the clearing of rights of way of
inflammable material and careful patrol
of the tracks in codperation with rail-
roads. The number of railroad fires were
reduced within the last year by five per
Cent:

Most fires from other causes are due
to carelessness. Education of the people
to exercise care in the use of fires on the
forests and strict enforcement of laws
and regulations is gradually bringing
about a change in this respect. ‘Time is
required to bring about this reform,
although great advances are being made
every year. Meanwhile, as it is inevi-
table that fires will start here and there
in the public forests, the government
must be in position to stop them before
there has been time for them to develop
into conflagrations which cause serious
damage.

It is recognized that effective fire pre-
vention is impossible until the forests
are opened up with means of transporta-
tion and communication and are other-
wise equipped with improvements for
fire fighting. The ordinary virgin for-
est, especially one which has already
been more or less damaged by fire, is
littered with fallen trees and other débris,
which make it impossible to penetrate to

6

OF 1910

4

FIRE

BY ‘THK

D

4

KILL

\

MONTAN

|

‘Sip

FORE

A

ing trees

alli

Woe

Some were killed b

hters perished.

oOo
1g

, 79 fire-f

h swept over from Idaho

1C

In this fire, wh

“a2
emer

tne FIGHT AGAINST FOREST FIRES O77

different portions without roads and
trails (see photos, pages 672 and 673).

A fire started by lightning or other
causes in a remote place may be practi-
cally inaccessible, requiring two or three
days to reach it. By that time the fire
may have attained proportions which
necessitate a terrific fight with perhaps a
force of several hundred men before it
can be subdued. ‘Trails are therefore
absolutely necessary, both in order that
the forest guards can adequately patrol
the forest and in order that men, equip-
ment, and supplies can be transported
quickly to all parts of the forest in case
of need.

Such a system of trails is being built
in the national forests as rapidly as funds
are available. - Already nearly 10,000
miles have been constructed. There are
required, however, fully 80,000 miles
more in order to establish the first skele-
ton system of trails. This will be equiva-
lent to about 10 miles of trail for every
township of 36 square miles.

In the long run a much more exten-
sive development of trails will be re-
quired; but this primary system is abso-
lutely necessary before it will be possible
to really gain adequate mastery over
forest fires.

TELEPHONES AND LOOKOUT STATIONS

The distances in the national forests
are so enormous that, in addition to the
roads and trails, there must also be a sys-
tem or telephone Imes. [he Forest
Service has already built about 7,000
miles of telephone line, but about 45,000
miles more are required to complete the
primary system of control. These tele-
phone lines enable instant communica-
tion between the headquarters of the for-
est supervisors and the rangers and also
connect with the lookout stations. There
has recently been developed a portable
telephone set, which is carried by the
patrolmen, so that they can tap a line at
any point and report a forest fire to
headquarters without having to take the
time to go to a ranger station or other
central point.

Still another very important develop-
ment for fire prevention is the establish-
ment of lookout stations. In the moun-
tains advantage is taken of prominent

peaks which command a view of an ex-
tensive area. An equipment is provided
which enables the watchman to locate
fires quickly. There is usually a firmly
mounted table, on which may be placed
a map of the surrounding region. <A
telescopic or simple alidade enables the
watchman to sight a fire and at the same
time to determine on the map its precise
direction from the lookout station.

The watchman is always a man fully
acquainted with the region and is usually
able to determine on what watershed the
fire is located. He immediately tele-
phones to the ranger station nearest the
fire, and a man or men are dispatched to
put it out.) Usually. there: are two’ or
more lookout stations on a forest. When
a fire may be seen from two stations in
communication with each other its pre-
cise location can be fixed.

Where the topography is such that
high points or natural lookout stations
cannot be found, high towers are built;
in some instances of rough poles; in
other cases of lumber, and recently many
steel towers have been constructed.

During the past season fires on the
national forests have been located from
lookout stations as far away as 50 miles,
and as a result of the quick reporting of
the location the fires have been promptly
extinguished.

Still another means for fire preventi »n
isstnecine lime 2A. dirtsroad: 1s the best
possible fire line, but general road con-
struction must follow after the construc-
tion of trails and telephone lines. It is
expensive work and not so immediately
essential as the other development. In
many instances, however, it is necessary
to construct at once fire lines from which
all small growth and inflammable ma-
terial down to the mineral soil is re-
moved. Some 500 or 600 miles of such
fire lines have been built on the national
forests.

One of the very important classes of
improvements in a large forest is the
ranger stations, which are well located
with respect not only to the conduct of
business in the forest but to fire protec-
tion. Many serious fires have been pre-
vented because they were within strik-
ing distance of the ranger station.

With all this permanent improvement

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work done, it is then necessary that there
be ample equipment to meet emergen-
cies—fire-fighting tools, such as grub-
hoes, axes, rakes, pails—and such other
material as the special conditions of a
given forest require. This equipment
must be located where it will be most
useful—at ranger stations and in special
boxes located at convenient places.

It is, further, most essential that there
be provision for the transportation of
men and supplies in case of fire. In
some cases where there are no roads and
transportation is entirely by trail it is
necessary to equip a forest with a pack
train. Elsewhere arrangements are made
in advance to hire such transportation
as is needed when occasion arises.

The key-note in fire prevention is
preparation. This applies not only to
the development and equipment of the
forest, but also to the organization of
the protective force. The great diffi-
culty in the national forests has been that
the appropriations have not been large
enough to permit the employment of
enough guards and patrolmen.

At present the average area in charge
of a single man is about 100,000 acres.
In some cases of very valuable timber it
has been possible to place one guard to
each 30,000 acres. A single patrolman
should not have to cover over 10,000
acres when the timber is heavy and valu-
able. Elsewhere one man to 20,000 or
25,000 acres may be sufficient if the for-
est is equipped with trails, telephones,
and other improvements.

The Forest Service has been able to
accomplish what it has only through the
most careful organization and the effi-
cient and loyal service of its rangers.
Careful fire plans are prepared which
provide in advance for the placing of
the patrol, the codrdination of the differ-
ent patrolmen, the distribution of fire-
fighting equipment, the securing of men
and supplies and their transportation in
case of fire, and all other matters which
are needed in an emergency.

THE PRACTICE OF FREQUENT BURNING OF
THE WOODS VERY INJURIOUS

It has been the practice in some sec-
tions of the country to burn over the

679

forest every year or two on the theory
that light annual fires are beneficial in
preventing the accumulation of inflam-
mable debris, which if allowed to gather
in quantity might cause fires of great
proportions.

This practice of frequent burning of
the woods has been particularly preva-
lent in the forests of the southeast and
in certain sections in California. It has
been stoutly maintained by some lum-
bermen that this is the proper method
of forest protection. These men point to
the fact that trees of certain species
have a thick corky bark which resists a
lioht: surface) fire)“. Hence: -it-1s -main-
tained, the valuable timber is protected
from fire, whereas if a thick leaf- litter
is permitted to gather and young pine
trees to spring up a single fire would
burn with such severity as to kill the old
timber.

Of course, the advocates of this theory
are interested only in the protection of
the mature timber, and have no interest
in the protection of the immature trees
or the promotion of a new crop after the
first is removed. It is obvious that the
repeated burning of the forest destroys
the young trees. and altogether prevents
any new reproduction. The doctrine con-
sists, therefore, of protecting a limited
number of mature trees by destroying
all the young ones. When the old trees
are finally cut nothing but a barren waste
is left (see page 683).

This process of ultimate destruction
of the forest is illustrated in many parts
of those forests where the practice of
annual or periodic firing of the woods
has been in vogue. The insistent pro-
mulgation of this dangerous doctrine by
certain lumbermen in California has acted

-as a real obstacle to retard the establish-

ment of effective forest protection in that
State and stands out in sharp contrast to
the progressive attitude of the lumber-
men of the Pacific Northwest.

THE STATES AND PRIVATE OWNERS
COOPERATING

Following the methods used by the
government, many large owners of tim-
ber lands are now undertaking to pro-
tect their property from fire. In the

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FOREST OFFICERS EQUIPPING THEMSELVES TO GO TO FOREST FIRE: COLORADO

An important part of the equipment of the forest consists of the tool-boxes, located at
strategic points

Northwest several fire protective associa-
tions have been formed, through which
the lands of the members are handled
under a single protective organization.
Their example has been followed by
lumbermen in certain parts of the Lake
States and in northern New England.
Very little progress has, however, been
made among the owners of large tracts in
the South.

Those States which have initiated a
policy of State forests are protecting
their public property from fire. These
and other States have gone further and
are undertaking to aid the private owners
in fire prevention. ‘The individual owner
is always at a disadvantage if his neigh-
bor is careless.

A great many States have excellent
laws for the punishment of carelessness
in the use of fire, but only about 14 States
have developed a system of protection
based on the principle of patrolling the
forests to prevent fires, just as is done
en the national forests. Under the sys-
tem of State patrol the State does not
bear the whole burden, but directs the
work and contributes such an amount as
will insure effective organization.

The States which have inaugurated
Such, ao system: are: New York, Maine,
New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachu-
setts, Connecticut, New Jersey, Mary-
land, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Washington, and Oregon. Others will
soon follow. . Pennsylvania has a pro-
gressive policy of State forestry, but has
not yet introduced a system of patrol
on private lands under State direction.
These various States have not yet per-
fected their organizations, nor have they
covered the whole forest areas within
their boundaries. They have inaugurated
the right policy and need now only
money enough to put it into full prac-
tice:

The government extends a certain
amount of direct aid to the States in |
protecting the forests on the watersheds
of navigable streams. The Weeks law,
passed in March, 1911, provided $200,000
for this purpose. The law requires, how-
ever, that no State shall receive more
than it appropriates from its own treas-
HiEVeton. fre —protection.“ In: 1911 tem
States received aid from the government
under the Weeks law. In 1912 probably
12 will receive such aid.

TELEPHONE CONSTRUCTION IN THE FLATHEAD NATIONAL PARK: MONTANA

The forest service has already built 7,000 miles of telephone lines in the forest reserves, but
45,000 miles more are required and will be constructed as soon as funds are available

From the foregoing it will be seen that great deal of public education, to elimi-
enormous advances have been made in nate carelessness in the use of fire in the
fire protection in the last few years. The forest. Many States have not yet ade-
annual fire loss is being very greatly re- quate fire laws, and the appropriations
duced. The problem is, however, by no for fire protection by the States and by
means solved. There is still required a the government are still inadequate.

aies~ dina

&

Sees ae ae

A LONG-LEAF PINE FOREST IN TEXAS, 12 YEARS AFTER LOGGING, WHICH HAS BEEN
BURNED REPEATEDLY
There is no young growth at all.

When the remaining trees are cut the destruction of the
forest will be complete (see page 679)

THE EFFECT OF PROTECTION OF LONG-LEAF PINE FOR

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684

SURVEYING THE i4lstr MERIDIAN

By THomas RiaGs, Jr.

ENGINEER TO THE ALASKA BOUNDARY COMMISSION

AR to the north, in latitude 60° 20’,
towering high above other moun-
tain giants, stands Mount Saint

Elias. From a ridge of Saint Elias, and
running north straighter than the crow

flies, is the 141st meridian of west longi-

tude, which is the dividing inland line
between the possessions of Great Brit-
ain and that of our own much-abused
Alaska.

From its starting point, near Mount
Saint Elias, the boundary shoots for 60
miles over the great ranges and glaciers
of the Saint Elias Alps to the broad val-
ley of the White River, where the pros-
pector patiently drives his tunnels on
lodes of copper and gold and prays
nightly that the Copper River and North-
western Railroad, now built up the Chi-
tana River to Kennecott, may be pushed
over the high Scolai Pass, thereby mak-
ing his wares marketable. What is it to
the pioneer if the railroad should charge
as much as $75 per ton, for is not the
present rate 35 cents to $1 a pound from
Whitehorse to Canyon City, on the White
River (see map, page 693).

Just south of the White River, from
the summit of Mount Natazhat the eter-
nal snows cast their last defiance at the
boundary. From here even to the Arc-
tic Ocean there exists a season of the
year free from ice and cold.

The many channels and quicksands of
the White River being passed, the coun-
try changes to the lower rolling hills so
beloved of the white sheep, and to the
low, lake-dotted muskeg marshes inhab-
ited by the wide-antlered moose—a veri-
table hunter’s paradise, where sheep,
moose, caribou, and bear may be had at
almost any time; where greyling are not
caught on hook and line, but are kicked
out of the water, and where the Western
packer calls to the cook: “You blank
stomach-robber, ain’t you never no more
going to cook no beans?”

Across Ladue River, where the stream
flows twelve miles to go three in a straight
line; past the head of the Sixty Mile

685

River, the scene of the latest gold rush;
through Alaska’s pioneer diggings of the
Forty Mile; into the Yukon Valley and
up the abrupt north bank; across the
hills of the Tatonduk, the home of the
Fannin sheep; across the Nation River,
and across the barren hills and ridges of
the Kandik ; over the bottomless marshes
of the Big Black River, nightly made
hideous by the long-drawn howl of the
packed timber wolf; on, on, always
north; over the Porcupine, skirting by
Rampart House, one of Canada’s most
northerly trading-posts ; through the lake
country of the Old Crow; over Ammer-
man Mountain, the Davidson Range, the
British Mountains; then down to the
terminal monument, to be placed on the
bleak shore of the Arctic Ocean—so runs
the 141st meridian of west longitude ; in
all, roughly speaking, a distance of about
600 miles.

Working under the direction of a joint
American and Canadian commission, for
five years we have struggled with this,
the straightest of the world’s surveyed
lines, and this year it was given to some,
from the high summits of the British
Mountains, like Moses from Pisgah, to
gaze upon our goal, and to see the deep
blue of the Arctic, dotted with the daz-
zling white of wind-driven ice-floes.

The actual visible results of the work
consist of a vista 20 feet wide cut through
all timber, monuments set at intervisible
points not more than four miles apart,
and a detailed map of a strip of country
extending for two miles on each side of
the boundary. At prominent river cross-
ings and at the main points of travel, the
monuments are 5-foot aluminum-bronze
sectional shafts, each weighing about 300
pounds and set in a ton of concrete.
At less important points are the 3-foot
aluminum-bronze cones set in about 1,500
pounds of concrete. All monuments are
geodetically determined and will be the
bases for future surveys of Alaska.

The maps, when published, will be
among the finest of their kind in the

686

Photo by O. M. Leland

BOUNDARY PEAKS FROM A TRIANGULATION STATION

These peaks

Even this work calls for the most strenuous sort of

ximate distance of ten marine leagues distant from tidewater.
angulation.

On the coast the boundary jumps from peak to peak at an appro:
need not all of necessity be climbed, but may be geodetically determined from tri

mountain climbing.

world; besides showing
the differences of eleva-
tion and drainage, they
will also differentiate, by
means of symbols, _be-
tween the various growths
of timber and show their
density. The character of
the country, whether of
swamp or tundra, will
also be shown. A line of
precise levels, run from
tidewater to a point on the
boundary, furnishes the
initial elevation for map-
ping, whence elevations
for triangulation are taken
and extended trigonome-
trically both north and
south.

This survey has proba-
bly had more obstacles to
overcome than almost any
other survey of recent
times. In the first place
the meridian is crossed in
only two places by possi-
ble routes of water trans-
portation—at the Yukon
River and at the Porcu-
pine. For 225 miles south
of the Yukon, supplies,
forage, camp outfit, in-
struments, and personal
effects must mainly be
carried on the backs of
horses. An _ occasional
road, knee deep in mire.
over which a_ six-horse
team can barely pull their
40 hundred, will run out a
short distance from such
places as Dawson or
Whitehorse, but the main
reliance of the party is
placed in the pack-train
wending its snaky way
over. hill, tundra; cand
swamp. ‘Two miles an
hour is the average speed
of this freight train, and
six hours a day is con-
sidered long enough for a
horse to carry his heavy
burden.

On a forced march of

nearly 300 miles, my train of
50 horses averaged about 16
miles a day for 17 days, but
the trail was frozen and hard
and frequent caches of grain
were on the line of travel.
Another time, late in the au-
tumn, coming from 30 miles
north of the Arctic Circle to
the Yukon River, we were 23
days on the trail, a distance of
not more than 200 miles. Of
the 75 horses with which we
started, only 44 reached the
river.

Eight days out from the
Yukon we abandoned every-
thing possible in the way of
camp equipment; six days out
and every man in the detach-
ment of 30 men was forced to
carry his 20 pounds; four days
out, in a blinding snow-storm,
one of the topographers set
out to get a train of 12 horses
which had preceded the main
inaine Ele Started: at 10 one
morning, reaching the Yukon
camp in time for breakfast
the next morning. He had
forded two raging torrents in
the night and crossed a high
summit deep in snow. ‘The
relief train met us two days
out, bringing the precious
grain.

In summer one can fight
mosquitoes and keep fairly
comfortable, but in the long
retreat after the dark nights
have come, when snow covers
the trail, when ice is_ thick
enough to just break through
with the weight of man, when
the wolves howl around the
camp, when in the morning
huge fires must be built to
thaw out tents and pack-rig-
ging, while packers freeze
their fingers tying packs on de-
jected and shivering ponies—
then the true spirit of the man
is manifested and the ‘‘chee-
chako,” as the tenderfoot is
called, shows whether he is
worthy of the life of a sur-

=

M. Leland

W FROM SUMMIT OF BOUNDARY PEAK “6900” (SHOWN IN PRECEDING ILLUSTRATION), SHOWING A BOUNDARY PEAK AND

Photo by O.

4
4
1

VII

STATION

ANOTHER TRIANGULATION

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purys’T “IW ‘O Aq o0yg

WHAT NOW ITVS ‘ELL
purl’] “WO 4q ojyoyg

588

—

WORKING ON THE COAST BOUNDARY :

‘veyor, or whether his adventures in life

should be limited to the selling of pink
and blue ribbons.

Not uneventfully has the boundary be-
tween Alaska and Canada been run.
Fire, shipwreck, accident, disease, and
death have trailed the footsteps of the
surveyor.

During my first season on the 1r4Ist
meridian, while in camp on the Yukon
River, I was suddenly called from my
instrument by the cook shouting that a
body. was floating in the river. Sure

~ enough, bobbing serenely along with the

current was an unmistakable black ob-
ject. Hurrying into a canoe, we tied a
rope to the body and towed it to shore.
It proved to be the body of an ex-dog-
driver of the Northwest mounted police,
who had been drowned at Dawson some
four weeks previous. For the sake of
the astronomic work, the wire had been
tapped at the boundary and we were in
communication with Dawson, the nearest
Canadian town, and with Eagle, which
is on the Alaskan side. With character-
istic promptness an officer of the police
appeared on the scene.

Captain Tucker, of the police, insti-
tuted a coroner’s court on a stump and
took evidence.

“Where was the body landed?”

“Just below the boundary.”

Photo by O. M. Leland
PREPARING TO CROSS THE DE BLONDEAU GLACIER

“Sorry I can do nothing in the matter,
as the body was found on the Alasran
side.’

Captain Tucker packed up his papers
and went home.

I went to Eagle and interviewed the
United States commissioner. Yes, he
was very sorry, but in the Alaskan code
there is no provision for burying the
dead. In effect both governments said:
“He’s all yours; we don’t want him.”
We knocked together a rude coffin, made
from packing boxes, wrapped the poor,
discolored body in canvas, and lowered
it into a shallow grave back of the old
Boundary Creek road-house. There was
less profanity than usual at supper that
night.

Pope and I traveled down the Big
Black River on a raft last year to a tri-
angulation station. While walking back
a sudden storm overtook us near one of
the little trap cabins frequently found in
the most unexpected places. We broke
in and waited until the fury of the storm.
was past. On the cabin door were writ-
ten the names of two men, with the in-
formation that they had left in June and
would be back in September.

This year a broken raft on a log-jam,
a torn tent, and a rusted rifle were found
far below the little lonely cabin, but the
men themselves have never been seen.

690

Photo by O. M. Leland

FROM A TRIANGULATION STATION

99

“5300

BOUNDARY PEAK

Such tragedies are common in the
North.

The survey party itself has paid
toll. Two efficient, energetic young
American surveyors have been cut
off in the prime of their life as a
result of hardship and injury re-
ceived in the line of duty. ‘The
Canadians have lost one of their
brightest, (chiefs iof sparty.~ “Ac.cry
and a dark shape hurtling through
a thousand feet to a glacier below
was the last of another of their ad-
venturous mountain climbers. Two
are in pauper asylums for the in-
sane.

While there is much that is grim
in the life of the pioneer, still there
is much to enjoy.

This year, landing at Rampart
House, a scene of wild excitement
ensued among the Indians. Never
before had they seen so many white
men, never a horse, never a steam-
boat ; and when, without tow-line or
sail, the little steamer Delta nosed
her way up the Sunaghun Rapids,
spitting smoke and steam from
stack and pipe, their wonder was un-
bounded. A hundred white men—
it was incredible. They pressed
around, each one eager to be the
first to shake hands and say “How
do,” all the English they knew.

On the high bank stood the log
store, surrounded by the various
buildings of the trading-post, for
all the world like the posts of the
“Honorable Company of Gentlemen
Adventurers of England trading
into Hudson’s Bay” of a hundred
years ago. Beneath the tall flag-
pole, from which waved the flag of
Canada, in bold relief against the
white-mudded buildings, stood the
picturesque figures of the trader
and his head assistant, moccasin on
foot and the red toque set jauntily
over the weather-beaten face, with
the high cheek bone and steady eye
of the North.

The steamers Delta and Vidette
disgorged their cargoes of men and
horses. As the horses were turned
loose to run and roll in the flat back
of the Indian village, a wild scram-
ble ensued. Hundreds of dogs fled

SURVEYORS NEAR THE BASE OF BOUNDARY PEAK “5300”
The boundary tribunal selected certain mountains, which were designated as boundary peaks;
5300” refers to the approximate elevation

Photo by O. M. Leland

SURVEYOR’S CAMP FAR UP ON A. MOUNTAIN SIDE

601

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OUTLINE MAP SHOWING ALASKA-CANADA BOUNDARY LINE

The heavy black line along the rgist meridian denotes the completed part of the bound-
ary. The coast boundary, ending at Mount Saint Elias, is practically completed. The dotted
lines show the routes followed from Whitehorse when going to the field.

“The maps, when published, will be among the finest of their kind in the world; besides
showing the differences of elevation and drainage, they will also differentiate, by means of
symbols, between the various growths of timber and show their density. The character of
the country, whether of swamp or tundra, will also be shown. A line of precise levels, run
from tidewater to a point on the boundary, furnishes the initial elevation for mapping, whence
elevations for triangulation are taken and extended trigonometrically both north and south.”

_ 603

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Photo by F. Lambart

THE BOUTELLIER SUMMIT ON THE ROAD TO LAKE KLUANE

Lake Kluane is at the end of a so-called wagon road from Whitehorse, and 150 miles
distant. The lake itself is 25 miles from end to end. This was made in a few hours, while
on the return along the shore it took two days by pack-train.

to the hills, not to be seen, but to be
heard for several days. Within 10 min-
utes not an Indian was to be seen. In
their cabins, behind barred doors, for
two days they whispered of the strange
hornless caribou that wandered at will
among the houses, kicked down their
tents and upset their caches. At last the
braver ones ventured forth, and before
long the children were throwing stones
at their former bogies.

A few days to sort supplies and stores,
and then, with the bucking of green
horses and the din of bells, the parties
one by one faded over the hill and into
the unknown North.

The American and Canadian parties,
consisting of anywhere from 30 to 50
men each, do not operate as one large
party. Instead numerous subparties are
organized, averaging about seven men to
the party, each in charge of a veteran
surveyor, each one complete in itself and
independent of the others, each with its
own cook and pack~-train. The only
party which in any way could be called
a joint party is the one determining the

main points on the meridian. In this
there are both American and Canadian
surveyors, whose individual observations
must check each other before the bound-
ary is decided upon.

Long before the field is reached, the
list of outfit is given to each chief of sub-
party, showing his share down to the
last teaspoon and pound of flour. It is
then up to him to see that his supplies
last through the season. As provisions
are brought to his camp by the supply
train, they are checked from his allow-
ance. In this way is avoided the game
of “grab.” Cooks and packers are no-
torious in this respect, and I have yet to
see the cook or packer who did not think
that his share of luxuries or forage was
much less than that of some other cook
or packer.

Between the surveyors exists a gener-
ous rivalry. Never in the history of the
survey has any chief of party been found
guilty of shirking work; instead he is al-
ways trying to do just a little more than
the other fellow. This spirit soon per-
meates the entire force. At the start of

605

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607

608

Photo by D. W. Eaton

STW ARD

4
4

E

MOUNTAINS TO THE W

+
4

E

MOUNT NATAZHAT AND TH

The White

This was the divide crossed in the attempt to climb the mountain.

is shown in the right-hand corner of the photograph

River, full of dangerous quicksands,

Holmes Creek flows from the mountains to the west of Natazhat.

the season, a green hand will
sometimes complain of long
hours and heavy work, but
the older employees will not
tolerate a loafer, and before
many days he has caught the
survey spirit, “That the man
who is always willing to take
the worst of it will find every
other man always willing to
take the worst of it.”

Sundays do not especially
exist as a day of rest, unless
it is storming too hard to
even move camp. To be sure,
breakfast is had at 7 instead
of at 6, and the men usually
return to.camp by 5. ‘Dhis
applies to the Fourth of July
and other holidays as_ well.
Not a day: can be wasted, for
at the best a field season 1s
only of too days’ duration.

Incident there is in plenty.
but it is soon forgotten in the
text.

Reaburn, in advance of the
main party, was going to
Eagle from Dawson by canoe
just after the opening of the
river. Where the river nar-
rows above Forty Mile there
was a jam of ice. There was
no chance to make the shore.
so he headed for what ap-
peared to be the most solid
part... As he struck he drew,
his canoe onto the ice. When
asked what he did next, he
answered, “Got into the canoe
and went to sleep.” This with
the ice cracking and breaking
all around him.

Hardly a year goes by that
some man does not get treed
by a bear, and that special
bear is always the largest bear
in Alaska.

A pack of timber wolves
tried to be friendly with a
couple of packers on the
Black River, but were beaten
off.

That Providence which
watches over babes -and
drunken men must also watch
over surveyors, for with the
risks which are taken I can-

699

Photo by D. W. Eaton

MOUNT NATAZHAT FROM THE NORTHWEST

The Natazhat Range is the last of the perpetually snow-capped mountains along the 14ist meridian

not explain why a dozen men have
not been drowned or killed. With
enough experiences each to fur-
nish food for conversation for a
lifetime, if you were to ask Rea-
burn, Gilmore, Ryus, Guerin, or
Baldwin to relate some adventure
they would not be able to recall
one little one, for like Percy, the
Machination Man of the Sun-
day supplements, “Of imagination
they shave nix:” = ‘Lhey are’ not
parlor explorers or lecture-room
adventurers. lt is simply their
life.

A steamboat wreck in the Thirty
Mile River, freight gone astray,
water too low to allow navigation
for river steamers, caused Craig,
the Canadian chief of party, and
me to muster our fleet, consisting
of the American power boats A/id-
night Sun and Frontiersman and
the Canadian Aurora and Pelican,
on the lower river to bring up
supplies for the clamoring parties.
Craig ‘had sone 40 Hort ) Yukon,
while I, with a relief cargo of 10
tons, on the Midnight Sun was
pushing steadily and noisily up the
Porcupine.

One day. out from Rampart
House we met the Frontiersman,
the pilot of which brought an
indefinite rumor of that most
dreaded of all diseases among the
Indians, smallpox. At Rampart
House the rumor was confirmed.
The little daughter of the Indian
preacher showed a_ well-defined
case. Our, surgeon, “Dr. Smith,
had isolated the patient on the
island, but no other steps had been
taken.

It was a difficult problem. The
boundary line with which we were
taking such pains stood in the
way. Here we were only 500 feet
over in Canada and all Canadians
away; but something had to be
done to stop the spread of disease
to the parties and to the’ sur-
rounding country.

We debated five minutes. Stores
were hurried to the Midnight
Sun, telegrams to Dawson and to
Washington written, and the Mid-
night Sun shot out into the rapids

Mapping is all done by the plane-table.

Photo by Thomas Riggs. Jr.

MAPPING IN THE FOOTHILLS OF MOUNT NATAZHAT

While it is not necessary for the topographer to

climb every hill, still he must choose his stations so as to see into every little draw to be
mapped. ‘This station is on the brink of an extinct volcano at an elevation of about 6,000

feet.

with hurry instructions to find Craig and
place herself under his orders, while the
writer and two others remained to help
fight the smallpox.

The whole tribe was washed with
antiseptic and, to the Indian mind, that
strange and useless article—soap. Fresh
clothing and supplies were issued to the
members of the infected camp, who were
isolated in a clean camp back of the In-
dian village. The camp in which small-
pox started and the adjoining camps
were burned with all their cherished pos-
sessions. There was some discontent
manifested as precious furs and bead-
work disappeared in smoke, but this was
promptly squelched with threats and a
display of handcuffs. There were only
three of us and we had to take a high
hand.

Within nine days a tired crew of the
Midnight Sun tied up in the eddy, but
with them were Craig, a member of the
Northwest mounted police, a male nurse,
and vaccine. Without waiting for any
confirmation of Craig’s wire from Cir-

cle, the Dawson authorities had hurried
the two men on board the first steamer,
our launch had met them at Circle, and,
by running day and night, had landed at
Rampart House in record time. All ex-
penditures were approved and our already
established quarantine authorized. There
are no half-way measures with the Can-
adian government in an emergency.

Thirteen days elapsed before there
was another case, and for a time we
thought that the trouble was over, but
the Indians had all been exposed and
now came down by families. The island
assumed the appearance of an army
bivouac. The Indians were all brought
in from the hills and placed under super-
vision to prevent their scattering all over
the country.

There is no law in Alaska to protect
the community from an epidemic, so we
arbitrarily took it and forced inspection
and vaccination over a radius of 100
miles. Fortunately large quantities of
supplies and clothing had been brought
in for the use of the joint parties; these

700

Photo by Thomas Riggs, Jr.
SURVEYORS CLIMBING ONTO THE KLUTLAN GLACIER
The newly fallen snow covering the crevasses made the crossing of the glacier extremely

dangerous. All three members of the party fell through several times, which, when carrying
a hundred-pound pack, is decidedly unpleasant.

Photo by F. Lambart
CAMP ON THE SIDE OF MOUNT NATAZHAT: ELEVATION, ABOUT 9,000 FEET
Drying out all our changes of clothes the morning after the snowstorm

701

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702

were issued as needed. Had these sup-
plies not been at hand the Indians could
not have been controlled and a general
outbreak of smallpox all over the Yukon
would have been the result.

Now came the problem of getting the
parties from the field without bringing

703

Photo by F. Lambart
SURVEYOR’S CAMP ON THE KLUTLAN GLACIER

them in contact with contagion. Pope
and I gathered in both the Canadian and
American parties and sent them across
an unknown country, to hit the river far
below the Rampart House. Craig stayed
on the lid. ‘Then, while Craig and a few
of his party went into a two weeks’ iso-

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704

Photo by Thomas Riggs, Jr.

A “CACHE

Unless supplies are placed on an elevated platform of this description, bear and wolverine

will soon destroy anything left along the trail

Photo by Thomas Riggs, Jr.
A WONDERFUL SET OF HORNS

Although we were out of fresh meat at the time, every one was glad that there was nothing
more deadly than a camera around when this great caribou stuck his head over the skyline

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Photo by M. W. Pope

In summer the Indians utilize their dogs for packing. This particular pack weighs about 30
pounds. The dogs are always loaded with all they can stagger under

Photo by A. I. Oliver

Mosquitoes are so thick that unless some protection is given the horses cannot graze.
The style of net for man is shown. The ends of the bib to which the net is fastened in the

back and front are tied under the arms.
707

age Oe

Photo by Thomas Riggs, Jr
TOPOGRAPHER AT WORK ON THE ARCTIC CIRCLE

On June 22 the boys wanted to work all night. This is a snapshot at midnight

Photo by W. B. Reabura

THE ARCTIC RANGE, OR BRITISH MOUNTAINS

This range runs very close to the coast at the boundary, the foothills coming to wiihin
only a mile or two of the ocean. The higher summits are about 7,000 feet high, and are per-
fectly bare of snow in summer. ‘Timber ceases at this range, and the survey parties have to
burn oil from here to the coast, where driftwood from the Mackenzie River can be picked up.

A peculiar feature of this range is the large amount of coral and other sea fossils to be
found.

708

Photo by Mrs. Herbert Wadsworth
INDIAN WOMEN AT RAMPART HOUSE WATCHING THE APPROACH OF THE STEAMER
“VIDETTE” (SEE PAGE 690)

Photo by Thomas Riggs, Jr.

THE SURVEY LAUNCH “MIDNIGHT SUN”

Length, 50 feet; beam, & feet; draft, 18 inches; 25 horse-power gas engines. Pushing a
barge, this little craft can transport from ro to 15 tons. She did great service during the
summer freighting on the Porcupine and Old Crow rivers and later in bringing the lumber
for the hospital to quarantine (see page 710).

709

Photos by M. W. Pope

DAILY INSPECTION FOR SMALLPOX: VACCINATING
INDIANS (SEE PAGES 699, 700, AND 703)
The adult Indians submitted to the inspection without any
complaint, but the little ones had to be bribed with candy, a

sackful of which was taken out every day. Soon they hailed
the inspection as a great event.

710

lation, came my burn:
Reaburn, one of our sur-
veyors, commonly known
as the “Old Sleuth,’ and
five others of the party
volunteered to stay in
during the winter for the
purpose of storing and
forwarding supplies for
the ‘next. season andi for
looking after the Indians.

In response to a tele-
gram, the Canadian au-
thorities at Dawson had
sent lumber for a hospital
and carpenters, but, owing
to low water, the steamer
Delta was unable to bring
it nearer than 60 miles of
the camp. At this point
the Delia dumped ton

‘the beach and took on the

parties and their outfits.
The lumber was brought
up by the Frontiersman
and the Midnight Sun.

Late in September, when
it had become dangerous
to stay longer, Pope and
I left Rampart House on
the Frontiersman. At the
‘““Aurora’s Goat’ rapids
we met the little Midnight
Sun with the last of the
lumber, struggling bravely
against the current. “The
thousand feet of lining
wire was covered with a
glaze of ice, one- drive-
chain was lost, two wheel-
buckets were broken and
patched, her house and
wheel casings were en-
crusted with ice, but the
undaunted crew drove her
to quarantine (page 709).

The erection of the hos-
pital undoubtedly saved
the lives of many of the
92 afflicted Indians.

At the time of my leav-
ing there had been but one
death. Amos Njootli, an
ordained priest of the
Church of England, al-
though himself smitten
with smallpox, read the

DR. SMITH ON THE WAY TO VISIT SMALLPOX
PATIENTS
When in contact with smallpox patients the

doctor always wore a cotton shirt covering his

clothing, which was thoroughly disinfected after
each visit.

LON
ste st

FUMIGATING

After being among the smallpox Indians, all
hands would be fumigated. This was done by
getting in an air-tight tent, all except the head.
About eight ounces of formaldehyde were then
evaporated inside the tent. After about 10 min-
utes the germs were all considered dead.

711

Photos by Thomas Riggs, Jr.
SMALLPOX CAMP ON EDMONDS ISLAND

With the exception of the nurses’ tents, which are shown in the center of the picture, every
tent shown contained one or more cases of smallpox when the photograph was taken

Sa <i

Photo by M. W. Pope

ONE AND A HALF CORDS OF FUR AT RAMPART HOUSE AWAITING SHIPMENT

The precious furs of fox and sable have been sent to London. The furs seen here are mostly
muskrat, about 17,000 of them

Photo by F. Lambart

THE HOME OF THE SQUAW MAN

Seemingly perfectly contented, the squaw man is found in most unexpected places. They
are usually kind to their wives and devoted to their children. They eke out an existence by
trapping, mining, or guiding hunting parties.

712

WHERE OUR BANANAS COME FROM vd

burial service in the Indian tanguage.
The body was laid away in a grave on
the bluff overlooking the river, while the
whole population of the island joined in
the singing of a weird interpretation of
“Nearer, My God, to Thee.”

The Indians of this country are nomi-
nally all Christians, and are visited every
year by Bishop Stringer, of the diocese
of the Yukon. Many are communicants
of the Church of England. They are
also communicants of any other church
with which they may have come in con-
tact. They also hold fast to many of
their old customs, and in consequence we

ice)

shall probably have to pay for the one
person who died, or take the chance of
a shot from ambush.

With it all there is an unexplainable
fascination about the North. ‘The very
hardships lend a paradoxical charm. ‘The
vast solitudes, uninhabited and lonely,
have an irresistible call. The surveyor
dreads the day when he shall have thrown
his last diamond hitch, broken his last
camp, and, from the deck of a home-
ward-bound steamer, have watched a
free life fade away in the mist with the
distant hills.

WHERE OUR BANANAS COME FROM

By Epwin R. FRAsER

HERE, exists a legend relative to
the Christian inhabitants of the
East, that they believed the ba-
nana to be the tree of the source of good
and evil, in a bunch of whose fruit the
serpent that tempted Eve hid itself, and
they add that when Adam and Eve be-
came ashamed of their nakedness they
covered themselves with the leaves of
this plant. Beyond all doubt this legend
had some influence upon the minds of
those early botanical classifiers who
designated two species of the plant by
the names of Musa paridisiaca and Musa
sapientium—Fruit of Paradise, Fruit of
Knowledge.

The origin of the banana is given as
India, at the foot of the Himalayas,
where it has been cultivated since re-
motest antiquity. Its origin in the New
World is as doubtful as the origin of the
American Indian. Natural to Asia and
Africa, where more than 20 distinct spe-
cies of the genus are known, it is said to

have been brought first to America from .

Spain, early in the sixteenth century, and
planted in the island of San Domingo,
whence its spread was rapid throughout
the surrounding islands and the main-
land. This has never been authentically
established, however, and some authori-
ties include the banana among the articles
that formed the base of the food supply
ef the Incas and’ the Aztecs before the

arrival of the Spaniards. Certain it is
that throughout the whole of meridional
America there is a strong tradition that
at least two species of the plantain were
cultivated long before the coming of the
Furopeans. Furthermore, it is singular
that in all the languages indigenous to the
region where the banana appears, that
plant has a special name, not proceeding
from the conquerors, as was the case
with the names of many other plants,
animals, and various articles introduced
into America after its discovery.

Grown over the entire extent of the
meridian of the:earth, the fruit of the
banana today forms, in large part, the
principal food of a majority of the peo-
ples living under the tropical zone.
Several species and numerous varieties
of the plant appear throughout tropical
America, but it is cultivated for commer-
cial purposes in appreciable quantities
only along the Atlantic border, from
southern Mexico to Colombia, in Ja-
maica, Cuba, San Domingo, and the Ba-
hamas, the far western markets of the
United States being supplied from the —
Hawaiian Islands and Mexico’s south
Pacific coast.

The lowlands adjacent to Costa Rica’s
eastern coast present a combination of
soil and climate that is perfectly adapted
to the cultivation of this plant. It thrives
best under conditions of extreme heat

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Photo by Edwin R. Fraser

A BUNCH OF PLANTAINS
The stem grows out of the top of the plant and shoots over ic the side

715

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716

“as the: welfare of the ===

and humidity, a temper- [
atne below. 75 degrees |
Fahrenheit or an eleva-
tion more than 1,500
feet above sea-level re-
tarding its development. ©

The frequent showers, |
interspersed with hot
sunshine, peculiar to
eastern shores in the
tropics, give the plant its
ideal environment, and it
may be counted a cer-
tainty that where clima
tic conditions favor the
banana itis” extremely.
unhealthful for the white
man. Of prime impor-
tance, also, is a rich soil,
clayey and sandy soils
rich in humus and allu-
vial deposits being re-
quired.

Given the requisite soil
and climate, the banana
requires little attention,
producing fruit every
month in the year, and
is self- propagating by
means of suckers, which
continually shoot off
from the mat at the root
of, the mother = plant.
Under cultivation these
suckers are kept down,

mother plant demands,
from three to five to each
mat being allowed to re-
main, coming on from
three to five months be-
hind the parent, and so
on in perpetual succession. Sometimes
more than a dozen suckers, in groups of
different ages, may be seen in a single
mata)

At the age of 10 to 11 months the fruit
is gathered, and consists of one bunch or
stem to each plant, the fruit being ar-
ranged around a fibrous stem in layers,
called hands, with 7 to 12 hands, or 15 to
25 fingers to the stem, the total averaging
12 dozen bananas. This stem grows out
of the top of the plant, being, in fact,
a continuation of it, and, by the great
weight which it bears, shoots over to the
side, with its upper end extending down-
ward (see pictures, pages 716, TAN:

Photo by Edwin R. Fraser

THE FLOWER OF THE BANANA GROWS AT THE TIP OF THE

STEM, BEYOND THE FRUIT

The occurrence of four flowers on a stem is extraordinary, one

being the rule

The stem is elongated from two to three
feet beyond the fruit and is tipped py a
formation of matted purple leaves, in the
shape of a spear point, which is called
the flower.

The plant, now shortly dying naturally,
under cultivation is cut down, to give
place to its three to five successors, that
being the number usually grown in each
mat. For planting new areas the young
suckers are cut off close to the mat and
transplanted in holes 20 inches deep and
15 feet apart each way.

Several distinct species, known as the
plantains, the Musa paridisiaca being
the most common, occur in numerous

717

718

variety throughout the American tropics.
One of these, the ‘Five Hundred,” is
noted for the enormous size of its stem,
frequently reaching more than 12 hands,
with over 200 fingers, and when the fruit
is small there are sometimes from 300 to
500 on a single stem. A San Domingan
variety, on the other hand, produces
bunches of only to to 25 fingers, each
plantain a foot long and weighing from
two to four pounds.

In general the fruit of the plantains is
more fibrous in texture and larger than
that of the Musa sapientiwm, which is the
species most widely cultivated for ex-
port, and nearly all varieties of which
are commonly referred to as the banana.
Most of the former are cooked green,
few of them being edible raw, while the
latter, because of its superior flavor and
the high percentage of sugar which it
carries, is in high favor as a table fruit.

The species Musa sapientium, of In-
dian origin, is represented in America by
many varieties, each differing from the
other slightly in size, shape, color, and
flavor of fruit, and the number to a stem.
It has greater resistance than other spe-
cies, produces bunches more compact and
regular, of a uniform weight and size,
that stand transporting better, and the
fruit is well formed and succulent.

In Costa Rica the species ordinarily
attains a height of 25 feet from the
ground to apex, although it frequently
reaches 30 feet, and has been known to
increase in height three feet in a single
month. ‘I‘he Congo variety grows to 18
feet, while the dwarf guineo, indigenous
to China, reaches but six to nine feet,
with very small fruit. The latter is much
admired for the beauty of its leaf and is
frequently found in the patios of the
homes and the public plazas of the towns,
where its influence is commanding, ex-
erting a truly tropical charm.

The total area to bananas in the sev-
eral districts adjacent to Costa Rica's
Atlantic seaboard is approximately 80,000
acres, one-third of which is owned and
cultivated by the United Fruit Company.
Altogether there are some 200 small out-
side growers of the fruit, for the most
part Americans and Europeans, a few
of whom have holdings reaching several
thousand acres each. The line of rail-

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

way connecting the banana belt with tide-
water being controlled by the United
Fruit Company, all outside fruit grown
in the country is sold to that company,
nine-tenths of it being grown under con-
tract for the company to purchase at a
price agreed upon in advance, which
ranges -from.15- to 320: cents- sold sper
bunch, according to grade. The com-
pany also owns a large fleet of specially
constructed ships, which carry the fruit
to overseas markets.

Costa Rica at present exports annually,
in round numbers, 10 million bunches of
bananas, and this quantity is exceeded
only by that of Jamaica, which is ap-
proximately 12 million. It is probable
the latter figures will soon be equalled in
Costa Rica, when the large areas of new
ground now being brought under cultiva-
tion become productive. During the
busiest season an average of a steamer
a day leaves Port Limon with fruit for
the American and English markets, the
exportation sometimes reaching a total
of over a million bunches in a month.

Of the country’s exports, approxi-
mately four-fifths go to the United States
and one-fifth to England. Of the fruit
sent to the United States, nearly one-half
enters through New Orleans, which is
the most important banana port in the
world, with a total importation of a little
less than 14 million bunches during the
fiseal: year ended June~ 30,, lor, one-
fourth of which came from Costa Rica.
The remainder of the product is taken
by Boston, Mobile, and New York, in
the order named.

The fruit is cut green, at different
stages of development, depending upon
the market for which it is intended.
That destined for New York and Boston,
a large part of which is consumed at
those ports without an additional haul by
rail, is cut at a more advanced stage of
development than fruit going to more
distant ports, or which is to be reshipped
to the interior by rail. Thus a large pro-
portion of the fruit entering at New Or-
leans and Mobile is cut at an earlier stage |
of development than that sent to New
York; the fruit for the English markets
is cut still less mature. The first is called
“full” fruit, the second “three-quarters
full,” and the last “three-quarters.”

o
5

reat height of the trees.

CUTTING BANANAS

They sometimes reach 30 feet.
of the leaves

719

pe os

Photo by Edwin R. Fraser

Also note the huge size

Photo by Edwin R. Fraser

CUTTING BANANAS

The top of the tree is pulled down with the pole and the stem cut with the machete. Note
the flower at the end of the bunch of bananas

720

Jose1y

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Photo by Edwin R. Fraser

FRUIT AT RAILWAY AWAITING TRANSPORTATION TO THE WHARF AT PORT LIMON

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4

WHERE OUR BANANAS COME FROM 7

As all fruit is sold. delivered atthe
railroad, each farm is provided with its
own tramway leading from the fields to
the railroad, the cars being drawn by
mules. Notice is given to the grower to
deliver a specified quantity of fruit along-
side the cars on a given date, for ship-
ment by a certain vessel, and within 12
to 18 hours after the fruit is cut it has
been transported to Port Limon and
loaded aboard ship ready for sea.

At the wharf the fruit is transferred
from car to ship, at the rate of 2,000
bunches per hour, by mechanical loaders,
specially designed to carry it without
bruising, over canvas rollers and into the
ship’s hold. Upon arriving at its over-
seas destination the fruit is unloaded in
the same manner, and within a few hours
after the steamer has docked its cargo
has been placed aboard special trains of
refrigerator cars, waiting to carry it to
interior points of distribution.

Thus the bunch of bananas hanging
at the corner grocer’s, in the small town
of the middle West, or New England,
has been, in most cases, less than 15 days
out of its native habitat in the tropics.

The labor employed in all departments.

of the banana industry of Costa Rica, as
in most banana-producing countries of
America, is the Jamaican negro.
only shows an almost total disregard of
the dangerous climatic conditions, but he
is experienced in the work, which he
learned in his Jamaican home. Indeed,
it may almost be said that the existence
of the industry—on its present magni-
tudinous scale at least—is dependent
upon the ability of the black man to work
year after year in an environment that
all too frequently is fatal to the white
man and from which, to preserve his life
and health, he is compelled to remove
himself at frequent intervals.

The annual rainfall in the banana dis-
tricts is enormous, but the Jamaican con-
tinues his labors alike through torrential
downpour and the sweltering heat of a
tropical sun, rarely falling a victim to
the deadly fevers to which the white man
so readily succumbs.

The United Fruit Company alone em-
ploys upwards of 5,000 negroes in its
Costa Rican division. ‘The various pur-

He not.

bo
wo)

poses for which they are used include
clearing and preparing new lands for
cultivation, replanting, plowing, pruning,
draining, and cutting and loading fruit.
The three districts of Zent, Santa Clara,
and Banana River are divided into
farms, each of which has its white over-
seer, or mandador. Oxen are largely
used for plowing and other work in the
banana fields, as they are for nearly all
hauling in Costa Rica, both in town and
country.

The banana plant grows easily and
has few enemies. One, however, which
of late is giving the growers some con-
cern, is called the taltuwsa, a small, dark-
brown rodent, with protruding teeth,
closely resembling the American gopher.
Like the gopher, it burrows its way under
the ground and attacks the roots of the
banana, causing the plant to wither and
die. This little animal has now almost
entirely abandoned its former home in
the woods for the banana fields, and no
means has as yet been found to extermi-
nate it. The United Fruit Company has
gone so far as to bring scientists from
the United States and Europe in an en-
deavor to devise a means of ridding the
districts of this pest. Experiments were
made by inoculating a number of the ani-
mals with disease germs and turning
them loose, but little result was noted.
The growers offer the laborers one dollar
gold per head for trapping them, and in
this way their increase is checked to some
extent.

Wind-storms are another menace to
the plant, to which it falls an easy prey,
owing to its large foliage and the weight
of the fruit at its top. The danger from
this source is minimized by planting the
trees in rows diagonal to the direction
from which the heavy winds usually
blow. Excessive rainfall also is harm-
ful, and considerable outlays have to be
made for draining the surplus water from
the roots of the plants. Rich as the soil
is, it shows a tendency towards deterio-
ration after a few years, necessitating a
rest by plowing and letting the land lie
idle a season. Commercial fertilizers are
little used in the country, but experiments
are being made by planting cow-peas
where enrichment of the soil is needed.

730 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

The banana was long considered an
inferior article of food, fit for consump-
tion only by the yellow and black races
of Asia and Africa, and it was not until
Baron Humboldt, following his voyages
to New Spain, calied attention to the
richness in alimentary sustenance of the
fruit and the enormous quantities of it
produced on small areas that its impor-
tance became generally known.

Of the many forms in which the plan-
tain is served in the hotels and homes of
Costa Rica, the baked and fried dishes
are more agreeable to the taste.
-flavored green plantain, sprinkled with
sugar and baked in the oven until brown,
when the syrup of the fruit issues forth,
makes an appeal that is not easy to re-
sist if you are fond of sweets. Sliced
lengthwise and fried they are hardly less
palatable, and in this style they are fre-
quently served with beefsteak. The vari-
ous soups of which they form the base
may also be recommended, but the boiled
plantain, which is a universal food among
all classes wherever the fruit is found,
does not meet with the same high favor
with most foreigners. An excellent des-
sert, somewhat in the form of a preserve,
is made by taking the baked plantain, as
above, and cutting it into three or four
pieces, adding more sugar and stewing.

A nutritious and easily digestible flour
is obtained from the banana after it has
been dried in the sun. This flour is said
to act as a cure for indigestion and other
stomach disorders, and is highly valued
by the native women as an infant food.
Equal parts of this our and wheat flour
are used in making a bread that is of
pleasing taste and nutritious, but worthy
of mention more for its digestibility.
Artificial heat is also employed in drying
the banana to make this flour, and in
some countries, notably Jamaica, the in-
dustry is of growing importance.

Besides eating the fruit, the inhabit-
ants of the countries where it is grown
employ it in a wide variety of ways to
supply many of the needs of life. From
one species an acceptable quality of vine-
gar is made simply by mashing the fruit
and placing the mash in an earthenware
jar covered with a linen rag, allowing it

A well- .

to ferment. The ‘ripe plantain, fer-
ented, gives on distillation an extremely
strong brandy, not very agreeable to the
taste, and the natives, although accus-
tomed to strong lquors, usually give
preference to milder beverages. With
the essence extracted from the guineo
plantain, a short, thick variety, an aroma,
or bouquet, is given to false cognacs and
brandies in Europe which are destined
for exportation. For coughs and bron-
chial inflammation a pectoral is made by
roasting an unpeeled banana in the oven,
removing the skin, then thoroughly cook-
ing it in a little water, taking the syrup.
From the ribs of the leaf, which differ
in color according to species, the Fili-
pinos weave a remarkably fine cloth, but
the most useful service which the leaf
renders to the negroes of the banana
fields of Costa Rica thus far is protec-
tion from the heavy- rains, and for this
purpose it is better than the finest silk
umbrella.

Remarkable as the development of the
banana industry has been since the first
bunches were shipped, only three or four
decades ago, it may be said to hold fully
as great promise for.the future. The
markets where the fruit is already known
are insatiable, and practically unopened
fields for it are found in the countries of
continental Europe. In England its con-
sumption is increasing at a phenomenal
pace, as the sterling qualities of the fruit
become known and the price cheapened.
Where but a few years ago the fruit was
obtainable only in the larger cities of that
country and each banana was wrapped
in tissue paper, commanding a price that
only the few could afford to pay, today
there is hardly a green-grocer at a coun-
try cross-roads who does not sell it.

In July, 1910, the Costa Rican govern-
ment placed an export duty of one cent
gold on every bunch of fruit leaving the
country, effective until July, 1930, which
is the first direct revenue it has derived
from the country’s most important indus-
try. This law is universally regarded as
just; in fact, its effect has been to stimu-
late the growing of the fruit, since it
gives assurance that the duty will be no
higher during that period.

VoL. XXIII,

_AuGusT, 1912

NOTES

ABOUT ANTS AND THEIR RESEM-
BLANCE TO MAN

By Witt1am Morton WHEELER, Pu. D.
ProFESSOR OF Economic ENTOMOLOGY IN Harvarp UNIVERSITY

Dr. Wheeler is the author of an unusually entertaining book, “Ants, Their

Structure, Development, and Behavior,”
The volume contains 650 pages and. several hundred illustrations, and is

Press.

published by the Columbia University

probably the most scholarly and suggestive work on the subject that has been
published. The pictures illustrating this article are from the above book.

away from the consideration of the

social and economic problems, which
so constantly beset us, to a study of the
social insects and their methods of solv-
ing the problems which they, too, have
had to face during their long and strenu-
ous evolution.

Though in most respects man and the
insect differ enormously, both neverthe-
less display some remarkable convergent
similarities. They are the only two suc-
cessful and dominant animal types of the
present age, and, so far as they are so-
cial, not only have had to encounter the
same obstacles, but have learned to over-
come many of them in the same manner.

The social insects, however, have been
more successful than man in organizing
stable communities, because they have
frankly trusted and followed their in-
stincts and have therefore carried their
social organization to its logical, or per-
haps we had better say instinctive, con-
clusion, whereas man’s intellectual proc-
esses and the ideals and dissentions to
which they give birth forever prevent a
definitive solution of economic problems

[: IS sometimes profitable to turn

and keep him in a state of active and
ceaseless evolution.

We naturally find, therefore, that the
stable and well-regulated insect societies,
which have “neither guide, overseer, nor
ruler,” have always aroused the admira-
tion of those who long for a rigid com-
munistic control of human society, while
the individualist turns away from them
with a feeling akin to horror.

THREE GREAT PROBLEMS OF EXISTENCE

It is well known that three great prob-
lems must be solved by every organism
that would survive in the struggle for
existence; first, how to obtain a sufficient
quantity of the right kind of food; sec-
ond, how to reproduce its kind and bring
up its offspring, and, third, how to pro-
tect itself and its offspring from the in-
jurious effects of both the lifeless and
the living environment. And although
all animals are constantly impelled to the
solution of these problems by the primal
instincts of hunger, love, and fear, the
solution is often extremely difficult. And
it is especially difficult in the social and
colonial animals, because these must en-

INTERIOR OF AN

Showing the arrangement of the chambers and galleries

ANT NEST OR FORMICARY (AFTER
ERNEST ANDRE)

dependently in all four of
these groups, and that such
resemblances as they exhibit
are due more to what biolo-
gists call convergence than to
blood relationship.

Ants are to be found every-
where, from the arctic regions.
to the tropics, from timberline
on the loftiest mountains to
the shifting sands of the dunes.
and seashores, and from the
dampest forests to the driest
deserts: ..Not only. do- they
outnumber in individuals all
other terrestrial animals, but
their, colonies: even «in very
circumscribed localities often
defy enumeration. ‘Their col-
onies are, moreover, remark-
ably stable, sometimes outlast-
ing a generation of men.
Such stability is, of course,
due to the longevity of the in-
dividual ants, since worker
ants are known to live trom
four to seven and qucens.
from: 13 to I5 years. In all
these respects the other social
insects are decidedly inferior.

A GREAT PRODUCER OF SPECIES:

Not only are the colonies
of the wasps and bumblebees
of ‘rather rare: occurrence
but they are merely annual
growths. ‘The honey-bees, too,
are very short-lived, the work-
ers living only a few weeks or
months, the queens but a few
years. The termites, though
perhaps longer-lived than the
bees and wasps, are practically

and the ants’ method of classifying the brood according
to stages. The lowermost chamber contains only cocoons
(pupe), the next above mature larve, while the young larve
and eggs are in the superficial chambers.

confined to very definite lo-
calities in the tropics. Only
a few of the species have been

ter into severe competition not only with
other organisms, but also with the mem-
bers of their own species, to whom they
are, moreover, bound by indissoluble ties.

There are two main groups of social
insects, the termites and the social Hy-
menoptera, the latter embracing three
minor groups, the social wasps, the social
bees, and the ants. It is more than prob-
able that social habits were developed in-

N

bo

able to extend their range into
temperate regions.

Thus unquestionably the most success-
ful and dominant of all these groups is the
ants, for these have produced the great-
est number of species, have occupied all
parts of the earth, except the very tops
of the high mountains and the cold arctic
and antarctic regions, with untold multi-
tudes of individuals, and have developed
the most intimate and complicated rela-

tionships to other insects and the vegeta-
tion of the planet. It is therefore par-
ticularly instructive to study the methods
whereby the ants as social insects have
solved the problems of nutrition, repro-
duction, and protection.

The ant colony or society may be re-
garded as an organism which, like the
individual insects of which it consists,
grows and develops to a fixed adult size,
and the size to which it grows is char-
acteristic of the species, just as is the
size of any individual. Some ants al-
ways form diminutive colonies of only
a few dozen individuals, whereas the
colonies of other species, when mature,
may comprise thousands or hundreds of
thousands. The growth of these colonies
obviously depends on the quantity and
quality of the available food supply and
on its distribution for immediate con-
sumption, or its storage for the future
use of the colony.

THE INTRICATE PROCESS OF FOOD
CONSERVATION

Ants feed on a great variety of sub-
stances, but in all cases only the liquid
portions of the food are taken into the
alimentary tract. If the food is solid,
minute particles of it are rasped off by
means of the tongue and pressed into a
small pocket in the floor of the mouth.
The juices expressed from the mass are
then sucked back through the gullet into
a dilated portion of the alimentary tract,
the crop, and the useless pellet is spit
out.

The crop is very distensible, but thin-
walled and lined with a layer of chitin,
which is impenetrable to the liquid con-
tents, so that none of the food, so long
as it is stored in this receptacle, can be
absorbed or digested. The crop is closed
behind by a complicated valve, which
separates it from a short, bag-like stom-
ach, the walls of which have a permeable
lining, so that it and the succeeding por-
tions of the alimentary tract, the in-
testine, are able to digest and absorb any
food which may be permitted to enter
them through the valve.

The crop and true stomach have been
called respectively the “social” and “in-
dividual” stomachs, because the liquid
food stored in the former is in great part
distributed by regurgitation to other ants,

733

Photo by Mr. J. G. Hubbard and Dr. O. 5. Strong:

QUEENS OF A COMMON ANT (Camponotus
americanus )

One of the queens is fecundated and has.
lost her wings and is thus prepared to start a
colony. Ant societies are societies of females.
The males really take no part in the colonial
activities, and, in most species, are present in
the nest only for the brief period requisite to
insure the impregnation of the young queens.
The males take no part in building, provision-
ing, or guarding the nest, or in feeding the
workers or the brood. They are in every
sense the serus sequior. Hence the ants re-
semble certain mythical human societies lke
the Amazons, but, unlike these, all their activi-
ties center in the multiplication and care of
the coming generations.

whenever they signify their hunger by
protruding their tongues and making sup-
plicatory gestures with their feelers, and
because none of the food in this re-
ceptacle can be used by the individual
unless it passes back through the valve
into the true stomach.

The crop is thus a storage reservoir
from which both the individual and the
colony can be supplied with nutriment.
Other older and cruder methods of the
distribution and storage of food coexist
among ants with this more modern and
more efficient method.

Thus solid foods may be carried into:
the nest entire and then dismembered
and the pieces distributed to different
parts of the nest to be still further com-
minuted and sucked dry by groups of
ants, or the solid food may be carefully
stored in special chambers.

Photo by Mr. J. G. Hubbard

and Dr. O. S. Strong

PORTION OF A Camponotus americanus COLONY WITH WORKERS AND VIRGIN QUEENS

Five pairs of workers
food from the social stomach or crop.

of the time spent by these insects in the

sary for removing all
but it also invests their bodies with
protects them from moisture
lethal moulds and bacteria.

A DETERMINED ATTEMPT AT SELF
CIVILIZATION

As ants were primitively carnivorous
or predacious insects, it is rather difficult
to understand how they could have de-
veloped societies at all, for as a general
tule we find that predacious animals,
which have to hunt their prey or to lie
in wait for it, like the spiders, hawks,
and tigers, live solitary lives, and that
only vegetarians like the caterpillars,
sparrows, rodents, and ruminants, which
have easy access to a large amount of
food, develop gregarious or social habits.

There can be no doubt that the ants

are seen in the act of feeding one another by regurgitating liquid
sae Many observers, especially McCook, have dwelt on
the exquisite care bestowed by ants on their own bodies and those of their comrades. 1
dark recesses of their nests is devoted to cleansing
the surfaces of their bodies with their tongues and strigils. :
particles of the earth in which the ants work so much of their lives,
a coating of slightly oleaginous saliva, which probably
and may be sufficiently antiseptic to prevent the growth of

Much

This process is not only neces-

have found it difficult to reconcile their
carnivorous appetites with their social
proclivities, for we find that they have
attempted this reconciliation in diverse
ways.

Most of the species of the oldest, most
primitive, and most conservative sub-
family, the Ponerinz, have not been able
to relinquish their carnivorous habits,
and have therefore been prevented from
forming large colonies. Most of the
species of this subfamily, in fact, form
colonies of only a few dozen individuals,
and these colonies are, moreover, rare
and depauperate in appearance.

j

Photo by Mr. J. G Co eabeete and Dr. O. S. Strong

PORTION OF A COLONY OF Camponotus americanus AT THE HEIGHT OF THE BREEDING
SEASON

a, egg; b, young larve; c, older larve; d, worker cocoons; e, queen cocoon; f, worker
major pupa removed from cocoon; g, worker media, in the act of hatching; h, major
workers; 7, minor workers; k, virgin female, or queen; /, males. Magnification about two
diameters.

NI
ies)
UL

<j
SU)

Another subfamily, the Dorylinz, em-
bracing the wonderful driver ants of
Africa and the legionary ants of the
American tropics, are also highly carni-
vorous, but nevertheless succeed in form-
ing immense colonies, often of hundreds
of thousands of individuals. This they
accomplish by relinquishing the sedentary
habits so characteristic of the great ma-
jority of ants. They keep moving in
long files through the jungles, capturing
or killing all the insects they encounter,
and even overrunning dwellings, and, in
their search for cockroaches and other
vermin, driving out the human inhabit-
ants. From time to time these strange
ants bivouac for the night or for a few
days in some hole in the ground, or under
a tree, but soon continue their predatory
march. Evidently they are able to re-
main carnivorous, and at the same time
to develop large colonies, only because
they are nomadic and can thus draw
their food supply from a large area.

The Ponerinz and Dorylinz ants have
thus adopted the only modes of life
which will permit a union of predatism
and sociability.

Their colonies must either remain small
and rare, or, 1f populous, must keep movy-
ing’ from -place“to place... As each of
these conditions has ‘serious disadvan-
tages, we find that the majority of ants
have preferred to become more and more
vegetarian, though, like man, usually
without completely abandoning their car-
nivorous appetites.

A FAVORITE FOOD

One of the earliest departures from an
exclusively animal diet is seen among the
ants which attend plant-lice, scale in-
sects, and leaf-hoppers and feed on their
saccharine excrement. This excrement
is, of course, merely plant sap slightly
altered in its chemical constitution by
passing through the digestive tract of
the insects, and containing much water,
some x as and a little nitrogenous
matter.

Many ants are so inordinately fond of
this food that they not only acquire an
intimate acquaintance with the habits of
the adult plant-lice and scale msects, but
actually collect and store their eggs in

36 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

the nests during winter in order that they
may during the ensuing spring distribute
the hatching young over the roots or
foliage of the plants. ‘This is a well-de-
veloped habit among the species of Lasius
throughout temperate North America and
Eurasia (see pictures, pages 743, 744).
Other plant juices, such as the nectar
of flowers and the similar liquid secreted
by the glands on the petioles of leaves
and by green galls, are also assiduously
collected by ants. ‘There is, moreover, a
singular tendency for some ants which
are engaged in this collection of nectar
and plant-lice excrement to become
“honey-ants” through an extraordinary
exaggeration of the instinct to store
liquid food in the crop or social stomach.

LIVING STOREHOUSES FOR FOOD

Certain individuals, the “repletes,” of
the colony refrain from leaving the nest
and foraging for food and become con-
verted into flagons by distending the crop
to such enormous dimensions that the
abdomen looks like a transparent bead
(see pictures, pages 747, 748). In this
condition they hang by their claws from
the roof of the nest chamber and thence-
forth spend all their lives receiving
liquid food from the tongues of the for-
ag 1g ants, storing it in their crops, and
regurgitating it to hungry individuals
when the liquid food supply outside the
nest becomes inadequate. This is, of
course, apt to be the case periodically
in dry regions, so that we find the true
honey-ants only in deserts lke those of
the southwestern states, northern Mex-
ico, South Africa, and central Australia.

In such localities also a further adap-
tation to vegetarianism may be frequently
observed in many species of ants which
take to harvesting and eating the seeds
of the small herbaceous plants. ‘This
harvesting habit is evidently a last resort
in regions where insect food is very
scarce or confined to a brief season.

There are several dozen species of
harvesting ants in North America alone,
the most conspicuous being those of the
genus Pogonomyrmex, the species of
which range all the way from Montana to
the Argentine through the dry western
portions of two continents. It was for-

The worker is produced by inadequate nourishment: is

Se

Photo by the Author
MAJOR AND MINOR WORKERS OF Camponotus americanus

“a hunger form.” Magnification

about two diameters (see text, page 742)

merly supposed that these ants intention-
ally sowed seeds in the ground in order
that they might later harvest the crop,
but this supposition has been shown to
be erroneous. The ants merely visit the
plants, which are often at some distance
from the nest, and carry the seeds home
over well-beaten paths.

FARMER ANTS

That ants can carry on agricultural or
horticultural pursuits has, however, been
proved by a study of the peculiar Atti, a
tribe comprising more than a hundred
species, all confined to America and

nearly all to the tropics. These ants live
on fungi which they cultivate on beds of
triturated leaves, or insect excrement in
specially excavated chambers.

The large species of the genus Atta cut
pieces of leaves from trees, carry them
into the nest in great numbers, cut them
into smaller fragments, and build them
up on the floors of the chambers into
sponge-like masses, over the surface of
which a delicate white fungus rapidly
proliferates. This fungus, which is con-
stantly weeded by the smallest ants in
the colony, is prevented from fruiting
and constrained to produce peculiar clus

737

‘STOJOUIVIP OM} JHoqe Uol}es 1use uUMOYS OSTB 918 UOODOS S}I WOl gAowes ednd suo pue ‘suoos09 ‘wae
Ip q Heoylucey f 5 } P I

Sunof kad ‘s8Sq “SO|rpULUT SPT UL BAIL] UMOIS-J[eY B Surds4

-[[euis oy}

‘ole O18 S[RNPIAIPUL SSop[SUIM Papeoy-o9s1e] oY}

Su0S "SQ IT pure preaqnry “sd ‘f “Ty Aq OVoN

=

eB SI ‘JousoD Joddn puvy-}fo] oy} Ul ‘toytom Jofeu Y ‘sJoYIOM JOUIU soo Poproy

{sayeUL dIB SaUO Jo][VUIS OM} oY} :UIenb ULsIIA & st [eNpIAIpUl pesuIm ‘as1e] YT,
SNUDITAIMLD snjouodupy) IO ANO'IOD AO NOILYOd

Joyyoue mo

Suoiys

S

If poof

O

Iq pue pireqqnyy

SUIATIDOI JO

*r) uf

joe oui ul

‘Iq Aq 04049

S1OJOWLIP OM} JNoWe uOT}eOyIUse I

ugos ST

S

JOYIOM oy} JO ou JoUsOD pueY

‘uoTjepSinsa1 Aq
yo, doddn oy} uy

SNUDIVAIWMAD sngouodupy 10 ANO'TOD AO NOILIOd

SIOYIOM

shojownu pue susenb urlsara

INO

739

Photo by the Author

ADULT WORKER LARV&, SEMI-PUP4, AND NUDE AND COVERED PUPA! IN VARIOUS
STAGES OF PIGMENTATION OF Formica subsericea

Magnification two diameters

ANTS AND THEIR: RESEMBLANCE TO MAN 741

ters of small, glistening food-bodies called
- “ambrosia” (see pictures, pages 750-754).
~ Some of the small Attii, instead of
building their fungus-gardens on _ the
floors, suspend them from the ceiling of
the chambers, so that the masses of sub-
stratum clothed with fungus filaments
hang down like white velvet curtains.
This habit is beautifully developed in sev-
eral species of Trachymyrmex and My-
cetosoritis. One of these, Trachymyrmex
septentrionalis, ranges as far north as the
pine-barrens of New Jersey.

None of the Attii or their larvz, so far
as known, can eat anything except the
particular kind of fungus which they cul-
tivate. “To appreciate the advantages to
which these completely vegetarian ants
have attained in thus substituting an
easily controllable and abundant food-
supply for the scarce and precarious in-
sect diet of their predatory ancestors, one
must observe these wonderful ants in
Brazil or Central America, moving over
their long trails in interminable proces-
sions, defoliating whole trees and carry-
ing their leafy burdens like banners to
their huge nest craters, which often
spread over a quarter of an acre or more.

The foregoing remarks show that the
ethnic history of ants parallels that of
man to the extent that these insects were
originally flesh-eating hunters, then shep-
herds of food-producing herds, and
finally agriculturists, and that they have
been compelled to pass through these
stages or forfeit the advantages of living
in populous and stationary communities.
It is evident, furthermore, that the social
needs of ants, like those of man, have
been even more exigent than hunger.

SOCIAL DIETITIANS

The skill and success with which the
higher ants have thus adapted their diet
to the requirements of sociability con-
trasts markedly with the conditions in the
other social insects. ‘The social wasps
are carnivorous, to be sure, but their
colonies are small and rare like those of
the Ponerinz, and in temperate regions
merely annual growths. The social bees
have retained the exclusively vegetarian
diet of their solitary ancestors, but, as
they have greatly specialized by restrict-

ing this diet to nectar and pollen, they
have become dangerously dependent on
the evanescent flowers. And _ though
they have learned to construct a wonder-
ful system of cells for food storage, they
are quite unable to control the food sup-
ply. Finally, the termites, though com-
pletely vegetarian, have also become too
specialized by restricting their diet to
wood, or cellulose, a hard and innutri-
tious substance, which, though abundant,
can be assimilated only with great diffi-
culty.

It is significant, therefore, that the ter-
mites of Africa and the Indomalayan
region, which form the largest and most
aggressive colonies, have become fungus-
growers. But even these have not yet
learned, like the -Attiine ants, to grow
“ambrosia” for all the members of the
colony. The worsing population of the
nests still has to live on wood in order
to produce the excrement which is used
in the construction of the gardens. The
fungus itself 1s fed only to the young and
to the sexual individuals.

It is a biological axiom that all organ-
isms tend to propagate so rapidly that
they are continually in danger of outrun-
ning their food supply. This danger is
even greater in the social or colonial than
in the solitary organism, because the
former is necessarily much hampered in
its movements, and if every individual of
which the colony consists be permitted to
reproduce the food supply would very
soon become so inadequate as seriously
to impair the functions of the community
as a whole. Hence it is not surprising
that all social or colonial organisms are
bound to restrict the reproductive func-
tion of their component individuals. This
is true even of the individual organism
itself regarded as a colony of cells.

REGULATING THE GROWTH OF FAMILIES

The four groups of social insects have,
therefore, had to face a very difficult
problem, and it is interesting to note that
they have solved it in essentially the
same manner as other social aggregates,
the cell-aggregate, or individual organism
included, namely, by restricting the re-
productive function to a very few of the
component individuals and by reducing

RBS
Photo by the Author

NEST OF A VERY COMMON ANT: Lasius (Acanthomyops) latipes

Only the irregular superficial galleries and chambers are shown as they appear when the
stone covering the nest is removed. The care of the nest is an important matter with all
ants, for convenience, no less than sanitation, requires that the galleries and chambers be

kept scrupulously clean.

All species, therefore, remove any refuse food, empty cocoons,

pupal exuvie, meconial pellets, dead members of the colony, etc., to a proper distance from

the living apartments.

Veritable kitchen middens are established for this purpose, either in

the open air or, if the colony is nesting under a large stone, in one of the deserted surface

galleries.

the great majority to sterility and endow-
ing them with a purely nutritive or pro-
tective function.

Nevertheless there are some interesting
minor differences in the solutions of the
problem of reproduction as exhibited by
the termites on the one hand and the
social Hymenoptera on the other. Al-
though both of these groups bring up
their brood in such a manner that the
majority of individuals in the colony are
sterile and only a few normally capable
of reproduction, the termites make steri!
or worker forms out of both male and
female individuals, whereas the wasps,
bees, and ants produce sterile forms only

among the females and merely reduce the
number of males and permit them to de-
velop only at certain seasons.

Hence among the social Hymenoptera
we have three castes: males, fertile fe-
males, or queens and sterile females, or
workers. The workers among ants and
termites; however, may be still further
differentiated into workers proper and
soldiers, the former having a nutritive,
the latter a protective, function.

This remarkable method of reducing
the reproductivity of a society, whilst in-
suring its nutritive success, 1s of no little
interest at the present time. It is prob-
ably not a mere coincidence that we

742

Photo by Mr. J. G. Hubbard and Dr. O. S. Strong

WORKERS AND COCOONS OF THE ANT WHICH PASTURES AND GUARDS PLANT-LICE:
Lasius (Acanthomyops) claviger (SEE TEXT, PAGES 735, 730)

This is a common herder of root-lice in the northern States.
from the two large ones queens.
Magnification about two diameters.

males and workers will hatch;
are just-hatched callows.

should be most diligently discussing eu-
genics, or the restriction of reproduction

to the sane in mind and body, at a time:

when we are also most exercised by the
high cost of living. Did space permit, it
could be shown that man, like other social
organisms, has for ages sought and is still
seeking means of regulating the repro-
ductivity of his race to prevent its ex-
ceeding its food supply, and that the ex-
pedients on which he has relied in the
past, such as monasticism, wars, and the
adoption of religious, property, and caste
restrictions to marriage, have been only
partially successful.

In termites, both sexes, as we have
seen, cooperate equally in the activities of

From the small cocoons
The pale individuals at a

the colony, so that each nest contains, be-
sides a king and queen, a host of work-
ers and soldiers of both sexes. The
colonies of ants and the other social Hy-
menoptera, however, are essentially femi-
nine, since they contain one or more
queens and a great number of workers,
which are all sterile females, and only at
certain times of the year contain any
males. ‘These, moreover, take no part in
the colonial activities, but live only to
mate with the queens of other colonies
during the annual marriage flight.

We are therefore prepared to find that
maternity is the pivotal instinct about
which all the activities of the ant colony
revolve. Not only the queen, the repro-

743

AZIVW FHL JO SLOOU AHL ONO'IV ONINdS AHL NI ODNNOA GIHOLH-tsnlt

TIL SILAGIMLSIG GNV WILNIM MHAO SLSHAN SLI NI YSNO'T LOOU-NYOO AHL FO SODY AHL SGYVOH HOIHM INV AH, IO ANO‘ION V

744

Photo by Mr. J. G. Hubbard and Dr. O. 5. Strong

COLONY oF Lasius (Acanthomyops) claviger, A COMMON SUBTERRANEAN ANT IN
THE WOODS OF THE EASTERN STATES, WHICH NURSES THE ROOT LICE

Two mother queens, without wings, several winged or virgin queens, and males are scat-
tered through the throng of workers. Three queen cocoons and numerous worker cocoons

are also shown. Magnification about two diameters (see pages 735, 730).

745

THE HONEY ANT, WHOSE STOMACH IS DEVELOPED INTO A FOOD RESERVOIR FOR THE
REST OF THE ANT COLONY

The picture shows the honey ant (Myrmecocystus hortideorum) in the act of regurgitating

food to workers of the ordinary form.

ductive center of the colony, but all the
workers act as though they were obsessed
with a perfect mania of reproduction and
nursing. Unless this fact is clearly ap-
preciated, much of the behavior of ants
will remain enigmatic, meaningless, or
absurd.

Nothing shows more clearly the
strength of the maternal instincts in ants
than the development of the colony from
its inception till it becomes in turn the
mother of other colonies. After mating
with the male high in the air, the queen
descends to earth end loses her wings,
either by breaking them off at the base
against the stones or blades of grass or
by tearing them away with her mandibles,
for they are to be of no further use to
her. She then seeks some small cavity
under a stone or piece of bark, or digs
one in the ground, and closes it after her,
so that she is completely shut off from
the world (see picture, page 763).

In this little cell she passes days, weeks,
or even months without food while wait-

(After H. McCook.)

(See text, page 736.)

ing for the eggs in her ovaries to mature.
The now useless wing-muscles, which fill
her large thorax, dissolve in the blood
and go to build up the yolk of the eggs,
and a similar fate overtakes the great
masses of fat which she stored away in
her abdomen during her larval life in the
maternal nest.

THE INFANT OFFSPRING FEED THE STARV-
ING MOTHER

Eventually she lays a small batch of
eggs and cares for them till they hatch as
helpless grub-like larvae. ‘These she feeds
with her saliva, but as the supply of this
is meager, the larve grow slowly, pupate
prematurely, and emerge as very small
and feeble workers. They nevertheless
at once set to work to expand the colony
by opening up a gallery to the outside
world and go forth to forage. They
bring in food to their starving mother
and henceforth spend their days in for-
aging, enlarging the nest by excavating
additional galleries and chambers, and in

Teja Paige
(:

ly
1

The “replete” workers, with their social stomachs distended with the sweet exudations
of oak galls, hang from the vaulted roof of the chamber in a cluster and function as so

many food reservoirs. (After H. McCook.)
rearing the successive broods of larve
from the eggs which the queen is now
able to produce in quantities.

The larve are fed more abundantly as
the number of workers increases, and
therefore develop into larger and more
vigorous individuals. As time goes on
and at the proper season, male larve ap-
pear and develop, and the female larve
are so well fed that they can develop
beyond the worker stage and become
queens.

With the appearance of these sexual
forms the colony has reached maturity,
and although it may persist for many
years, it merely repeats each year this
same cycle of feeding and rearing as
great a number of individuals as possible
on the amount of food which the workers
can secure.

The queen may live a dozen years or
more, and each worker may live three to
four years, but the males usually live only
a few weeks and die after the nup-
tial flight, being exhausted and knowing
neither how to feed themselves nor how
to return to the nest.

THE HIGHEST DEGREE OF SELF-SACRIFICE

Most extraordinary during the develop-
ment of the ant colony is the behavior of

(See text, page 736).

the workers, for though sterile and, under
ordinary circumstances, unable to lay
eggs, they nevertheless exhibit all the
other maternal instincts in an exagger-
ated degree. The worker, as we have
seen, is a form produced by inadequate
nourishment. It is a hunger form, so
inured to long fasting during its larval
life that even when it reaches maturity
it seems to prefer to starve, for though
greedy to fill its social stomach with
liquid food whenever there is an oppor-
tunity, it dispenses this store most gen-
erously to the larve and its sister ants
and permits very little of it to pass the
valve into the individual stomach, only
enough, in fact, to maintain healthful
activity.

Ants are, therefore, the most thor-
oughgoing of communists, to whom in-
dividual possession as such has no mean-
ing beyond its benefit to the community
as a whole.

But even the worker’s sterility, which
has given certain individualistic thinkers
such bad dreams, is neither fixed nor ir-
revocable. If the colony has a very
abundant food supply, or if its queen
dies, the small, undeveloped eggs, which
are always present in the ovaries of the
workers, may grow to full size, be de-

747

a shows the insects as seen from above; b in profile.
men are widely separated by the thin intersegmental membrane, which is great'y stretched by

the distended crop, or social stomach. (Author’s illustration.) (See text, page 736.)

posited and develop normally,
though always or nearly always
into male ants, because they are
not fertilized. Thus the joys
of maternity may fall to the
lot of the worker, though less.
abundantly and less frequently
than to that of the queen.

The founding of the colony
as described in the foregoing
paragraphs is typical of the
great majority of ants, but there
are several other methods,
which may be briefly consid-
ered, since they still further ac-
centuate the remarkable fond-
ness of these insects for their
brood. These methods are de-
termined by the different en-
dowment with which the queen
ants of different species leave
the maternal nest.

