Pus fF vr ae 7 acde . Wem 5 otoy RS eat ‘ toe m4 , ; ' ° > sf : : Soyat : so ee, a of ot A oa en a : Shs se . ‘ wi WSs ; : “os Ve fe werht ‘ af tg tS Keunhe © ph 2 . ‘ F q = Me ‘ \ . - ' . a vie ee . oe HW " _ * . . 7 7 ae Oe Ti ‘ ‘ a oe 3 i toe cou : . : ‘ mos ‘ ' . : ‘ ") oy i. * - ; *, i tt * 4 .7 « ' 7 7 * 7 x . ‘ : 4 f " Lye gy : r 4 to - . . s<8 , ‘ ead 5 - . : . aa ‘ eT “+4 Fi ar ™ aa’? v Bis 4 ’ * » Foe Smal ec Ce 7 oe yi . ur) cd < oer e ‘ Site gt So : P a WSs e 7 rae: 2 ’ fh RY SS of \ 5 , ’ * . 3 Rene. ; : ¥ i < - Fy . cy pom we Sa ss 3 A at bas . ‘ . , : bi i) : . 9 . me r Sat 5s : nee peeeese a VAT Y : eae 7 . ’ i bat atecggrrecroepal er 4 an vee Feue ' - ay - : hai phietde boieeree ; s é a * Foy tedi era sresthstaes breut taetuntsats a ‘ oa me i ite paneees Feed TRO E LOE 7 vi a fit = : secsesennieg ban gee is us . . | ; s ‘ at sents ‘ ) \ Rc ey Fe ata, g > canen benagen cbenneeg ea On ' - ie his wae 3 : is HA ty : art vet rr . Ko Pee 3 ‘ Liason ae gee 7 ae oe \ Paks Aacaue oe wy ae f° 44 nae aw eye fe? has i r f i 7 . fig ES a a ‘ ee 2 | . oa dé , tS ire os y ‘ foc ae - aan re ,f © : : Pare , . : z 2! a + : . 4 , - ' Laan 9 7 f $ : . . os + : “ sat are) se 8 Ps : 7 : o's wd : os o . 4 7 : ‘ . F Ae - , - be : : : * ai 7 . ‘ > + . of & sys a - ' . 1? ‘ erry ; . . ; a : ' ‘ : ‘ , i . ee . wae - 7 seven weet * deerbretrerced dbene ; : 7 j speabeeenegcoanterene eereur : ; nye ¢ harospr ee bert seem ee ; : ots eed seeeertareee : : ” aberere : paere® ‘ " . . ate ereeeee : opener err er eee ; ; spe cweete * + am ' ‘Te 7 ¥ ra ne . . ayeeees o . | enberee st ase - . | eocane eercren) a | . ; ’ sane sauerrae | . . . ‘ see | Festnecanges | i. . c : erBernepeas ease om | . . - . eer rrery 01) oe | | | . soe eweaebee | 4 - . . Servier enter ? Soneed Pear eyae ebb ebapr eee eNet Sshet bene cl ate a cyeettea fuer vet hp owns " sates vege necseates eran . on ; tye . rarer erry iri (tote orc ceon Bh tseé | | : 7 Rate ; pil ateea rene eheat® 7 ; a i m3 ae phe Pet teeee re taee 7 } : aa : a) ta nenabaneeas Werrt reece an! peevewer ieee a at ‘ . Cpperecen owe ea secede ceegeb cece ree base ret hae rea ng : Smithsonian Institution Libraries Given in memory of Elisha Hanson by Letitia Armistead Hanson yee ¢ ly * ah oo ‘ : dak A ie as <.°% a 7 | a) ; ep 7s, Z f > ' # A a ‘ “4 us i - . ‘ 11 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE AN ILLUSTRATED MONTHLY Editor GILBERT H. GROSVENOR Assistant Editor JOHN OLIVER LA GORCE Associate Editors A. W. GREELY ALEXANDER GRAHAM BELL Arctic Explorer, Major Gen’! U.S. Army C. HART MERRIAM DAVID G. FAIRCHILD In Charge of Agricultural Explorations, ept. of Agriculture HUGH M. SMITH Member National Academy of Sciences O. H. TITTMANN Superintendent of U. S. Coast and Geo- detic Survey Commissioner, U. S. Bureau of Fisheries ROBERT HOLLISTER CHAPMAN N. H. DARTON U. S. Geological Survey WALTER T. SWINGLE FRANK M. CHAPMAN Vol. XXIV—Year 1913 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY HUBBARD MEMORIAL HALL WASHINGTON, D. C. SMITH SONAR NOV 9 1981 LIBRARIES WASHINGTON, D. C. PRESS OF JUDD & DETWEILER, INC. 1913 CopyvrRIGHT, 1913, BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY, WASHINGTON, D.C. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. CONTENTS Page Beacons of the Sea: Lighting the Coasts of the United States, by Grorce R. Putnam. I The Discovery of Cancer in Plants: An Account of Some Remarkable Experiments by Pee Se Vena ritent cb A PRICUILULEGs cou jcc cies oe cigs cele Gum w cs bas cw clas Gee's oss dha 53 iBaonl “|erusdlen to Aleppor by: JOHN 1D. WiITING. 60.025... c cece cee cceciccesene 71 aU CREN ea SEIMCIS CRM ANI (CAG eo cc siecle < GPs orate wis oe Sb udia's va sceesimiewsueccscevcs 113 Map of Central America, Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Islands of the Caribbean Sea.... 131 The Recent Eruption of Katmai Volcano in Alaska, by Grorce C. MArTIN.......... 131 Do Volcanic Explosions Affect Our Climate? by G. C. ABBOTT. .............c0ccecceee 181 The Changing Map in the Balkans, by FREDERICK MOORE..............c0cceccccceeees 199 The Countries of the Caribbean, by WILLIAM JOSEPH SHOWALTER.............0200008 227 RNIN AIEEE SCs. GS QRICT Gs, Mei ice nx Ge Cee ain cinie discal «eid dn cela cd coe cesses Gvcsvenceus 251 Oysters: The World’s Most Valuable Water Crop, by Hucu M. Smiru./............ 257 Greece and Montenegro, by GEorGE HIGGINS MOSES............0ccsceucccscccccceecs 281 Megaspelzon, the Oldest Monastery in Greece, by Carrot, Storrs ALDEN...........- 310 Mysterious Temples of the Jungle: The Prehistoric Ruins of Guatemala, by W. F. NE cA cs PMI Eg lhc Fe atl Sic sneer cite vs Gi giatte oiare Uiwicis oeis seks whe 325 Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala, by SyLvANus GriswoLpD MorLEY................ 339 Saving the Ducks and Geese, by WELLS W. CooKE................--0- Ridin Ste ee 301 Wandering Islands in the Rio Grande, by Mrs. Aupert S. BURLESON...........2.0000- 381 “In the Wonderland of Peru—The Work Accomplished by the Peruvian Expedition of 1912, under the Auspices of Yale University and the National Geographic Society, py UMrAM bincHam, Director.of the Expedition. .... 0.5.0... cs0 cas oestaroe less’ 387 Panorama of Mount Robson Peak and Glaciers, 16x 44 inches, by Cuaries D. EE TCE MME MT cc: SOND. - cla Ne ets a os ya « suem Mec hiksMwn ts ca dape es culY ne 575 eemerers Gr our Gack Yards, by DAvip’ FAIRCHILD. ..... 2.2.0.0 ccc e cs wcacccecceccas 575 The Monarch of the Canadian Rockies, by CHARLES D. WALCOTT..............0.0005 626 ne Lamas Motor Car, by Eieran C.Le MUNVON.......-cs.00..ccveccecccccccances 641 Seer NC AIC VEMIENT «- ; olla aia Ciaid’s- «x Stlod so say @elad ws dss aaaa cducmolawedecacd 667 Bereme Oca. YS OL. Farid anit (OTrematd oon cc ncss+sneavenssccaseveaceccevcreuse 669 Birds May Bring You More Happiness than the Wealth of the Indies, by FRANK M. nr ACO, Pee eae Ee cree Po. oc ce gi cv Gem bce balegiv ale ou oubun cues 699 ES ESIMTEGSS TA) (Wty Cs oa a es era re chek aale aes Sree 715 arti SM teal yy, PAMESRERYGE aL son Cox face cee ccccedvcscucdeacieabesae tee vs 717 memes ceies tm Out-or-thie-way PE ldGeSs... 