In most species, as already
described, the recently fecun-
dated queen possesses a large
fat body and a mass of wing
muscles, which can be con-
verted into food for the eggs.
and a complicated instinct en-
dowment, which enables her to:
found a nest and bring up a
first brood of young without
the aid of workers. There are
queens, however, even better
and some that are much more

THE FAMILY STOMACH OR REPLETES OF THE HONEY ANT OF THE GARDEN OF THE
cops (Myrmecocystus hortideorum )

In both the segments-of»the-abdo-

ANTS AND THEIR RESEMBLANCE TO MAN

BORN WITH A WELL-STOCKED LARDER

To the former class belongs the queen
of the fungus-growing ants, which not
only leaves the maternal nest with the
mental and bodily endowment of the or-
dinary queen, but also inherits some
property in the form of a bundle of fun-
gus filaments from the gardens of the
maternal nest, tucked away in the little
pocket in the floor of her mouth. After
she has excavated her chamber in the soil
and closed its entrance, she is thus in a
position not only to bring up a first brood
without extraneous aid, but to start the
gardens with the fungus pellet, whicl
she spits out, and keeps growing by care-
ful weeding and by manuring it from
time to time with her excrement, or even
with her own broken eggs, till the first-
ling workers hatch and begin to bring in
the leaf material or caterpillar excre-
ment, which is henceforth used as the
only substratum for the gardens.

Very different is the endowment of the
queens of a number of parasitic ants.
These queens are either very small and
feeble or lack the instincts and initiative
that would enable them to found a colony
independently. They are therefore com-
pelled to seek assistance in this arduous
task, and they succeed in securing it in
one of the three following ways:

The young queens of some parasitic
ants enter the colonies of an allied spe-
cies, the workers of which then either
kill their own queen and adopt the para-
site in her stead or permit the latter to
kill their queen. After the reproductive
center of the host colony has been thus
destroyed, the intrusive queen lays her
eggs and permits her young to be
brought up by the alien workers. These
die off in the course of a few years, but
by that time they have reared at least one
brood of the parasitic species and the
colony, now consisting exclusively of the
queen and workers of this species, is
sufficiently vigorous to lead an independ-
ent existence. This method of colony
formation, in which the queen is relieved
from the difficult task of feeding and
rearing a first brood, has been called tem-
porary social parasitism. It is character-
istic of many of the largest and most

749:

prosperous ants of the north temperate
zone—e. g., of the mound-building ant
of the Alleghanies (Formica exsectoides )
and the fallow ant of Europe (/. rufa).

THE KIDNAPPERS

A different method is adopted by the
slave-making ant Formica sanguinea and
many of its subspecies (see picture, page
755). The young queen enters a nest of
the common black Formica fusca or of
some one of its many varieties, kills or
drives away any of the workers when,
irritated by her odor, they rush forth to
attack her, then hastily collects a lot of
the worker pupz of the fusca and stands.
guard over and defends them till they
hatch. These workers at once affiliate
themselves with the queer as intimately
as if she were their own mother and
bring up her brood for her as soon as it
appears.

The sanguinea young inherit their
mother’s peculiar instinct to attack the
fusca colonies in the neighborhood and
to kidnap the worker pupe. They bring
these pup back to the maternal nest and
eat some of them, but permit others to.
hatchi= and: “become ‘auxiliaries... or
“slaves.” Thus what has been called
slavery among ants is merely a form of
parasitism, in which the “slave” species
is really the host. In old colonies the
sanguinea workers often lose the slave-
making habit, and as the fusca workers.
then completely die out, there ensues an
emancipation of the sanguinea colony
from the host like that observed in the
temporary social parasites.

THE SLAVERS

A third method is adopted by the young
queens of the permanent social parasites.
These queens enter the colonies of an
alien species and are adopted like the
queens of the temporary social parasites,
atten tae, enforced death of the host
queen, but the worker offspring of the
parasite are destined always to live with
the host species. There are really two
methods of insuring this result. One is
by slavery, as in the case of the amazon
ants (Polyergus), the workers of which
are unable to feed themselves, to care for

ILLUSTRATION OF THE GARDENS OF A FUNGUS-GROWING ANT (Trachymyrmex obscurior)
OF THE SOUTHERN STATES

The figure shows near the surface the small original chamber formed by the queen, five
chambers, with pendent fungus gardens, and a newly excavated chamber, in which the garden
has not yet been started (see text, pages 737 and 738).

750

Ext YOnce

From a sketch by Messrs. A. L. Melander and C. T. Brues

NEST DIAGRAM OF THE TEXAN LEAF-CUTTING ANT (Atta texana).

The large chambers, with sponge-like fungus gardens on their floors, are situated in a
stratum of sand under layers of red and blue clay and several feet below the surface, on
which the nest craters have their openings (see text, pages 737 and 738).

Photo by C. G. Hartman

A PHOTOGRAPH OF A SECTION OF THE NEST OF A SMALL TEXAN FUNGUS-GROWING
ANT (Mycetosoritis hartmant) ;

Two of the three chambers of the nest, which is excavated in pure sand, contain pendent
fungus-gardens. About one-fourth the natural size

752

{

i

» eg —
f

Photo by C. G. Hartman

NEST CHAMBER OF A SMALL, TEXAN FUNGUS-GROWING ANT (Mycetosoritis hartmant)

The middle chamber of the preceding figure one-fourth larger than natural size, showing in
the upper right-hand corner some of the rootlets to which the garden is suspended

their brood, or to excavate the nest, and
are therefore compelled to keep kidnap-
ping the young of the host species in
order to secure the performance of these
tasks. The other method is by com-
pletely suppressing the worker caste in
the parasitic species, so that the queen
after her adoption in the nest of the alien
species can at once produce males and
females within the host colony’s lifetime,
which is very short because the host
queen has been eliminated.

These various methods of colony. for-
mation show that among ants the ex-
treme adaptations of parasitism have for
their sole object the securing of better
opportunities of reproduction.

The restriction of reproduction to a
few members of the colony brought with

it, among other advantages, the usurpa-
tion of the nutritive and protective func-
tions by a special caste, the workers,
which, moreover, comprised the majority
of the personnel of the colony. Later
these functions were delegated to two
subdivisions of this caste, the workers
proper and the soldiers.

Among the special adaptations for the
protection of the colony we may cite the
development of the sting and of the vari-
ous poisonous or malodorous secretions
with which the workers spray or smear
the bodies of their enemies, the enlarged
mandibles of the soldiers, and above all
the excavation or construction of the
nest, which protects the colony both from
its enemies and from excessive drought,
cold, and heat.

793

Photo by the Author

LARV# OF THE TEXAN AGRICULTURAL ANT (Pogono-
myrmex molefaciens )

The brilliant white color and tensity of the skin in these
grub-like creatures is due to the great accumulations of fat,
which will be used, in part at least, during pupation in build-
Magnification about five

ing up the body of the adult ant.
diameters.

ANTS THAT BUILD INCUBATORS

Ants no doubt originally nested in the
earth, and the majority of species still
prefer this habitat. It was while living
in this plastic material that they learned
to prefer irregular galleries and cham-
bers and to become great opportunists, in
marked contrast with the social wasps
and bees, which have never been able to
depart from their habit of rearing their
young in combs made of a refractory sub-
stance like paper or of an expensive se-
cretion like wax.

The ants early discovered the great ad-
vantages of being able to carry their
brood from place to place when danger
threatened.

In connection with this free method of
dealing with the brood, they were also
led to add to the original subterranean
nest a kind of tepidarium or incubator,
in which the young could be placed dur-
ing the warmest hours of the day for the
purpose of hastening their development
(See pictures, ‘page 759)... ; This. imeu-
bator is the mound or dome of pebbles or
vegetable detritus, which surmounts the
subterranean nest of many of the more
conspicuous species of North America
and Eurasia, especially in mountain re-

gions, where the summers
are so short that the ants
have to utilize every bit of
mid-day heat in order to
bring their young to ma-
turity.

The mound is riddled with
chambers and galleries and
is not only fully exposed to
the sun, so that its tem-
perature is several degrees
higher than that of the sur-
rounding soil, but its slopes
are often constructed in such
a manner to catch the heat
rays perpendicularly and
form the most effective re-
gions of the heavens. This
orientation of the nests is
indeed often so conspicuous
and definite that they can be
used as compasses (see pic-
tures, pages 742, 759).

In the tropics where the
soil is often saturated or
flooded with water during
the rainy season, and where
devices for conserving the heat are quite
unnecessary, many ants have learned to
construct paper nests on the trees. Such
nests superficially resemble the nests of
wasps. They contain no combs, how-
ever, but only a maze of irregular, inter-
communicating galleries and chambers.
A few tropical species belonging to three
different genera (Cicophylla,Myrma, and
Camponotus) inhabit nests consisting 1n
part at least of a fine silken web.

REPAIRING THE NEST WITH SILK

It was long a mystery how ants could
manufacture silk, but it has been recently
shown that the ants themselves do not
spin the silk, but use their larve for this
purpose. The process can be actually
observed by making a rent in the wall of
the nest and then following the move-
ments of the ants under a magnifying
glass. ‘They separate into two brigades,
one of which stations itself on the outside
of the nest and draws the edges of the
rent as close together as possible by pull-
ing with claws and mandibles, while the
other, inside the nest, moves the spinning
larve back and forth across the gap till
it is filled out with a dense felt-work of
extremely fine silken threads (see picture,

page 704).

Photo by Mr. J. G. Hubbard and Dr. O. S$. Strong
PORTION OF A COLONY OF AN AMERICAN SLAVE-MAKING ANT (Formica sanguinea
subintegra) (SEE TEXT, PAGE 748)

Two females after the removal of the wings, three workers, and a number of worker
cocoons, nearly twice the natural size

NI
oat
Isat

Photo by Mr. J. G. Hubbard and Dr. O. S. Stro
COLONY OF Aphenogaster picea, A COMMON ANT IN THE WOODS OF THE EASTERN
STATES

The mother queen of the colony is seen at a in the lower right-hand corner of the photo-
graph, a male at } in the upper left-hand corner

ng

NI
Sat
aN

Photo by Mr. J. G. Hubbard and Dr. O. S. Strong
WORKERS OF THE COLONY OF Aphenogaster picea, SHOWN IN THE PRECEDING
PICTURE

In this rather primitive ant the workers are all of the same size and shape, not poly-
morphic as in Camponotus americanus (see pages 735, 737, and 738) and many other species.
Magnification about twice the natural size.

757

$19}oW Iz'O1 JO dUdIdJUIMIIID & pur ‘ssooUI Sze FO JojoweIpP [eseq e sey ‘YSry JoyoW I st “f “N ‘sure[q Yyo}O9g je

(sapiojzasxva DIMOY) LNV ONIGTING-INOOW HHI JO LSHN AOUVT

poyeoso] ‘sou Sty y,

Photo by the Alithor
NEST OF THE OCCIDENT ANT (Pogonomyrmex occidentalis) WHICH BUILDS
INCUBATORS FOR ITS YOUNG

On the Dry Plains at Las Vegas, New Mexico. The nest cone has its entrance near
the base and nearly always on the east or south side. It is closed at night by the workers,
and the advantage of having it in this position 1s to insure its being opened earlier in the
morning when the warmth of the sun awakens the workers (see text, pages 746 and 747).

DIAGRAMS OF THREE STAGES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEST-MOUNT OF THE
OCCIDENT ANT (Pogonomyrme.x occidentalis) WHICH BUILDS
INCUBATORS FOR ITS YOUNG

A, small mound of earth thrown up by the queen when starting her formicary; +, en-
trance; s, first chamber; A’, same nest in section; B, crater nest (second year) formed by

incipient colony; B’, section of same; C, dome of adult colony; C’, section of same showing
-galleries and chambers used for incubation of the young (see text, pages 746 and 747).

759

Photo by the Author
MOUND OF THE THATCHING ANT (Formica rubiginosa) OF COLORADO

The mound, which is made of coarse twigs and grass-blades, may be two or three feet in
diameter

ANT GUEST OR PARASITE (Atemeles) SOLICITING FOOD FROM A WORKER Myrmica
(AFTER E. WASMANN )

The beetle strokes the cheeks of the ant in order to induce her to regurgitate a drop of
liquid food from her social stomach. Any insect which by means of its shape, odor, or be-
havior can delude the ants into feeling that it may be another out or one of their larve can
secure free board and lodging in their nests (see text, page 748).

Seema Sa sic on ie Be ats SESS < ae eae |

ese ean cage eee a

Photo by the Author
MALE AND WORKERS OF A SOUTH AFRICAN DRIVER ANT (Dorylus fimbriatus)

The male is a very large, hairy insect with large eyes; the workers are small and blind,
but vary greatly in size.

The driver ants (Dorylii) in the tropics of the Old World and the allied legionary ants
(Ecitonii) in the corresponding regions of America do not confine themselves to collecting
dead or disabled insects. They move in long files over or immediately beneath the surface
of the ground and capture myriads of living insects and their larve. So efficient are they
in exterminating all kinds of vermin, including rats and mice, that they are welcomed into
the houses, even if their owners are obliged to vacate for the time being.

In some countries the ants are regarded as useful allies in destroying the insect pests
of plantations. According to Magowan, quoted by McCook (1882): “In many parts of the
province of Canton, where, says a Chinese writer, cereals cannot be profitably cultivated,
the land is devoted to the cultivation of orange trees, which, being subject to devastation
from worms, require to be protected in a peculiar manner, that is, by importing ants from
the neighboring hills for the destruction of the dreaded parasite. The orangeries themselves
supply ants which prey upon the enemy of the orange, but not in sufficient numbers; and
resort is had to hill people, who, throughout the summer and winter, find the nests sus-
pended from branches of bamboo and various trees. There are two varieties of ants, red
and yellow, whose nests resemble cotton bags.

“The orange-ant feeders are provided with pig or goat bladders, which are baited inside
with lard. The orifices they apply to the entrance of the nests, when the ants enter the bag
and become a marketable commodity at the orangeries. Orange trees are colonized by de-
positing the ants on their upper branches, and to enable them to pass from tree to tree, all
the trees of an orchard are connected by a bamboo rod.”

fed. and reared by the ants as if they

An interesting side-light is thrown on
were ant larve.

the various nutritive, reproductive, and

protective devices in ants by the behavior
of the insects that live as guests or para-
sites in their nests. Of these insects,
called myrmecophiles, some 1,500 species
have been described, a wonderful assem-
blage of creatures whose sole aim in life
is to exploit the ants. They stay in the
nests because these afford warmth, food,
and protection. Some myrmecophiles
feed on the larve and pupz, or even on
the adult ants, and some, known as true
guests or symphiles, have developed
glands that emit a redolent secretion
which seems to fascinate the ants much
as a catnip fascinates cats. The more
highly developed of these true guests are

EVER READY HOSPITALITY

The only explanation of such extraor-
dinary behavior towards parasites which
eventually injure or destroy the colonies
they infest must be sought in the inordi-
nate fondness of the ants for their own
brood and for one another. Observation
and experiment have shown that any in-
sect which, by means of its shape, odor,
or behavior can delude the ants into feel-
ing that it may be another ant or one of
their larve, can secure free board and
lodging in their nests (see picture, page
760).

Having discussed some of the more

61

j
2

NEST OF AN ARBOREAL BRAZILIAN ANT (Azteca trigona) °

This nest consists of paper (carton) and is built around a branch of the trumpet tree
(Cecropia adenopus). (Photograph from a specimen in the American Museum of Natural

History. )

762

at eerie

Photo by the Author

INCIPIENT COLONY OF CARPENTER ANT (Camponotus pennsylvanicus )

_ The queen has established her colony in the abandoned cocoon of a beetle (Rhagium
lineatum) under pine bark, has reared a few small workers, and has started a second brood,
represented by a small cluster of larve in the upper part of the chamber (see text, page

741-742).

In incipient ant colonies the queen mother takes no food often for as long a

period as 8 or 9 months, and during all this time is compelled to feed her first brood of
larve exclusively on the secretion of her salivary glands.

striking peculiarities which the ants have
developed during the long course of their
evolution, a word may be added in con-
clusion on the prospects of future de-
velopments. It must be confessed that
these prospects are not very bright, for,
strange as it may seem, there are no indi-
cations that these insects have made any
considerable evolutionary progress since
early Tertiary times.

The exquisitely preserved ants of the
Baltic amber, belonging to the Lower
Oligocene formation, are in all respects
like existing ants. All of them belong to
existing subfamilies, most of them even
to existing genera, and a few of them are

practically indistinguishable from species
inhabiting Europe today. That some of
them were herders of plant-lice is proved
by blocks of amber containing masses of
ants mingled with the plant-lice which
they were attending when the liquid resin
of the Oligocene pines flowed over and
embedded them. Possibly the soldier
caste is a recent innovation, but the differ-
entiation of the males, queens, and work-
ers was as extreme and precisely of the
same character then as now.

This seems to force us to the conclu-
sion that all the great features of ant-life
must have been established during the
Mesozoic Age, and although many spe-

763

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yorq VAsvy Suruutds oy} oAour ysau dy} JO IPISUL dy} UO s19Y}O dy} afIYM ‘19Y}9B0} SsaAve] dy} JO SaB8pod ay} SuImMeip ur pord
J1edot stoytomM oy} SsMOYS IINSY sp,

‘GoM UdyIIS B YPM JoYjIS0} Poy ‘soAva] JO opeul si jsoul ay J,
(NINTMOd “A MLV) (vuphospus vytydorsp) INV TIAL GA AHL JO ISHN AHL NIL

Nada V AO ONIYIVdaa AHL

Vee

704

AN EPIPHYTIC ANT PLANT (Myrmecodia pentasperma) OF THE BISMARCK
ARCHIPELAGO (AFTER F. DAHL)

The large pseudobulb is filled with cavities, which are nearly always tenanted by ants
Cridomyrmex cordatus)

ANT GARDENS OF THE

AMAZON (AFTER E. ULE)

A a large, B a small spherical, sponge-like mass of earth which is built around the axils
of the branches of trees in the tropical forests and, according to Ule, is seeded by the ants

with parasitic plants.

cies, subspecies, and varieties have since
arisen and may yet arise, we must never-
theless admit that the future development
of the group will probably be limited very

largely or exclusively to a more minute
differentiation of existing forms and a
greater refinement of existing modes of
behavior.

766

THE GRANDEST AND MOST MIGHTY TERRES-
TRIAL PHENOMENON: THE GULF STREAM

By Joun Erriotr. Pittspury, U. S. Navy

HE subject of ocean currents is
one that has engaged the attention
of mariners and men of science
for centuries. In all oceans there are
movements of the water (other than that
caused by the tides) which may be said
to be due primarily to the prevalent wind.
Many branches of scientific inquiry are
concerned in their examination, for they
bear directly upon the dissemination and
evolution of species and the deposit and
structure of geological formation, while
invthe business world they: enter asa
factor in the price of everything carried
afloat as well as in the safety of all those
who travel by sea. The currents of the
ocean too are the great transporters of the
sun’s heat and moisture from the torrid
zone, to temper the climate of more polar
regions.

In the two great oceans, the Atlantic
and the Pacific, there is to be found both
north and south of the equator, and
also in the Indian Ocean, a similar circu-
lation, that is, a general westerly move-
ment in the tropics, a flow toward the
poles along the eastern shores of the
continents, an easterly set in the temper-
ate zones, and a current toward the
equator along the western shores. It
thus becomes a grand circular movement,
some parts being quite slow, and other
parts very swift; sometimes there may
be a temporary interruption in the slower
portions, or perhaps even a reversal, but
taken as a whole the movement is con-
tinuous (see map, page 768).

In the North Atlantic Ocean the cur-
rents are probably more pronounced than
in either the Pacific or the Indian Oceans.
Without entering upon a discussion now
as to the causes of ocean flow, or of
any particular current, a brief description
of the main streams will not be out of
place, for they are all connected more or
less intimately with our Gulf Stream.

The equatorial current is usually de-
scribed as being a broad band of water
moving across the Atlantic in the tropics.

»

/

67

The portion of this current situated south
of the equator is divided into two parts
upon meeting the eastern salient of South
America, Cape: st. Roque. One, branch
turns south toward the Antarctic, while
the other is forced to the westward along
the shores of Northern Brazil and the
Guyanas, and is called the Guyana coast
current. ‘The equatorial current north of
the equator has an almost uninterrupted
progress until it reaches the Windward
Islands, but a portion of it also impinges
against the Guyana Coast and thus aug-
ments the volume of that current.

At the Windward Islands both are
united, and a portion of the flow enters
the Caribbean through the various pas-
sages, crosses it to the Yucatan and Hon-
duras coasts, and thence into the Gulf
of Mexico, from which it issues through
the Straits of Florida as the Gulf Stream.
Passing onward toward Europe it is aug-
mented in volume by a part of the north
equatorial current that sweeps along out-
side the West Indian Islands and the
Bahamas, and while this current is slow
in movement in comparison to the Gulf
Stream itself, it doubtless carries a much
greater number of heat units to help
warm up northern Europe.

The Gulf Stream, or rather the com-
bined flow mentioned above, divides as it
meets the resistance of the Eastern Con-
tinent, one branch flowing south along
the African coast, while the other pro-
ceeds northward into the Arctic toward
Spitzbergen and Franz Joseph Land.

THE IMMENSITY OF THIS OCEAN RIVER

The Gulf Stream is probably the grand-
est and most mighty of any terrestrial
phenomenon. Its waters are character-
ized by a deep indigo blue color of great
clearness and high temperature. It can
be penetrated by the eye to considerable
depths, and generally its meeting with the
less saline polar waters can be at once
distinguished.

It is difficult for the mind to grasp the

SLUNAYYNO NVHOO ‘IVdIDNINd HHL ONIMOHS ‘WIMOM HHL JO dV

768

THE GULF STREAM

immensity of this great ocean river. The
Straits of Florida at its narrowest point
is about 40 miles wide and observations
here numbered between three and four
thousand, surface and subsurface. <A
calculation of the average volume of
water passing in one hour gives the enor-
mous sum of 90 billion tons. If this
one single hour’s flow of water could be
evaporated, the remaining salts would re-
quire many times more than all the ships
in the world to carry it.

When one is on board a vessel, floating
upon its waters, one is not as much im-
pressed at the power and grandeur of
this wonder of nature as he is when he
stands before a towering mountain, an
immense iceberg, or a fall of water such
as Niagara, but when one remembers
that the mighty torrent, speeding on hour
by hour and day by day in a volume
equal to all the largest rivers in the world
combined, carrying its beneficient heat to
temper the climate of continents, one be-
gins.to realize that of all the forces of
the physical world none can equal this
one river of the ocean.

THE INFLUENCE OF THE GULF STREAM ON
THE COLONIZATION OF AMERICA
WAS VERY GREAT

It is interesting to note in the history
of the Gulf Stream how great its in-
fluence has been on the fortunes of the
New World. Before the discovery of
America, strange woods and fruits were
frequently found on the shores of Eu-
rope and off-lying islands. Some of these
were seen and examined by Columbus,
and to his thoughtful mind they were
convincing evidence of the fact that
strange lands were somewhere to the
westward. ‘These woods were carried by
the Gulf Stream and by the prevailing
winds from the American continent, so
that in part, the stream is responsible for
the discovery of the New World.

Ponce de Leon, while on his famous
search for the Fountain of Youth, made
the discovery of this great stream. After
his failure to find, on the coast of upper
Florida, the means of cheating death, he
turned to the southward and skirted the
shore for hundreds of miles, thus stem-
ming the current.

769

Referring to this in his journal he de-
scribes that they found a current that,
though the wind was good, they could
not stem. It seemed that their vessels
were going fast through the water, but
they soon recognized the fact that they
were being driven back in spite of the
strong and favorable wind. ‘Two of the
ships near the coast were able to anchor,
while a third, being in deeper water, was
“soon carried away by the current and
lost from sight, although it was a clear
sky.”’

The first one to traverse the Gulf
Stream from the Gulf of Mexico was
Antonio de Alaminos, who had been with
Columbus on his last voyage, and had
been with Ponce de Leon among the
Bahamas and along the coast of Florida
from St. Augustine to Tortugas. Later
he was in chief command of the fleet with
Cortez in Mexico, and when it was de-
sired to send dispatches and presents to
Spain he was chosen as the one most able
to carry out the nautical part of the mis-
sion. He sailed from Mexico, and in
order to avoid foreign enemies and do-
mestic rivals, took the route north of
Cuba and through the Straits of Florida
into the Atlantic.

The influence of the Gulf Stream in
the colonization of America was very
great. The division of the English colo-
nies into New England and Virginia was
probably in part due to the routes by
which they were reached. Vessels bound
from England to New England crossed
the North Atlantic outside the limit of the
Gulf Stream, or in a feeble adverse cur-
rent. They had the advantage too, of
crossing the Newfoundland Banks and of
being able to surely replenish their pro-
visions by fishing.

This voyage, however, much as the ad-
vantages might be either by the shorter
distance or the gaining of food, was not
thought to be practicable with a vessel
bound to the Southern Colonies. They
sailed south to the trade-wind region,
through the Caribbean and around Cuba,
thence following the Gulf Stream to
their port.

The Dutch adopted this passage to the
Hudson, so that really Nantucket Island
became the dividing line between the two

7710 THE

voyages ; a difference of 100 or 200 miles
in destination caused a difference in the
length of the passage of about 3,000
mules.

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN PUBLISHED THE
FIRST CHART OF THE GULF STREAM

The whalers of New England were the
first to gain a fairly accurate knowledge
of the limits of the stream between Eu
rope and America by following the
haunts of the whales, which were found
north of one line and south of another,
but never between the two.

Benjamin Franklin heard of their ex-
periences, and also how the coasting ves-
sels from Boston to Charleston, South
Carolina, would take sometimes three or
four weeks to make the voyage south,
while the return trip would often be
made in a week. Then his attention was
drawn to the fact that English packets
with American mails were two or three
weeks longer on the voyage to America
than American merchant ships.

Franklin investigated the question and
published a chart in 1770 for the benefit
of the mail packets, but its information
was discredited by the English, and be-
fore it came to be generally known and
used, the war of the Revolution was on,
and Franklin, knowing the advantage of
the knowledge of the limits of the stream
would be to British naval officers, sup-
pressed it all he could until hostilities
ceased.

The name of “Gulf Stream” was first
suggested by Benjamin Franklin because
it issues irom the. Gul. of Miexico:
While it is only a part of the grand
scheme of ocean circulation, and the
Gulf of Mexico is in reality only a stop-
ping place, as it were, for its waters, this
name is generally applied to the current
now as it was given by Franklin—that is,
the, current. comime 7trom: the, Gul of
Mexico and spreading abroad over the
North Atlantic.

In the large funnel-shaped opening be-
tween Cuba and the western extremity
of the Florida reefs the current is some-
what erratic, but by the time Havana is
reached. it has; become a ’recular and
steady flow. As it rounds the curve of
the Florida shore, the straits contract

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

and the current then practically fills the
banks from shore to shore and reaches
almost to the bottom, which at this point
has a greatest depth of nearly 3,000 feet.
I say almost because in its variations in
velocity sometimes it does actually reach
the bottom, but at other times it does not.

As it leaves the Straits of Florida its
direction is about north, but it gradually
changes and follows a course approxi-
mately parallel to the curve of too fath-
oms depth until it arrives off Cape Hat-
teras, and maintains about the same
width as when it issued from the Straits
of Florida. From this point it starts on
its course to Europe. It has lost some-
thing in velocity as well as in tempera-
ture, and as it journeys to the eastward
it gradually diminishes in both, until at
last it becomes a gentle flow.

On this part of its course it passes not
far from the Grand Banks of New found-
land, where it is met almost at right
angles by the great Labrador current,
bringing down from the Arctic a stream
of cold water, pack ice and icebergs, and
which has recently been the cause of such
an appalling disaster in the loss of the
Titanic. This current, passing along the
eastern shores of Newfoundland, bearing
its freight of ice, sends part of its cur-
rent southward and westward around
Cape Race; part overflows the banks on
a general southerly course and part
passes to the southward along the east-
ern side of the banks.

When this cold current meets that of

the Gulf Stream of much higher tem-
perature, the former underruns the lat-
ter. The shallow-draft pack ice, being
no longer under the influence of the
polar current, is carried to the eastward
by the warm Gulf Stream current and
soon disappears, but the deep-draft bergs
are still under the influence of the lower
current running south, as well as of the
surface current running east, and so they
continue on until well into the Gulf
Stream, sometimes reaching the thirty-
ninth parallel, which is nearly 200 miles
south of the southernmost point of the
Grand Banks.

This ice, together with the fog, which
usually accompanies the meeting of cur-
rents of considerable differences in tem-

EH GUE S DREAM , ta

perature, has compelled steamship com-
panies to adopt lanes of travel and to
make a detour around the region of dan-
ger. That the western- bound track was
shaving dangerously near the limit of ice
in the spring, when bergs are numerous,
has been shown, and it is probable that
the new lanes now used which lie fur-
ther south will be permanently adopted
during the ice period.

THE CAUSE OF OCEAN CURRENTS

The theories as to the cause of ocean
currents have been many. Columbus
thought the stars, the air, and the waters
of the sea all had the same motion
around the earth from east to west and
declared that the force of the equatorial
current had washed away the land and
thus formed the Windward Islands.

Toward the end of the 17th century
the belief seemed to be that all ocean cir-
culation was maintained by means of
subterranean passage or abysses. A cur-
rent, upon meeting land, descended into
the earth and ran through a tunnel to the
other side of the obstruction.

Strange to say, the writer was called
upon in recent years to examine a paper
written by a gentleman whose theory
was somewhat similar to the above. He
believed that all mountain ranges were
simply the visible evidence of a tunnel
conveying water from one ocean ‘to
another, he Rocky Mountain tunnel be-
ing the conduit by means of which water
was transported from the Arctic to the
Gulf of Mexico to form the Gulf Stream.
Another theory was that the tropical sun
evaporated so much water that the A fri-
can Coast current ran to fill up the hol-
low so formed.

In recent times the course of currents
has been laid to rivers and the Gulf
Stream chiefly to the Mississippi. In act-
ual fact about 2,000 such rivers would
be required.

Some eminent men have attributed
currents to the revolution of the earth,
others to the differences in the density of
the ocean at the equator and at the poles.

Franklin’s theory, which has many ad-
vocates at the present day, was that the
winds produce the current by the air
moving over the surface of the water,

and he illustrated this theory by the fol-
lowing: “It is known that a large piece
of water, 10 miles broad and generally
only 3 feet deep, has by a strong wind
had its water driven to one side and sus-
tained so as to become 6 feet deep, while
the windward side was laid dry.” As
will be seen later, this is a well-taken ex-
ample of the force of the wind in caus-
ine the. Gulf. Stream, but. it-does. not
quite show the whole of the truth.

None of these theories were based
upon direct evidence by observations in
the Gulf Stream, but all were inferences
drawn from temperature of the water,
from laboratory experiments, from the
drift of vessels, or from reasoning based
upon opinions of what ought to be.

Much time and labor has been devoted
toward attempting to define the limits of
ocean currents and their velocities. Co-
lumbus on his first voyage, when nearing
his final land fall, was trying to find the
depth of the water one day, when he no-
ticed that the line inclined to the south-
west, from. which he concluded that
the surface was moving faster than the
lower stratum which contained the
weight on the end of the line.

Franklin endeavored to use the ther-
mometer to define the limits of the polar
and tropical waters, and hence the cur-
rent. This method is often correct, for
without doubt tropical water is warmer
than that coming from the poles, but it
has been found that at times the warm
tropical water may be blown by the wind
over and onto the polar stream and then
partake of its motion or, as in the Lab-
rador current, underrunning the warm
water of the Gulf Stream. Temperature
is not a sure indication of how the cur-
rent may be setting.

Almost all governments at one time is-
sued instructions to their naval officers
and requested the codperation of the off-
cers of their merchant marine to keep a
record of the temperature of the surface
water, and by the compilation of these
data the supposed limits of most ocean
currents were placed upon the charts.

A methcd of determining the velocity
of the currents has been in use since the
introduction of comparatively accurate
navigation. A vessel is moved at sea, by

607

>
; Be}
LABRADOR”

A ) IRELAND

es ENGLAND

'«<Bermuda Is.

~~ <=

; TARIB BEAN SEAT Windward” Is ae

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CAME NG A

OUTLINE MAP SHOWING GENERAL, DIRECTION OF THE GULF STREAM AND OTHER

CURRENTS IN

the wind or by engines, as nearly as pos-
sible on a given compass course and for
a given distance as ascertained by the log
or by the engine revolutions, but she is
deflected from that course and distance
by winds, waves, bad steering, etc., and
by currents to an unknown amount. By
astronomical observation the captain as-
certains the position of his ship from
time to time, and the difference between
this position and the supposed position
is assumed to give the direction and
velocity of the current affecting the ship
during the interval.

Still another method has been prac-
ticed, and even now i3 favored by some
for determining the flow of currents.
Bottles or floats of various descriptions
are thrown overboard from vessels at
sea, each one containing a paper on
which is written the date and position at
which it is put afloat, and a request
printed in various languages asking the

finder to mark the date and locality
where found and forward it to some
official.

This method is of but little real value.
The bottle is tossed by the waves and

THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

driven by the wind. If it is picked up
on the shore, there is no means of know-
ing how long it has been traveling at sea
and how long idle on the beach and when
it is found, all that it tells is that it has
journeyed from one point to another, but
by what route it is impossible to tell.

Floats put adrift in the Atlantic be-
tween Newfoundland and the Azores
have been found distributed, some of
them years afterward, all the way from
Iceland and Norway to the West Indian
Islands and on the shores of the Gulf of
Mexico.

The importance of a knowledge of the
Gulf Stream to commercial interests was
early recognized by the Congress in the
passage of an act authorizing the Coast
Survey to include it within the scope of
its work, and later, authority was given
to examine the Sargasso Sea (the body
of water lying in the center of the grand
circular movements of currents in the
Atlantic) and also the mate to the Gulf
Stream in the Pacific, called the Kuro-
Shiwo, or Black Stream, of Japan, which
pours its warm waters toward our west-
ern shores to temper its climate, in the

same way that the Gulf Stream does for
Europe.

The superintendent of the Coast Sur-
vey, Prof. A. D. Bache, between 1844
and 1860 caused thousands of thermo-
metrical observations to be taken on lines
extending across the stream, from Key
West to well beyond Hatteras, reasoning
on the line of Benjamin Franklin's stud-
ies, that temperature alone could define
its limits, and that the warmest water
within these limits would be the axis or
the swiftest current.

He found, however, that there were
bands or streaks of warm and cold water
in the stream, the cause of which was
attributed to irregularities in the bottom
over which it flowed, but this was
based upon erroneous measure-
ments of the depths, for in later
years, with wire sounding lines

instead of rope, the bottom> has

been found to be nearly even.
For ascertaining the relative ve-

locity of the Gale Stream between

the surface and subsurface on a
given line, trials were made by
floating a single can almost sub-
merged on the surface and a pair
of cans,: one.on -the. surface- and
the other suspended by a cord at
a given depth below. If both
were started together, one being
only influenced by the surface cur-
rent “and the -others” being © in-
fluenced. by the surface and the
subsurface as well, the retarding
or accelerating effect of any differ-
ence in velocity might be determined.

In 1883 the Coast Survey Office de-
cided to attempt to anchor a vessel in
the Gulf Stream and to actually measure
the amount of water flowing past. It
was thought that this might be accom-
plished by the use of wire rope instead
of a hemp cable or chain, both on account
of its strength and flexibility, and also
because it could be made in great lengths.
(he first trial at anchoring in the Gulf
Stream was made by the little Coast Sur-
vey schooner Drift, but with no steam
power to handle the wire rope anchoring
line the difficulties were great. The re-
sult of this first attempt was the detail of
a Coast Survey steam vessel, the ee
S. Blake, for the Gulf Stream work

right,

DIAGRAM SHOWING

TH

The current meter at the end of the wire
slides down
end a heavy leaden weight, which in turn is restrained
from being swept astern by the force of the current
by a long line secured to the anchoring rope.

773

OF OBTAINING

THE MBETILOD
OBSERVATIONS ON BOARD
SEs BI Airy

EK CURRENT

on the

another larger wire having at its

A new departure was then made from
the ordinary method of anchoring in very
deep water. A great length of wire rope
(over 44%4 miles) was carried on a large
iron reel or spool. A powerful steam-
engine, running a winch, lowered and
raised the wire rope with its anchor,
while another engine revolved the spool.
A special arrangement of rubber buffers
was appued to the anchoring rope,
whereby the sudden strain, due to violent
pitching of the vessel, was reduced to a
minimum. By this system the Blake was
able to anchor in almost any depth of
water, and did anchor in depths of more
than two miles many times.

To gain a knowledge of the laws gov-
erning the flow of any current, it 1s neces-

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many times.

DIRECTION OF THE CURRENTS IN THE PASSAGES OF THE WINDWARD ISLANDS
The numbers indicate the record number of the anchorage whether occupied once or

The ship was anchored at Station 32, north of Barbados, when the photograph
(shown on page 774) was taken.

9775

710 THE NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC, MAGAZINE

sary to ascertain its direction and velocity
not only on the surface, but below. The
surface current is the one affecting the
ship on its course, but it is also the most
affected by changes in the local wind,
which may be only temporary, while the
vast body of flowing water maintains its
direction, but feebly influenced by the
shght surface changes.

An instrument was therefore designed
by which the lower currents could be
measured as well as the surface. It con-
sisted of a rudder free to take the di-
rection of the current, a compass needle
which of course pointed to the north, and
an apparatus for registering the flow.
Upon hoisting the instrument all of these
were locked at once, and upon its reach-
ing the surface the angle between the
rudder and the compass gave the direc-
tion, cand, the reading -of the- register
showed the velocity.

Observations were usually made with
the current meter at depths of 34% fath-
oms, 15, 30, 65, and 130 fathoms, and at
times to 150 and 200 fathoms, the in-
strument remaining at each depth during
a period of 30 minutes.

The investigation began with these
appliances in the narrowest parts of
the Straits of Florida (between Fowey
Rocks, which is near Miami, and the Ba-
hamas) in order to find out the character-
istics of the stream at a point where it
would perhaps be least influenced by ab-
normal. forces. After. two seasons: at
this point the research was extended to
the western part of the straits and to the
passage between Yucatan and Cuba to
gauge the water entering and leaving the
Gulf of Mexico. Afterward, the equa-
torial current and the flow into the Car-
ibbean between the islands were exam-

ined in order to compare what may be,

called the source of the Gulf Stream with
the outlet as it leaves the Straits of Flor-
ida: for the Atlantic. Lhe stream: off
Cape Hatteras, the flow outside the Ba-
hamas, and also south of Nantucket were
all examined.

Some of the results of the investigation
were surprising. The volume of the
stream in 1 hour’s flow has been men-
tioned, but the most valuable discovery
was that it changes its velocity daily and
monthly, and that predictions can be

made as to the times of these variations.
As the tides change in height on the
coast, so the current changes in velocity
in the ocean. The equatorial current
along the South American coast runs
fastest about 6 hours before the moon
crosses the upper meridian; between
Cuba and Yucatan the maximum is 10
hours before, and in the Straits of Flor-
ida off Fowey Rocks it is 9 hours.
These variations at certain times in the
month amount to more than 3 miles per
hour in some parts of the stream and at

other times in the month may be less
than 1 mile per hour.
During the month. there is another

change taking place following the changes
in the declination of the moon north and
south of the equator. ‘Two or three days
after the moon has passed the equator
the maximum velocity of the stream 1s
nearest the middle, but which it never
reaches; it 1s always to: the left of the
middle, and two or three days after the
moon’s highest declination the maximum
is well toward the left-hand edge of the
streant,

Accompanying these changes the tem-
perature of the stream fluctuates. At one
time during the month, also varying with
the declination of the moon, the direction
of the currents, particularly the lower
ones, incline slightly toward the axis of
greatest velocity, while at other times
they run more nearly parallel. This
causes an intermingling of the warm sur-
face with the colder water of the lower
strata.

WHAT CAUSES THE GULF STREAM?

‘The various theories as to what causes
the Gulf Stream have been given, but it
seems that while Franklin’s ideas are
nearest correct, they are not complete.
In the tropical regions there is a steady
movement of the air from east to west
known as the trade winds. South of a
certain line situated near the equator
these winds flow from a southwesterly
direction, while north of the equator
they come from a more northeasterly
direction. The winds are not always
strong, nor are they constant in direction,
but they do- not vary much, and then
only for brief periods.

AEE

Winds blowing over the surface of the
water induce a current in the latter due
to friction. At first it is only the merest
skim that moves, but gradually the mo-
tion 1s communicated from layer to layer
until at last, if the wind is long continued
as in the trade wind region, the move-
ment extends to lower depths, 300 or 400
feet, or perhaps more.

These trade wind currents meet finally,
the partial barrier of the islands forming
the eastern part of the Caribbean, and a
portion of the flow escapes through the
passages between them. From here it
continues its course across that sea until
it reaches the obstruction of the Hon-
duras and Yucatan coasts, from which it
escapes by the easiest route, which is into
the Gulf of Mexico.

It has been found, however, that the
water entering the Caribbean by this
means 1s not more than one-half of the
amount which flows through the Straits
of Florida from the Gulf of Mexico, and
the other half is supplhed from a source
which does not come under the head of a
measurable current. The other source is
the wave caused by the wind. Every rip-
ple carries a certain amount of water in
the direction toward which it is flowing,
irrespective of the current caused by its
friction, and when the waves become
large, tons of water are hurled from the
crest into the trough every time the wave
breaks.

In a large area like the Caribbean,
having a comparatively constant wind
blowing over its whole surface, this ac-
tion is practically a simultaneous move-
ment of its surface waters to the west-
ward and a continual escape of the water
heaped up at the obstruction offered by
the land into the Gulf of Mexico, through
the Straits of Florida, and into the At
lantic.

The Gulf Stream would be little felt
on the coast of Europe did it not receive
a great addition to its volume of heat
when en route. This is by means of a
gentle flow from the northeast trade-
wind current that passes outside the Car-
ibbean Islands and the Bahamas. The
surface temperature of this outside cur-
rent is about the same in its passage
along the West Indian Islands as the

GULF STREAM

alana d
(bk

Gulf Stream in the Straits of Florida, but
it is less violent in its movements and
there is less intermingling of its upper
and lower waters, so that it arrives off
Cape Hatteras with a much higher tem-
perature than that of the more turbulent
Gulf Stream.

THE GULF STREAM HAS NOT CHANGED ITS

COURSE

Newspaper items are frequent that the
Gulf Stream has changed its course, and
to its supposed erratic movement is laid
the blame of every abnormal season on
our Atlantic seaboard. Gulf weed is seen
up toward Nantucket, for example, and
so the Gulf Stream must have changed
its course in that direction.

The fact is this gulf weed originates
in the Sargasso Sea and is transported

chiefly by the break of the waves. Some

of it enters the Gulf Stream oe may be
carried by it to beyond Hatteras and fur-
ther east, but the fact of meeting it in
strange regions is not so much an indica-
tion of a current as it is that the wind
has caused a sea which has thrown the
weed to leeward. Any strong southerly
gale to the eastward of Cape Hatteras
will strip the little gulf weed remaining
in the Gulf Stream at that point and
carry it toward the Nantucket shores.

The same influence of the wind to
transport the water without an accom-
panying current is seen at Key West.
With a southerly wind the clear water of
the Gulf Stream is thrown into that har-
bor in spite of an ebb tide, and it is often -
accompanied by fragments of gulf weed,
but upon a change of wind from the
northward (which is from the Gulf of
Mexico) the harbor waters soon cloud
up.

Quite recently the overwhelming Ti-
tanic disaster, which was due to icebergs
on the border of the eastern extension of
the Gulf Stream, has led to the theory
that the stream was feeble and had not
been flowing with its usual strength and
so the bergs were farther south than
usual. Of course, there are periods of
heat and cold—one year may vary no-
ticeably from another—and perhaps an
abnormal amount of heat transported to
the Arctic regions some years ago by the

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AT VARIOUS DEPTHS

4AM

STRE:

GULF

FLOW OF THE

AVERAGE RATE OF

SHOWING

DIAGRAM

stream may have been the cause of some
of the bergs in the Atlantic this year, but
when it is remembered that heavy ice
from the Arctic takes anywhere from
one to probably two or three years to
make the journey to the steamers’ tracks
one cannot trace the increase or decrease
in quantity or size of the bergs to the
Gulf Stream.

Doubtless the stream varies in velocity
at different seasons of the year because
the trade winds vary periodically in
strength and direction. In the winter
months, when the northeast trades are
stronger, they blow from a more north-
erly direction and at the same time do
not extend to as far a northern latitude
as in the summer. During the latter
period they have a direction more nearly
toward the west, and although weaker in
force probably contribute more water to
the Gulf of Mexico. and hence to the
Gulf Stream than do the winter winds.

These changes in the winds, however,
are felt in the Gulf Stream by a gradual
increase or decrease in its speed some
time after, the maximum yearly strength,
for example, coming in October, while

the maximum trade-wind influence is in

July and August.

A temporary or a local increase or de-
crease in the force of the trade winds
would have but little effect on the Gulf
Stream, because the current is due to the
average condition of the wind over an
area of hundreds of thousands of square
miles, and this average does not change
materially year by year.

Sometimes a low barometer in the Gulf
of Mexico, accompanied by an abnormal
high on the southern Atlantic coast, will
cause a reverse flow on the sides of the
stream in the Straits of Florida for a
short time, but the wis-a-tergo of the
great mass of water quickly reestab-
lishes the normal current.

There is every evidence that the Gulf
Stream is governed absolutely by law in
all its variations; its course through the
ocean is without doubt fixed; its fluctua-
tions are by days, by months, by sea-
sons, or by years, but they do not vary
materially one year from the other. So
we may conclude, of all the physical
forces on this earth that are subject to
any variations at all, the great ocean cur-
rents are most immutable,

ELEPHANT HUNTING IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA
WITH RIFLE AND CAMERA

By Cari E. AKELEY

With Photographs by the Author and Copyrighted by Carl E. Akeley.

unsuccessful effort to locate ele-
phants, we suddenly heard the squeal of
an elephant far to the east. The squeal-
ing and trumpeting increased in fre-
quency and distinctness until in an hour’s
time we realized that a large herd was
drifting slowly in our direction. By
eleven o'clock they had come very close,
some within two hundred yards of camp,
and on three sides of us. The crashing
of trees and the squealing and trumpet-
ing as the elephants fed, quarreling over
choice morsels, resulted in a din such as
we had never before heard from ele-
phants.

Our men kept innumerable fires going
for fear that the elephants might take a
notion to raid the plantain grove in which
we were camped, and at daylight I was
off for the day’s hunt. The herd had
drifted down to the forest side, forty
minutes from camp; in fact many of them
had entered the forest. For a couple of
miles we traveled through a scene of dev-
astation such as a cyclone leaves in its
wake: 8-foot grass trampled flat ex-
cept for here and there an “island” that
had been spared; half of the scattering
trees twisted off and stripped of bark, and
of all branches and leaves.

We approached within a few hundred
yards of the forest, where the grass was
undisturbed except for trails showing
how the elephants at daybreak had
trekked through in small bands, single
file. When about to cross a little wooded
gulley, we thought it wise to stop and
look over the situation. From the top of
a mass of rocks we discovered a cow
feeding only 20 yards away and others
all about in the high grass between us
and the timber (see page 783).

There was clear passage to a rocky
elevation 100 yards to the left, for which

NE evening in Uganda, when
rather discouraged after a day of

we made, and while standing there, 75
feet above the level, I received an im-
pression of Africa that must remain with
me to the last.

There was not a breath of wind, and
the forest, glistening in the morning sun-
light, stretched away for miles to the east
and to the west and up the slope to the
north. Here and there in the high grass
that intervened between our perch and
the forest edge, 300 yards away, were
scattered elephants singly and in groups
feeding and loafing along, to be swal-
lowed by the dark shadows of-the dense
forest side.

SCOUTS IN ACTI1UN

From the gulley which I had started to
cross a little time before there stalked 25
or 30 of the great beasts, their bodies
shining with a fresh coating of mud and
water from the pool where they had
drunk and bathed. As is usual with big
herds, they had broken up into small
bands on entering the forest, and now, as
the last. of them, disappeared into the
cover of the trees, a fuller appreciation
of the surroundings suddenly dawned
upon me. From a mile or more in either
direction there came a reverberating roar

_and crash as the great hordes of monsters

ploughed their way through the tangles
of vegetation, smashing trees as they
quarreled, played, and fed, all regardless
of forestry regulations.

Where the little stream at the bottom
of the gulley entered the forest, troops of
black and white Colobus monkeys were
racing about the trees, swearing at the
elephants. From the tree tops deeper in
the forest two or three troops of chim-
panzees yelled and shouted at one another
or everything in general, baboons barked,
and great hornbills did their best to
drown all other noises with their dis-
cordant rasping chatter. |

779

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UGANDA

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camp [ had

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TREKKING THROUGH ELEPHANT COUNTRY

file (see page 779)

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754 THE

Suddenly a cow elephant at the edge of
the forest just in front of us uttered her
peculiar shrill scream of warning. Not
only the elephants, but all the other forest
folk, paid heed and instantly were silent;
a moment before the noise had been ap-
palling ; the silence now was even more so.
es there came a gentle rustling sound
like that of leaves stirred by a breeze, in-
creasing in volume until it sounded like
a mighty windstorm in the trees.

I looked about to see whence it came.
With my glasses I scoured the forest far
and near, but not a visible leaf seemed
to stir. Then I realized that the sound
was made by elephants on the move,
hastening away from danger—the scuf-
fling of their feet among the dry leaves
on the ground and the scraping of their
sides. against the equally dry leaves of
the bushes. Ina way this was even more
impressive than the great din or the
death-like silence preceding.

The old cow had caught a whiff of air
tainted by man and all obeyed her warn-
ing. Ina few moments the rustling sub-
sided ; the monkeys and birds returned to
their normal state. The elephants had
evidently settled down without going far ;
but only at rare intervals during the rest
of the day did we hear the squeal of a
chastised youngster or the breaking of a
EREE.

With my gun bearers I went down into
the forest. Trails crisscrossed in all di-
rections, so that it was impossible to fol-
low a given trail any distance. A band
of a dozen or so got our wind and passed
us in confusion at close range, but the
bush was so dense that I had but small
glimpses ot them. A mile into the forest
brought us to an irregular clearing, 200
by 500 yards in extent, almost bisected
by a.) peninsula=. of forest:

A WARLIKE MOTHER

At the base of this peninsula I nearly
ran against a young bull, one of a con-
siderable number, as I soon discovered.
The whole herd began working toward
the point of the peninsula and I ran along
the outer edge to head them off. Just
as the leader emerged from the point,
they saw or winded us—shifty, uncertain
breezes had sprung up—and they turned

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

back. I ran into the timber to try for a
better view of them. I soon found my-
self facing a cow who, solicitous for her
very young calf, had wheeled about, all
attention and menacing.

Fortunately, at the moment we were
partially screened behind a clump of
small trees, and as we remained motion-
less the cow’s fears were soon allayed,
and, turning, she gave the calf a boost
with her trunk and followed the herd,
which was moving off toward the clear-
ing on the other side.

‘Hurrying out and around the point, |
found the herd in the clearing, rounded
up in close formation, conscious of the
presence of an unseen enemy. ‘There
were about 25 elephants, mostly cows,
and just as I was on the point of
backing off to a safer distance, thinking
there were no big bulls in the lot, a fine
pair of tusks appeared at the near side.
A clump of bushes offered cover for a
near approach and I went in quickly to
within 20 yards of him, and as his front
leg was thrust forward offering a good
opportunity for a heart shot, I fired both
barrels of the double rifle in quick suc-
cession,

RENDERING FIRST AID

All was commotion as I seized my
second rifle and, seeing that there was
no direct charge, retre ated some 50 yards
to the top of an ant hill, from which !
could see what was going on. TI then
witnessed a scene stich as I had heard
described and which I had been keen to
verify. “1 number of cows were clus-
tered about the bull, for he had fallen
30 yards from where he was shot, and
with their tusks and trunks were doing
their best to get him upon his feet; the
remainder of the cows were doing patrol
duty, rushing about in an increasing cir-
cle, searching for the source of trouble.
That meant me, so I retired to a safe
distance and waited for the atmosphere
to clear.

This bull stood 11 feet 4 inches high
at the shoulders, and the tusks weighed
g5 and 110 pounds respectively, while
the circumference of the front foot
around the sole was 67% inches, the
largest recorded, I believe (see photo,

page 789).

M

4
4
4

D ALL, DAY ONLY TO FIND THAT
AMONG THI

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4
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Ms
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NO LARC

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DEVASTATION BY ELEPHANTS tah
In this garden during the night previous, elephants had destroyed a large plantain grove
and broken down fifty or more bark cloth trees averaging a foot in diameter. Elephants come
in herds to villages deserted because of sleeping sickness. The damage is usually accom-
plished by herds containing no large ivory, and which consequently have been unmolested by
hunters until they are contemptuous of man (see page 805). se

A GREEN ACACIA TREE I5 INCHES IN DIAMETER BROKEN DOWN BY A SINGLE
ELEPHANT, STRIPPED OF LEAVES AND SMALL BRANCHES

I have seen a-small elephant break a 6-inch tree, not. by-pulling with trunk or ramming
it, but with a side thrust of one tusk, using the trunk only to hold the tree from slipping
along the tusk.

786

BOULDER POLISHED BY THE RUBBING OF GENERATIONS OF ELEPHANTS

The following day I went into the for-
est again and soon came up with a herd,
but in cover so dense that an inspection
could not be made. We worked with
them for hours, and finally succeeded in,
driving them out into the open, but un-
fortunately the grass was high and | had
not succeeded in gaining a point of
vantage, when with angry grunts they
doubled back to the forest.

As I turned to follow, my attention
was called to a commotion in the bush at
the edge of the forest some 400 yards to
the left. Another herd was coming out
into the grasslands, and from the top of
an ant hill [ saw them distinctly as they
passed over a rise 50 yards away. ‘There
were II cows. I waited a few moments,
thinking that, as often happens, a bull
might follow in their wake. The cows
had passed on to a distance of 300 or 400
yards, and I was about to leave the ant
hill and return to camp when from the
direction of the cows there came a low,
ominous rumble like distant thunder. It
was not very unlike the angry rumbling

sounds we had so frequently heard when
with elephants, but it was plain talk and
meant trouble.

A hasty glance around convinced us
that there was but one thing to do, to
stand and meet the charge from the ele-
vation where we were and from which
we could see. If we tried to escape to
one side or to the forest we could not see
them over the high grass before they
were upon us.

A LIVING TORNADO

The rumbling was repeated two or
three times, increasing in volume, and
was then followed by the wild shriek of
one angry cow and immediately taken up
by 10 others as they charged toward us.
They came half way and stopped for a
moment. They had lost the wind, but
immediately caught it again, and roaring
and screaming with redoubled energy
came into view over a slight rise. It was
a disconcerting spectacle. Their great
ears at full spread, trunks thrashing
wildly, a roaring, screaming mass, 40

787

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A BABY ELEPHANT’S MARBLE

A fragment of a termite hill that the elephants had broken off and rolled about on

muddy ground until it had become a nearly symmetrical sphere.

They had evidently rolled

it to this point from a considerable distance, as it was of black earth, while the ground
where photographed was yellow. Baby elephants, like most young animals, are fond of a
frolic with one another and sometimes at the expense of other animals. One day while
inspecting a large herd of elephants that were feeding on the opposite side of a ravine, we
met a herd of buffalo in the high grass on our side, and when we succeeded in frightening
them off they stampeded across to where the elephants were. Three young elephants left the
herd and gave chase, squealing and trumpeting as they charged this way and that, scattering
the buffalo, but not driving them away. ‘The buffalo showed no great fear, just keeping out
of reach; sometimes a cow whose calf was being hard pressed would face about and make
a bluff at standing her ground, but always turned tail when the elephants got too close. As
a rule elephants pay slight attention to other animals. Mr. Tarlton has seen a herd of cow
elephants beat a lioness out of high grass and chase it into forest cover. This suggests the
possibility of lions preying on young elephants, being recognized therefore as an enemy.

bolted. ‘The old cow slowly regained her
feet and staggered away, while we in
deep gratitude returned to camp.

tons of frantic female elephant ven-
geance. I remember that I felt home-
sick.

Were they to continue in a straight
course they would pass at 40 yards; then
a dash on our part to one side and we
could lose them and be safe. When they
were nearly opposite us, however, they
either saw or winded us afresh and
wueeled straight in, with a burst of
shrieks. A shot from the big cordite rifle
stopped the leader, but, encouraged by

HUNTING FOR UNUSUAL SPECIMENS

It was in August, 1909, that we left
New York, commissioned by the Ameri-
can Museum of Natural History to se-
cure specimens for a group of African
elephants. We began serious work on
the Uasin Gishu Plateau, knowing that
there we should be able to secure the

the others, she came on, only to be
knocked down by the second shot. The
others crowded about her, sniffed and—

smaller specimens, cow and young ele-
phants, and we had reason to hope that a
large bull might be found on the plateau

793

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704

A MATERNITY BED WHERE
THE FIRST WEEK OR TEN DAYS OF

This was found by the expedition while traveling

A YOUNG ELEPHANT WAS

BORN AND CARED FOR DURING
ITS LIFE (SEE PAGE 798)

by compass on Mount Kenia, well away

from all trails

or in the forests of Mount Elgon, for in
former days great numbers had inhab-
ited the rich feeding grounds of the El-
gon forest, as Edenced by the old pits
(traps), scarred trees, and
bones. We inspected more than 100 ele-
phants, however, without finding a trace
of a single large specimen.

We journeyed to the summit of Mount
Elgon from the south and down to the
east without finding the least recent trace
of elephants until we had returned to the
bush country of the plateau. . Then we
proceeded to Uganda, secured porters at
Entebbe, marched along the Hoima Road
to the Kafu River, down the Kafu to
where the old Masinde-Kampala Road
crosses it, then to Masinde, seeing no ele-
phants during the two weeks’ journey
(see page 790).

We then devoted a month to hunting
in the- region of the Victoria Nile be-

decaying °

tween Masinde and Foweira. ‘This is a
region of big elephants, where many
splendid tuskers have been taken in the
past, but really good ones are now very
rare. On this occasion we shot two bulls,
enormous in size, but with tusks weigh-
ing only from 75 to 80 pounds each.

MOUNTAIN-CLIMBING ELEPHANTS

About the middle a April, as I was
suffering from physical disabilities that
made the preparation of an elephant skin
impossible, we decided to return to the
Uasin Gishu Plateau, where in the more
healthful highlands | might hope for re-
covery. . Though the rains were on at
this time, we found no elephants on the
plateau, so we devoted 20 days to lion
hunting with a party of Nandi warriors
for the purpose of making motion-pic-
ture records of the spectacular s sport of
lion spearing. About the middle of May
we trekked across country to Mount Ke-

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INVHda'Ted TING V AO SUVA AONH AHL

797

A FRESHLY DUG ELEPHANT PIT

The top will be covered with cross sticks and concealed by earth loosely thrown over the

sticks.

The unwary elephant crashes through this cover, its great feet are wedged in at the
bottom of the pit and it suffers a lingering death.

An elephant pit is usually 9 feet deep, is

large at the top (3 to 4 feet wide and Io to 12 feet long), but tapers to a width of only 6 to

12 inches at the bottom.
few yards at either side.

nia for the purpose of making studies
for the setting of the elephant group.
The forests of the southern slopes of
Mount Kenia are inhabited by forest ele-
phants, who seldom if ever leave them
except to make short night excursions
into the gardens of the Wakikuyu na-
tives. Wishing to learn something defi-
nite in regard to the limits of their range
on the mountain, we made the ascent
from the south through the timber and
bamboo belts onto the snow fields at the

Pits are often made in groups of three, one in the trail and one a

base of the pinnacle. We found that the
elephants regularly work up to timber-
line (12,000 feet), and we found com-
paratively fresh tracks in the sphagnum
marshes at 14,500 or more feet.

THE CRIB OF A BABY ELEPHANT

It was while on this excursion we
found the. “maternity bed” of -an _ele-
phant. Under the protection of a great
mass of aerial roots and the foliage of a
great tree on the point of a densely for-

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799

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66

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A PIT-DIGGER’S SHELTER

The killing of elephants by natives is prohibited; nevertheless the Wandorobo of Kenia
were never more active in digging pits than when we were there. When following native
guides one does not often run across new pits; it is when traveling by compass, independent
of guides, that one is most likely to disturb the trappers at their work. During a three months’
stay on Kenia, in 1910, two elephants were killed in pits within a few miles of our camp.
A pit may be many years old before an elephant is caught in it, and we were curious to
know how the few hunters could watch the hundreds of pits scattered about a large area as
they are. The method is simple and entails but little fruitless labor on the part of the
natives. A pitted elephant may live some days before death comes to its relief, and then a
signal is soon wafted down wind to which the hyenas and leopards promptly respond, the
hyenas howling as they go in search of the feast, and the Wandorobo follow the howls and
tracks of the other carrion feeders. The flesh of the elephant is thoroughly ripened by the
time the natives reach it. g

ested ridge, accessible from only one di-
rection, there was a deeply trodden bed
of dry earth, where the baby elephant
had been born and had spent the first
week or ten days of its life, while the
mother watched over it or fed on the
abundant vegetation near at hand. Later
we found a second bed precisely similar
as to situation. These beds were well off
the lines of elephant travel (see picture,

page 795).

Sor

Upon returning from the summit of
Kenia to the native gardens at the edge
of the forest, I went back again to the
bamboos to make photographic studies
for the background and gather materials
for accessories for the group. While
thus engaged I met a bull elephant, which
left me much the worse for the experi-
ence and necessitated my return to the
base camp on a stretcher. This event
postponed work for several months, and

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THERE ARE FEW TREES IN THE ELEPHANT COUNTRY THAT DO NOT SHOW THE SCARS OF WOUNDS FROM ELEPHANT TUSKS,

RUBBING OF PASSING HERDS

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SHED BY

WELL POLI

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AND THOSE BESIDE THE TRAILS ARE I

GUN-BEARER MARKING ELEPHANT RUBBING ON THE TREE

This man, a Swahili, was gun-bearer for Mr. Arthur Newman at the time he was nearly
kiled by a cow elephant on Kenia, One lung was punctured by the elephant’s tusk, and the
eun-bearer is reported to have killed the elephant, saving Mr. Newman’s life. When a
similar accident happened to me this gun-bearer ran to safety.

A TREE HALF DECAYED BECAUSE OF TUSK WOUNDS THAT NOW SUPPLIES THE ELE-
PHANTS WITH DRY PUNKY WOOD WITH WHICH TO DUST THEMSELVES

it was not until January, 1911, that we
resumed active work in the field. From
then until the first of June we worked in
Unyoro, from the Victoria Nile on the
east and north to Lake Albert on the
west northward of Masinde.

This district has now been closed be-
cause of sleeping sickness, and thus be-
comes an elephant reserve. During the
time we were there we saw much of the
results of this awful disease, whole vil-
lages in which not a living being was to
be found, those who had escaped alive
having abandoned all household utensils
and stored food, together with the huts
and gardens, to the mercy of the ele-
phants, who had come in great herds, de-
stroyed the plantain groves and bark-
cloth trees, completing the work of dev-
astation.

The elephants do not always by any
means wait for the natives to go. We
saw many cases where they had raided a
garden at night and completely destroyed

all crops, and in some instances, when
angercd by the natives’ attempts to drive
them away, had destroyed the huts also.

THE DESTRUCTIVENESS OF A HERD

The amount of damage that a herd of
500 elephants can do to forests and na-
tive cultivation is enormous. In follow-
ing a herd of 250 we were led through a
garden, where the night previous ele-
phants had destroyed a large plantain
grove and broken down 50 or more bark-
cloth trees, averaging a foot in diameter.
This was a herd from which all good
bulls had been killed and the remainder,
enjoying immunity from sportsmen and
ivory hunters, had become contemptuous
of man (see page 786).

When we approached the herd and
they became aware of our presence, they
surged down upon us, keeping us at a
distance, and not until I climbed a tree
in advance of them did I get a chance to
look them over as they approached and

MOSS-COVERED ELEPHANT SKULL IN THE BAMBOOS NEAR TIMBER LINE ON MT, KENIA

passed. The average value of ivory in
this herd would nee have exceeded $20
per head, not enough to cover the damage
done by them in one year.

Coming south from the neighborhood
of Murchison Falls, we were resting at
the summit of the pass over Poduro
Hills, when we detected a herd of about
100 elephants at rest some 2 miles to
the south. As we watched them they be-
gan moving in our direction and _ ulti-

mately reached the base of the hills,
where we met them. In the meantime a
second herd of more than 100 appeared,
traveling rapidly to the north, passing
within easy inspection range of our out-
look. During the time we were engaged
in watching “these elephants the middle
ground was occupied by two herds of
Buiocs and as we went down to look
the elephants over at the foot of the hills
we jumped the third herd of buffaloes in

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MRS. AKELEY WITH THE TUSKS OF HER TWO MOUNT KENIA ELEPHANTS

The combined weight of the four tusks was over 400 pounds, a record

808

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UPABICS V

809

810

the bamboos. There were over three
hundred in all.

It is generally understood that large
bull elephants are more frequently to be
found apart from the herds, but our ex-
perience does not bear this cut. Three
bulls that we have shot, having tusks
each weighing 100 pounds or over, have
been herd bulls. In Uganda we often
found bulls unaccompanied by cows,
singly and in small herds numbering up
to 15 individuals, but it was not among
these that we found the largest tusks.
We have found the large old bulls enjoy-
ing the society and protection of large
herds of cows and young animals (see

page 789).
A GUARD OF HONOR

One splendid old bull well known in
Uganda, who has been seen by many
hunters, is so well protected by a large
herd of most aggressive cows, who charge
at the slightest intimation of danger, that
he still survives. These old bulls are
very rare, for when a bull has developed
tusks of 50 pounds, which is at quite an
early age, perhaps 25 years, he becomes
the target of every hunter, native or

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

white, who sets eyes upon him; thus it
is only the more crafty or timid indi-
viduals that, seeking the protection of
large herds or clinging to the more in-
accessible regions, such as dense forests,
manage to survive to a ripe old age and
develop a fuli growth of ivory.

The best bull at present in our collec-
tion for the group is a young adult stand-
ing 11 feet 3 inches at the shoulders with
tusks of 100 and 102 pounds respectively.
These are young ivory, and there can be
no doubt that were this elephant to have
lived 50 years longer they would have
attained a weight of 200 pounds each.
Such tusks are not abnormal; they are
simply the tusks of a good, healthy bull
v-ho has been intelligent and lucky enough
to keep his life until his ivory was full
grown.

It would seem worth while that the
world’s permanent record of elephant life
should contain a specimen that illustrates
the fullest development of the African
species, the finest living representative of
this race of animals. Such an elephant
can be secured now, but it will soon be
too late, for the remaining monster speci-
mens will be killed for their ivory.

ZANZIBAR

By Mrs. Harris R. Curps (ELEANOR STUART)

UNDREDS of tourists and gov-
H ernment employees, on the man-

ifold errands of empire, see the
town of Zanzibar without knowing much
of it, or ever exploring beyond the Ger-
man or English tennis clubs. But this is
less remarkable than the fact that mer-
chants, priests, secular missionaries, mili-
tary and diplomatic whatnot, Indians,
Arabs, Parsis, and Europeans (as incon-
spicuous artisans or petty traders) act-
ually live in the town year in and year
out without so much as walking half a
mile beyond the terminus of the little
American railway at Bu-bu-bu, a village
a few miles from the town itself. The
precedent for this neglect—and the social
fabric of Zanzibar is dependent on prece-
dent—is undoubtedly the indifference of
the early explorers, who fitted out cara-
vans in the old town; and, bent on dis-

covering a volcano or a nyanza far afield,
never wasted time in wandering about
the glorious island itself.

On the first day that one leaves the
road behind and finds oneself at large in
the dense green of Zanzibar’s titantic
verdure one is conscious of a newness
of interest as when one reads for the
first time some book of very distinctive
imaginative quality.

The woods and fields, the “shambas”
(plantations), are like the contents of a
Brobdignagian glass house; the colors of
flowers and trees themselves are so ele-
mentary as to seem like a child’s concept
of beauty in nature, and when, unex-
pectedly, without preparation of any kind,
the sight of the clove trees, shining green,
red-stemmed, symmetrical, stretches be-
fore one, with the ultramarine of the
Indian Ocean as a background for their

ZANZIBAR

unequaled loveliness, the beauty of the
whole writes itself on the memory of
the most commonplace of observers as
an indelible delight.

The island, about the same size in
square miles as Long Island, is of a dif-
ferent shape, being shorter and much
broader. It is one of Great Britain’s pro-
tectorates, but Sayyid Ali bin Hamoud,
its present Sultan, has political instinct
and a spirit of progress. Since his ac-
cession he has materially bettered his
position and exalted his dominion in
European as well as British eyes.

To the south of the town the landscape
is less redundant and riotous in vegetable
expression, but goats abound, and find
all they need in the way of food to make
them marketable.

A TROPICAL PARADISE

Butyto the north the mango trees,
palms, cloves, and every form of orange
and lemon crowd thick and glorious under
the most primitive of husbandmen. Just
as Africa itself is netted over with aim-
less footpaths, so is Zanzibar veined with
little tracks worn deep into the living
green so long ago that no tradition fol-
lows the feet of those who made them.
That black, furtive, futile being whose
American enfranchisement convulsed the
United States still stands there at the
door of his hand-hewn hut like a crea-
ture potentially human, but lovable be-
yond belief in these appropriate sur-
roundings, knowing himself to be but 15
minutes out of the jungle, and as one
once said to the writer, who was endeav-
oring to tell him of the civil war, “hap-
pier when he lives near to the leopard
and the trail of the things that eat and
are eaten than when the shadow of a
master’s hand is always on his shoulder.”

THE OLD SLAVE TRADE

The industrial life of Zanzibar has
changed three times since David Living-
stone cried for mercy for the black man,
who sorely needed it. Under the Arabs
the town was a slave center, where the
poor creatures, who were caught in the
course of one of Tippoo Tib’s “war
walks” into the interior, were brought to
the island carrying ivory, and prepared

811

by various heavy-handed methods for
service as slaves in the Persian Gulf or
in the shambas and warehouses of Zan-
zibar itself. The Arabs achieved the best
negroes imaginable, whatever their meth-
ods may have been, and when England
ruined Tippoo Tib by her slave regula-
tions ivory took the place of slaves as a
trade staple, and dealers from hither and
yon brought their ivory for sale to the
quaint Arab town, whose sanitation was
then a by-word of the East.

The bodies of dead slaves were fre-
quently put out on the beach by Arabs
too inhuman to give them burial, and
animals who had died were disposed of
in the same fashion. Bath water was in-
formally evicted through harem win-
dows, and all the wanton waste of the
cooking department in large Arab houses
was banked up by the kitchen doors.
There is a tendency to that sort of thing
still, but Dr. Spurrier, Zanzibar’s health
officer, untrained as a sanitary engineer,
but essentially scientific and resourceful,
has removed Sir Richard Burton’s re-
proachfully apt epithet of filthy in con-
nection with Zanzibar town.

THE CLOVE INDUSTRY A SALVATION

But the third and last phase of indus-
try in Zanzibar has been its salvation,
and will keep it alive as a place of im-
portance long after Mombasa has caught
up with and passed it as the center for
general trade and the entrepot for the
African Hinterland. ‘This last phase is
clove cultivation, and the history of the
clove in Zanzibar is a record of such
pluck and foresight as may well teach a
lesson to the proud Saxon who con-
siders his race a monopolist of both
qualities.

In 1860 an Arab named Telim bin Isse
came up from Mauritius with a handful
of cloves in his pockets and 200 plants to
put into his shamba. His idea of agri-
culture was very unique, and he only in-
tended to persevere in clove culture if he
could depend on a crop after every neg-
lect and affront had been offered his
trees. Their beauty (cloves are a kind
of myrtle and exquisite in appearance)
excited the interest of Said Burgash,
about to become Zanzibar’s Sultan, and

toy
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812

ZANZIBAR

WORTH $50 To $100:

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ACH TUSI

1,

A FORTUNE IN Ivory.

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UMVAIZNVZ : AMOAI JO WOVAOLS VOT VINVA AOONdAAT

SE?

814

he wrote at once to the Moluccas to ob-
tain the finest plants which could be
bought for money.

Two Dutch ships brought them in an
unusually short time, and the Sultan, the
most remarkable man Zanzibar has ever
produced or associated with its fortunes,
sent out numbers of his henchmen to
compel laborers from every side to get
the plants into the soil immediately. He
had read up the whole subject in a book
of French authorship, which he had
caused to be written out in Arabic, and
saw that the enterprise had a great mer-
cantile future for Zanzibar. He knew
that the island’s supremacy as a trade
center would pass, and he hoped to make
it with Pemba, the extremely fertile but
rather uninteresting island to Zanzibar’s
north, paramount in the world of spices.

In 1872 a cyclone blew over Zanzibar,
which uprooted all the clove trees and
blew the cocoanuts flat to the earth with-
out breaking them. Many clove trees
were blown into the sea; many were
broken off short. Within a week after
the storm Said Burgash was rounding up
his laborers again and sending hither and
yon for plants, which he presented to the
poorer Arabs, who had seized on the idea
of a crop which could be sold to Euro-
peans, and had put their all into the pur-
chase of plants and slaves for their cul-
ture.

THE WORLD'S SUPPLY

From that second planting comes nine-
tenths of the world’s clove supply today,
and when one realizes that the least out-
put of cloves per annum has amounted
(from Zanzibar alone) to 80,000 bales
and the greatest output to 200,000, and
when one furthermore realizes that the
government claims as tax one bag out of
each five, one may catch a vista of Bur-
gash’s dream, and concede that even the
Oriental has in part the greatest of men-
tal attributes—imagination.

One might write a book on Zanzibar,
and in the hurry of its beauties and the
horrors of its mysterious catastrophes,
like the smallpox epidemic or the bu-
bonic plague, forget to tell the half of its
wonders. It will always remain in one’s
mind like a soiled page of the Arabian

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Nights, with what promised tc be a splen-
did outcome ruined by some fearful vis-
itation of cyclone or of sickness. But
the intrinsic strength of the island con-
tinues in the clove crop and has attracted
an enormous quantity of Indians, who
are fast driving out the Arab and keep-
ing up a desultory intercourse with India
for caste reasons. The penalty for visit-
ing Zanzibar is the lightest inflicted on
any Indian who travels; he is merely re-
quired to wash in the Ganges, so that
emigration to Africa’s east coast is vir-
tually encouraged. ~

THE MELTING POT

To realize Zanzibar’s cosmopolitan
quality one must reflect that with the ex-
ception of a handful of the Wa-Hadimu,
or original people (Bantu) of Zanzibar,
no one lives there for any reason except
greed of gain or acquiescence to coercion.
The Swahili boys are a compromise be-
tween the Arab masters and their savage
worden. ne sees Nyassa children black
and glossy as lumps of coal, pointing at a
distinguished old Arab as their father, or
slim young Galla boys, leaning in their
coffee - colored perfection over lakes
crammed with blue water lilies, claiming
kin with an Indian as a parent on one
side of the house and a slim Somali on
the other. Mohammedanism knits them
together in its strong embrace, while only
the Indian women secured in the Zenana
system remain quite unchanged by travel
and the different mode of life which a
new country affords.

Much good ivory still comes to Zan-
zibar, but the world’s supply lessens
yearly, while the demand for it increases
month by menth. The best ivory in the
world comes from Benadir coast (Italian
Somaliland), and as a return American
cotton and oil find their way to the Bena-
dir ports—Mogdesho, Barawa, and Mer-
ker. For four months of each year these
ports are closed, and the ‘‘dhows,’ or
sailing ships, which take up case oil and
cotton cargo from Zanzibar, together
with flour, sugar, and candles, stand
stacked in Zanzibar’s harbor, waiting for
a wind from the north again to promise
safety on that sandy treacherous shore
of Benadir,

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EXTREMES MEET. THIS PICTURE ILLUSTRATES THE WIDE VARIETY IN TUSKS.
LARGE ONE MEASURES 9 FEET ON THE OUTSIDE CURVE

815

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A MESSAGE FROM PEMBA SPED IN A NATIVE CATAMARAN

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INSECT LIFE

The fauna of Zanzibar is meager. In
1873 an hippopotamus dropped in from
German East Africa! and whatever ex-
ists in the way of wild cat or pig to the
north of the island is quite as continental
in origin. On a small and neighboring
island a very peculiar rodent exists, for
which I have never heard even a native
name. But the insects of Zanzibar, al-
though rarely venomous, possess a va-
riety that is as extraordinary as their ac-
tivity. There is the “breaker of sauce-
pans,’ a green thing, terrible to behold,

VOLCANOES

URING the first week in June
D Katmai Volcano, in southwestern
Alaska, which had been gener-

ally believed to be an extinct volcano,
unexpectedly burst into violent eruption
and continued active for three days.
Vast: quantities of dust, -pumice,: and
stones were ejected aloft. So dense was
the cloud cast into the heavens that the
people in the village of Kadiak, about
1oo miles distant, were in total darkness
for two days. All the crops on Kadiak
Island were destroyed by the ashes; the
fish in the sea and in the rivers were
killed and all water supplies were poi-
soned. Through the courtesy of two
members of the National Geographic So-
ciety, Capt.-Commandant E.. P. Bertholf,
US. Ras; and Mr W.). Erskine, of
Kadiak, this Magazine publishes a very
unusual series of views of the remarka-
ble fall of dust and ashes after the erup-
tion of Mt. Katmai. As all the photo-
graphs were taken at least 100 miles
from the volcano, the reader can infer
the tremendous nature of the cataclysm
which could deposit such enormous
quantities of dust and ashes so far away.
In the pictures Kadiak and vicinity
appear wrapped in a mantle of snow,
but the white covering in reality is the
white volcanic dust. At the time of
year the photographs were taken this
region is always as green in vegetation
-and foliage as any part of the United

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

and an army of ants, in different regi-
mentals, the mosquito in its more harm-
less phase, and an occasional centipede.

The house-fly is almost unknown.

Zanzibar is perhaps the most interest-
ing town to the negro that the world af-
fords; plenty of old slaves, who haven't
seen it for 20 years, dream ceaselessly of
it, when a 12-mile walk would bring
them to its market-place. And we, who:
have known European kindness and
African quaintness within its far-away
borders, turn to our memories of it after
months of absence and acknowledge it to:
be a place of happy dreams.

OF ALASKA

States. All the land was covered with
grasses, plants, and shrubs, whose luxu-
riant green is buried under the heavy
fall of ashes, and a beautiful landscape
changed to a scene of desolation.

EXTRACT FROM REPORT OF CAPT. K.
PERRY, U. S. R. S., ON BOARD THE
REVENUE CUTTEP ““MANNING”’

On’ June 6;-1912, the.U: S. RS:
steamer Manning lay moored at the
wharf at St. Paul, Kadiak Island, taking
coal. About 4 p. m., while standing on
the dock, I observed a_ peculiar-looking
cloud slowly rising to the southward and
westward, and remarked to a friend that
it looked like snow. Later distant thun-
der was heard, and about 5 p. m. I no-
ticed light particles of ashes falling. At
6 o'clock the ashes fell in considerable
showers, these gradually increasing. The
cloud bank had spread. past the zenith
when I observed another bank to the
northward, and the two met about 30
degrees above the northern and eastern
horizon. ‘Thunder and lightning had be-
come frequent at 7 o’clock, very intense
at times, and though lacking two hours.
of sunset a black night had settled down.
It was impossible, owing to electrical
conditions, to use the wireless appara-
tus; consequently no information could
be sent out. This was also found to be
true of the Woody Island naval wireless
station. Specimens of the deposit were

Ww.

FRAME STRUCTURE CRUSHED BY WEIGHT OF ASHES

taken at various times and it was found
to consist of dust and fine sand or gran-
ules. At 12 midnight the thunder and
lightning diminished, but it continued
intermittently until the storm (if this
term may be used) ceased, on June 8.

The morning of the 7th dawned with
volcanic matter falling, and it continued,
although gradually diminishing until 9.10
a. m., when it ceased. We then believed
that the eruption was over. All of this
time no one knew where the eruption
had occurred, for, owing to the excessive
static, no work could be done by the
wireless. About five inches of ashes had
formed, and all streams and wells were
fouled and choked, so water was fur-
nished the inhabitants of St. Paul by the
Manning and by the schooner Metha
Nelson, anchored near by.

At noon ashes commenced to fall again,
steadily increasing in density until at 1
p. m. it was impossible to see beyond a
distance Of 50 feet. At 2 2p. om: pitch
darkness had set in, heavily static dis-
turbances were observed, and our wire-
less was dumb. All ashes of the previous
day had been removed, yet decks, masts,
and yards were again heavily laden, as
were also the ship’s boats. ‘The ashes
now were fine dust and flakes of a yel-
lowish color.. Sulphurous fumes were
at times in the air, and many thought
and spoke of the destruction of Pom-

peu. Avalanches of ashes on the neigh-
boring hills could be heard, and these
sent forth clouds of suffocating dust.
Men often collided in working about the
decks, the feeble glow of the ‘electric
lights and lanterns failing to dispel the
awful darkness. The crew kept con-
stantly at work with shovels, and streams
of water from the fire mains were play-
ing incessantly on the deck in what at
times seemed a vain effort to clear the
ship of its deadly burden. The bells of
the Greek church in the near-by village
boomed out in the blackness, and there
were few if any of its followers who did
not grope their way to the call to prayer.
I might state at this point that I believe
the catastrophe appeared more terrible
at: ot Paul than at the neéar-by settle-
ments, because of the suffocating clouds
of volcanic débris that swept down from
the hills close to the town, adding to the
fall from above.

At 10 a. m. the people of the village
had sought shelter in the warehouse on
the wharf and on the Manning—about
835 souls—and others were added later
from vessels, the salmon cannery, and
the people of Woody Island.

Shortly before 11 a. m. Lieut. W. K.
Thompson, of the Manning, informed
me that several men were cut off in the
cannery about one-half mile distant be-
low our dock. He stated that he had a

825

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HSV OINVO’IOA DNIMOHS ‘NVIGVS JO MATA

826

ON THE “MANNING'S” BRIDGE

The decks of the Manning were repeatedly cleared of dust and ashes, but a few hours would
bring about the same condition. Note the effect of drifted snow,

iva)
iS)
“NI

Photo by W. J. Erskine

THE A. C. COMPANY DWELLING-HOUSE AT KADIAK

Porch broken down from weight of ashes. The deposit here was 24 inches thick on the
level. June 14, 1912

Photo by W. J. Erskine
RESIDENCE AT KADIAK MADE UNINHABITABLE BY THE FALL OF ASHES

A slide wrecked the rear of this house and the living rooms drifted half full. Note the line
showing the level of the ashes in the window to the left. June 14, 1912

THE DOCK AT ST. PAUL, ON KADIAK ISLAND, SHOWING THE HEAVY FALI, OF ASHES

ON BOARD THE “METHA NELSON” AT KADIAK

Ashes were still falling slightly when this was taken. The deposit here shown nearly
all fell the last day of the disturbance; the fall of the first day had been fairly well cleared
off. June 9, 1912

829

Se Ree

HOUSE AT KADIAK RUINED BY AVALANCHE OF ASHES FROM HILLSIDE

of ashes from hillside avalanche crushed in roof and almost filled the interior of
this house. St. Paul, Kadiak, June 9, 1912

Photo by W. J. Erskine
FROM WEIGHT OF ASHES.

SHOWING ROOF OF FISH HOUSE.AT KADIAK BROKEN DOWN
JUNE 14, 1912

830

party willing to try a rescue and asked
for orders. I replied that I dared not
give him orders, for it might be sending
men to death, but that he and his party
had my permission to make the attempt.
The party at once decided to go, depart-
ing at 11 o'clock, and returned on board
with the rescued men at 1.30 p. m.~ It
was an heroic act deserving of highest
commendation.

At 2.30 p. m., June 8, the fall of ashes
decreased, the skies assumed a_ reddish
color, and finally objects became dimly
visible. All clothed and festooned in
ashes, nothing looked familiar, and as
frequent seismic disturbances were still
felt, much fear existed that worse was
still to come.

The night of the 8th was spent in sus-
pense, but when the morning of the 9th
dawned and all precipitation of ashes had
ceased, it was felt that the eruption was
over. Some time during the eruption
the wireless station at Woody Island
was destroyed by fire, doubtless caused
by lightning.

Photo by Lieut. J. F. Hahn, U. S. R. S.
VOLCANIC DUST 2 FEET DEEP: SCENE AT KADIAK AFTER THE ERUPTION OF KATMAI
VOLCANO

June 12 a message reached me from
Lieutenant Thompson, in charge of the
Redondo expedition, advising that he
had been in the vicinity of the volcano,
which was Mt. Katmai, on the mainland
across the Shelikof Strait.

During the 9th, toth, and 11th the ap-
pearance of the skies seemed to indicate
that some substance was held in suspen-
sion, and at times most unpleasant and
strangling gases filled the air, making it
difficult to breathe.

The outlook for the future of this
vicinity is at present a problem. While
the fish are now very scarce, it is gen-
erally believed that they will return.
Many gardens have been uncovered, but
I doubt if they produce much this sea-
son, and their product will be greatly
missed by the natives. Cattle are find-
ing a little feed on the hillsides, where
the deposits slid down, but all the feed
is impregnated with sand and ashes.

The officers and crew of the Manning
rendered gallant and unflinching service
through an ordeal that was arduous and

REFUGEES FROM KADIAK ON BOARD THE

terrorizing beyond description, and I
cannot refrain from paying the highest
comphment to many of the inhabitants
of Kadiak, who by their courage and
forgetfulness of self in this time of peril
cooperated with us in every way in giv-
ing help to the weak and suffering.

Katmai Volcano is one of the long
belt of active and extinct Alaskan vol-
canoes which extend for 1,600 miles
from Kenai Peninsula, along the Alas-
kan Peninsula and Aleutian Islands. No
less than 60 active or recently active vol-
canoes are already known, and this num-
ber will probably be increased when the
territory has been more thoroughly ex-
amined. ‘The belt includes Mt. Wran-
gell, whose huge dome reaches 14,000 feet

F SA SLES

SOY TA) <tesiy oe SO Hes =o Sia!
I Nit
SS

we

nis

PEN DENG, "Ni CORON

s

VA

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Photo by Lieut. J. F. Hahn, U.S. R.S
“MANNING”

elevation; Mt. Shishaldin, a most grace-
ful peak, whose outlines rival Fujiyama,
and Bogoslof, whose suddenly appear-
ing and as suddenly disappearing islands
have startled mariners for the past 100
years.

Immediately after the eruption the
National Geographic Society, in cooper-
ation with the U. S. Geological Survey,
sent Mr. George C. Martin, a geologist
of the Survey, to Alaska to make a re-
connaissance of Mt. Katmai and neigh-
boring volcanoes. Mr. Martin has been
in the field of volcanic disturbance
throughout the summer. Hus studies
are preliminary to an extended investi-
gation of the Alaskan volcanoes, which
the National Geographic Society will
inaugurate in 1913.

S35 iS

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VoL. XXIII, No. 9

WASHINGTON

SEPTEMBER, 1912

GEOGIRAIPISOIC
MUAGAZIINIE,

HEAD-HUNTERS OF NORTHERN LUZON

By Dean C. WoRCESTER

SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Author of “Field Sports in the Philippines,”

“The Recent Eruption of Mt. Taal,’

etc., im the NATIONAL, GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

GrocRAPHIC MAGAZINE I called at-

tention to the fact that the number
of non-Christian tribes in the northern
part of the great island of Luzon had
been grossly exaggerated, and that there
were in reality but seven. The people of
all but one of these tribes have, until
recently, engaged in head-hunting.

It is my purpose to give, within the
limits'of this article, a brief account of
each of the head-hunting tribes. The
photographs reproduced in the accom-
panying illustrations were taken in part
by me and in part under my direction by
Mr: Charles Martin, the official photogra-
pher of the Philippine government. It
should perhaps be said in passing that

I N A recent article in the NATIONAL

“they are in every case strictly authentic

and typical. I have visited the wild
man’s territory in northern Luzon annu-
ally tor ithe. past Ii years, and-=these
photographs have been obtained on my
yearly inspection trips.

THE NEGRITOS

Three years ago had any one stated
in my presence that the Negritos, or any
of them, were head-hunters, I should
promptly have questioned the truth of
the allegation; but I have since had rea-
son to change my mind. In August, 1909,

I was at last able to visit the hitherto
practically unknown eastern coast of
northern Luzon. The forest-clad slopes
of the great mountain chain extending
almost uninterruptedly from Baler to
Cape Engano, and the territory between
these mountains and the Pacific, form
the last important Negrito . stronghold
remaining in the Philippine Islands. In
this region, and in this region alone, the
Negrito is of practically unmixed blood,
and has had little or no contact with
white men or with Christian Filipinos.

My trip was made during the dry sea-
son. At this time, when the sea is as
quiet as it ever gets on this forbidding
coast, the Negritos come down to the
shore in considerable numbers to fish,
and it was an easy matter to observe
through our field glasses their tiny shel-
ters, which were usually close to, or
actually on, the sea-beach.

DIFFICULTIES OF SOCIAL INTERCOURSE

Unfortunately it proved by no means
easy to make calls upon the owners of
these very primitive structures, owing to
their more than retiring dispositions. A
barrier reef, sloping abruptiy from deep
water to the very surface of the sea,
borders this coast for scores of miles.
Even in periods of apparent complete

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OUTLINE MAP OF NORTHERN LUZON

835

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A NEGRITO “HOUSE” AND FAMILY

These shelters are inclined toward the sun or wind and vary in size from four feet by

five to eight by six.
page 841).

calm the long Pacific swell breaks on the
edge of this reef in such a manner as to
make landing quite impossible.

Although it had been claimed that
there were no ports for anything bigger
than native dugouts, we found several
fairly good small harbors, none of which
were shown on the chart. Indeed, long
stretches of the coast-line proved to be
tO to 15 miles out of place. We were
able to land in these harbors, as well as
at several other points where small fresh-
water streams had prevented the growth
of coral, so that there were passages
through the reef: to-the sea. “The ap-
proach of our steamer caused conster-
nation among the Negritos, and -we
could plainly see them abandoning their
“houses” in all haste and running for the
jungle, where they remained in hiding in
spite of all our efforts to get into com-
munication with them (see page 836).

We did not attempt closely to approach
their hiding places, as they are the bow-
and-arrow men of the Philippines, and

837

This photograph was taken on the northeast coast of Luzon (see

use their chosen weapons with extra-
ordinary skill. They smear their arrows
with an especially deadly poison, and the
civilized Filipinos who inhabit the out-
skirts of their territory are agreed that
a mere scratch from such an arrow 1s
promptly fatal (see page 844).

Not until we reached the immediate
vicinity of Palanan, the northernmost
Filipino settlement on the east coast of
Ijuzon, did we succeed in getting into
actual totich with these interesting and
very primitive people. I had previously
been among Negritos in the islands of |
Mindanao, Negros, Panay, and Palawan,
and in the provinces of Bataan, Zam-
bales, Pampanga, Rizal, Bulacan, Pan-
gasinan, Isabela, and Cagayn in Luzon.
Indeed, I had visited every important
region in the Philippine Islands inhabited
by Negritos. None of the people of this
race hitherto encountered by me were
head-hunters; but there is no doubt that
the representatives of this tribe which
now inhabit northeastern Luzon engage

MAKING ORNAMENTAL SCAR PATTERNS

The man has just had numerous cuts made into the skin of his chest, into which dirt
will be rubbed. The woman holds between the thumb and forefinger of her right hand the
piece of bamboo with which she did the cutting.

in this custom. Indeed, they are more
feared by their Christian neighbors than
are the [longots.

HABITS OF THE NEGRITOS

The Negritos are generally considered
to be the true aborigines of the Philip-
pines, and are racially sharply distinct
from the other numerous tribes of the
Islands, except the Ilongots of Luzon,

the Mangayans of Mindoro, and the.

Tagbanuas of Palawan, with whom they
have intermarried to a considerable ex-
tent. They are of low, sometimes even
dwarfish, stature, with very dark brown,
or black, skins. Their heads are covered
with closely curling hair and many of
them have abundant woolly beards. They
often have so-called ‘“pepper-corn” hairs
distributed very abundantly over their
bodies. ‘Their noses are broad and flat,
their lips thick, their arms disproportion-
ately long.

838

They do not tattoo their bodies, but
ornament them with scar patterns, pro-
duced by cutting through the skin with
sharp pieces of bamboo and rubbing dirt
into the wounds thus formed in order to
infect them and make good big scars!
In this respect they differ from all other
wild peoples in the Philippines and agree
with the dwarfs of Africa, whose scar
patterns, as shown by photographs which
have been reproduced in the NATIONAL
GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE, are, in some in-
stances at least, practically identical with
those in vogue among the Philippine
Negritos (see pages 838, 839).

The men wear small clouts, and the
women short skirts reaching from the
waist to the knee. “They are very fond
of brightly colored cloth, scarlet being
preferred, but individuals who cannot
get cloth, and there are many such, use
instead the so-called “bark cloth” so
widely employed by inhabitants of the

Note the

A NEGRITO WOMAN

ornamental scar patterns. In her left ear she has medicine for a headache, and
around her neck hangs medicine for a sore throat.

839

sosnoy poos Ajyeuondsaxea
plinq ojnt e se pue ‘SSO[PSe oY} YIM JOePWOS UI YONW JWOD JALY SOPISIN oY} TOM ‘uozn’T] ‘QOUIAOI J uerjeq Ul usayey sem ydeisojoyd SIU Tf,

SONIDNO'THE GNV ASNOH YAHL HLIM SOLIMDAN OME

40

[o“8)

A NEGRITO MAKING FIRE BY RUBBING PIECES OF BAMBOO TOGETHER

islands of the Pacific. Men frequently
shave the crowns of their heads “‘in order
to let the heat out’!

CONSTRUCTION AND CONTENTS OF HOUSES

The tiny settlements which we visited
were abandoned very hastily, but it was
easy to obtain complete inventories of
the property of their owners, which, even
to the bows and arrows, was often left
behind. The “houses” were constructed
by covering small rectangular frame-
works of poles with a thin thatch of
rattan leaves or grass. Fach shelter thus
made was inclined toward the sun, or
wind or rain, and was held in a slanting
position by a stick sharpened at one end
and forked at the other, the sharpened
end being pushed into the ground and
the forked end placed against the shelter
at or near its central point (see page 837).

The smallest of these structures meas-
ured about four feet by five, the largest
some eight feet by six. Hanging from
them, or placed under them, were a few
cocoanut shells; an occasional earthen

pot, usually broken; fish lines equipped
with stone sinkers and with bone or steel
hooks; an occasional small casting net;
a few bits of bark cloth; bows of Palma
brava; arrows with heads of Palma
brava, bamboo, or, more rarely, of steel;
a few rude bolos; scraps of cheap cotton
cloth, and nothing more!

The domestic animals were dogs—
which, strangely enough, neither objected
to our approach nor got out of our
way—and a few wild chickens, partially
domesticated.

The Negritos told us that during the
rainy season they went back into the
mountains, where they sometimes planted
yams, upland rice, or corn; but that evil
spirits often obliged them to abandon
their plantings before harvest time!
Throughout the year they subsist chiefly
on vegetable products, which they obtain
from the virgin forest, and on fish and
game. They are wonderful woodsmen
and display great skill in taking fish and
game and in still-hunting their enemies ;
but here their proficiency ends. They

(Zpg aSed 9as) ojoq ve puke poom jo
aoaid [jeus & JO ple 94} YM ssousOD YJOq Yo Surddiys Aq ouop st sty y,

HLA) PNOUL
SIH GHILNI0d SVH “AdIYL SIH JO ANVW A@MIT ‘OHM OLIMDUN V

elowies oy} Jo yno dunfl
0} dIPIIG oy} JOF Suryo}eM ATJUOplAo pue plesyeun sem AOq oY,

Q@IIM ZALLVN ULLHL NI @IIHO CNV YAH LOW OLIIOAN V

842

TWO NEGRITO MEN

ith Governor William F. Pack of the Mounta

Photograph taken on the

ince.

Provi

in

northeast coast of Luzon, near Palanan

W

843

LP

NEGRITO BOWMAN

The Negritos are the bow and arrow men of the Philippines. Many of them shoot

arrows with great accuracy, and some of them have even been known to bring down birds
on the wing (see page 837).

NEGRITO MEN WITH BOWS, ARROWS, AND HEADAXES READY FOR THE TRAIL

A TYPICAL NEGRITO MAN WITH SECRETARY WORCESTER

This photograph shows the relative size of the Negritos compared with a 6-foot American

846

are good at nothing else, and
their intelligence is of an ex-
ceptionally low order.

In other parts of the Philip-
pines where Negritos have
come more in contact with
civilized natives, I have found
them building larger huts,
and, in rare instances, they
even construct small houses,
which approach more or less
closely the poorer class dwel-
lings of their Filipino neigh-
bors. In the Cagayan Valley
and in the province of Bataan,
Negritos have been known to
cultivate land in corn and rice
for several successive years;
but they are essentially a wild
and nomadic people and every
effort thus far put forth, by
Spaniards or Americans, to
educate them or materially to
better their condition in any
other way, save by protecting
them from harsh treatment at
the hands of their civilized
neighbors, has resulted in
complete failure.

TEETH CHIPPING

Many of the Negritos point
their front teeth, but not by
filing them, as is commonly
supposed. A chip of wood is
held behind the tooth to be
operated upon; the point of a
bolo is placed in such a posi-
tion as to slant across the
corner of tooth to be removed,
and a sharp blow on the bolo
chips a piece from the tooth.
The opposite corner is sim-
ilarly operated upon, and an
artistic point is thus produced (p. 842)!

The music and dancing of the Ne-
gritos are especially intc.esting. Many
of them know how « inake and to play
both the bamboo n-se-flute and a kind of
jews’-harp made trom bamboo. Some
of them use crude stringed instruments
fashioned from single joints of bamboo,
the strings being cut from the outer
layer of wood, to which their ends re-
main attached, and being raised up by
means of “bridges.” The distribution of
the several kinds of musical instruments

AN ILONGOT BOY

The coming generation is more promising than the present
one, but even the children carry weapons

above mentioned is more or less local,
but the bronze tom-tom, or “gansa,” is
in universal use, although some Negritos
play it with a drumstick, while others
beat it with their hands. Many of their
dances are pantomimic. Their singing is
often weird in the extreme. It would be
idle to attempt to describe it ; only phono-
graphic records could do it partial jus-
tice (see page 834).
DANCES

There are many stories current to the
effect that Negritos are often to be met

847

Suns} 921} poyojou FO suvaur Aq PY SI SS9dIB YTYM O} ‘sosnoy Pojonsjsuos-[Jam pue asie] oyINb pjing Ajjeuorseo0 ayy,

(Zog HOVd “UXHL FHS) ASQOH JOONOTI NV

848

with wandering through the forest in a
state of absolute nudity, and that they
indulge in various obscene dances. [I am
satisfied that the former series. of tales
are without foundation in fact. Objec-
tionable dances are very rare among the
wild peoples of the Philippines, although
they are sometimes indulged in by the
Moros, and are common among _ the
Manobos of Mindanao. One apparently
credible witness, who was a surgeon in
the United States Army, informed me
that he had once witnessed such a dance
among Negritos in the wildest part of
the Zambales Mountains. I have never
observed anything of the sort, nor do I
believe that such dances occur with any
degree of frequency among these peo-
ples.

The number of Negritos in the Philip-
pines can hardly exceed 25,000, and it
is constantly diminishing from purely
natural causes. In many regions their
birth rate is known to be materially be-
low their death rate, and in my opinion
they must be regarded as a “link”? which
is not now missing, but soon will be.
Within my own recollection they have
disappeared from Cebu, Masbate, and
Sibuyan. At last accounts but 14 indi-
viduals remained in Tablas, where they
were formerly numerous.

NOT TREE-DWELLERS

Statements to the effect that Negritos
build houses in trees are, so far as my
personal observation and information go,
without foundation in fact.

Curiously enough, the head-hunting
peoples of the Philippines are apparently
limited to northern Luzon. None of the
warlike hill tribes inhabiting other parts
of the archipelago are known to take the
heads of their victims.

The explanation of their head-hunting
customs which is given by the Negritos
of northeastern Luzon is very simple.
They believe that each family must take
at least one head per year or suffer mis-
fortune in the form of sickness, wounds,
starvation, or death. ‘Their victims are
always beheaded with bolos. Heads are
buried in the ground under the “houses”
of the men who take them. Plates, or
ollas, are placed over the spots where the
heads are buried, and possibly contain
offerings to evil spirits. The “houses”
under which heads are buried are then

849

AN ILONGOT WOMAN

The typical dress is a short skirt, often of
bark cloth, but they are very anxious to get
real cloth whenever it is possible (see p. 857).

ILONGOT WOMAN AND GIRLS

The women embroider remarkably well, considering the low state of civilization, and display
great ingenuity in fashioning elaborately constructed ornamental work (see page 857)

abandoned and their supposedly fortu-
nate owners look forward to a period
free from death, sickness, or injury, and
to success in their hunting and fishing.

THE ILONGOTS

The Ilongots, sometimes called the
Ilongotes, or Ibilaos, are numerically
even less important than are the Negri-
tos. Their number is not exactly known,
but probably does not exceed 6,000.

They are forest dwellers in the strictest
sense, living in small groups scattered
through an enormous, heavily wooded
area, which was originally divided be-
tween the provinces of Isabela, Nueva
Vizcaya, Tayabas, and Pangasinan, but
has lately been all incorporated with the

province of Nueva Vizcaya, in order to
bring the people of this troublesome tribe
under one provincial administration.

While the Negritos are usually content
to fight with each other and seldom mo-
lest outsiders, the Ilongots have waged
war cn their more civilized neighbors
from the beginning of historic times.
The latter have naturally reciprocated,
with results disastrous to the Ilongots,
whose territory formerly extended as far
south as the Laguna de Bay, in immedi-
ate proximity to Manila.

In the northern part of their range
the [ongots come in close touch with
the Negritos and freely intermarry with
them. Among the people of this section
of the tribe Negrito blood is naturally

850

AN ILONGOT FAMILY

Note the peculiarly shaped shield and the lance with spiral wrappings. In the use of
the shield they differ from the Negrito, who have none, but like them are nomadic in

disposition (see page 863).

851

"(45g aded aas) sXvyepy eordsy aq
(098 ased 99s) pray 9Y} JO yorq ay} 0} W998 9qI1} SITY} JO Md e Jou ‘JOAIMOY { pooyq OVISIN JO a0ua
Wolf ATTeyUOZIIOY Sulpus}xa ‘uousIyD Fo jI0s kB ul wey Jy} dn -soid 9Y} 0} onp B3uraq se poule[dxe ATuouWIOD st yt pue ‘SjOSUO]T
of} Uoul oy, “JWoueuso Iva pue ssoip peay [eoidA} SuIMOYs oY} SUOWTR YIM Jour APJUaNDasy ase Spivoq Savoy pure srey Ayang
NVW LOONOTI NV WhMNOHGVAH LOONOTI NV

N

AN ILONGOT MA

AN OLD ILONGOT MAN

Some of the old men of th
hairy, and at once call u

Ainus cf Japan.

29
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Bea
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Co oO
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op US
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{28
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tribe are very
he mind the

is
in t

D

853

Note the

ER gO oh

AN ILONGOT MAN SHOWING TYPICAL DRESS AND ORNAMENTS

extraordinary ornament, fashioned from the beak of a hornbill, which he wears
-his forehead (see page 858)

on

x)

fa

NG TO

I

<4

AN

NGOT D

N ILO

A

he

hich

I

fe w

i

kn

Note the broad

is enemy.

hes

is

illed h
brand

how he crept up on and k

ing

He is show

ETHOD OF

M

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NG AND SHOWI

ANCI

AN ILONGOT D

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2

ooquieq WoIJ pouOorYysey JUsWNAISUI posulIjs & UO SuIce]d oie 449] otf} ye suBIOIShtU sy

SNIONVA SLODNO’IT OMT

856

MANY ILONGOTS ARE FOND OF MUSIC AND DEVELOP STRANGE AND WONDROUS SOUNDS
FROM THEIR INSTRUMENTS

strongly in evidence. In fact, curly hair
and heavy beards are frequently met
with among the IHongots wherever found,
and these physical peculiarities are com-
monly explained as being due to the pres-
ence of Negrito blood. However, not a
few of the members of this tribe seem
to be typical Malays (see page 852).

Like the Negritos, the Ilongots use
bows and arrows with great skill, but
they also use light wooden shields of
peculiar form, while the Negritos have
none.

857

The typical dress of the men is a small
clout, and that of the women is a short
skirt, often of bark cloth. However,
both men and women are anxious to get
hold of the real article and lose no oppor-
tunity to do so (see page 849).

ARTISTIC WORK BY THEIR WOMEN

The women embroider remarkably
well, considering the low stage of civili-
zation to which they have attained, and
both men and women display great in-
genuity and skill in the fashioning of

A YOUNG KALINGA

He has the peculiar eyes which are typical for the people of this tribe.

The Kalinga are not

forest-dwellers, but live on the open hillside and bare plain (see page 863)

elaborately constructed ornamental work,
using small beads of various colors, hair
from the manes and tails of white horses,
bits of bright metal, pieces of mother-of-
pearl, copper or brass wire, and the beaks
of hornbills. From wire they make
elaborate and beautifully constructed
chains, which they wear about their
necks (see pages 850, 854).

Girdles of cowries strung on colored

858

cloth are considered especially valuable,
as are long ear pendants made from the
scarlet beaks of hornbills and mounted
with brass. The latter ornaments are
worn by men only. Both men and wo-
men wear large mother-of-pearl ear or-
naments decorated with conventional
scratch-work patterns.

Not only do the women embroider with
surprising skill, but they make tassels of

A KALINGA CHIEF

Note his high cheek-bones and wealth of tattooing. This man has taken many a head

worsted or colored cotton thread, which
they tie in tiny tufts on the separate hairs
of their norsehair ornaments. Small
bells are especially prized, both by men
and by women, and are worn on their
necklaces or girdles, or about the calves
of their legs. Fine copper wire is hung

in coils about the neck, and a narrow
cord, beautifully woven from vegetable
substances, is worn in similar fashion.

MUCH ATTENTION TO HAIR DRESSING

Neither men nor women cut the hair,
which, in the case of the men, is tied up

A KALINGA MAN WEARING TYPICAL DRESS AND
ORNAMENTS

They “bang” their hair over the forehead, and the
back hair is allowed to grow long and fall down over
their shoulders.

with rags to form a sort of
chignon extending horizontally
from the back of the head.
Many of the men wear pecu-
liar nets above their foreheads
for the apparent purpose of
keeping their hair out of their
eyes. Clouts are often elabo-
rately ornamented with bead-
work, and the sheaths of ar-
rows are adorned with beads
and tassels. Infinite patience
and pains are required to fash-
ion these elaborately con-
structed ornaments from the
few and simple materials at
hand. Woe betide the man
who rides a white horse into
the Hongot country, for, unless
he keeps a guard over it, he
will find its mane missing and
its tail cropped to the skin!

Hongot men set special store
by steel armlets with inlaid
brass band. It is difficult to
obtain these armlets, as their
owners are usually unwilling
to part with them on any rea-
sonable terms.

Ilongots use bows and ar-
rows, both in warfare and in
hunting deer and wild hogs.
Most of their arrows have
quite skillfully shaped steel or
iron heads. Their other wea-
pons of offense are war knives,
carried in curved wooden
sheaths decorated with metal
bands, and poorly made lances
of small size, the heads being
hardly larger than good-sized
arrow. heads. The shafts of
their lances are frequently or-
namented with spiral bands of
metal or of vegetable \sub-
stances. For protection against
arrows the Ilongots use long,
narrow, and very light wooden
shields of a peculiar and highly
characteristic form. -Ishe se
shields are almost invariably

painted a dull brick red. Or-

naments fashioned from beads,
hog bristles, white horse-hair,
and threads of brightly colored
cotton or worsted are often
worn by the men about their
necks, their waists, and the
calves of their legs.

ANOTHER VIEW OF THE KALINGA DANDY

Note the scarlet feather ornaments in his hair; also his ear plugs. They frequently wear
jaunty little rattan caps like the Bantoc Igorots (see page 863)

861

a THE ROOF-TREE

The ongots occastonally
build quite large and _ fairly
well constructed houses, to
which access is had by means
of knotched tree trunks used
in lieu of ladders or stairs.
From each end of the ridge-
pole cf such a house extends a
hornlike piece of wood, which
curves gently upward (p. 848).

Their houses are usually very
filthy, and are «scantily fur-
nished with only the articles
strictly necessary to make it
possible for a rather primitive
people to grow rice, yams, and
corn, take fish and game, at-
tack their enemies, and defend
themselves.

Ilongots are especially skill-
ful in hunting deer, which they
drive into nets and then dis-
patch with arrows or lances.

some of the members of
this tribe are almost as no-
madic as are the neighboring
Negritos, while others have
fairly permanent places of
residence. They plant rice and
sweet potatoes in considerable
quantity, and also grow some
sugar-cane, which they use to
make a sour fermented alco-
holic drink. Ground is usually
prepared for planting by gird-
ling and killing forest trees,
which stand so closely together
that the earth between them is
free from grass or under-

brush.

TREACHEROUS CHARACTERISTICS

Until very recently the sev-
eral Ilongot settlements have
been quite constantly at war
with each other, and the peo-
ple of this tribe have annually
murdered considerable num-
bers of Christian natives.

The Hongots almost invaria-
bly attack from ambush, lying
concealed near trails and rush-
ing upon their enemies from
BAKIDAN behind after the latter have
passed.

They usually cut off the

A famous Kalinga chief, in fighting trim, noted for his
bravery in the face of the enemy

heads of their victims, sometimes
tossing them about and _ playing
with them, and again carrying
them for some little distance only
to throw them away. It does not
appear that they ordinarily take
the gory trophies home, as do the
representatives of all the other
head-hunting tribes, although the
hands or hearts of their victims
are apt to be carried away by
them as trophies.

Men of this tribe murdered Dr.
William Jones, an ethnologist of
the Field Natural History Mu-
seum, after he had worked among
them for more than a year. For-
tunately his notes were saved,
and, when published, they ought
to give the first fairly compre-
hensive account of this little-
Known tribe.

THE KALINGAS

‘The name Kalinga, which means
“enemy, is applied to the people
of a sharply marked warlike tribe
numbering some 66,000 — souls.
They inhabit the region bounded
by the subprovinces of Ifugao
and Bontoc on the south, Abra
and>-llocos. Sur. on. the west,
Apayao on the north, and Caga-
yan and Isabela on the east. They
are not forest dwellers, but live
on the open plains and bare hill-
sides, or in large clearings along
mountain streams. They are ap-
parently of Malayan origin, and
only in very exceptional cases do
they show evidence of the admix-
ture of Negrito blood. Their
dark-brown bodies are, as a rule,
kept quite clean, and are often
beautifully developed. They have
high cheek-bones and eyes shaped
like those of the Chinese, but
usually set level and very far
apart (see page 858).

FOND OF GAY COLORS

The men “bang” their hair over
the forehead and make straight
cuts extending back above the ears
through that hair on the sides of
their Sheads... Their «back... hair,

which is allowed to grow long,

sometimes hangs down over their
shoulders. They wear clouts,

A KALINGA GIRL

Wearing the typical dress of well-to-do women. Un-
like the women of neighboring tribes, they generally
wear a short upper garment. Note the heavy ear orna-
ments of mother-of-pearl.

863

864

FE

eptional cases do they

4
4
1

SAKING, A FAMOUS KALINGA FIGHTING CHII

A TYPICAL KALINGA

1)
fo)
fo)
le)
fo)
=
w
on
vo
Z
oO
ta 44
xO
2a
oS
rae
O§
aS)
ae
Bo
ae
Ou
way ©
aS
2
aw
Glas
= v
teelifs=
29096
oS
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3
Ss
cB)
fel
aa

All Kalinga men who can

afford it purchase and wear gayly colored blankets

Showing the method of cutting the hair.

IN FULL REGALIA

bedeck themselves for all occasions, their garments being
ly embroidered fabrics woven by their women or gaudily

colored and large-figured imported cotton goods (see page 873):

The Kalingas of both sexes
fashioned from either handsome

865

WIFE OF A KALINGA CHIEF

Note the false hair with feather plumes thrust into it; her heavy brass earrings, and
the load of agate beads about the neck. Agate beads are their most highly prized possessions,
and the older and rougher the beads the greater their value. The larger beads are worth a

carabao each (see pages 873, 875).

866

M/

A KALINGA WO

‘pical

y cases, takes the place of an upper garment,

in man

’

h

The ornaments are t)

This photograph shows tattooing whic

867

(SZg a8ed 4x03 008) Joor jYSI}-19yeM ATYSNo10Y} PUL “StOOH sstis OUNL JO UeI}e1 IIGeAOUIs
ASNOH VONTIVM V

Tex

eS
>

‘sawesdy POOMPpJeU YIM

peyonsSUuOy ote sosnoy IJ,

868

A KALINGA FAMILY

Note the ear pendants of mother-of-pearl worn by the women. Most Kalinga women
have skirts reaching well below the knees and, in some instances, reach the ground (see

text, page 873).

8690

mS

2 REE BNL

s

=

os

’

ae

ARRIOK

GA. W

A KALIN

like tribe number some 66,000 (see text,

ie
Ke)
N
FD
ew)
on
BS
=n
uv
a
fos)
es
a
v
a
eal
n
S
i]

The name Kalinga me

79

ee)

A KALINGA TREE-HOUSE

In regions where life and property are especially insecure they often build their houses in
trees. Note the people in the doorway (see page 875)

A KALINGA HEAD-HUNTER

Over the door of the house are hung three strips of bark cloth, each spotted with human
blood, showing that this man had recently participated in three successful head-hunting raids

(see text, page 877).

which are often covered with beads or
with small white buttons. Many of them
also. wear short, tight-fitting jackets
made from cloth woven by their women,
or from gaily colored calico. Nearly all
of them have peculiar shaped carrying-
bags with two large ends and a narrow
connecting portion in which is an open-
ing, which is closed by means of sliding
metal rings. These ‘bags are ‘usually
hung about their necks.

All Kalinga men who can afford to do
so purchase gaily colored blankets. They

fold them diagonally, knot the ends to-
gether, and wear them with the knotted
ends over one shoulder and the wide
part of the folded blanket under the
opposite arm.

Many of the men wear huge ear plugs
inserted in such a way as to turn the
perforated lobes of the ears directly for-
ward. These plugs are usually made of
wood, and their anterior faces are orna-
mented with coins, bits of bright metal,
or gaily embroidered cloth. Great cylin-
drical rolls of bright - colored worsted

LS)

A NEST OF PUAS THAT WERE CONCEALED BY THE UNDERGROWTH

Puas are sharpened strips of bamboo which are set for the feet of the unwary by Kalingas,
Bontoc Igorots, and Ifugaos alike

sometimes take the place of wooden ear
plugs. The tattoo patterns are elaborate
and often cover arms, chest, and back
very completely.

ORNAMENTS

On state occasions well-to-do Kalinga
men ornament their hair with tufts of
scarlet feathers, to the tips of which
bright yellow feathers have been at-
tached by means of bits of beeswax.
Hibiscus flowers and marigolds are also
often used as hair ornaments, and in the
vicinity of Lubuagan, where the territory
of the Kalingas joins that of the Bontoc
Igorots, it is not unusual to see men
wearing on the backs of their heads the
jaunty little rattan caps characteristic of
the latter tribe. However, the Kalingas
are not content to take these caps as they
find them, but cover them with carefully
matched beads of agate or imitation
agate. Agate beads, by the way, are
their most highly prized possession, and
the older and rougher the beads the
greater their value.

Armlets or necklaces are the only
other ornaments of the men, but the skin
of their chests and backs, and often that
of their faces and arms as well, is in
many cases covered with elaborate and
beautiful tattooing.

Most of the Kalinga women have skirts
reaching well below their knees, and in
some instances clear to the ground.
These skirts may be made of hand-
somely embroidered fabrics woven by
the women themselves, but more com-
monly are fashioned from gaudily col-
ored and large-figured imported cotton
goods. Unlike the women of neighbor-
ing tribes, they usually wear a_ short
camisa, or upper garment. It fits the
body tightly and has sleeves. The wives
of rich men are fairly loaded down with
necklaces of agate or imitation agate
beads.

“Switches” are added to the abundant
hair with which nature has favored them,
and their heads are often piled high with
raven tresses into which are stuck beau-

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874

A KALINGA WAR DANCE

The beating of the tom-toms becomes faster and faster as the warriors warm up to their
work (see text, page 877)

tiful feather plumes similar to those
worn by the men. Almost every Kalinga
woman also wears a pair of heavy brass
ear ornaments of a conventional pattern,
and all who can afford it have in addi-
tion great mother-of-pearl ear ornaments
shaped like a solid figure 8.

Many of the Kalingas construct large
and well-built houses, with hardwood
frames, removable rattan or runo grass
floors, and thick, convex, thoroughly
water-tight roofs. The floors of these
houses are taken up daily and washed
in the neighboring streams. On a raised
ledge at one end of the single room sit
ancient and highly prized jars of basi,
an alcoholic drink made from boiled and
fermented sugar-cane juice. “There is
usually a shelf for plates and other
household utensils, which extends the
whole length of one side of the house.
China plates and glazed earthenware jars
are highly prized by these people, and
many of those which they have are
doubtless very old.

875

TREE DWELLINGS

In regions where life and property are
especially insecure they often build ue
houses in trees, pulling up their entrance
ladders in case of danger.

The houses are ordinarily grouped in
small villages, which are quite perma-
nent in character, although a village is
sometimes abandoned upon the advent of
smallpox or other dangerous communi-
cable disease, or after being successfully
raided by a hostile war party.

Until within a short time the Kalingas
have been fierce and inveterate head-
hunters, constantly at war among them-
selves and with their non-Christian
neighbors of other tribes. Furthermore,
they frequently wiped out Filipino hunt-
ing parties and even attacked small Fili-
pino settlements. Their weapons of
offense are strong, skillfully fashioned
lances and gracefully shaped but deadly
head-axes. Their defensive weapons are
beautiful black shields ornamented with
scarlet and yellow or black and white

i

E

VEZ BNW
Wf |

l,

ay

A DEAD KALINGA GIRL

The dead of several of the northern tribes are kept seated in chairs like the one shown in
this picture until their funeral feasts, which often last many days, are over

rattan lashings. These shields are in-
variably of the peculiarly graceful pat-
tern shown in the accompanying illustra-
tions and differ completely in form from
the shields of all other Philippine wild
tribes.

War parties often number 50 or more
individuals. The Kalinga is by no means
above lying in ambush, but he not infre-

quently attacks in the open. When two
or three men are down, the scrimmage
resolves itself, on the part of their ene-
mies, into an effort to take and get away
with their heads, while their friends
endeavor to save their bodies intact.
When a war party has taken one or more
heads it returns to the village whence it
came.

HEAD-HUNTERS OF

HEAD-TAKING CELEBRATION

The customs connected with head-
taking which prevail in the northern part
of the Kalinga country are peculiar and
interesting. We will suppose for sim-
plicity’s sake that a war party has taken
a single head. Upon its return it is re-
ceived with war cries and shouts of joy,
and amidst uproar and confusion each
warrior runs home and brings back a
piece of clean white bark cloth. He dips
this in the blood oozing from the severed
neck, again hastens home, and hangs it
over the door of his house. ‘The bloody
emblem constitutes a sort of “sign of
the passover,”’ since it is believed to avert
sickness and to protect the occupants of
the house from the vengeance of the
friends of the decapitated enemy.

Meanwhile the fortunate individual
who took the head carefully cuts through
the cap of the skull with his head-axe
and removes it, scalp and all. He chops
it intc as many pieces as there are mem-
bers of the party, and each warrior on
returning from his home is_ presented
with a bit as a keepsake.

It is asserted that it is a common prac-
tice to pour basi over the brain, which
has been exposed by the removal of the
top of the skull, and to mix brain-matter
and basi by vigorous stirring. This hor-
rible concoction is then passed around,
the head serving as a drinking cup, and
these who will may partake. It is said
that only the very brave do so, and this
can ‘readily be believed! The skull’ is
then cleaned by boiling, and the lower
jaw is used for the handle of a tom-tom,
or gansa.

The old women take charge of the re-
mainder of the skull and place it, with
simiiar relics, in some safe hiding-place.
Once a year these old hags bring forth
all the mutilated skulls and use them in
connection with a secret ceremony from
which men are strictly excluded. One
of the objects of this ceremony is to
insure good crops.

PREPARING THE HEAD

Prior to boiling and cleaning, the head
is placed on a heap of flowers in a bas-
ket of peculiar and characteristic form,
woven at one end of a piece of bamboo.

NORTHERN LUZON

The other end of the bamboo is sharp-
ened and driven into the ground.

A caiao is then held. The men squat
ina) great: “circle; around- which - the
women walk or stand. Basi circulates
freely and the excitement of intoxication
is soon added to that caused by the re-
turn of the victorious war party. Three
or four men beat with their hands upon
gansas, the handles of which are hooked
into the waistbands of their clouts, the
gansas themselves resting upon their
thighs as they kneel. The deafening
clash of the gansas, in the old familiar
cadence which for uncounted centuries
has celebrated success in war, adds to
the general excitement, which finds vent
in the monotonous, high-pitched, ululat-
ing war cries characteristic of the people
of this tribe.

REACTING THE ACHIEVEMENT

Into the ring steps the hero of the
occasion, dressed in his best clothes,
decked with his gaudiest ornaments, and
bearing the shield, lance, and head-axe
used in the recent fight. Behind him
there creeps along the ground a strange
shrinking figure clad in soiled garments,
with a dirty cotton blanket pulled over
its head. The hero attracts attention to
himself by emitting a squall which re-
sembles nothing so much as the yell of
a puppy when its tail is heavily trodden
upon.

He then begins to speak in a monoto-
nous and highly artificial falsetto voice.
the tones and cadences of which are
strongly suggestive of those of a Japa-
nese actor. With word and gesture he
describes his recent exploit, using the
shrinking figure beside him as a dummy
to represent his fallen foe. When he
stops for breath the gansas strike up
again, and when their clangor ceases he
resumes his narrative. After concluding
his pantomimic discussion of his latest
exploit, he describes and boasts of pre-
vious achievements.

Incidentally he indulges in high step-
ping and high jumping, and displays
deadly skill in the manipulation of his
weapons. The crowd grows ever more
excited and, during the intervals while
the gansas are playing, shrieks its ap-

GUINED, A CELEBRATED IFUGAO CHIEF

Note the peculiar head dress and curious ornaments.
seldom go about without weapons; the handle of his knife can
be seen on the left side

proval and shrills its monotonous war
cry. Finally, when his voice has grown
hoarse and his muscles are tired, the
principal actor retires and another takes
his place. As darkness comes on a blaz-
ing fire is lighted within the cafao circle.

Ultimately the young and vigorous
warriors who participated in the recent
fight are succeeded by the old men, who

have been kept at home by
the burden of years and
infirmities. Strong drink
has caused the dying fire
in their veins to flare up
for the moment. Each of
them has a history of war-
like deeds, which he pro-
ceeds to’ recount... The
crowd already knows his
story by heart, and, when
the forgetfulness of age
or that of intoxication
causes him to falter,
prompts him and_ shouts
with laughter at the joke.

Gradually the basi be-
gins to exert its stupefy-
ing effect; but so long as
the music, the dancing,
and the shouting continue
every one manages to keep
awake. At last food is
passed, and in the interval
during which it is being
consumed the liquor gets
a fair chance to work. As
the east begins to glow
with the coming dawn,
men and women fall asleep
in their places, or hasten
to their homes, and the
canao ends, for the time
being at least.

I note that the editor of
one of the great American
journals has stated that
I exaggerate the wild-
ness of the “Igorotes,” by
which tribal designation
he apparently means the
wild hill men of northern
Luzon taken collectively.

I wish that he might
have sat by my side ata
Kalinga head caiao which
I was forced to witness at
Boia when I visited that
place with one American and one Fili-
pino companion on a trip which took
me for days through territory where
neither a white man nor a Filipino had
ever been seen before. Would that I
had the words of a Kipling to describe
what I then saw; but if there is anything
wilder to be seen, may I be spared from.
seeing it!

They

878

AGRICULTURAL ADVANCE : :

The Kalingas have made consider-
able advances in agriculture. They
build terraces on the mountain sides
and grow rice, which they cultivate
with great care. Yams are raised in
considerable quantity, and especial
pains are taken in the cultivation of
sugar-cane, from which is obtained
the basi, so dear to the heart of the
wild men of northern Luzon.

THE IFUGAOS

The Ifugaos, of whom there are
approximately 123,000, inhabit a rela-
tively small and excessively moun-
tainous region, which formerly con-
stituted the northwestern portion of
the province of Nueva Vizcaya, but
has now been made a subdivision of
the Mountain Province. ‘They are
of rather small size and are wiry
rather than heavily muscled. The
men cut the hair in a manner peculiar
to the tribe, the result obtained being
that which would be had if a good
sized bowl were pressed well down
over the crown of the head and the
hair were shingled closely up to the
edge of the bowl. They tattoo their
chests and necks and sometimes their
thighs. Their tattoo patterns are en-
tirely different from those of the
Kalingas or the Bontoc Igorots, and
cover the skin much less thickly.
Women tattoo only the arms.

SOMBER IN DRESS

The dress of both men and women
is as somber as that of the Kalingas
is gaudy. The men wear unorna-
mented clouts, but often carry small
cotton blankets, which they wrap
about their shoulders upon occasion.
Clouts are usually of a dark blue
color with or without a white or
small scarlet figure. Blankets are
black, dark blue, or blue and white.
Headmen wear belts fashioned from
the opercula of sea-shells. In bad
weather they also wear raincoats of
split rattan.

The women wear excessively short
skirts wrapped about the body far
below the waist and often not ex- 4 YOUNG IFUGAO WARRIOR READY FOR THE TRAIL,

tending more than half way to the Note his peculiar belt and his split rattan rain-coat,
knee. A fold in the upper part of his pipe, and earrings (see page 883)

870

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OVONAI NV

88o

the skirt serves in lieu of
a pocket. Upper garments
of any sort are the very
rare exception. The wo-
men allow their hair to
grow long, and do not cut
it in any way. Sometimes
it hangs down their backs;
sometimes it is coiled about
their heads in simple fash-
ion it may be fastened
up with strings of beads;
but the women, like the
men, usually have few if
any ornaments. Both are
inordinately fond of great
spiral coils of thick brass
wire, the men wearing them
on their legs, the women on
their arms.

The Ifugao. house is
small but well constructed.
It stands upon four or more
posts firmly imbedded in
the ground. The posts are
sometimes carved, and are
almost invariably provided
with projecting shoulders,
which prevent rats from
climbing into the houses.
The floor is usually of
boards, and the sides are of
boards or of bamboo basket-
work. The roof is. well
and thickly thatched. ‘The
average house has but one
small door and no windows.
Its interior is, of course,
necessarily dark, and is
made more so by the soot
from the pitch-pine fire,
which is usually kept burn-
ing on a rudely constructed
hearth. |Door-posts and
even the under surfaces of
floor-boards are sometimes
ornamented with rude
wood carvings (see pages
884, 885).

Fach house has a store-
room and a living-room, the
former in the peak of the
roof above the latter. ‘The
storeroom is reached by
means of a short ladder.

for rice, other foodstuffs,

i

headed lances.

881

AN IFUGAO WARRIOR
It serves as a depository These fighters carry beautifully fashioned and deadly steel-

Note the battered but serviceable shield

AN IFUGAO WOMAN

The women wear excessively short skirts wrapped
about the body below the waist. A fold in the upper
part of the skirt serves as a pocket (see page 879).

882

and a miscellaneous assortment of
household goods. Under the houses
of wealthy Ifugaos huge carved
wooden resting-benches, called ‘“‘ta-
gabi,” are usually to be seen (see
picture, page 885).

Although many portions of the
Ifugao territory are very thickly in-
habited, there is not a single large
town. The houses are grouped in
tiny villages, which usually occupy
strategic positions among the won-
derful rice terraces on the steep
mountain sides, so that access to
them in the face of opposition is
well nigh impossible unless the
would-be callers are well provided
with firearms and ammunition.

HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING AMONG
SAVAGES

The Ifugao may be a barbarian,
but he is an excellent hydraulic en-
gineer. His irrigation ditches, run-
ning for miles along almost perpen-
dicular mountain sides, and_ his
marvelous rice terraces, which
sometimes extend upward on the
steep slopes for thousands of feet
and have dry stone retaining walls
ro to 40 feet in height, are the won-
der of all who have seen them.
Furthermore, the earth of those
terraces is fertilized, and the grow-
ing rice is thoroughly weeded and
well cultivated. The crop, which
is harvested by cutting the heads
one at a time, is often tremendous.

Yams are also grown on the
steep mountain sides, but the Ifu-
gaos care little for sugar-cane and
seldom trouble to raise it. They
utilize rice in making an excellent
fermented drink known as bubud.
They keep chickens, dogs, and pigs,
but no cattle.

The Ifugaos make good lance-
heads and war-knives. They also
carve wood with some skill and
weave very serviceable wicker bas-
kets. ‘The women make cloth.

The Ifugaos, like the Kalingas,
have until very recently been in-
veterate head-hunters. When 1
first entered their territory, in 1903,
many of their houses were orna-
mented with fresh human skulls,

IFUGAO GIRL

Her ear ornaments and the pieces composing the shorter of the necklaces about her neck

are made of copper.
the arms (see page 879).

and I saw various unfortunate victims
of head-hunting raids.

EXHIBITING GORY TROPHIES

When an Ifugao war party returns
with a head, it executes a ceremonial
march, or dance—one hardly knows
which to call it—which defies successful
description. The men have their split-
rattan raincoats on their backs. On the

Tattooing is common among both sexes, the women decorating only

insides of these raincoats are pockets,
which form convenient receptacles for
gory trophies. The warriors carry beau-
tifully fashioned and deadly steel-headed
lances and_ serviceable, plain board
shields, strengthened by rattan lashings
to prevent splitting. Zigzag white marks
are painted on the shields, indicating a
ceremonial occasion.

The warriors do not approach stand-

883

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IFUGAO GIRLS ASSISTING EACH OTHER IN TOILET

The women allow their hair to grow long, generally wearing it hanging down their backs
(see page 881)

ing, but creep along the ground, and in
this position execute a sort of lockstep,
beating upon their shields with billets of
wood and bending in perfect unison far
to. the right and then far to the: left.
Some of the men make threatening mo-
tions with their lances. It is impossible
for me to describe the weird effect pro-
duced, but I hope yet to be able to use a
moving-picture camera on a file of men

engaging in this strange ceremonial,
which they will doubtless soon forget,
as head-hunting has now practically
ceased among them.

When the dancing ground is reacied
the head is impaled upon a short stake
and the warriors circle around it in the
characteristic war dance of this tribe.
Some of them take off their ornaments
and hang them on the head, at the same

886

AN IFUGAO FAMILY ON THE MARCH

mae
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Their field equipment is very light and they cover distances very quickly. Even the baby
interested in what is going on

887

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AN IFUGAO WOMAN MAKING CLOTH

The Ifugao men carve wood with some skill and weave serviceable wicker baskets.

The

women make cloth as shown above

time jeering at it as if it were capable of
hearing and understanding them. Danc-
ing and feasting may last for days.

Ultimately the skull, which has not
been mutilated in any way, is boiled and
thoroughly cleaned. The lower jaw is
fastened in place with rattan and the
trophy is taken home by the man who
won it. It serves him as a household
ornament. It may be placed with other
skulls on a board shelf beside the door
of his house; it may find a resting place
within, over the fireplace; it may be
placed outside at one corner with the
skulls of carabaos and pigs which have
been eaten at feasts.

i have seen a house with a tasteful
ornamental frieze of alternating carabao
skulls and human skulls extending
around it at the height of the floor! I

have seen others with great open-work
baskets of skulls hanging under the
eaves.

THE ONE FAMILY DISGRACE

A man who loses his head is _con-
sidered to have treated his family and
friends somewhat shabbily. He is not
buried as an ordinary person would be,
but is carried to a resting place on some
hillside far from his native village. A
tunnel is excavated in the earth, his body
is carried into it and placed in a sitting
position, and the tunnel is then filled. A
lance is thrust into the ground over the
grave to show that he was killed in war,
and an anito image, rudely fashioned out
of grass, may be left to watch over his
last resting place.

I once attended the funeral of an

A MOUNTAIN SIDE TERRACED AND IRRIGATED BY HEAD-HUNTING IFUGAOS

Their irrigating ditches run for miles along nearly perpendicular mountain sides, and wonder-
ful rice terraces extend upward on steep slopes for thousands of feet (see text, page 882)

890

IFUGAO RICE TERRACES AT HARVEST TIME

Note the village in the midst of the terraces in the upper part of the picture. The savages,
who display such skill and patience in building these terraces, were ruthless head-hunters

IFUGAO RICE TERRACES AT PLANTING TIME

The Ifugao may be a barbarian, but he is also an excellent engineer

A ‘TYPICAL IFUGAO RICE PADDY WALL, SHOWING STEPS USED IN ASCENDING TO
TERRACES ABOVE (SEE PAGE 882)

Ifugao who had lost his head. He was
borne to his grave on his shield, which
was suspended from a pole by means of
rattans. The shield had been split in the
fight which cost him his life. Huis body
was covered with gaping wounds.

The mourners followed in single file,
the men carrying black shields with zig-
zag white marks painted on them. An
old man at the head of the column beat
a series of tattoos on a piece of resonant
wood. The other men repeated his per-
formances exactly, in each case drum-
ming on their shields with pieces of wood.
When the open grave was reached the
body was deposited on the ground. The
neighbors shouted to the spirit of the
dead man, asking him why he had been
careless enough to get himself killed, and
why he had left his poor old mother and

(oe)
Ww

a house full of rice and tobacco. Even
the gray-headed mother herself berated
her careless .son:. Presently the men
produced a death blanket, in which they
chopped holes with their war-knives, at
the same time assuring the dead man that
they would serve his enemies as they
were serving the blanket. The blanket
was then used to bind his hands and
arms against his body, which was then
promptly buried, the site of the grave
being marked with white head-dresses
which had been worn to the funeral and
which were tied in a bunch to a pole
placed over the mouth of the grave.

THE BONTOC IGOROTS

The Bontoc Igorots inhabit a subprov-
ince in central northern Luzon which
bears the name of the tribe. They num-

AN IFUGAO HEAD-HUNTER WITH SOME OF HIS TROPHIES

Evidently in the opinion of this warrior, “Heads is heads,” whether human or animal (see
page 8&9)

804

IFUGAO TROPHIES

A small but select collection of former enemies.

Note the image which the Ifugao has

rudely carved as a decoration for his door (see page 889)

ber some 76,000 souls. Like the Kalin-
gas and Ifugaos, they have until recently
been inveterate head-hunters. Indeed,
they still take some human heads each
year, although the number is now very
small. They: are physically a wonderfully
developed people, as tall as the Kalingas
and on the average more heavily built
than either the Kalingas or the Ifugaos.

The men tattoo freely their chests and
arms, and often their faces and backs as
well. Formerly only those who had par-
ticipated in successful head hunts were
allowed to tattoo, but this rule is no
longer strictly adhered to. Their cloth-
ing 1s usually limited to small, dingy, un-
ornamented clouts, and sometimes even
to small aprons, although a good many
of them have cotton bl ankets, ‘which they
use to protect themselves against wind
and rain. They wear few ornaments.

Very many of them produce huge holes
in the lobes of their ears, first cutting a

805

small opening into which pieces of wood
the size of tooth-picks or matches are
forced, stretching it little by little until
it becomes an inch or more in diameter.
Ear plugs or other ornaments are placed
in the openings thus formed, which inci-
dentally serve as depositories for cigars
and other small objects. Indeed, I have
more than once seen a man roll up a pack
of playing cards and put it, for safe
keeping, in the hole in his ear!

The men are also particularly fond

‘of pearl-oyster shells ornamented with

scratch-work patterns. These they usu-
ally fasten at their waists. Brass to-
bacco pipes are often thrust into the hair,
which is “banged” on the forehead but
allowed to grow long behind, where it is
usually confined in a jaunty cap beauti-
fully woven from scarlet, yellow, and
brown or black rattan.

Dogs are a favorite article of food
with these people, and necklaces made of

AN IFUGAO HEAD-HUNTER

His house has an ornamental frieze of skulls running around it at the height of the floor,
of which he is very proud

dog’s teeth or of crocodile’s teeth are
much in vogue.

The dress of the women almost in-
variably consists of a narrow skirt reach-
ing from the waist, where it is fastened
by a girdle, to the knee, and open up
one side. Upper garments are practi-
cally unknown except in regions where
the inhabitants have come much in con-
tact with Filipinos. Women commonly
tattoo the arms and hands only. They
have ear ornaments similar to those of
the men, and wear necklaces made of
dog’s or crocodile’s teeth, brightly col-
ored seeds, and beads.

They do not cut the hair, but allow it
to grow long. Some of them wear large
switches made of hair from their dead
ancestors.

WELL-FASHIONED WEAPONS

The Bontoc Igorots not only fashion
well-shaped head-axes and lances, but
make and burn good earthen pots and
artistic clay pipe-bowls. The people of
Mayinit make salt; those of Samoqui
make excellent earthen pots. The women
of a number of towns near the Lepanto

border weave blankets, and many of the
other women make strong, serviceable
cloth from thread of twisted bark fiber.
Some of the men cast and finish rather
elaborate brass pipe-bowls, and there are
some other small manufacturing indus-
tries.

A number of distinct types of houses
are to be found among the Bontoc Igo-
rots, and this is not to be wondered at,
as their territory abuts on that of the
Lepanto Igorots on the southwest and
upon that of the Tingians and NKalingas
on the west and the north. From the
Ifugaos on the east they are separated
by a high mountain range. Along the
borders of their territory their houses
resemble more or less those of the neigh-
boring tribes, but the commonest type of
house has a fairly high roof, within
which is a storeroom, and is without
sides, the floor being of dirt and inclosed
by a low wall of boards, resembling a
tight board fence. This does not reach
up to the overhanging roof. The house
is entered by a sort of gate at one end.

There are two stalls separated by a low
partition on the left (In one of these

AN IFUGAO ANITO IMAGE AROUND WHICH DANCES ARE HELD

The carving is quite crude, but they are very particular about the head dress

food is prepared and in the other it is
cooked. To the right there is a bench
for the accommodation of the family,
when they wish to sit rather than squat,
and extending across the end opposite
the entrance there is a boxlike structure
perhaps 2% or 3 feet high and 3 feet
wide. This is the sleeping-box, to which
access is had by means of a low door.
At one end of it there are usually loose
boards on the ground.

Father, mother, and children crawl
into this suffocating place at night, and,
after building a fire on the dirt at the
further end of the box, sleep on the
boards, or attempt to do so. It is hardly
to be wondered at that eye diseases are
very prevalent among the Bontoc Igorots.

Their houses are grouped in large
villages, and their occupants depend for
protection upon their large forces of

fighting men rather than upon inaccesst-
bility.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS

The Bontoc Igorots are naturally a
dirty people. Both their persons and
their houses are usually filthy. They
keep dogs, hogs, and chickens. The hogs
are provided with pens consisting of de-
pressions in the ground walled up with
stone. Connected with these there are
good houses, which afford the swine
excellent protection against inclement
weather. Pork is eaten only on cere-
monial occasions, and hogs are carefully

807

SRE

LEE.

NOdN “OV

(e0g ased 3X9} 99S) [Bs1oUN} sue sIy} papusyje s19}sa.I0 (Ay Awe}OI9N3g

AOVTTIIA UNV
YOSId LHONONE AdHUAHL GNV GVH4H NMO SIH JSOT OHM WAINNH-dVaAH OVONTI

AMONINOA NV

BURIAL OF AN IFUGAO WHO HAS LOST HIS HEAD

To lose one’s head is considered a terrible family disgrace, so that the burial of the offender
iS a most unceremonious affair (see page 889)

fed in stone or wooden troughs. Most
of the house refuse goes into the hog-
pens, and, with the accumulated manure,
is ultimately carried out to fertilize the
rice fields.

Not a few wealthy Igorots own cara-
baos in considerable numbers. ‘They
never use them for draft animals, but
allow them to run half wild until they
are wanted for food on ceremonial occa-
sions. Chickens are also eaten only in
connection with religious or semi-reli-
gious ceremonies.

Like the Ifugaos, the Bontoc Igorots
are fairly capable, hard-working agricul-

turists. They make the bare mountain
sides yield them a reasonably abundant
supply of vegetable food, building won-
derful systems of irrigated rice terraces
in places where water is to be had, and
planting yams where water is not avail-
able. They also grow limited quantities
of millet, beans, and corn.

A SAVAGE BUREAU OF FORESTRY

Curiously enough, the Bontoc Igorots
have forest laws and a forest service of
their own. ‘The mountain sides of their
rough country are sparsely timbered with
pine, which has grown very scarce near

899

sdo.as 51°] pols jeyy ‘sued 10 ‘SoJOwWPvo JO spe IO SOIVIIO} IIIT Ite dAOqe SIpIs ulvyUunoUl d9a4s out uO

NMOL LOWODI OOLNOd V ‘aqVONVa

goo

(26g o8ed 998)
4

Ayyiqissooovur uey} Joyje1 usw sunysy fo Joquinu joiiadns s0y} uo puadap sjurdnos0 ayy pue sosei[IA as1r] Ul podnois o1e sasnoy IY y,

SAOVUMWAL TORT DNXOV CAV ML TO MHIA Vo WLEMW NMOL LOMOOT JOLNOd V

OOI

2%

(06g

a8ed 99S) S9VIIO} JI Po}VSlisl JO SUId}SAS [NJopuUOM SUIP[ING ‘sislin}Nolise sjqedes ose AY I,

SHINOLS ANG HLIM dN GIv’l NVG NOILVOIMNI LOMODI OOLNOd V FO NOILOUS V FO MHIA

902

asIP]

AJOA Ud}JO si do1o sy} pue

JU} Pe

SdVvaH

ye QUO >peey dy} Suljynd Aq ‘saqts} J9y}O Jo adooad [[Iy 9Y} Op se ‘aoId lay} JsaArey AD,

-HOIN NI ONIONIYA SYHMUYOM LOUYODI DOLNOG

SK

= Se

ISCO SUIS ai

Wee

903

BONTOC IGOROTS

BRINGING IN CAMOTES

When laboring in mud and water, in planting time, both sexes frequently go about entirely
nude, a condition not observed among any other tribe in the Philippines

some of the larger settlements. Forests
in the vicinity of such settlements are
divided up into small private holdings
claimed by individuals, whose right
thereto is recognized by the other mem-
bers of the tribe. In many places it is
forbidden to cut trees until they have

reached a large size, although the lower
branches are constantly trimmed off and
used for firewood. Forest fires are kept
down to facilitate reforestation, and on
occasion young trees are planted. Such
foresight on the part of a primitive peo-
ple is certainly unusual.

904

BONTOC IGOROT WOMEN

They are bringing in camotes, or yams, which have been laboriously dug up with sharpened
sticks

The Bontoe Igorots are only just now
learning the use of agricultural tools.
Heretofore they have performed most of
their agricultural operations with their
own hands and feet and with sharply
pointed sticks. They harvest their rice,
as do the hill people of the other tribes,
by cutting the heads one at a time.

When laboring in the mud and water
in the rice fields at planting time, or
when obliged to be out in the rain, both
men and women often go stark naked,
a condition of things which I have not
observed among the people of any other
tribe in the Philippines. The women
commonly wear skirts of leaves while
performing field work, thus saving wear
on their highly prized cloth skirts.

Their towns are divided into what we
should perhaps call wards, and in each

division there is usually a group of build-
ings, consisting of a long, low dormitory
for girls and unmarried women or wid-
ows; a second for young boys, unmar-
ried men, and widowers, and a sort
of men’s clubhouse. The people who
sleep at home are ordinarily the fathers,
mothers, and very young children. All
others go to the above-mentioned public
dormitories. In addition there is an open
stone court from which a long two-room
building extends. The room nearest the
court opens directly upon it, the outer
end being without a wall. It serves as
a sort of men’s clubhouse. Here all im-
portant public events are discussed. The
second room is dark. Access to it is had
through a very narrow door at the side
and only the elect may enter. It is used
as a depository for the skulls of enemies

(ology ©)

GbU IID) SIALCSI IY} 4OPUlt PUYMIAY GYF GPU IN 4AUGY4Orou jovacua soup 4u eee eres yuupe AL[FUPLLVIs f AGY4

OS ‘saqit} 1ayjJO [V1aAVS JO Jey} SjNge AJOIII} JTOY} JeY} JRF OY} 0} onp ‘ajdood ssoy} Suowe puno; oq 0} Ie sasnoy Fo sadA} JouTjsIp Jo Joquinu vy

ASNOH LOYODI DOLNOd ‘IVOIdAL V

906

A BONTOC IGOROT HEAD-HUNTER CARRYING FERTILIZER OUT TO HIS RICE FIELD

They are untiring workers and seem to have a well-established idea of land cultivating
(see page 8909)

907

A GROUP OF BONTOC IGOROT WOMEN IN TYPICAL DRESS

Their one garment is a narrow skirt reaching from waist to knee and open up one side.
Upper garments are practically unknown except where they come much in contact with

the Filipinos (see page 806)

killed by the people of the ward. In the
open court above referred to there may
be a tree growing, but if there is not a
live tree its place is usually taken by one
that has been cut off and stuck into the
ground: In, either event; some: of the
branches which extend directly upward
are cut off, leaving sharp prongs, on
which may be impaled the heads brought
in by successful war parties.

WELL-REGULATED WARFARE

The Bontoc Igorots are perhaps more
courageous and manly in their fighting
than are the people of any other Philip-
pine hill tribe. They have regular cere-
monies for making peace and declaring
war. On occasion the people of one
town send word to the people of another
that they are going to attack on a given
day. At other times enemies meet by
appointment at designated places and
fight over fancied wrongs.

Heads are removed with heavy head-
axes, which lack the graceful form of
the axes of the Kalingas, but are perhaps
more formidable, as their cutting edges
are considerably longer. ‘The strong and
well fashioned, wickedly barbed steel
lances, which the Bontoc Igorots throw
with much force and skill, are very for-
midable weapons at short range. Their
shields are stout affairs of wood lashed
with rattan. ‘They are fashioned in va-
rious more or less artistic shapes, which
show a distinct advantage over that of
the shields of the Ifugaos, but they are
inferior, in appearance at least, to those
of the Kalingas.

When a successful war party returns
with heads there is great rejoicing. The
gory trophies are stuck up in the courts
of the wards where dwell the men who
took them, and there ensues a camiao, ac-
companied by much drinking and feast-

908

BONTOC IGOROT WOMEN IN WORKING DRESS

The women sometimes wear skirts of leaves when engaged in field work (see text,

909

JOUUPUT ONIT B UL YoRq puke SsadeT AIBY} 9}e1ODNP
A}juonbaif AY, ‘a}esoqeja Ayjensnun jou st

SUIOO}L} OT,
AdA, LONODL OOLNOE

4

yoou sty

AdY IY} SI UOLJeIOIDP paysisoyD jsOUL SIFT
LOYODI OOLNOd V

910

ing. The duration of the celebra-
tion depends on the wealth of those
who give it. These people believe
that the anito, or spirit, of a person
who has lost his head can make
trouble for those who killed him,
but that such a spirit profits by the
food and drink consumed by the
living at the feast given in honor
of the taking of the head; so there
is a double reason for making head-
taking feasts as elaborate and as
long as possible.

CARE OF HEADS

After the feasting is over the
heads are taken down and _ boiled
and the skulls thoroughly cleaned.
The lower jaws are used for gansa
handles and the skulls are buried
in the earth in the secret rooms
above referred to. At the expira-
tion of a year they are dug up with
appropriate ceremonies, and are
then hung in baskets from the
ridge-poles of these chambers.

As with the Ifugaos, a man who
loses his head is considered to have
brought discredit on his town. He
is sometimes buried under a trail,
so that his neighbors may walk over
him! Participants in successful
head-hunting raids are allowed to
tattoo their bodies and more espe-
cially their faces.

A man or boy who has taken a
head finds it comparatively easy to
get an acceptable wife, and the in-
fluence of women is one of the
potent factors which has rendered
difficult the complete suppression of
head-hunting among these people.

~ THE WILD TINGIANS OF APAYAO

Many of the Tingians of north-
ern Luzon, although they are non-
Christians and cling tenaciously to
their ancient religious beliefs, are
in other respects quite as highly
civilized as their Christian Filipino
neighbors.

Representatives of this tribe are
found in North and South Ilocos,
and even in Lepanto and Nueva
Ecija, but the Tingian strongholds
are the subprovinces of Abra and
Apayao.

AGPAD, A BONTOC IGOROT WARRIOR

This man has saved two Americans from drowning.
He was formerly a famous head-hunter

OII

A TILLER OF THE SOIL

This Igorot has worked on the precipitous mountain sides until his prehensile toes have
become almost deformed

Men and women are of medium size
and have clean, well-developed bodies.
The men let their hair grow long, bind-
ing it up on their heads with strips of
cloth or handkerchiefs. Many of them
are possessed of shirts and_ trousers,
which they wear on state occasions,
usually going back to their clouts, how-
ever, if there is any hard work to be

done.
PECULIAR IDEAS OF PERSONAL BEAUTY

The women of this tribe ornament
their arms with series of bracelets and

armlets, which often extend from wrist
to shoulder. ‘They constrict the middle
of the forearm during early girlhood and
continue to wear tight armlets on the
constricted portion throughout life, so
that their forearms become somewhat
hourglass-shaped, this being considered
a mark of great beauty in spite of the
unsightly swelling of the wrists which
results.

In the more remote villages upper gar-
ments are not ordinarily worn by women
and girls, but this rule does not hold for

FEET OF A BONTOC IGOROT

Showing the effect of constantly working up and down very steep hillsides.

The natives

are just learning the use of agricultural implements, heretofore performing much of the
labor with their hands, feet, and. pointed sticks (see page 905).

the towns near the Christian territory,
where a modified form of the camisa of
the Filipino women has been almost uni-
versally adopted. The garment is, how-
ever, sleeveless, or has very short sleeves,
in order that the ornamented arms of the
wearers may not be concealed.

The more civilized Tingians are a
remarkably cleanly and an _ extraordi-
narily law-abiding and peaceful people.
‘Their well-built houses are placed on
high, sanitary sites. Their cooking uten-
sils are taken to the river and scrubbed
with sand after every meal. If a wife
offers her husband dirty or soggy rice to
eat, the offense is said to afford ground
for divorce.

The people of this tribe are skillful
agriculturists, raising yams, rice, corn,
and tobacco in considerable quantity.
They also grow a good deal of cotton,
and the women are quite skillful in spin-
ning it into thread and weaving it into
cloth.

913

Horses and cattle are raised for sale,
and in considerable numbers, and many
Tingian families are quite well off.

if view of the brief account above
given, the question may well be asked,
Why are the people of this gentle, indus-
trious, law-abiding tribe included among
the head-hunters ?

WHY THEY ARE WARLIKE

In the vicinity of Balbalassan, where
until recently they have had to fight for
their lives against the Kalingas and the
Bontoc Igorots, they have either retained
some of their own ancient and well-nigh
forgotten warlike customs or have ac-
quired those of their neighbors. At all
events, they show courage and skill in
the use of lances, head-axes, and shields,
and are said on occasion to decapitate
the enemies whom they slay. This, how-
ever, is not the real reason for listing
them as head-hunters.

In the territory now included in the

aspera ita E oa

ee ad
ume pee

Vel
ve

RRS
ANY

A YOUNG BONTOC IGOROT GIRL

Making cord from bark fiber.. The cord will ultimately be woven into cloth.
decoration in the lobe of her ear (see text, page 806)

O14

the

|

subprovince of Apayao,
into which the Span-
iards were never able to
penetrate, there dwells
a population of some
53,000 souls who have
in the past been va-
riously referred to as
“Apayaos,”’ “Igorotes,”
and ‘“‘Kalingas.” They
are not Kalingas, nor
do- they seem to. be
worthy of any distinct
tribal designation. It is
believed that they have
a common origin with
the more civilized Tin-
gians, and that they are
today in substantially
the same stage of civi-
lization as were the
Tingians of Abra 200
years ago. They are
now just being brought
under governmental
control and compara-
tively little is known of
their head-hunting cus-
toms.

They are people of
medium stature. Many
of them are slenderly
and gracefully shaped.
The men usually wear
very large clouts, which
are dyed a light indigo
blue. They also wear
short jackets of gay
cloth similar to those
worn by the Kalingas,
Around their heads
they wind turbans with
alternating bands of
bright scarlet and yel-
low. The men “bang”
their hair low over their
eyes, but otherwise do
NOt «cut, it. — Indeed:
they supplement the
natural growth by add-
ing switches, after the
manner of the women
of other tribes. Their
most characteristic or-
naments are elaborate
groups of pendants
made from mother-of-

A YOUNG BONTOC IGOROT WOMAN

Note the enormous hole in the lobe of the ear. To bring this
about a small opening is first cut, into which tiny pieces of wood are
forced, gradually increasing in size until the hole becomes an inch
or more in diameter (see page 895).

SSS SS SS“_asoswrwr_m——————

(96g osed vas) sadid Avjo oNsyA1e pur s}od usyjiva o]qvadlAses UInq pue syxeUI Jnq ‘soour] pur soxe-pesy podeys-][am UolYyseZ AyUO

MALLOd LOMOO] DOLNOd V

you Itt} SITY L

oi1G

AN OLD BONTOC IGOROT WOMAN

Owing to hard work in the fields, much of which is done by the women,
rapidly

O17

they age

very

NO Sepsis ae nares J neo ae ae rok ok wie tees Mig@ond Porat baiieetaert neta ons iectnce

SULYVU IOF SAIUOWIIIO Av[Nset Sulaey ‘oqis} [IY surddipiyg Jay}O Aue uey} Sunysy sey} ul AJuew pue snoaseinos siow sdeyiad aie ajdood asoyL

TIVUL V ONIHOLVM SHIMINES LOYODI DOLNOF

G8

A BONTOC IGOROT CLIMBING A HUGE TREE-FERN

Because of their strength and distorted feet, they climb trees with remarkable

919

ee
(of0 a8ed 90s) peroy ueumy B JO jUdIUseIy & SEM YPIYA ur ‘Pays JnuURODOD Bw FYeY poureyuOD YReiy ‘ovArdy
‘eydesSeyy JO UMO} OY} O} DOULIZUD SUIATS [v1] 9Y} FO Sopls Y}Od UO SMOL suo] OM} Ul padeid sjoyseq OOqUIed 9SaY} JO QS o1OM 919 J,

SLAMSVdI-dVaH NVIONIL GIIM

920

C16 oSed das) uvapo Ajqeyrewias day ore pue soys Arepues YsTy uodn 4yinq d18 sosnoy pdj}onajsuod-[JaM ALT, :

OVAVdV ‘LINVI ‘NVIONIL WIIM V AO HSNOH AHL

N

FS

=e

WILD TINGIAN CHII

EE

THR

breast ornaments of mother-of-pearl

e ieft

Note the big 1

worn by the man at th

Apayao.

,

raph taken at Magapta

Photog

Q

Keven. ere ee as

he

ee i

A WILD TINGIAN MOTHER AND CHILD

The women of this tribe are celebrated for their high moral tone. The affection between
husband and wife is deep and lasting (see page 927)

923

ayiq ayvus & JO Paip sous sey OYM ‘so]}VeVq puesNoY} & JO OJOY TY} ‘For

OVAVdV “LINVL JO ATINVA NVIONLL

yo sunysy snourey e ‘peung st

aIIM V

e GIS

uvlu O"y,

4

A WILD TINGIAN GIRL

These women differ from those of all other head-hunting tribes in never exposing the

upper part of their bodies except when in mourning.

They are inordinately fond of bead

necklaces and of such large silver ear ornaments as are shown in the photograph.

pearl and suspended from necklaces in
such a way as to hang on their chests.
Their shields are of a peculiar and highly
characteristic form, and are almost in-
variably painted black, red, and yellow
in accordance with a conventional color
scheme, which is substantially the same
in every instance. They use lances with
long and very slender heads. ‘Their
head-axes in many cases more nearly
resemble corn-knives than the axes of
the Bontoc Igorot or the Kalingas. A
few of the.men know how to work iron
and steel.

DIFFERENT IDEAS OF DRESS FOR WOMEN

The women wear short skirts, and
upper garments. ‘They differ from the

on

women of all other Philippine head-
hunting tribes in being scrupulously
careful about exposing the upper part
of the body, except when they are in
mourning.

Many of their ornaments are like those
of the men, and they are inordinately
fond of bead necklaces and of large
silver ear ornaments of peculiar form.
A blue thread tied tightly around the
ankle is a sign that the wearer is un-
married.

These wild Tingians live in small vil-
lages in immediate proximity to rivers
and streams. It has proved excessively
difficult to suppress head-hunting among
them, for the reason that it is intimately
connected with their religious beliefs.

a

6926

WILD TINGIANS OF DALLAOAS

4
4
YY

YEE

RAISED B

4

4

GIANT SUGAR-CANI

a heavy man

ining

The stalks of two plants proved quite strong enough to support a hammock conta

When a man dies, whether his death
be natural or due to violence, the
other members of his family repair
by night to some village of their
enemies, cut pieces from their tur-
bans, and throw them down on the
ground. ‘This is interpreted as an
intimation that they will return and
take heads some time within six
months, and they believe that the
dead man knows no peace until this
is done.

THE ONLY CURE FOR A WIDOW’S GRIEF

A widowed wife starves herself
for days, discards her upper gar-
ment, and may not bathe during a
period of six months unless the men
of the family sooner succeed in
taking a head. During the entire
period of mourning, which is sup-
posed to end when a head is taken,
she gives away to hysterical fits of
weeping and shrieking, which last
for hours.

The women of this tribe are cele-
brated for their chastity, and the
affection between husbands and
wives is undoubtedly deep and last-
ing. ‘Their mourning is in many
cases the result of genuine sorrow,
rather than of the necessity for the
perfunctory carrying out of a time-
honored ceremonial.

Many a night have I lain and
listened to some poor woman, half
a mile away, who called to her de-
parted husband from dusk to day-
light with hardly a moment’s inter-
mission. These faithful women
often refuse to refrain from out-
ward manifestations of grief after
the prescribed period of mourning
has passed, but continue to call for
their husbands, and I know of no
more pathetic thing than their long-
continued efforts to bridge the mys-
terious gulf which separates them
from those whom they have loved,
ending, as not infrequently happens,
in their own death or in madness.

Of the ceremonies which attend
the return of a war party with
heads, we at present know little,
except that the heads are ultimately AN INHABITANT OF “NO MAN’S LAND”

chopped into pieces, one of which Mote his feathered head ornaments and his grace-

is given to each member of the war fully shaped head-axe. The men are noted for their
party, who thereupon places it in superb physical development.

o

A YOUNG WOMAN OF “NO MAN’S LAND,” SHOWING TYPICAL TATTOOING AND ORNA-
MENTAL HEAD DRESS

Intermarrying with near-by tribes is shown in a blending of both physical characteristics.
and racial customs

KZ
OK

\

<

SS

SOK

TS

N

\ME

N:z

R

AND O

ESS) J

\L DR

Cz

eR

G

IN

SHOW

J

D

AN

at

I

A

M

“No

F
These people are the last to come under

N O

E

M

TWO

s of head-

isolated case

,

and >
ge 930)

—_—
iss]
Sa
eo
oU
02
Ge
a 2
=
a¥
5 op
> &
One:
on &
oe
Ww
3
s)
rs)
(o)
=
aay
n
on
=
a
is)
a}

929

THE NATIONAL GE

half a cocoanut shell, which in turn is
put in a bamboo basket and set up beside
one of the several entrances to the town.

It is believed that evil spirits cannot
pass these rows of head-baskets, the
number of which indicates only too
plainly that head-hunting is still common
in many parts of Apayao.

THE PEOPLE OF NO MAN’S LAND

In the vicinity of Lubuagan there is
a peculiar “No Man’s Land,” where meet
the regions inhabited by the Tingians,
the Kalingas, the Ifugaos, and the Bon-
toc Igorots. There has been intermar-
riage between members of the several
tribes, resulting in a blending of physical
characteristics and racial customs, and it
is often difficult to state with any degree
of certainty to what particular tribe, if
any, the people of a given town belong.