2. e ccc ce wecscccccsctcrcdeccocecuccs 751 Wild Animals that Took Their Own Pictures by Day and by Night, by Grorce SHiRAs, y | UE OR ES yoct NU GRE RRS Soe ee ee in ce 763 Seronrenvoutia. py Cmannes Hi Bante YP, oo sicccckseussclsscdlscdesccvasecccactacas 835 eee eC WaANt PIACCS iso nlye do ss a cnld's cauu cosas so2 dan deg @iudscewseecbity 854 The Ascent of Mont Blanc, by WALTER WoopBURN HYDE..........c0.ccceccccccccecs 861 Seemus Of the\{talian Lakes, by AmtHur Etis MAVER..........0ccscsacceccccccvecees 043 The Resurrection of Ancient Egypt, by JAMES BAIKIE..........¢.0cccsccccceecceccs 057 Reconstructing Egypt’s History, by WALLACE N. STEARNS...............sccceecccece 1021 The Sacred Ibis Cemetery and Jackal Catacombs at Abydos, by CAMDEN M. Copern.. 1042 Rumania and Her Ambitions, by FREDERICK MOORE............--cccceccccccceccceces 1057 An Island in the Sea of History, by GrorcE KENNAN..........-.0cccceeccccccseccces 1087 The Mysterious Life of the Common Eel, by Hucu M. SMITH...............00e0008 1140 I a a se a a 1146 The Non-Christian Peoples of the Philippine Islands, by DEAN C. WorcESTER........ 1157 Religious Penances and Punishments Self-inflicted by the Holy Men of India, by Rev. I PS eg cas Whe 2 5.o cosa doin bidig'b-0 0.0 Oe w'o'h Dingeyo ga BOM" we kv ews wre 1257 mine Martiage of the Gods, by JoHN J. BANNINGA.......cc0cc0eeeccccsceccccssens 539, 541 MONG Ladd, RUS rime/olsy6 or ciploiaie'« sis'siere.s 560, 564, 565 Appenzell, Switzerland, Religious procession in, illus.............. 926 Apurimac River, Peru, REISE MIE TILT src dios # whe?ai w/e ec ater « 'eoy's, avait 402 Re eat eOi) Oily SUIS mols eects oie iaisiets's ate 540 Architecture, Dravidian, Examples of, illus.... 1322, 1323, 1324, 1325, 1326, 1327, 1329 Spanish mission, examples of, illus.... 1331, 1337 Argentiére, Switzerland, RU enraaT es CONSTELIRIG. 0-1-0 oie) arene ale 'o)e a7ett «5 f!9\ 0 ie 864 Arm-rests, " Used by Hindu ascetics, illus..:...... 1288, 1289 Page Armenians, RAPIER ORG UUR tao d s/h Sisls.0ln isla lole Niels 's.s)s.au es 6 1128 ARMY VERSUS A BACILLUS, OUR........ 1146 Artesian well’in Texas, illus... s. 0.50.0 ccc cscece 1345 Axenstrasse, Switzerland, illus................ 914 Ascetics, Effects of, on Hindu thought.............. 1287 Pemaler ie TUS Jtwleieieie siciaisioreceloe 68 o's 1275, 1302, 1303 EX GHEE ON UMS tinier icielcisis sicvererarsike = ic siave.a waa: 1283 PEACHIEES ROL sisl crea staretelsielelalcietaisicivers* aisaw sie ee 1257 Assouan, eynt. Dam Atevicecs yc0sccw cna - 1021, 1022 Aten, Ss Lhel wPpyptian® Gelty ss. 0.00/00 seis e100 0's 996, 999 Athens, Greece, described..........