Like their neighbors, the inhabitants
of this region are skilled agriculturists,
raising rice and yams on the steep moun-
tain sides, and cultivating sugar-cane
with much care. ‘Their houses resemble
the houses of the Kalingas more than
those of the Bontoc Igorots. The women
have adopted some articles of dress from
the Kalingas and others from the Tin-
gians. They are apparently indebted to
the latter for the huge ‘form improv-
ers,’ worn under their skirts around the
lower abdomen and over the hips. In
some cases they wear upper garments,
but more frequently they do not. They
set inordinate store by old agate beads.

PERFECT PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Many of the men have a most perfect
physical development. Their clouts are
often elaborately ornamented with beads
and buttons, and they wear coils of cop-
per wire about their necks. Into their
back hair, which is confined in little caps
like those of the Bontoc Igorots, are
thrust plumes of scarlet and yellow
feathers, or of cock’s tail feathers, hav-
ing small yellow, white, or scarlet birds’

VOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

feathers fastened to their tips with wax.
These people are especially warlike, and
among them are found some of the most
famous head-hunting chiefs of northern
Luzon.

With the exception of the Tingians of
Apayao, they have been the last people
to come under government control, and
isolated cases of head-taking still occur
among them.

HEAD-HUNTING BECOMING RARE

As will have been inferred from many
of the statements made in this article,
head-hunting—which until recently an-
nually cost the lives of thousands of
people in northern Luzon, prevented
agricultural devclopmeny, and brutalized
has, since the
American occupation, been very effect-
ively checked. It is now entirely un-
known in much of the territory where
it formerly prevailed, and is everywhere
exceedingly rare, guy in a few remote

in the subprovince ef eee and among
the Negritos inhabiting the still practi-
cally unexplored regions bordering on
the Pacific coast of northern Luzon.

Although I have, in this article, some-
times allowed myself to drop into the
present tense in describing the head-
hunting tribes of northern Luzon, it
should be remembered that unless other-
wise specifically stated the conditions
which I have set forth are those which
existed when Americans first came in
contact with these peoples. In a future
article I shall tell of some of the changes
which it has proved possible to bring
about.

Meanwhile let it be remembered that
the peculiar, and sometimes highly ob-
jectionable, customs which have pre-
vailed, or still prevail, among the million
non-Christian inhabitants must not be
credited to the Filipinos, the civilized
and Christianized inhabitants in the
Philippines, of whom there are some
seven millions,

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

MAP OF CHINA AND ITS TERRITORIES

PREPARED BY J. G. BARTHOLOMEW—-GILBERT H. GROSVENOR, EDITOR.

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Pol, XXIll,.No. 10 WASHINGTON OcTOBER, 1912

WIRE

NATIONAIL
GEOGIRAIPIEDIC
MAGAZIINIE

THE WONDERFUL CANALS OF CHINA
By F. H. Kine

No more important practical contribution to geographic knowledge has been published
in many years than “Farmers of Forty Centuries,” by the late Prof. F. H. King. It ts a study
by one of America’s foremost agriculturists of the methods by which the Chinese support
nearly 500 million people on an area smaller than the improved farm lands of the United
States, and on land that they have tilled unimpaired for four thousand years. Dr. King
unfortunately died when his book was completed, but the work has been published privately
by Mrs. King, at Madison, Wisconsin (450 pages and 250 illustrations, $2.50). The following
article has been abstracted from the book and all the photographs are from the same source.

map to convey an adequate idea of

the magnitude of the systems of
canalization, delta, and other lowland
reclamation work or of the extent of
surface fitting of fields which have been
effected in China, Korea, and Japan
through the many centuries and which
are still in progress. ‘The lands so re-
claimed and fitted constitute their most
enduring asset and they support their
densest populations.

Forty canals across the United States
from east to west and 60 from north to
south would not equal in number of
miles those in these three countries to-
day. Indeed, it is probable that this esti-
mate is not too large for China alone.

In one of our journeys by house-boat
on the delta canals between Shanghai
and Hangchau, in China, over a distance
of 117 miles, we made a careful record
of the number and dimensions of lateral
canals entering and leaving the main one
along which our boat-train was travel-
ing. This record shows that in 62 miles,
beginning north of Kia-hsing and ex-
tending south to Hangchau, there en-
tered from the west 134 and there left
on the coast side 190 canals. ‘The aver-
age width of these canals, measured

| TIS well nigh impossible by word or

along the water line, we estimated at 22
and 19 feet, respectively, on the two
sides. The height of the fields above the
water level ranged from 4 to 12 feet
during the April and May stage of water.

The depth of water after we entered
the Grand Canal often exceeded 6 feet,
and our best judgment would place the
average depth of all canals in this part
of China at more than 8 feet below the
level of the fields.

On map No. 1 (page 932), represent-
ing the area of 718 square miles in the
region traversed, all lines shown are
canals, but scarcely more than one-third
of those present are shown on the map.
Fetween A, where we began our records
beiore reaching Kia-hsing, and B, near
the left margin of the map, there were
43 canals leading in from the up-country
side instead of the eight shown, and on
the coast side there were 86 leading
out into the delta plain toward the coast,
whereas but 12 are shown.

Again, on one of our trips by rail
from Shanghai to Nanking, we made a
similar record of the number of canals
seen from the train close along the track,
and the notes show an occurrence of 593
canals in a distance of 162 miles, an av-
erage of more than three canals per mile

MAP NO. I.—MAP OF MAIN CANALS IN 718 SQUARE
MILES OF CHEKIANG PROVINCE

Fach line represents a canal, but scarcely more than
one-third of those present are shown on the map

for this region and that between Shang-
hai and Hangchau.

The extent, nature, and purpose of
these vast systems of internal improve-
ment may be better realized through a
study of the next two sketch maps. The
first (map No. 2, page 933) represents
an area 175 by 160 miles, of which map
No. 1 is the portion inclosed in the small

932

rectangle. On this area there are
shown 2,700 miles of main ca-
nals, but from our personal ob-
servations it is probable that
there exists today in the area not
less than 25,000 miles of canals.

THE FAR-REACHING TIDES

In the next illustration (map
No. 3, page 934) an area of
northeast China 600 by 725 miles
is represented. The unshaded
land area covers nearly 200,000
square miles of alluvial plain.
This plain is so level that at
Ichang, nearly 1,000 miles up the
Yangtse, the elevation is only 130
feet above the sea. The tide is
felt on the river to beyond Wuhu,
375 miles from the coast. Dur-
ing the summer the depth of
water in the Yangtse is sufficient
to permit ocean vessels drawing
25 feet of water to ascend 600
miles to Hankau, and for smaller
steamers to go on to Ichang, 400
miles further.

The location in this vast low
delta and coastal plain of the sys-
tem of canals already described
is indicated by the two rectangles
in the southeast corner of the
sketch map 3, on page 934). The
heavy barred black line, extend-
ing from Hangchau in the south
to Tientsin in the north, repre-
sents the Grand Canal, which has
a length of more than 800 miles.
The plain east of this canal, as
far north as the mouth of the
Hwang-ho in 1852, is canalized
much as in the area shown in
map No. 2. So, too, is a large
area both sides of the. present
mouth of the same river in Shan-
tung and Chi-li between the canal
and the coast.

Westward, up the Yangtse
Valley, the provinces of Ngan-hwei,
Kiangsi, Hunan, and Hupeh have very
extensive canalized tracts, probably ex-
ceeding 28,000 square miles in area.
Still further west, in Szechuan province,
is the Chengtu plain, 30 by 70 miles, with
what has been called ‘the most remark-
able irrigation system in China.”

A conservative estimate would place

a

EN
DAE :

MAP NO. 2.—SKETCH MAP OF PORTIONS OF CHEKIANG AND KIANGSU PROVINCES

Representing some 2,700 miles of main canals and over 300 miles of sea-wall. The
sea-walls are represented by the very heavy black lines. The area shown in this map con-
tains not less than 25,000 miles of canals. The small rectangle shows the area covered by
Map No. I.

To build a canal in the United States to correspond with the Grand Canal of China it would
be necessary to traverse the country as indicated by the black line on this map

933

Sse ae Rane 2 aN
tate Dg ee ~So. ,

100 200
Scale of miles

MAP NO. 3.—SKETCH MAP OF NORTHEAST CHINA

Showing the alluvial plain and the Grand Canal, extending 800 miles through it from Hang-

chau to Tientsin.

the miles of canals and leveed rivers in
China, Korea, and Japan equal to eight
times the number represented on map
No, 2—fully 200,000 miles in all.

THE GREAT LEVEES

As adjuncts to these vast canaliza-
tion works there have been enormous
amounts of embankment, dike, and levee
construction. More than 300 miles of
sea wall alone exist in the area covered
by the sketch map (page 933). The east
bank of the Grand Canal above Yang-
chau is itself a great levee, holding back
the waters to the west above the eastern
plain, diverting them south into the

The unshaded land area lies mostly less than 100 feet above sea-level

Yangtse-kiang; but it is also provided
with spillways for use in times of exces-
sive flood, permitting waters to discharge
eastward. Such excess waters, how-
ever, are controlled by another dike, with
canal along its west side, some 40 miles
to the east, impounding the water in a
series of large lakes until it may grad-
ually drain away. This area is seen in
map No. 3, above, north of the Yangtse
River.

Along the banks of the Yangtse, and
for many miles along the Hwang-ho,
great levees have been built, sometimes
in reinforcing series of two or three at
different distances back from the chan-

934

CHINESE COUNTRY VILLAGE LINING BOTH SIDES OF A CANAL

Section one-third of a mile long between two bridges, where in three rows of houses live
240 families

nel, where the stream bed is above the
adjacent country, in order to prevent
widespread disaster and to limit the in-
undated areas in times of unusual flood.
In the province of Hupeh, where the
Han River flows through 200 miles of
low country, this stream is diked on
both sides throughout the whole dis-
tance, and in a portion of its course the
height of the levees reaches 30 feet or
more.

Again, in the Canton Delta region,
there are other hundreds of miles of sea
wall and dikes, so that the aggregate
mileage of this type of construction
works in the Empire can only be meas-
ured in thousands of miles.

In addition to the canal and levee con-
struction works, there are numerous im-
pounding reservoirs which are brought
into requisition to control overflow wa-
ters from the great streams. Some of
the interior reservoirs have areas of
2,000 and 1,800 square miles, and during
the heaviest rainy seasons each may rise
through 20 to 30 feet. Then there are
other large and small lakes in the coastal
plain, giving an aggregate reservoir area

exceeding 13,000 square miles, all of
which are brought into service in con-
trolling flood waters, all of which are
steadily filling with the sediments brought
from the far-away, uncultivable mountain
slopes and which are ultimately destined
to become rich alluvial plains, doubtless
to be canalized in the manner we have
seen.

NEW LAND IN THE MAKING

There is still another phase of these
vast construction works which has been
of the greatest moment in increasing the
maintenance capacity of the Empire—
the wresting from the flood waters of
the enormous volumes of silt which they
carry, depositing it over the flooded
areas, in the canals, and along the shores
in such manner as to add to the habit-
able and cultivable land. Reference may
be made to the rapid growth of Chung-
ming Island, in the mouth of the Yangtse-
kiang, and the million people now find-
ing homes on the 270 square miles of
newly made land which now has its ca-
nals, as may be seen in the upper margin
of map No. 2.

935

INCREASING THE AVAILABLE SURFACE OF THE FIELD SO THAT DOUBLE THE NUMBER
OF PLANTS MAY OCCUPY THE GROUND

The row of cucumbers on opposite sides of each trellis will cover its surface. This
man’s garden had an area of but 63 by 68 feet and two square rods of this were held sacred
to the family grave mound, and yet his statement of yields, number of crops, and prices made
his earning $100 a year on less than one-tenth of an acre.

The city of Shanghai, as its name sig-
nifies, stood originally on the seashore,
which has now grown 20 miles to the
northward and to the eastward. In 220
B. C. the town of Putai, in Shantung
(see map of China, supplement), stood
one-third of a mile from the sea, but in
1730 it was 47 miles inland, and is 48
miles from the shore today.

The dotted line laid in from the coast
of the Gulf of Chihli on map No. 3 marks
one historic shore line and indicates a
general growth of land 18 miles to sea-
ward.

Besides these actual extensions of the
shorelines, the centuries of flooding of
lakes and low-lying lands has so filled
many depressions as to convert large
areas of swamp into cultivated fields.
Not only this, but the spreading of canal
mud broadcast over the encircled fields
has had two very important effects,
namely, raising the level of the low-lying
fields, giving them better drainage and so
better physical condition, and adding
new plant food in the form of virgin soil

036

of the richest type, thus contributing to
the maintenance of soil fertility, high
maintenance capacity, and permanent
agriculture through all the centuries.

AN ENGINEER-EM PEROR

These operations of maintenance and
improvement had a very early inception ;
they appear to have persisted through-
out the recorded history of the Empire
and are in vogue today. Canals of the
type illustrated on maps Nos. 1 and 2
have been built between 1886 and 1901,
both on the extensions of Chungming
Island and the newly formed mainland
to the north, as is shown by comparison
of Stieler’s atlas, revised in 1886, with
the recent German survey.

Earlier than 2255 B. C., more than
4,100 years ago, Emperor Yao appointed
“The ‘Great? “Yu “superintendent of
works,” and intrusted him with the work
of draining off the waters of disastrous
floods and canalizing the rivers, and he
devoted 13 years to this work. This
great engineer is said to have written

sc

FAMILY GROUP OF GRAVE MOUNDS IN CHIHLI, BETWEEN TAKU AND TIENTSIN

The largest or father grave is in the rear, those of his two sons standing next

GRAVE MOUNDS RECENTLY RESTORED AND BEARING THE STREAMER STANDARDS IN
TOKEN OF MEMORIAL SERVICES

GROUP OF GRASS-GROWN GRAVE MOUNDS CARRYING THE STREAMER STANDARDS AND
SHOWING THE EXTENSIVE OCCUPATION OF LAND

It is the custom in some parts of China, if not in all, to periodically restore the mounds,
maintaining their height and size, and to decorate these once in the year with flying streamers
of colored paper, set there as tokens that the paper money has been burned upon them and
its essence sent up in the smoke for the maintenance of the spirits of their departed friends.
We have our memorial day; they have for centuries observed theirs with religious fidelity.
The usual expense of a burial among the working people is said to be $rco, Mexican, an
enormous burden when the day’s wage or the yearly earning of the family is considered.

937

MEN FREIGHTERS GOING INLAND WITH LOADS OF MATCHES

For adaptability to the worst road conditions no vehicle equals the wheelbarrow, pro-
gressing by one wheel and two feet. No vehicle is used more in China, if the carrying pole
is excepted, and no wheelbarrow in the world permits so high an efficiency of human power
as the Chinese, where nearly the whole load is balanced on the axle of a high, massive wheel,
with broad tire. A shoulder band from the handles of the barrow relieves the strain on the
hands, and, when the load or the road is heavy, men or animals may aid in drawing, or even,
when the wind is favorable, it is not unusual to hoist a sail to gain propelling power.

A COMMON MEANS OF TRANSPORT ON THE STREETS OF SHANGHAI, USED MUCH MORE
FREQUENTLY BY WOMEN THAN BY MEN

938

FLORAL PIECES IN FLORIST’S GARDEN, HAPPY VALLEY, HONGKONG, CHINA

Trained in the form of life-size human figures, with limbs, arms, and trunk, provided

with highly glazed and colored porcelain feet, hands, and head. These, with many other

~ potted plants and trees, including dwarf varieties, are grown under outdoor lattice shelters
in different parts of China, for sale to the wealthy Chinese families.

‘several ireatises on agriculture and
drainage, and was finally called, much
against his wishes, to serve as Emperor
during the last seven years of his life.

The history of the Hwang-ho is one
of disastrous floods and shifting of its
course, which have occurred many times
in the years since before the time of the
‘Great Yu, who perhaps began the works
perpetuated today.

Between 1300 A. D. and 1852 the
Hwang-ho emptied into the Yellow Sea
south of the highlands of Shantung, but
in that year, when in unusual flood, it
broke through the north levees and
finally took its present course, emptying
‘again into the Gulf of Chi-li, some 300
miles further north. Some of these
shiftings of course of the Hwang-ho and

939

of the Yangtse-kiang are indicated in
dotted lines on the sketch map No. 3,
where it may be seen that the Hwang-ho
during 146 years poured its waters into
the sea as far north as Tientsin, through
the mouth of the Pei-ho, 400 miles to the
northward of its mouth in 1852.

This mighty river is said to carry at
low stage past the city of Tsinan, in
Shantung, no less than 4,000 cubic yards
of water per second and three times this
volume when running at flood. This is
water sufficient to inundate 33 square
miles of level country 10 feet deep in 24
hours.

CANAL BUILDERS FOR CENTURIES

What must pe said of the mental status
of a people who for 4o centuries have

FIELDS OF GINGER JUST PLANTED; RIDGED AND FURROWED FOR DRAINAGE

Showing the amount of hand labor performed to secure the winter crop, following two
of rice

measured their strength against such a
Titan racing past their homes above the
level of their fields, confined only be-
tween walls of their own construction?
While they have not always succeeded in
controlling the river, they have never
failed to try again. In 1877 this river
broke its banks, inundating a vast area,
bringing death to a million people.
Again, as late as 1898, 1,500 villages to
the northeast of Tsinan and a much

940

larger area to the southwest of the same
city were devastated by it, and it is such
events as these which have won for the
river the names “China’s Sorrow,” “The
Ungovernable,” and ‘The Scourge of the
Sons of Han.”

The building of the Grand Canal ap-
pears to have been a comparatively re-
cent event in Chinese history. The mid-
dle section is said to have been con-
structed about the sixth century B. C.;

A SEWING CIRCLE IN THE OPEN AIR AND SUNSHINE, SHANGHAI

the southern section, between Chen-
kiang and Hangchau, during the years
605 to 617 A. D.; but the northern sec-
tion, from the channel of the Hwang-ho,
deserted in 1852, to Tientsin was not
built until the years 1280-1283.

While this canal has been called by the
Chinese Yu-ho (Imperial River), Yun-
ho (Transport River), or Yunliang-ho
(Tribute-bearing River), and while it
has connected the great rivers coming
down from the far interior into a great
water-transport system, this feature of
construction may have been but a by-
product of the great dominating purpose
which led to the vast internal improve-
ments in the form of canals, dikes, lev-
ees, and impounding reservoirs so widely
scattered, so fully developed, and so ef-
fectively utilized. Rather the master

o4t

purpose must have been maintenance for
the increasing flood of humanity.

And I am willing to grant to the Great
Yu, with his finger on the pulse of the
nation, the power to project his vision
for 4,000 years into the future of his
race and to formulate some of the meas-
ures which might be inaugurated to
grow with the years and make certain
perpetual maintenance for those to fol-
low.

THE KEYNOTE OF PERMANENT
AGRICULTURE

The exhaustion of cultivated fields
must always have been the most funda-
mental, vital, anc difficult problem of all
civilized people, and it appears clear that
such canalization as is illustrated on
maps Nos. 5 and 2 may have been pri-

GOO NO GASN ‘SLOON AHSHTA MIAH NO GNLVALM/INO

‘WOOTd NI LNVId

HLIM GNOd SNLo'’l

942

THE WONDERFUL

marily initial steps in the reclamation of
delta and overflow lands. At any rate,
whether deliberately so planned or not,
the canalization of the delta and over-
flow plains of China has been one of the
most fundamental and fruitful measures
for the conservation of her natural re-
sources that they could have taken, for
we are convinced that this oldest nation
in the world has thus greatly augmented
the extension of its coastal plains, con-
serving and building out of the waste of
erosion wrested from the great streams
hundreds of square miles of the richest
and most enduring of soils.

We have little doubt that were a full
and accurate account given of human in-
fluence upon the changes in this remark-
able region during the last 4,000 years, it
would show that these gigantic systems
of canalization have been matters of
slow, gradual growth, often initiated and
always profoundly influenced by the
labors of the strong, patient, persever-
ing, thoughtful, but ever-silent husband-
men in their efforts to acquire homes
and to maintain the productive power of
the fields.

Nothing appears more clear than that
the greatest material problem which can
engage the best thought of China today
is that of perfecting, extending, and per-
petuating the means for controlling her
flood waters, for better drainage of her
vast areas of low land, and for utilizing
the tremendous loads of silt borne by her
streams more effectively in fertilizing
existing fields and in building and re-
claiming new land. With her millions
of people needing homes and anxious
for work, who have done so much in
land building, in reclamation, and in the
maintenance of soil fertility, the govern-
ment should give serious thought to the
possibility of putting large numbers of
them at work, effectively directed by the
best engineering skill.

It must now be entirely practicable,
with engineering skill and mechanical ap-
pliances, to put the Hwang-ho, and other
rivers of China subject to overflow, com-
pletely under control. With the Hwang-
ho confined to its channel, the adjacent
lowlands can be better drained by canal-

CANALS OF CHINA

945

ization and freed from the accumulating
saline deposits which are rendering them
sterile. Warping may be resorted to dur-
ing the flood season to raise the level of
adjacent low-lying fields, rendering them
at the same time more fertile. Where
the river is running above the adjacent
plains there is no difficulty in drawing off
the turbid water by gravity, under con-
trolled conditions, into diked basins, and
even in compelling the river to buttress
its own levees.

‘There is certainly great need and great
opportunity for China to make still better
and more efficient her already wonderful
transportation canals and those devoted
to drainage, irrigation, and fertilization.

ANCIENT AND MODERN CANALIZATION

In the United States, along the same
lines, now that we are considering the
development of inland waterways, the
subject should be surveyed broadly, and
much careful study may well be given to
the works these old people have devel-
oped and found serviceable through so
many centuries.

The Mississippi is annually bearing to
the sea nearly 225,000 acre-feet of the
most fertile sediment and between levees
along a raised bed through 200 miles of
country subject to inundation. The time
is here when there should be undertaken
a systematic diversion of a large part of
this fertile soil over the swamp areas,
building them into well-drained, culti-
vable, fertile fields, provided with water-
ways to serve for drainage, irrigation,
fertilization, and transportation.

These great areas of swamp land may
thus be converted into the most produc-
tive rice and sugar plantations to be
found anywhere in the world, and the
area made capable of maintaining many
millions of people as long as the Missis-
sippi endures, bearing its burden of fer-
tile sediment.

There ought, and it would seem there
must some time be provided a way for
sending to the sandy plains of Florida,
and to the sandy lands between there and
the Mississippi, large volumes of the rich
silt and organic matter from this and
other rivers, aside from that which should
be applied systematically to building

above flood plain the lands of the delta
which. are subject to overflow or are
too low to permit adequate drainage.

But the conservation and utilization of
the wastes of the soil erosion, as applied
in the delta plain of China, stupendous
as this work has been, is nevertheless
small when measured by the savings
which accrue from the careful and ex-
tensive fitting of fields so largely prac-
ticed, which both lessens soil erosion and
permits a large amount of soluble and
suspended matter in the run-off to be
applied to and retained upon the fields
through their extensive system of irri-
gation.

Mountainous and hilly as are the lands
of Japan, 11,000 square miles of her cul-
tivated fields in the main islands of Hon-
shu, Kyushu, and Shikoku have been care-
fully graded to water-level areas, bounded
by narrow raised rims, upon which 16 or
more inches of run-off water, with its
suspended and soluble matter, may be ap-
plied, a large part of which is retained

Photo by G. W. Groff
A TREADMILL PUMP, VERY COMMON IN CHINA (SEE PAGE 945 )

on the fields or utilized: by the crop;
while surface erosion is almost com-
pletely prevented.

The total area thus surface-fitted in
China must be 90,000 or 100,000 square
miles. Such enormous field erosion as is
tolerated at the present time in our South-
ern and South Atlantic States is permitted
nowhere in the Far East, so far as we
observed, not even where the topography
is much steeper.

CONSERVATION, AN ENDURING ASSET

One of the most remarkable agricult-
ural practices adopted by any civilized
people is the centuries-long and well nigh
universal conservation and utilization of
all human waste in China, Korea, and
Japan, turning it to marvelous account
in the maintenance of soil fertility and in
the production of food.

To understand this evolution, it must
be recognized that mineral fertilizers so
extensively employed in modern western
agriculture, like the extensive use of min-

044

caper

THREE-MAN CHINESE FOOT-POWER AND WOODEN CHAIN PUMP, EXTENSIVELY USED
FOR IRRIGATION IN VARIOUS PARTS OF CHINA

The mechanical appliances in use on the canals and in the shops of Canton demonstrate
that the Chinese possess constructive ability of a high order, notwithstanding so many of
these are of the simplest forms. ‘This picture shows a simple yet efficient pump (on page
044). A father and his two sons are driving an irrigation pump, lifting water at the rate
of seven and a half acre-inches per ten hours, and at a cost, including wage and food, of
30 to 45 cents, gold. Here, too, were large stern-wheel passenger boats, capable of carrying
thirty to one hundred people, propelled by the same foot-power, but laid crosswise of the
stern, the men working in long single or double lines, depending on the size of the boat.
On these the fare was one cent, gold, for a fifteen mile journey, a rate one-thirtieth our
two-cent railway tariff. The dredging and clearing of the canals and water channels in and
about Canton is likewise accomplished with the same foot-power, often by families living

on the dredge boats.

eral coal, had been a physical impossi-
bility to all people alike until within very
recent years. With this fact must be
associated the very long unbroken life of
these nations and the vast numbers their
farmers have been compelled to feed.
When we reflect upon the depleted fer-
tility of our own older farm lands, com-
paratively few of which have seen a cen-
-tury’s service, and upon the enormous
quantity of mineral fertilizers which are
being applied annually to them in order
to secure paying yields, it becomes evi-
dent that the time is here when profound

945

consideration should be given to the prac-
tices the Mongolian race has maintained
through many centuries, which permit it
to be said of China that one-sixth of an
acre of good land is ample for the main-
tenance of one person, and which are
feeding an average of three people per
acre of farm land in the three southern-
most of the four main islands of Japan.

Dr. Kawaguchi, of the National De-
partment of Agriculture and Commerce,
taking his data from their records, in-
formed us that the human manure saved
and applied to the fields of Japan in 1908

BOAT LOADS OF FUEL, MAINLY BUNDLES OF RICE STRAW AND COTTON STEMS, ON
SOOCHOW CREEK, SHANGHAI

RICE STRAW FUEL BEING CONVEYED FROM CANAL, BOATS TO CITY MARKET STALLS

946

DRIED GRASS FUEL GATHERED ON GRAVE LANDS, SHANGHAI

The man holds the typical rake of the Far East, made by simply bending bamboo splints
claw-shape, and securing them as seen in the engraving

amounted to 23,850,295 tons, which is an
average of 1.75 tons per acre of their
21,321 square miles of cultivated land in
their four main islands.

In 1908 the International Concessions
of the city of Shanghai sold to one Chi-
nese contractor for $31,000, gold, the
privilege of collecting 78,000 tons of hu-
man waste, under stipulated regulations,
and of removing it to the country for
sale to farmers. A flotilla of boats is
engaged daily,in Shanghai throughout the
year in this service.

On the basis of the data of Wolff,
Kellner, and Carpenter, or of Hall, the
people of the United States and of Eu-
rope are pouring into the sea, lakes, or
rivers, and into the underground waters
from 5,794,300 to 12,000,000 pounds of
nitrogen; 1,881,900 to 4,151,000 pounds
of potassium, and 777,200 to 3,057,000
pounds of phosphorus per million of

adult population annually, and this waste
we esteem one of the great achievements
of our civilization.

In the Far East, tor: more than 30
centuries, these enormous wastes have
been religiously saved, and today the 400
million of adult population send back to
their fields annually 150,000 tons of phos-
phorus; 376,000 tons of potassium, and
1,158,000 tons of nitrogen comprised in
a gross weight exceeding 182 million tons,
gathered from every home, from the
country villages, and from the great cities
like Hankau-Wuchang-Hanyang, with its
1,770,000 people swarming on a land area
delimited by a radius of four miles.

Man is the most extravagant accel-
erator of waste the world has ever en-
dured. His withering blight has fallen
upon every living thing within his reach,
himself not excepted, and his besom of
destruction in the uncontrolled hands of

047

FERTILIZING THE FIELDS WITH CANAL MUD

In the lower section, along the path, basketfuls of canal mud had been applied in two
rows at the rate of more than 100 tons per acre. The upper section shows three men dis-
tributing canal mud between the rows of a field of windsor beans. aie :

This farmer was paying his laborers one hundred cash per day and providing their
meals, which he estimated worth two hundred cash more, making twelve cents, gold, for a
ten-hour day. Judging from what we saw and from the amount of mud carried per load,
we estimated the men would distribute not less than eighty-four loads of eighty pounds each

per day, an average distance of five hundred feet, making the cost 3.57 cents, gold, per ton
for distribution.

948

SECTION OF FIELD COVERED WITH PILES OF CANAL MUD RECENTLY APPLIED AT THE

RATE OF MORE THAN 70 TONS PER ACRE

Taken out of the canal up the three flights of earth steps shown in the lower part of the
figure

a generation has swept into the sea soil
fertility which only centuries of life could
accumulate, and yet this fertility is the
substratum of all that is living.

RIVERS OF PHOSPHORUS

The rivers of North America are esti-
mated to carry to the sea more than 500

tons of phosphorus with each cubic mile
of water. To such loss modern civiliza-
tion is adding that of hydraulic sewage
disposal, through which the waste of 500
millions of people might be more than
194,300 tons of phosphorus annually,
which could not be replaced by 1,295,000
tons of rock phosphate 75 per cent pure.

949

FOUR CHINESE INCUBATORS IN A ROOM WHERE THERE ARE THIRTY, EACH HAVING A
CAPACITY OF I,200 HEN EGGS

Each incubator consists of a large earthenware jar having a door cut in one side, through
which live charcoal may be introduced and the fire partly smothered under a layer of ashes,
this serving as the source of heat. The jar is thoroughly insulated, cased in basketwork, and
provided with a cover, as seen in the illustration. Inside the outer jar rests a second of
nearly the same size, as one teacup may in another. Into this is lowered the large basket
with its 600 hen eggs, 400 duck eggs, or 175 goose eggs, as the case may be. After a basket
of hen eggs has been incubated four days it is removed and the eggs examined by light-
ing, to remove those which are infertile before they have been rendered unsalable. The
infertile eggs go to the store and the basket is returned to the incubator. Duck eggs are
similarly examined after two days’ and again after five days’ incubation, and goose eggs
after six days and again after fourteen days. ‘Through these precautions practically all loss
from infertile eggs is avoided and from 95 to 98 per cent of the fertile eggs are hatched,

the infertile eggs ranging from 5 to 25 per cent.

The Mongolian races, with a popula-
tion now approaching the figure named,
occupying an area little more than one-
half that of the United States, tilling less
than 800,000 square miles of land, and
much of this during 20, 30, or perhaps
40 centuries, unable to avail themselves
of mineral fertilizers, could not survive
and tolerate such waste.

Not even in great cities like Canton,
built in the meshes of tide-swept rivers
and canals; like Hankau, on the banks of
one of the largest rivers in the world;
nor yet in modern Shanghai, Yokohama,
or Tokyo, is such waste permitted. ‘T'o
them such a practice has meant race
suicide, and they have resisted the temp-
tation so long that it has ceased to exist.

Had the Mongolian races spread to
and developed in North America instead
of or as well as in eastern Asia, there
might have been a Grand Canal, some-
thing as suggested on page 933, from the
Rio Grande to the mouth of the Ohio
River and from the Mississippi to Chesa-
peake Bay, constituting more than 2,000
miles of inland waterway, serving com-
merce, holding up and_ redistributing
both the run-off water and the wasting
fertility of soil erosion, spreading them
Over 200,000 square miles of thoroughly
canalized coastal plains, so many of
which are now impoverished lands, made
so by the intolerable waste of a vaunted
civilization.

And who shall venture to enumerate

950

The recently removed canal mud, in the upper section of the illustration, is heavily
charged with large snail shells. The lower section shows the shells in the soil of a recently
spaded field. .

The shells are by no means as numerous generally as here seen, but yet sufficient to
maintain the supply of lime. Several species of these snails are collected in quantities and
used as food. Piles containing bushels of the empty shells were seen along the canals out-
side the villages. The snails are cooked in the shell and often sold by measure to be eaten
from the hand, as we buy roasted peanuts or popcorn. When a purchase is made, the vender
clips the spiral point from each shell with a pair of small shears. This admits air and per-
mits the snail to be readily removed by suction when the lips are applied to the shell.

951

N

THE YOUNG MAN IS LOADING HIS BOAT WITH CANAL MUD, USING THE LONG-HANDLED
CLAM SHELL DREDGE, WHICH HE CAN OPEN AND CLOSE AT WILL

IRRIGATION BY MEANS OF THE SWINGING BASKET, PROVINCE OF CHI-LI, CHINA

953

NURSERY BED OF RICE 29 DAYS PLANTED

Showing irrigation furrows; field beyond flooded, partly plowed. The rice in the nursery
‘bed is nearly ready for transplanting

Reka

GROUP OF CHINESE WOMEN PULLING RICE IN A NURSERY BED, TYING THE PLANTS
IN BUNDLES PREPARATORY TO TRANSPLANTING

954

TRANSPLANTING RICE IN CHINA

Four views taken from the same point at intervals of 15 minutes, showing the progress
‘made during 45 minutes.

The seven men in this group would thus set two and a third acres per day and, at the
wage Mrs. Wu was paying, the cash outlay, if the help was hired, would be nearly 21 cents
per acre. This is more cheaply than we are able to set cabbage and tobacco plants with our
best machine methods. In Japan the women participate in the work of setting the plants
more than in China.

After the rice has been transplanted its care, unlike that of our wheat crop, does not
cease. It must be hoed, fertilized, and watered. To facilitate the watering all fields have
been leveled, canals, ditches, and drains provided, and, to aid in fertilizing and hoeing, the
setting has been in rows and in hills in the row.

955

956

WILD WHITE ROSE IN BLOOM WEST OF SUCHOW, JUNE 2

The rosebush has overspread a clump of trees, one of which is 30 feet in height, en-
veloping it in a mantle of bloom. The lower illustration is a closer view, showing the
The stem of this rose, 3 feet above the ground, measured 14.5 inches in circum-

clusters. 1
ference. If it would thrive in this country, nothing could be better for parks and pleasure

drives.

957

MAP OF COUNTRY SURROUNDING SHANGHAI, CHINA

Showing a few of the many canals on which the waste of the city is conveyed by boat to
the farms

the increase in the tonnage of sugar,
bales of cotton, sacks of rice, boxes of
oranges, baskets of peaches, and in the
trainloads of cabbage. tomatoes, and cel-
ery such husbanding would make possi-
ble through all time; or number the in-
creased millions these could feed and
clothe ?

TEMPORIZING WITH THE FUTURE

We may prohibit the exportation of
our phosphorus, grind our limestone,
and apply them to our fields, but this
alone is only temporizing with the fu-
ture. “Ihe more we produce, the more
numerous our millions; the faster musi
present practices speed the waste to the
sea, from whence neither money nor
prayer can call them back.

If the United States is to endure; if we
shall project our history even through
4,000 or 5,000 years, as the Mongolian
nations have done, and if that history
shall be written in continuous peace, free
from periods of widespread famine or

058

pestilence, this nation must orient itself ;
it must square its practices with a con-
servation of resources which can make
endurance possible.

Sooner or later we must adopt a na-
tional policy which shali more com-
pletely conserve our water resources,
utilizing them not only for power and
transportation, but primarily for the
maintenance of soil fertility and greater
crop production through supplemental
irrigation, and all these great national
interests should be considered collect-
ively, broadly, and with a view to the
fullest and best possible codrdination.

China, Korea, and Japan long ago
struck the keynote of permanent agri-
culture, but the time has now come when
they can and will make great improve-
ments, and it remains for us and other
nations to profit by their experience, to
adopt and adapt what is good in their
practice, and help in a world movement
for the introduction of new and im-
proved methods.

THE MOST EXTRAORDINARY CITY IN THE
WORLD

Notes on Lhasa—The Mecca of the Buddhist Faith
By SHaocuine H.:-Cuuan, M. D.

MEDICAL OFFICER OF THE CHINESE MISSION To TIBET

Photographs and Text Copyright by Dr. Shaoching H. Chuan

URING the last century some ten
D foreign travelers have entered

Tibet either as scientific explorers
or as political representatives. ‘The pre-
cipitous, lofty mountains, and the distant
stretches of wild, uninhabited desert have
made the journey too great a task for
not a few of them to perform. Owing
to these difficulties, together with the lack
of traveling facilities and the stubborn
_ resistance of the Tibetans, most of them
had to be satisfied with nothing more
than excursions into the regions near the
bouridary line. Few ever succeeded in
seeing the interior of the sacred city,
Lhasa, the capital of Tibet.

In the year 1904 the British military
expedition to Tibet succeeded in enter-
ing Lhasa. As a result of this expedition
much of the mystery and secrecy of the
Forbidden City was revealed, and Lhasa
no longer remained an unexplored relig-
ious center of the world. But the Eng-
lish did not have their curiosity satisfied.
The shortness of their stay, the natives’
suspicion of the white people, and the
objection to foreigners entering the va-
rious sacred places proved the main ob-
stacles to the realization of their wishes.

When I visited Lhasa, with the Chinese
Mission to Tibet, in 1906-1907, I enjoyed
several advantages. In the first place,
having a Chinese official position, I did
not awaken any suspicion in the minds
of the natives. Furthermore, I was
equipped with all modern facilities for
taking records and photographs, and was
given the privilege of visiting places

hitherto and since denied to all foreign-

ers. My comparatively longer sojourn
in Lhasa also gave me ample opportunity

for obtaining information and pictures
that are rare and unique.

This article is written for the purpose
of giving the readers of this magazine
a brief account of the general character-
istics of Lhasa only. Details of the cus-
toms, manners, government, and religious
beliefs of the people cannot be given in
the limited scope of this article; but I
hope that readers may be able to learn
much from the photographs, most of
which are the only ones in existence.

Lhasa is situated in an impressive and
picturesque valley, 16 miles long by 2 to
4- miles wide, and 12,500 to 13,500 feet
above the sea-level. It is surrounded by
mountains ranging from 3,000 to 6,000
feet above the valley. The weather is
not excessively hot in summer nor bit-
terly cold in winter, for the high plateau
is above the reach of the heat waves, and
the still higher mountains seem to shut
off the freezing winds. ‘The natives call
Lhasa “The Ideal’ City of: the World,”
and certainly not without reason, at least
as far as weather is concerned.

Only two entrances, one at the eastern
énd and the other at the western end,
open into this isolated valley. Two high-
ways go out from the entrances—the one
on the east leading into China, and that
on the west into Upper Tibet and British
India. A large stream, called the Kichu,
flows in from the eastern entrance, winds
through the southern part of the valley,
and emerges at the west, finally joining
the Brahmaputra, which is one of the
important rivers of the world.

As the traveler comes into the western
entrance an imposing view of Lhasa Val-
ley meets his eyes. The glittering golden

959

TH AINOLSTIW GNV “IIH “IVOIGHIN “I'11Il VIVLOd : LHOIY OL Laa’l Wout

By
Yj

S

ieee

ey

THE MOST EXTRAORDINARY CITY IN THE WORLD

roofs of the palace of the Dalai Lama
on the hill Potala, contrasted with the
rugged tops of the Medical Hill, appar-
ently floating in the air, form a grand
and brilliant sight, that can hardly fail
to gladden the heart of the weary ex-
plorer. Further on, after passing by the
extensive Dupon Monastery and_ the
Great Oracle (see page 960), he arrives
at the back of Potala Hill (see page 963),
and is brought face to face with the Med-
ical and the Millstone Hills (see pages
965 and 985).

Contrary to Oriental custom, the city
of Lhasa has no wall. A broad highway
is built around the city instead. Lhasa
is 2 miles long and a little less than 1
mile wide. Its north and east sides are
open, while the Ki River protects the
southern part, with Potala and Medical
Hills guarding the west side.

The city gate (see page 964), decorated
with pagodas, opens between these two
hills. The pagodas are built of white
stone, with golden domes. ‘These em-
blems of Lamaism are made even more
magnificent by the reflection seen in the
water. Indeed, any pilgrim can but feel
satisfied, not to say sanctified, by gazing
upon such a splendid and beautiful vision
before entering the “Happiest Western
World.”

Nothing impresses the traveler more,
as he first enters the city, than the palace
of Dalai Lama (see pages 962 and 963).
The ancient Vatican of Lhasa stands on
the left, venerable and majestic, ever
ready to welcome those who come to
worship within its walls.

The western part of the city 1s practi-
cally uninhabited. One has to travel
another mile before he finds himself in
the city proper, the part of Lhasa which
has long attracted the attention of ad-
venturers.

‘The main streets of Lhasa are gener-
ally wide and fairly smooth. There is
no heavy traffic in Tibet. Carts and car-
riages are beyond the natives’ imagina-
tion. Every one travels on foot. The
yak and the horse are the only two means
of conveyance. One can easily see why
the streets are generally so even. Only
the Dalai Lama and the two Ambans ride

961

in sedan-chairs. Other people are not
allowed to enjoy this privilege.

The houses are usually built of stone
and are two or three stories high. The
outside looks clean, with its whitewash,
but the inside is dark and dirty to the
last degree. Rich and poor are all alike
in this respect.

To my surprise and disgust, I found
that the first floor of every house 1s al-
ways occupied by a yak stable. Hence
every visitor is first welcomed by the yak
stable, with its disagreeable odor con-
stantly pouring out.

Like the Jewish style of building, all
the houses have flat roofs, which are ac-
cessible by small doors. A_ peculiarity
of Tibetan houses is that they have no
chimneys. The windows serve the dou-
ble purpose of letting the light come in
and the smoke out. The walls are thus
made very dark with soot.

THE PALACE OF THE DALAI LAMA

Most prominent and important of all
the buildings in the city of Lhasa is un-
doubtedly the palace of Dalai Lama. It
is a fortified palace located on the Potala
Hill, at the western end of the city. It
is about 4,000 feet high and 1,000 feet
long, containing 490 rooms and_ 1,333
windows. ‘The entire structure is built
of stone, whitewashed on the outside,
except the upper half of the middle por-
tion, which is painted crimson. All the
eaves of the roof and the copings of the
zigzag-shaped steps are also crimson.

The Living Buddha occupies the cen-
tral section of the upper part, while the
rest is divided into lecture and prayer
halls, executive department, treasury,
granary, and bed-rooms for 350 Lamas.
A sacred part of the palace is reserved
for the topes, or tombs, of former Liv-
ing Buddhas.

Below, in front, is a large paved arena
which serves as the dancing ground.
Outside of the arena are many buildings
for printing prayers, casting bronze im-
ages, manufacturing incense, keeping
cattle; slaughter - houses, stores, «etc:
Stone walls, with barracks and garrison
on the top, protect the front, left, and
right sides.

oye} Ud JOA Sey yey} pury sy fo ydessojoyd Ayuo
oUt St yf ‘aovjed oy} JO [eM oy} JO JUOIF 9Y} UO VYppNg Jo saseu yeors vijyxo OM] sey yt yey} Ul stoyjo wo.

«WV IVLOd MAN dH,

Sloyip ydessojoyd siyy,

Bess ee

962

Li Leb NS Pere ae ear ty
en ey POO THIET yy
ee Re

ee) s?

P|

BIRD'S-EYE VIEW OF THE PALACE OF THE DALAI LAMA, WITH ITS FOREGROUND

A portion of the city proper is seen on the extreme right (see text, pages 961, 965)

963

“PAGO-LING,’-THE MAIN ENTRANCE OF LHASA CITY

A TIBETAN MAKING PROSTRATION BEFORE THE PALACE IN WORSHIP

964

BIRD S-EYE VIEW OF THE TEMPLE OF THE GOD OF WAR, BEHIND THE MILLSTONE HILL

Two yellow pavilions stand outside of
the wall, in front of which is a granite
pillar about 20 feet high. It is said that
this pillar was built in order to pro-
tect the palace against attacks by evil
spirits.

According to tradition, the work of
this gigantic construction began about
i200 years ago; Lhe forts and. sarri-
sons were first built. Other parts of the
palace were later additions. It took
nearly ten centuries to complete this
Lama Vatican; and it was not until 200
years ago that its present majestic ap-
pearance was finally attained.

Dwelling in such a heavenly abode, the
Living Buddha cannot but look down
upon the world with pride and dignity.

This magnificent mansion, with its
colors of white, crimson, red, and brown,
and its golden roofs, against the back-
ground of green grass and blue sky,
forms a picture of splendor and beauty
that can hardly be surpassed. It is not
strange that pilgrims from all parts of

965

the Buddhist world come to worship at
this Mount of Holiness.

The Palace of Dalai Lama indeed
bears out the statement that at Lhasa are
to be found some of the noblest speci-
mens of architecture in centrai Asia.

Noble and beautiful as the exterior of
the palace is, the interior is quite the op-
posite. Like most Lama temples, the
interior of the palace is dark and filthy.
The rooms occupied by Dalai are the
only clean portion of this much-revered
religious edifice.

THE GREAT TEMPLE OF LHASA—CHO-KANG

The Great Temple of Lhasa stands
conspicuous in the center of the city.
Though its external appearance is not
very attractive, the interior is fascinat-
ing in the highest degree (see page 969).

Towers, pavilions, and golden roofs
form the most beautiful exterior deco-
rations.

Unlike most monasteries in ‘Tibet,

which are generally several stories high

THE BUSINESS SECTION OF LHASA CITY: NOTE THE FLAT ROOFS AND THE PRAYER-FLAGS

and built of massive stone blocks, this
consists of large single-storied buildings
in rows, one behind another, like the
temples usually seen in China.

The great Cho-kang was built by the
Chinese princess Wen-ch’eng, of the
Tang dynasty, who was married to the
Tibetan King Strong-tzan. It was she
who first introduced into ‘Tibet Chinese
etiquette and manners and Hindoo liter-
ature, and taught the natives weaving
and agriculture. ‘Tibetans respected and
loved her so devotedly that they had her
canonized after her death. Her image
was erected in this temple in memory
of her great kindness and wonderful
achievements.

Every year, on her birthday, the fif-
teenth of the tenth month (Tbetan),
‘Tibetans come to this temple to perform
various religious ceremonies signifying
their undying gratefulness. On the same
day a lantern festival also is observed.
The whole city is illuminated with butter
lamps made in the shape of a Chinese
lady’s shoe, the emblem of the mother of
Tibetan civilization.

The most notable feature of this tem-
ple is an image of Buddha. It is 30 feet
high. ‘The entire body is gold-plated and
inlaid with pearls, coral, turquoise, and
other kinds of precious stones (see page

971). The design of this extraordinary

066

work is so curious and elaborate that the
like of it can scarcely be imagined. So
difficult was the transportation of this
idol that the natives claim it was moved
to Tibet from China by the gods in a
night.

A five-colored statue is set in the wall
of one of the rooms. It is said to have
been heaven born, not made by man.

Numerous rats of monstrous size are
seen running through the halls or peep-
ing from behind the images. Supersti-
tion leads the people to worship them as
divine.

Various kinds of ancient arms are also
found in the temple. The most interest-
ing of all are two bronze drums of the
Han dynasty and one big cannon of the
T’ang dynasty, with five characters cast
on it. These characters mean literally
“Majesty of the Imperial Power extin-
guished the rebellion.”

The so-called “Sanctuary” is in the
very innermost part of the temple. The

TIBETAN HOUSES, SHOWING THE FLAT ROOFS

rules that. govern this Lama “Holy of
Holies” are strikingly like those estab-
lished: by God for the Israelites. A
screen made of iron rings (see page 970)
veils the sacred image from the common
people.

Around the temple are markets and
stores. The noise of all kinds of traffic
continues through the day. Multitudes
of people throng the temple from morn-
ing till night. Lamas go in and out to
perform. their daily. duties, . pilgrims
make prostrations on the floor in wor-
ship, and hosts of beggars infest the
holy place craving food and money.
Such is the superstition of the ignorant,
mingled with the suffering of the poor,
in striking contrast with the riches of
the institutions of the Lama religion.

A great sacred conference is held an-
nually in this temple from the second of
the second month until the 22d, when
80,000 Lamas from all over the Lama
Kingdom assemble daily for prayer,
reading of their classics, and other re-
ligious observances.

0967

On the outside are many tablets erec-
ted for the purpose of commemorating
the military achievements of the Chinese
generals who subdued the ‘Tibetans.
Among them two tablets are of great his-
toric significance to the Chinese. The
one on the right was erected in memory
of the alliance between the second em-
peror of the T’ang dynasty and_ his
nephew, the son of Princess Wen-cheng.
The other one, in front, relates the history
of founding hospitals and efforts made
to stamp out an epidemic of smallpox,
which had been harassing the whole
country.

THE THREE GREAT MONASTERIES OF
LHASA

Seven miles to the west of Lhasa is
the largest monastery in Tibet, called the
Dupon Monastery. It is situated in a
rocky ravine between high mountains
(see page 960). Its size is so enormous
that, looking from a distance, one may
easily mistake it for a large city. Amid
the numerous buildings is a beautiful

ainsevojd Aofua 0} IWOd

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TTIH WIVLOd GNIHYG LITA V Tt

‘puUryAIIeZ SUTURYUS
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968

ALIO AH AGISLAO “TIM IVOIGHW JO ISHM ‘NAGUVD S.VINV'T Iv'IVd HBL “VONTI-NG-YON,,

teber PERHRTET LOR KETTSELTEERRE Ehesae

ALGREGRESATARTTRAT ULE

43

Nia

CX
Coe 2

THE GOLDEN ROOFS OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF LHASA (SEE TEXT, PAGES 905 AND 966)

THE ENTRANCE OF THE GREAT TEMPLE OF LHASA, WHERE AT THE ANNUAL SACRED
CONFERENCE 80,000 LAMAS ASSEMBLE FOR DAILY PRAYER

969

‘SMa M

WAYHL YOM SISVI HOIHM “AONANHANOD ATUVAA AHL AO

(496 Hovd ‘LXAL HAS) N1dOXd NOWINOD HHL WOU NOISVQOO AH NO YAAVUd A'TIVG YOM ANON SVINV’T OOO‘OR
HOVINI GYYOVS AHL STUIMA SONIY NOMI WO AGVIN NaXYOS V AMMHM ‘VSVH'I JO WIdWAL IVAID AHL JO Loddv AHL.

3)

970

THE FAMOUS IMAGE OF BUDDHA IN THE GREAT TEMPLE OF LHASA (SEE TEXT, P. 9660)

garden, which serves as a summer resort
for the Dalai Lama, who goes there to
discourse upon the Lama classics every
summer.

Seventy-five hundred Lamas live in
this monastery, which has room enough
to accommodate any of the largest uni-
versities in the United States.

There is a Buddha here who is re-
ported to have come out from the water
four centuries ago to deliver the people
from floods that used to ravage the
country.

No stronger evidence_of the supersti-
tious mind of the natives can be given

97:

than the idea which they have regarding
the clay body of the seventh Dalai Lama,
which is in this monastery. Tibetans
sincerely believe that it is the living body
of the seventh Dalai Lama. It is said
that the bosom of the body is still warm,
though the seventh Dalai Lama died sev-
eral decades ago. The truth as to this
tradition cannot be ascertained, since no
one is allowed to touch the body.
There are many large images.
these the largest in size is called | ‘Mie
and is gold-plated and adorned wae
pearls, gems, and. numberless precious
stones. Here are also two fasces (see

Of

SEAN 99.

THE SERA MONASTERY, WHICH ACCOMMODATES 5,500 LAMAS, AND IS THE SECOND
LARGEST MONASTERY IN LHASA

Ee

LAMAS HOLDING THE TWO FASCES AWARDED BY THE CHINESE EMPEROR K’ ANG-HSI
TO RESTRAIN AND PUNISH THE DISOBEDIENT LAMAS (SEE TEXT, PAGE 973)

The Lama on the left holds a yellow cap

972

THE IMAGE OF TZUNG-KA-BA

“Unlike other Buddhist images, which usually have a stiff and wooden expression,
Tzung-ka-ba is represented by an image having a face like that of a human being” (see

text below).

page 972), awarded by the former em-
peror, K’ang-hsi, to restrain and punish
the disobedient Lamas.

In front of Dupon is the Great Oracle
of State (see page 960), where inspired
Lamas give answers to inquiries made
by those who are eager to know their
fortunes or outcome of various affairs.
It has even greater influence and au-
thority than the oracle at Delphi, since
here questions are asked and answers
given in regard to governmental policy
as well as private matters. Its ruling
divinity has very wretched features. He
is supposed to have sprung from a tree.
The shingles of the roofs are made of
arrows collected after different battles.

THE SERA MONASTERY
The Sera, or the “Golden Hill, Mon-

astery (see page 972) is situated along
the hillside north of the city. It is next
to the Dupon Monastery in size, with
room for 5,500 Lamas.

The worship of Tzung-ka-ba, the
founder of the Yellow-cap sect of Lama-
ism, has its seat in this monastery. Un-
like other Buddhist images, which usually
have a_ stiff and wooden expression,
Tzung-ka-ba is represented by an image
having a face like that of a human be-
ing (see above) and holding a scepter
which is said to have come down from
heaven.

973

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(6£6 ased

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LAdlL, FO PNADAY “THOOAWNIY-LL

MOVdA HHL NO INAWVNUO AHL
GNV dVO MOTICA FHL ONIMOHS ‘VINV'I V AO MAIA MOVE

974

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JO 9IN}XIU & ST jE yey} SI Pa} Jay} Fo Aytretpnoed sy, ‘przom
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V4AL SIH DSNIAO[NA VSVH1 JO AMONG AHL

PROTON ATI Bs pS

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pue ‘aqor inj poedd

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VSVH' AO HNNd AHL

975

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punoie uses oq ABU S[PIOD 9SILT YIM po}esloOoIp SUI VW

INAWUVS LYNOO YAH NI YAIM SMALSINIW AWIad AHL

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976

CHIEF KALUN AND DAIBEN IN COURT ROBES MADE OF BEAUTIFULLY COLORED
EMBROIDERY

Mongolian nobles often make long
journeys to this place for worship, and
not a few of them have become Lamas
during their visits. The son of the Mon-
golian Prince Kung has already been
transformed into a “Living Buddha.”
From his forehead grows the much-
coveted “Wonder Pearl,” a pearl of the
size of a millet grain, which constitutes
the most vital part of Buddhism. People
travel from remote parts of the Buddhist
world to Lhasa in order to get this pearl,
which they believe to be omnipotent.

THE GANDAN MONASTERY

The third monastery in size and im-
portance is the Gandan Monastery, to the
east of the city. Tzung-ka-ba is said to
have become a “Living Buddha” in this
monastery. About 2,000 Lamas live and
study here.

The power and influence of these three
great monasteries can hardly be over-
estimated. With a total number of
15,000 Lamas, they are strong enough to
control almost anything. The leading
Lamas are often found engaging in poll1-

977

A BRIDE

She is the daughter-in-law of Chief Kalun.
The band around her breast is the sign of
a bride.

IYSII oy} UO UdLE OA dy} Aq UIOM UTEYD JO sjiTYys DION ‘suUOdeAM JOY] Ie SMOIIE PUR ‘SMO ‘SysoTYO!E PY

SWMV NI SUMIGTOS NV.LASTI,

978

A TROOP OF TIBETAN SOLDIERS

tics or meddling in governmental affairs.
Sometimes they become so strong that
even the Dalai Lama and the Ambans
seem to be unable to control them.

Lamaism is the state religion of Tibet
and its power in the Hermit Country is
tremendous. Religion dominates every
phase of life. The propagation and de-
velopment of Lamaism are accomplished
by very effective methods. For instance,
in a family of four sons, at least two,
generally three, of them must be Lamas.
Property and family prestige also natur-
ally go with the Lamas to the monastery
in which they are inmates. In this way
not only is the monastery growing richer
every year, but its authority, too, 1s con-
stantly increasing.

Keeping the common people, or lay-
men, in ignorance is another means of
maintaining the power of the Lamas.
Nearly all the laymen are _ illiterate
Tamas are the only people who are
taught to read and write. That ignorance
breeds superstition is a well-known ax-
iom. Tibetans at the present day, owing
to their ignorance, are fast cob-webbed
by numberless superstitions which have
been accumulated for centuries. There
is scarcely a single action or object that
they do not believe to be controlled either
by gods or by evil spirits.

THE GOVERNMENT. OF TIBET

Tibet is governed by the Dalai Lama
as politico-religious head and two “Am-
bans” as the political dictators. The Am-
bans are appointed by the Chinese Em-
peror every four years. All govern-
mental affairs have to undergo examina-
tions by the two Ambans, and all govern-
mental policy must be sanctioned by them
before it can be put into operation.
Literally; the. Dalat: ama is. under the
authority of the two Ambans, but being
supposed to be the incarnation of the
principal Pope-god Lobzong, he some-
times can issue commands which are be-
yond the control of the two Ambans.

Below the Dalai Lama is the Regent
(see page 974), who must be the most
learned =Lama-~ inthe whole. country:
Next in rank are the four Ministers of
State. One of these must be a Lama,
while the other three are laymen. The
position of Prime Minister is held by the
one of the four who has been a minister
for the longest term.

Other officers are two Judges (“Mi-
ben’), who are in Lhasa; a treasurer
(“Chanegtzo”); there is also a “Daiben”’
(General) and “Ruben,” “Giaben,” “Ding-
ben,” and “Chuben” (officers ruling 250,
125, 25, and 10 men respectively).

979

A TIBETAN SOLDIER IN CHAIN ARMOR, AND HELMET

WITH PEACOCK

RING.

A COMMON TIBETAN IN CLOTHES MADE OF YAK-HIDE

HE ALSO WEARS AN EAR-

FEATHER,

ssuli-1e9
pue sononb se9m osje Ady J, [OOM pot Jo ape oie sjey yey oy],

SINVAONALLY IVIOIMWO JO SMAIA MOVE CNV TNOY

MOV SIH IV DNIDNVH dIHM V HIM
‘SONIN-UVA GNV LVH MOTIBA V ONIYVAM “AMIMAHS AHL

981

‘puey dyof toy ul
St uIvA [OOM puv ‘a[paau JoYyOI v SuIpjoy sf URWOM oY],
‘Way} J09}01d 0} JaMmod sey [Jays IY} JY} dAdljoq suvjoqi
ay} sayeur ‘Ie 9Y} O} 9VSO]JD [Jays eB surovjd Aq pasneo
«bas 94} FO punos,, suljuPYyoUs sy, ‘SOlind dAIsuddxa o1e
BIS JY} WOIF SSUIY} [[e ‘Joqry, Ul vas OU SI ataq} BdUIG

b

LSINM LHOM YH
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IS V DONIYVAM NVNOM NVA V

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NVI YOOd FO SMATA MOVE GNV LNOW

‘mMoq dvap & oyYVUI puke Jey J1oYy} JO oyey
osje AsyT, ‘spuey Y}Oq Fo squmy} sy} JO suo JO quINy} oY} Jno suTy
jsOD d}BJOpOUW JO astonDdin} pue [e10d YIM pued pest] & S1VIM IY -jnd pue sonsuo} slay} Surmoys Aq JOolodns aay} ones suvjoqyy,

THIO NVI, AYVNIGYO ONILOIVS NVIAELL V

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983

Dh EMIS. F a

FOUR MASONS

In Tibet the work of carpenters and masons is done by women. Women transact also
a large part of the business and perform much toil and drudgery of various kinds. ‘Two-
thirds of the Tibetan men are Lamas. As a rule the men are immoral and very lazy.

ates!
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THE ABBOT OF THE TEMPLE OF THE GOD OF MEDICINE, WITH THREE MEDICAL PUPILS

984

MEDICAL HILL

gOS, YAK, THE CHARACTERISTIC ANIMAL
OF TIBET

As I have already said, the principal
animals of Tibet are the yak and the
horse. Of the two, the yak is by far the
more useful and also much more common.
The yak in many respects resembles the
American buffalo, except that it is smaller.

Tibet is the only country that produces
this peculiar animal, for it must live in
a region at least 9,000 feet above the sea-
level, and the average height of Tibet is
from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea.

To the Tibetans the yak is absolutely
indispensable. Nearly every part of the
animal is utilized. They eat its meat,
drink its milk, use its butter, and wear
its skin. Ropes and cloth are made of
yak’s hair, and dusters are fashioned
from-= its’ tail. Strange to.-say, many
houses in the northeast and southwest
parts of Lhasa are built with yak horns
(see page 988). Boats are also con-
structed with yak hide (see page 989).
Owing to the lack of coal and the fact
that wood is so scarce, the Tibetans use
dry yak dung for fuel. The walls of
some houses are also built of this ma-
terial.

PRAYER WHEELS

As to all Christians, prayer is to the
Tibetans also the most vital factor of

985

their religious life. Fearing that the
tongue and the mind may fail to offer
sufficient prayer, additional praying is
done by means of a prayer wheel.

A prayer wheel consists of a hollowed
box, or cylinder, within which is a roll
of prayers, with an axis running through
the center, revolved by the centrifugal
force: Attached to the outside is a short
string or chain with a small weight at the
end. ‘he wheel is made to revolve by
the centrifugal force of the weight,
caused by a twirling motion of the
hand. ‘Thus the roll of prayer is turned
within while the wheel revolves, and the
prayer is done. Meanwhile the holder
of the wheel also makes oral and silent
prayers.

Tibetans believe that emancipation from
sin can be obtained by walking over the
road which surrounds the city several
times a day and praying in the above
manner.

Another way of offering prayer is by
arranging prayer wheels in such a way
that they will be turned by the wind
(see page 993). There is still a third
way, in which the prayer wheel is turned
by the water of a stream. Prayer pen-
nants are seen everywhere throughout
the country. Some say that these ridicu-
lous ways of praying originated from the
extraordinary laziness of the Tibetans.

986

MEDICAL HILL, SHOWING THE “TEN THOUSAND” COLORED IMAGES CARVED IN THE SLOPE OF THE HILL

TIBETAN WRITING

Tibetans have two ways of writ-
ing characters. One is with pen
and ink, the other with a style,
chalk powder, and blackboard. In
the pictures is shown a ‘Tibetan
holding a stub-shaped bamboo pen
in his right hand (see page 991).
The inkstand is set in the box fur-
ther to the right. He writes hori-
zontally from left to right, like
Europeans.

The other picture (page 991)
depicts the second method. ‘The
writer holds in his left hand a
blackboard covered with chalk
powder. In his right hand is a
small style, with which he scratches
the characters on the blackboard.
These characters are formed by
the exposed black background.
This process of writing is most
interesting and unique, being just
the opposite of the ordinary chalk-
and-blackboard system,

BURIAL CUSTOMS OF TIBET

Most astounding and _ supersti-
tious perhaps of all the customs
in Tibet are the different ways of
burial which prevail. Lamas of
the higher order are generally cre-
mated by fire. Some of the dead
bodies of the ordinary people are
placed on the top of high moun-
tains, where they become the prey
of crows, hawks, and vultures.

The common people generally
dispose of the bodies of deceased
persons by cutting the flesh into
small pieces and pounding the
bones into paste, mixing these with
barley flour. With this compound
they feed the dogs. These dogs
have been trained so thoroughly
that when the funeral ceremony
takes place they all form in line
and stand patiently, like people
buying .tickets at a railway sta-
tion, awaiting their turn for the
feast.

Dogs abound in Tibet. Since
the Tibetans believe that men are
transformed into dogs after death,
the people worship dogs as gods.
Dogs, therefore, are regarded as

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INSCRIPTIONS ON THE MEDICAL HILL

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YAK SADDLED, READY FOR TRANSPORT OF GOODS

COURT WALL -BUILT OF YAK HORNS

088

YAK-HIDE BOAT ON THE RIVER BANK LOADED WITH WOOL,

The boat is built of willow branches covered with yak-hide. Its lightness makes it easy
to navigate. But it is so frail that a blow from one’s heel may make a hole in the boat.
Persons are often drowned in this way.

YAK-HIDE COATS CARRYING PASSENGERS ACROSS THE RIVER (SEE TEXT, PAGE 985)

989

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992

STONE SQUARE WHERE BODIES OF THE DEAD ARE CUT TO PIECES AND FED TO DOGS

Thousands of human bodies have been dismembered here (see text, page 9%6)

993

A TIBETAN MASTIFF

This red-eyed, lion-like

animal is very wild and hard to tame.

The dog has to be bought

together with the keeper, since no other person dares to feed and deal with it

public property in Tibet and eat and sleep
where they please.

Another mode of disposing of the dead
is by throwing the corpse into the sacred
river. .The. most extraordinary. thing
about this custom is that after the body
has been thrown into the river it is taken -

out by some one else, who waits farther
down the stream. ‘The dead body is then
cut to pieces; the thigh bones are used
to make trumpets and eating bowls (see
page 992) and drums are made of the
skull. The beads. of rosaries are also
made of human bones. -

004

cmp OO

BUDDHA AND “DEVIL ATTENDANTS” WATCHING AND DIVERTED BY THE “DEVIL'S
DANCE”

DEVILS MASQUERADE IN TIBET

Tibetans celebrate the New Year and other festivals by wearing masks of various kinds

995

CHINA’S TREASURES

By FREDERICK McCormick

Author of “Present Conditions in China,” in the NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

AINT echoes of China’s inscribed,

sculptured, and wrought memorial

wealth have reached the world
through travelers’ tales and erudite re-
searches by sinologues. Hitherto the
image in the popular mind of the monu-
ments of China had for its center some
poetical structure like the “stately pleas-
ure dome” of Kublai Khan imagined by
Coleridge in his poem “‘Cambaluc”’:

“In Xanadu did Kubla Khan

A stately pleasure dome decree;
Where Alph, the sacred river, ran
Through caverns measureless to man
Down to a sunless sea.

“So twice five miles of fertile ground
With walls and towers were girded round;
And there were gardens bright with sinuous
rills,
Where blossomed many an _ incense-bearing
thee;
And here were forests ancient as the hills,
Enfolding sunny spots of greenery.”

Coleridge could not have selected a
phrase more apt than “stately pleasure
dome” had he intended to call attention
to the best-known form in Chinese archi-
tecture and among China’s monuments.
Like so much of the wrought beauty of
China, such as is still seen in parks and
gardens, pagodas are the work of the
Buddhist church almost exclusively. Per-
haps none of them are older than goo
years and most of them were built by the
Ming dynasty, 1368-1644 A. D.

The most beautiful specimens are in
the Yangtse Valley, where pagodas are
most numerous. Every important Chi-
nese and Manchurian city is garlanded
with them. From the walls of Peking
a dozen pagodas and towers may be
counted within the city, and with a good
glass half a dozen famous ones may be
seen rising from the surrounding plain.

Materials of sacred import are incor-
porated in these structures. In the west-
ern park, adjoining the Forbidden City,
is a famous white pagoda, part of the

stones of which were brought from a
mountain in Honan province by the Kin
Tartars.

Another white pagoda, which stood in
the western hills, 12 miles from Peking,
was constructed of stamped bricks, many
of which had this inscription: “The
Buddhist doctrine comes from the Cause.
I say there is a Cause. The Cause van-
ishes. I do according to this saying.”
The last sentence has been interpreted by
a Chinese scholar as meaning: ‘“‘When the
Cause is vanished, still | make this decla-
ration.”

As Buddhism is 1n a state of arrested
development, nearly all pagodas are laps-
ing into ruin. At the same time the ruin
of the pagodas has been singularly as-
sisted in China by European armies in
1844, 1860, 1900, and 1904.

March 9, 1905, the Russian army south
of Mukden blew up a small pagoda in
its retreat in order that it would not be
a landmark to the Japanese artillery. The
debris was used by the Japanese to mend
roads. The white pagoda in the western
hills, just mentioned, was destroyed Sep-
tember, 1900, by troops of the allied
powers. It was a beautiful pagoda and
its loss was lamented more by foreigners,
perhaps, than by Chinese. Vandalism in
China has not been confined to any race
or civilization. ‘The revolutionist soldier
of I911 used an ancient tower on the
lower Yangtse as an artillery target.

Pagodas range in height from 20 to
more than 200 feet, and are of various
shapes—round, square, hexagonal, octag-
onal, etc. They always have an odd num-
ber of stories, ranging usually from seven
to nine, and sometimes possessing 11 and
even 13. The famous porcelain pagoda
at Nanking, which, according to Long-
fellow, was a “blaze of colors,’ and
which was destroyed in 1844 by foreign
troops, was 261 feet high. So far as I
know, there is only one other pagoda in
the Chinese Empire of this height. The

996

Photo and Copyright by Underwood & Underwood

HINA

;

FUL PAGODA AT SOOCHOW,

UTI

A

A VERY BE

s pagodas beckon the beholder to shrines or

by
temples

China

’

Like the church spires of western lands

997

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L,. Freer
THE FAMOUS “IRON” PAGODA AT KAI-FENG

This pagoda is built largely of glazed tile or porcelain. There are probably 2,000 pagodas
in China. They always have an odd number of stories, usually ranging from seven to nine.
This is one of the tallest in the late Empire and the new “Republic.”

908

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L,. Freer

A DETAIL OF THE “IRON” PAGODA AT KAI-FENG, SHOWING SOME OF THE PORCELAIN
TILES OF WHICH IT IS LARGELY CONSTRUCTED

999

1000 THE NATIONAL

height of the Pai T’a, or White Pagoda,
at Fuchau, is also given as 261 feet.

Pagodas built of tiles, after the manner
of the porcelain pagoda, are quite rare in
China now. An example of a small but
very beautiful one is in the Summer Pal-
ace near Peking. Another worth noting,
though not entirely of glazed tile or
porcelain, is that at Kai-feng, called the
Iron Pagoda (see page 999).

The number of pagodas in China has
never been ascertained, and perhaps the
only estimate ever made is that by the
distinguished American sinologue, S.
Wells Williams, who placed the number
at “nearly 2,000” for the Empire. Like
the church spires of western lands,
China’s pagodas beckon the beholder to
shrines or temples frequently associated
with them. But there have been other
reasons for the building of these graceful
objects.

The Chinese have appropriated the
pagoda as a counterpoise to evil and used
it subject to their rules of geomancy.
They adopted it in the expansion of their
ideas of “Fung-shui’ (Good and evil
influences ).

At the city of Tung, in the Peking
plain, a region in past years visited by
earthquakes, there is a prominent pagoda
which at one time had more than 1,000
bronze bells suspended from its cornices,
most of which are still in place. The
people have this story as to its construc-
tion: A water owl lives underground at
this place and when he shakes his tail it
causes earthquakes. Geomancers located
the end of his tail, and the pagoda was
built on it to hold it down. At the same
time this did not prevent the water owl
from winking his eyes; but, as his eye-
lids have not been accurately located, a
second pagoda has not yet been built.
As a result, tremblings of the earth still
occur.

To Chinese their pagodas begin to ap-
pear as landmarks of a stage of civiliza-
tion to be discarded. On the eve of the
rebellion of 1911 the Chinese press at
Shanghai for the most part was adverse
to the continued use of the Lunghwa
pagoda, six miles away and one of the
best-known in China, with its buildings,
for the purposes of superstitious wor-
ship. Under the republic the disposition
appears to be to convert the temples into

GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

modern schools, in which case the pa-
godas will become monuments to the age
of geomancy and to the period of the
revival of Buddhism.

Nothing can interfere with their grace
and beauty. Denizened by birds and
often dotted with vegetation, they are the
pride and inspiration of the townspeople.
They stand for generations like sentinels,
often long after the temples to which
they have belonged have disappeared.
Pagodas are one of the noble gifts which
Buddhism has conferred on China.

MEMORIAL ARCHES TO WOMEN

There is but one architectural object
to be found in China that may be said
to compete in grace, beauty, and numbers
with the pagoda. ‘This is the p’ai-lou, or
commemorative arch. There are usually
three arches, the central one’ being the
largest. The most splendid of all the
p’ai-lous, perhaps, is the one of five arches
in front of the Ming tombs near Peking
(see page 1006) ; but the most famous 1s
said to be the one of colored tiles at the
Hall of the Classics at Peking. It is not
usually known that there 1s a duplicate
of this p’ai-lou in the western park ad-
joining the Forbidden City.

The p’ai-lous have been almost ex-
clusively erected in honor of deities,
worthy men, and virtuous women. None
are more impressive than those erected,
at great cost, to faithful virgins, or to
devoted wives, symbolized in Chinese
legend and art by the fabled phcenix,
that having once selected her mate never
changes (see page 1002).

Such memorials, which are many in
China, represent a national expression of
that regard for women which the Indian
king manifested in the building of the
Taj Mahal in memory of his wife—called
the most splendid tomb ever built to
woman.

Among China’s most durable monu-
ments are her bridges, the greatest dis-
play of which is perhaps along the Grand
Canal. A spectator has described their
various forms as “hump-back, horse-
shoe, spectacle, camel-back, and needle-
eye”

The openings are often very narrow,
but very high, sometimes on a narrow
canal rising 50 feet from the water. The
ornamentation of bridges in China is

characteristically original.
Balustrades have — sculp-
tured tigers, dogs, monk-
eys, and other apocryphal
animals, and the = ap-
proaches and arches are
ornamented with guardian
lions and dragon-head gar-
goyles.

The ‘‘camel-back” bridge,
which abounds from one
end of China to the other,
is not less graceful nor
less beautiful than the pa-
goda or p’ai-lou. Like the
pagoda, it is one of the
frequent objects that, as
a background in Chinese
scenes, served the occi-
dental artist and engraver
in conveying to the peo-
ples of western countries
the first impressions of
China. It is the “pole
vault” in bridges, spring-
ing from the banks of
narrow canals and giving
wide berth to the masts of
canal vessels.

China has bridges and
remains of bridges with
an antiquity of 2,000 years
and more. Bridges still
in use saw their construc-
tion contemporaneous with
the oldest architectural re-
mains in China. The so-
called Marco Polo bridge,
12 miles from Peking, is
perhaps the best-known to
travelers. It has 11 arches
and was built in the elev-
enth century of our era.

In connection with the
bridges ought to be men-
tioned, among China’s
monuments, the Grand
Canal (see article on Ca-
nals of China, pages 931-
O58, inthis ~ number),
which shares with but one
other great construction in China the dis-
tinction of being the best-known monu-
mental work of the Chinese. It was as
magnificent a scheme in its time as is the
Suez Canal, or the Panama Canal today.
It had its origin in the merging of minor

Note the trees and shrubs growing on the pagoda.
nese the pagodas begin to appear as landmarks of a stage of
civilization to be discarded.

Photo “hg W. Bereevay ae

A TYPICAL PAGODA AT WU-HU IN ANHUI

To Chi-

canals, and even today is still a grand
trunk line, affording inland communica-
tion with almost the whole water system
of China.

What the Grand Canal means in the
life of the people and what it meant in

IOOI

Photo by A. T. Granger

ROW OF ARCHES (P’AI-LOUS) ERECTED TO THE MEMORY OF WIDOWS WHO REFUSED
TO MARRY A SECOND TIME! NOTE THE PHGNIX (SEE PAGE 1000)

the past, like some of China’s most an-
cient bridges, may be seen and realized
today. In this her canals and bridges
are unlike forgotten cities and capitals
once their contemporaries, and unlike
China’s centers of art and learning, only
fragments of whose buildings remain.
The wonder inspired in the breast of
the traveler who visits China’s vast re-
mains of abandoned capitals, extensive
temples ranged in successive courts and
on terraces of the mountains, its pagodas,
pai-lous, bridges, and canals, is equaled
by the awe inspired by the silence and
splendor of the tombs of China’s em-
perors. The tombs of the kings of the

“Six Kingdoms” in Shantung, though
now only earthern pyramids terraced
with little fields, have the air of the Pyra-
mids of Egypt.

The Ming tombs, near Peking, are the
most famed in our day, perhaps, because
they are relatively in a good state of
preservation and are accessible to trav-
elers. They are approached through the-
five-arched stone p’ai-lou already men-
tioned (see page 1006) and by an avenue
of stone animals nearly 2 miles in length
(see pages 1007-1011). The sacred
buildings are placed on the southern
slope of the mountains and nearly in-
closed by their encircling spurs.

1002

eC

eee

hey

Wilson, Arnold Arboretum

Photo by E. H
LOU ) OF OLD GRAY SANDSTONE, ERECTED IN HONOR OF A

VIRTUOUS WIDOW

Al

A MEMORIAL ARCH (P’

WESTERN CHINA

In every part of China these commemorative ar

great

gend and art by

They are erected at
f=)

symbolized in Chinese le

ches abound.

ives,

devoted w

bute to faithful virgins or
that, having once selected her mate, never changes.

the fabled phcenix

in tri

cost

1003

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1004

mG Za

Photo by EK. H. Wilson, Arnold Arboretum

A CHARACTERISTIC CHINESE BRIDGE, WITH CYPRESS, BAMBOO, AND PISTACIA
CHINENSIS

Among China’s most durable monuments are her bridges, the greatest display of which
is perhaps along the Grand Canal. A spectator has described their various forms as “hump-
back, horse-shoe, spectacle, camel-back, and needle-eye.” Like the pagoda, it is one of the
frequent objects that, as a background in Chinese scenes, served the occidental artist and
engraver in conveying to the peoples of western countries the first impressions of China.
China has bridges and remains of bridges with an antiquity of 2,000 years and more (see
pages IGOO-I00T). ;

1005

THE FIVE-ARCHED P’AI-LOU AT THE ENTRANCE TO THE “HOLY WAY,” IN THE VALLEY
OF THE MING TOMBS (SEE TEXT, PAGE 1000)

“There is no other similar heirloom of architecture in China that can equal it in work-
manship or design. The carving on its towering facade and the base of each of its six
columns and springers, each representing a solid marble slab 10 to 25 feet long, are truly
regal, and only surpassed by the celebrated ‘Altar of Heaven’ at Peking.’—Photo and note
by Arthur J. Lowell.

Photo by S. S. Howland
PILLARS ALONG THE HOLY WAY: THE MING TOMBS

The avenue of marble animals can be seen in the central background

1006

Photo by S. S. Howland

STANDING CAMEL AND ELEPHANTS: THE MING TOMBS

“The animals that stand sentry on either side of the Holy Way, as you pass from the
great five-arched p’ai-lou to the tombs beyond, are left to subsist upon desert dust and a
barren despoliation, where once grew trees of a dozen varieties and all the greenery of the
Flowery Kingdom. These animals are the delight of every tourist that has ever visited
Peking, but if another generation of tourists are permitted to admire them, with no restraint
upon their privileges, they are doomed.”—First two photos and note by Arthur J. Lowell.

1007

SHNOL DNIW AHL ?‘IVWINV SNOTAGVA GNV ‘SNOIT “TH WVO ONT TAINS
purlMoTF *S °S pure pjeyssioyjey [eatoioag Aq sojoyg

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1008

ees

Photos by Arthur J. Lowell and S. S. Howland

THE MING TOMBS

STANDING HORSE, STANDING LION, KNEELING HORSE

1009

Photo by S. S. Howland

AN ANCIENT SOLDIER: THE MING TOMBS

The place has an inspiration to all

travelers. In front of the tomb of Yung

Lo there is a sacrificial hall that is one
of the largest buildings in China, and is
perhaps only exceeded in dimensions by

the T’ai Miao, or ancestral temple of the
Manchus, attached to the Forbidden City,
Peking.

The Mings were great tomb-builders.
They revised the ancient law fixing the

IOIo

Photos by Percival Tattersfield

ANCIENT SAGE

ANCIENT SOLDIER

Two prominent figures in the avenue of marble animals leading to the Ming Tombs

height of graves for all classes. By its
provisions graves may range in height
from 4 feet for the common people to
16 feet tor: officials of the first rank.
This was a reduction in height of graves
from previous times. The Mings thought
the matter very important, and this can
be readily understood from the fact that
in China the dead have from the re-
motest times received at least imperial
consideration on an equality with the
living.

China is a country of practical immor-
tality, where, in a sense, men never die
and tombs are the habitations of the
living. What their tombs have meant
to the Chinese can best be comprehended
when it is remembered that this is the
people of ancestral worship, where the
desecration of a tomb is the most ter-
rible and heinous of all offenses.

In the matter of tomb-building, the
Emperor of the “Three Kingdoms,” 220-
265 A. D., greatly exceeded the Mings.
He ordered his son to build for him 72
tombs, so that his enemies would not know
which contained his tablet. The achieve-

é

ment may be noted of another ancient
emperor who constructed his tomb and
then built, peopled, and garrisoned a city
neat by for its protection. Perhaps the
Chinese, who have performed the great-
est of engineering feats, have surpassed
the Egyptians, Persians, and Greeks in
this direction also.

Older than these, and what may be
called the one shrine in all China green
with the devotion of the people, is the
tomb of Confucius in Shantung. Here
worship continues through the ages, under
the patronage of all dynasties, since the
fifth century A. D., when the Emperor
Kao Ti set the example of imperial sac-
tince. there:

As time went on the different dynasties
neglected the tombs of their predecessors,
so that now the tombs of the Manchus
are the best specimens of mausolea in
China.