-...20 see 299 AStin,, -DExaS, GESCrIDEMs siccmcnnics cleeec cece ces 1359 cL Bd Baalbek, Syria, IDES Crap ect OL arm water wis ise!o) 5(0) s/miviehel« ateie 6.9168, 99, 101 Witeorsirmirttn Ss ta bevsrclerststireterinpe cts Fins 86, 87, 88, 90, OI, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97 BACILLUS, OUR ARMY VERSUS A........ 1146 Baikie, James, Resurrection of ancient Egypt, The....... 957 Balkan League, (Ove Tae ln Soy AAS cierh One EE DOC aOR Or 307 Balkan States, Wai WO Rarer teat cpolens kid Veiaie sie inial lates is}ats cipleie sie 22 BALKANS, THE CHANGING MAP IN THE. 199 Balmat, Jacques, Birch ascends, Mont, Blane (2. sy.jct.s.cisinfels.0 871, 873 Banana trees, LEIS Ta yon NCR ad foliar’ cls bas Ee eee 327 Banco, A, PLC DEM tices eeiilers wikis wees arets iegap ners 9 5es5 ists. sp love 381 Formation of a new, illus.........2.60000- 382 Bandai-San, Japan, SEVP ELOR MOK a cain vey sia) ceodeleidiarwschalcustoraieis: eye s)6,5 IQI Banninga, John J., Marriage of the Gods, Thess... 0.10. sieces 1314 Barabaras, LSC at Seu ASEAGE aiaceats wip aleiaieiehataena 2,3. %.0 Sor Ge Mvp ESCH DEM asatatalaxdiecets setae wierstalcventi «ia; see's 597 BUT EUS Mate ater aioy ctanteieicus isters mera role Yereaniace otats wisp) ols 594 Bee, leaf-cutting, TDYafey elt sft ler Sk SRR AS AATIOLOT IIT Dios ete ae 603 IRENE cay ce anata eich oust nel maneieie’ ete Coal ae ards a rte 606, 607 Begging-bowl, Eien dis: ASCetiG: (with od Ss icisis.< aisielslaie e.steae.s 1262 Bellagio, Italy, NVESCEIDEION MOGs wack trwicai hela sap alah) nie.clere es ews 943 IRE Obige LLIN 27a) ict aicinl ot arctera:ctetaweelstoteoaie i Mixiase 949 Benaresi Pulerimgseats TUS." sv siainins am ale wieiee «we 1276 Benghazi, Tripoli, Pilgrims embarking at, illus.............+. 857 So Ee MOA RISEN AS oie tose-4 <1 eiealaiein,o5e sie ereceld 8.» 254 Bhowreeah, Defined and illustrated............... 1296, 1304 Bingham, Hiram, In the Wonderland of Peru............... 387 POLtralGr OF MAUS vibe sles aes spleen wm he os ee 516 ar pir Ene OAT: Ayr SLLLLO' o:c)'e take ele oi lsia ears ste 6rd 713 Bird reservations, TRAC HtEOIY OLG.-.c ac cfarecs ofhole cae staraseiale sis von 375; 377 Map showing location of............s0008- 369 Birds, COU CIIG SO WAlE, Os «aia nclaicarcate ortiniacae eo x0 669 Wiarton celatiOn £0 dyna c seciet o.'s(2 ele ate ws oS layers 707 Wever-ralling CHATMUOL ss 1cwo aesideiss- dlere ness 699 That photographed themselves, illus...... 804, 805 (Mieirsplace) int Matures ts! e's ecole ap ia-00> v 684 Blackbird, Crow, Described and illustrated..........-.-.++- 683 Blackbird, Red-winged, Described and illustrated...........+-.+--- 685 Bluebird, Deseribed and illustrated. .....-......-.0- 673 Boats, Peruvian straw, illus...............+..- 3890 Bobolink, Described and wWlustrateds jcc... ce ecw 686 Bob-white, Described and illustrated..............---- 695 Borromean Islands, Italy, IDsKemMinxl jooagocsucansoonsdd andocoooddas 956 Wem Oy meso goonbooopDedoouGonuRoOND 952, 953 Bosnian peasants, illus: ..........00.