The Manchus followed the Chinese
custom and law in respect to their an-
cestors. Solemn juniper forests inclose
their sepulchers, which are approached
through magnificent p’ai-lous and are

IOII

a Sacer nets ae —_ — <8

1012

Photo by Arthur J. Lowell

NANKING: ONLY TWO OF THE MING EMPERORS ARE BURIED HERE, WHILE THIRTEEN ARE BURIED IN THE VALLEY OF THE MING TOMBS

NORTH OF PEKING (SEE PAGES 1006-1011)

preceded by stately build-
ings. ‘There are no less
than five imperial Man-
chu burial places. ‘The
original is at Hsin-king,
eastern Manchuria, and
is called the Yung Ling.
Two are at Mukden and
two in the region of
Peking.

THE FOREST OF TABLETS

The most widely dis-
tributed and most numer-
ous of all montiments in
China is the tablet called
by the Chinese “Pei.”
Architecturally insignifi-
cant, it is yet to the his-
torian the most valuable
and to the aritiquarian
the most satisfactory of
all. It is the kernel with-
in the nut of Chinese
archeology, commemo-
rating every kind of deed,
doing honor to deity, ful-
filling the offices of the
library, preserving his-
tory, and directing the
way farer.

The usual form and
structure of the tablet is
that of a single slab of
stone, with its crest of
the heads and curved
backs of four dragons
and mounted on the back
of a tortoise carved from
a separate stone (see
page 1014). Three hun-
dred of these stone tab-
lets in the Hall of Class-
ics at Peking preserve
the authorized texts of
the Chinese classics.

To Christendom the
most interesting and fa-
mous of the tablets of
China is the Nestorian
at Hsi-ngan. It gives in
2,000 Chinese characters,
only one of which is il-
legible, a record of the
earliest known Christian
mission in China, and is
dated A. D. 781. It has

‘(€zor ‘d) uew Aq pdastAdp JaAd dANJoNA}s d[Suls apqe
-pIWIO} pue DAISUD}XO JSOU JY} JeF AG SI 4Y “JULI & S rye
0} sorusAd se oie ‘plIOM oY} FO Jo}eUL }eY} IOF pure (Zool fod
aus) SAVA'I S'IVNWINV JO ANNAAV AHL

‘euly) JO S}UsUINUOU Jay}O [Te [TBM Feat) 9Y} OF,
ee os Sel HOIHM OL “HO'T-ONNA YOWIdWA AH AO ANOL
VNIHO JO ‘TIVM CIO AHL JO SSHULLOd V
pur[MoT] *S *S Aq OJOY [peMmo’y ‘f anyity Aq ojoyg

1013

Photo by E. H. Wilson, Arnold Arboretum
TURTLE STONE, 35 FEET HIGH, A FINE EXAMPLE OF THE MOST NUMEROUS OF ALL
MONUMENTS IN CHINA, THE “‘PEI”

These tablets greet the traveler at every yamen, temple, mountain pass, by the roadside
and tomb, etc. (see page 1012).

Architecturally insignificant, it is yet to the historian the most valuable and to the
antiquarian the most satisfactory of all China’s monuments. It is the kernel within the nut
of Chinese archeology, commemorating every kind of deed, doing honor to deity, fulfilling
the offices of the library, preserving history, and directing the wayfarer. The usual form and
structure of the tablet is that of a single slab of stone, with its crest of the heads and curved
backs of a tortoise carved from a separate stone.

1014

CHIEN MEN; THIS IS THE PRINCIPAL

THE ENTRANCE

been carefully treasured by Christian
missionaries since the Christian church
became aware of its existence through
the Roman Catholic fathers, 1625 A. D.

Several years ago the governor of the
province of Shensi, where it was found,
placed it in the Pei-lin (Forest of Tab-
lets), at Hsi-ngan, for protection against
vandals. ‘The Pei-lin is a collection of
more than 1,400 historical records in
stone, both pictorial and otherwise, run-
ning back 12 centuries, and the greatest
collection in the country. Not less curi-
ous than the Nestorian tablet are the two
tablets at Kai-feng, province of Honan,
commemorating an ancient and now ex-
tinct Jewish colony at that place.

Tablets -greet the traveler at every
yamen (official residence), temple, bridge,
mountain pass, by the roadside and
tomb, and in the faces of walls where
they are incorporated. In eastern China
pavilions are built over them, while in
the west of China they are framed 1
bricklike doors and are called ‘tao pei,”
or road tablets.

A curious tablet exists at Nanking to
commemorate the visit there of the Em-

GATE

Photo by S. S. Howland
GATES OF PEKING; IT IS
TO THE FORBIDDEN CITY

OF THE NINE

peror Kang Hsi and reproving the in-
habitants for their extravagance and prod-
igality.

In Manchuria, near the Yellow River,
is a tablet more than 18 feet high that
is interesting, at this time of Japanese
expansion on the continent, because of
the fact that it mentions the Japanese by
a nickname.

Another of interest is used to cover a
well under the famous Golden Hill at
Port Arthur. It records the fact that a
Chinese envoy passed that point during
the Middle Ages on a mission to the
court of one of the Manchurian kings
of the period.

Perhaps the latest tablets to be erected
in connection with the imperial court
are those in commemoration of incidents
in the flight of the late Empress Grand
Dowager and the Emperor Kuang Hsu
to Hsian-fu in 1900. At Chu-yun-kuan,
in the Nankou Pass, through which the
court passed in its flight, the traveler is
struck by a tablet over the gateway read-
ing, “First Gate of the World’—this be-
ing the chief entrance to China from
Tartary. But within the entrance of the

IOIS

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1016

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1017

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1018

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1019

1020

pedestal of what was once a great pagoda
here there are tablets bearing inscriptions
in seven languages, some of the latter
long since dead.

The historical value of the inscriptions
in China has hardly begun to be realized.
At Hangchau, -one of the two cities
which, according to a Chinese proverb,
reconciles the soul to this world until
Heaven is reached, there was, until recent
years, an invaluable iron plate of the tenth
century with an inscription recording the
building of the wall of the city by the
feudal Prince Chien, whose descendants
still reside there.

3ut of all stone monuments in China
valuable for the antiquity of their in-
scriptions, the stone “drums” in the Con-
fucian temple at Peking are the most re-
marked. They are supposed to record
the hunting exploits of King Hsuan, B.
C. 827, making them more than 2,700
years old. The translations of their in-
scriptions are generally made from rub-
bings taken in “the Sung dynasty—A. D.
960-.1127—because the inscriptions are
almost wholly illegible now, and only
here and there can a character be traced.

THE FAMOUS ROCK TEMPLES

Just as universal as her temples, p’ai-
lous, and buildings with imperial signifi-
cance, and almost as universal as her
tombs and tablets, are China’s figure-
sculptures. The Buddhist church, which
has been the builder of most of the tem-
ples and pagodas, the maker of gardens,
and the protector of flowers, trees, birds,
and animals, has been the promoter of
art and the inspiration of the most of
China’s sculptures.

Singularly enough, the most notable
sculptures in China are in the rock walls
of mountains and in caves. Rockhill, the
American orientalist, describes one of
these, a Buddhist colossus near Kwei-
Kwa-cheng, northwest of Peking, and
another near the city of Ning, in Kansu.

The largest and most notable colossus
of Buddha in China known to occidentals
is that described by S. Wells Williams.
It is in Shensi, near the town of Pin,
and is said to have been cut by an em-
peror of the Tang dynasty in the ninth
century. It is hewn from sandstone so

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

as to. leave it in a cave. It1s sO "tees
high and covered with color and gilt.
According to Williams, it “is lighted
from above, after the manner of the
Pantheon, a single round opening in the
vaulting. Sixty feet over the rock tem-
ple rises a tiled roofing, and upon the
hillside without the cavern are a number
of minor temples and statues”.

But no doubt the most wonderful of
Buddhist sculptures, and indeed of all
known sculptures in China, are the rock-
hewn temples of Lung Men in the prov-
ince of Honan, 10 miles south of the
city of Honan—a railway terminus. Its
name means “dragon door”. It is a chan-
nel for a river cut through a limestone
mountain—an artificial defile which tra-
dition says was cut by the Emperor Yu
with the aid of a dragon.

Here,in the seventh century, in the sides
of the cloven range, wrought the sculp-
tors, who, like ine Greek masters of the
chisel, remain unknown. Here the Chi-
nese artists turned the precipitous cliffs
into hundreds of quarried temples and
sculptured recesses, peopled with relig-
ious figures in relief or detached. :

There are thousands of figures among
these sculptures, varying in height from
a few inches to 50 or 60 feet. They
show Indian influence and represent all
the members of the Buddhist pantheon.
A group which occurs with great fre-
quency is that of Buddha attended by his
two favorite disciples, Ananda and [kash-
iapa, and- two Bobhisattwas. The De-
varajas, Guardians of the Gates, are ren-
dered with great power.

The only sculptures at this place not
of Buddhist character are several bas-
reliefs, which, in the opinion of the
French orientalist, Prof. Chavannes, are
representations of donors who have con-
tributed to the extensions of this great
decorative work. ‘These afford an inter-
esting study of costumes in China in the
seventh century of our era.

The only other sculptures in China on
a scale with the Buddhist images are the
stone figures of men, elephants, camels,
horses, and unicorns, notably at the tombs
of the Mings and the Chings near Peking
and Mukden. Those at Nanking are also

_well known (see pages 1006-1011).

Segoe

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L,. Freer
' THE GREAT BUDDHA, OVER 50 FEET HIGH, IN THE CHU CHIAN FUNG TEMPLE: LUNG-
MEN (SEE ALSO PRECEDING PICTURE )

There are thousands of figures among these sculptures, varying in height from a few
inches to 50 or 60 feet. They show Indian influence and represent all the members of the
Buddhist pantheon.

1021

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L,. Freer

THE GUARDIAN TO THE TEMPLE OF NAN TUNG: LUNG-MEN

CHINA’S TREASURES

THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA

To the Great Wall all other monu-
ments of China, and for that matter of
the world, are as pygmies to a giant. It
is by far the most extensive and formid-
able single structure ever devised by man.
Built in the third century, it has never yet
been surveyed, but is believed to have a
continuous extent of 1,500 miles, to which
must be added the extent of branch walls.

After 16 centuries it remains intact for
hundreds of miles, a brick or dressed
granite shell filled with earth and cov-
ered with an impervious paving of brick
laid in lime, carefully drained. It is pro-
tected by crenellated parapet and fortress
towers.

It seems to lie upon the mountains,
spurs, and ridges like a great serpent.
The wonder inspired in the breast of the
traveler who visits China’s other monu-
ments, such as the vast and abandoned
capitals, is that of a dead past. - But he
who stands upon the Great Wall, lifted
to some airy peak, and there rocked by
its sinuous undulation, sees the China of
the third century living.

The Great Wall was built by the Em-
peror Shih to protect the peaceful inhab-
itants of the plains from the hill barba-
rians of Tartary, serving a useful purpose
in defense, at intervals of time, for ages
The innumerable tablets and inscriptions
which it bears, recording its construction
and repair, would form a curious and in-
structive history.

Watch-towers dating from the third
century still stand sentinel outside the
Great Wall, while unnumbered hundreds
of lessér antiquity stand guard on the im-
perial highways of all China. A chain
of them extends from Mukden via Pe-
king to Hsi-ngan, and thence to a point
beyond the western end of the Great
Wall.

Here is a story giving a glimpse of the
place these picturesque objects have
played in the lives of the Chinese: Nearly
2,700 years ago (781 B. C.) the Emperor
Yu commanded that the beacons on all
the watch-towers in the Empire be lighted,
so that by the chagrin of the princes in
rushing to the defense of the capital when
there was no danger he might cause a
smile to come over the face of one of

1023

his haughty beauties, Pao Ssu. Pao Ssu
laughed.

However, one of the onlookers of this
comedy was the Emperor’s enemy, the
hostile Duke of Hsin.. Hsin regarded it
as a favorable time to invade the king-
dom of Yu and did so. The Emperor
again ordered the beacons lighted, but
the princes refused to respond. The
capital fell, the Emperor was slain, and
Pao Ssu was carried into captivity, where
she strangled herself.

THE BURIED WEALTH OF CHINA IS BEYOND
CALCULATION

One can only guess what may be the
buried monumental wealth of China, a
land in which so far no excavations for
the purpose of discovery have yet been
made. There must be innumerable ob-
jects of great historic and archeological
value. For ages in central China, in
regions subject. to flood and to burial by
alluv ial deposits, antiquities have been
dug up, the latest discoveries occurring
where excavations have been made for
railways. These include sculptured fig-
ures showing ante-queue fashions. About
the middle of the last century 11 bells
2,000 years old were dug up in Kiangsi
province, and are said to be in the For-
bidden City.

When excavations were made in Pe-
king for the Foreign Office buildings large
hollow bricks were found 4 feet in length
by 20 inches in width and 5 inches in
thickness. They had a clear ringing tone
when struck and were known to Chinese
as “music-stand bricks”. They were said
to have originally come from the region
of the Yellow River and to have been used
as stands for musical instruments. But
they are ornamented with a geometrical
pattern and were probably used in friezes.

The extent of China’s archeological
relics is something that remains to be
determined. From what the traveler can
see, and the student as well, they appear
to be immense, in keeping with the dimen-
sions of her history.

There is probably nothing monumental
in China that 1s older than the remains
of her cities (unless it be her tombs) and
nothing of more absorbing interest than
the remains of her ancient capitals.

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1024

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L,. kreer

A CHARACTERISTIC CARVED GROUP: CHU CHIAN FUNG, LUNG-MEN

1025

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1027

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DETAIL OF CARVING ON THE WALL: PING YUNG TUNG, LUNG-MEN

The only sculptures at this place not of Buddhist character are several bas-reliefs, which,
in the opinion of the French orientalist, Professor Chavannes, are representations of donors
who have contributed to the extensions of this great decorative work. These afford an
interesting study of costumes in China in the seventh century of our era. Sees

1028

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1030

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Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L. Freer
THE ENTRANCE TO WAN-FOR-TUNG, SHOWING THE SAME FIGURES AS IN THE
PRECEDING PICTURE, AND THE DECORATIONS ON THE SIDE WALL, OF
ENTRANCE (SEE PAGES 1030, 1032, AND 1033)

1031

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1032

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INSIDE OF WAN-FOR-TUNG TEMPLE .
ote the thousands of figures of Buddha carved in the wall (see pages 1030, 1031, and 1033)

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1033

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L,. Freer
THE INTERIOR OF A TEMPLE, TYPICAL OF THE MANY HUNDREDS OF SACRED RECESSES
CARVED IN THE ROCK CLIFFS OF THE RIVER AT LUNG-MEN

1034

CHINA'S TREASURES 1035

Vast and solemn ruins of the capitals
of known and unknown kingdoms are to
be seen throughout all China. Shangtu,
the “Cambaluc” of Coleridge, has been
located west of the important Mongol
market at Dolonnor. Here the remains of
the walls of Kublai Khan’s summer capi-
tal may still be seen. Inscriptions have
been found here, and it is possible that
the future antiquary, studying the spot
with scientific scrutiny, may make dis-
coveries of value.

Marco Polo, the most distinguished
traveler among Europeans to visit China,
gave to the world what is still the
only existing record of the wonders of
Shangtu, of which Coleridge dreamed
and wrote striking’ words not hitherto
regarded ~as fact. It has been stated
that Coleridge knew nothing of Shangtu,
and that he derived the images of his
poem from a dream, the figment of which
he coined into golden measures when he
had risen from his couch.

Only Shangtu and Kara Korum, of the
Mongols, have been described for us by
our own travelers. Perhaps a composite
of the foreign accounts of these two
places,, with what we see of Peking,
Nanking, and Hsi-ngan that still exist,
together with the fragmentary accounts
from Chinese history and literature, will
afford approximate pictures of what must
have been the aspect and substance of
those wonderful places—Yang-hsia, Po,
‘Yin, Hao, Lo-yi, Hsien-yang, Chang-an,
and Lo-yang, or even of Hang-chau.

There is one feature of the capital that
has remained unchanged. From a time
whose identity is lost in past ages the
rulers of the Chinese people have pre-
served an imperial shrine to Shang Ti,
the God of Heaven now represented in
the Altar of Heaven at Peking, perhaps
the most beautiful and impressive shrine
the Chinese have ever built. It is one of
the most notable of China’s monuments
and perhaps the simplest altar to deity
existing, as it is one of the most impress-
ive man-made places in the world. The
altar is of white marble, circular, perhaps
200 feet in diameter, and constructed in
its details with reference to the plan of
the universe. It stands amid ancient and

solemn junipers, which, according to the
Chinese, are the most stately and digni-
fied objects of the vegetable kingdom.

We cannot claim to know much about
China’s monuments until a more careful
examination has been made of the writ-
ings of China’s antiquaries.

No doubt an investigation more thor-
ough than has been made by Chinese in
recent generations will result in con-
tributing one of the most brilliant chap-
ters to the records of the world’s antiqui-
ties: It 1s -assubject that: is one. of the
interests of man universal and of nations
in. their’ aspect..as clay -in’ the Hands of
the Universal Potter.

Pumpelly, the veteran American ex-
plorer in China, has visited ‘Turkestan: in
the interest of archeology. Rockhill,
Huntington, Laufer, and others have
contributed to American research into
China’s antiquities. But if for no other
reason, the monuments of China must
always have a special interest for Ameri-
cans because of the beautiful Porcelain
Tower of Nanking, immortalized in
Longtellow’s, poem “Keramos’.. The
part pertaining to the pagoda, which 1s
no less beautiful than Coleridge’s ““Cam-
baluc,” may be extracted from its setting
as follows:

“Turn, turn my wheel, the human race,
Of every tongue, of every place,
Caucasian, Coptic, or Malay,

All that inhabit this great earth,
Whatever be their rank or worth,
Are kindred and allied by birth,

And made of the same clay.

“And yonder by Nankin, behold

The Tower of Porcelain, strange and old,
Uplifting to the astonished skies

Its ninefold painted balconies,

With balustrades of twining leaves,
And roofs of tile beneath whose eaves
Hang porcelain bells that all the time
Ring with a soft, melodious chime;
While the whole fabric is ablaze

With varied tints all fused in one
Great mass of colour lke a maze

Of flowers illumined by the sun.

“Turn, turn, my wheel. What is begun
At daybreak must at dark be done;
Tomorrow will be another day,
Tomorrow the hot furnace flame

Will search the heart and try the frame
And stamp with honour or with shame
These vessels made of clay.”

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L. Freer
THIS PICTURE AND THE NEXT THREE ILLUSTRATIONS SHOW THE INTERIOR OF THE
LOW-GOON-TUNG TEMPLE, ONE OF THE MOST EXTRAVAGANT IN
DECORATION YET DISCOVERED

All the figures in this temple, as in all the other temples, have been carved out of the rock

1036

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1037

Photo by direction of Mr. Charles L,. Freer
THE CENTRAL BUDDHA IN THE LOW-GOON-TUNG TEMPLE (SEE ALSO PAGES 1036,
1037, AND 1039)

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THE INTERIOR OF A VERY LAVISHLY DECORATED TEMPLE AT LUNG-MEN

All the figures, as well as the cave itself, have been carved out of the rock cliff

1040

VoL. XXIII, No. 11

WASHINGTON

NOVEMBER, 1912

MAGAZINIE,

GLIMPSES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

By WILLIAM WIsNER CHAPIN

AUTHOR OF “GLIMPSES OF KorEA AND CHINA,” WITH 39 PHOTOGRAPHS IN CorLor,
AND “GLIMPSES OF JAPAN,” WITH 34 PHOTOGRAPHS IN COLOR, IN
THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

With Photographs by the Author

HE trip from New York to San
; Francisco to the majority of peo-
ple is about as long a continuous
journey as they care to make, even when
surrounded by the luxurious appoint-
ments with which the trains of the great
trunk lines are equipped. It is therefore
quite natural that we should have antici-
pated with some apprehension the jour-
ney, trom Peking: to St. Petersburg, a
distance more than twice as great and
requiring 1144 days and nights to accom-
plish. Our reservations from Harbin,
Manchuria, were secured and a large
guarantee deposit made three months in
advance. Although applying thus early,
our entire party of five were unable to
get compartments in the same car, so
popular is this ‘Train de luxe,’”’ which is
the only through express each week.
The coaches are vestibuled, roomy, and
lighted by electricity, with the corridors
at one side. A lavatory is placed be-
tween and connected with each two com-
partments. The berths are clean, and
altogether the accommodations are very
comfortable. In the baggage cars were
two bath-rooms for use of all passengers,
and these last-mentioned conveniences
are probably the basis for the claim, as
advertised, that this is the most sump-

tuous train in the world. The gauge of
the track is 3% inches broader than that
of the trunk lines in America.

Trunk lines on our side of the world
could, with great advantage to passen-
gers, adopt the methods practiced by the
Transiberian Railway of starting and
stopping trains, which is entirely free
from all jarring or jerking sensation.

While 90 per cent of the patrons of
this road are English speaking, not one
among all of the railroad or custom offi-
cials in charge of the train understand
our language; so whatever they say has
to go, and arguing on our part is wasted
breath. Only 40 pounds of baggage is
allowed to each passenger, but the com-
partments are so roomy that several suit-
cases can easily be stowed away.

Railroad station sign-boards in Japan
and China bear the names of places both
in English and in the native language,
while those in Russia are only in the
Russian characters.

It is unnecessary to consult a map to
discover when we pass from Manchuria
into Siberia, since from the car window
the mud- walled compounds inclosing-
houses of the same material, capped with
thatched roofs and of the Chinese type,
give way to log houses, with now and.

1044

then a substantial frame structure hav-
ing elaborate window-frames and fancy
gables.

The people, too, are of large, sturdy
frames. ‘The long and neglected beards
of the men give them a fierce, coarse ap-
pearance, in sharp contrast with the
“childlike and bland” expression of their
clean-faced Chinese neighbors.

According to our calendar, we are in
the first week of July, and find our thin
clothing is very comfortable; but to look
at the peasants at the stations one would
conclude winter had set in early. The
men wear fur caps with ear protectors
to turn down and magenta and other
bright-colored calico blouses belted, with
baggy trousers tucked into great heavy
boots. The women are equally well pro-
tected by thick “non-hobble’’ skirts,
clumsy shoes, and heads closely wrapped
in kerchiefs or shawls.

Our train being a “limited,” stops are
made only at the more important places,
at some of which 20 minutes are allowed
passengers to stretch their legs.

We pace the platform, dodging the
vigilant guard while gathering in a few
shots with the kodak. At some of the
first stops the brave guards were very
annoying, almost to rudeness, threaten-
ing to appropriate the kodak if we at-
tempted to use it. Naturally the risk
only adds zest to our efforts, and but few
opportunities escape.

WE RETURN TO THE LAND OF BREAD AND
BUTTER

At the stations where stops are made
numbers of peasants are gathered, offer-
ing at very reasonable prices that staff
of life which is so much missed and
so greatly craved by travelers in. Japan
and China—good sweet bread—sold here
in a variety not only of colors, but in
size, from the black loaf two feet in
diameter down to rolls of ordinary size,
but of extraordinary sweetness. We
have, too, again resumed the habit which
is said to be spreading—butter. The
general cultivation of rice in Japan and
parts of China make pastures scarce, so
that milk and butter was there omitted
from our menu. But here, on these vast

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

meadows, are pastured great droves of
handsome cattle.

The recollection of the bread, butter,
Dutch cheese, wild strawberries, and
cream purchased from these farmer
people will always be associated with the
Transiberian journey, since our lunch-

basket was daily augmented by pur-.

chases of these wholesome supplies.
While the food served in the dining-cars
is as good as could be expected, we
greatly enjoyed the occasional breakfasts
and daily lunch of our own providing.
From now on to Moscow no more
changes of cars will be necessary, much

to our relief, as during the first five days ©

and nights from Peking we have been
enlivened by five changes of cars and
several encounters with customs officials,
interspersed with exhibits of our pass-
port to any inquiring mind embodied in
a form wearing Russian clothing who
chanced to feel a curiosity to read some
of our life’s secrets contained in that
document.

THRONGS OF IMMIGRANTS

Many emigrant trains are met filled
with people who have been induced to
pull up from the cities or more thickly
settled western country to try their for-
tunes in the great Northeast. The Rus-
sian government is offering farms and
many extraordinary inducements to set-
tlers, and great numbers are availing
themselves of the opportunity. At many
of the stations these people are gathered
around in family groups, using their
bundles of clothing and belongings to
recline or sit upon while awaiting the
train which is to convey them on to their
destination. Some of these tired mothers
trying to quiet and relieve the wants of
their crying children present truly pa-
thetic scenes.

It seems strange that so many profes-
sional beggars are encountered at these
small settlements, where employment for
the unskilled must be so abundant.

On the third day of July we were dis-
appointed when passing lake Baikal by
encountering a hard rain, which pre-
vented our seeing much of this wonder-
ful body of water, the sixth largest lake
on the globe. ‘Its level is 1,500 feet above

GLIMPSES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

the sea. Soundings have disclosed a
depth of 6,500 feet, and a remarkable
fact connected with this inland sea is
that it is the only body of fresh water
in the world in which seals thrive.

A ride of 60 miles brings us to
Irkutsk, one of the largest of Siberian
cities. Its future importance as a rail-
road center is assured, for when the
present air line from Peking to Kalgan
is extended to this city it will cut the
distance hundreds of miles and save
several days over the present Mukden
route. The depot is the most preten-
tious seen on the line thus far. A few
miles northwest of Irkutsk is located
one of the largest Siberian prisons, with
a capacity for many thousand convicts,
and incidentally it may be noted that
there is a department store in this same
city in which are confined more than
200 employees.

A PLEASANT LANDSCAPE

From the car windows we observe
among the forest trees many large white
birch, the same variety from which the
American Indians obtained bark for
their canoes.

After dinner one must not depend on
the approach of darkness to give warn-
ing of bedtime, since we are so near the
latitude of the midnight sun that if we
sleep only when darkness prevails we
will get scant rest. The sun disappears
after 9 o'clock, followed by twilight until
tt, and about four hours later the sun is
again attending to business at the old
stand.

Each of the towns we pass through,
however small, has one or more Greek
churches within its borders, neatly
painted in white; the shingled roof
tinted a delicate pea green and crowned
with peculiar double turnip - shaped
domes, some of them in brilliant colors.

Further west one can almost imagine
he is traveling through Holland, so
numerous are the windmills, extending
their great wooden arms to embrace any
passing breeze; they make a_ pleasing
break in the monotony of these vast
prairies.

At the stations among the Ural Moun-
tains numbers of the natives are selling

1045

souvenirs characteristic of the region,
specimens of different-colored rock from
the mines. It is from this region a large
portion of the world’s supply of mala-
chite is secured. When cut into thin
small pieces, polished and matched to-
gether like the recent popular jig-saw
puzzles, it is used to veneer the surface
of columns in the great cathedrals as
well as in the finish of urns, vases, and
table tops, which are so _ frequently
chosen as the state gifts of Russian
royalty.

As we approach the western boundary
of Siberia, the ascent to the pass through
the Ural Mountains has been so gradual
that we do not realize our altitude until
the summit is reached. Here is the line
separating Europe from Asia, marked
by the white marble triangular pyramid,
which, if significant to the hopeful em1-
grant, is doubly so to the unfortunate
exile, who through his tears catches a
final glimpse of that land which contains
all that is dear to him and where from
now on he is counted as dead. How
pathetically suggestive 1s the name of
this stone, ‘““The Monument of Tears!”
To us, passing the gateway into Europe,
it marks a long stride homeward and
fills our minds with pleasant anticipa-
tions.

Eight and one-half days of our jour-
ney from Peking is accomplished, but so
interesting have been the sights and ex-
periences, so comfortable and restful the
train accommodations, and so courteous
the employees of the road, together with
that all-important factor which deter-
mines for or against the pleasure of
travel—agreeable companions—that we
feel the time has passed all too quickly.

The reputation for ill luck sometimes
attributed to number 13 was not sus-
tained in the case of our Transiberian
party, since the absence of any one of
them would have been a distinct depriva-
tion in point of pleasure to the remainder.
The acquaintance of our several groups,
formed while crossing the Pacific, or
traveling in Japan or China, naturally
produced a feeling of warm fellowship
when we assembled on the “train de
luxe,’ and, it is a pleasure to add, this
feeling still continues.

1046

GREAT STEPPES AND WINDING RIVERS

The early impressions of Siberia,
formed from the very limited informa-
tion contained in school books of not
very long ago, in which luckless inhabit-
ants of this country were pictured riding
in peculiar-shaped sleds drawn by horses
running at the top of their speed, and
just about to be devoured by a great pack
of hungry wolves, while those not fleeing
from this awful fate were either con-
demned to hopeless servitude in the mines
or exiled, eking out a bare existence in
this land of perpetual winter and limit-
less forests, have not been entirely elimi-
nated from the minds of many. What-
ever the conditions may be in other parts
of this great Empire, the country through
which the railway passes, as well as the
appearance of the people gathered at the
stations, would entirely dispel such ideas.

Great steppes, winding rivers, stretches
of woods, and undulating meadows are
the characteristics of the country as seen
on both sides of the track. The soil is
very fertile; wild flowers are of enor-
mous growth, and although the season is
short, the appearance of vegetation gen-
erally indicates a rapid growth and early
maturity. Of course, like other new
countries, some unfavorable conditions
exist which will require time and experi-
ence to overcome. In the distribution of
forests and rivers, large tracts were left
devoid of either; and in districts on Si-
berian steppes artesian wells often bring
up. only salt or bitter water, and wells
furnishing sweet water sometimes sud-
denly change to salt and become useless.

RAILROAD RATES OF ONE CENT A MILE

What a wonderful achievement the
building of this splendid Siberian rail-
road has proven. Its benefits are not
confined to Russia alone, for its advan-
tages are felt the world over, as this rail-
way is an important factor in reducing
the time required to encircle the globe.

It is cause for just pride to reflect that
while credit is given an Englishman for
first suggesting the building of this road,
the first plans for its construction were
submitted by an American. The present
Tsar, who has always been deeply inter-
ested in the project, wheeled the first

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

barrel of earth and laid the first stone
May 19, 1891. So numerous are the
rivers over which this railroad passes that
thirty miles of bridges form part of its
line.

To bring the benefits of the road within
the reach of the people, the government
reduced the rates of through tickets to:
$59.00, being about one cent per mile.
It is very noticeable to tourists how few
large cities are entered by this road. The
cause of this may be similar to that of
the line connecting Moscow with St.
Petersburg, which is said to have been
brought about by the officials commis- |
sioned to determine the route, who were
influenced to make long detours to con-
nect with favored localities. When- the
map was submitted to his Imperial High- ,
ness the Emperor, with a ruler he drew
a straight line between the two cities and
ordered the road built in accordance with
that line; and the order was carried out.

A very unusual custom elsewhere pre-
vails on this railway, which we observed
from the rear end ‘of our train. At all
crossings the flagman stands by the side
of the road until the train has passed,
when he at once walks to the center of
the track, still holding the flag extended,
and stands like a statue until the train
is out of sight. This we were informed
is to enable the railroad official, who keeps
tabs from the rear car, to note on his
report that the flagman is on the job.
As a train draws into a station a railroad
official strikes one stroke on a bell, sim-
ilar to a locomotive bell, which hangs out-
side the depot building; and about three
minutes before time for the train to de-
part, two strokes are sounded, as a warn-
ing to passengers to get aboard. At the
sound of the third and last signal of
three strokes, the train-starter blows a
policeman’s whistle, when, if the engineer
has completed oiling and taking on water,
he replies with a steam whistle and the
train moves off.

Unmistakable evidences of the pres-
ence of the festive mosquito are seen as
our train proceeds through forest dis-
tricts. ‘Toward evening the people have
their heads enveloped in black netting,
and many are sitting on the lee side of
smudge fires in front of their homes,

A CITY GATE OF SHANHAIKWAN

The streets of the town are narrow and without pavement. The tree rooted on top of the wall
indicates the condition of neglect and decay of most of these old defenses.

A RESTING CARAVAN

Camels of many of the caravans engaged in conveying teas and other commodities between China
and Mongolia are relieved of their burden for rest during the heat of the day, and at night the bales
and boxes are again replaced, when the long tramp is resumed.

1047

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aqiad ASHNIHO V

1048

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yo sysinq Aq autoor9a0 APuanbazy sem saatjeu oy} JO WISTOIO}S [eNSN oY], ‘so[NUE pUv sesIOY pepnpour s}uvzs9zU09 oY} puB ABML JYSTeIYS SPM YORI] IYI,

ONIMHd NI HOVaA V YOA ONIBVHHLVO NYWVNIHD

1049

‘Surddrys ayy yoojosd 03 ‘syunf rem yuotUADAOS

Auewt jo souasoid ay} Suyqepyssooou ‘soyesd oats Jo suoryesado ayy 10} sovTd ay1J0Av} B Ma0q Suoy, sey woJURD pure Suoy SuOH VoeMjod JOATY [eed IL,

SMNOL HSANIHOD

CHINESE CITY EXPRESS

The list of articles an able-bodied Chinaman will carry suspended from the ends of a pole balanced
across his shoulder is only limited by his strength to raise it from the ground; when a trunk or piano
is the burden, the method is the same only more Chinamen are required.

CHINESE ONION PEDLER, PEKING

1050

THE PALATIAL RESIDENCE OF SIR CHENTUNG. LIANG CHANG, WHAMPOA, CHINA

Who so ably represented his government in Washington several years ago. The ornamental
surroundings of the residence include, besides this artifical lake, grounds of unusual beauty, in which
an attractive tea house and pergola are interesting features.

COMING TO TOWN, PEKING SUBURBS

OPEN PEKINGESE CART

1051

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yO Stiauttoads ysouy oy} 9q 0} pres are Ady, .,WaavoyT jo odway, oy,,,
SB UMOUY SI JUYAL SUISTIdUIOD SBUIP[ING JO WOTJIT]OI 9} JO 90 SF SIT,

ONIMHd ‘NOOW HHL FO WIdWAL AHL

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1052

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Juaiayip Ajaitjwa UlIoj B SUIMOYS SB UsTIOM Uvotiouty JO
ey oy} Sursuvire jo sayAjs atnjnj sy} set99p OY
Japs} oa yoryar ‘ainqord sty} SuTUTeyq:
‘passed pey SuyoIA Ino [Wun Yepoy 3}

ONIMHd ‘NHWOM NHONVIA

AA 9SOY} 0}
O UT [NfFSsadons 319A AL
Surpeaouos Ag

*gInsojous punoduros
ay} UIYIM pausaios Ajayes Sem sys a]IYM pyiIyo
24} ploy prnoys [Is ssinu isy yey. ‘IoasMoy
‘Surpiaoid ‘ainjord sry jad 0} potoavapua aM Ways
uotjoafqo ou pasier 1o1sdury 1OF a}epIpuro IIq
-issod Sty} JO Iayjour ay} ‘YBVpOY Ano Jo YSIS ay}
je pay Suryed Ul UaUIOM NYyoULY, YsnoyR[V

QTIHD OHONVNW V

ONIN Ad

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apeys oy} ‘Josvivd vw yo asoussqe ay} UL “BUI UL jnoqe
Buljjes jo sueour 1ejndod Aisa vB st Aoyuop ANSTAF OUL,

‘

ONISIV. NV fot LAO

1053

RUSSIAN PEASANTS

These sturdy-looking men are a fair sample of the people who are settling Siberia along the line of the
railway.

AWAITING THE ARRIVAL OF THE EXPRESS

A group of the better class of Siberians at the station.

1054

RUSSIAN EMIGRANTS TO SIBERIA

This family were lounging at one of the Siberian stations waiting for the train which was to convey
them on to their new home.

SIBERIAN PEASANTS

The arrival of the ‘‘Train de luxe,’’ the weekly express —at many of the stations on the Trans-
Siberian Railway, proved an irresistible attraction to the peasants and farmer people, who, out of
curiosity or to sell their simple dairy products, thronged the platforms.

1055

‘ivodde Ajpensn Ady} Sve patio0o183 [JAM Sv jou
pur Joy}UOIF ay} WO svM oANjoId ANO ULIUO sy, “}stIYD Jo worydao
-u0d UbISsNyY oY} Tvodde Woy} SOYVUL YOIYM ‘StopynNoys Itsy} MOTIqG
Sursuvy Ivey pue spreaq [Inj eam AoyT, ‘uaut jo Apoq Buryooyt
-ouy eB ‘apni & se ‘are YOINYD Ys01H uvissny oy} Jo sysorid sy

dNOU)D ONILSHAHINI NV

*ABMIICI
ey} Suoje sfoq pue ust Yjoq YIM Iejndod araM s}stem 41149

SUNVSVHd NVIYHAIS

1056

A BASKET PEDDLER, TRANS-SIBERIAN RAILWAY

A RUSSIAN MERRY-GO-ROUNDER

into the

dual to fall

.

1V1

insured.

Were this happy-go-lucky ind
hands of some vaudeville agency the fortunes of both

would be

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1058

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1059

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UVOOAA NVIVAAIS

1060

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INVOIGNHN GHddINOWTIAM V

‘SJUBYOIOUL URISsNY jo astidisajua ay} Jo sUapraa st oinqord st J,

Sduvod NOIS GCHLVWINV HHL

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IOe SIT,

1062

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SEM }I J9}Je UOOG = *SUO} 007
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NVISSVOUIO V

THE CZAR OF CANNON, MOSCOW

Standing within the walled enclosure of the Kremlin is this mammoth gun, said to be the largest
cannon ever cast, although it dates back to 1586. Though it contains about forty-three tons of metal,
the only purpose it has ever served has been as an ornament.

A RUSSIAN COACHMAN, MOSCOW

A coachman wearing this padded coat on July 12th appeared to us a decidedly warm proposition
even for Moscow. As his price increases with his girth measurement, it is not surprising that the gar-
ment is worn the year round,

To64

Suter obec aniauerdda sul

TIRED PILGRIMS, WITHIN THI

i

KREMLIN ENCLOSURE

ei

Spel ARRRE OOS

A FUNERAL IN MOSCOW

EMIGRANTS TO SIBERIA

1065

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JO 9[Nqysea oT, “JSINT 94} SUTIeyWeD jo sso} Suydsoxs vissny jo ‘po}eoOT ST ‘S9o1OA $,uoUt Jo AToIIWWe pasodurod ‘110s
° . ‘ J . * .

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-uo0d jedeyo B SspuR}s ‘d} BH JoWI9Ipey 9} 1Iv9sul ‘UT[WoIIY 9} 9pIsuy 94} dtoyM st ms10j}e[d poet sy, “Ajneoq jo JoAIeU B ST
[VIPIYIwo JUSIYLIUSLUL SIT} JO [POULT V[qIVUL PIM JIL,

MODSOW ‘WHLSIO'IO
HHL OL AONVULNA HHL LV dd GHNIT SYvOoda MOOSONW “IVUGHHLVO S.UNOIAVS LS AO WOIMULINI

1066

ST. SAVIOUR’S CATHEDRAL, MOSCOW

While the cost of this church (said to have been about twelve million dollars) was less than that of
St. Isaac’s in St. Petersburg, its location on the highest part of Moscow, together with its style of
architecture, combine to make it the more beautiful of the two.

CHILD'S FUNERAL, MOSCOW

This drosky bearing the casket containing the remains of a babe is about to enter the Kremlin
through the ‘‘ Reedemer Gate.’? The heads of the men are uncovered, for no man, from the Emperor
to his lowest subject, would pass that gate without removing his hat.

1067

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NVISSOY HHL LV SHNHOS

¢

1068

ST. ISAAC'S CATHEDRAL, ST. PETERSBURG

It is said of this cathedral that ‘‘ Into the construction of no other building known has such a lavish
quantity of semi-precious stones entered.’’ These include ten columns of malachite thirty feet high,
several columns of lapis lazuli, great mosaic panels, and rails of pure alabaster.

A THREE-HORSE TEAM, MOSCOW

Teams of large handsome horses resplendent in brass-bestudded harness, the center animal in the
shaft with the wooden arch (duga) over its neck and a prancing mate on either side, are peculiarly
Russian and may frequently be seen in the large cities.

1069

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TVWAGHHLVYO LSIMHO JO NOILOHANNSAA AHL MOOJSOW

1070

GLIMPSES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

and frequently the faithful horse is in-
cluded in the family group. Enterprising
women and children are busily engaged
beside the track picking the little wild
strawberries, and at the stations they are
like swarms of bees offering the berries
for sale at about ten cents per quart.
The fruit is ripe and of a peculiarly de-
licious flavor.

At half past three, July» 8, we arose,
but even at that early hour the sun had
preceded us, thus affording a good light
at Samara to view the greatest of Euro-
pean rivers—the Voiga, whose waters,
before mingling with those of the Caspian
Sea, 2,300 miles distant from its source,
are navigable for 1,800 miles. At Sa-
mara the river is spanned by a substantial
iron bridge almost a mile in length, and
from our car window we view the waters
as they flow 140 feet below.

THE CITY OF SPIRES: MOSCOW

The numerous cathedral spires of Mos-
cow, with their copper domes, are as
strikingly characteristic an indication
of one’s approach to the old Muscovite
capital as the great stacks, with their ac-
companying clouds of smoke, presage the
entrance to some of the American manu-
facturing cities.

We alighted from the train at the sta-
tion in Moscow ten and one-half days
from Peking, only eight minutes behind
schedule time.

Our first efforts were directed to ob-
tain permits to use the kodak, since the
principal occupation of both the police
and the soldiers of Russia seems to be to
inspect passports and kodak licenses. In
Moscow it was necessary to procure two
licenses; one from the military and the
other from the police authorities. The
possession of these licenses saved us much
annoyance and furnished considerable
amusement. Many of the guardians of
the law were unable to distinguish be-
tween them. In fact, any official-appear-
ing paper would probably have been as
satisfactory.

SAINT SAVIOUR’S CATHEDRAL

Of this great city of spires, Saint Sav-
iour’s Cathedral (see pages 1066-1067),
which occupies the highest prominence

1071

in Moscow, is the most magnificent and
striking church building. It rivals in
splendor, if not in cost, any other sanc-
tuary in the world. It commemorates
the expulsion of the French from Russia,
and was begun in 1813 and completed 18
years Jater.. Around: its four sides 41s.a
marble frieze of life-size figures. ‘The
beauty of the exterior conveys but a
slight intimation of the wonders of its
interior, which comprise quantities of
semi-precious stones of Siberian jasper,
green malachite, and alabaster, with
many life-size pictures in mosaic, en-
crusted with jewels of fabulous value.

One single piece of Siberian jasper, in
the form of a medallion, set in the mar-
ble wall, represents an outlay of $15,000:
and the total.cost of the structure is
stated to be nearly $13,000,000.

Wishing to obtain a picture of this
edifice, we directed our steps in that di-
rection the morning of our second day
in Moscow. We were fortunate in so
doing, since on arriving there we found
a great service being held in commemora-
tion of the two hundredth anniversary
of Peter the Great’s victory at Plevna
over Charles XII of Sweden.

The dimensions of the interior of Saint
Saviour’s seemed greater on account of
their being no pews. We were impressed
with the earnestness of the worshipers.
During part of the service worshipers
prostrated themselves until their heads
touched the coarse mat of the covered
floor. At our side was a poor woman in
black who spent most of the time on her
knees, devout but entirely undemonstra-
tive. A short distance from her was
another woman so affected that had not
the tiles of the floor been well fastened
she certainly would have removed them
that she might in her prostration get her
head to a lower level. On the opposite
side was a strongly built, full-faced
bearded man, with a noticeable rotundity
of form, who, from the rapidity of his
movements, acted as though his piety had
for some cause been long deprived of the
privilege of a public demonstration.

The chancel, constructed of white mar-
ble, is of especial beauty. On either side
of it are seated antiphonal choirs, each
containing, at the time we saw them, 28

1072

men and boys, uniformed like Russian
soldiers.

A MARVELOUS VOICE

There was no organ or musical instru-
ment to accompany the voices, but the
great arched dome, bare of drapery, act-
ing as a sounding board, helped wonder-
fully to supply the omission. After the
opening of the service, both choirs were
massed on a platform directly in front
of the chancel and about 40 feet back.

As we entered the auditorium the choir
was chanting one of the canticles of the
Greek church. Its peculiar melody was
very tuneful and most effective as sung
by the male chorus, while beneath all, in
a different measure, but in perfect har-
mony, was a deep resonant voice, the vi-
brations of which resembled the rumbling
of distant thunder. The obligato, occa-
sionally heard in a short burst of tone,
was in quality like the rich diapason of
a great pipe organ.

Wonderful at all times, the priest
singer was simply superb in his intonation
of the succeeding prayers. Beginning
about low “C,” at the ending of the
phrase he modulated one-half tone higher,
and after a short, impressive pause started
the next line invthe new key. He ‘sang
each verse in a similar manner, through-
out the octave gradually increasing the
volume of tone, until the last verse was
finished, when the refrain, taken up by
combined chorus, culminated in a great
flood of harmony.

The enormous temple, with its dazzling
array of precious stones, decorations, and
paintings, costing fabulous sums, sinks
into utter insignificance in the recollection
of that marvelous voice.

Its possessor was a long-haired, bearded
priest, a man of large stature, combined
with the finest musical sensibility, which
enabled him to use his great organ in this
most effective manner. His voice was
beyond the power of description in its
grandeur and richness of tone, still with
no indication of its limitations having
been reached.

The priesthood and choirs of the Greek
church contain many remarkable voices,
and, while no instruments are employed,
music forms a prominent and attractive

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

part of each service. Although for the
most part the choirs are composed of
male voices, there are some very fine or-
ganizations which include only female
voices.

The chancel of . Sait Saviour’s: (Cae
thedral was so beautiful that a resolve
was at once made to try for a picture,
and a visit was made with the kodak
later in the day for this purpose (see
page 1006).

THE WONDERS OF THE KREMLIN

The Kremlin, like the Forbidden City
in Peking, is inclosed by a wall entirely
independent of that encircling the city.
It marks the part which escaped the great
conflagration when the outlying districts
of Moscow were burned by the Russians,
who were besieged by Napoleon. The
present wall replaced one of oak—some
500 years ago—which, like the Great
Wall of China, was erected as a defense
from the Tartars (see page 1062).

Within this inclosure is located the
Imperial Palace, the Treasury, the Arse-
nal, and three cathedrals, which for cen-
turies have respectively been the places
of the crowning, the marrying, and the
burying of the Tsars of this great nation.
The inclosure also contains a convent
and many great monuments. On one
side, far below, flows the River Moskva,
from which the city takes its name.
From the river’s opposite bank the view
of the splendor of this collection of build-
ings is unsurpassed.

Probably nowhere in the world does
an inclosure of the dimensions of that
described by the wall of the Kremlin
contain precious stones approximating
the value of those displayed here. It has
been aptly stated that they should not be
counted by thousands, but measured by
the peck. To guard them 800 soldiers
are constantly in and around these build-
ings.

The Ivan or Bell Tower is the most
conspicuous structure in the inclosure
and contains 36 bells, two of which are
of silver, the largest of the collection
weighing 65 tons (see page 1062).

This large bell seems to lose its mag-
nitude when we come to examine the
one resting on a stone foundation just

GLIMPSES OF, THE -RUSSIAN EMPIRE

outside the tower, which weighs 200
tons (see page 1063). It was originally
intended to hang within the walls, but,
soon after it was cast a fire destroyed
the building which sheltered it, causing
nine gaping cracks and the displacement
of a piece of the bell weighing 9 tons.
Owing to this misfortune, its tongue has
ever remained mute.

Not far from the Bell Tower stands
the arsenal, in front of which its a dis-
play of 850 bronze cannon, trophies cap-
tured from the Turks and French.
Prominent among these is the “Great
Gun,” its mouth having a diameter of 3
feet, surrounded by so thin a shell that
regard for safety probably accounts for
the fact that it, like the Great Bell, has
never spoken (see page 1004).

These two curios, coupled with Mos-
cow’s prevalent paving material, are
spoken of as the three ancient wonders
of the city. “The heaviest bell which
never was rung, the largest cannon which
never was fired, and the greatest amount
of cobblestone pavement”? (which ought
to be fired).

THE CATHEDRAL OF SAINT BASIL

As we leave the Kremlin by the Re-
deemer’s Gate, a few steps to the right
bring us to the strikingly gorgeous Ca-

thedral of Saint Basil, beside which the.

colors of the rainbow pale (see page
1070). More than 300 years ago, by
command of “Ivan the ‘Terrible,’ this
peculiar building was erected over the
grave of a popular prophet of the time,
known as “Basil the Imbecile.”

The old ruler is said to have asked his
architect whether he could erect another
cathedral as beautiful as this one. On
the latter’s replying that he could, his
eyes were promptly put out to prevent
such an act in case the architect should
fall into the service of a subsequent
ruler.

The exterior of this beautiful edifice
is much the better part of it, for the in-
terior is exceedingly disappointing. The
eleven towers, each one differing from
the others, cover tiny chapels of like
diameter, and as we stood gazing up at
the ceiling, in each of which is a great

1078

mosaic eye, the effect was like looking
up from the bottom of a well.

Directly in front of the Saint Basil
Cathedral lies that formerly dreaded
space, sO appropriately named the ‘Red
Square.” This is the spot where 200
years ago the most horrible forms of
execution and public punishment were
inflicted. At the right of this square a
magnificent arcade, covering an entire
block, has recently been erected, and is
now occupied by hundreds of the best
class of stores in Moscow.

THE “REDEEMER GATE”

To the tourist no country in the world
shows more evidence outwardly, in the
way of religious observance, of being a
Christian nation than does Russia.

The sky-line of Moscow, as viewed
from afar, looks like a forest of spires.
Two thousand cathedral and temple
spires point heavenward, their numerous
peculiar-shaped domes resembling in-
verted onions, while their gilt roofs glis-
ten in the sun’s rays like great search-
lights.

On reaching the city, you have no
need to alight and enter the buildings
you are passing to learn where the
shrines are located. Simply observe the
driver of your drosky for a short dis-
tance, and his almost continual crossing
of himself and uncovering of his head
will give you unmistakable evidence.

Then there is that old entrance to the
Kremlin, built about the time Columbus
discovered America—the “Holy” or
“Redeemer Gate.” Here, whatever one’s
belief or condition of life—be he Em-
peror or subject, Jew or Gentile—his
head must be uncovered when passing as
a mark of worship or reverence to the
golden icon of the Saviour hung above
the gate.

A short distance from the Kremlin
one passes the double arched “Sunday
Gate,” and it will be the exception if any
of the passing throng, however hurried,
do not stop at the little chapel to worship
the most celebrated miracle-working
image in Moscow, the “Iberian Mother
and Child.” ‘The building is so small
that frequently devotees in a line reach-

1074

ing for some distance along the street
await an opportunity to enter, A,net of
real pearl envelopes the head of the
mother and her person is adorned with
many valuable jewels.

Here for centuries have the rich, the
poor, the well, the sick, and all sorts and
conditions of people paid their fervent
homage. As a tender token of their de-
votion they have deposited a kiss upon
the hands of both the mother and child
until the pictures of the hands have dis-
appeared, hidden by a dark thick crust
of dried kisses. In their earnest piety
the worshipers acted in full sympathy
with the little verse:

“Though deadly germs in kisses hide,
EF’en at the price the cost is small;

’Tis better to have kissed and died
Than never to have kissed at all.”

The Greek Church of Russia is di-
vided into many sects, and the Tsar is the
acknowledged head of the main or ortho-
dox body. The priests as seen by tour-
ists appear a dignified splendid lot of
men. ‘They wear broad-brimmed hats
and coats of dark brown, the skirts of
which reach to the ankles, while a gilt
cross hangs from a chain encircling the
neck. With their full beards and hair
hanging over their shoulders and reach-
ing nearly to the waist, they closely re-
semble the Russian conception of Christ.

In one line of religious activity, viz.,
the spread of the gospel, the Russian
government leads the world. Its rail-
roads and steamboats make no charge
for the transportation of the Bible to
any part of the realm. Yet religious lib-
erty counts for but little in that country.

THE GREAT DERBY RACES

Not only are horse-cars still a popular
means of conveyance in Moscow, but
there is a line of cars without tracks
which appears to receive its full share
of patronage, although the cobblestone
pavement and the small wheels of the
car must form a most uncomfortable
combination.

The cabbies of the “four seaters’” and
some of the droskies present a warm
proposition in the hot July days with
coats padded to the thickness of pillows.

THE NATIONAL GHROGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

This is another indication of caste, for
the rule seems to be, the thicker the pads
the more stylish the turnout (see page
1064).

Fortunately for us, the Great Derby
races occurred during our stay in Mos-
cow. During these annual races the ho-
tels are thronged with Russians of the
higher class, who make quite a display of
their large diamonds and elegant gowns.

We were interested observers of their
manner of greeting. The men kiss each
other on the cheek, but only kiss “my
lady’s hand or wrist.” ‘This manner of
salutation indicates that we have made
some progress homeward, having left be-
nind us Japan, where three bows made
from the hips like a jack-knife answer
the proprieties; and China, where a man
shows his kindly sentiments by cordially .
shaking his own hand.

The cash stakes for the races amount
to 38,000 roubles, about $19,000.00. The
lines of conveyances hurrying to the
track are miles in length and form a lively
and brilliant procession. Some of these
equipages seem royal in their appoint-
ments. Especially so are the handsome
carriages drawn by three large horses,
the center animal wearing the arch-shaped
yoke (douga) over the collar, the sub-
stantial Russian harness, almost entirely
covered with metal, being polished to the
brilliancy of a mirror, and the horses go-
ing on a full run (see page 1069).

The horses are raced under the saddle
over a turf track. It is interesting to
note that a majority of the drivers are
American jockeys.

In front of the grandstand refresh-
ments are served on small tables, and as
the horses swing around the last quarter
those occupying seats at the tables mount
their chairs to gain a sight of the finish,
over the heads of those standing at the
rail near the track, about ten feet distant.

A careful observer would have noticed
a tallish man, apparently absorbed in the
result of the race, take a position directly
in front of one of those couples. At first
glance one might think he was about to
witness one of those mysterious tragedies
so common in Russian history from the
looks of the dark object which is poking
its glassy eye at the couple, from under

GLIMPSES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE 1075

the said: tall man’s arm: .. But if near
enough, one will hear a slight click and
perhaps notice a suppressed smile as the
bold man with the kodak moves toward
his next victims (see page 1068).

One of the conspicuous types of people
attending the races is the Caucasian,
wearing his peculiar garb.

The Irish sportsman’s exclamation on
his first sight of a dude, “Phat strange
things one does see when he hasn’t a
gun,” fairly expressed our sentiments at
the first glimpse we had of the ladies,
bearing on their heads the enormous in-
verted washtub hats at the Russian race
track. We thought as we snapped the
kodak on them that we had secured a
view which at home would rank in point
of interest with those of an ancient tem-
ple or an Indian war dance. Since our
return home, however, these head cover-
ings have become so commonly worn that
for the time being our highly prized
picture has lost the novelty, which will
probably return to it as years roll by and
civilization and reason obtain a stronger
foothold. The rapid evolution of ladies’
bonnets since our departure is well de-
scribed in the little rhyme:

“Mary had a little hat,
Not bigger than a stopper;
Mary soon got rid of that;
Her present hat’s a whopper.”

“UHE CITY AGAINST NATURE”

To visit Russia without seeing St.
Petersburg, which has been so appro-
priately termed “The city against nature,”
would be cause for genuine regret.

Although nearly two centuries have
passed since the active career of Peter I
closed, the very atmosphere of St. Peters-
burg is still filled with reminders of his
great achievements. It is itnpossible to
comprehend the obstacles overcome by
the builder of this massive city, situated
as it is at the confluence of the great
River Neva with the Gulf of Finland,
almost within the Arctic circle and on
a marsh half under water and scarcely
above the level of the sea. The outlay
for labor and capital to bring logs from
the mainland and drive them into the
mud one on top of another, forming the
foundation on which to build, cost an

amount sufficient in itself to complete a
town of considerable size.

The building of the city of St. Peters-
burg under these conditions is alone a
warrant for the title “Great,” given to
its indefatigable founder, had he not
earned it by his skill and perseverance
as a ruler, or been entitled to it on ac-
count of his physical proportions. While
history acknowledges Peter the Great the
creator of modern Russia, no other act
of this wonderful man more forcibly
illustrates his persevering energy than his
wresting from the waters the site of this
great city.

SAINT ISAAC’S CATHEDRAL

From either approach to this Imperial
City the most noticeable object is the
great gilt dome of Saint Isaac’s Cathe-
dral, which raises its spire 336 feet above
the ground (see page 1069). Although
not as distinctly Oriental as Saint Sav-
iour’s, of Moscow, it impresses one es-
pecially with the grandeur of its propor-
tions. Every outline is indicative of
simplicity as well as of permanence. Its
massive walls, like the entire city, rest
upon stilts.

The pile foundation of the Cathedral
alone cost one million dollars, and the |
total cost of the edifice is estimated to
have been over $16,000,000. About 56
years were required in its building. Its
form is that of a Greek cross. It has at
each of its four corners an enormous
portico in imitation of the Pantheon at
Rome, supported by single stone pillars
60 feet in height; 200 pounds of pure
gold is said to have been used to gild its
dome and cross.

Into the construction of no other build-
ing known to us has such a lavish quan-
tity of semi-precious stones entered.
These include a chancel rail of pure ala-
baster and ten columns 30 feet high of
malachite, besides others of lapislazuli
costing $30,000 each.

At the service which we attended the
large auditorium was well filled, without
any distinction being made as to class,
the rich and the poor standing or pros-
trating themselves side by side. We, as
visitors, were assigned seats on the raised
platform inside the rail and next to one
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1076

GLIMPSES OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE

the two combined with a counterbalance
of 10,000 pounds of metai to adjust and
inaintain the proper center of gravity.

Near the principal business district of
St. Petersburg stands the gorgeous
“Church of the Resurrection of Christ”’
(see page 1070), which in outward dec-
oration surpasses in brilliancy of colors
the St. Basil Cathedral in Moscow. The
edifice is thoroughly Russian in style,
with fantastically shaped domes and
minarets in most vivid hues.

This memorial cathedral incloses the
stone pavement stained with the blood
of the martyred Emperor Alexander II,
who was assassinated on this spot by
means of a bomb one Sunday in 1881 as
he was returning from parade. It would
seem after having liberated 23 millions
of serfs from slavery Emperor Alexan-
der IT was deserving of a less cruel fate.

NOTES OF THE CITY

The population of St. Petersburg is
nearly two million, and the people and
costumes seen on the streets represent
almost every nationality of Europe and
Asia. A custom new to us is noticed in
the parks, viz.; the dresses. of. nurses,
indicating by their color the sex of their
charge—blue for a boy and red for a
girl.

The Winter Palace, the chief Imperial
residence, is a vast building. Its outlook
on the river is beautiful to the ordinary
observer; but as the view includes the
Royal Mausoleum, it is questionable how
great may be the pleasure the vista af-
fords the Imperial head of the house, in
view of the tendency to anarchistic
methods which prevail in Russia. The
opposite side of the palace faces the
broad square, in the center of which is
the Pillar of Alexander I, a monolith 25
feet square and 155 feet high.

The original palace building, which
housed 6,000 persons, was destroyed by
fire in the year 1837, and was replaced
with the present costly structure two
years later. ‘The apartments and halls of
the part we were permitted to inspect
are indeed palatial in appointments and
furnishings and are crowded with rare
historical paintings and silver plate.

Imagination must fall far short ot pic-

L077

turing the beauty and grandeur of the
royal entertainments given in the mag-
nificent ball-rooms of this palace during
the long cold winters of this North
country.

Directly across the River Neva and
opposite the Winter Palace lies Peters-
burg Island, the oldest part of the city.
Here stands the most conspicuous build-
ing of the river front, the Fortress
Church: of. St.;Peter and ‘St.: Paul, sup-
porting its peculiar narrow spire, 302
feet in height.

The purposes for which this mass of
stone, erected 210 years ago, has served
are decidedly varied. It has been the
burial place of all of the Tsars, with
the exception of Peter II, since it was
erected: It ‘issa.-chutch,* a, mint. a amu
seum of military trophies and relics of
the great Peter, a political prison, the
execution ground, and a fortress. The
walls of the part devoted to the mauso-
leum are hung with hundreds of wreaths
wrought in silver.

While this fortress church is all deeply
interesting, one is glad to take his de-
parture, since there is a decided gloom
connected with the old surroundings, as
though some of the sorrow and suffer-
ing to which these walls have been silent
witnesses still permeated the place.

AN EPIDEMIC OF CHOLERA

Although during our visit in St. Pe-
tersburg the cholera had been claiming
its victims in the city by hundreds, the
only noticeable indications of its pres-
ence were some of the precautionary
measures taken by the authorities. A
sort of wheeled apparatus for furnish-
ing boiled water in quantities, gratui-
tously given to the public, was located
on the corners of the principal avenues.

To some of the Icons is attributed the
power of working miracles and of heal-
ing the sick, and certain of them were
supported under a canopy and carried in
a procession of golden-robed priests
through the principal streets, escorted by
military and followed by numbers of the
common people chanting hymns. As the
procession proceeded, and until it had
passed, the people on the roadside and
walks prostrated themselves before the

1078

sacred emblems as a petition to them to
allay the epidemic.

Passing through the Tsar’s domain,
even at the rapid pace we have ma‘1-
tained, impressed us with the immensity
of this colossal nation. Its 155 millions
of population possess one-sixth of the
land surface of the entire world, or three
times the area of the United States, if
we except our Alaskan bonanza, which

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Russia practically gave to Uncle Sam in
1867. Considering her almost limitless
resources, her futre possibilities are in-
calculable; and certainly in her struggle
for a higher civilization and the adjust-
ment of the peculiar economic and po-
litical conditions with which she is con-
fronted, her attitude toward America in
the past commends her to our warmest
friendship and support.

THE LAND OF PROMISE
By Major GENERAL A. W. Greetry, U. 5S. ArMy

UR journey across Siberia con-
QO firmed the opinion of the author,

formed from previous geograph-
ical studies, that no other country ap-
proaches Russia in the extent of its terri-
tory, the diversity of its people, or in
variety of climates; and, further, created
the belief in its unsurpassable superiority
as to the latent and fast-developing pro-
ductivity of its agricultural, forest, and
mineral resources.

VLADIVOSTOK

After an uncomfortable and somewhat
tempestuous voyage across the Sea of
Japan; at <the ‘end of May, our eyes
viewed with refreshing delight the green
and graceful hills that fringe the covered
waterways on approaching Vladivostok.
Soon, however, our thoughts turned from
Nature’s smiling aspect to matters of
human interest as we approached the
city, with its wonderful dry-dock, its
green-domed churches, its railway termi-
nals, and the outlying shipping, all glori-
fied by the spring sun and smiling skies.

Before us was the stir of civil life and
the bustle of commercial activity in the
city proper, but from our decks we saw
the smooth fields and gentle hill-slopes
alive with the morning drills and opera-
tions of a Russian army corps. Apart
from the rhythmic evolutions, novel to
all and thrilling to a soldier’s ear, were
the melodious and stirring sounds of
martial songs—anthems of loyalty to the

Czar and devotion to country which are
chanted by Russian soldiers on the
march.

Although having many business build-
ings of the latest modern types, Vladi-
vostok is plainly in the transitory stage
attendant on its struggles to assume
metropolitan importance. With a perma-
nent population of about 50,000, its out-
lying military forces were estimated to
be somewhat more numerous. ‘There
were apparent the usual concomitants of
camp followers, ambulatory merchants,
army contractors, and speculators.

Despite the inevitable reaction and
commercial depression consequent on the
end of a great war, Vladivostok will
steadily grow in commercial importance,
apart from its assured advantages
through dry-docks, military depots, and
railway facilities. Large areas of north-
eastern Manchuria and the whole of the
great Amur Valley must always be trib-
utary to Vladivostok. On the lower
Amur there are already 50 or more vil-
lages of Russian pioneers, whe are de-
veloping the agricultural possibilities be-
sides exploiting the extensive fisheries.
The vast timber resources of the Amur
and of the maritime province are on the
point of development. Their forested
areas exceed half a million acres, which
are gradually passing under foreign con-
trol, with the wise governmental policy of
requiring the labor to be done by Russian
workmen.

A CHARACTERISTIC SIBERIAN

Rude tarantasses and antiquated dros-
kies in scanty numbers furnish the local
transportation. The rude vehicles are
dragged by Siberian ponies slowly and
painfully through almost impassable
streets, where the mud was axle-deep
during our stay.

A RAILWAY WITHOUT A PARALLEL

The railway journey on which we
entered is without a parallel elsewhere,
extending across the entire Empire of
Russia from east to west, the distance
exceeding 6,400 miles from Vladivostok
via Moscow and Warsaw to Alexandrov,
on the frontier of Germany. This Rus-
sian railway system, covering I11 de-
grees of longitude, extends practically
one-third of the way around the world
near the 60th parallel of latitude.

While there are now various lines com-
prised in the Siberian system, the main
stem, crossing northern Manchuria and
‘passing around the southern shores of
Lake Baikal, has its termini at Vladi-
vostok, on the Pacific Ocean, and at
Moscow—5,600 miles apart. Unique in
its length, the railway was constructed
with unparalleled rapidity. The strictly
Siberian sections of 3,300 miles were
built in seven years, 1891-1808, the rate

Photo by A. W. Greely

RAILWAY TOWN

of construction approaching two miles
for each working day, from which are
excluded Sundays and the numerous
Russian feast days.

It is the recognition of conditions to
say that the construction of this great
transcontinental railway is one of the
most remarkable feats of man’s energy,
persistency, and industry recorded in the
annals of human history. There has been
a tendency outside of Russia to under-
estimate this railway through irrelevant
or unfair comparisons of the equipment
and road-bed with those found on the
standard systems of Europe and America.

The cost of the entire Siberian Rail-
way systems has been variously stated,
but it probably approximates $400,000,-
ooo—far exceeding the amount spent on
any previous work of public utility, al-
though it will be equaled or surpassed by
the total cost of the Panama Interoceanic
Canal.

The Siberian railways may be viewed
as yet in conditions of transition as to
rails, road-bed, and equipment. Origi-
nally of the lightest and least expensive
character, not unsuited for the level,
thinly settled country of western Siberia,
they have of necessity been improved
and modified so as to meet the growing

1079

Photo by A. W. Greely

TYPICAL PIONEERS: YOUNG, VIGOROUS, AND AMBITIOUS

In the background are the women and children in the triple-decked emigrant cars

traffic, to suit the changing conditions of
the mountainous country to the east, and
especially to provide for the exigent de-
mands involved in the transportation,
feeding, clothing, equipment, and opera-
tions of armies of hundreds of thousands
of men. This road is being gradually
brought up to European standards. Much
work was progressing in the direction of
reduced grades, modified curves, im-
proved alignment, and other betterments.
Enlarged sidings and yards, improved
freight facilities, and extended sections
of double track are adding greatly to the
transporting capacity of the road.

It may be added that in the year 1910
the railroad transported 1,869,183 passen-
gers an average journey of 975 miles,
and 7,508,675 tons of freight—military,
private, and service. ‘The rolling equip-
ment is being increased, and beautiful,
powerful locomotives of various types—
wood, coal, and oil-burning, as economy
demands—were in evidence. As will be
shown later, the accommodations and
facilities for passengers are excellent.

THE TRANSBAIKAL RAILWAYS

Excluding the main Manchurian stem
(which across North Manchuria is or-
ganized and technically known as the
Eastern Chinese Railway), there are
three Russian branches to the Transibe-
rian Railway. The original plan looked
to a system entirely within Russian terri-
tory, and the perfection of this scheme
caused two roads to be built—one of 178
miles, from Karimskaia to Strétensk, on
the Chilka River, and the other of 337
miles, from Nikolsk, near Vladivostok,
to Khabarovsk, on the Amur. Strétensk
and Khabarovsk, it may be added, have
intercommunication by river steamers
during the navigable season somewhat
irregularly, about once a week.

By far the most important branch is
that toward China proper, which by a
road 139 miles in length from Harbin
connects with the South Manchurian
Railway system, of which the center is
Mukden, 190 miles farther to the south.
From Mukden there is one Japanese road

1080

A LAND OF PROMISE

of 258 miles to Dairen (formerly Dalny),
Port Arthur, while another light Jap-
anese military railway, now in course of
reconstruction, extends from Mukden to
Antung, there connecting with the Kor-
ean road to Seoul and Fusan. Especially
interesting, however, is the Chinese ex-
tension, over which one travels comfort-
ably 756 miles via Peking ro Hankau
whence via weekly steamers down the
Yang-tse-kiang to Nanking and over
another railway 196 miles in length,
Shanghai is reached (see map, p. 1076).

EXCELLENT ACCOMMODATIONS

These railways have brought Peking
within 14 days’ travel of London, the
fare, including sleeping car, being about
$150 for second-class and $230 for first-
class passengers.

The following information is of prac-
tical value regarding fares, distances, and
time. The distance from Vladivostok to
Moscow is 5,426 miles, which were trav-
ersed in 9 days and 21 hours. ‘There are
three through trains each week—an ordi-
nary express, the state express, and the
international train de luxe. On the last
our journey was made. Except a trans-
fer at Irkutsk, 3,425 miles east of Mos-
cow, there is no change of cars.

The international is a steam-heated,
electric-lighted, well-ventilated corridor
train with an attached dining car. There
are no ordinary passenger coaches, but
there are first-class and second-class
sleeping cars, divided into state-rooms
for two and for four persons, the fare
for each person being, respectively,
328.50 roubles (about $165) and 213.82
roubles (about $107).

Breakfast (bread and coffee, chocolate,
or tea) cost 0.55, lunch 1.25, and dinner
1.50 roubles. The food is plain but well
cooked, the service good, and the cars
clean.

There is practically no difference be-
tween second and first-class accommoda-
tions except better upholstery and an in-
different toilet for the latter. Each com-
partment has leather-lined fittings (easily
washed), a small table with a movable
electric light, and very ample room for
all baggage that can be needed in the
ten days’ journey. ‘The free registered

L081

baggage is strictly limited and charges
are high for extra weights.

While each compartment is private,
there are no curtains to insure privacy of
the separate berths. Other notable de-
fects are scarcity of towels, lack of good
drinking water, and the indifferent toilet
conveniences, there being no separate
provision for women. Bathing was pos-
sible in a section of the baggage car.
The road being broad gauge and the
speed low made night travel most com-
fortable.

East of Manchuria there are excellent
buffets at the larger stations, and at every
stop during daylight there were present
venders of bread, butter, fruit, milk,
chickens, etc., all of excellent quality and
at moderate prices.

MANCHURIA IS RICH BEYOND -CALCULA-
TIONS

The slow-moving train and long stops
enable one to form clear opinions as.
to the physical characteristics of Man-
churia during the travel of 926 miles
which bisects this great region. There
can be but one conclusion—that its agri-
cultural, mineral, and other possibili-
ties are valuable beyond present compu-
tation. It resembles in appearance and
approximates both in area and fertility
that part of the United States which lies.
between the Mississippi River and the
Rocky Mountains. Although in the main
a level, disforested, and agricultural
country, Manchuria presents in its north-
western section, in the valleys of the
upper Sungari and Yalo rivers, not only
valuable virgin forests, but also vast min-
eral deposits, of which the most valuable,
coal, is already in process of utilization
by the railway.

Whatever opinions may be held re-
garding the past policy and conduct of
Russia as regards Manchuria, it is evi-
dent to any observant traveler that its.
railway construction and attendant de-
velopments have vastly benefited this.
Chinese province. Brigandage has been
largely suppressed, life and property
made more secure, local industries stimu-
lated, and distant markets made acces-
sible. With settled conditions since the
war, the trade in agricultural products

1082

was reaching tens of millions of dollars
in value, and within ten years’ time
should aggregate annually hundreds of
millions in amount.

Although a Russian block-house flanks
every railway station, and its garrison
doubtless rules with a rod of iron, yet
the long-established Russian policy ob-
tains and the racial susceptibilities of the
Chinese are regarded to an extent that
would be impossible for Americans to
observe. In addition to other instances
in evidence, there was noted the decora-
tions of the small attractive railway sta-
tions at Iempo. ‘The ornamentation was
strictly Chinese, the graceful roof-trim-
mings being a series of the symbolated
Chinese dragons pursuing their fleeing
prey. All along the railway Manchurians
of every grade and class were seen mix-
ing with Russian civilians and soldiers,
pursuing their various affairs with such
freedom and assurance as would not be
tolerated in most localities in the United
States.

THE ALADDIN CITY

While Russian activities have thor-
oughly affected the peoples of northern
Manchuria, yet they have centered in the
Aladdin-like city of Harbin, which very
lately was unpleasantly brought to the
world’s attention as the scene of the
deplorable assassination of that great
statesman, Prince Ito, of Japan.

The most populous of European cities
in Asia, the former medical center of the
Russian army—with a hospital so im-
mense that 10,000 patients were cared
for at one time—it seems an irony of
fortune that Harbin should recently have
lost thousands by pestilential plague. It
is, however, a logical outcome of the
governmental defects at Harbin. With
unsanitary habits almost universal among
its cosmopolitan population, there was,
strangely enough in autocratic Russia,
no dominant central authority over this
collection of cities to enforce proper
sanitary regulations, even if sch were
ever planned.

The existence of Harbin is due to the
conjoined action of the Russian govern-
ment and the Russo-Chinese Bank. The
<orporation obtained from China exclu-

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

sive rights for 36 years to a region 100
miles square. Lavish expenditures, ag-
gregating from 10 to 12 millions of
dollars, built up a modern town near the
point where the Transiberian Railway
crosses the Sungari River over a fine
steel bridge of modern type and standard
construction.

With great and fluctuating business
interests, Harbin has varied in popula-
tion from 50,000 to 100,000 or more.
It appeared to be a collection of hetero-
geneous communities rather than an
administrative unit. ‘There then existed
nine practically independent administra-
tions—the official, the army, the mili-
tary hospital, the business, the manu-
facturing, the milling, the river, the Chi-

nese quarter, and on the outskirts the

original Manchurian village.
The milling facilities are adequate to
care for more than one and a quarter

millions of souls; the railway equipment

is so extensive and well arranged that an
army corps with its entire impedimenta
can be entrained or detrained in a day.*

From observation and by report the
Russians maintain a most conciliatory
and tactful attitude towards the Chinese
in general and Manchurians in particular.
The enormous expenditures of the Rus-
sians yet continue at Harbin, whereby
the Chinese—laborers, traders, and offi-
cials—have profited beyond their wildest
expectations. As we tarried, there were
in evidence a number of Chinese officers
of the new army, smartly uniformed,
alert in action, and prepossessing in ap-
pearance.

While many public and some private
buildings are large and costly, there was
that unmistakable cast of crudity to Har-
bin which causes it to somewhat resemble
a thriving frontier city of America. The
cosmopolitan character of the city was
markedly emphasized by the incoming
South China mail-train, which brought
naked coolies and full-robed mandarins,
the turbaned Hindu and the German

* Mr. Putnam Weale Simpson names nine
flouring mills at Harbin with an output ca-
pacity of about 1,700,000 pounds daily, and nine
others near that city which raise the capacity
of Central Manchuria to more than 1,500 tons
of flour daily.

i

Photo by EK. B. Lobdell

PIONEERS AWAITING THEIR TRAIN : SIBERIA

The vast crowds of immigrants are rapidly transforming Siberia into a larid of wealth and
prosperity (see page 1085)

merchant, the silent Korean and com-
placent Japanese, the somber English
official and the active American tourist.

A 4-berthed compartment of our Sibe-
rian train received as occupants a Japa-
nese, a German, an Italian, and an Aus-
tralasian, no two of whom could speak
the same language. The Mukden route
is fast gaining favor, as from Harbin one
reaches Peking in two days at an ex-
pense of $20, first-class.

OUT OF MANCHURIA

After crossing the Nonni River near
Tsitsihar, the prairie soon gives place to
a hilly ascending country, where from
time to time there were interesting
glimpses of weird Bouriat camps. Occa-
sionally parties were seen on the march,
all mounted, as the women are expert
riders. Novel in costume and pastoral
in tastes, they yield slowly to Occidental
civilization.

The country becomes more rugged
and the route more circuitous as we as-
cend the eastern flanks of the Great

Khingan range, where the summit is
pierced by a tunnel two miles in length
at an altitude of about 3,500 feet. Dense
forests, wild torrents, narrow valleys,
and sharply uprising ridges are the sali-
ent features of the western slopes, wel-
come changes from the treeless plains of
central Manchuria.

Between the greater and less ranges
of Khingan the railway crosses a corner
of the eastern Gobi Desert, which there
resembles closely the so-called desert of
our Rocky Mountain regions, with more
or less vegetation and an _ occasional
shrub or stunted tree. With the view
vanished childish illusions wherein the
Gobi Desert was pictured as the dreariest
and most desolate region of the world.

The prolonged stay at Manchuria, the
customs station on the Russo-Chinese
frontier, was not without interest. ‘The
accustomed tediousness of such exami-
nation was reduced to the minimum by
the marked courtesy of the inspectors.

There were hundreds of small bales
of caravan-tea awaiting shipment by rail

1083

x SZ

Photo by E. B. Lobdell

OMSK AND ITS TRAIN OFFICIALS: NEVER IN HASTE

to European Russia. This tea trade has
been pursued for centuries, the trains of
tea-loaded camels winding their slow
way over the rough trails which lead
hither from the remote tea-farms of in-
land China. Formerly they traveled
westward to Irkutsk and Omsk, but now
the railway displaces still further the
camel, who gave way in part to the Suez
Canal years ago.

THE TRANSBAIKAL REGION

The Transbaikal, a country of great
forests with extensive areas of arable
land interspersed here and _ there,
charmed all by the quiet beauty of its
varied landscapes and its attractive as-
pects. Although called a mountainous
country in comparison with the low
plains of western Siberia, where the
highest elevation does not exceed 400
feet, the Transbaikal is really a region
of moderate hills, like our own Catskills,
the highest point on the railway being
but 3,100 feet.

The mountainous regions of Manchu-
ria are practically uninhabited, save by
wandering hunters and pastoral people,
so that the presence of permanent settle-
ments and signs of human activities were
welcome signs in the Transbaikal scenery.

In the watershed of the upper Amur,
especially in the Ingoda Valley, and
within sight of the railway, were lumber
camps along and timber rafts on the
river, pioneer huts in the forest clearings,
small herds of cattle, newly broken land,
and quickly growing grain, which marked
the western limits of that vast immigra-
tion that is rapidly transforming unin-
habited Siberia into a land of wealth and
prosperity. The cloudless sky, pure air,
countless flowers, lofty trees, and lux-
uriant vegetation set off to great advan-
tage the new country that is passing
under the domination of Russian colo-
nists.

Crossing the Ingoda, the thriving town
of Karimskaia was reached, whence a
branch railway of 177 miles extends to

1084

A LAND OF PROMISE

Streténsk, which is the inland center of
the navigable waterways of nearly 2,000
miles in the watershed of the Amur.

To the westward the way is pleasant
and picturesque across the low Yablonoi
Mountains, with their many striking bits
of landscape, especially while descending
their wooded slopes, which led through
the beautiful Selenga Valley to the pre-
cipitous shores of the wondrous inland
sea, Lake Baikal.

LAKE BAIKAL

For nearly 150 miles the railway skirts
the southern shores of this great lake.
It is one of the lacustral wonders of the
world, with its depth of 5,000 feet, its
average width of 40 miles, its length of
375 miles, and its great distance—nearly
3,000 miles—from the ocean. Frozen
over between four and five months each
year, there were at the end of May large
drifting ice-fields within view as the train
passed. The warm, balmy airs, lovely
scented flowers, the tuneful chorus of
singing birds, a luxuriant undergrowth,
and the spring dress of the huge forest
trees—all gained in sweet contrasting
attractiveness from the drifting ice-floes,
the occasional snowdrifts in sheltered
spots, and the white-topped peaks of
Chamanka and other mountains.

Now the way stations had their quota
of gazing but never-rude Russian colo-
nists, and with them came shy peasant
girls in quaint costumes and bright, be-
coming colors, whose welcome wares of
wild flowers, sweet cream, soft cheeses,
etc., were daily proffered and purchased
from Transbaikalia to the Ural Moun-
tains.

IRKUTSK

Much is not expected from a subordi-
nate city, some 3,500 miles distant from
the formal center of all Russian power—
Saint Petersburg—especially when such
city has been cursed throughout its his-
tory as a selected destination for political
and criminal exiles.