-.-------= 223 Boston Light, IDESORINRG. dacccaeococuuoDU CUO OUD OSD DDO.CdOD 6,9 INNES sdansnaccsogcoaamooaupoaoDaDOdoGOH 4,5 Brahminical thread, Ascetic wearing the, illus................. 1264 Bread 4,000 years old, illus................... 1021 Breithorn, Switzerland, Sisorenke Ou, MES shoongnoocospeecouonesouo 906 Brévent, Switzerland, Sram Obey AL LESio ney crstevatzt= te tovels: coersietsucl el iensyene 869 Bridge, Pontoon, UTS cay ela aaa tatray ebay oh avecerevenal ay cpeieisvarst sits avateizelc iSgeve (erate 1334 Brienz, Switzerland, SERGE CHAM UILAS RO pa sevar cies tecersy setters Siaucecrmyaveisveueks 903 Brochymena arborea, Meson bedupaeunteteomererwstsucievemeterverc io: Aete cur ers 609 MMT rsa ere caters coh aaPate va etepeneyerel eae wasteroiarnees 612 Brownsville, Texas, - irSmavvats mls ince, Wh os6c05cubeocdo6 1333 Witldiicramesimear- sil lisesi sericea 1342 Bryce, Ambassador James, Rarewellspeechitolrm incites eet 117 ihe mNation se | Capitalcpemcen ccc she sete 717 Buddhist monks printing, illus................. 574 Bucharest, Rumania, IAP Henle timmmat pe iltisHes tay ere ee ai rereie eee 1076 Country teamsters in, illus................ 1066 Described .....- Nev Uorsksteneueitneres siete ud als S 1079, 1080 Binudt venders of milltise as eis. here ene ene cnohe 1066 Government savings bank at, illus......... 1076 Opemans Cane thay MSS oocnocuncdososuoogo 1071 Reculanicoachmenvsammllisee ee eee ene nee 1080 PPGTZLELS One MINITS eis ver euan Madieiene ers ererlane See 1068 Romanpwolteat,adbirersnl lise mieres ene 1058 dypicalschurches at. iluseee ness eens 1078, 1079 Buck, white-tailed, INKitE TAs HbERS Ort, «ls sos se sguoeeuodaeccs 767 Takes its own portrait, illus............... 764 Buddha ISSCOMMNES Bia ESesnte, WMS, os odccocscansouda 1274 Burleson, Mrs. Albert S., Wandering Islands in the Rio Grande..... 381 Bulgaria, UNM Dit ONS” Of: s.ssysis ceessra ee RE Sale ES 220 Union of, proposed with Rumania......... 1075 lnxelleavaenal joecass, MULES. soacascudesauaocenace 213 Peasants: sal lis: cc, mcicenaeNe Ue n earn Cue 222 Bullsmoose and) calves; ilushes.: 955506005 4e 822 Bumblebec; male, 2 ESCTI DE: 6h. separ ans eeicy eer eens ot pee 5 Tice SM ccs se UR esas Sane oo Bomblebes: worker, EsCmbed *\2rat.ocyimis cae eee ee 4 ius. Sos hnlielialenels’ ofayestidassin seen ot cueter sts ee 2eo Ghecyl eins, lense, Wil. 55445545 c@AG. Hay BURMA, UNTOURED.... 000. A a “eee fat a Coyewanrayy rolls, WES, sooccounsneesae x ‘ A 842 ech Saal ahareZ cM, oo As ongu ood ees 8 Butterfly, fy Wn oomoonsndoduoonUGod as 838 escribedss sfemsie cesta ee lead vob sills rei ec tincic ae en ae Ney, Swallowtail, 9 9 8 ELA Oi, GREECE. can anacaccoudecesaacen 609 UIE Mar crea te are taran mia atecerye at pac une 611 eo (627 Sacre, eullivated, jel INESEIS KE ooh eae ae Cava ae, ee eee eee ae 1348 inacowiss village: illus)... ces ae ee 902 Page Camels, Mongolian freiciits illus. -perelteletielereneteneneee 645 Camel cart, Mongolian, BUNS S. .s:sieie ce tenets, auctate ateleler shelcireieterere tee aeons 654, 667 Camera, The, In the conservation of wild life............ 834 CANADIAN ROCKIES, THE MONARCH OF TERE, (esse Sieve otis acs sinvstole wletetovere Serene eee 626 Cancale, France, Oyster fleet: at; illus... 