Every traveler is therefore surprised
to find Irkutsk a well-built, prosperous,
modern city, with a population of about
75,000. Among Siberian cities, Irkutsk
is noted for its churches, orphanages,

1085

hospitals, schools, observatories, and mu-
seums. It is a city of imposing buildings,
beautiful homes, and is given to lavish
hospitality, while its extended business
operations are supplemented by all mod-
ern municipal equipments, including tele-
phony and an efficient fire service.

It must be added that it has in summer
nearly impassable streets, that the preva-
lence of unpunished crimes is notorious,
while it is said by free-speaking Russians
that the inefficiency of its police is only
surpassed by the corruption of its offi-
cials. With a steady inflow of honest
immigrants, conditions are believed to be
slowly improving and the future is more
promising.

The capital of a province of nearly a
million people, Irkutsk on the Angara
is admirably located to control a very
large and lucrative trade. Lake Baikal,
with its five contributory rivers, affords
unusual transportation facilities inland,
while the Angara, the discharging stream
of Lake Baikal, leads to the Yenisei, with
its 10,000 miles of navigable waterway.
The government assay office at Irkutsk
handles the gold produced in the prov-
ince, which averages annually $10,000,-
000 in value.

SIBERIAN IMMIGRATION

The real creative force of a country’s
material prosperity, and the most essen-
tial element of its grandeur, is its popu-
lation. Far-seeing statesmen have real-
ized that within the twentieth century
Siberia will be the center of Russian
trade and commerce. In consequence a
prominent feature of the empire’s do-
mestic policy has been the economic
evolution of Siberia. In former years
hundreds of millions of dollars were
spent to maintain Russia’s prestige and
power in the Orient through military
establishments and strategic lines of rail-
ways, but to scant avail.*

Now a wiser policy is appropriating
millions of dollars annually for a peace-
ful invasion of Asia. In a single year
more than $5,000,000 was spent to pro-
mote emigration from European Russia
to Siberia, which is systematically and

* In ten years, 1898-1907, Russia spent $994,-
500,000 on railways.

1086

successfully promoted. Emigration agen-
cies have been established, traveling
agents employed, surveyors utilized, and
occasionally allotments have been made
for travel expenses. Along the Siberian
Railway there have been established suit-
able stations where immigrants are cared
for through barracks, kitchens, and hos-
pitals.

Schools and churches have been pro-
vided for the newcomers, who are also
helped over the first year by grants of
seeds, loans of stock and machinery,
and other practical methods. ‘Timber,
pasture, and arable lands are allotted to
newcomers, which may be either rented
or bought on very favorable terms. In-
struction is given along practical lines,
and valuable, up-to-date machinery has
been bought in large quantities for rent
or sale to actual settlers.

In the T'ransbaikal region there were
incoming pioneers, as they termed the
immigrants, by the score, and in Irkutsk
province by the hundreds. It was only
in the region of Omsk that the travel
was in full tide, with from 2,000 to 4,000
arrivals each day. ‘Travel was in fourth-
class cars at an expense of a quarter of
a cent a mile. The cars were fitted up
with berths, three-tiered, the lower
changeable at will into seats.

Here could be seen an arriving train,
from which ran at top speed the men on
their way to obtain hot water for tea,
which is provided free at each station,
and later to buy bread at the emigrants’
market. The women and children await
in’ the ‘train the’ arrival ‘of bread and
water for their frugal meals.

Again, at an important station would
be seen several hundred pioneers, hud-
dled in family groups on the main plat-
form or in sheltered places. Surrounded
by large bundles which contained their
worldly goods, they slept or ate, awaited
their turn in barracks, or looked forward
to the arrival of the train that carried
them to the Orient.

Official statistics show that in 1908
there were 785,712 khodoki, or pioneers,
who entered Siberia, and that 121,204
returned to European Russia, making a
net gain for Siberia of 637,608 settlers—
a marked increase over 1907, when the

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

net gain approximated 550,000. It is
said that a bad harvest in Europe would
swell the annual figures to a million or
more.

From observation of pioneers en route
(of whom about 7,000 were personally
seen) and of actual settlers, it seemed.
certain that Siberia is receiving a hardy,
courageous, and resourceful immigra-
tion. In physique and deportment they
appeared to be superior to the peasantry
between the Urals and Moscow. Natur-:
ally the provinces nearer to Europe profit
most largely, and the destination of in-
coming pioneers is not far from 50 per
cent between the Urals and Omsk, 30
per cent to Tomsk province, 15 per cent
to Irkutsk province, and 5 per cent to
‘Transbaikalia.

THE YENISEI VALLEY

Descending the Angara Valley, the
road passes through the pastoral country
of the Russian Bouriats, offshoots of the
tribes seen in China, and cross to the
watershed of the Yenisei. Incoming
pioneers are rapidly settling this region,
already beautiful with extensive fields of
grain, for which the soil is especially
suited: Crossing~the *Yeniser ‘bya’ fine
steel bridge, half a mile long, brought
the train to Krasnoyarsk, the capital of
the province, the thriving business center
of the fertile upper valley (map, p. 1076).

The Yenisei watershed, in area more
than one-quarter the size of all Europe,
is destined to be one of the great grain-
growing centers of the world. The grain
grown in these and other regions in easy
water communication already aggregates
three or more millions of tons annually,
which can be readily increased to five
million tons. ‘There exists uncertain and
irregular water communication with Eu-
rope, which can be so improved as to
furnish cheap transportation and assure
wonderful prosperity to these inland
regions.

THE TAIGA, OR VIRGIN-FOREST COUNTRY

The train soon enters the Taiga, an
immense region of dense forests, largely
of the well-known Russian birch and
Siberian cedar. Here appears one of the
strange vagaries connected with the en-

<

Photo by A. W. Greely

SIBERIAN IMMIGRANTS IN REAR OF OMSK STATION

About one-half million immigrants are pouring into Siberia each year

gineering of the Siberian Railway, which
left to the north Tomsk, the capital of
Siberia, now reached by a branch line
of 46 miles. Time failed in which to
visit this city, the center of the well-
known mining district of the Altai, to
the south, and of the vast and unique
hunting grounds to the north, from which
come the renowned Russian furs, the
martin, ermine, otter, etc. Tomsk prov-
ince bids fair to be in the near future
one of the leading gold-producing centers
of the world, as the gold mines of the
Altai are now supplemented by extensive
and wide-spread placer deposits in the
forest regions.

As we passed there were seen thou-
sands of pioneers who had come to
Tomsk province to seek their fortunes.
Some were joining the bands of trappers,
but most were augmenting the hordes of
gold-seekers who are fast invading this
region.

THE SIBERIAN STEPPES

To the west the gloomy Taiga grad-
ually fades away, and one comes into the
bright, open steppes or great Siberian

plains, which strikingly resemble the
prairies of Illinois, lowa, Kansas, and
Nebraska. Extending 1,000 miles north
and south, and as far from east to west,
the vast watershed of the Obi (nine-
tenths the area of the Mississippi and
Missouri combined watersheds), despite
its long winters in the north, 1s unsur-
passed in its suitableness for stock-rais-
ing, dairy farming, and other agricul-
tural pursuits. Its level and well-watered
plains, dotted here and there by light
erowths of birch, alder, willow, and Si-
berian cedar, are covered by vigorous
growth of nutritious grasses. The soil
is fertile, stock of all kinds thrives, trans-
portation facilities are good, coal is abun-
dant, modern agricultural methods
largely obtain, markets are accessible,
and the population is rapidly increasing.

THE MOST IMPORTANT CITY OF SIBERIA

The capital, Omsk, on the Irtish, a
tributary of the Obi, is now the largest
(about 100,000) and commercially the
most important city in Siberia. Here
centers the river transportation of west-
ern Siberia, an interior system elsewhere

1087

unsurpassed in extent, which, through a
large canal connecting tributaries of the
Obi and Yenisei, aggregate about 15,000
miles of navigable waterways open six
months in the year. In the Obi fleet
alone there are 242 steamers and num-
berless other crafts. As the area of the
watershed of the Obi alone is more than
double that of Denmark, France, Ger-
many, and Italy combined, the future

importance of the fertile region may be

vaguely estimated.

The great Omsk station was the scene
of business activity and of railway travel
such as characterize the large railway
stations in America. The force of uni-
formed, self-important railway officials,
led by the gorgeous station-master, were
full of fuss and fury between the impor-
tant train-de-luxe, the hordes of immi-
grants—arriving, encamping, depart-
ing—and the groaning, shunting freight
trains which were disentangling them-
selves in the spacious train yards.

Immigrants by the hundreds swarmed
over and around the station—men and
women in the flush and vigor of life,
gay and careless youth, the aged border-
ing on the verge of the grave, and the
tiny babe at its mother’s breast. ‘Their

Photo by E. B. Lobdell
CHELIABINSK, IN THE URAL REGION: THE FAMOUS DISTRIBUTING CENTER OF THE
IMMIGRANTS

humble belongings were in bundles and
portable packages, among which spin-
ning-wheels, cooking utensils, and the in-
dispensable samovar were most evident.
There was nothing disconsolate in act or
face, but all looked forward hopefully to
the promised land. Their quiet, orderly
deportment was quite impressive; no
quarreling or bickering, no drunkenness
or dissipation was to be seen.

Here was a picturesque Tartar, there
a tittle Russian; here an assertive Cos-
sack, there a determined Khirgis chief.
The national sombreness of dress was
generally relieved by a bit of gay color:
most pioneers were equipped with the
Russian high boots, and their outer gar-
ments were of sheepskin, long since past
its pristine whiteness.

THE SIBERIAN IS STOLID AND SILENT

As a rule—natives and pioneers—the
Siberian is stolid and silent, but he was
found to be kindly, interested, and in-
variably courteous. ‘The contented and

satisfied appearance of the peasant was.

generally remarked. They were well
fed, well clothed—though the outer gar-
ments were often dirty—of very decent
appearance, and had a self-respecting

1088

manner far from groveling
or sycophantic.

They appear more manly
and energetic than the Eu-
ropean peasants, and doubt-
less are so. It takes energy
and determination to break
loose from the environment
of a lifetime, and to build
a new home thousands of
miles away under unknown
conditions—this even with
a paternal government to
aid.

From Omsk westward to
the Ural Mountains, about
800 miles, extends the Bar-
aba country, the great pro-
ducing region for foreign
markets. ‘Tn two provinces
from Omsk west there are
estimated to be about 12
million head of stock, one-
half sheep, one-quarter cattle, and one-
_quarter horses, with nearly a quarter of
a million camels.

65,000 TONS OF BUTTER ARE SHIPPED EACH
YEAR TO EUROPE

The country is one of quiet beauty,
luxuriant in vegetation, interspersed with
groves of birches, willows, and alders, its
soil evidently of great fertility and appar-
ently equally divided between stock-rais-
ing, grain-growing, and dairy farming.
Here and there were visible the rounded
tents of the Khirgis, but in general the
region along the railway has been taken
up by pioneers, whose new huts and culti-
vated fields are much in evidenrice.

There. was a constant succession of
attractive sights: Bands of dromedaries,
troops of ponies, stretches of purple
heather, herds of cattle, scattered Khirgis
tents, groves of white birches, fields of
grain, files of carts, and miles upon miles
of fragrant white lilacs.

The shipments to foreign markets
from the Baraba region consist almost
entirely of meat and butter. While the
greater portion of the meat goes to St.
Petersburg and cther cities of European
Russia, yet large and increasing ship-
ments are made to Germany and Eng-
land.

The most wonderfully developed in-
dustry in west Siberia is dairy farming.

Photo by A. W. Greely
PRISON CAR AND EXILES ON THE SIBERIAN RAILWAY

The latest methods and most improved
machinery are used in the production of
butter. ‘The shipments to foreign mar-
kets are increasing year by year. More
than 65,000 tons of butter are shipped to
Europe annually. The butter is of the
finest quality and commands the highest
prices in England and in Germany, where
the demand is steadily increasing.

Cheliabinsk, at the eastern foot of the
Ural Mountains, is the point at which
the western section of the Siberian Rail-
way bifurcates, the newer road running
to St. Petersburg via Ekaterinburg and
Perm, while the older main line, crossing
the Urals, continues. via. Samara~ ‘to
Moscow.

Cheliabinsk is the point from which
were distributed in former years the ex-
iles to Siberia. In these later days it has
been made a resting place for immi-
grants, of whom it is estimated that about

“4,000,000 have passed through the city.

There are barracks, hospitals, laundries,
baths, and summer camps, where every-
thing essential for the health and necessi-
ties of the immigrant are provided.
Twenty-five hundred can be comfortably
cared for in winter and thirty-five hun-
dred in summer.

Crossing the low-crested Urals at
1,800 feet elevation, the plains of the
Volga were found unattractive as com-
pared with Siberia, while the peasants

1089

1090

seemed inferior, in appearance at least.
Although the city of Toula exhibits Rus-
sia in its new role of industrial establish-
ments, all were glad when, practically on
schedule time, the ‘T'ransiberian train
rolled into the great Koursk depot of the
holy and busy city of Moscow.

Of unique and absorbing interest was
“little mother’ Moscow, with its praying
pilgrims, countless icon-decked chapels,
with its multi-colored houses and holy
sanctuaries, culminating in the church-
crowned walls of historic Kremlin, with
their glittering cupolas and _ towers
brightly beautiful in green and gold;

THE NATIONAL GROGRAPHIC: MAGAZINE

but, however, they were symbols of a
vanishing past.

One’s thoughts turned from these sen-
suous attractions to the things of the
present and near future, exemplified by
the vast empire just crossed; for Siberia,
somewhat relieved from the deadening
bonds of autocratic officialdom, is teach-
ing individual resourcefulness and inde-
pendence through its vast plains, dense
forests, lofty mountains, and great rivers.
Slowly but surely the fuller, freer life
of Asiatic Russia is bringing into higher
and harmonious relations with its envi-
ronment the godlike soul of man.

THE ALBANIANS

By THeron J. Damon, or CONSTANTINOPLE

EITHER the bastinado, nor the
N gun, nor the cannon, nor exile,

nor imprisonment, nor even
death itself, will ever move them.”

The speaker was a young Albanian
who had received part of his education
in the United States. He is now back
in his own country, where he is working
with indefatigable zeal for his people.
He is: one- of the few, educated men. of
Albania, but he intends that the coming
generation shall not number educated
men and women by the “few.”

The words quoted above were pre-
céded by- these: “At present, from north
to south, and from east to west of Al-
bania, all classes of people—Moslem and
Christian alike—have a desire, which
amounts to a passion, for national educa-
tion. All of them understand that just
as in the past the sword was the symbol
of power, so today education is the god-
dess of power, and they are going to
possess education in spite of persecution.”

The Albanians have come to a con-
sciousness of their need of civilization
and western progress. From the first day
of the new Ottoman constitution the
Young Turks, however, were deter-
mined that civilization should come to
the Albanians only after being passed
through a Turkish and Mohammedan
strainer. This program could not be

accepted by the Albanians, even had the ©
Young Turks been capable of properly
carrying it out.

The Albanian is a European; two thou-

sand years and more he has lived where

he now lives—in the fastnesses of Epirus
and. Illyria, across the Adriatic from
Italy’s heel. Early in the nineteenth cen-
tury the Albanians mingled with their
southern neighbors, the Greeks, and were
the backbone of the struggle for Greek
independence. The kinsmen of Marco
Bozzaris, the Albanian hero of Greek
independence, all migrated to Cephal-
onia, off the coast of Greece, but about
two million less fortunate Albanians are
yet under Turkish rule.

During the 125 years previous to the
discovery of America, the proud republic
of Venice held a benevolent supremacy
over the Albanian coast towns and their
spheres, and thus for a century retarded
the day of Turkish domination. With
the fall of Scutari-in-Albania and the
expulsion of the Venetians by the Turks
in 1478, the Turks began their over-
lordship—four centuries of chicanery,
broken faith, and cruelty. The sum of
the Turkish rule has been to put the Al-
banian only more deeply in debt to pov-
erty, superstition, and bloodthirstiness
than his mountain history and primitive
traits would warrant. ‘Throughout two

Photo by Theron J. Damon

Photo by Theron J. Damon

CHIEFS ON MONTENEGRIN SOIL, DISCUSSING WAYS AND MEANS
WITH A REVOLUTIONARY LEADER

TWO ALBANIA?

1001

millenniums the waves and impulses of
progress have not reached him, or have
passed by, leaving him untouched.

THE VENDETTA IS STILL PRACTICED

Today, as in the past, it is true that
one in five of the male mountaineers falls
a sacrifice to the terrible vendetta, which
only civilization can eradicate from Al-
banian national life. ‘To strike a person,
even inadvertently, is a matter for blood
nrevense. Nothing else ‘can repair the
wounded honor. If the offender himself
is not killed, one of his relatives must be
the victim, and thus the endless chain is
begun. When the vendetta has gone
ridiculously far, it may be bought off, if
there is sufficient money at hand, or
“called off through some of the in-
tricacies of the Albanian code.

Let no one speak of the Albanian as
lawless. He lives most scrupulously up
to all that he knows; but that is the law
given him by the customs and nature of
his ancestors centuries ago, somewhat
“codified” in the fifteenth century, though

Photo by Theron J. Damon
AN ANCIENT BRIDGE NEAR THE TOWN OF SCUTARI, ALBANIA

never to this day written down. Among
the curious rules that govern his life are
such as these: Persons descended from a
common male ancestor, through the male
line, consider one another as brothers, or
brother and sister, and thus all marriage
within a tribe is excluded. Young men
may likewise swear brotherhood, and this
forms a tie which subjects the men and
their offspring for generations to the
same marriage laws that blood relation-
ship would involve.

Persons related through the same god-
father cannot marry, and of godfathers
there are two kinds, that of baptism and
that of hair. When a child, boy or girl,
is about two years old, its hair, never
before having been touched by scissors,
is cut with much ceremony. The god-
father performs the cutting, leaving, if
the child be a Christian, one lock for each
of the four points of the compass, form-
ing a cross; if a Moslem, three locks to
form a triangle. In the case of a ven-
detta a man may not be harmed if in the
company of a child or a woman.

T0Q2

ees eae

Photo by Theron J. Damon

STREET SCENE IN THE TOWN OF SCUTARI, ALBANIA

AN INDOMITABLE PERSONALITY

Today the Albanian is the most pic-
turesque personality in Europe; yet, in-
teresting as are his traits, of more sig-
nificant interest is his political future.
An Albanian national consciousness has
recently. appeared and -reftuses. to be
crushed. Under the anomalous govern-
ment of the Turk the various Christian
races of the Empire, as the Ottoman
Armenians, the Ottoman Bulgarians, and
the Ottoman Greeks, have each their na-
tional existence, a state within a state,
though subject always to the will of the
Turk. The Albanians, although in the
main they have adopted a kind of Mos-
lem loyalty which gives them a quasi-
solidarity with the Turk, are determined
that they also shall have a_ national
entity.

Though they are cursed with the back-
wardness which has everywhere accom-
panied in a greater or less degree the
Mohammedan faith, their leaders realize

that they are not an Oriental but an
Occidental race; that their Turco-Mo-
hammedan traits are a veneer, and that
with but a generation of good education
they will leap forward and take their
place among the civilized and law-abid-
ing races of the Balkan peninsula.

Not incompatible with the new Alba-
nian nationalism—indeed, the reason for
it—is the fact that the Albanian is one of
the most intensely individualistic mem-
bers of the human race. Were this not
so he would ages ago have lost his iden-
tity in that of the various peoples who
throughout the historical era have surged
around the Albanian Mountains. In
spite of the successive onslaughts of
Roman, Goth, Serb, and Bulgar, and of
the 350 years of Turkish domination, the
Albanian has conserved his indomitable
individuality. Crispi, the Italian states-
man, was a thorough-going Albanian.
He was a member of the large colony of
Albanians in Sicily and southern Italy,

1093

CHRISTIANS OF

SCUTARI,

Photo by Theron J. Damon

ALBANIA

The red hood and embroidered cape of the upper-class women(one at the right) are most

gorgeous.

whose ancestors, a hundred thousand
strong, emigrated when the ‘Turks over-
ran Albania. The Albanians of Italy to
this day conserve their racial distinctive-
ness. The unwillingness or inability of
the Albanians to modify their individu-
ality has found its reflex tragedy in the
continued existence of the Albanian tri-
bal system and the perpetual intertribal
feuds. Asa result, Albania has not been
able to present a united front against a
common enemy.

Only one great, unifying national hero
has ever arisen for the Albanians—
Skanderberg. He died in 1467, after
winning 21 pitched battles from the
Turk. His death left Albania without a
leader, and the brave Albanians, who
knew no loyalty or law beyond that of
the family and clan, fell under the might
of Mohammed the Second, conqueror of
Constantinople. Mohammed could crush,

The lower garment is a pair of voluminous bloomers

but not subdue, the Albanians; nor have
the successive sultans been able to ac-
complish that great desire. The best they
could do was to humor them, and to the
last day of Abdul Hamid’s tyranny the
Albanians were treated as a peculiar peo-
ple. Hamid bought their loyalty by levy-
ing upon them no taxes, by refraining
from military enieenn nea among them,
and by taking the pick of these fierce
mountaineers for his closest and most
trusted body-guard. The details of the
manner in which he pampered them are
among the lore of Yildiz Kiosk.

THE YOUNG TURKS WERE RUTHLESS

When, after 1908, the Young Turks
had acquired their constitution and were
facing the overwhelming task of putting
the Ottoman house in order, the treat-
nent of Albania was one of the crucial
problems. It should have been most

10904

carefully considered. By delicate hand-
ling, by the fulfillment of promises, and
by a just sympathy with the real aspira-
tions of an ignorant but potentially capa-
ble. race, the Young Turks might have
built up and solidified in the province of
Albania an impregnable barrier against
European aggression. Instead of that
they have pursued a course which has
been aptly described by the Constanti-
nople correspondent of the London
Times as the steam-roller policy. Dis-
regarding advice from every competent
quarter, the Young Turks strove to flat-
ten out the Albanians to the level of the
ignorant Turkish peasants in the desert
plains of Asia Minor. Nothing could
have been more preposterous or more
certainly foredoomed to failure.
Bodings of the inevitable result—a
non-Ottoman Albania—appeared in the
autumn of 1900, but it was not until the
spring of 1910 that a revolt assumed
serious proportions. On April 5 of that
year the Moslem Albanians of the north-
eastern corner of Albania along the rail-
road line took up arms against the goy-
ernment. For a few days the rebels

Photo by Theron J. Damon
ALBANIAN CHIEFS FROM THE MOUNTAIN REGION NEAR SCUTARI

held Kachanik Pass, but 50,000 ‘Turkish
troops were immediately poured into the
region and the movement was smothered.
Never more than a local affair, it was
undertaken without any organization;
Albania proper was scarcely concerned
by the uprising.

The Young Turks thought, however,
that the time was come to teach the law-
less Albanians a much-needed lesson.
Accordingly the troops collected for the
suppression of the uprising were marched
throughout Albania. One division went
westward to Scutari, or Schodra, as it 1s
known to the Albanians. They traversed
mountain roads which for generations
had been closed to any man accompanied
by a Turkish soldier, for the Albanians
liked not the uniform of Turkish au-
thority. But now the mountain people,
taken by surprise, were to be disarmed.
After such a smothering as had been
meted out to their brethren along the
railroad line, outnumbered and opposed
by machine guns, which are a strange
terror to the simple Albanian, there was
no hope in resistance. ‘Their arms—the
pride and oftentimes the sum of their

T0905

ALBANIAN CHILDREN WHO HAVE KNOWN

1090

Photo by Theron J. Damon
ALBANIAN CHILDREN OF AN AUSTRIAN SCHOOL, AT SCUTARI

Ns

Photo by Theron J. Damon
NO AUSTRIAN SCHOOL

SOE RSS

Photo by Theron J. Damon

ALBANIAN CHRISTIANS OF SCUTARI LEAVING CHURCH

possessions—were taken from them, and
in the shape of the outrageously cruel
and uncalled-for bastinado they were
likewise ‘“‘given their lesson.”

Another division of the Turkish forces
marched southward and penetrated the
peaceable valleys of central Albania.

SCHOOLS WERE CLOSED WITH THE BASTI-
NADO AND LASH

At Elbassan, immediately on the grant-
ing of the constitution, the intellectual
leaders of Young Albania had started a
normal school. They were trying to pre-
pare Albanians to become teachers of
the hordes of their ignorant countrymen
throughout the land. They were using
the Albanian language and, according to

the vote of an Albanian congress of the
year before, were writing this language—
a European one—in Latin letters. Under
Abdul Hamid every attempt at writing
or printing or giving instruction in the
Albanian language had been stifled so
far as possible. Only in the Austrian
and Italian missionary schools of north-
ern Albania, carrying out their Austrian
and Italian political propagandas and ex-
empt from the surveillance of the Sultan,
had it been possible for the Albanian to.
study in his own tongue.

As for an alphabet, the Austrian polli-
ticians who are back of all the missionary
work of the Austrian priests and who
never cease to advance their Austrian
schemes, looked askance at a future

1097

Albania whose Italian—as well as Aus-
trian—trained leaders should be united
by a common language and a common
alphabet. Accordingly a lengthy, labori-
ous alphabet was invented and saddled
upon the school children of the Austrian
missions. This would help to open dis-
sention for the future, when Austria
mayhap should inherit the land and

should find it necessary to use her wiliest
tyranny in Austrianizing the Albanian.

The Elbassan Normal School, with its
sensible Latin alphabet and its freedom
from outside propaganda, was, there-
fore, a beacon light in the darkness of
Albania. It had no religious bias—Mos-
lem and Christian were brothers without
distinction. The founders had but one
aim, the uplifting of the Albanian race.
They were not revolutionists in the po-
litical sense of the word. ‘They wanted
to cooperate with the new Young Turk
government, and only demanded that the
application of the newly granted consti-
tution should have something i in common
with its fundamental promises.

But when the Turkish soldiers arrived
in E|bassan in the summer of t910 mar-
tial law was proclaimed; all persons con-
nected with the normal school or sympa-

Photo by Theron J. Damon
A GROUP OF REBEL ALBANIAN CHIEFS AND AN ALBANIAN FROM THE COLONY IN ITALY

thizing with its progress were hunted
down, led*before the military authorities,
and beaten in a manner too repulsive to
detail. The bastinado and the lash were
applied to many of the most enlightened
people of Elbassan; the treasurer of the
normal school was flogged beyond be-
lief; the director and: several of the
teachers effected their escape. ‘The mili-
tary authorities searched out and flogged
the persons who were responsible for a
telegram previously sent to Constanti-
nople, asking that instruction in Albanian
schools should be given in the Albanian
language and in the Latin characters.
Then the soldiers were marched off for
other similar deeds, having “shut up that
school and given those Albanians a lesson
they would remember.”

UPRISINGS BY THE ALBANIANS

As the year 1910 wore on trouble be-
gan to arise for the Turks in the chan-
celleries of Europe over the scandal of
the military orgies in Albania and of the
closing of the normal school; likewise
over the scandal of the equally brutal
and, if possible, still more uncalled-for
“disarmament” of. the Christians. in
Macedonia. Some parties always exist

10908

THE MAIN STREET OF SCUTARI, ALBANIA
PUT DOWN

in Europe whose political interests can
be furthered by championing the wrongs
of the oppressed; and though hypocrit-
ical motives moved many of the Euro-
pean statesmen who aided the revelation,
the truth of the Young Turks’ accom-
plishments in Albania and Macedonia
gradually became common knowledge.
The Young Turk had revealed himself
as the true son of his father. The lead-
ers saw that they had made a mistake;
but they would make no acknowledg-
ment, and subsequent events have shown
that they have had no change of heart.

In April, t911, occurred an uprising of
the Malissori, or Christian Albanians, of
the province of Scutari, in northwestern
Albania, along the Montenegrin frontier
The revolt was one of the unfortunate
and premature attempts of a desperate
and brave, but disunited, people to throw
off an intolerable yoke. Instead of de-
veloping into a general revolt, the upris-
ing remained confined to the furthermost
corner of Albania.

The true patriots of all Albania sink.
differences of religion and tribe in the

; TURKISH
THE REVOLT

ees
eS

Photo. by Theron J. Damon

SOLDIERS WHO HAVE COME TO

great facts of a common heritage and a
common yoke. They, the educated mem-
bers of their race, were striving last year
for a united effort toward attaining jus-
tice for all Albania. These leaders were.
unfortunately, ill- organized, without
funds, and without experience. They
received no support from the great bulk
of Moslem tribes, many of whom, how-
ever, had been so thoroughly disarmed
that they could not think of joining a re-
bellion. The Catholic Mirdites, a strong
tribe south of Scutari, had few rifles, all
of old type, and hesitated about coming
to the support of the Malissori revolt
until it was too late.

Montenegro was the backbone of the
uprising, through the support which she
and her people gave to thousands of
Albanian refugees who in the previous
winter had crossed the frontier and who
in the spring went back to Albania pre-
pared for fight. Thus in a remarkable
manner was buried the hatchet, or rather
the knife, which for generations and cen-
turies had been unsheathed between the
Slavic Montenegrin and the autochthon-

1099

1100

ous Albanian. But Montenegro found
herself dangerously involved in Albanian
affairs in disaccord with the diplomacy
of Europe and especially of her friend
and benefactress, Russia; and so Monte-
negro finally left Albania in the lurch.
Despite this fact, however, the Turks
were obliged to make with the rebel
Malissori a peace which granted such
important concessions that immediately
complaints began to arise from the Mos-
lem population of Scutari, who had not
revolted.

“What! You grant favors to. the
rebels,” they said, “but we who remained
faithful continue under the old burdens.”
It was like the complaint of the unprodi-
gal son. Unfortunately the Turk could
not mollify his faithful children as effh-
caciously as we imagine did the ancient
Hebrew father. As for the Malissori
arrangement, it was only a truce, for how
long no one could say.

SCHOOLS ONLY CAN RELIEVE THEM

The future of Albania depends not
only upon the will of Austria, of Italy,
of Montenegro backed by Russia, of
Greece, and of Turkey itself, each de-
termined to have the Albanian part of the
interminable Eastern Question settled in
its own selfish way; the future of Al-
bania depends largely on the amount of
education which can be placed in the land
before the fate of the 2 million inhabit-
ants is irrevocably settled. With the ex-
ception, perhaps, of the intrepid Miss
Edith Durham, the English woman to
whom the wildest and most dangerous
parts of Albania have been a peculiar
stamping-ground, no one knows Albania
and the Albanians better than Mr. James
D. Bourchier, for a generation the special
correspondent of the London Times in
the Balkan peninsula. His striking arti-
cle on Albania in the new edition of the
Encyclopedia Britannica, after speaking
of the struggles of isolated Albanian
groups to agitate for better things in Al-
bania, concludes thus: “The growth of a
wider patriotic sentiment must depend
on the spread of popular education.”
Once let untrammeled education exist in
Albania and the Albanians will look after
themselves.

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Many of the Christian Albanians of
the city of Scutari have been educated
and have become prosperous, thanks to
the Austrians or Italians. ‘They fear the
fanaticism of their Moslem brothers, and
this, too, though in the mountains a few
miles away, among the families of ig-
norant mountaineers, both the Moslem
and Christian religions may be sheltered
under the same patriarchal roof, and
Moslem and Christian rites may be cele-
brated in the one squalid edifice of wor-
ship.

Again and again has the writer of
the present article asked educated Mos-
lem Albanians interested in the cause of
their race why they did not preach to the
Moslems of Scutari and elsewhere the
brotherhood of Moslem and Christian.
Without hesitation, but with shame and
with firm-set lips, the answer has come,
each time the same: “It is impossible.
The Moslems are ignorant. They must
first be educated; then they will under-
stand.”

Just before the dissolution of Parlia-- ,

ment, in January, 1912, an Albanian dep-
uty, one of the chief spokesmen of his
race and at present a leader of«the rebels;
declared, “If the Turks keep on despising
the non-Turks, they will bring the coun-
try to ruin. I say this because I love
the Turks, whose existence is needful to
us, and in order to safeguard their ex-
istence.” The Albanian deputy was
speaking for his people.

THE ALBANIAN DREADS THE FUTURE

The Albanian fears lest, instead of ac-
quiring the prayed-for and fought-for
liberty, his dear mountains and wild
gorges and fertile valleys be divided
among the vulture nations, and lest he be
absorbed by an alien race. Austria
threatening to come down from the
north; Italy, menacing from but a step
away on the other shore of the Adriatic—
they are two enemies whom, in spite of
the schools and hospitals and churches
lavishly bestowed in northwestern AI-
bania by their representatives, the Alba-
nians hate worse than they hate the Turks.
The Albanian dreads Austria and Italy
just as a prophetic Pole- might. have
dreaded the three despoilers of his native

land.. The Albanian fears, likewise, a
European conference in his regard, lest
Montenegro and Greece should be al-
lowed to aggrandize themselves at the ex-
pense of Albania. The ideal alternative
for which he longs is a well-governed
Turkey of which he will be one of the
bulwarks.

Generations of ‘Turkish overlordship
have taught him, however, that he may
not expect justice from the Turks. ‘The
revolution of July, 1908, gave a mo-
mentary gleam of hope, but the blackness
of despair immediately settled down,
blacker than before. The bastinado, the
bullet, and the prison-cell have been the
only reward for the craving for “some-
thing better.” It is true that the Alba-
nians who had been neglected for cen-
turies were not ready to take kindly to
some of the provisions of “Constitutional-
ism.” ‘The ignorant peasant, never hav-
ing paid taxes and never having been
drafted for military service, did not ap-
preciate the new “equality,” which be-
came manifest to him in the payment of

Photo by Emma G. Cummings

A GROUP OF MONTENEGRINS ON THE MAIN STREET OF CETTINJE, THE CAPITAL OF
MONTENEGRO

taxes like all the other inhabitants of
Turkey and in the contribution of his
quota of martyrs on the torrid sands of
the Yemen.

The Albanians had many things to
learn. ‘The instruction should and could
have come through their already enlight-
ened leaders.

But the stupid Turk did the only thing
he knew how to do—he marched his
armies into Albania. ‘Thereby, instead
of utilizing the possibilities of enthusi-
astic loyalty, he more firmly rooted the
age-long feeling of distrust and hate.

Speculation as to the future of AI-
bania only leads one into impenetrable
mazes, for the Albanian problem is bound
up with the solution of the far-reaching
Eastern Question, that teaser of Europe
through the generations. The Crimean
War was fought to solve it, but in more
intricate form it rose again in the Russo-
Turkish War of 1877-1878. The man-
dataries. of Europe at Berlin in 1878
bungled the now obsolete Treaty of Ber-
lin. Is it too much to hope that since that

IIol

OWINALNOW FO TWLIdVO THE ALNIDIAD ONIMAINY SATMNOG MOvd HIM NAWOM

pooMispuy Y pooMaopuyy Aq yYstrAdo_ pure ojoyg

LNVSVad

u

RSAC pal ke EM Be i ED ee a

gene

(oe ey
<< b> ine diane

1102

Photo by Emma G. Cummings

THE MARKET PLACE OF CETTINJE: A GROUP OF NATIVES WEARING PISTOLS IN THEIR
BELTS

time there has been raised up a wiser
and more benevolent generation of dip-
lomats? Yet the Near East is always
hoping for a solution and end of the in-
sufferable conditions which, under the
Old Turks, made, and now under the
Young Turks are making, of the Otto-
man Empire a byword.

Today Albanians, Arabs, Armenians,
Bulgarians, Greeks, Servians, and the
very Turks themselves are suffering, as
for ages, from the blight of Turkish
rule. Of these unfortunate peoples, the
Albanians are among the first who should
receive the attention of an unselfish out-
side world.

1103

AGANVd AHL NO ‘IAHOLSAN >NMOL NVINVOTNE IVOIGAL V NI

OD Mat du0jshoy Aq JYSIIAdOD = ‘sBuIppl ‘MA “q Aq OlOYg

ae:

ANAOS LAMUVIT

1104

THE RISE OF BULGARIA®

By James D. BourcuHIEeR

HE decline of the Ottoman power,
which began after the retreat of
the Turkish army from Vienna in

1083, was marked during the 18th century
by increasing anarchy in the European
and Asiatic provinces of the Empire. The
Balkan. lands were desolated by fierce
bands of Janissaries and Krjalis, against
whose ravages the Christian population
found little other protection than such
as was afforded them by the Klephts and
Haiduks—the Greek or Slavonic coun-
terparts to the insurgent bands of today.

Servia obtained internal autonomy in
1820, complete independence with an in-
crease of territory in 1878, and was pro-
claimed a kingdom in 1882. Greece be-
came an independent kingdom in 1832
and acquired Thessaly in 1881. The
principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia.
which had never been under direct Turk-
ish administration, were united in 1861,
obtained independence in 1878, acquiring
the Dobruja at the same time, and _ be-
came the Kingdom of Rumania in 188r.
Bosnia and Herzegovina were practi-
cally annexed by Austria-Hungary in
1878, while a portion of southern Herze-
govina fell to the share of Montenegro.

In the same year Northern Bulgaria
became a tributary principality, and
Southern Bulgaria, or “Eastern Ru-
melia,” an autonomous province; the
union of the two Bulgarias was effected
in 1885. Lastly, Crete obtained complete
autonomy in 1897.

The natural process of disintegration
has been artificially arrested by the action
of Europe, the mutual jealousies of the
Great Powers preventing them from co-
operating with a view to the only final
and legitimate solution of the Eastern
Question—the segregation, so far as is
possible, of the various Christian nation-
alities now under Turkish rule and their
incorporation with the adjoining free and
kindred communities.

This gradual dismemberment of the
Ottoman Empire in Europe is due to a
variety of causes. A nomad Asiatic race,

the Turks display the same incapacity
for change and progress, the same indo-
lence and conservatism, the same repug-
nance to the spirit of modern Europe,
which characterizes all Oriental peoples,
with the brilliant exception of Japan.
Their religion, their social system—above
all, the position assigned to women—
form obstacles to advancement, enlighten-
ment, and the assimilation of modern
ideas. They have been content to let
commerce, industry, and all the arts by
which wealth is accumulated remain in
the hands of the subject peoples.

It was the duty of the rayah (non-
Mohammedan) to till the ground and to
make wealth for his master. So long as
he was submissive and paid his taxes, he
was free to retain his traditional cus-
toms, to worship as he pleased, and to
settle his parochial and domestic affairs
to his own liking.

The Moslem is a warrior and owes his
dominant position to the sword; as a con-
queror, he exercises the jus belli, reserv-
ing for himself the privileges of govern-
ment and military service and leaving to
the giaour (Christian) the duty of pro-
viding ways and means for the mainte-
nance of an alien authority (see also
page 1143).

he Moslem drives the administrative
engine; the Christian finds the fuel for
stoking it. A State founded on such a
system could never acquire solidity or
develop into a homogeneous polity (see
pages 1132 to 1147).

The gulf fixed between the conqueror
and the conquered was never bridged;
in later times it has even widened. ‘The
interference of the Christian powers; the
spread of education among the subject
races, bringing with it in each case an
awakening of national consciousness; the
gradual percolation of modern ideas; the
doctrines of the French Revolution; and,
later, the principle of nationalities, ex-
emplified in the realization of Italian and
German unity, have all tended to this in-
creased estrangement.

* This article is abstracted from the chapter on the Balkan States, by James D. Bour-

chier, in “The Balkan Question.”

John Murray, London.

T105

CHRISTIAN PEASANT WOMEN:

The movements which culminated in
the liberation of Servia, of Greece, of
the trans-Danubian principalities, and
more recently of Bulgaria, were heralded
in each case by’a literary renaissance and
an educational propaganda, The school-
master has gone hand in hand with the
insurgent chief, and the same individual
has often combined the two functions.

THE BULGARIANS HAD MORE DIFFICUL-
TIES TO OVERCOME THAN ANY

OTHER SUBJECT RACE

The Bulgarian national revival, the last
in order of time, has been attended by
peculiar complications. In their efforts
to obtain political freedom and the union
of their race, the Bulgarians have found
themselves confronted not only with the
power of Islam, but with the hostility of
sister Christian nations. ‘Thus a new
factor has been introduced which renders
the struggle infinitely more arduous.

The Bulgarians, indeed, have few
friends, but they manifest no signs of
despair. In the short period of their
political existence they have gone through
so many vicissitudes that they have be-
come inured to desperate situations.
Their tenacity, their shrewdness, their

Photo by Felix J. Koch
SOFIA, BULGARIA

dogged perseverance—the characteristics
of an agricultural race—their cool-headed
judgment and intuitive sagacity, and—
shall we add ?—the luck which has hith-
erto attended them, may once more stand
them in good stead (see pages 1117 and
1127.)

A hundred years ago the existence of
the Bulgarian race had been almost for-
gotten by Europe. A nation which, un-
der its powerful Tsars Simeon (893-927)
and Ivan Asén IT (1218-1241), had ruled
over the greater part of the Balkan
Peninsula had been practically obliter-
ated by four centuries of Turkish des-
potism and Greek ecclesiastical domi-
nation (for the origin of the Bulgarians,
see page 1122).

The Bulgarians had suffered more
severely from the Turkish conquest than
any of the other Christian races of the
peninsula. Their geographical position
in the heart of the peninsula isolated
them from Christendom and exposed
them to the ravages of the Turkish
armies which traversed their country
during the campaigns against Austria
and Russia.

An industrious agricultural race, they
became the serfs of the Mohammedan

1106

Photo by Felix J. Koch

ONE OF THE MONKS AT THE GREAT MONASTERY OF RILA, BULGARIA

land-owners or beys, some of whom were
descended from Bulgarian noble fami-
lies who renounced Christianity after
the Turkish conquest. The proximity
of the great centers of Turkish military
power, Adrianople and Constantinople,
riveted their chains and precluded the
possibility of an uprising.

It is therefore not surprising that the
Greek and Servian movements in the
earlier decades of the last century found
no counterpart in a Bulgarian insurrec-
sion, The national spirit was extinct
and national consciousness had ceased to
exist.

But the Turkish temporal power was
not the only factor in the effacement of
Bulgarian nationality. From the earliest
years of Ottoman supremacy all the
Christian races, comprised under the
designation Rim-milleti, were placed
under the spiritual domination of the

Greek Patriarchate, which thus consti-
tuted an ecclesiastical imperium im w-
perior. The Patriarchate, though styled
CEcumenical or Universal, has always
been an essentially Greek institution, and
the Greek clergy under its control have
never failed to labor for the spread of
Hellenism.

Toward the middle of the 18th cen-
tury Greek ecclesiastical ascendancy was
at its zenith; the Slavonic patriarchates
of Ipek and Ochrida were suppressed,
almost all the Bulgarian dioceses were
filled by Phanariote prelates, and the
schools, in which Greek alone was
taught, were controlled by the Greek
clergy. The Phanariote ecclesiastics,
who, like the Moldavian and Wallachian
hospodars and the Turkish governors,
paid large sums for their appointments,
recouped themselves by heavy dues lev-
ied on their flocks, and the peasantry

II07

suffered grievously from their rapacity
and venality.

THE BULGARIAN LANGUAGE WAS WRITTEN
IN GREEK CHARACTERS

So effectually had the process of Hel-
1enization been carried out that by the
end of the 18th century Greek had be-
come the language of the upper classes
in the Bulgarian towns, while the igno-
rant peasants, though retaining their
Bulgarian speech, declared themselves
to be Greeks. Similar conditions prevail
today with regard to the Bulgarian peas-
ants in Macedonia who remain under the
jurisdiction of the Patriarchate, the so-

Photo by D. W. Iddings.
BULGARIAN WOMEN MAKING NATIVE BREAD

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

called ‘“‘Bulgarophone Greeks,” who
number perhaps 300,000, and who, with
the Patriarchist Vlachs and Serbs; are
styled “Greeks” in statistics compiled at
Constantinople and Athens (see page
LE27

The resurrection of the Bulgarian na-
tion is one of the wonders of the past
century. Every trace of the former na-
tional existence, every record of the old
Bulgarian dynasties had vanished; “with
the Ottoman conquest literature disap-
peared; the manuscripts became the food
of moths and worms or fell a prey to the
fanaticism of \ the’ Phanariote clergy.”
The library of the Patriarchs of Tirnovo

1108

survived till 1825, when it was burnt by
the Greek Metropolitan Hilarion.

When writing was employed for com-
mercial or other purposes, the Bulgarian
language was written in Greek charac-
ters.

The precursor of the literary revival
was the monk Paissi, of Mount Athos
(1762), whose /storia Slaveno-Bolgar-
ski, a history of the Bulgarian tsars and
saints, recalled the long-forgotten glories
of the race. A number of Bulgarian
refugees and merchants at Bucharest in-
itiated the educational movement. The
result of their activity was the appear-

Photo by D. W. Iddings.

Copyright by Keystone View Co.
NATIVE BREAD DRYING IN A VILLAGE STREET : BULGARIA

ance of a series of simple educational
works—grammars, elementary treatises,
etc.—written in the modern language.

The opening of the first Bulgarian
school at Gabrovo in 1835 marked an
important era in the history of the na-
tional movement; within the next ten
years some fifty Bulgarian schools were
at work, and education had ceased to be
a Greek monopoly. In the establishment
of schools a leading part was played by
Neophyt, a monk from Rilo monastery,
where the Slavonic ritual and language
had been maintained throughout the long
dark ages of alien domination.

1109

Bes : oo 2

Photo by D. W. Iddings.

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

BULGARIAN PEASANT AND TEAM OF DOMESTIC BUFFALO

THE BULGARIANS REVOLT AGAINST THE
1 > “SPIRITUAL AUTHORITY OF THE
he GREEK HIERARCHY

A revolt against the spiritual authority
of the Greek hierarchy followed. The
history of this remarkable struggle,
which reveals the peculiar tenacity and
perseverance of the Bulgarian character,
has never been adequately written. The
conflict continued for 40 years (1830-
1870). The Bulgarians addressed inces-
sant memorials and petitions to the Pa-
triarchate, which sometimes appeared
disposed to negotiate, but in general op-
posed a resolute non possumus to all
their demands. The Greeks denounced
the leaders of the movement as guilty of
“phyletism’’—that is, the introduction of
racial questions into the government of

the church—and induced the Porte to
banish some of them to Asia Micor.

On their part the Bulgarians main-
tained a continual agitation in the dis-
tricts which now constitute the princi-
pality and in Macedonia, and some of
the Greek prelates were compelled to
take to flight. At length the Bulgarian
leaders, despairing of a compromise with
the Patriarchate, determined to follow
the example set by some of the former
rulers of their nation and to transfer
their allegiance to Rome. Their design
was favored by the Emperor Napoleon
II] who saw an opportunity for the in-
crease of French influence in the East;
a deputation proceeded to Rome, and a
priest named Sokolski was consecrated
bishop of the Bulgarian Uniate Church

(1861).

IIIo

The threatened defection of the Bul-
garians from the fold of the Orthodox
Church excited alarm in Russia, where it
was recognized that something must be
done to prevent the “little brothers”
from lapsing into error. The first step
was the secret deportation of Mgr. So-
kolski, who disappeared from the scene,
and was, it is stated, immured in a Rus-
sian monastery. ‘The principle of na-
tionalities, at this time so much in vogue
in western Europe, found its counterpart
in the Panslavist movement in Russia;
a great “Slavophil” congress was con-

?hoto by D. W. Iddings.

Copyright by Keystone View Co.
A GROUP OF INDUSTRIOUS BULGARIAN WOMEN IN A VILLAGE ON THE ROAD FROM
THE DANUBE TO SOFTA

voked at Moscow in 1867, and General
Ignatieff, a noted Panslavist, became
Russian Ambassador at Constantinople.

THE BULGARIAN CHURCH IS ESTABLISHED

Not only Russia, but France and Eng-
land, now supported the Bulgarian cause,
and the Grand Vizier in 1869 drew up a
new scheme of ecclesiastical organiza-
tion, which, however, was rejected by the
Patriarchate. At last the Sultan, noth-
ing loath to create a permanent barrier
between his Christian subjects, issued a
firman establishing the Bulgarian Church

IIit

MOHAMMEDAN WOMEN: RUSTCHUK,

under an Exarch resident at Constanti-
nople (February 28, 1870).

The creation of an autonomous Bul-
garian Church possessed important po-
litical significance. Not only was the ex-
istence of the Bulgarian nation recog-
nized, but its geographical limits were to
some extent defined, the right of ap-
pointment to dioceses (under Article 10)
extending as far south as Florina. Un-
daunted by its defeat, the Greek Patri-
archate continued to resist, and contrived
to delay the execution of the firman till
1872, when the first Bulgarian Exarch,
Mer. Antim, was elected. It then shot
its Binet bolt by declaring the new church
schismatic and excommunicating all its
adherents. No doctrinal apostasy could

Photo by D. W. Iddings.

BULGARIA

be alleged against the Bulgarians, whose
aim was to reconstitute the old autoceph-
alous national church formerly repre-
sented by the patriarchates of Preslav,
Tirnovo, and Ochrida. But, while the an-
cient Patriarchates and the various non-
Greek autocephalous churches were es-
tablished in independent States, the new
3ulgarian Church was set up side by side
with the Greek Patriarchate in the Otto-
man Empire, the principality of Bul-
garia not being then in existence. The
indignation of the Greeks may therefore
be easily understood.

The fulmination of the Patriarchate
has exercised a deterrent influence over
a certain portion of the Bulgarian popu-
lation, which, fearing the reproach of

Iri2

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

BULGARIAN

schism and the consequences of excom-
munication in the world to come, has
refrained from adhering to the new na-
tional church. i

The acquisition of ecclesiastical au-
tonomy gave a fresh impulse to the edu-
cational activity which has done so much
for the consolidation of Bulgarian na-
tionality. During the prolonged struggle
with the Patriarchate various revolu-
tionary chiefs endeavored to incite the
people to revolt against the Turks, but
without success. The Bulgarian move-
ment, hitherto conducted by pacific
means, now underwent the influence of
the Panslavist propaganda, of which
General Ignatieff was the leading spirit ;
a secret organization spread its ramifica-
tions throughout the Slavonic provinces
of Turkey, and the population, already

GYPSLE Se

Photo by D, W. Iddings.

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

RUSTCHUK MARKET

exasperated by the severities of Midhat
Pasha, who administered the “vilayet of
the Danube” from 1864 to 1868, were
ripe for revolt when the insurrection in
the Herzegovina and Bosnia (1875) pre-
cipitated the catastrophe.

The Bulgarian rising, which took place
prematurely in the districts of the Sredna
Gora and the neighborhood of Philipp-
opolis (May, 1876), was prompted by the
fear of a general massacre, which was
only too well founded. It is unnecessary
to describe the horrors which followed.
Shefket Pasha, the Turkish commander,
was apparently given a “free hand” by
the Sultan, bashi-buzuks and Circassians
were let loose upon the villages, and
within a few weeks some 25,000 to 30,-
000 men, women, and children were
massacred. For these exploits Shefket

1113

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ITI4

Photo by D,. W. Iddings.

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

DRIVING GEESE TO MARKET: BULGARIA

Pasha was rewarded with the governor-
ship of Erzeroum, while Achmet Aga, a
Pomak chieftain, who put 5,000 peasants
to the sword at Batak, received the order
of the Mejidieh.

Russia then came to the rescue of her
little neighbor, and by the defeat of the
Turks in the war of 1877-1878 obtained
for the Bulgarians partial freedom. ‘

The treaty of San Stefano (March 3,
1878), dictated by the victorious Rus-
sians at the gates of Constantinople,

practically realized the aspirations of the
Bulgarian nation. The new autonomous
Bulgaria which it created extended from
the Black Sea to the mountains of Al-
bania and from the Danube to the
7Egean. It possessed an outlet to the
Mediterranean at Kavala, included the
districts of Pirot and Vranja, subse-
quently attributed to Servia, and com-
prised all the regions of European
Turkey in which the Bulgarian element
predominates except Dobruja, which

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ITI6

Photo by Felix J. Koch

VILLAGE LIFE: BULGARIA

Russia reserved as compensation to
Rumania for her own annexation of
Bessarabia.

But the Great Powers, believing that
this extensive territory would become a
Russian dependency, intervened on the
initiative of England. There can be no
doubt that such a consummation was
held in view by the liberating power;
but the dogged tenacity of character
which subsequently enabled the Bulga-
rians to maintain their independence
against enormous odds was at this time
little suspected either by Russia or by the
powers which aimed at counteracting her
designs.

The treaty of Berlin followed (13th
Julyet878)\e the a Big Bulgaria of
San Stefano was divided into three sec-
tions. The region between the Danube
and the Balkans, with the districts of
Sofia and Kiostendil, became the tribu-
tary principality of Bulgaria; the tract
between the Balkans and Rhodope—the
upper valleys of the Tunja and Ma-
ritza—with the maritime district of Bur-
gas, constituted an autonomous Turkish
province, described as “Eastern Rume-
lia,’ under a Christian governor-gen-

‘eral; the remaining territories, compris-
ing the greater part of Macedonia and
the Bulgarian sanjaks of the Adrianople
vilayet, were left under Turkish admin-
istration.

The inhabitants of the principality
were allowed to frame their political
constitution and to choose their prince,
his election being confirmed by the Porte
with the assent of the Powers; the au-
tonomous province of Eastern Rumelia
received its organization at the hands of
a European Commission; all that was
done for the unhappy districts handed
back to Turkish rule is recorded in the
much-quoted article 23 of the treaty.

From the first hour of their liberation
the Bulgarians of the newly created
principality manifested a strong demo-
cratic spirit, and a firm determination
to secure for themselves a full measure
of political freedom and complete na-
tional independence. The peasant depu-
ties, who formed the “Assembly of No-
tables,” which met at Tirnovo in 1870,
adopted as their watchword, “Bulgaria
for the Bulgarians.”

In 1885 Eastern Rumelia revolted from
the Turkish rule and united with Bul-

ITI7

deiaks

garia, to which it naturally belonged by
all laws of ethnography and geography.
In October, 1908, Prince Ferdinand pro-
claimed Bulgaria an independent king-
dom, and thus thirty years after the
Bulgarian war of independence their
freedom was officially recognized in
Europe.

This virile, laborious, thrifty, and per-
severing race has displaved many quali-
ties which entitle it to play an important
part in the future history of southeast-
ern Europe. During the thirty years of
its troubled existence the young Bul-
garian State has made almost phenomenal
progress. Education has advanced rap-
idly; public works have been instituted
on a large scale; the country has been
covered with a network of railways;
wealth has undoubtedly increased, and
order has been maintained, often in cir-
cumstances of great difficulty. The mili-
tary organization receives high praise
from foreign experts. Notwithstanding
the recent economic crisis, the financial
situation compares favorably with that
of the sister States, inasmuch as the na-
tional debt is proportionately small.

The Bulgarians indeed have worked
wonders. “They have existed since the
treaty of Berlin in conditions anything
but favorable to development. They

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

have had no active friends, and they have
had to contend with very active and un-
scrupulous foes. Assassins have been.
hired to murder their leading citizens;
foreign emissaries have lived among
them to stir up revolution by the basest
means; they have had to fight the Ser-
vians, and they have lived in constant ap-
prehension of invasion by a far more
powerful foe. ‘They have faced all these
difficulties with a calm courage and per-
severance of which any race might be
proud, and have proved themselves the
most solid and trustworthy of the claim-
ants for the reversion of the Turk” (see
also pages 1106 and 1127).

The Bulgarians have always regarded
the boundaries of San Stefano as more
or less adequately defining the rightful
limits of their race; beyond those bound-
aries there is no considerable Bulgarian
element in any part of the peninsula ex-
cept the Dodruja, and the national ener-
gies have therefore been concentrated
on Macedonia and the Adrianople vila-
yet. The great Macedonian immigra-
tion into Bulgaria—there has been no
similar influx into Greece or Servia—
has had a powerful influence on popular
feeling and political development in the
principality, and has considerably af-
fected the economic situation.

THE RACES AND RELIGIONS OF MACEDONIA*

By Luict VILLARI

AUTHOR OF ‘‘RUSSIA UNDER THE GREAT SHADOW’’

AD the population of Macedonia
been homogeneous, the Mace-
donian problem would have

been settled long ago, but the mixture of
races has ever been a marked charac-
teristic of the Balkan Peninsula, and of
no part of it more so than of Macedonia.

It is necessary to begin by explaining
what is meant by the term Macedonia.
The country forms neither a racial, a lin-
guistic, nor a political unit. Geograph-
ically it is a unit, being bounded by the
Shar Dagh on the north, the Albanian
mountains on the west, the river Bis-

tritza and the Atgean Sea on the south,
and the Rhodope mountains on the east,
and at a remote period of its history it
formed a kingdom. The country which
we now call Macedonia consists of the
three vilayets of Salonica, Monastir, and
Kossovo, and the Macedonian question
refers to the conditions of those prov-
inces. The expression, however, is often
extended to the Adrianople vilayet as
well, where the conditions are somewhat
similar. But, geographically, it is quite
separate from Macedonia.

It must be remembered that the Turk-

* From “The Balkan Question,” edited by Luigi Villari.

A“ CARE IN

ish division of the empire into vilayets
was not made with any regard to natural
or ethnographic lines of demarcation, but
rather with a view to including as many
conflicting elements as possible in the
same territory, so as to simplify the task
of government. This confusion of
tongues and creeds makes the problem of
Macedonian reform or autonomy more
difficult than it was in the case of Greece,
Crete, Bulgaria, or Servia.

But it is not only the Turkish govern-
ment which is to blame for this mixture
of races. Macedonia has for two thou-
sand years been the “dumping ground”
of different people and forms; indeed, a
perfect ethnographic museum. The moun-
tainous nature of the interior made it a
difficult country to conquer, and the
various invaders were never able com-
pletely to absorb the different peoples
whom they found in it.

While the greater part of a district was
occupied by the invader, the aboriginal
inhabitants retired into the mountain fast-
nesses and there maintained their exist-

Photo by Felix J. Koch

MACEDONIA

ence; one race established itself on the
seacoast and another held the interior.
At the same time, certain centers—large
towns, seaports, fertile plains—attracted
men of all the races for purposes of busi-
ness or convenience. ‘Thus in some parts
of Macedonia we find one population pre-
dominant: in others another, and in
others again two or more races exist side
by side.

The division of races in Macedonia is
not based wholly on differences of origin
or of anthropological type. We may find
characteristically Greék types, Bulgarian
types, or Turkish types, but among those
who call themselves Greeks are many
whose type and whose origin is not
Greek; and so it is with the others. In
certain districts we find members of three
distinct races speaking their respective
languages, but all very similar in type.

Language is a more reliable means of
classification, as the bulk of the Greeks
speak Greek, of the Bulgarians, Bul-
garian. But religion makes another dis-
tinction, and the Turkish method of

IIIQ

VINOGHOVN NI LUNYVW CIO NV

POLL Pils tes:

eee

II20

Photo by Felix J. Koch

SELLING LEMONADE IN ADRIANOPLE

classifying peoples according to their
creeds cuts across the division according
to race or language.

We may say that, for the Mohamme-
dans, religion is the line of division, as all
Moslems (except the Albanians) may not
inaccurately be described as Turks; for
the Bulgarians it is the national church,
as practically every member of the Bul-
garian party is a member of the Ex-
archist Church, although, of course, prop-
aganda is the basis of the division, as the
church is primarily a political institution
(See page mit) 101 the Greeks it is
more a question of party, based on ad-
herence to the Greek idea of civilization,
and the Greek party contains many
members of the other races; for the Ser-
vians and Rumanians it is chiefly na-
tionality, for they have no separate

church like the Bulgarians, and many
who are Servians or Rumanians by race
do not belong to the Servian or Ruma-
nian parties.

The original inhabitants of Macedonia
probably belonged to the great race which
we call Thracians, of whom very little is
known, while the western part of the
peninsula was peopled by Illyrians. De-
scendants of the former are said to be
the Kutzo-Vlachs, or Rumans, while the
latter are represented by the Albanians.

The Greeks never succeeded in wholly
Hellenizing Macedonia, their settlements
being limited to the coast towns.

Then came the Roman _ conquest.
Roads were built, towns were founded
in all parts of the country, and military
colonies established. The Thracians soon
adopted the manners and the language

I121

Photo by Felix J. Koch

TURKISH WOMEN AT SALONICA: TURKEY

of the Romans, who were the first civil-
ized people with whom they had come in
contact, and Greek influence survived on
the coast alone. During the early days
of the eastern Roman Empire, with its
mixed Greeco-Latin civilization, the two
languages continued to coexist, as well
as some of the local dialects.

THE BULGARIANS ARE SLAVICIZED FINNS

The first barbarians to settle perma-
nently in the Balkan Peninsula coming
from the northeast were the Bulgars, a
Finnish people whose home was the mid-
dle Volga districts; they now occupied
the southern banks of the Danube. The
Slavs are said to have begun to pour into
this region as early as the third century,
but they were not established until after
the Bulgarian invasion.

Their position in the east of Europe
bears certain analogies to that of the
Teutons in the west. They soon amal-
gamated with the Bulgars and gave them
their language; the result of this union
is the modern Bulgarian people, who may
be described as Slavicized Finns.

No traces of the original Bulgars re-
main, although some of the Macedonians
have Finnish features, and the Bul-
garians of today speak a purely Slavonic
language. The Slavs and Bulgarians
drove other races of the interior before
them, and Slavonic displaced all the
others, save the Latin spoken by isolated
settlements of Vlachs who retired into
the mountains, and the dialect of the
Illyrians, who were confined in the west
region known as Albania.

Thus, as early as the ninth century we
have in Macedonia most of the elements
which now make up the population of
that country—Greeks on the coast and
in the large towns; Slavs in the interior:
Ilyrians or Albanians in the west, and
isolated settlements of Latinized Thra-
cians or Vlachs in the mountains; the
Slavs themselves soon divide into two
groups—the Slavicized Bulgars and the
Serbs.

These various elements were partly
under the dominion of the Eastern Em-
pire, which was not, however, strong
enough to Hellenize them, and partly

1122

A MOSLEM

Photo by Felix J. Koch

VILLAGE

In the villages the people are all of one faith and their costumes are in accord

under that of Slavonic princes. In time
they might have amalgamated, although,
owing to the peculiar conditions of the
Balkan Peninsula, the process was bound
to be slow. But the Turkish conquest
supervened, and crystallized the different
races, so that each preserved its national-
ity and its individuality. The Turks were
never numerous enough to absorb the
subject peoples, but they were strong
enough to prevent any one of them from
becoming predominant.

Unlike other conquerors, they did not
attempt to impose their language or cus-
toms on the conquered, but they did try
to convert them to Islam by maintaining
those who refused to be converted in a
position of inferiority. A number of
Greeks, Slavs, Albanians, and Vlachs did
become Moslems, but those who did not,
and were prepared to face persecution
and occasional outbursts of savage fanati-
cism, were able to preserve their nation-

ality. Thus these conflicting elements
survived until the present day.
This rivalry between the different

Christian races has made the task of rul-
ing Macedonia a fairly easy one. ‘The
Turks availed themselves of these differ-
ences to the full; but the constant op-
pression and persecution has ended by
making all the Christians discontented,
and the anarchy of maladministration
and civil war has reached such a pitch
that some change of régime is felt by all
to be an absolute necessity.

THE MOHAMMEDANS OF MACEDONIA

Macedonia was the first country in
Europe to be subjected to Ottoman rule,
and long before the capture of Con-
stantinople the Turks subjugated it and
studded it with numerous Turkish colo-
nies.

All travelers who know Turkey bear
witness to the many good qualities of the
individual Mohammedan, especially of
the genuine Osmanli Turk—he is sober,
patient, religious, cleanly in his habits,
dignified in bearing.

But there 1s also no doubt as to his
utter inability to make a good ruler, es-

Photo by Felix J. Koch

ONE FAMILY. OF CHRISTIANS: MACEDONIA

pecially when he has to rule over Chris-
tians; the Turkish peasant, when living
among Christians, whom he is taught to
despise, who are unarmed while he is
armed, who can obtain no justice for any
violence committed by him against them,
naturally becomes arrogant and cruel. In
a mainly agricultural community quar-
rels as to the ownership of land are
bound to arise, and in these cases it is
always the Turk who obtains the advan-
tage (see pages 1132 and 1144).

The Mohammedans suffer from the
utter chaos and corruption of the Turk-
ish government, and while in theory they
are the privileged class, their privileges
are given them in the form of license to
pillage, and on occasion to murder, their
Christian neighbors.

The Turks are essentially nomads, and,
at all events in Europe, they are little
more than an army of occupation hold-
ing the country by a military tenure.
The idea of abandoning Rumelia (by
Rumelia the Turks mean European Tur-
key generally) is regarded by them as a
possibility to be contemplated, although,
naturally enough, they do not wish to see
it realized. If the country were to be
placed under a Christian government the

majority of them would probably return
to Asia Minor in a short time.

Before the independence of Bulgaria.
and Servia both those countries con-
tained a numerous Turkish population,
which has slowly but steadily decreased
since they were separated from Turkey.
Another characteristic is their tendency
to congregate in the towns.

More important is the decline of their
numbers. The Turkish race shows a
steady tendency to decrease, and it is said
by some competent authorities that syph-
ilitic diseases are largely responsible for
this. In Macedonia, however, their num-
bers are kept up by artificial means. In
the first place, the civil and military es-
tablishments maintain a quantity of offi-
cials and soldiers in the country; but the
most numerous contingent is furnished
by the mohajirs, or emigrants from the
emancipated provinces. From Thessaly,
Bulgaria, Bosnia, and Crete there has.
been a constant stream of Mohammedans.
to the dominions still under the rule of
the Padishah, and the majority of them
have been given lands in Macedonia,
partly because there were more estates.
available and partly because it is now a
frontier province once more. During the

1124

recent rising the Ottoman authorities
placed these mohajirs on the lands whose
Christian owners had been murdered or
had fled. This added a new disturbing
element to the situation, as the emigrants
are particularly bitter against their
Christian neighbors.

THE CHRISTIANS OF MACEDONIA

With regard to the actual numbers of
the Turks of the three vilayets of Mace-
donia, it is impossible to get reliable sta-
tistics. According to the most reliable
calculations, the Mohammedan popula-
tion does not amount to more than 700,-
ooo, of whom perhaps one-third are Os-
manli Turks. The Christians are about
1,300,000 to 1,500,000, so that it is clear
that the country cannot be regarded as a
Mohammedan land, much less as a Tur-
kish land.

The Christians of Macedonia are not
united by language, by racial ties, nor by
political aspirations. It is this which has
hitherto impeded the emancipation of the
country. There are in Macedonia four

Photo by Felix J. Koch
CHRISTIAN PEASANTS AT A PASHA’S COURT, IN THE INTERIOR OF TURKEY

Christian communities—Greeks, Bulga-
rians, Serbs, and Rumans, or Kutzo-
Vlachs; each of these nationalities is
connected by ties of language and po-
litical aspirations with one or other of
the free Balkan States.

The Christians of Macedonia all be-
long to the Eastern or Orthodox Church,
with the exception of some Catholic Al-
banians in the north and a few converts
of the various foreign missions. But ec-
clesiastically they are divided into two
main churches, the Greek or Gcumenical
Patriarchate and the Bulgarian Exarch-
ate (see page 1112). To the former be-
long all the Greeks, Serbs, Vlachs, Or-
thodox Albanians, and a proportion of
the Bulgarians ; to the latter the majority
of the Bulgarians. This division is one
of the chief causes of hatred between

Greek and Bulgar. o

THE GREEKS OF MACEDONIA
After the capture of Constantinople by

the Turks, the Greeks, although subject
to periodical persecutions and massacres,

1125

Photo by Felix J. Koch

SCENE IN A MACEDONIAN VILLAGE: ALL WOMEN OF A TOWN DRESS ALIKE

and frequent pillaging by their masters,
were granted certain privileges, and
eventually obtained a position of consid-
erable influence in the Turkish Empire.
3y the term Greeks were meant not the
Hellenes only, but all the ex-subjects of
the East Roman Empire who adhered to
the Orthodox Church. They were con-
stituted into a millet or community, con-
sisting of a lay and an ecclesiastical coun-
cil, which dealt with the internal affairs
of the people, and many important offices
were habitually conferred on Greeks.
The Greeks came to be the brain of
‘Turkey and the representatives of civili-
zation in the Levant. The Greek lan-
guage was the language of culture, even
among non-Hellenic Christians, and the
Greek Church a powerful agency for the
promotion of Greek ideas. In the 18th
century Greek influence declined, and the
insurrectionary movements in what is
now the Kingdom of Greece made the
Turks look upon the Hellenes with sus-
picion and hatred. When Greece be-
came free, the inhabitants of that coun-

try considered that the work of emanci-
pation was but half completed, and as-
pired to the annexation of a much larger
portion of Turkish territory. Some even
dreamed of the revival of the Greek Em-
pire, with the capital at Constantinople,
but the majority limited their aspiration
to Thessaly, Macedonia, and some of the
islands.

In most of the towns of Macedonia the
Greek element is the most conspicuous,
and in some the wealthiest; trade and
banking are toa great extent: ime their
hands—although the Rumans and the
Jews are keen competitors—and_ the
shops and the inns all bear Greek inscrip-
tions. In the cafés and public places one
hears much Greek spoken, and most of
the people with whom the traveler comes
into contact are Greeks or Greek-speak-
ing; but in point of actual numbers they
are dar’ inferior “to the Slavs, and an
places lke Kastoria, where the town is
thoroughly Greek, the surrounding coun-
try is inhabited by an almost wholly Bul-
garian population. But the Greek pa-

1126

Photo by Felix J. Koch

CHRISTIAN PEASANTS AT A BUTCHER-SHOP: SALONICA

Meat is sold already cooked as well as raw.

Note the distaff on the left held by a Bulgarian

woman, who is busily spinning as she walks to market (see page 1130)

triots do not count only the real Greeks
as members of their party. They claim
the Vlachs, the Orthodox Albanians, and
the Bulgarians who do not adhere to the
Bulgarian Church as Greeks, and call
them “Vlachophone,’ ‘Albanophone,”
and ‘‘Bulgarophone” Greeks. In a word,
they consider that all the Macedonians
who have not joined the “Schismatic”
Bulgarian Church, except the Servians in
the extreme north, are adherents of the
Greek party and of the “Grand Idea.”
So that, apart from all thought of con-
‘quest, they wish to prove that the greater
part of Macedonia is a Greek iand.

AS. for the actual, numbers: of the
Greeks, the statistics vary considerably—
from 50,000 to 700,000 in fact; but it is
only the coastline and southwestern dis-
tricts that can be regarded as purely or
even prevalently Hellenic. Their num-
bers probably amount to about 300,000.

THE BULGARIANS OF MACEDONIA ARE
TRUTHFUL AND PRACTICAL

The Bulgarians are a curious people
an many ways, and different from all

the other Balkan races. They are very
hard working, very energetic, and of
great staying power. They are not bril-
liant, certainly less clever than either the
Greeks or the Vlachs, and not gifted
with a keen commercial instinct. But
as farmers and peasants they are admir-
able, and they are found all over the
Balkan Peninsula, from Bucharest to
Athens, and from Constantinople to Bel-
grade, employed in all kinds of work
(see pages 1106 and I117).

They are not yet highly civilized, but
they have shown that under favorable
conditions they are capable of astonish-
ing progress. They are silent, unexpan-
sive, some people might say sullen; but
they have one great merit, rare, unfor-
tunately among the peoples of South-
eastern EKurope—they are truthful.

‘They appreciate the value of education
most highly, but they are thoroughly
practical. They do not talk about their
glorious ancestors like the Greeks or the
Serbs; they think of the present and the
future. If they have not great historic
traditions, they are endowed with solid

equalities which will make them play a
large part in the destinies of the Pen-
insula.*

THE SERBS

It is not always easy to distinguish the
Serbs from the Bulgarians in Mace-
donia, as the two races are often inter-
mingled in the same districts, and their
languages, though different in Servia and
Bulgaria, become less so in Macedonia
(see page 1131).

THE RUMANS OR VLACHS

The Kutzo-Vlachs, or Rumans, of
Macedonia, present an interesting ethno-
graphic and linguistic problem. They
are usually admitted to be the descend-
ants of the aboriginal Thracians, who
amalgamated with the Latin colonists
and adopted their language and civiliza-
tion, and maintained their national char-
acteristics by retiring to the mountain
fastnesses of Macedonia. Latin in-

*The Slavonic population of Macedonia is
estimated at about 1,200,000, of whom the Bul-
garians form much the largest proportion.

Photo by Felix J. Koch
CHEESE BOOTHS ON GRAND BAZAAR: SALONICA

fluence also survived in the region north
of the Danube, where large military colo-
nies were formed. . There is a strong
resemblance between the language of the
Macedonian Vlachs and that of the in-
habitants of Roumania, although there is.
no political, and not much racial, kinship
between the two, and they are separated
from each other by a wide belt of purely
Slavonic country.

The Vlachs of Macedonia are very
much scattered, their chief settlements
being on the Pindus Range and in the
neighborhood of Monastir, Metsovo,
Koritza, Krushevo, Vodena, etc. They
descend in winter as far as the Gulf of
Corinth, Avlona, and Durazzo, where
the word Vlach has come to be almost
synonymous with shepherd.

They are an extremely intelligent, fine-
looking people, of considerable business
ability. Their towns and villages, which
are usually found on the summit of hills,
are more solidly built than those of any
other Balkan race. Krushevo, which
suffered so heavily during a recent ris-
ing, was a notable instance.

1128

TURKISH TROOPS:

But in spite of their love of well-built
stone-houses, the Vlachs have strongly
ingrained nomadic habits, and in sum-
mer-time their towns are for the most
part abandoned by all the able-bodied
males, who wander about the country as
itinerant merchants or kiradjis (dealers
in and hirers of horses). Many of them
are men of substance, and have business
connections with all the important cen-
ters of the Balkans and Austria-Hun-
gary.

As regards numbers, statistics vary, as
usual, very considerably. According to
some authorities, they are not more than
50,000; whereas Rumanian patriots af-
firm them to be at least half a million;
probably they amount to about 100,000.

But, politically, their importance is
very small. They have usually kept on
good terms with the Turks, who, until
the last rising, treated them less badly
than their other Christian subjects.
They attend to their trade and take little
part in political movements. For a long
time they were indistinguishable from
the Greeks, whose language they spoke
as well as their own, and the Greek
party still count them as Greeks in their
statistics of Macedonia.

Photo and copyright by International Press Photo Co.
SALONICA

THE ALBANIANS

The western districts of the vilayet of
Monastir and a large part of that of
Kossovo are inhabited by a race wilder
and more primitive than any to be found
in FEurope—the Albanians (see pages
1090-1103). Very little is known of this
strange and interesting people, save that
they speak an Indo-European tongue,
but do not belong to any of the recog-
nized groups of the Aryan family. It
is probable that they are descended from
the ancient Illyrians, who were driven
westwards by the advancing waves of
Slavs. Their language, like the people
themselves, is wild and lawless, and has
practically no literature. Even the pop-
ular songs are very few.

The Turkish government has deliber-
ately kept them in a state of barbarism
and ignorance, and makes use of them
to overawe the neighboring peoples.

They are divided by religion into Mo-
hammedans, who form two-thirds of the
whole number — Orthodox Christians
and Roman Catholics. But religion sits
lightly on their shoulders, and they are
by no means fanatical. In every tribe,
save the Mirdits, who are all Catholics,

1129

VOINO'TVS :SHdAL LHAMLS

yooyr *f X17

sulds [11S sIyy,

VINOGHOVN
Aq soo

Sy[eM 9YS se
‘Asnq sAeMye oie UIWOM UeIIeSsINgG oyJ,

NHGIVW (NVINVOINEG) NVILSTYHO

oo

1130

Photo by D. W. and A. S. Iddings.
TYPES OF SERVIAN HERDERS

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

The progress of Servia has been disappointing. The other newly constituted States of
the peninsula have escaped the misfortune of a native dynasty, but Servia has been afflicted
with two, and the feud between the houses of Karageorgevich and Obrenovich has distracted
the country throughout the whole period of its revived national existence. The perpetual
conflict between Austrian and Russian influence, the deadly animosities of political groups,
and the unfortunate domestic history of the Obrenovichs have been other factors of con-
fusion, while the absence of a seaboard, the fiscal tyranny of Austria-Hungary, and thriftless
financial management have hindered economic and commercial development. The wars of
1876 and 1877 with Turkey, and of 1885 with Bulgaria, also tended to the exhaustion of the
country. Constitutional changes have been frequent, and three Servian rulers—Garageorge,
Prince Michael, and King Alexander—have been assassinated. Amid all these drawbacks

Servia has lagged in the race of civilization with her neighbors, Rumania and Bulgaria.
The most favorable feature in the condition of Servia is the prosperous condition of
the peasantry; almost all are small land-owners, and well-to-do, if not rich, and poverty is

almost unknown.—JAmeEs D. BourcHIER.

and even in many families, there are both
Mohammedans and Christians, and, al-
though constantly fighting among them-
selves, religion is hardly ever the cause
of the quarrel. They have but little ag-
riculture, no trade or industries, and in-
deed few occupations, save fighting. The
Turks have used them in Europe much
in the same way as they have used the
Kurds in Asia, giving license to plunder
and practical autonomy in exchange for
fidelity to the Sultan and persecution of
the other races. They also furnish a
useful argument against reforms in
Macedonia; for when the powers de-

mand that the Sultan should fulfill his.
promises, a rising of the Albanians is at
once threatened, and often actually takes
place.

With all their barbarism the Albanians
have many excellent qualities. They are
brave, hospitable, and, if you succeed in
winning their confidence and attaching
them to your person, absolutely reliable.
The foreign embassies and consulates in
Turkey preferably employ Albanians as
kavasses (orderlies) on account of their
trustworthiness. ‘They are by no means.
unintelligent, and have furnished the
Turkish Empire with some of its ablest

1131

generals and civil servants. But their
best qualities only develop when they are
out of their own country. In Albania
they are always more or less savages.

Among the Catholic Albanians of the
north, both Austria and Italy have done
something in the way of education; the
Franciscans and the Jesuits have opened
schools in various towns, and the Italian
government maintains colleges at Scu-
tari and elsewhere. For the Orthodox
Albanians the Greek Syllogos has estab-
lished some schools. But for the Mo-
hammedans nothing has been done. ‘The
Turkish government will not allow them
to be taught in the Albanian language,
and, indeed, refuses to recognize its ex-
istence, although most of them speak no
other.

THE JEWS OF MACEDONIA

At Salonica, and in a few other towns
of Macedonia, there are large Jewish
settlements. Like nearly all the Jews of

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Turkey, they are descended from those
driven out of Spain by Ferdinand and
Isabella, and they speak a Spanish dialect
to this day, but they usually know many
other languages as well. At Salonica
they form the majority of the population.

‘Their favorite occupations are, of course,

banking and trade, but the poorer Jews
are boatmen, porters, servants, small
shop-keepers, and in one or two districts
even peasants.

They are the one subject race whom
the Turk has never persecuted, and they
are in consequence loyal subjects of his
Imperial Majesty. They thoroughly
know how to make a “good thing” out
of the Turkish government, and in ex-
change for being left alone, they are its
chief financial support. They are in-
dustrious, honest, and intelligent. A
great many of them are the subjects or
the protégés of the different foreign
powers.

“GRASS NEVER GROWS WHERE THE TURKISH
HOOF HAS TROD”’’*

By Epwin PEars

AuTHoR OF ‘‘ THE DESTRUCTION OF THE GREEK EMPIRE,’’ ‘‘ THE FALL OF
CONSTANTINOPLE ”’

S THE abuses in the collection of
A taxes have done more, perhaps,
than anything else to make the
peasants of Macedonia discontented with
their lot, by reducing them to the verge
of starvation and to drive them into re-
volt, it is desirable to show at some
length what these abuses are. The
heaviest tax which has to be paid is tithe
or dime. Its assessment and collection
form a good illustration of the difference
between the theory of Turkish law and
its administration.

The law provides that the collection of
tithe for the government shall be put up
to auction or to public tender—that is,
that bids shall be invited from private
persons for the payment of a lump sum
to the government for the right to col-
lect one-tenth of the forthcoming har-

* From “The Balkan Question,” edited by Luigi Villari.

vest and other agricultural produce, such
as the increase of sheep, cattle, and goats
in a specified village or district. The
surplus over and above the accepted
offer will be the legitimate profit of the
tax farmer. The bid is often highly
speculative, and the successful bidder
has to take his-chance_of bad weather,
deficient crops, and a mistaken estimate.
The government requires that the pay-
ment of the accepted tender, if any be
accepted, shall be guaranteed by an ap-
proved third person. Its rights are thus
secured.

‘The person whose tender has been ac-
cepted then arranges with the local au-
thorities to make a valuation of each
peasant’s next harvest. For this pur-
pose he, together with the peasant and
one or more of the local authorities,

John Murray, London.

ae

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

TURKISH CADETS ON THE WAY TO THE FRONT

visits the crop upon which the tax is to
be ievied and makes the valuation. The
tax-gatherer has usually made an ar-
rangement by which, in addition to the
sum secured to the government, a fur-
ther sum will be paid to the local author-
ities. In all probability it is just in con-
sideration of such a private arrangement
that his tender has been accepted.
When, therefore, a valuation is made,
it is almost invariably far in excess of

what it ought to be. If the peasant
wishes, he has the right to appeal against
this excessive valuation to the local
council, whose decision will be final. He
is well aware by experience that their
decision would be against him, and he
therefore makes the best arrangement
as to the valuation that he can, without
wasting time on appeal. His bargain-
ing will be on the excess of the estimate
beyond the legal levy.

1133

ATIIONILNVISNOO

DAUVIIIIN HASIMaNnL

PERRO

Pleqiypsty "f{ ‘y seuef Aq sojoyg

AAMANL

HO NVLINS HHL

1134

“GRASS NEVER GROWS WHERE TURKISH HOOF HAS TROD”

THE TERRIBLE WEAPON OF THE TAX-
COLLECTOR

Should he refuse to accept an exces-
sive valuation, the tax-collector has a
terribly powerful weapon which he does
not hesitate to use against him. The
harvest is not allowed to be gathered
until the authorities have given their
consent, and this is refused until the
illegal estimate has been paid.

The peasant sees his crops rotting on
the ground or rapidly wasting away be-
cause he cannot obtain permission to
gather it, but he is powerless. To savea
remnant he will sometimes sacrifice half
of what remains. The local zaptiehs
(policemen) are at the service and in
the pay of the collector, and until they
receive word from him they will see that
no obstinant peasant begins harvesting.
There is no commoner form of injustice
done to the peasants than the refusal to
give permission to gather their crops
until an illegal as well as the Jegal por-
tion of them is conceded to the tax-col-
lector.

If the peasant remains obstinate and
refuses to pay the illegal contribution,
preferring to let his crop perish, even
thus he does not escape. The zaptiehs
(policemen) do not hesitate to seize and
sell his cattle, and even his seed corn.
The policemen are, in fact, regarded by
the peasants, not as their protectors or
as the representatives of law and justice,
but as persons entirely at the tax-gather-
er’s disposal.

It may be said on their behalf that
they are merely the tools of the higher
officials, and that they, as well as the
local watchmen, are miserably paid.
Their pay is almost invariably many
months in arrears, and their daily ration
of bread is barely sufficient to support
existence. To a large extent they live
upon the poverty-stricken peasants who
are forced to tolerate their exactions.
The evils of collusion between the tax-
gatherers and the local authorities press
hardly on Moslem and Christian peas-
ants alike; but as the saptiehs (police-
men) employed are Moslems, they natu-
rally act more willingly against the un-

1135

believers than against their coreligion-
ists.

UNIQUE INDUSTRIES DESTROYED BY GROSS
TAXATION

It is not in the collection of tithes only
that gross abuses exist. Many other
taxes and contributions, both legal and
illegal, are exacted. Sometimes these
are so excessive as to defeat the object
for which they are imposed. Not long
since, in one district, hundreds of apricot
trees, on the dried fruit of which the
people largely subsist during winter,
were cut down by the peasants them-
selves in order to avoid the annual tax
levied upon them. Vineyards near the
capital, even, have been rooted up for
the same reason. The growth and ex-
port of the hair of the Angora goat,
which when manufactured is known as
mohair, ought to be one of the most
profitable enterprises in Turkey. ‘Thirty
years ago this goat only existed in the
Ottoman Empire, but the tax levied upon
the animals was so heavy that great
numbers were killed, and Turkey has
had to take a second rank in the produc-
tion of mohair.

But added to all these burdens there
is another which is still more grievous.
The governors and other officials, who
are appointed from the capital, have in
many cases to .pay the persons who
have used their influence to have them
named. ‘This payment sometimes ‘akes
the form of a periodical contribution.
The official recoups himself by taking
pay and toll from the subordinates whom
he in his turn appoints. These again
make good their losses out of the peas-
ants.

A convenient way of accomplishing
this is to add the proportion intended for
the officials to the amount which has been
levied for transmission to Constantino-
ple. Receipts are constantly refused, and
the same sum is levied twice or three
times over. Very commonly the prac-
tice is varied by giving receipts for a
smaller sum than has been exacted, and
the difference finds its way into the pock-
ets of the collectors and local officials.
One of the results of these irregular con-

Photo by International Press Photo Co.
A TURKISH GENERAL INSPECTING THE STREETS OF CONSTANTINOPLE

Wine

: : Nua 7

i nan

Uy

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
TURKISH OFFICERS AND BARRACKS: CONSTANTINOPLE

1136

A MOHAMMEDAN BOATMAN:

tributions is that the peasant never knows
what he will have to pay. He believes,
and not without cost, that the measure of
taxation is whatever can be squeezed out
of him.

In addition to these taxes and irregu-
lar demands for money he has in many
parts of the Empire, and notably in
Macedonia, to meet the demands of men
in the last-mentioned province, usually
Albanians, who enforce exactions to
which their legal right is of the most
shadowy description. They or their
fathers have chosen, as the Kurds like-
wise do in Armenia, to levy contributions
from certain villages, nominally for pro-
tection against other brigands; but it is a
protection with which the peasants would
willingly dispense. Between the exac-
tions of the tax-collectors with the sap-
tiehs at their beck and call, and those of
these unsolicited “protectors,” the life of
the peasant becomes absolutely intoler-
able.

It is no part of my task to point out
the wrong inflicted by such protectors
and by the zaptiehs (policemen) upon
the women of the peasants. It is suffi-
cient to say that they are such as in all

Photo by James F. J. Archibald
CONSTANTINOPLE

ages have “turned the coward’s blood to
flame.” The extortions alone—heavy,
arbitrary, irregular—levied upon all that
the peasants produce, and enforced by
zaptiehs and other officials, who can take
the oxen from the plough, or seize the
few cooking utensils, which are all that
he may possess, and, in case he is sup-
posed to have property which he is con-
cealing, can send him without trial to the
tortures of a prison, ought not to be en-
dured. The peasant, in fear of official
and private rapacity, is afraid to let it be
known that he possesses anything of
value. Living usually in constant fear
of starvation and oppression, hopeless of
any amelioration of his lot under exist-
ing rule, he becomes ready to risk his
life in support of any movement which
promises to better his condition.

DECAY AND DESOLATION FOLLOW THE
: TURKISH RULE

The history and present condition of
the country justifies a feeling of despair
for progress among the Turkish people.
Tt <is bad enough to find roads and
bridges once well built now falling into
decay: to see towns which even within

1137

WITONTELNVISNOO

> WHONVT

HSIMUYNAL V

pleqryposy *f “yi souef Aq sojoyg

WHIGONIDNVISNOOD :HOVIVd S.NVLINS HHL LV SYHONVT ‘IVINHAWI

1138

JNOUL AHL YOX WIdONIDNVISNOD DNIAVYT SdOOUL HSIMYNL

poomispuys) Y pooMsapuy Aq iy 8t1Adoo pure ojo

1139

Photo by D. W. and A. S. faties.

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

MOHAMMEDANS WASHING THEIR HANDS AND FEET IN FRONT OF A MOSQUE BEFORE
ENTERING

Turkish times were populous and flour-
ishing, now little better than heaps of
ruins; to trace the sites of others which
have entirely disappeared; to see today
the same hindrances to trade and manu-
facture at work which have succeeded in
past times in the impoverishment of a
naturally rich country. It is worse to
find that there has existed neither moral
force nor patriotism sufficient at any
time to strike at the all but universal
corruption which is the principal cause
and symptom of this decay.
The condition of the Turkish
today ¢g

Empire
gives no evidence of ability on the

part of the race to govern even a Moslem
people. The Eastern proverb says that
“Grass never grows where the Turkish
hoot has trod’: It is the simple truth
that every province held by the Turk
has become less productive than it was
before, and has fallen in civilization
under his rule; his misgovernment re-
tards the progress alike of Moslem and
non-Moslem subjects, though it falls
with far greater weight upon the Chris-
tians.

But the full measure of the Turkish
incapacity to govern is only shown when
he has to deal with the Christian subject

1140

t
a

Photo by D. W. and A. S. Iddings.

ae

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

A MOSQUE IN CONSTANTINOPLE

races. Hour and a half centuries ago
the Turk became master of Constantino-
ple. Though greatly reduced in popula-
tion and wealth, from what it had once
been, its people and the other Christians
who came under his rule were probably
the most generally civilized people in the
world. Under Turkish rule Constanti-
nople has become the most retrograde
capital in Europe. Under such rule,
Athens, Bucharest, Belgrade, and Sofia,
eighty years ago, were mere collections
of mud huts, occupied by dejected and
poverty-stricken people.

Since their inhabitants got rid of
Turkish oppression these villages have

rapidly grown into towns, have adopted
the appliances of civilization, and are all
making good progress. The first two,
which. have enjoyed freedom for a
longer time than the others, are novr
well-built and well-governed cities with
bright, intelligent, and progressive pop-
ulations, and Sofia will soon run them
close. ‘To pass from any of these towns
to Constantinople is to pass from a civ-
ilized to a barbarous city.

THE TURK CANNOT ASSIMILATE WESTERN
PROGRESS

The Turk has been unable either to
assimilate the civilization which he found

II4I

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IT42

in the country, or to profit in any appre-
ciable degree by that which: exists in
Western nations. He could, and did,
prevent the Greeks and other Christian
peoples who were subject to his rule
from making that progress of which
their recent history shows them to be
capable. His treatment of the races sub-
ject to him absolutely barred anything
like amalgamation with his own race,
and the gulf which separates the con-
querors from the conquered is wider
now than it was when the Turks first
entered the country.

The explanation of the failure of the
Turks as rulers over the Christians is to
be found in the facts that the latter are
conquered people, that they are more
industrious and intelligent than their
conquerors, and, above all, in the dif-
ference of religion.

The Turks came into the country as
nomad conquerors, and the Christians
were largely dispossessed of their lands.
But the Turkish nomads who obtained
them, or who settled alongside of the
Christians, have seldom shown any apti-
tude for agriculture, for manufacture,
or for trade, and wherever Turkish and
Christian villages have existed side by
side, the latter, by the industry and in-
telligence of their inhabitants, have in-
variably shown more signs of prosperity
than the former.

Poverty-stricken though the country
everywhere now is, it still remains true
that to pass from a Turkish to a Chris-
tian village is to pass from appalling pov-
erty to poverty less conspicuous and less
hopeless. Still, the Turk has never for-
gotten that he belongs to the conquering
race; and though the Turkish peasant
has just cause of complaint against his
rulers, he has never ceased to believe that
the Christians ought to be his inferiors
in every respect, and especially in the
possession of property.

In other words, the comparative
wealth of his Christian neighbor appeals
to his cupidity. It has been one of the
main causes why the Turkish population,
when permitted to plunder their neigh-

bors, has looked upon massacre largely

as an opportunity for loot. Massacres
of Christians have in fact not only been
one of the regularly recurring incidents
in Turkish rule, but have always ap-

Photo by Felix J. Koch
YOUNG TURKS

pealed to the desire for plunder on the
part of the poorer Moslems.

THE CURSE OF ISLAM

While the unvarying testimony of
history shows the Turk to be incapable
of doing justice to a subject Christian
race, he is seen at his worst when his
religious prejudices come into play. It
is these prejudices more than any other
cause which have always prevented, and
stil ‘prevent, him. from. beimg <a just
ruler.

The religion of Islam, or Resignation,
supplies a teaching which, in certain re-
spects, works for righteousness, and in
an early stage of human society un-
doubtedly constituted a progress on the
existing systems. Of this aspect of its
teaching I have nothing here to say; but
I may be allowed to remark that while
it is difficult to find words too strong to
condemn the corruption and misrule
which exists in every department of
Turkish administration, I must not be
understood to condemn all Turks. The
common peasant, when not under the in-
fluence of religious prejudice, is sober,
kindly, and hospitable. When, however,
he rises to office, he is incapable of re-

1143

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Photo by D.

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“THAMALS” (BURDEN-BEARERS) ON GALATA BRIDGE: CONSTANTINOPLE

sisting the evil influences of his environ-
ment. Even among the governing class
there are found honorable and upright
men who lament the general corruption
and keep their own hands clean; but they
are, unfortunately, powerless to mend
matters.

On the other hand, it must not be sup-
posed that the Christians in Turkish
service are much better than the Turks
themselves. Some of the most striking
examples of men who could be named
today as representatives of everything
that is bad in the matters of Turkish rule
are so-called Christians. Speaking of
the system generally, and excluding in-
dividual cases, Turkish officials are in-
capable of even striving against the evils
which surround them and by which they
seek to profit.

Nevertheless, the. statement is true
that the religion of the Turk tends to
make him incapable of being a just ruler
over Christians. Mohammedanism pro-
duces this result by directly encouraging
the domineering spirit of the conqueror
over the vanquished by hindering the
moral and material progress of the con-
quering race, and by widening the gulf
between the rulers and their subjects.

The spread of Islam was largely due
to the sword. Its teaching is that the
caffers, or idolaters, are to be rooted out,
but that the “People of the Books’—
that is, the Christians and the Jews, are
to be spared if they submit and pay
tribute. At all times an unbeliever could
save his life if he would accept Islam.
Every career becomes open to the apos-
tate. The dream of the pious Moslem is

1145

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M : A A Ss oe

Photo by D. W. and A. S. Iddings. Copyright by Keystone View Co.

TURKISH HOMES ALONG THE BOSPHORUS, AT RUMELI HISSAR

that all races shall be driven within the
domain of the Khalif. He is convinced
that by virtue of his acceptance of the
true faith the believer is placed on a
higher plane than unbelievers. He is
appointed to be a ruler over the “People
of the Books,” who are to be his rayahs
(the term rayah is applied to all the non-
Mohammedan subjects of the Porte) or
cattle. With such a belief, it would in-
deed be remarkable if the conquerors’
pride were not greatly increased, and if
they did not become the most grievous
of task-masters.

THE MOHAMMEDAN BELIEVES HE BELONGS
TO A SUPERIOR SPECIES

A keen observer, of long experience in
India, who is specially anxious to secure
educated Mohammedans for the service
of the State in numbers equal to their
proportion of the population, declared
that the greatest obstacle to their pro-
gress is what he calls “spiritual pride.”
As in Turkey, so in India the Moham-
medan considers himself to be on a
higher plane than the adherents of any
other faith, Christianity included. He
almost belongs to a different species. He

1146

“GRASS NEVER GROWS WHERE TURKISH HOOF HAS TROD”

is a ruler by divine right, and Christians
are, or ought to be, his rayahs. Never-
theless, in India he fails to compete suc-
cessfully with the adherents of other,
and even non-Christian, faiths, just as
his co-religionist in Turkey fails in gen-
eral progress when matched with the
Christians.

Of course, to men who hold such opin-
ions regarding their relationship to the
professors of other creeds, all suggestion
of equality before the law, or of equal
rights with themselves, is nonsense.
They have no desire to assimilate races
whom Allah has placed in subjection to
them.

It is this pride which has prevented the
Turk from profiting by the learning and
experience of the West. It is this proud
and domineering spirit, engendered by
conquest and strengthened and_ sanc-
tioned by religious belief, which makes
the Moslem incapable of being a just
ruler of Christians.

THE DEGRADATION OF WOMAN BY ISLAM

The other characteristics of Moham-
medanism which tend to prevent the
Turk from acting justly to subject races
are mainly two—viz., the position as-
signed to woman, and the deep-rooted
belief in and influence of fatalism.
Though these are of great importance in
examining the influence of Islam upon
the Turkish race, the space allotted for-
bids me to do more than indicate their
effect. Each checks the moral and ma-
terial progress of the race and renders
the individual less intelligent than he
would otherwise be.

The position assigned to woman is re-
garded by thoughtful Turks themselves
as the most unfortunate part of the
teaching of their religion. Polygamy is
permitted. Repudiation of a wife, rather
than formal divorce, is the common
practice. The separation of the house-
hold is the inflexible rule. The common
belief in Mohammedan countries—
though such belief is declared by many
competent authorities to be contrary to
the true teaching of the Koran—is that
woman has no soul. Family life or home

1147

life, as the term is understood in all
Christian countries, is unknown.

The churches have rendered an in-
estimable service to the subject races of
the Empire by the preservation of family
life. Where woman is by law and cus-
tom degraded, the offspring, and in time
the race itself, comes to be less intelli-
gent, and, using the word in a large
sense, less educated than in countries
where children are brought up in the
companionship of both parents. Being
less intelligent, they are unable to become
as prosperous as their neighbors of the
Christian faith, whom they have been
brought up to despise and speak of as.
cattle.

“NO TREATY WITH INFIDELS CAN BE
BINDING”

The influence of fatalism prevents the
Turk from providing for the future.
Those who know the Turkish population
best are the most deeply impressed with
the hindrance to material progress and
to mental development which arises from
this belief. It operates upon every ac-
tion in their lives. It has certainly
helped to make the Osmanlis fearless
soldiers; but the same belief destroys in
the average Turk the desire to get on and
the inducements to work. The answer
of the poorer Turk, when asked why he
does not do something by which he could
profit; is: What is written (in: the
Eternal Books) is written.”

The resistance to reforms suggested
by Europe which the Turk has so often
displayed during the last century, has
been, in fact, largely due to his religion.
However enlightened a Sultan and a
handful of reformers—like the famous.
Rashid, Fuad, and Aali of the Crimean
War period—may have been, they have
against them the wis inertie of the bulk
of the Moslem population. Any change
proposed by Europeans appears to them
an invasion of their sacred rights. To
demand that Christian rayahs shall be
placed on an equality with Moslems is.
to invoke the silent 1f not spoken retort
that no treaty with infidels can be bind-
ing.

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
THOUSANDS OF PATRIOTIC GREEKS PACKING THE MAIN STREET OF ATHENS, GREECE,
WAITING FOR THE LATEST WAR BULLETINS FROM THE FRONT

1148

TWO POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS FOR THE EASTERN
PROBLEM

By JAmes Bryce

Autuor oF “Tur AMERICAN COMMONWEALTH,” “SOUTH AMERICAN OBSERVA-
TIONS AND IMPRESSIONS,” ETC.

The following article was written by Mr. James Bryce when a private citizen,
as an introduction to “The Balkan Question” (John Murray, London), and is

reprinted here without change.

It summarizes the results of extensive travel m

the Balkan countries and of along study of the problem which has tormented the

peace of Europe for generations.

HE high-water mark of Turkish
} conquest had been reached when
Vienna was saved by the Polish
Kine John Sobieski; in A.D. 1683.
Ever since then the recession of the
water has been uninterrupted. Empires
may take a long time to die. Looking
back, we can see that the East Roman
Empire steadily lost ground from the
death of the Emperor Manuel Comnenus
in A. D. 1180, yet it was not destroyed
till the capture of Constantinople in
ers, IDS iVaey
Much more rapid has been the decline
of the Turkish power. One by one its
European provinces have been stripped
away. Hungary was lost, and then in
succession Transylvania and Bessarabia,
and the two Danubian principalities
which now constitute the Rumanian
kingdom, and Greece, and Servia, and
Bosnia, and Bulgaria, and Thessaly, and
eastern Rumelia, and Crete. In Asia
also Russia has twice advanced her fron-
tiers over territory that was once Otto-
man. Egypt was long ago detached, and
in our own time so also has Cyprus been.
Everywhere in the modern world the
weak powers break up under the impact
of the strong, and the Turkish dominion
is exceptionally weak in proportion to
the vast area it covers. It would, in-
deed, have before now been torn to
pieces by revolt or absorbed by rapa-
cious neighbors had not the mutual jeal-
ousies of the European States interposed
a check, and had not the power of pur-
chasing modern arms of precision given
to the government, as it gives to every
government, advantages against insur-

gents which did not exist in earlier days.
If during the last hundred years the
Turkish Empire had stood alone and un-
befriended, as the east Roman Empire
stood alone in the fourteenth and fif-
teenth centuries, it would before now
have perished from the earth.

The process of decay goes steadily on
for the most obvious of all reasons. ‘The
governing class in Turkey is incorrigible.
Its faults are always the same. It can-
not or will not change the policy which
has brought the country to ruin. Sul-
tans come and go; one is abler or more
vigorous; another is feeble and heed-
less, or perhaps a mere voluptuary. But,
so far as the administration goes, there
is “no attempt- at improvement. One
scheme of reform after another, ex-
torted by the European powers, is prom-
ised or formally enacted, but no step is
ever taken to carry out any of the prom-
ises.

The conditions are such that even if
by some amazing chance such a man as
Soliman the Magnificent or Akbar the
Great were to come to the throne there
is little probability that the process of
decline could be arrested. It advances
with the steady march of a law of na-
ture. Every European statesman knows
this. Every thinking man in Turkey it-
self knows it. That hopefulness must be
blind indeed which does not recognize
that the problem now is not how to keep
the Turkish Empire permanently in be-
ing, but how to minimize the shock of its
fall and what to substitute for it.

Not that its fall is necessarily close
at hand. It may be delayed for some

1149

A GREEK OF CORINTH

decades, conceivably even till near the
end of the present century.

The only kind of reform which has
ever succeeded is that which removes a
province from the Sultan’s control. This
plan succeeded in Eastern Rumelia, has
succeeded in the Lebanon, is succeeding
in Crete. And this plan, applied’ on a
large scale by successive steps to suc-
cessive districts, means the substitution
of a regular and comparatively civilized
administration for that organized brig-
andage which has been the only kind of
government the Turks have hitherto be-
stowed on their subjects.

The Turkish Empire stretches from
the Adriatic to the Persian Gulf. It in-
cludes what were once the most popu-
lous and flourishing districts of the
civilized world. Its population is now
scanty in proportion to the vast area, and
is probably (though no trustworthy sta-

Photo by A. C. Barler

tistics exist) rather declining
than increasing. The Mussul-
man element is attenuated by
moral and political causes and
by the drain of military serv-
ice; the Christian element by
massacre. But once a stable
and progressive government
has been established, these re-
gions will no doubt begin to
recover, and within two or
three centuries they may, such
are their natural resources,
such the advantages of their
geographical position, rival or
surpass their ancient pros-
perity. The question of their
future is therefore a question
of the highest interest in its
economic as well as in its po-
litical aspects.

Broadly speaking, there are
two possible solutions of the
Eastern problem. One is the
absorption of the existing na-
tionality into the great do-
minions and great nations
which border upon Turkey.
The other is the growth of
those nationalities, or some of
them, into nations and States.
European Turkey, for in-
stance, may be conquered and
seized by Russia, or be parti-
tioned either between Russia
and Austria, or perhaps between Russia
and Austria, with some concessions of
territory to Italy and Greece, the Bul-
garians, Servians, Vlachs, and other in-
habitants, losing after a time their in-
dividuality, and becoming blent in the
great Slavonic mass of the two empires,
and especially of Russia. Asiatic Tur-
key may be annexed to Russian Trans-
caucasia, or divided between the Tsar
and some one or more of the European
States which are believed to seek new
dominions.

Such an absorption would undoubt-
edly bring some immediate relief to the
wretched subjects of the Sultan—Mus-
sulmans as well as Christians. (Let it be
always remembered that the Mussulmans
as well as the Christians must be consid-
ered, and have almost as much to gain
by the destruction of the existing system
as the Christians have.) Even the least

II50

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SOLUTIONS FOR THE EASTERN PROBLEM

progressive European government gives
security for a life and property, permits
wealth to accumulate and population to
increase, and makes some provision for
education. As Egypt has thriven under
English administration, so has Bosnia
under Austrian. If the Christian na-
tionalities do not wish to be incorporated
in the Austrian or Russian dominions,
it is not because they prefer the Turk to
the Russian or the Austrian, but because,
looking for the early extinction of the
Sultanate, they have ulterior hopes for
their own people which that incorpora-
tion would destroy. ‘There would, there-
fore, be some immediate gain to the in-
habitants of the Turkish provinces from
the extinction of European, and _pri-
marily of Russian rule.

This solution is that which seems
easiest, and which may probably come
about if things are left to themselves,
Russia dividing with Austria the Euro-
pean part of the Ottoman dominions,
and subsequently either acquiring for
herself or dividing with Germany the
Asiatic part. The same law which has
carried her over all northern Asia and
over half of central Asia, the law which
carried the Inglish in a century over all
India, will naturally bestow upon her
Turkey, or so much of Turkey as other
European States do not prevent her
from appropriating.

Is this result to be desired in the in-
terests either of other States, or of the
peoples of the East, or of mankind at
large?

States which, like France and Great
Britain, have got all they want already,
and seek no share of the spoils, may well
be unwilling to see an empire already
gigantic extend itself over territories
which might one day become formidable
to its strength. Into the special motives
which France may have for safeguard-
ing her influence cver the Catholics of
the East or Britain may have in respect
of her presence in Egypt and in India,
there is no need to speak, for apart from
those much-debated interests, the gen-
_ eral interest which all States have in see-

ing no one State abnormally expand is
evident enough.

1153

The races and religious communities
of the East—it is by religion rather than
by race that men are united and organ-
ized in those countries—are animated by
a sentiment which is in some, as among
the Mussulmans generally, religious

’ rather than national, and which in others,

as with the Bulgarians and Armenians,
is now quite as much national as re-
ligious. It is in all cases opposed to ab-
sorption by any European power. vs

These races have not behind them the
splendid record of great achievements in
literature, in art, in government, which
in France, Spain, Germany, Italy, and
England inspires national feeling. But
they have the recollection of a tenacious:
adherence to their faith and language
through centuries of grievous oppression,
mingled with the dim traditions of their
ancient days of independence, and bright-
ened by the hope of a national life in
the future. These aspirations deserve
more respect from the western nations
than they usually receive, for there is
nothing in which men show more want
of imagination than in the failure to ap-
preciate under a different exterior the
sentiments which they value among
themselves.

Apart, however, from the wishes of
the several Eastern peoples, apart from
those special interests which each of the
European States has, or thinks it has, in
the settlement of these questions, what is
it that ought to be desired by those who,
studying the tendencies that have been
at work, and the forces that are now at
work in moulding the world, seek what
will be ultimately the best for progress?
What sort of a reconstitution of the East
will best serve the common interests of
humanity in that future which the evi-
dent decay of Mussulman power has for
two centuries been preparing?

The most conspicuous feature in the
evolution of the modern world has been
the effacement of the smaller and the
growth of the larger nations and nation-
alities. ‘The great States have become
greater, while the small States have been
vanishing. ‘The great languages are cov-
ering the world; the minor languages are
being forgotten. Only a few types of
character, of intellectual life, of social

|)

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
THE GREEN MARKET IN STAMBOUL, CONSTANTINOPLE

1154

ae inert

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
OF THEIR FATHERS

TO THE DEFENSE OF CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE RELIGIO

Turkish recruits, reservists, and regular soldiers in a cufa (a type of boat that the
ancient Babylonians used) crossing the River Tigris from Bagdad, in the first step of their
long journey across 1,200 miles of desert sand, towards Constantinople, to help defend the
capital of the Turkish Empire against Christianity in the last stand of the Ottoman in

Europe.

T155

1156

organization, each associated with a
great nation, are now visible, where for-
merly there were many.

That any one of these now dominant
types will ultimately so prevail against
the others as to absorb them cannot be
predicted, for at least four or five of the
types are immensely strong. Yet, speak-
ing broadly, uniformity tends to increase,
variety to disappear. Local patriotism,
with all that diversity and play of indi-
viduality which local patriotism has
evolved, withers silently away. The pro-
cess is in civilized Europe nearly com-
plete; and the Mediterranean East is al-
most the only part of the world in which
there are left nationalities with the ca-
pacity for developing into independent
nations that may create new types of
character and new forms of literary and
artistic life.

Bulgarians, Serbs, Greeks, Armeni-
ans—it might seem fanciful to add AI-
banians and Kurds, yet each of these two
small races has a strong individuality
and a capacity for greater things than it
has hitherto achieved—have in them the
makings of nations which might, in a
still distant future, hold a worthy place
in the commonwealth of peoples. If I
were to argue that the small States have
in the past done more for the world in
the way of intellectual progress than the
gigantic States of today are doing, I
might be involved in a controversy as to
the differences between past and present
conditions, and might be told that many
of the small States of today, such as
most of the republics of Spanish Amer-
ica, make no contribution to the common
stock. But without insisting upon such
an argument, one may venture to say
that humanity has more to expect from
the development of new civilized nations

Ney
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THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

out of ancient yet still vigorous races
than from the submersion of these races
under a flood of Russianizing or Ger-
manizing influences emanating from any
one of the three great empires.

The principle of nationalities finds less
support and sympathy nowadays, even
in countries which, like Germany, have
profited by its application, than it did in
the past; but those who sympathize with
the successful efforts of Italy and Hun-
gary, and the unsuccessful efforts of
Poland, not to mention more recent in-
stances, may well extend their sympa-
thies to those nationalities in the East,
which, after so long a night, see a glim-
mer of dawn rising before them.

Failings may indeed be discerned in
the men who belong to these nationali-
ties, failings which are the natural result
of the conditions under which they have
had for centuries to live. But the tenac-
ity with which the Macedonian Chris-
tians have clung to their faith when they
had so much to gain by renouncing it,
the courage which the Armenian Chris-
tians showed when thousands of them
chose in 1895 to die rather than abjure
their Saviour, prove the strength of fibre
that is left in these ancient races.

He who, looking above and beyond the
dust of current politics, will try to fix
his eyes, as Mr. Gladstone did, upon the
heights of a more distant landscape, will
find reason to think that the develop-
ment of these nationalities has in it more
promise for the future than the exten-
sion of the sway of one or two huge
military empires, and will believe that to
encourage and help them to grow into
nations is an aim to- which such great
and enlightened peoples as those of Eng-
land, France, and Italy may fitly direct
their efforts,

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Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
VIEW OF THE STRAITS OF THE BOSPHORUS AT THE NARROWEST POINT

The foreground is Europe, while Asia is seen across the water. It was at this point
that the Persian King, Darius the Great, crossed from Asia to Europe when he attacked
the Scythians and Thrace in 512. The castle in the foreground was built by Mohammed
the Great during the siege and attack of Constantinople, which resulted in the capture of
the city by the Turks in 1453. Another portion of the same fortress, including its largest
tower, is shown on page 1146

1158

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY
| re program of addresses arranged for

this season is given below.

Every lecture is given twice—in the
afternoon at 4: 45 and in the evening at 8: 15—
with the exception of the lectures by ex-Presi-
dent Charles W. Eliot and Mr. David Fair-
child, on March 7.

In addition to the list of speakers an-
nounced, Hon. Charles R. Crane has accepted
the invitation of the Society to give an ad-
dress on “The Balkan States,” the date to be
announced later. The members of the Society
will receive due notice of all changes.

The lectures will be given in the New Ma-
sonic Auditorium, Thirteenth street and New
York avenue (entrance on New York avenue).
All lectures are illustrated with colored lan-
tern slides, and the majority also by motion
pictures.

November 15.—“‘The Blond Eskimo of Coro-
nation Gulf.” By Mr. Vilhjalmur Stefansson,
of the American Museum of Natural History.
Mr. Stefansson, during his four years’ explo-
ration (1909-1912) of the Arctic coast of
North America; discovered a new tribe of
Eskimos, numbering nearly 2,000, who in phys-
ical characteristics differ considerably from
any Eskimos previously known. Many of
them have red hair and blue eyes. Much
speculation has been aroused as to the origin
of the tribe.

November 22.—“Bulgaria and Servia.” By
Col. Nox McCain. An intimate description of
two small nations whose courage, dash, and
achievements have astounded the world.

November 29.—‘‘The Panama Canal, as told
in Kinemacolor Motion Pictures.” By Rear
Admiral Colby M. Chester, U. S. Navy. The
Kinemacolor gives the most graphic and real-
istic picture yet made of the gigantic works
at Panama.

December 6—“The Ascent of Mount Mc-
Kinley.” By Prof. Herschel Parker, of Co-
lumbia University, New York. After several
expeditions to Mount McKinley and repeated
attempts to scale this loftiest mountain of
North America, Prof. Herschel Parker at-
tained to within 300 feet of the summit in the
summer of 1912. Mount McKinley had been
the goal of many mountaineers, all of whom
failed to reach a point within thousands of
feet of its summit.

December 13—“The Romance of the Red
Indian.” By Mr. Walter McClintock.

December 20—‘‘Modern Greece and Monte-
negro.” By Hon. George Higgins Moses,
United States Minister to Greece and Monte-
negro, I90Q-I9I2.

January 3—‘A Vanishing Empire.” By
Mr. E. M. Newman. Mr. Newman will tell of
Constantinople, Salonica, Adrianople, and the
other historic cities which are the center of
the present Eastern War.

January to.—“The Discovery of the South
Pole”’ By Capt. Roald Amundsen, gold

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

medalist of the National Geographic Society.
This will be Captain Amundsen’s first lecture
in the United States.

January 11.—Annual Banquet.
Willard.

January 17.—“New Women in China.” By
Dr. Yamei Kin, the foremost woman physician
in China. She is an unusually brilliant speaker
and addressed the Society on her last visit
to America, in IOQII.

January 24.—‘Hunting Big Game Across
the World, from Borneo to the Rockies, in-
cluding Central Africa, the British Isles, India,
Canada, etc.” By Mr. Cherry Kearton, of
England. Mr. Kearton shows 3,000 feet of
motion picture films of hunting the tiger, ele-
phant, Indian bison, orang-outang, lion, bear,
buffalo, elk, ete.

January 31.— “Exploring in the Canadian
Rockies and the Capture of Mount Robson,
its Highest Peak.” By Rev. George Kinney.

February 7—“Austria-Hungary.” By Hon.
Bellamy Storer, formerly American Ambas-
sador to Austria-Hungary.

February 14—“Around the World in Eighty
Minutes: A Twenty-five Thousand Mile Tour,
told in One Mile of Motion Pictures.” By
Hon. O. P. Austin, Secretary of the National
Geographic Society.

February 21—“An Explorer’s Experiences.
in Little-known Portions of Korea.” By Mr.
Roy C. Andrews, of the American Museum
of Natural History.

_ February 28.—Mr. George Kennan will de-
liver an address to the National Geographic
Society on some subject to be announced later.

March 7—The subject of the afternoon
lecture will be “Monsters of our Back Yards.”
By Mr. David Fairchild, of the Department
of Agriculture. Mr. Fairchild will show on
lantern slides a marvelous collection of en-
larged photographs of locusts, spiders, ants,
flies, mosquitoes, caterpillars, etc. all the
photographs having been taken by him by a
special process.

The address in the evening will be by Presi-
dent Emeritus Charles W. Eliot, of Harvard
University, and the subject: “How to Estab-
lish a Strong Government in China.”

March 14—“The South Today and Tomor-
row.” By Mr. Claude: N. Bennett.
March 21.— “Gorgeous Siam.”

Howard Gore.

March 28.—“Our Pursuit of the Pheasant.”
By Dr. C. William Beebe, of the New York
Zoological Park.

April 4—“The Incas of Peru.” - By: Prof.
Hiram Bingham, of Yale University. An ac-
count of the results of the Yale-National Geo-
graphic Society Expedition to Peru of I912.

April 11.—“The American Eden.” By
C. J. Blanchard, of the U. S. Reclamation
Service. The glory of our national parks
and of the golden west is vividly portrayed |
in natural colors by the Kinemacolor.

At the New

By Dre J:

— — s :
Geographic Magazine, 1912.—Gilbert H. Grosvenor, Editor
Photo b

Pieto by Anthony Fiala
a Copyright by National Geographic Magaz 1912.—Gilbert H. Grosvenor, Editor

THE LURE OF THE FROZEN DESERT

yr

VoL. XXIII, No. 12

2

WASHINGTON

GEOGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE

DECEMBER, 1912

LT

EAST OF THE ADRIATIC

Notes on Dalmatia, Montenegro, Bosnia, and Herzegovina

By Kennetuo McKenzisz, or YALE UNIvERSITY

and Fiume for the ports on the

eastern shore of the Adriatic.
The express steamers stop at only four
or five of the chief Dalmatian towns,
and make the journey to’ Cattaro in
about twenty-four hours. Other steam-
ers touch at many more places, tie up at
night, and take three or four days to go
the same distance. Other steamers,
again, go on to Albania and Greece or
across to Italy.

There is probably no region so easily
accessible from the beaten track of Euro-
pean travel which offers so much attrac-
tion in the way of picturesque old-time
life, quaint towns, interesting and beauti-
ful national costumes, and extraordinary
scenery as Montenegro and the Adriatic
provinces of Austria.

Recent events in Turkey have so ab-
sorbed attention that they have crowded
out of mind a change in the map of Eu-
rope which in the latter part of 1908
almost precipitated a war—namely, the
formal and definite annexation by Aus-
tria of the Turkish provinces Bosnia
and Herzegovina. To be sure, the
change was rather in name than in fact;
Austria had occupied and administered
the provinces, as England has admin-
istered Egypt, for thirty years, and it
was scarcely conceivable that Turkey
would ever regain control of them. Be-
fore the Congress of Berlin, in 1878, the
provinces had been in a constant condi-
tion of turmoil and lawlessness, and

Vand F day steamers leave T'rieste

hence the powers consented to the mili-
tary occupation by Austria. In conse-
quence, roads and railways were built,
commerce and agriculture developed,
and the region became, like Dalmatia, as
safe for resident and traveler as any part
of Europe.

Some writers maintain that the in-
fluence of Austria, outwardly beneficial,
has in reality been harmful to Bosnia;
however that may. be, Austria is now
in secure possession not only of the
narrow strip of coastland called Dal-
matia, a remnant of her Italian his-
tory, but of the inland region between
Croatia, Hungary, Servia, Montenegro,
and Dalmatia.

It remains to be seen whether this
political change will make Bosnia and
Herzegovina less picturesque and attract-
ive from the traveler’s point of view.
Probably the large proportion of Mo-
hammedans among the inhabitants will
prevent any rapid assimilation to the
commonplaceness of more frequented
resorts.

The Bosnian Mohammedans call them-
selves Turks, but in reality they are of

Slavic race and language, like the
other inhabitants. Various Christian
churches—Roman, Russian, Servian—

are represented in Bosnia, and a prac-
ticed eye can tell the religion of a man
or a woman by slight variations in cos-
tume. ‘The Mohammedan women usually
go veiled; in Herzegovina they wear a
heavy cape, with a projection in front of

1160

To
ce

PERASTO, PERCHED ON A LEDGE AT THE FOOT OF A GREAT MOUNTAIN WALL, IN DALMATIA, 12 MILES FROM THE

CAPITAL OF MONTENEGRO

autiful inlet of the Adriatic Sea (see page 1173), and during the 14th

Annaondont Ctota

Perasto overlooks the Bocche di Cattaro, a winding and be

A WATER-CARRIER IN

Photo by Felix J. Koch
HERZEGOVINA

Note that the woman spins as she drives the donkey. The divided skirt originated here

most peculiar form. Croatia and Dal-
matia are Roman Catholic, while Monte-
negro adheres to the Russo-Greek
church.

The language of all these regions is the
Servian-Croatian. In Dalmatia, Italian
is everywhere understood; English, Ger-
man, or French rarely; while in Bosnia
German is serviceable. In Montenegro
the sign-language will be found useful,
although occasionally a man _ will be
found who speaks Italian or German.

In Montenegro the Russian alphabet
is used; in Dalmatia, the Roman, al-

though the language is the same. In
3osnia both alphabets are used side by
side, and before the formal annexation,
‘Turkish signs were frequently to be seen;
sometimes one name would be repeated
in the three alphabets.

The Austrian coinage prevails through-
out the region, and the coins of the dif-
ferent countries are interchanged. Each
country has, however, its own postage
stamps, and those purchased at Fiume.
for instance, being Hungarian, are use-
less in Trieste or Zara. The stamps of
Bosnia were among the most beautiful

II61

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II :SMHMNOOTIVA HHL

VNIAODHZYAH
yoosr “ff xtaq Aq ood

1162

ever issued by any country;
they are large, with finely en-
graved pictures of Bosnian
scenes. Those of Montenegro
bear a portrait of the prince.

The trip may begin with Dal-
matia and its coast towns, then
taking Montenegro as a_ side
trip, and ending with Bosnia,
whence one goes by rail to Bu-
dapest or to Agram and Fiume.
Starting from Fiume, one sails
down the channel called Quar-
nerolo, leaving Istria and the
Gulf of Quarnero to the right.
The island of Arbe, about half
way to Zara, has an old cathe-
dral with a_ twelfth-century
tower. Coming from Trieste,
one skirts the western shore of
Istria, stopping perhaps at Ro-
vigno and at Pola. The stay of
an hour enables one to get a
hurried glimpse of the great
amphitheater and other Roman
remains of Pola, now an import-
ant naval station and strongly
fortified. The language here is
chiefly Italian. Istria would
well repay the time devoted to
a trip of several days; but we
pass on, stopping at one or two -——
of the islands, to Zara, the most
northerly town of importance
in Dalmatia.

Zara is noted all over the world for its
maraschino. Aside from this, however,
the town has many attractions to offer.
On landing from the steamer in the land-
locked harbor, we find ourselves in front
of a gate in the town wall. Over the
gate is the winged lion of Saint Mark,
often met with here and elsewhere in
Dalmatia, and a symbol of the former
dominion of the Republic of Venice.
Passing through the gate, we enter the
narrow paved streets of a typical Italian
city, such as we may imagine it to have
been two or three centuries ago, except
that the hotels are more comfortable.
There are a number of medieval churches
in the town, interesting architecturally,
and containing works of art. The ca-
thedral in particular, a majestic Roman-
esque church, is richly adorned outside
with many arcades of little columns and

ss EE a]

Photo by Felix J. Koch
PROMINENT CITIZENS OF ZARA
inside with marbles and paintings. It is
in the best Italian style of the Middle
Ages. Its campanile is a landmark.
Wandering among the narrow streets,
we come upon several open squares and
market-places, where in the morning
scores of peasants may be seen in their
brilliant-colored costumes. There are
Roman remains, too—columns and stat-
ues. No railroad as yet reaches Zara.
The steamer comes out of the harbor,
encircles the point of land on which the
city stands, and skirts low-lying shores,
passing among innumerable islands. All
at once a narrow opening appears; we
go through it, and find ourselves in the
spacious harbor of Sebenico, with the
town rising from the water to a fort
crowning the hill. In the middle of the
town stands the cathedral, of which we
get charming glimpses from the harbor

1163

and through the narrow streets. It
is a beautiful example of the Venetian
gothic of the fifteenth century, richly
adorned with carving, and surmounted
by an octagonal dome. Here also the
streets are filled with strange and bril-
liant costumes; red is the predominat-
ing color. From Sebenico a railroad
runs to Spalato, and also into the in-
terior; but it has no connections out-
side Dalmatia.

The next important station is Trau—
important, at least, from the tourist’s
point of view, for this little town is
one of the best worth seeing in all
Dalmatia; but commercially the case
is different, and only a few of the
steamers stop there. We had chosen
the Danubio partly for the very pur-
pose of seeing Trau, and the time-
table gave us a full hour there.

Trau, called by the Romans Trag-
wee urium, was a city even before the time
Photo from “A British Officer in the Balkans.” By Major Of Christ. Later it was one of the

Percy Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co. strongholds of Venice, as the towers,
A BOSNIAN TURK AND HIS SON walls, and public buildings testify. It

Turkish boys up to three or four years of age occupies the entire surface of a small
are dressed much in the same way as their sisters, island lying between a larger island,
except that their trousers are a little tighter about Bya, and the mainland. From every
the ankle and they wear no shawl. direction it presents a ravishingly
picturesque appearance, both for
the natural beauty of its situation
and for its wonderful architecture.
The traveler longs to walk through
every street and examine every
house, but he must devote special
attention to the cathedral, the most
interesting church in Dalmatia.

We were examining the quaint
sculptures of its portal, when we
heard a whistle; but as only a
quarter of our hour had elapsed,
we paid no attention. A few min-
utes later, however, our wander-
ing course through the maze of
narrow streets brought us unex-
pectedly back to the broad land-
ing-place, where we saw the Da-
nubio calmly sailing off through
the raised drawbridge, and headed
for Spalato, whose towers we
could dimly see ten miles distant
across the bay.

We consulted our watches, our
time-tables, and some of the na-

tives; but there was no denying

Photo from “‘A British Officer in the Balkans.” By Major Percy the fact that the Danubio had left
Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co. us. behind. We knew that she

SOUTH HERZEGOVINIAN WOMAN AND RACGUSANS would remain at Spalato until six

1164

A TYPICAL SCENE IN DALMATIA, EAST OF THE ADRIATIC

“We reach the Bocche di Cattaro,.an extraordinary fjord, suggesting Norway in its
grandeur and the Italian lakes in its luxuriance and its wealth of color. As the boat winds
through one narrow channel after another, new arms of water keep opening up, until after
a long course, but still quite near the sea, we reach Cattaro, at the head of the fjord” (see
page 1173).

1165

Se en

A FAMILY CONSTITUTIONAL

in the morning, and so we prepared to
spend the night in catching up with her.

We had observed a plaintive horse
drawing an antique carriage, and, thank-
ing our stars that we had not been left
on some inaccessible island where no
steamer would touch for a week, we set
out vaguely for the distant railroad sta-
tion. The driver thought there might be
a train that night, though he could not
be sure, and he thought we might catch
it. The drive along the shore, among
seven little villages called Sette. Castelli,
is one of the most beautiful in Dalmatia,
and this we could appreciate in the twi-
light. After driving several miles on
the main road toward Spalato—the en-
tire distance would have been over
twenty miles—we turned inland, and
began to climb the foothills toward an
apparently impassable wall of moun-
tains. The darkness was now intense
as we drove through a thick forest, and
no railroad in sight. Finally, however,
we drew up at the little station on the
mountain side and learned that the train
would arrive in a few minutes. After
paying for the carriage, we had just
enough change in our pockets for third-
class tickets to Spalato—and there we
arrived about nine o'clock. We tried to
walk aboard the Danubio as if nothing
had happened, but Captain Gopcevich
saw us.

“Aren’t you the two who were left be-
hind at Trau? Yes? Well, how did
you get here? By train?

lpayess) the

sd

Photos from “A British Officer in the Balkans.” By
Major Percy Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co.

TURKISH CHILDREN RETURNING FROM
MARKET: RAGUSA

train! But I whistled before I started.
The time-table? Oh, we never bother
about the time-table except when we
leave the big ports. Yes, tomorrow
morning at six.” May this experience
warn other travelers to keep an eye on
the boat when visiting some too tempting
Dalmatian city... rau can, however,
like the Roman city of Salona, be visited
by land from Spalato if one has the time
to make the excursion. Incidentally,
the remarks quoted above were made in
Italian, but we afterwards discovered
that the captain, an excellent fellow, had
been in America and spoke good English.

Spalato, the largest city in Dalmatia,
consists of two parts—the old town, built
entirely within the walls of the great
palace of Diocletian, two hundred yards
long and almost as broad, and the new
town, stretching to the west along the
shore and to the north toward the moun-
tains. In the old town, buildings of
Roman, medieval, and modern times are
inextricably mingled. The streets are
mere tunnels, and to walk through them
at night is a weird experience. In the
middle is the cathedral into which the
mausoleum of the emperor has been
transformed. ‘The new quarters of the
town are spacious, and of course com-
paratively commonplace, but the old
town is unique.

From Spalato to Gravosa the express
steamers go in seven hours, but the Dan-

1167

Photo from ‘“‘A British Officer in the Balkans.” By Major Percy Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co.

A RAGUSAN WOMAN AND LOAD

Photo by Emma G. Cummings

THE MAIN THOROUGHFARE: MOSTAR (SEE PAGE 1185)

A LURK Ox

T168

Photo from ‘“‘A British Officer in the Balkans.”’

CANALESI WOMEN IN

ubio took two days to cover the distance,
stopping at many ports on the islands
that lie off this part of the coast. The
most interesting of these islands are Le-
sina, Lissa, and Curzola. Lissa has
given its name to two famous naval bat-
tles—one between the English and the
French in 1811, and one between the
Austrians and the Italians in 1866. The
two harbors of the island, Lissa and
Comisa, are exceedingly beautiful. The

By Major Percy Henderson.

J. B. Lippincott Co.

NATIONAL DRESS

chief source of income in this part of Dal-
matia is from the sea, and the costumes
of the fishermen are less picturesque than
those of the islanders who come to the
coast towns on the mainland. In archi-
tectural beauty Curzola is particularly
striking ; it is a diminutive walled city on
a point of land which juts out from the
large island of the same name into the
channel which separates it from the
mainland. Opposite, the mountains rise

1169

Photo from “A British Officer in the Balkans.”” By Major Percy Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co.
A BOSNIAN BEAUTY

As a rule the Bosnian women are not handsome, but this one had skin like a peach,
features of a Greek statue, and smiling brown eyes. She wore a diadem of gold coins, a
row of flowers above, and a snow-white veil reaching to her feet.

1170

Photo from ‘A British Officer in the Balkans.”

By Major Percy Henderson.

J. B. Lippincott Co.

A UNIQUE COSTUME IN JAJCE, BOSNIA: A BREASTPLATE OF COINS

directly from the sea, with a few villages
here and there along the shore.

Gravosa is the harbor of Ragusa, the
great show place of Dalmatia, and surely
one of the most lovely places in Europe.
The road between the two runs through
gardens, with glimpses of the sea. Ra-
gusa also has a little harbor of its own,
where small boats land. Here one may
find a launch or a rowboat to cross to the

island of Lacroma, to sail around the
promontory to Gravosa, and to ascend
the Ombla River, which issues in a
mighty stream from the foot of a moun-
tain. The palaces, churches, cldisters,
and gates of Ragusa, while they may be
seen in a few hours, leave on the mind a
lasting impression of beauty.

We made the excursion to Lacroma in
company with a Hungarian artist, who

Photo from ‘‘A British Officer in the Balkans.”’

By Major Percy Henderson.

J. B. Lippincott Co.

MANGERS AS CRADLES

Amongst the Bosnian peasantry, mangers or wooden troughs for animals to eat out of are

in general use as cradles.

II7I

This woman is carrying her baby in this way

Photo by Kenneth McKenzie

MARKET DAY AT NJEGUS, MONTENEGRO (SEE PAGE 1175)

1172

=

sate

:

Photo by Kenneth McKenzie

MARKET DAY AT NJEGUS, MONTENEGRO

took pains to inform us that he was a
“Kunstmaler’ and a pupil of the great
Arnold Bécklin. The trip was to him
almost a pilgrimage, for one of Bocklin’s
most famous pictures, “The Isle of the
Dead,” was inspired by the rocks and
trees of Lacroma. ‘The view of the city,
with its walls rising directly from the
water, is particularly striking from this
point. In the market-place, especially in
the early morning, the wealth and variety
of national costumes is greater than else-
where in Dalmatia.

Before taking the train from Gravosa
for the interior, we continued by steamer
to the south in order to visit Cattaro and
Montenegro. There are no harbors until
we reach the Bocche di Cattaro, an extra-
ordinary fjord, suggesting Norway in its
grandeur and the Italian lakes in its lux-
uriance and its wealth of color. As the
boat winds through one narrow channel
after another, new arms of water keep
opening up, until after a long course, but
still quite near the sea, we reach Cattaro,
at the head of the fjord.

For some time, on the sides of the

precipitous mountains rising behind the
town, the zigzags of the road to Monte-
negro have been visible—the one easy
means of entering the principality. First
the road takes a long turn to the south,
three miles in a direct line from Cat-
taro—much more as the carriage goes;
then it returns, mounting in numberless
windings, until it reaches an altitude
of some 3,000 feet and is directly over
the starting point, where the steamer
can be seen still moored to the pier.
The view over the various arms of the
gulfs, with their many villages, over
the surrounding mountains, and in the
distance the Adriatic, is indescribably
grand. ‘The whole of the Bocche di Cat-
taro is very strongly fortified. Cattaro
itself has had a tumultuous history and
many masters. At one time it was a re-
public, like Ragusa. It is not an inter-
esting town, except for the beauty of its
situation and for the varied costumes that
one sees.

Soon after passing the frontier of
Montenegro the road turns inland, and
as we descend into the valley of Njegus

1173

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,
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NWIN

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youusyy Aq sojoy

NAWHILNAD NIMOAN AL NOW

1174

we find ourselves in a
different world. The
entire country seems to
be one enormous gray
rock, cut into the most
fantastic peaks and
ridges, with here and
there a patch of green.
Wherever there is a de-
pression ora level’ to
hold a little soil, there is
a farm, with grain and
vegetables growing, and
here: ‘andi there. are
clumps‘ of trees. The
houses are of blocks of
stone, small and _ plain.
The people, on the other
hand, as many travelers
have testified, are mag-
nificently handsome and
strong. All, rich and
poor, from. the prince
down, wear the national
costume. Asa rule, they
pay no attention to the
traveler.

It was market day
when we drove through
the village of Nijegus,
and peasants were gath-
ered. there.- with: their
cattlesand: sheep: Some
young men were bowling
in the village square, just
as they might have done
in France or Italy. Several magnates,
armed to the teeth, were taking coffee
on the terrace of the Hotel Njegus—a
house where the traveler will probably
stop for lunch and where the night could
be spent. The road now mounts again,
and as it leaves the valley of Njegus for
that of Cettinnje it attains a height of
over 4,000 feet.

The view at this point is not only over-
whelmingly grand from its great extent,
but is also unique in character. In the
distance one can see the lake of Scutari,
as our Italian-speaking driver calls it, and
here and there a little green between the
crags, but in the main, so far as the eye
can feach in every direction,«there is
nothing to be seen except absolutely bare
rocky crags of a uniform gray color, ris-
ing in range after range like enormous
waves on a stormy sea. Then one under-
stands the name of the country—Black

MONTENEGRIN BOYS

Mountain. We pass a few shepherds
and goatherds with their flocks, which
somehow get a living among the rocks.
More vegetation appears as we descend
rapidly to the broad, level valley of Cet-
tinnje, which is about 2,000 feet above
sea-level.

The road is excellent, although in
places narrow, and our carriage rolled
along smoothly enough. All at once,
however, the driver discovered that one
of the horses had a loose shoe. After
futile attempts to have the damage re-
paired at several farm houses, he adopted’
a novel device: he took a bag which had
held fodder and tied it tightly over the
horse’s hoof, loose shoe and all. The
horse, after his first surprise, trotted
along contentedly; but the repairs were
evidently of only temporary effect. A
passing teamster, however, was able to
attend to the matter properly, in the mid-

TI75

1176

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

NOTE THE NATIONAL COSTUME

MONTENEGRIN ARTILLERY:

dle of the road, on top of
the mountain, with nails,
hammer, and a new horse-
shoe, for which service he
was sufficiently paid, it
seemed, with four cents.
We were glad that we could
enter the town in good
style, for as we approached
we met a carriage contain-
ing His Highness Prince
Nicholas and the princess,
his “wife. “They were
dressed in the national cos-
tume and enjoying their
afternoon drive. <A few
minutes later we passed
one of the young princes.
The drive of eight hours
ends at the Grand Hotel.
The capital of- Monte-
negro consists of one broad
street, flanked by houses
one or two stories in height,
and> threes or four «side
streets. The hotel is at the
end of the main street, and
beyond it the road con-
tinues, first through a sim-
ple park, then over a pass
to the Lake of Scutati: to
Antivari, the port of Mon-
tenegro on the Adriatic,
and to Albania. At the
right of the main street are
the palace of the prince,
impressive only by contrast
with the rest of the town,
but surrounded by a charm-
ing garden, the few govern-
ment buildings, and a mon-
astery-church — containing
the graves of former rul-
ers. The finest buildings in
the town are the legations
of. Austria, Russia.-and
Italy. Each of these coun-
tries. desires to. have .the
preponderating influence,
and each would probably
try to gain possession of
the principality if an oppor-
tunity should offer. The
sights of the town and the
modest shops are soon seen,
but the traveler will not
soon tire of looking at the

TURKISH HOUSES: JAJCE (SEE PAGE 1185)

Photo by Emma G. Cummings

Jy

Jajce is considered one of the most interesting towns in Bosnia. It was formerly the home
of the Bosnian kings

Photos from “‘A British Officer in the Balkans.”’

CURIOUS HEAD-DRESSES: JEZERO

A cross between a bishop’s mitre and
an inverted flower-pot (see page 1183)

If

By Major Percy Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co.

SHEEPSKIN COATS, SEEN IN BOSNIA, NEAR
JEZERO

These are of undressed skins and are similar

to the poshteen of Northern India. In the sum-

mer they are worn with the leather inside and
the fur outside, and this is reversed in the winter.

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Photo by D. W. and A. S. Iddings. Copyright by Keystone View Co.

NATIVE MOSLEM BOYS IN NARENTA GORGE, NEAR HERZEGOVINA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

1179

1180

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VEILED MOHAMMEDAN WOMAN: MOSTAR, HERZEGOVINA

handsome people and their really beau-
tiful costumes.

The drive back to Cattaro offers no
especial novelty as compared with the
drive in the other direction, but the effect
of the view over the different arms of
the’ Bocche di Cattaro, as it suddenly
comes into sight from an altitude of
3,000 feet, is indescribable. At this mo-
ment we also saw our: steamer clowly

approaching the pier, and our progress
down to sea-level was a race with time.
We drove up to the gang-plank just in
time to scramble aboard, and after a
sail of four hours we were once more
in Ragusa.

There is also a railroad, running partly
in Dalmatian and partly in Herzegovinian
territory, from the Bocche to Gravosa,
and then into the interior. Leaving Gra-

1184

PASTOR THE ADRIATIC

vosa, the train passes along the pictur-
esque River Ombla, mounting rapidly,
and soon crossing the frontier of Her-
zegovina. ‘The scenery for the most part
is arid and desolate ; sometimes there are
flourishing fields of wheat or tobacco, en-
closed by bare mountains; at other times
not a vestige of vegetation is to be seen.
On reaching the River Narenta the road
turns to the northeast, and follows the
river as far as Mostar, the capital of
Herzegovina.

Mostar is a thriving town, built on
both sides of the river, and shut in by
bare hills. The chief sight in the town
is a famous stone bridge, crossing the
river with a single lofty span of about a
hundred feet in width. ‘The bridge has
been called Roman, but more probably it
was built by the Turks in the middle ages.
The town itself has a Mohammedan
quarter, with the usual characteristics
familiar in the Orient, and a Furopean
quarter, Austrian in character. Here, as
at all the chief places in Bosnia, are ex-
cellent hotels belonging to the govern-
ment.

The Mohammedan women of Herze-
govina wear a remarkable hood; other-
wise all the peculiarities of costume seen
here will be found again in greater pro-
fusion at Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.

Throughout the provinces the most
striking architectural feature is the slen-
der white minarets of numerous mosques.
Cypress trees have been planted around
the mosques either with the perfection of
art or with a most happy instinct for
effect, and the varied groupings of the
slender dark green trees with the domes
and minarets are ravishingly beautiful.
The court-yards of the mosques, with
the prescribed fountains and the interior
decorations, are also extremely attractive.
The houses are small, usually with steep
thatched roofs.

The people are generally indifferent,
but courteous. Germans who have lived
among them speak in the highest terms
of the Bosnian Turks. They are excel-
lent craftsmen, and Oriental rugs, em-
broideries, brass, copper, and silver work,
and: fabrics; all-of Lurkish or. Arabic
style, but of local workmanship, can be
found in the shops. The chief resource

1185

of the provinces at present is agriculture.
It is curious*to see Turks in heavy tur-
bans, baggy trousers, and flowing robes
gathering hay or grain in the fields, and
the first thought of the traveler is that
those costumes, beautiful as they are,
must be hot and uncomfortable under the
summer sun.

The railroad is narrow-gauge, and at
times fitted with the cog-wheel system
where the grade is steep. Our observa-
tion and experience led us to prefer third
class, where our fellow-travelers were
the people of the country, invariably
clean and perfectly polite. First class
was expensive, and nobody used it;
second class was patronized chiefly by
German commercial traveler?, and fourth
class, otherwise quite possible, had no
seats in the cars. The road from Mostar
to Sarajevo follows the Narenta, which
flows through a rocky gorge for many
miles. At one point a powerful water-
fall bursts directly out of the face of the
cliff on the opposite side of the gorge.
At other places the banks are soft, and
the river has undermined them.

Sarajevo is splendidly situated in a
basin of mountains, with the river rush-
ing through the middle of the city. Its
bazaar affords a satisfactory view of Ori-
ental life, while the well-paved streets
and substantial buildings of the Euro-
pean quarter suggest comfort and wealth.
The churches and mosques, the museum
of national costumes, and the hills around
the city offer varied interests, but most
travelers will be chiefly fascinated by the
Mohammedan quarter.

From Sarajevo the railroad goes north
to Hungary, joining the main lines of
travel. “The interesting way to leave
Bosnia, however, is to take the branch
line to Jajce, thence drive by stage over
an excellent road in eight hours to Banja-
luka, and there take the train for Agram,
on the line from Budapest to Fiume.

Jajce affords the most beautiful scenery
that can be imagined. The town rises
steeply from the river to the top of a
hill crowned by an old Turkish fort, the
pointed roofs of the houses are half hid-
den in trees, and beyond are mountains.
Around one side of the town flows a
stream that plunges over the lofty bank

i) ath ote, pee Uhh

ellie
gem

Photo by Emma G. Cummings

MARKET PLACE IN AGRAM, CROATIA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Photo by Eimma G. Cummings

CROATIAN CHILDREN RETURNING FROM SCHOOL: AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Men, women, and children dress mainly in white

1186

into the river, making
one of the finest water-
falls in Europe. The
drive =to: -Banjaluka’ is
through a richly culti-
vated but comparatively
commonplace section, but
the town offers beautiful
views and several inter-
esting buildings. The
costumes here are differ-
ent from those already
seen, but no less elab-
orate.

We are near the bor-
ders of Croatia, and the
Austrian military rail-
road, so called, brings us
in three or four hours
to Agram, the ancient
Croatian capital, under
the crown of Hungary.
The trip as we have de-
scribed it gives a vivid
idea of the great variety
in land and people of
what is only a small part
of the dominions of Em- Photo by Emma G. Cummings
peror Francis Joseph. CROATIAN CHILDREN RETURNING FROM SCHOOL, NEAR

AGRAM

Photo from “A British Officer in the Balkans.’”’ By Major Percy Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co.

DANCING THE CSARDAS

‘The national dance is graceful and fascinating when well performed. Each dance is kept up
for about twenty minutes, and goes on for hours with short intervals

1187

THE LAND OF CONTRAST: AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
By D. W. anp A. S. IppINGs

HE name “‘Cisterreich,” or “Aus-

tria,’ literally means “Kingdom

of the East,’ or “Eastern Coun-
try,’ from its position relative to the
rest of the old Germanic Empire.

It occurs for the first time in history
in 996, in a document signed by Em-
peror “Otho-IIT the -last- of the Saxon
dynasty of the “Holy Roman Empire of
the German nation.” At that time it
was a frontier district and served as a
buffer land between the Western Em-
pire, as the “Holy Roman Empire” was
then sometimes known, and Hungary,
an unchristian nation only begun to be
proselyted.

In spite of its important position, both
geographically and politically, but few
people realize exactly what they mean
when they speak of Austria-Hungary,
and to many the words Austria and
Hungary seem interchangeable terms
for the same country. What, then, is
Austria, what is Hungary, and why are
they always bracketed together?

Photo from ‘fA British Officer in the Balkans.”

Henderson. J. B. Lippincott Co.

By Major Percy

The Austrian Empire is a constitu-
tional monarchy formed of three king-
doms, Bohemia, Galicia, and Dalmatia,
two archduchies, Upper and Lower
Austria, and a collection of duchies,
countships, and margravates of princely
rank; /allof them, united in ‘the (person
of the Emperor Francis Joseph.

No country in Europe, except only
Hungary, contains within its borders so
many diverse nations and tongues as the
Austrian Empire. Each of the three
great ethnic stocks of Europe is repre-
sented—the Latin, the German, and the
Slav. The Slav is the dominant race,
as to it belong 15 out of the 26 million
people inhabiting the Empire; yet, owing
to division into a number of peoples
differing from each other in language,
tradition, and culture, this race.has to
yield place to the German minority,
which is a compact integral body ani-
mated by the same tradition, religion,
and political aims. ‘This minority, how-
ever, has a relative majority over the
other peoples of Austria, as
more than 9 million speak
the German language, while
its next competitor, Polish,
is used by but 4 million of
the people. Moreover, the
Germans, both historically
and intellectually, have con-
tributed more to the Em-
pire than any other of its
varied nations, and they
feel, not without justice,
that they are entitled to the
favored position which they
hold.

THE HUN IS PERHAPS THE
KEENEST PATRIOT IN
EUROPE

VILLAGE HEIRESSES IN CROATIA, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

It is the fashion at fétes for the unmarried girls to dress in
as many petticoats as possible, even as many as twelve, one
over the other, with the result that they present the appearance
When a girl wishes to sit down, she
must subside on to the ground in a squatting position, pro-
ducing that elegant effect known to school girls as “making a

of inflated balloons.

cheese.”

In the adjacent and en-
tirely independent Kingdom
of Hungary a somewhat
similar state of things ex-
ists. ‘The Hungarians, or,
more properly, the Mag-

1188

yars, number very little
more than half the total
population, yet in wealth,
position, and influence
they enjoy the first place
in the “realm of the crown
oO St, Stephen,”.2as the
country is officially known.

In addition to Hungary

propet, ot. . .otephen’s
realm includes Croatia,
Slavonia, and ‘Transyl-

vania, countries formerly
independent, but now,
through intermarriage,con-
quest, and inheritance, all
possessions of the Apos-
tolic’ King ‘of Tungary,
who happens by a purely
historic chance to be also
sovereign of the Empire
of Austria.

The possession of a uni-
fying link in the person
of their common ruler has
led to the Ausgleich, or
“Compromise,” whereby
the two countries, for mu-
tual convenience, have
agreed to join forces in
maintaining joint diplo-
matic and naval and mili-
tary services. Beyond this
the two countries are en-
tirely independent, each
having its own constitu-
tion, legislature, and ad-
ministration.

The Magyar is perhaps
the keenest patriot in Eu-
rope, and he manifests his
enthusiasm by seeking to
impose his language and
customs upon his Slavonic fellow-citizens
with a persistence that neither opposition
nor passive resistance can diminish. The
ideal of the Hungarian statesman is the
“Magyarization” of the entire country,
and, while a certain measure of success is
undoubtedly being obtained, the land is
losing the flower of its young manhood
by the constant drain of emigration, usu-
ally to the United States. In an agri-
cultural State, as is Hungary, where
three-fifths of its inhabitants gain their
living from the soil, this constitutes a
grave danger; but the Slovaks, Rutheni-

Photo by Marie Helms

THE COSTUME OF A MAN FROM STEIERMARK, AUSTRIA

(GRAY AND GREEN )

Notice the chamois tail in his hat

ans, Croatians, and Poles, with the stolid
obstinancy of the Slav, prefer exile to
the loss of their language and national
sentiment.

In these lands, so mixed in nationality
and language, there is, naturally, no less
a variety in religion; Roman Catholics

preponderate, but ‘Greek Orthodox,
Uniat Greeks, Lutherans, Calvinists,
Jews, and even Armenian Gregorians,

are found within their borders. It is
not too much to say that Austria-Hun-
gary is a frontier Christian State. Be-
yond her confines in her little Balkan

1189

Photo and copyright by G. R. Ballance

A CALVARY AT BOZEN, TYROL

There is a profusion of nice walks amid novel and truly beautiful scenery round Bozen,
and the archeologist can visit a great number of interesting castles and churches, some in

ruins, others in semi-habitable condition.

neighbors of Servia, Bulgaria, Rou-
mania, and Greece there is a blending
of the Eastern and Western civiliza-
tions and religions, finally fading into
the pronounced Eastern type in Turkey
herself, the last real remnant of Asiatic
influences in Europe.

AUSTRIA IS INDUSTRIAL, HUNGARY
AGRICULTURAL

The customs-union between Austria
and Hungary has rendered these coun-
tries a commercial unit; but, roughly
speaking, Hungary is the agricultural
and pastoral country, while Austria is in-
dustrial.

The great Hungarian plains, with their
rich pasturage, produce magnificent cat-
tle and yield great quantities of cereals
of every variety, and in both there is an
important export trade. Hungary is also
the richest country in Europe in mineral
deposits, the range of which is singularly
wide; gold, silver, and opals are found;
the most precious but the least important,
more prosaic but of infinitely greater

value, are the coal and iron deposits,
while the salt mines in Transylvania—
a goverument monopoly —are famous
throughout the world.

The industrial life of Hungary is still
in its infancy, as the Magyar government
did not realize the value of native manu-
factures till a few years ago; recently it
has been exerting strenuous efforts in this
direction and, taking adverse conditions
into account, has so far been very suc-
cessful. Flourishing mills have sprung
up all over the country, the flour they
produce forming the principal article of
export.

Austria, while by no means lacking in
the production of raw materials, bulks
larger as an industrial power. Her glass,
especially the Bothemian glass, is in great
demand the world over, and her fancy
goods—the Vienna novelty—yield a large
revenue. Austria manufactures the raw
iron that Hungary produces and does a
considerable trade in ironware, especially
with India and the East.

1190

THE WONDERLAND OF EUROPE

The dual monarchy, and particularly
Austria, could derive a considerable reve-
nue from the tourist traffic. The charm
of some of the old towns, as, for exam-
ple, Prague, is very great,, the mineral
springs of which are numerous and valu-
able, but two only—Carlsbad and Ma-
rienbad—are well known. ‘The Dalma-
tian coast rivals the Riviera both in cli-
mate and beauty, and the mountains alone
could form a very considerable attraction.

That Austria is, after Switzerland, the
most mountainous region in Europe, and
that more than four-fifths of her vast ter-
ritory is over 600 feet above the level of
the sea, is no doubt news to the majority
of people.

To the popular mind, that vast range
of mountains which overruns a large
portion of southwestern Europe and to
which the name Alps has been given, sug-
gests Switzerland, little Switzerland, and
nothing more. And yet there are Italian,
French, German, and Austrian Alps as
well, so great is the extent of the range.

Photo and copyright by G. R. Ballance
LANGKOFEL FROM SEISER ALP: TYROL

The reason for this general misappre-
hension seems to be that Switzerland has
for years advertised, if we may use the
word, her mountains for the pleasure of
outsiders and has made a great resort of
them, whereas Austria, for instance, has
used her mountains for the enjoyment of
her own people—and the Austrians cer-
tainly do enjoy them.

Mountain-climbing is their great na-
tional game, like baseball among us. Old,
young, middle-aged, all take a keen inter-
est in it. And even Emperor Francis
Joseph himself is an enthusiastic moun-
taineer at more than 80 years of age. In
his time it is said he has scaled most of
the great peaks of his country.

THE DOLOMITES

There are five central points in the
Austrian Alps from which the several
sections of that vast mountain region are
accessible. Innsbruck for the Tyrol and
Vorarlberg, Salzburg for the Salzburger
Alps and the Salzkammergut, Bozen for
the Dolomites and South Tyrol, Villach

IIQI

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Photo and copyright by G. R. Ballance

TYROL

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1192

Photo and copyright by G. R. Ballance
AMONG THE DOLOMITES: TYROL

“Until recently the heart of the Dolomite region was pretty much shut off from the
traveling public owing to the difficulty of its means of communication with the outer world,
but this has all been remedied, and now an ingeniously constructed highroad penetrates it
from Bozen, and one may travel the whole way in a government mail motor, although per-
chaps the best way to make the trip is on foot” (see page 1200).

T1193

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TYROL

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CATTLE ON THE GRODN

T1Q5

UO

Photo and copyright by Donald McLeish

A WAYSIDE CROSS: TYROL

No other country of its (Tyrol) size, it is safe to say, has in the course of the last
twenty centuries witnessed such grim fighting; no other pigmy territory has been swept,
partly in consequence of its geographical position, by vaster movements of marauding hordes,
or has been turned into a medieval cock-pit oftener and more ruthlessly. Nowhere on the
globe do we find within such a limited area a more varied agglomeration of the remnants
of conquering races who, when each in its turn went under, sought and found a last sanc-
tuary in the inaccessible alpine fastnesses of the “Land, in the Mountains,” the refugees
being naturally the fittest of their kind to survive—W. A. “BAILLIE-GROH MAN.

1190

A PALATIAL HOTEL IN THE TYROL (5,206 FEET)

Among these upheaved races were the Austrasian Franks from the lower Rhine, the Lom-
bards from the Po country, the Sclavic Wends from Lusatia, the Marcomanni, the Alimanni,
the Goths, the Vandals, the Burgundians, the Suevians, and the Baiuvarii. They all left
their racial impress upon their progeny, and to this day it is possible to trace the origin of
the larger part of Tyrol’s population by the language, physical appearance, mental idiosyn-
crevices COSHEMIG OF ancient customs and institutions, as well as by folk-lore—W. A. BatLLir-

ROHMAN.

1197

Photo and copyright by Donald McLeish

A TYROLESE PASTURAGE

The game played by the Tyrolese peasant, his wife and children, from their tenderest
years upwards, six days out of seven is a hard one beyond description. The soil is poor,
the little patch of arable land is situated on a slope steep as a church-roof, and the necessary
manure has to be carried up in baskets, mostly on women’s shoulders, for the men are away
doing yet harder jobs; the climate is rough, hardly a month without frost, and seven months
of deep snow, which in some years falls to an incredible depth. Last winter, according to
official sources, 21 feet of snow fell in the valley of Brandenberg, and the houses were
buried up to the first-floor windows. Sparse crops of rye and oats are all he can raise
povond his dairy produce wherewith to feed himself and his offspring—W. A. Bariquir-

ROHMAN.

1108

Aodeausy Photo and copyright by Donald McLeish
BRINGING HOME THE STRAYED LAMB: TYROL

_.The hardships_of his daily life have steeled his fibre, and his courage, as well as his
fearlessness of pain, is extraordinary, as the following instance may go to prove. Not long
ago a-young peasant of the Zillerthal, by occupation a wood-cutter, had his leg crushed to
pulp by a falling tree. His single companion rushed down the mountain-side to fetch the
distant doctor.. When the latter arrived, after many hours, he found that the injured man
had cut off the crushed part by severing the ligaments with his pocket-knife; and, tying his
braces tightly round to stop the hemorrhage, had actually hobbled some distance down the
path to meet him, though by that time night had fallen. The doctor saw that it would be
necessary to amputate what remained of the stump higher up, and he did it there and then,
the man lying on the ground propped against a tree, and holding during the operation the
lantern, the other man having gone off to fetch some men with a litter—W. A. BaAILLiE-

GROHMAN.

1199

for the Tauern Mountains and Carinthia,
and Graz for the mountains of Styria.
The chief differences between the
mountains of these several sections, ex-
cepting the Dolomites, which are of an
entirely distinct formation, are attributa-
ble to climatic conditions. Thus the slopes
of the South Tyrol, warmed by the soft
winds from the Adriatic, are for the most
part wooded and green, giving way to
snow only when a very high altitude is

Photo and copyright by G. R. Ballance
A BIT OF OLD SALZBURG: AUSTRIA

reached, while farther north in the fast-
nesses of the Vorarlberg, North Tyrol,
and ‘Tauern Mountains there is much of
snow and ice the year round.

The Dolomites stand in a class entirely
by themselves, their tall spire-like peaks
of bare brown-red rock matching neither
the green slopes nor the snow-white peaks
of the other mountains. Until recently the
heart of the Dolomite region was pretty
much shut off from the travelling public

1200

Photo and copyright by G. R. Ballance

SHRINE AT ST. MAGDALENA: TYROL

owing to the difficulty of its means of
communication with the outer world, but
this has all been remedied, and now an
ingeniously constructed highroad pene-
trates it from Bozen, and one may travel
the whole way in a government mail mo-
tor, although perhaps the best way to
make the trip is on foot. Stopping places
are frequent and the journey may be
often broken over a mug of beer and a
slice of good cheese, as some grotesque

formation of the rock or inspiring land-
scape holds the rapt attention.

The Carpathian Mountains form the
watershed between the Northern Seas
and the Black Sea. They are almost
wholly in Austrian territory, extending
from the valley of the Danube River,
which separates them from the Alps, to
the frontier of Roumania. To the main
chain of the Carpathians the name West-
ern Carpathian Mountains has been given.

I201

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1202

THE LAND OF CONTRAST: AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

This division includes the Tatra Moun-
tains of southern Galicia and northern
Hungary. These splendid mountains,
though of far less mean altitude, are in
no wise second in grandeur of scenery to
the Alps or other far-famed mountain
regions. The Tatra Mountains, or High
Tatra, as they are commonly called, are
noted for the magnificent beauty of their
mountain lakes, found in great frequency
nestling in deep hollows between the steep
and jagged granite peaks. To these little
bodies of clear cold glacial water, held in
Nature’s palm away up among the clouds,
the significant name “eyes of the sea’’ has
been given.

The Tatra Mountains are deeply for-
ested with gigantic firs. ‘Through their
almost virgin wilderness well-built stage
roads lead by easy grades to the centers
of population and points of particular
interest. On these highways the chief
trafic: 1s. carried “on in crude. native
wagons, of which the furka, a wicker
basket body set without springs upon a
wooden bed of the simplest design, is
used for passengers.

BOHEMIA AND PRAGUE

Bohemia (German Bohmen, a perver-
sion of Boheim) derives its name from
the Boii, a race of Celts, whose occupa-
tion dates back many centuries. They
were driven out by a savage horde called
the Marcomanni, whom the Slavonic race
in turn expelled. The Slavonic peoples
still predominate in Bohemia, although

there are certain vast and prosperous sec-.

tions, largely under the influence of the
German Austrians as distinguished from
the Czechish or Bohemian, which make
up what is called Deutsch Bohmen, Ger-
man Bohemia.

Bohemia’s beautiful capital and chief
city, Prague, is the second city of Aus-
tria. It is splendidly located on both
banks of the Moldau River, and lies about
150 miles northwest of Vienna. The city
dates back to the ninth century, when
it is supposed to have been founded by
the Princess Libussa. Like all medizval
cities, it was once surrounded by walls
but few traces of which now remain, busy
and beautiful streets having taken their

1203

places, just as the Rings have been built
on the site of the old walls of Vienna.
Enough of the old walls and bastions of
Prague still stand, however, to give an
idea of their architecture and extent.

But Bohemia is perhaps best known
for her baths, the most noted of which,
Carlsbad, is four hours from Prague by
rail.

Perhaps no better testimonial to the
efficacy of the Carlsbad waters needs be
offered than is to be found in the fact that
over 65,000 ailing people visit the springs
annually to take the cure by drinking
and bathing, not to mention over 170,000
casual visitors and tourists.

GALICIA, WHERE THE POLES LIVE

Galicia and the Bukowina, the ex-
treme northeast provinces of the Aus-
trian Empire, are bounded on the south
by Hungary and Transylvania and on
the north by Russia. Many mountains
and great forests overrun the region,
which is one of the wildest in Europe.
Here a primitive people, descendants of
the proud Polish Kings, live a decadent,
backward existence, pursuing farming
and herding for a scant livelihood.

They clothe themselves in suits of
blanketing and furs, fashioned at home,
with which to withstand the long and
rigorous winters. They wear their hair
long, live in rude slab board and log
huts, and altogether strangely resemble
the North American Indian in his semi-
civilized life today in the American
Northwest.

By one of those curious anomalies of
which the Austrian Empire is full, Ga-
licia, which has the most backward peo-
ple, enjoys a larger measure of self-gov-
ernment than any province of the Em-
pire, being practically autonomous.
This is the more extraordinary when it
is recognized that nearly half the in-
habitants are Poles—members of a na-
tion who have steadily refused to be
governed by outsiders and yet abso-
lutely incapable of governing themselves.
Perhaps the governmental success of
Galicia is due to the fact that the Poles
have found a rallying point in opposi-
tion to their Ruthenian neighbors, who
are in everyway their opposites.

EF OF THE MAIN STREETS OF INNSBRUCK, TYROL

sides by sheltering peaks, with the silver
alley, is one of the most

O}

Its position on a wide plain, surrounded on all
band of the Inn winding along the green and extremely fertile v
picturesque in Europe.

1204

THE LAND OF CONTRAST: AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

Galicia is also the Jewish stronghold
of the Empire and the business of the
entire province is in their hands, and
they maintain a valuable transient trade
to Russia and the East. The chief in-
dustry of the province is distilling, Ga-
licia supplying 45 per cent of all the
spirits used in the Empire. Outside this
the production of the province is con-
fined to peasant household industries,
as cloth and linen weaving.