23a. seer 272 CONCER IN PLANTS, THE DISCOVERY OE: pce ace eies cieisle tussle ree slalerelaran ene eee 53 Canyon -Dexas.illussonceeie cate eee Bobo! OSs CAPIDAL, DEE) NATIONS Ss. aseeeeeeie 717 Capitol, Washington, D. C., illus........ 747, 748, 749 Caracas, Venezuela, : Dieserib ed ran oie: 5 scsce se: ete sore « ietevey enero eee 241 Scenes! any, alls. > 690, 707 Fog-signals, ’ Coast and maritime..........-22eseeeeeees 47 Formosa, Oyster culture in, illus..... eee eee eeeene 274 Fort of Second Dynasty, Egypt, illus..........- 1044 Fort Worth, Texas.......-..esesees eres encees 1355 France, Oyster industry of.......-.- aotene lass sisvoke 269 Funeral in Yunnan, China, illus.............-- 758 XE Galveston, Texas, IDESBaINHO Cis ooo gpeoooDbauceuseoonG 1357) 1359 @atiseway ats WS ee eee oes ee eiets eee 1338 Residential section, illus.............+---- 1341 Shipping cotton at, illus..........---+-++-- 1339 Game, Wild, Flashlight photography of........-...--+-. 763 Game refuges, Louisiana, Wei) G5 So quc Doo OnoodoonuEHOosoaoooub Son 373 GEESE, SAVING THE DUCKS AND........ 361 Geese, Grea SoG mle osaosscsccoossdscc000n 378 Wael jolie, mits so nacesoclooaoagsecgsndeda 372 Wild Canada, Momlesticatlormo lent r iri latewereileteiinerrce: 377 TUIIbIGhe AA eee ee ect Gas Reet rameters 360, 376, 379 Georgia military road, illus...-.....4..-.-:-.-- 1091 Georgian Beapias, MlhiS.ccaccssognscb0s9Goabocooene 1100 Women in national costume, illus..... 1100, 1123 GEOGRAPHIC ACHIEVEMENT, A......... 667 Glacier des Bossons, Mont Blane, illus....... 876, 877 Glacier du Géant, Mont Blanc, illus........... 874 Glaciers, Measuring movements of..............-.-- 889 Oya! WioKemin TRO WSO Secoouccocudoocunocd 638, 639 KelissadeteAt rallluis telitencnc, ccanaesarerieneyorencis steers _ 874, 910 GoatyAmsorat frlllsig.) 5 cssve eve. doneernaceoiesest ee ries 1336 Gobi Desert, A trip across, by motor-car....... 641 Wesenibedi carci adarac tor io ccustserieya succes eicenelers 647, 653 shelegraphwacroOsseticet-astaicieterteuicessi-rstoer ee ae 653 Gopurams, Defined and illustrated.......... UA, USA, Ta Grand Mulets, Mont Blanc, illus........... 882, 884 Grasshopper, Baby, Deserih edi raat hasta crisbacvearaelei eee terete hele 579 Milla Se asec hate ies css ovavchawerstciiatecciteni neassetpe ea secveccues 577 Green, Mescribediys sce orcas ei oe ne 583 ADAG ete yeraycNenciteae mistrniskents Pakectesicinre ereteieie/< 580 Ene, eSCrib caer pt suse ee sik tuciyace tee MUTI chtievssucis sabrotectarahiarvescuche waters ae Skeleton, Desert elit vciews heramtateon rede nese wucae eee take 579 HLTA Sivaneter rae iad ese behe tietats Ins ors C sane 578 GREECE AND MONTENEGRO.............. 