Education in Austria is compulsory,
and all children must attend the ‘Volks-
schulen” (schools for the people, or
elementary schools) from the end of
their sixth year until the end of their
twelfth or fourteenth year, varying in
the different provinces.

Although education is compulsory, it
is only so where schools have been es-
tablished: and: there. are,.as yet few,
schools in Galicia and the Bukowina.
Hence in the Bukowina only about 34
per cent of the children are now in at-
tendance in the public schools, and in
Galicia only about 59 per cent. The
large mass of the people are illiterate.
CITY

VIENNA—A MODEL MODERN

Vienna, the Imperial City, the capital
of Austria, had a great Burghermeister
in Dr. Karl Lueger, lately deceased. Un-
der Lueger Vienna became a city of mu-
nicipal ownership. She owns her own
electric and gas light, street railways
and omnibuses, ice manufacturing plant,
warehouses, stock yards, brewery, wine
cellar (the celebrated Rathaus-Keller),
all the pawnshops and even the under-
taking establishments.

Quite in harmony with the history of
Vienna—really a series of sieges from
the earliest to modern times—were the
splendid fortifications she possessed. ‘The
inner city was protected by a rampart,
fosse, and glacis, while a series of exter-
nal fortifications marked and defended
the outer boundaries.

In 1860 the last of the inner fortifi-
cations was pulled down to make way
for a great civic improvement, and on
the site of the glacis was laid the beau-
tiful Ring-strasse, or boulevard, two
miles in circumference and 150 feet in
width, the chief and distinctive glory of

1205

the modern city, what with its wonder-
ful shade trees and the massing of the
splendid public buildings along its
course. The Ring-strasse, as its name
imphes, is a real ring or circle, though
knocked out of true in a number of
places until it is more of an octagon,
and yet you can return to your starting
point if you keep to the Ring. A sys-
tem of street cars operates entirely
around it, known as the “Ring Rund.”
The Ring is variously named in its dif-
ferent® sections; as. Operaring, as. it
passes the Opera; Karthnerring, where
the great business street, Karthnerstrasse,
crosses it; Burgring, by the Hofburg or
town palaces of the Emperor, and Fran-
zensring, Schottenring, etc.

Vienna is popularly misunderstood to
be ‘on “the beautiful blue: Danube’
River, but that mighty stream in its
long course to the Black Sea really en-
circles. the city some miles from its
center. A canal winds through the
heart of the city and connects with the
Danube.-below the -Prater, -. Viennd’s
great playground.

The Danube is the second largest
river in Europe, being exceeded only by
the Volga of Russia. Below Vienna its
winding course of more than 1,200 miles
to: the: .Black: Sea ‘traverses. a region
richer in ethnological interest than any
other in. Europe, or perhaps in the
world, and holding many commanding
scenic beauties, as yet but little known.

LIFE IN BUDAPEST

The greatest city of the Danube—
Vienna being in strict justice excluded
from consideration—is Budapest, which
is fairly cut in two by the broad expanse
of the river. Formerly two cities, Buda
on the right-hand side struggles up a
picturesque mountain, and here on a high
terrace is the magnificent palace of the
King of Hungary, with a wonderful out-
look over the river. Pest, on opposite
side of the river, is the modern city and
commercially important. Its location is
upon a flat, so characteristic of the rich
Danubian plains.

The population of the combined cities
is about three-fourths of a million, and
here is the center of all Hungarian ac-

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1206

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THE MATCHLESS FIGURE OF KING ARTHUR OF BRITAIN, IN INNSBRUCK

One of the most striking of the bronze figures guarding Maximilian’s tomb. Maximilian,
as Count of Tyrol, was much beloved by his subjects

1207

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1209

1210

tivities, Hungary as a nation having lit-
the real culture, no manufacturing to
speak of, in short, naught but a pastoral
existence, outside of its capital city.
The rich fertility of the Danubian plains
has always made agriculture the natural
exertion of the people just as the plains
themselves constitute the principal area
of the Kingdom. But the life in Buda-
pest is compensatory for the dullness
that pervades the rest of Hungary.
Budapest is Paris, Vienna, and London
in one, a combination of the gayeties of
the capitals of the world, with a little
distinctive Hungarian paprica spice
thrown in.

The: “Corso” along the :Danube. in
Pest is the promenade whose group of
open-air cafés and restaurants forms
the hub of the gay Magyar life.
Throughout the city almost every other
building houses a café, so important a
part do these establishments play in
the national life.

There the business man partakes of
his early breakfast of: coffee and rolls,
there he adjourns from his office on
numerous occasions during the day for
important business conferences, which
are best had according to the semi-ori-
ental idea of the Hungarians over a cup
of coffee. And after the family dinner,
which is almost invariably partaken of
in one of the restaurants which are scat-
tered through the city and among the
parks which surround it, the café is
again resorted to by the whole family as
a last thing before retiring, which is
often postponed till early morning, so
enthralling are the gypsy music always
to be heard in these public places and the
other attractions of café life.

THE KINGDOM OF INDEPENDENT SERVIA

Twenty-four hours by steamer down
the river from Budapest is Belgrade, the
capital: of . the Kingdom: of) Servia:
“White Town,” as its name signifies, is
situated high on the right bank of the
Danube where the Save River has its
confluence with the mighty stream. Just
behind the city are the heights of Mount
Avala, crowned by the remains of a
citadel, the origin of which is variously
credited to Prince Eugene of Austria or
some early Serbish noble.

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

The chief charms of the city are its
superb location, commanding for miles
the winding course of the great river
through the low Hungarian plains, and
the interesting picture which its mar-
ket presents, crowded with Servian
peasantry in their brightly colored cos-
tumes, standing out sharply against the
deep shadows of the great trees of the
market site.

Servia is richest as an agricultural
land, like all the Danubian countries.
No one can survey the sweep of land-
scape from Mount Avala without con-
ceding its rare farming and grazing pos-
sibilities. When Servia is fully de-
veloped along these natural lines she
will be no mean nation. Indeed, she is
not today, having rapidly in recent
years forged away from the contemptu-
ous appellation of being a nation of
swine herds. ‘True, hogs are still a
great by-product of the fertile Servian
soil, but wheat and corn and _ tobacco
are becoming larger crops each year,
and cattle and sheep bigger herds.

With stability of good government,
which seems to be now: vouchsafed, the
Servian people seem to be entering upon
an era of great national prosperity.

Beginning at Belgrade the Danube
forms the boundary between Hungary
and Servia; on the left are the low Hun-
garian flats, on the right the highlands
Of Servia:

Near where Hungarian and Servian
territories end, the river. becomes a nar-
row gorge as it penetrates a spur of the
Carpathians or ‘Sieben Bergen, -as
these mountains are locally known.
The gorge past the river widens into
the semblance of a superb mountain
lake of wild romantic grandeur called the
Kazan... This and the lron- GatesZor
Cataracts a short distance below are the
picture points of the Danube, and in-
deed the scenery here is as fine as any
river scenery in Europe. On both sides
of the Kazan and the passes leading in
and out of it are ingeniously engineered
highways hewn out of the solid rock.
The older of these highways is on the
right-hand side, and is now mostly in
ruins. Said to have been built by the:
Roman Emperor Trajan, a tablet to

Photo by Nox McCain
TYPES OF SERVIAN WOMEN: BELGRADE

“The chief charms of the city are its superb location, commanding for miles the winding
course of the great river through the low Hungarian plains, and the interesting picture which
its market presents, crowded with Servian peasantry in their brightly colored costumes,
standing out sharply against the deep shadows of the great trees of the market site” (see
page 1210).

Photo by Nox McCain
A STORK’S NEST ON A HOUSE IN BELGRADE, THE CAPITAL OF SERVIA

I211I

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1213

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ROYAL PALACE: BELGRADE, SERVIA

Photo by Nox McCain

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STREET SCEN

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1216

th aAgGAND LOE CON ERAST: AUSTRIA-HUNGARY

whom is still to be seen, a more likely
story credits the road to Emperor Ti-
berius in A. D. 33-34.

In places, where to hew out the solid
rock seemed too big a task, the road was
of wood. The wooden structure has long
since rotted away, but the holes in the
solid rock, into which the supporting tim-
bers went, are still plainly to be seen.

On the left hand or Hungarian side is
the Szechenyi Road, a splendid and com-
paratively modern structure, and a monu-
ment to Count Szechenyi, one of the most
illustrious of Hungarians, who in the
early days did much to foster Danube
navigation.

Even in this remote corner of Austria-
Hungary the strong arm of the law is
ever present, the river stretches and the
back country being policed by a heavily
armed rural constabulary. Splendid order

is maintained and the valuable fishing
along the river 1s protected from poach-
ing. In these lower reaches of the Dan-
ube, as in the other rivers emptying into
the Black and Caspian Seas, sturgeon of
the variety contributing the choicest of
caviare and the best quality of isinglass,
are found in abundance, and their catch
forms a quite considerable occupation
of the river people. Strangely enough,
though, at Orsova, Hungary, in the cen-
ter of the Danube caviare industry, one
pays almost as much for a small portion
of these palatable fish eggs as in a first-
class New York restaurant.

At Orsova Hungary ends, and as the
traveller follows the’ Danube to the sea
he finds Rumania to his left and on his
right the dominions of the luckiest of all
the princes of the lucky house of Saxe-
Coburg, Czar Ferdinand of Bulgaria.

Photo by D. C. Falls.

HUNGARIAN GENTLEMEN IN PROCESSION : BUDAPEST

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1218

RUMANIAN

Photo by International Press Photo Co.

DANCE GIRLS

NOTES ON RUMANIA

HE general public had been wont

to regard the little nations of the

Balkan Peninsula as comic-opera
governments until recent events adver-
tised the fact that they had been growing
up into strong and lusty manhood. Bul-
garia, Servia, and Montenegro have al-
ways kept themselves well in the public
eye, the marriage of a daughter to the
king of a great power, a spectacular revo-
lution, or the change of faith of a crown
prince, all having contributed to attract-
ing and keeping the attention of the
Western World.

One kingdom alone has kept to the
even tenor of its way, and its history
since its establishment has been a record
of quiet progress.

Formed in 1859 by the union of Mol-
davia and Wallachia, two principalities
tributary to the Sultan of Turkey, Ru-
mania’s beginnings were not auspicious.
Its first ruler, Prince Cuza, a dissolute
but well-intentioned man, strove by the

most despotic methods to bring to frui-
tion his democratic ideals, with the result
that he was compelled to abdicate after
a reign of seven years.

The choice of the people then fell upon
Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, a mem-
ber of the elder branch of that famous
family, the younger branch of which is
headed by the Emperor William of Ger-
many.

To Charles of Hohenzollern, ably aided
by his consort, Princess Elizabeth of
Wied, better known as Carmen Sylva,
the remarkable progress of Rumania is
mainly due. He has raised her from a
bankrupt vassal principality into a con-
tented, prosperous, and independent
kingdom.

Rumania is shaped like a boot, the
Transylvania Mountains—the Hungarian
boundary—forming the front and instep,
and the River Danube—the Bulgarian
boundary—the sole until it turns north,
flowing through the country till it joins

1219

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CADETS OF RUMANIA WITH THE PRIEST

SESS is ES

Photo by International Press Photo Co.
COUNTRY PEOPLE OF RUMANIA

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the Black Sea at the top of the
heel. Along the seacoast lies a
great sandy plain, interspersed
with lagoons and marshes, called
the Dobrudja; further inland is a
rich inclined plain, stretching
gradually upward to the moun-
tains, and on this plain -grows the
wheat and maize that have made
Rumania one of the great grain-
producing countries of the world.
Here, too, grow valuable crops
of tobacco. beans, and potatoes,
while pleasant orchards of plum,
damson, and apricot trees are
found on every hand, the produce
of which is distilled into a mild
spirit known as tsuica, highly es-
teemed throughout the kingdom.
In the foothills of the mountains
are mile after mile of vineyards,
which have raised Rumania to the
rank of the fifth wine-producing
country in Europe. Higher up in
the mountains are vast forests,
all carefully conservated — King
Charles is an ardent forester—
and their timber forms a valuable
item in the country’s exports. The
coast fisheries: are a source of
considerable wealth, quantities of
caviar being dispatched to Berlin,
which is the distributary center of
this industry, while the choicer
fish are sent to Russia, Hungary,
and ‘Turkey to such an extent that coarse
fish is actually imported from Russia.
The backbone of the kingdom is a
race of sturdy peasant proprietors, most
of them owning 12 to 25 acres of free-
hold land, most of it being worked on a
cooperative system. Most of these peas-
ants are Vlachs, a race which is Latin in
its language, culture, and descent. ‘Their
original progenitors were a colony of
Roman soldiers, established on the banks
of the Danube by the Emperor Trajan in
A. D. 106. Their language descends from
the rustic Latin of these soldiers, and, in
spite of a long isolation, surrounded by
Slavonic tongues, it retains its Latin
characteristics to a remarkable extent, so
much so that any one reasonably fa-
miliar with Latin will be able to read a
Rumanian newspaper with but little diff-

culty, as many words are found which ~

remain unaltered, just as they appear in
the orations of Cicero.

Photo by International Press Photo Co.

RIDING MASTER OF THE RUMANIAN KING

While the Rumanian is intensely proud
of his Roman language and descent, he
gives his allegiance to the orthodox
church. ‘The State church is national
and independent, but recognizes the Pa-
triarch at Constantinople as the chief dig-
nitary of the Greek Orthodox Church.
Religious liberty is accorded to all, but
the great bulk of the people belong to the
national church. It must, however, be
admitted that a great deal of anti-Semi-
tism exists throughout the kingdom, due
not to religious intolerance, but to a va-
riety of other causes.

Rumania has a Jewish population
amounting to one-twentieth of the entire
inhabitants, a larger ratio than any other
country in the world. These Jews are all
of foreign origin, mainly from Poland
and Russia, wear a distinctive dress, and
speak a foreign language.

The country folks cling tenaciously to
the national costume; for the men, white

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1224

ORIGIN ‘OF STEFANSSON’S BLOND ESKIMO 1

trousers, a long white linen tunic, girded
at the waist, embellished on high days
and holidays with little sleeveless jackets
of bewildering color and embroidery.
The women on feast days emulate the
rainbow in their clothes and_ bedeck
themselves with endless strings of coins
and necklaces of beads.

All classes are passionately fond of
music and dancing, and when a dozen
peasants get together there is bound to

bo
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be a dance, the favorite time being after
church on a Sunday, when they will
dance for hours for the edification of the
village pope and his wife.

There is a wealth of folk-lore, ballads,
dance songs, and romantic tales, and
these, together with an implicit belief in
werewolves, vampires, and_ revenants,
render the Rumanian peasant one of the
most delightful and entertaining com-
panions in the world.

THE ORIGIN OF STEFANSSON’S BLOND
ESKIMO

By Major Generar A. W. Greety, U. S. Army

been no Arctic discovery that has

excited more general interest than
the finding upon Wollaston Land, or
Victoria Island, of native tribes who
have never seen white men, and among
whom are numerous individuals of the
so-called blond Eskimo type.

The detailed account of these peculiar
and hybrid Children of the Ice is due to
the courage and endurance of an Amert-
can explorer, Mr. Vilhjalmur Stefansson.
With Dr. .R. M. Anderson, he has made,
under the auspices of the American Mu-
seum of Natural History, extensive and
valuable contributions to the geography
and the ethnology of the continental
coast of North America and of the adja-
cent islands. Few are aware, however,
that Stefansson has added a new inhab-
ited district to Canada; yet such is the
case. In that most valuable geographic
publication, Atlas of Canada, issued by
the Interior Department of the Dominion
of Canada in 1906, on map 29, showing
the aborigines, the word “uninhabited”
is printed in red across the extent of
Victoria Island.

As these reports of the current exist-
ence of hybrid Eskimo have given rise
to wide discussion, and at times to ad-
verse comment, it appears timely to pre-
sent in connected form such detailed ac-
counts of earlier explorers and investi-
gators as bear on the subject. These
extracts, which on the whole confirm the
accuracy of Stefansson’s observations,

[: THE past few years there has

naturally relate to two differing phases
of the question. First, as to the actual
existence and as to the geographic dis-
tribution of the hybrid Eskimo—for such
are the blond natives—and then as to
their probable origin.

EXISTENCE AND DISTRIBUTION OF aSETE
BLOND ESKIMO

Stefansson reports that during more
than a year of intimate life among the
Eskimo of Coronation Gulf and of
Prince Albert Sound (off the west coast
of Wollaston Land) he met about 1,000
of an estimated total population of 2,000
different natives who had never seen a
white man. He adds: “The 200 visited
in Prince Albert Sound differed in gen-
eral features from the Hskimo of Alaska
and of the Mackenzie River. Some of
the Wollaston Land natives have blue
eyes; 50 per cent have light eyebrows,
and a few have reddish beards. The
characteristics of these people seem to
suggest a mixture of European and Es-
kimo blood.”

The following extracts from the re-
ports of various Arctic explorers—men
of high standing and of unquestioned
probity—disclose that many hybrid indi-
viduals have been found among the vari-
ous Eskimo tribes, the country covered
extending about 2,000 miles, from the
coast of East Greenland westward to
Wollaston Land. Attention is called es-
pecially to the fact that the tribes herein
mentioned are those so situated that in

1226

modern times—say since the discovery
of America by Columbus—far the greater
part of them could have had no contact
with white men.

The presence of hybrid natives on the
east coast of Greenland has always been
credited by the Eskimo of the west coast.
In his Tales and Traditions of the Eski-
mo, Dr. H. Rink, who lived 22 summers
and 14 winters in Greenland, translates
the following tale from the Eskimo lan-
guage: “Iviangersook started for the
south of Greenland, and having passed
Cape Farewell, he came to the eastward
to some light-haired people of European
complexion.”

In 1828-1829 Capt. W. A. Graah, Dan-
ish Royal Navy, explored the east coast
of Greenlard in search of the lost Scan-
dinavian colonies, whose descendants
were believed by some to still inhabit it.
Of an east coast Greenlander who came
to trade at Julianchaab, on the southwest
coast, Graah “says: Ele ihad=-the «long,
lank, black hair and the black: eyes: of
his race, but nothing else in his exterior
characteristics of the Eskimo. He was
about 6 feet high and strongly built.”’

Of the new tribe discovered at Kemi-
sak, on the east, coast, he adds: “They
were like the generality of their country-
men of the east coast—a tall and well-
made set of people. Most of the men
had their eyebrows blackened, and some
of them wore large mustachios. One
had a long, black beard.”

In describing a family of six, which
he met at Iluidlek, he continues: “I ob-
served on this occasion that the counte-
nances of the two women had nothing
in them of the ordinary Greenland phys-
iognomy. ‘Their whole appearance, in-
deed, presented none of the usual char-
acteristics of their race, and, in particu-
lar, they had neither the prominent belly
nor -the:corpulence of their ‘ country-
women of the west coast. They were,
both of them, above the middle size, and
were temarkable for: their clear com-
plexion, their regularity of features, and
the oval form of their heads.”

In his summary on the inhabitants,
Graah says: “The natives of the east
coast of Greenland seem to me to have
very little in their exterior in common

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

with the genuine Eskimo. They have
neither the fuli, fleshy person, nor the
prominent paunches of the Eskimo; but
on the contrary are slender and even
meager. They are, moreover, distin-
guished from the Eskimo by their form
of head and cast of countenance, which
is handsomer and more expressive. ‘The
women and children have, many of them,
brown hair and a complexion scarcely
less fair than that of our (Danish)
peasantry.”’

Graah’s rather meager reports have
been greatly extended and strikingly con-
firmed in definite and scientific detail by
Capt. G. Holm and his associates in the
Danish Royal Navy Expedition of 1883-
1885. It is sufficient to quote only from
the ethnological summary written by
Profi; Soren Hlansen;- In’ this he says:
of the Eskimo of East Greenland that
in their eyes the color of the iris was
brown, shading from very dark brown
to a light ‘brown, with a single excep-
tion—a young woman of 20 years, who
had blue eyes. Observations were made
of the color of the hair; of 38 women
only three had the characteristic black
hair, while 30 had dark-brown hair and
three brown hair. None of these natives
had ever seen white men. It was most
striking that on the southwest coast.
where European half-breeds have been
born in large numbers during the past
two centuries, no less than 16 out of 24
women had black hair.

The hybridization of the west coast
Eskimo of Greenland during the past
century has progressed so fast that its
present 10,000 inhabitants are out of
consideration. Rink says: “A pretty
numerous class of half-breeds has origi-
nated, many Europeans belonging to the
classes of sailors or laborers having mar-_
ried native women. In 1855 the half-
breeds were calculated at 55 per cent of
the inhabitants.”

The west Greenland conditions of ear-
lier centuries are worthy of considera-
tion. Hans Egede, who entered west
Greenland in 1721t and permanently es-
tablished Christianity therein, says: “The
Eskimo have broad faces and thick lips,
are flat-nosed and of a brownish com-

;

Courtesy of Harper’s Magazine

TRACKING AN ESKIMO CANOE (UMIAK) IN CALM WEATHER

the entire four years.

Courtesy of Harper’s Magazine
STEFANSSON’S PARTY BRINGING ASHORE A BEARDED SEAL

The party averaged seven Eskimo, four of these seven remaining with the expedition

Among these four were Ilavinirk; his wife, Mamayauk; and their

daughter, Nogosak. (Mamayauk is shown in the photograph at the extreme right.)

1227

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THE WIFE OF ONE OF

12

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WP
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Courtesy of Harper’s Magazine
STEFANSSON’S ESKIMO COMPANIONS

ORIGIN OF STEFANSSON’S BLOND ESKIMO

plexion, though some of them are quite
handsome and white.”

We are able, however, to go still far-
ther back to a time when Greenland was
yet free from modern European contact.
Mr. David McRitchie has published an
account of a voyage in which a Flushing
captain, Nicholas Tunes, claimed to have
reached in the summer of 1656 latitude
72° N., in Davis straits. In the original
Hrench of de Poincy he quotes Tunes as
saying: “In regard to the inhabitants (of
Greenland) we saw two kinds, who lived
together on the most friendly terms. Of
these one kind is very tall, well built,
rather fair complexion, and very swift
of foot. The others were very much
smaller, of olive complexion, and toler-
ably well proportioned, except that their
legs; are short,and thick: lhe former
kind delight in hunting, for which they
are suited by their agility and natural
disposition, whereas the latter occupy
themselves in fishing.”

BLOND ESKIMO SEEN BY PARRY

Of the natives seen by Sir Edward
Parry on the shores of Lyon Inlet in
1821 he writes: “We could scarcely be-
lieve them to be Eskimo. There was a
degree of lankness in their faces. Their
countenances impressed me with the idea
of Indian rather than of Eskimo fea-
tures; but this variety of physiognomy
we afterward found to be not uncom-
mon with these people. Two men
and three women (of one group) had
good Roman noses. Several chil-
dren had complexions nearly as fair as
Europeans. It may be added that the
portraits of a few of these people in no

way resemble Eskimo. The peo-
ple had never seen Indians.”
Of the same tribes Dr. Alexander

Fisher, surgeon of Parry’s expedition
and a keen observer, records in an un-
published journal as follows: “In mak-
ing a few remarks on the people them-
selves, I must observe that although the
major part of them displayed in great
perfection the genuine Eskimo features,
form, and other characteristics of these
people, yet there are some who differ so
materially in this respect that the most
superficial observer could not help notic-
Oven te

1229

Speaking of the tallest Eskimo, 5 feet
614 “inches, he ‘continues =" IF think? that
the tallest men and women are of an
Indian or mixed extraction.” In describ-
ing the hybrids he adds: “In the first
place, the most striking difference is that
of the countenance, which is long and
narrow. The nose is large and of that
shape which is called Roman. In their
persons, also, the mixed race are some-
what taller, better made, and less in-
clined to corpulency. Several other dis-
tinctions might be pointed out, but I
think those already mentioned suffi-
ciently show that those in question are
not of the genuine Eskimo stock. It may
be added that these people had never
seen either Indians or Europeans.”

Capt. G. F. Lyon, Royal Navy, in his
attempt to reach Repulse Bay in 1824,
fell in with a group of Eskimo near Cape
Pembroke, Southampton Island. These
natives had never seen Europeans, and
of them he ‘records:: “The face of the
woman was as perfect an oval as that of
an European girl, with regular and even
pretty features. Her mother was with
her and had the same cast of counte-
nance. The other women had the usual
broad, flat faces and high cheek bones.”

Capt. John Ross, Royal Navy, in his
voyage to Boothia Isthmus, 1829-1833,
saw many natives. He states that ‘“‘the
features of an elderly man, which were
preserved by a portrait, differ consider-
ably from the general character as if he
had belonged to a different tribe. An-
other native from west Boothia had In-
dian rather than Eskimo features, though
the tribe had never seen Indians.”

Capt. G. Back, Royal Navy, in his
journey to Back River in 1833 mentions
an Eskimo who “could not have ma-
tured a more luxuriant beard,” which,
he adds, “yielded the palm only to that
of Master George Killingworth, which
was not only thick, broad, and yellow
colored, but in length 5 feet 2 inches in
size.” Presumably from Back’s refer-
ence the Eskimo’s beard was brown in
color.

ESKIMO SEEN BY FRANKLIN

Sir John Franklin, in his journey to
the Polar Sea in 1821, met a single Es-
kimo near the mouth of the Coppermine.

Courtesy of Harper’s Magazine
The holes in the walls of the houses are not windows,

time of leaving. These blond Eskimo are migratory and build no permanent

houses of any kind, which fact in large part accounts for their relative freedom from contagious and other diseases.

gion is 55° F. below zero.

CORONATION GULF

The minimum winter temperature of the Coronation Gulf re

but are made for convenience in

passing household goods out at

J

STEFANSSON S PARTY PREPARING TO CAMP IN A PERMANENTLY DESERTED WINTER VILLAGE OF THE BLOND ESKIMO IN

He writes that “the cotinte-
nance of White Fox (Terre-
gannoeuck) was oval, with a
sufficiently prominent nose, and
had nothing very different from
a European face except in the
smallness of the eyes, and per-
haps in the narrowness of the
forehead. His complexion was
very fresh and red, and he had
a longer beard than I had ever
seen on an aboriginal inhabit-
ant of America. It was be-
tween 2 and 3 inches long and
perfectly white.”

Thomas Simpson, who in
1837 explored the continental
coast west to Point Barrow
with P. W. Dease, met a band
of 60 Eskimo to the west of
the Mackenzie River. He re-
cords that “three men were re-
markable for their good looks
and) a’ Stature. of. 5° feet, 10
inches to 6 feet. Some of them
had light-colored eyes and com-
plexion, which 1f cleaned from
grease might have passed for
fair in most parts of Europe.”

On the lower Coppermine,
in 1838, Dease fell in with an
Eskimo man and his family.
Dease says: “The stranger was
about 6 feet high, stout, and
well looking, with brown hair.
He wore no labrets.”

In 1839 Simpson met near
the mouth of the Coppermine
a: party. of four Eskimo, of
whom one was “an average
stout man about 6 feet high,
with brown beard. His coun-
tenance would have been noble
were it not disfigured by a hid- ©
eous wen on the temple.” This
fair-bearded, noble-faced Es-
kimo giant was also seen by Dr.
Richardson during his “boat
journey through Rupert Land”
in 1848, and again by Dr. John
Rae in his Franklin search
journey of the following year.

In his second land expedition,
1825-1827, Franklin met many
Eskimo in the Cape Bathurst
tegion; and writes: “One. of
them had a different cast of

1231

’s Magazine

Courtesy of Harper

ILLAGE OF THE BLOND ESKIMO ON THE ICE IN CORONATION GULF

The caches of property show that the Eskimo intend to return before the ice melts in the summer.

STEFANSSON VISITING A TEMPORARILY DESERTED V.

The Coronation Gulf Eskimo settle on

the ice of the bay in winter to hunt seal, and return to the interiot of the island.in summer, where they live on caribou

countenance trom the rest;
we supposed him to be de-
scended from the Indians
(with whom, however, they
had long been at war).”’

In 1865 .a¢ French :mis-
sionary, Pere Emile Petitot,
visited the Eskimo of Cape
Bathurst, traveling down
the Anderson River with
four natives. He consid-
ered all his companions to
be Eskimo, but, describing
them carefully, states that
they presented “four exam-
ples of various shapes of
countenance. One was tall,
well made, nearly white in
complexion, with eyes quite
devoid of the characteristic
obliquity. The second had
a large Roman nose, his
eyes nearly at the top. of the
forehead, and his complex-
ion was dark bronze, quite
like that of an Indian.’ The
third had a square-shaped
face and a fair European
complexion, reminding one
of either Scotch or Russian
physiognomies. The fourth
was of the common Eski-
mo type—olive complexion,
broad face, and flat nose.”
Petitot met one woman of
fine face, with straight eyes,
and having features that
indicated a strain of Euro-
pean blood. Another wo-
man had yellowish white
hair.

In 1868 Petitot visited
Fort MacPherson, on Peel
River, where he saw many
Eskimo. He adds: “Among
these Eskimo coming from
the west there was one
whose hair and full beard
were of a fiery red. His
complexion was white,
spotted with freckles
Doubtless he was a Russian
halfbreed, as he was said to
have come from the shores
of Bering Sea.”

Coming to Wollaston
Land and Prince Albert

1232

Courtesy of Harper’s Magazine

A VILLAGE OF THE BLOND ESKIMO IN LATE MAY
The warm sun has caved in the snow-roofs and they have been replaced by caribou skins

Sound, where Stefansson found
his blond Eskimo, we have con-
firmatory evidences of hybridiza-
tion from two English sources of
unquestioned reliability. One of
these was that keen observer,
Dr. Alexander Armstrong, sur-
geon of McClure’s ship Investi-
gator, whose crew made the first
northwest passage. Wintering in
Prince of Wales Strait, their par-
ties discovered the Eskimo of
Wollaston Land. They were liv-
ing under the same conditions
as when visited by Stefansson.
Building a village on the sea ice,
they lived by sealing, changing
camp when the sealing grounds
were exhausted. They used cop-
per weapons and utensils entirely,
and were devoid of both merce-
nary and thieving habits. They
had never seen whites and were
hostile both to the western Es-
kimo and to the Indians.

Of these Eskimo Armstrong
writes: “I fancied that. I could
trace the outline of Indian fea-
tures in both ofthe sexes: One
woman had a good complexion,
aquiline nose, and black hair.
Those apparently of Indian ex-
traction were taller, from 5 feet 7
to 5 feet 8 inches, and in one or
two cases even more. In a few
cases the forehead was somewhat
vertical, but narrow. Our inter-
preter had less difficulty in un-
derstanding the Cape Bathurst
Eskimo than those west (at Mac-
kenzie River and Point Barrow)
from the greater similarity of the
dialect to the Eskimo language of
Labrador.”

Capt. R. Collinson, Royal Navy,
in the Enterprise, wintered in
Walker Bay, Prince Albert Sound,
in 1851-1852. He saw much of
the natives, of whom he writes:
“Some among the tribes were of
different features to others, their
faces being oval, with a Jewish
cast, and the nose aquiline. In
one particular, that of having no
means of going on the water, they
differed from all the Eskimo that
have yet been met with.”

NIHdTOd :SNIMS HIM GaOVIdda NYAG SVH AOOW MONS ASOHM

JUIZeBRI S.tadiefy Jo AsoyinodD

S\LIV&LS

NOINOA GNV

“ASQOH GY LIGVHNI

1233

e10Foq US OMYM UVes JaAgu pey s[dood ssayy, “WOIJEZI[IAID JO JIMS ssoIp [eWIO} dy Nd UT
SUNUIOSIT “Uo 94} A UTOA $}¥OD [Ie}-MOT]VMS IVITNIId dy} 9}0N ‘Bld & YUM Joys usas JoAd pry ajdood ASO} YSIYM NOs jsty dy} SVM SIT,

SLIVauS NOIND GNV NIHd’1Od : HMI INININVX# GNV AOPINVD DNINNIMS ‘OWIMSH ANOS AHL JO GNVWI AHL NI

auIzesvy Stadavyy{ yo Asaqrnog

234

TWO CARIBOU HUNTERS:

Be ee ee Lee oS]

Courtesy of Harper’s Magazine
CORONATION GULF

Caribou hunters armed with bows of spruce driftwood, reénforced with sinew backing,

and arrows tipped with native copper.

nd_arr¢ The hunters wear goggles of wood.
civilization, these people have been living in what is practically the Stone age.
says that he “found them independent, self-respecting, and prosperous.
they did not pry into our affairs; they were hospitable, courteous, and truthful.

Tsolated from
Stefansson
They did not beg;
In’ Prince

Albert Sound I made a present of one needle each to the forty-three married women of the

tribe.

Of course I kept no books, but I feel certain that every one of those women brought

me something with which to pay for the needle, most of them saying that they did not want
me to think that they were people who accepted gifts.”

The foregoing extracts show conclu-
sively the existence of hybrid individuals
among various Eskimo tribes, and of
their distribution in quite unbroken con-
tinuity along the entire northern coast
of North America in early days, prior to
the general corruption of the Eskimo by
contact with whites during the past cen-
tury.

CONTACT OF ESKIMO AND NORSEMAN

The suggestion that the natives of
Coronation Gulf have a strain of Scan-
dinavian blood makes of interest the pos-
sibility and the probable date of personal
contact between the two races. The re-
searches of Dr. Thalbitzer show that the
Eskimo formerly occupied the northerly
coasts and inlets of North America from
southern Labrador to the peninsula of
Alaska, as well as the outer coasts of all
Arctic islands, Greenland included. ‘The
record of Norse explorations in the new

world, extending from the 1oth to the
middle of the 15th century, covered the
Greenland coast south of the Arctic Cir-
cle, and the shores of the American con-
tinent probably from Baffin Land south
to Nova Scotia, but certainly to include
Labrador.

_ The latest word on the subject appears
in two quarto volumes, “In Northern
Mists,’ by Dr. F.. Nansen. _ While rec-
ognizing Helluland as Laborador and
Markland as Newfoundland, he con-
siders Wineland as purely mythical, and
rejects the views put forward by Ameri-
can scholars as to a Norse settlement in
Nova Scotia, viewed by some as the most
southerly colony. In this advocacy a
distinguished American botanist, Dr. M.
L. Fernald, brings botanical evidence to
prove that the three plants most de-
pended on to locate Wineland—the win-
ber, hveiti, and mosurr—are, respect-
ively, the mountain cranberry (or a wild

1235

‘Poojq owlrysy pue uvadoin’y FO o1njxnu v ysaSSns 0} woes a[dood asay} Fo sonstsojovseyo oy,

‘(48e1 ased 99s) O8e salinjusd puvjudess) wo1y pareaddesip Yor
sey UPWIOM OY} }XOU UPL 9Y} pue ‘AUB dALY AY} Se Jef OS Spieaq

AUO]OD UVIABUIPUBIG dy} WOIJZ papudosap aq Av AMT, [Jem se soso anjq ISI]
YS] oARY VOW oY, “smorqado YB avy dinjoid sty} ul spenprarpur [py

GNV’ISI VINOLOIA ‘GNNOS JYHd’1V AONINd NI NOSSNVWHLS Ad GHYHAOOSIG OWIMSH GNOTG

aulzeseyp S.todieyy yo Asazinog

1230

ORIGIN OF STEFANSSON’S BLOND ESKIMO

currant), the strand wheat, and the ca-
noe birch.

In any event direct and prolonged con-
tact of the Norsemen with the Eskimo
could have existed only at the permanent
Norse settlements, of which two only
are known—in the Greenland districts of
Godthaab and of Julianehaab—whose
fortunes will be discussed.

ARE THE BLOND ESKIMO DESCENDED FROM
THE LOST SCANDINAVIAN COLONY?

In a letter of Stefansson from Lang-
ton Bay he wrote: “A point of some in-
terest is our discovery of people in
southwestern Victoria Land who are
strikingly non-Eskimo in type; in fact,
look more like north Europeans than
Eskimo. Their speech and culture is
Eskimo, though I found one or two
words that might reasonably be thought
to be from old Norse. It seems
to me that 1f admixture of white blood
is the explanation of the origin of the
fair type in western and southwestern
Victoria Land, then the only historical
event that can explain it is the disap-
pearance from Greenland of the Scan-
dinavian colony of 3,000.” He adds that
these natives had never seen white men.

It may here be said that the opinions
expressed by the majority of previous
explorers, based on their own observa-
tions, as shown in the foregoing extracts,
incline to the belief that the admixture is
of Indian blood. But it should be added
that they were unfamiliar with the eth-
nological history of Greenland, and that
they fail to imdicate how an Indian ad-
mixture should produce fair complexions
instead of bronze.

The Norse colonists of the West Bygd
(Godthaab) and of the East Bygd (Jul-
ianehaab) must have numbered several
thousands, as several hundred ruins of
houses, churches, etc., have been located
around the fertile, ice-free fiords of
southern Greenland. Their fate is un-
known since near the end of the 15th
century, possibly 14760.

Dr. Nansen, in Northern Mists, writes
of them: “Owing to the long severance
from Europe, they were obliged to adopt
more of the Eskimo way of life. By
degrees they adopted the Eskimo’s more

LOT,

migratory life along the outer coast.
Then, again, the Eskimo women were
probably no less attractive to the North-
erners of that time than they are to those
of the present day, and thus much mix-
ture of blood gradually resulted. The
children came to speak the Eskimo lan-
guage, and took at once to a_ wholly
Eskimo way of life, just as at present
the children of the Danes and Eskimo
do in Greenland. The Norsemen must
have by degrees become Eskimo, both
physically and mentally; and when the
country was rediscovered in the 15th and
16th centuries, there were only Eskimo
there, while all traces of Norwegian-
Greenland culture seemed to have disap-
peared.”

Nansen continues: “It would doubtless
seem reasonable to expect that the de-
scendants of the ancient Norsemen of
Greenland and of the Eskimo, with
whom they became absorbed, should have
shown signs in their external appearance
of this descent when discovered in the
16th and 17th centuries.”

Dr. Rink, in Danish Greenland, says:
“An ancient and not untrustworthy ac-
count makes mention of certain Chris-
tian Greenlanders, who, in the year 1342,
fell off from their own religion, con-
sorted with the Skrellings (Eskimo), and
adopted their mode of life.” He adds:
“When, subsequently to the rediscovery
of Greenland, the southern districts were
again visited by European travelers,
many individuals were found amongst
the natives exhibiting a complexion, and
also a frame of body, which seemed to
indicate an admixture with European
blood—a fact which has also been ob-
served with regard to the natives east of
Cape Farewell.”

Of the hybrids of the west coast of
Greenland, McRitchie, commenting on
‘Tanes's* voyage of 1656, <adds: ~The
small, olive complexioned, short-legged
people are at once recognizable as Es-
kimo; but their taller and fairer. com-
rades give rise to speculation. The
readiest suggestion is that they were de-
scended from the early Norse settlers.
It is believed by many that the Norsemen
were not exterminated by the Eskimo,
but were gradually absorbed by them,

1238

through successive intermarriages.”
Tunes’s report would indicate that the
fusion was not entirely complete in 1656.

Of the fair-haired people on the east
coast of Greenland, Graah says: “But
as I should venture to conclude that the
Eskimo of Hudson Bay have not any
claims to the honors of a Roman parent-
age from the circumstance of Sir Ed-
ward Parry’s having seen among them
many good Roman noses, neither do |
conceive that the natives of the east coast
of Greenland
Icelandic colonies because they resemble
Europeans in some points.” Graah be-
lieved that “they were originally of the
same stock as the Eskimo.”

Graah’s opinions are clearly contro-
verted. by Hansen’s anthropometrical
measurements of g1 Eskimo of the east
coast, which prove that they are not-of
pure stock, for the Eskimo is decidedly
dolichocephalic, or long-readed. The
cranial indexes of but 29, less than 30
per cent, of these East Greenland natives
are of this type, while 57 are round-
headed and 8 short-headed.

Of the Eskimo of the ‘central North
American coasts and islands, Sir John
Richardson says: ‘In their position they
have little or no intercourse with other
nations, and have borrowed nothing
whatever, either from the Europeans or
the Tinné—the conterminous Indian
people.” Bearing incidentally and ad-
versely on their freedom from Indian
hybridization, he continues: “I merely
remark that the Eskimo differ more in
physical aspect from their nearest neigh-
bors than the red races do from one
another. The dissociation of the
Eskimo from the neighboring nations,
on account of their physical dissimilarity,
is met by an argument (from other
sources) for the mutual affinity deduced
from philological coincidences.” While
refraining from a definite decision, he
incidentally remarks that “they seem to
have most of the vices, as well as the
virtues, of the Norwegian vikings.”

It is most interesting to note an opin-
ion hazarded by Thomas Simpson, who
in 1838 was exploring Richardson River,

descended from the old ~

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

accompanied by an Eskimo interpreter
and by two Hare Indians. Meeting a
fair-haired Eskimo, he says: “The slen-
der, agile figures of the Hares contrasted
with the square, rugged forms of these
natives of the sea. It seemed as if on
the northern confines of a new conti-
nent | had together before me descend-
ants of the nomadic Tartar and the sea-
roving Scandinavian, two of the most
dissimilar and widely separate races of
the ancient world.”

Probably this opinion of 74 years since
is among the earliest assumptions that
Scandinavian blood is an element in the
hybridization of the Eskimo of the coasts ~
of the continent of North America.

That the admixture of alien blood
among the hybrid natives of Victoria
Land originated in regions to the east-
ward seems assured from the greater
homogeneity of the language and of the
customs of the blond Eskimo with those
of eastern tribes than with the tribal
characteristics of their Inuit brethren to
the west.

If the blond Eskimo are descend-
ants of Norse-Greenlander ancestors of
four centuries since, the Norse strain
must have been overwhelmingly diluted
through pure Eskimo intermarriages. If
such is the case, one must consider the
“blonds” of today as perchance a re-
markable instance of that occasional re-
version of types, whereby a passing race
gradually resumes the general form of
its ancient ancestors.

Possibly, however, it may be a case of
atavism—that is, the recurrence in a de-
scendant of characters of a remote an-
cestor—instead of those of an immediate
or near ancestor, similar to other abnor-
mal developments that have been pointed
out by scientists.

Finally, it may be said that the condi-
tions and facts developed by Stefansson’s
explorations and discoveries, when asso-
ciated with information drawn from the
accounts of earlier explorers, present an
intricate racial problem that may well
tax the acuteness of American ethnolo-
gists for some time.

Photo by D. W. and A. S. Iddings.

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Copyright by Keystone View Co.

RUMANIAN CHILDREN IN NATIONAL COSTUME

“The country folks of Rumania cling tenaciously to the national costume; for the men,
white trousers, a long white linen tunic, girded at the waist, embellished on high days and
holidays with little sleeveless jackets of bewildering color and embroidery. The women on
feast days emulate the rainbow in their clothes and bedeck themselves with endless strings
of coins and necklaces of beads” (see pages 1219-1223).

THE TAILED PEOPLE OF NIGERIA

N THE remote part of northern Ni-

geria, not yet under the complete

control of the British, there dwell a
people whose women wear tails and are
proud of them.

True it is that these tails are not of
flesh and blood, but none the less they
play an important part in the social life
of the people, for they are the outward
and visible sign of the matronly dignity.

When a woman of the Kagoro, Kajji,
or of four other neighboring tribes—the
Atlakka, Morva, Katab, or the Jaba—be-
comes. a bride, she puts off forever the
simple girdle of twisted grass that, up to
that moment, had been her sole adorn-
ment, and assumes the apron of leaves
and the tremendously significant tail, or
kunnok, as it 1s called.

In each of the tribes the kumnok varies

1239

ze

From ‘The Tailed Head-Hunters of Nigeria,” by Maj. A. J. N. Tremearne. J. B. Lippincott Co.

THE TAILED KAGORO WOMEN OF TUKU TOZO

The tail worn by most of these women is shorter and thicker than that in favor farther north.
The woman with the hair is an Attakka, the hair being probably a sign of mourning

From “The Tailed Head-Hunters of Nigeria,” by Maj. A.J. N. Tremearne. J. B. Lippincott Co.
KAJJI WOMEN OF MERSA

The tail—the sien of marriage—worn by most of these tribes is like the above, and is
nearly always worn over a bunch of leaves. Nos. 1, 2, and 3 have decorated the edges of
their tails with beads, and in the case of Nos. 1 and 3 the stumps have been cased in brass.

1240

From ““The Tailed Head-Hunters of Nigeria,’ by Maj. A. J. N. Tremearne.

J. B. Lippincott Co.

NIGERIAN NATIVES WITH TAILS

A Kagoro woman from Tuku Tozo and an Attakka woman

in form, sometimes long and thin, at
others short, mushroom-like and stumpy.
or shaped like a long bell. These tails
are made of palm fiber, plaited or bound
tightly together with string and usually
stained red with an earth, which is also
used for the further adornment of the
lady’s body.

Often the kunnok is worn quite plain,
but the more ambitious modes prescribe
an embellishment of brass wire and col-
ored glass beads.

The Kagoro women are distinguished,

by the Quaker-like simplicity of their
attire ; they wear the shortest and plainest
of tails, a few beads round the neck, oc-
casionally a beaded band by which the
tail is attached, and perhaps a really fash-
ionable lady will add a bracelet or leglet
of beads; but the kunnok itself remains
in all its native severity.

The ladies of the Kajji tribe, however,
affect a greater elegance; their tails are
of greater length, the “stumps”: being
covered with intricate designs worked in
brass and copper wire, while the wheel-
shaped terminal is gay with colored beads
set in a bed of liquid rubber, of which
there is a great deal in the country. In
this tribe the kunnok is generally worn
over a bunch of leaves or grass similar
to that which the ladies of all the tribes
depend from their girdles in front.
Sometimes a Kajji matron who desires
to be a leader in the fashionable world
will wear a tiny iron bell just above the
tail, but this is a rare occurrence, and the
bell is not often seen.

While the tail is essentially the mark
of the married woman, there are certain
occasions, such as dances or feasts, when
it is worn by the little girls, who at such

I24I

1242

times may also wear the bunch of leaves
at front of the girdle; “This is za rare
privilege and has some religious signifi-
cance.

To add further to their beauty, both
the upper and lower lips of these women
are pierced in order to admit a flat,
round disk of wood called the tichiak,
which is usually about the size of a half
dollar. The effect of this custom is,
from an occidental point of view, singu-
larly distressing, for when viewed in
profile the lady presents an appearance
by no means unlike that of a pig. The
lips of the little girls are pierced when
they are about seven or eight years of
age, and a piece of wood is “inserted and
worn for a time until a larger one takes
its place, the opening being thus grad-
ually enlarged until a full-sized tichiak
can be carried without discomfort. The
object of this singularly disfiguring
adornment is to prevent the women from
eating dogs, which are considered the
greatest delicacy by the men of the tribes.

Both sexes decorate the body with
regular designs; the chests and backs of
the little girls are scarified at a very early
age, the incisions forming the design be-
ing painted with grease mixed with soot.
When they arrive at marriageable age,
the girls undergo a further ordeal, for

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

two sets of parallel lines are cut both on
the chest and the back, and as soon as.
possible after marriage the head lines
are made. ‘These consist of a number of
short cuts across the forehead, extending
from ear to ear, and 13 long, slanting
lines are cut on each cheek from ear to:
chin, so that probably no other woman
in the world better exemplifies the old
French proverb, J] faut suffrir pour étre
belle.

Not one of these ladies woitld dare
attire herself in other than the prescribed
fashion, although no punishment would.
be inflicted save the general disapproval
of the community; but that in savage:
countries is apt to assume very disagree-
able forms.

The authority upon these people is.
Major A. J. N. Tremearne, upon whose
book, “The Tailed Head-Hunters of Ni-
geria” (J. B. Lippincott Co., Philadel-
phia), the above notes are based. Major
Tremearne has served in Nigeria both as.
a police and political officer, and has had.
singularly good opportunities of observ-
ing these primitive people, and as a.
trained anthropologist his description of
their manners, habits, and customs is-
of great value. The volume has 355,
pages, 38 photographic iliustrations, and
a map.

SUNRISE AND SUNSET FROM MOUNT SINAI

By Rev. SArTELL Prentice, Jr., D. D.

FE, SAW the sun rise from the
summit of Mount Sinai, a sight
few of us will ever forget.”

Sinai! What word has greater power
to awaken slumbering memories of the
past! We, too, were going to Sinai, and
as Palmer’s words recurred to us we de-
cided to camp one night upon the sum-
mit; to watch the sun set and rise again.
Palmer has said of that early morning
glimpse of glory: “The effects were, if
possible, more beautiful than those of
sunset, and the few clouds that still lin-
gered around the peaks. heightened and
concentrated the lovely coloring of blue
and gold and rosy light.”

Letters from our dragoman were elo-.
quent with his dismay. ‘No one had ever
before pitched tents upon the mountain ;
there would surely be snow to hinder;
the monks would be certain to object :
in brief, it was not possible. Opposition
but fed the desire until it grew into an
obsession, and the sunrise from Mount
Sinai threatened to become the raison
d’ctre of our pilgrimage.

We reached the convent of St. Catha-
rine, at the foot of Sinai, on the 24th of
February, and pitched our tents among
the olive trees of the garden preparatory
to the climb next day. The aimond.
peach, lemon, and orange trees were in

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Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

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DELIVERED THE TEN COMM

1243

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

LOOKING DOWN ON THE MONASTERY OF ST. CATHERINE, IN THE DESERT OF SINAI

Excepting for the Mount Sinai Monastery, which from these heights looks like a little
toy fort built of blocks, the region is still and hushed and almost deserted. Its massive walls,
raised by the peace-loving and God-fearing monks under Justinian, in 527 A. D. (as a pro-
tection against the marauding Bedouin tribes that infest this part of the country), when the
wealth of an empire was possessed by the builders and occupants of the monastery, are in
the same condition as when built, 1400 years ago. Today, however, the Christian world
keeps a watchful eye over this mountain monastery and its contents, and the Bedouins,
knowing this to be the fact, are on friendly as well as visiting terms with the monks.

1244

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Sr. CATHERINE’S MONASTERY: SINAI

Showing the outside wall and the little cage through which, until not many years ago,

visitors entered the monastery, being drawn up by a rope which was hauled by a windlass
within the wall.

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1247

3 ‘ SEE SSE RES 3 4 HAS 2
Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
GARDEN OF ST, CATHERINE’S MONASTERY, AT THE FOOT OF THE MOUNTAIN OF THE
TEN COMMANDMENTS
“The gardens flourish by virtue of irrigation, their fruit trees, flowers, and vegetables

making a mass of color and green whose beauty is enhanced, if not created, by the memory
of the sands and barren deserts that must be crossed to reach them.”

1248

SUNRISE AND SUNSET FROM MOUNT SINAI

full bloom, and their white and pink
blossoms mingled with the green of the
olive leaves and carpeted the ground,
filling the air with the burden of their
fragrance.

No photographs that we had seen pre-
pared us for the beauty of the Valley of
Leja, in which the convent stands. The
broad plain of El Raha, where tradition
says Israel encamped, narrows to a
gorge. The cliffs rise on either hand,
sheer masses of red granite a thousand
feet in height, their sides furrowed and
seamed with massive buttresses thrust
out and tortuous crevices receding, the
crests, ragged and crenelated, cutting a
fantastic outline against the sky, while
so abrupt is the ascent their brows fairly
seem to overhang the valley.

Kar up on the higher crags of the
giant ellipse of cliffs the faintly penciled
outlines of the huge wooden crosses,
with which the monks have sentineled
their valley, lie against the deep blue
sky, thrusting their message out to all
the mountains clustered round about.

THE MONASTERY OF ST. CATHERINE’S

We spent the afternoon in the maze-
like gardens, which descend from the
convent walls in terraces, each with its
flight of steps, for a thousand feet or
more. Below the last garden are grouped
the ruins of the stone huts that housed
the soldiers brought by Abbas Pasha to
build his palace on the mountain and
the road to the summit, which still bears
his name. Next comes a low hill at the
entrance to the Wady es Sheik, the scene
of the worship of the golden calf, so
tradition asserts, and beyond that is the
plain of El Raha, encircled by the rugged
red mountains.

The gardens flourish by virtue of irri-
gation, their fruit trees, flowers, and
vegetables making a mass of color and
green whose beauty is enhanced, if not
created, by the memory of the sands and
barren deserts that must be crossed to
reach them.

In the meanwhile the monks had swept
and aired the crypt of their mortuary
chapel, had burned incense in its vaults,
and now invited us to enter.

A monk dying at Mount Sinai is bu-

1249

ried in the ground for a year; during that
time his grave is watered, for the atmos-
phere is so dry that lacking such care his
bones would turn utterly to dust. After
the year the bones are disinterred and
placed in the crypt of the chapel; those
of the higher dignitaries at one end;
those of the monks and brethren at the
other, neatly squared and banked in
regular and precise lines, which are
broken only by the bony hands which
occasionally project in ghastly welcome.

Behind the door, in velvet skull cap
and monkish robe, sits St. Stephen, the
porter of the convent nearly 350 years
ago. His bony jaw rests in one fleshless
palm, while the other hand rattles among
the keys lying in his lap—the symbols of
the office ."he: vacated centuries © ago.
When he last kept watch and ward over
the portals, Philip I] was king in Spain,
the Armada was threatening the coasts
of England, the bells of St. Germain
were ringing in the day of St. Bartholo-
mew, and Calvin’s voice had hardly
fallen silent in Geneva. The world has
traveled far since then.

The moon rose full that evening. The
jagged mountain line lay in blackened
silhouette against the sky; the shadows
of the olive leaves, gently swaying in the
evening breeze, fell upon the white sur-
face of our tents. The moonlight cast a
checkered pattern upon the almond blos-
soms lying about our feet; it lit up the
opposite cliffs of Sinai, throwing dark
shadows into the crevices, veiling yet
magnifying, until the mountains seemed
to grow and tower above us, more stern
and forbidding by night even than by
day. One cross, of all that crowned the
heights, stood out for a moment in pen-
ciled blackness against the full white sur-
face of the moon; then, sinking over its
lower rim, it joined its brethren in ob-
scurity.

I woke once during the night, just as
the convent bells were ringing to call the
brethren to prayers, for from midnight
until 7 in the morning the monks must
keep their vigils. The bells fell silent,
their echoes died away among the rocks,
but they called into momentary vision the
recollection of the spires of New Eng-
land churches rising white above their

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
THE PLAIN OF ASSEMBLAGE

“The cliffs rise on either hand, sheer masses of red granite a thousand feet in height,
their sides furrowed and seamed with massive buttresses thrust out and tortuous crevices
receding ; the crests, ragged and crenelated, cutting a fantastic outline against the sky, while
so abrupt is the ascent their brows fairly seem to overhang the valley. Far up on the higher
crags of the giant ellipse of cliffs the faintly penciled outlines of the huge wooden crosses,
with which the monks have sentineled their valley, lie against the deep blue sky, thrusting
their message out to all the mountains clustered round about” (see also page 1243).

o> ae eS. se er

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
MOUNT SINAI TOWERING ABOVE THE PLAIN OF ASSEMBLAGE

Here on this plain, where the goats and sheep are now grazing, there were gathered the
Children of Israel during the 4o days and 4o nights that Moses, obscured from sight on the
mountain-top by the clouds, was holding communion with Jehovah, just previous to the
deliverance of the Ten Commandments.

“And it came to pass on the third day in the morning, that there were thunders and
lightnings, and a thick cloud upon the mount, and the voice of the trumpet exceeding loud;
so that all the people that was in the camp trembled. And Moses brought forth the people
‘out of the camp to meet with God; and they stood at the nether part of the mount. And
Mount Sinai was altogether on a smoke, because the Lord descended upon it in fire; and
the smoke thereof ascended as the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mount quaked greatly.
And when the voice of the trumpet sounded long, and waxed louder and louder, Moses
spake, and God answered him by a voice. And the Lord came down upon Mount Sinai,
on the top of the mount; and the Lord called Moses up to the top of the mount; and Moses

went up.” Exodus xix: 16-20.

1251

2

OX

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwocd
THE STONE GATE HALF WAY UP MOUNT SINAI

Formerly there was a monk placed at this particular gate, to pass only those who were freed
of all sin by the Holy Communion and who bore a pass from the monastery as a proof

1252

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

THE CHAPEL ON THE TOP OF ST. CATHERINE, THE HIGHEST PEAK OF JEBEL MUSA,
“THE MOUNTAIN OF THE LAW, 8,536 FEET HIGH

“Here, on a narrow platform, we found a mosque and a Christian chapel almost side by
side, symbols of the two great faiths which today command the worship of so many millions
of men and whose antagonisms once convulsed the Mediterranean” (see page 1258).

1253

2 s ‘ X S\ “< YSN CSS
Ae SU aU ae Soe x oo > ss

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

A HUGE ROCK ON THE PLAIN OF ASSEMBLAGE, UNDER WHICH A BLIND BEDOUIN HAS
LIVED AS A HERMIT FOR FORTY YEARS

1254

a
LIS
yy

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

ER THIS ROCK ON THE PLAIN OF

FOR FORTY Y

ND

HO HAS LIVED U

D BEDOUIN W

THE BLIN

ARS

K

EMBLAGE

ASS

255

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

“THE MOUNTAIN OF THE LAW”

Mount Sinai from the north, viewed at an elevation of 6,740 feet from the summit of
Jebel Meraji.

“And the glory of the Lord abode upon Mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it six days:
and the seventh day he called unto Moses out of the midst of the cloud. And the sight of
the glory of the Lord was like devouring fire on the top of the mount in the eyes of the
children of Israel. And Moses went into the midst of the cloud, and gat him up into the
mount: and Moses was in the mount forty days and forty nights.”. Exodus xxii: 15-18.

1256

SUNRISE AND SUNSET FROM MOUNT SINAI 1257

church-yard trees, and the sound of their
bells ringing faintly down the valleys of
the Green Mountains.

CLIMBING THE SACRED MOUNTS

It was broad daylight when I next
awoke; the sun was shining in under the
tent, and voices in Arabic were sounding
without. After breakfast our tents were
packed on three camels and sent up the
road of Abbas Pasha to the plain of the
¢ypress tree, near the summit of Sinai,
while we, with a monk as guide and a
Bedouin for a porter, set out to climb
the pilgrim steps. While we were wait-
ing for our guide, I searched the face of
the great precipice of Sinai with a field
glass for some evidence of a practicable
pathway, for some break in the mass of
rock, but though I searched almost inch
by inch, I could detect no possible en-
trance through the cliff.

Leaving the convent, we walked up
the valley for perhaps a third of a mile,

picking our way over a boulder-strewn

slope, until we came to a crack in the
face of the cliff, a mere seam down the
mountain side, where we found the first
of the steps. There are some 7,000 of
these wich leadvup a gorge 12 to°15
feet wide, zigzagging from side to side.
The cliffs rise sheer on éither hand,
water-washed and time-worn, cracked
and fractured by the extremes of heat
and cold. Fragments of rock project
and overhang the path, looking as if the
lightest touch would send them flying.
In fact the pilgrim steps have suffered
severely from falling boulders; they are
chipped, cracked, and smashed, in places
utterly destroyed, and the path is thickly
strewn with the fragments.

Few things testify so eloquently to the
vitality of the spirit of ancient monasti-
cism as the paved road which leads into
the Sinai range through the Nakb el
Howi Pass and these steps up Mount
Sinai. The labor of cutting, carrying,
and placing such stones must have been
enormous.

Early in the ascent we came to a
spring of clear, cold water, issuing from
beneath a gigantic boulder. Here, the
Bedouins say, Moses watered his sheep.
For some time after leaving the spring

we kept the convent in sight; it seemed
to come nearer and nearer to the moun-
tain as we climbed and to lie more im-
mediately below us, until a curtain of
rock crept out and hid it from our sight.

The path led steeply up between high
and narrow walls of rock, the sky a mere
slit above our heads, until we halted for
a moment’s rest at the Chapel of the Vir-
gin, and here, tradition says, a plague of
fleas once so harassed the monks that
they decided in desperation to abandon
the convent. They took their way up the
mountain on a final pilgrimage to its
holy places, when the Virgin met them
at this spot and commanded their re-
turn. On again reaching the convent
they found it utterly deserted by the in-
sects. Presumably they had gone out
in a body to find the monks, but how
they had missed them in the narrow path
the legend does not say.

The path grew steeper after leaving
the chapel until we came to an archway,
where formerly pilgrims were confessed ;
then we mounted a flight of a hundred
perfect steps to a second archway, where
they received their certificates of abso-
lution and were permitted to pass on.
Just beyond lay the Plain of the Cypress
Tree. A few hundred square feet of
coarse grass, a pond a hundred feet
across, and a huge cypress tree lay be-
neath a circle of low cliffs. Such a spot
would be passed unnoticed anywhere in
our Eastern States, but in these wastes
of sands and barren rocks, grass, how-
ever coarse, water, and a tree halt the
attention and haunt the memory.

THE SUMMIT OF SAFSAFAH

Leaving the ladies here to rest, F. and
I set off to climb Jebel Safsafah, one of
the horns of Mount Sinai. The path was
long and rough. It ied us up and down
through a succession of valleys until we
came to the final ascent of Safsafah,
when a rough climb of 20 minutes
brought us to a narrow crevice with an
abysmal precipice at our feet. Nearly
2,000 feet below was one of the farms
belonging to the convent, surrounding
the house where the brother lives whom
the convent has placed in charge, a rest-
ful touch of green against the wilderness

of sand. Near by was a long row of
black Bedouin tents, the flocks of goats
browsing among the rocks, while to the
right the long plain of el Raha stretched
out to the Nakb el Howi Pass.

Above this crevice rose a smooth,
rounding mass of rock 40 feet or more
in height, on the crest of which the
monks have planted a huge wooden
cross. This is the summit of Safsafah
(see picture, page 1259). Baedeker says
the ascent requires a steady head. Meis-
termann says: “Le dernier pic, droit et
glissant, nest plus accessible qu’aux
touristes robustes, qui ne sont pas sujet
au vertige, et qui sont determinés a y
grimper en s’aidant des pieds et des
mains.”

I did not find it so. The climb is diffi-
cult, perhaps, but in no place should I
call it dangerous, nor does it invite diz-
ziness. [he view is limited except to
the north; tnere range after range runs
back toward the horizon, with great Ger-
bel Serbal in the distance. Except at the
north, however, the rim of the Sinaitic
range restricts the view.

We came back to the cypress tree for
lunch, watched the arrival of the camels
and the pitching of our tents, and then
we began the final climb of the Jebel
Musa summit of Mount Sinai. On the
edge of the plain we passed a little
chapel dedicated to Elijah, for the Greek
Church has located here Elijah’s vision
of God, when, fleeing from the wrath of
Jezebel, he came to Horeb, “the Moun-
tain of God.”

Here, they say, he heard the great and
mighty wind, which rent the mountains
and brake in pieces the rocks; here he
witnessed the earthquake and the fire,
and heard after the fire the still, small
voice saying, “What doest thou here,
Elijah?”

THE TOP OF SINAI

Beyond the chapel we entered another
crack in the mountain side, where the
pilgrim steps resume their zigzag way
between high and narrow wails; but the
ascent is steeper and rougher than be-
fore. After a forty-minute climb we
reached the summit. Here, on a narrow
platform, we found a mosque and a

THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE

Christian chapel almost side by side,
symbols of the two great faiths which
today command the worship of so many
millions of men and whose antagonisms
once convulsed the Mediterranean (see
page 1253).

Time was when the servants of the
mosque swept the Great Sea from end
to end, ravaging the shores of Spain and
the littoral of France. A pope of Rome
wrote pitifully for help against the raids
which swept up to the very gates of the
Holy City. The crumbling towers that
you still see along the shores of Spain,
Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were once
watch-towers, whose sentinels scanned.
the horizon for the slanting sails of
Saracen pirates. And time was when the
servants of the chapel flung their armies
upon the coasts of Palestine, carried by
assault the walls of Jerusalem, and
planted their castles from Belfort on the
north to Petra in the south, almost
within sight of Sinai. Yet here on this.
mountain, sacred to Christian and Mo-
hammedan alike, in silent friendliness,
chapel and mosque lie side by side, as if
ignorant or forgetful of the antagonisms.
of their servants in this world.

Our guide showed us imbedded in the
rock the imprint of the hands of Moses.
and the cave where he had hidden when
“the glory of the Lord passed by.” Af-
ter he was satisfied that we had seen the
things of real interest on Mount Sinai,
we turned to the things that were real to.
us. George, our Syrian waiter, seated
himself upon a rock and disturbed the
silence with the wailings of his flageo-
let, while we gave ourselves up to the
view.

From our feet the gorges and chasms.
fell away to the valley below, through
which, like a thin white thread, the road
ran on to Akabah, Moab, and to distant
Jerusalem. Around us stood the ring of
red granite mountains—indented, worn,
and carved—huge masses of fantastic
cliffs. Over this ring range behind range
of mountains ran away as far as the eye
could see, each range as jagged and fan-
tastic in outline as Sinai itself. In and
among the ranges lay valleys of sand,
shimmering like still waters, with a white
and silvery gleam. The waters of the

a: LE

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
THE PLACE FROM WHICH MOSES IS BELIEVED TO HAVE PROCLAIMED TO THE CHILDREN

OF ISRAEL THE COMMANDS HE HAD RECEIVED FROM JEHOVAH
WHILE ON THE MOUNTAIN TOP

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Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
MOUNTAIN OF THE LAW,

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1260

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LOOKING EASTWARD FROM THE SUMMIT OF JEBEL SAFSAFAH TOWARD THE MOUNT
SINAI RANGE, WHERE MOSES GAVE THE COMMANDMENTS TO THE
CHOSEN PEOPLE

1261

a
SKS

BEDOUIN GARDENS

The mountain in the background is

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
IN THE RAVINE OF JEBEL SAFSAFAH

the Mount of the Law (see pages 1251, 1253, and 1256)

1262

SUNRISE AND SUNSET FROM MOUNT SINAI

Gulf of Akabah were visible in several
places, but the sun was setting behind
the Gulf of Suez, veiling it in mist; the
African mountains were crowned with
gold, and over a golden sea crimson
clouds were sailing. A broad band of
green half encircled the northern sky,
while the earth and the mountains about
us were clear violet, darker in the hol-
lows, more opalescent on the heights.
Then the peaked shadow of Mount
Sinai crept slowly out of the valley up
the slopes of the other side; it fell upon
the hills beyond, and then, stretching out
eo, the horizon, it fell on range after
range until it left the earth and threw its
pyramidal shadow on the clouds.

In turn the other mountains rose, flung
their shadows upon it and blotted it out.
As the sun touched the horizon rim,
George threw himself on his knees and,
facing the setting sun, with eyes closed,
poured out his soul through the reedy
notes of his flageolet. The story of the
“Jongleur de Notre Dame” crossed my
mind. No sooner had the sun vanished
than we started homeward, for the de-
scert, difficult enough by day, is posi-
tively dangerous in the dark; but rapidly
as we went the light faded faster.

In that deep gorge between the high
walls the night seemed to creep up out
from the rocks below rather than to fall
from the skies above, and soon we gave
up the attempt to see our path and
trusted to the feel of the ground beneath
Our feet. A-turm in the path and the
plain of the cypress tree came in sight,
lying far and almost sheer below us, for
from this point begins the steepest part
on the. descent; but we could. see: our

- tents, the camels browsing, and the light
of the camp fire, promising coffee, sup-
per, and rest.

The stars were all out, brilliant and
pendant as you never see them except
very far from the cities of men; the last
gleam of the daylight had faded as we
stepped out of the gorge, passed the
Chapel of Elijah, and came into camp.
Before we slept that night, I left the tent
and crossed the valley. The moon was
just rising above the cliffs, throwing gro-
tesque images of ogres and of primeval
beasts upon the moonlit walls opposite;
the shadow of the cypress fell black upon

1263

the face of the still waters. The silence
was intense. No frogs sang to us out of
the marshes; there was no voice of in-
sects among the rocks; no call of night
bird sounded in the air.

I awoke a little after 3 and dressed.
The moon was still shining on the valley ;
the camels lay here and there, one close
to the tent. George and the Bedouin were
asleep around the ashes of the fire. They
sprang to their feet as I came up, and
George went for water,while the Bedouin,
uncovering a few dull embers from under
the ashes, nursed them into a blaze. ‘The
air was cold and the warmth most pleas-
ant, and I glanced about. ‘The desert
shrubs burned fiercely, sending trails of
sparks flying into the night; the firelight
flickered on the walls of the tents, on the
dark face of the Bedouin, and on the
camel as he lay with his long neck
stretched out along the ground toward
the blaze. We had coffee and a cigarette,
and then started again up Sinai for the
sunrise. Passing the Chapel of Elijah,
I heard the voice of the priest, rising and
falling in weird cadences as he intoned
the services of his church. Here, alone,
in a monk’s vigil he had passed the night.

We entered the gorge and began the
climb. ‘The moon had set in this crevice
and our path lay in the shadow, but the
moonlight was falling upon one side of
the gorge and the rocks reflected it upon
the path. Still its light was deceptive.
It foreshortened distances, modulated the
shadows and misinterpreted them; it cre-
ated a false perspective, and I was con-
stantly misjudging distances and stumb-
ling, even though the light seemed ample.
However, we climbed rapidly, and with-
out stopping, for I was anxious to be on
hand for the first glimmer of the dawn.
In 28 minutes we stood upon the summit.

Sinai bears the name of the moon god
“Sin,” and “Sin” was reigning now; his
light fell on the circle of granite moun-
tains, smoothing out their cracks and
scars and exalting their huge masses;
here it left a valley in the darkness, and
there it fell shimmering upon white sands.
Overhead moon and stars hung brilliant
out of a black vault of heaven. and the
distances above the stars seemed vaster
than the distances below.

I wrapped myself up in a steamer rug

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Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwocu
WADY (VALLEY) FIRAN: TWO MILES WEST OF THE OASIS OF FIRAN

Mount Serbel is seen towering above all the other peaks in the picture. Some historians
think that it was on this mount, rather than on Jebel Musa (see pages 1251, 1253, and 1256),
that Moses communed with Jehovah.

1205

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

THE MARK OF THE ELEMENTS: A STRANGELY WORN ROCK ON ONE OF THE SLOPES
OF JEBEL SAFSAFAH

1266

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
MOSES’ SPRING, IN ONE OF THE RICHEST OASES OF THE SINAI PENINSULA

4

1267

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Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

JEBEL AARON, SUPPOSED TO BE THE HILL WHERE AARON SET UP THE GOLDEN CALF

It is a round hill, upon which the Moslems have erected a shrine.

“And when the people saw that Moses delayed to come down out of the mount, the
people gathered themselves together unto Aaron, and said unto him, ‘Up, make us gods,
which shall go before us; for as for this Moses, the man that brought us up out of the land
of Egypt, we wot not what is become of him.’ And Aaron said unto them, ‘Break off the
golden earrings, which are in the ears of your wives, of vour sons, and of your daughters,
and bring them unto me.’ And all the people brake off the golden earrings which were in
their ears, and brought them unto Aaron. And he received them at their hand, and fash-
ioned it with a graving tool, after he had made it a molten calf: and they said, ‘These be
thy gods, O Israel, which brought thee up out of the land of Egypt... And when Aaron saw
it, he built an altar before it.” Exodus xxxii.

1268

ii

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Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
TOP OF THE HILL OF THE GOLDEN CALF, WITH ITS ROUND MOHAMMEDAN CHAPEL

Behind are the lofty peaks of Jebel Safsafah of the Jebel Musa Range.

“And the Lord said unto Moses, ‘Go, get thee down; for thy people, which thou brought-
est out of the land of Egypt, have corrupted themselves.” . . . “And Moses turned, and
went down from the mount, and the two tables of the testimony were in his hand: the tables
were written on both their sides; on the one side and on the other were they written. And
the tables were the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God, graven upon the
tables. . . . And it came to pass, as soon as he came nigh unto the camp, that he saw
the calf, and the dancing: and Moses’ anger waxed hot, and he cast the tables out of his
hands, and brake them beneath the mount. And he took the calf which they had made and
burnt it in the fire, and ground it to powder, and strawed it upon the water, and made the
children of Israel drink of it’? Exodus xxxil.

1269

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To the left is the Chapel of Elijah, dedicated to the prophet Elijah

1271

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1272

SUNRISE AND SUNSET FROM MOUNT SINAI

and sat out on a ledge of rock which
overhung the valley, hundreds of feet
below. “Sin’s” eternal enemy—the Day—
was coming, and | was about to witness
the battle of the ‘gods. The faintest
streak of white was creeping into the
eastern sky; it broadened slowly, and
crept around the horizon. Our moon-
cast shadows were growing fainter; step
by step “Sin” was being driven back
from his own mountain. The little clouds
and the morning mists, those white and
fleecy sheep which Polyphemus herded
in his cavern of the night, lay out along
the mountain sides and down in the val-
leys to watch the contest.

Some tiny clouds in the eastern sky
turned silver and then glowed with a
white fire, while a band of pink spread
around the west. The mountains began
to stand forth, range beyond range, and
in the uncertain light they looked like
the waves of a great sea rolling in upon
Sinai, and pressed forward by billowing
clouds behind. Like a faint thread, the
Jerusalem road crept out of the darkness
that yet lingered in the valley below, a
line of wavering white. The stars were
fading rapidly, the moon lost her gold
and turned to silver in the sky. Then
the rim of the sun gleamed over the bank
of clouds, a new and clearer world of
shadows began to fall behind us and
about us, and> the: day had come: ‘Phe
light filled the eastern valleys with a
silvery haze and blotted out the Gulf of
Akabah, but the Gulf of Suez came into
sight, with Jebel Atakah veiled in purple
and crowned with crimson.

As the sun cleared the eastern clouds,
George dropped upon his knees, folded
his hands, and prayed with the sunlight
fuli upon his wrinkled face. What far-
off inheritance, what ancestry of sun-
worshipers spoke in the act, I doubt if
he knew, and I wondered whether he
himself understood the impulse that
brought him to his knees.

On our way down the mountain we
came again to the ledge of rock that al-
most overhung our: camp. I saw the
tents lying silent and far below; one
camel was browsing near the pond, while
the smoke of the camp fire was rising in
the still air. As 1 lookedione of our
party threw up the flap of her tent and
came out into the open. I shouted to

her; she waved her arm, but her reply
came back faint and unintelligible.

I stood for a second longer and turned
to descend, when the mountain suddenly
awoke and thundered at me, “Hello!” it
roared, and then

“Hello -ello -elo-lo-lo-lo-lo-lo.”’

Faster and faster the echoes rolled on
until all syllables were lost in a roar that
died down into a muttering. It was as
if some one had given a gatling the voice
of a 12-inch cannon.

But the amazing thing was the length
of time that had elapsed between my
shout and the mountain’s first reply. I
sent the echoes flying again and again,
awakening the mountains to unaccus-
tomed hfe; but time was passing, the
camp was all astir; so, throwing caution
to the winds, I hastened down the steep
descent.

After breakfast we left George and
the Bedouin to pack up the tents and be-
gan the descent to the convent. On our
way we found that a boulder had fallen
in the night. Some of the steps had been
crushed to powder; others had been
driven from their settings, leaving gap-
ing holes. For a thousand feet we traced
that flying boulder by cracked, chipped,
or broken steps, and by bright scars on
the walls where fragments had caromed
off. Four or five hundred feet below, we
came upon a fragment of the rock that
may have weighed a ton; it lay wedged
in the path and we had to climb over it.
Further down, the path was again blocked
by the fallen rocks. It seemed as if the

boulder had literally exploded, so con-

stant: were the scars it had left behind.

The wind that Elijah heard, which
“rent the mountains and brake in pieces
the rocks,’ might easily become literal
fact in this gorge where run the pilgrim
steps, for boulders are constantly fall-
ing, even on still nights, and any tempest
of wind, tearing up between its narrow
walls, would send the boulders flying..

So we came back to the convent, and
another fortnight found us once more
in Cairo and civilization. But the mem-
ory of the pendant stars, of the bril-
liant moonlight among the rocks, of the
glories of the sunrise and the sunset over
the mountains of Sinai, abides and does
not fade.

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

THE MONASTERY OF THE FORTY MARTYRS WHO WERE SLAIN BY SARACENS

It lies in a valley between huge granite walls of the Sinai Range

1274

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

THE LARGEST STREAM OF WATER IN THE SINAI PENINSULA

The rock in the background is presumably the one which Moses was directed to smite.

“And all the congregation of the Children of Israel journeyed from the Wilderness of
Sin, after their journeys, according to the commandment of the Lord, and pitched in Rephi-
dim: and there was no water for the people to drink. . . . And the people murmured
against Moses, and said, ‘Wherefore is this that thou hast brought us up out of Egypt, to
kill us and our children and our cattle with thirst?’ And Moses cried unto the Lord, saying,
‘What shall I do unto this people? They be almost ready to stone me. And the Lord said
unto Moses, ‘Go on before the people, and take with thee of the elders of Israel; and thy
rod, wherewith thou smotest the river, take in thine hand, and go. Behold I will stand
before thee there upon the rock in Horeb; and thou shalt smite the rock, and there shall
come water out of it, that the people may drink.’ And Moses did so in the sight of the
elders of Israel.” Exodus xvii: 1, 3-6.

1275

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

LOOKING SOUTH 1,000 FEET ABOVE THE BED OF THE VALLEY, WHERE THE BATTLE
BETWEEN THE AMALEKITES AND THE HEBREWS WAS PROBABLY
FOUGHT (EXODUS XVII)

It was in this region that the Children of Israel lived for 40 years. There are any one
of a hundred peaks among these vales where Moses could have stood and watched the
wavering conflict between the Children of Israel and the Amalekites, defending their most
precious possessions of water and pasturage and ancestral camping places against the inroad
of the Children of Israel when they, driven desperate by the lack of water for their families
and their flocks, fought under God’s guidance their way through and upward to the Prom-
ised Land.—FRANKLIN E.. HoskINs.

1276

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood
THE WADY (VALLEY) OF ESH SHEKH

The broad passage through which the Israelites must have made their way toward the
Promised Land after they received the Ten Commandments at the foot of Mount Sinai

1277

BEDOUINS AT HOME,

Photo and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

WITH THEIR GOAT-HAIR TENTS, IN A VALLEY IN THE SINAIL
COUNTRY

1278

Photo‘and copyright by Underwood & Underwood

A POOL IN THE DESERT

j Ne probably at a pool like this that Moses in his youth succored the daughters of
ethro.

“Moses fled from the face of Pharaoh, and dwelt in the land of Midian: and he sat
down by a well. Now the priest of Midian had seven daughters ; and they came and drew
water, and filled the troughs to water their father’s: flock. And the shepherds came and
drove them away: but Moses stood up and helped them, and watered their flock.” Exodus

di: 15-17.

1279

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SCALE OF MILES
10 20 30 40 50

MAP SHOWING MOUNT SINAI AND THE ROUTE OF THE: EXODUS. FROM
= Ww. S. AUCHINCLOSS
For further information about the Sinai country see “The Route over which Moses led

the Children of Israel out of Egypt,” by Franklin E. Hoskins, D.D., in Nationa, GErocGRAPHIC
MAGAZINE, December, 1909.

1282

Photo by D. W. and

ae

A. $. Iddings.

Copyright by Keystone View Co.

HADRIAN'S ARCH IN ATHENS

= the Emperor Hadrian was the greatest of all the Roman benefactors of Athens. He
inaugurated an era of municipal improvement, built the enormous Olympicum, and enlarged

the city walls to include his new and handsome suburb of Hadrianopolis.

The Arch of

Hadrian shown here stood at the boundary between the old and new town.

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

January 3—“A Vanishing Empire.” By Mr.
E. M. Newman. Mr. Newman will tell of
Constantinople, Salonica, Adrianople, and the
other historic cities which are the center of
the present Eastern War.

January 10, 4 p. m—Annual Meeting.
bard Hall.

January to—“The Discovery of the South
Pole.” By Capt. Roald Amundsen, gold
medalist of the National Geographic Society.
This will be Captain Amundsen’s first lecture
in the United States.

January 11.—Annual Banquet. New Willard.

Hub-

January 17—“New Women in China.” By
Dr. Yamei Kin, the foremost woman physician
in China. She is an unusually brilliant speaker
and addressed the Society on her last visit
to America, in IQII.

January 24.—“Hunting Big Game Across
the World, from Borneo to the Rockies, in-
cluding Central Africa, the British Isles, India,
Canada, etc.’ By Mr. Cherry Kearton, of
England. Mr. Kearton shows 3,000 feet of
motion picture films of hunting the tiger, ele-
phant, Indian bison, orang-outang, lion, etc.

January 31—‘“Modern Greece and Monte-
negro.” By Hon. George Higgins Moses, U. S.
Minister to Greece and Montenegro, 1909-1912.

1283

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