281 Greece, Soldiers in royal body guard, illus......... 210 Greek peasant types, illus...... 297, 300, 301, 302, 304 Grindelwald, Chunchwataerllis: Lee errr eee ees: 916 Msiajfeiaojoines Zi, WMGS., 55 6000nn000becsnsoon 808 BAVauterspontsmatscillisee saree eerie 934 eoenele Alton G., bbe Bian (TUG B loeveullle®. oq55quencanueoa Grosbeak, 2a Black-headed, described and illustrated..... 680 Srapiic, Societys Report oleenne sane Ground-beetle, Predacious, a Describedsancalltstrated ae eeeeae eee 595 Grouse, Ruffed, a ee AUaS). Sai erstissisycue oes ee ae 700 escnibedwand allmstratedu ye ieee eee een ‘Guatemala, me Cond itiomt Of) oan, 2.:ton te mee Oe 233 : Heres One quae (NiO S EO oon 325, 361 uglea, Hdmondo de Amicis, illus...:i........ : Gull, Franklin’s, a Wescnbedsandiillustrateds eee eee eee 607 Ewa, Ritelser, abhi soho nooceecon se 1069, 1070 “ET? Hama, Syria, Water-wheels at, illus Ha-Noi, Tonkin, Market at, illus............ Ree THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Hathor, Shrine of, at Deir-el-Bahari............... 1040 Shrine and statteor, alltts ier teltsetetiitennans 1027 Hatshepsut, Queen, Her reign and tereatnlesstr i) mnel-teteleteleterenenets 1036 Portrart (ob, WlwS nee eieke tener cretion ieee 1023 Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari...... 980, 1027, 1039 Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari, illus.......... 1022, 1025, 1026 Havana, Cuba, (Goat sackiin'e shelby wills rsternet-ei tree eee 243 Hawara, Egypt, Pyramid of Amenemhat III at............ 983 Hawk, Cooper’s, described and illustrated......... 604 Red-tailed, described and illustrated....... 693 Sparrow, described and illustrated......... 693 Erroneous ideas concerning............... 670 Hay, John, What might have happened to............. 1095 Henshaw, Henry W., Fifty common birds of farm and orchard.. 669 Herefords, White-faced, illus.................. 1354 Hieroglyphics, Prehistoric, at Quirigua, illus............. 356 Talila jorenesig, Iebunchbi, Nils; obo acodaaccnonscoes 1313 Hinduism, ANSCELLCISIN: 410 Mee eisjeus. ses relent ste eee 1357 Hogs, razor-back, that photographed themselves, MNGi, 2 okbtocadeo dé coconn aon maser ete oreoepeeroetete 815 Tel@iney swan, WEIS Ofoaocosscoscscpooduccc- 98, 100 Flondtirass Condition ots ieieieie eee eee 233 Hook-swinging, At Elindu! festivals 77.) . s.1 oslea icine sees as se 427, 429 Wit Gte nti pats: ISy 5,6 0 'elapcsie’s ook oe. 8 Ris.o nim ate 475 Forestration of region near........s.e+- 477, 480 OUT AIIS 10> TLS eae rin ae 460, 461 Gables, house, illus............ 452, 453, 455, 478 Gates of arid: their. bolts, scs/ess siseiesccn0¥e 464 General. view of, illus... 0... scesrcscesoese 514 High priest’s house at, illus............- 504, 505 Poner City wally MUS... a ccieavvccecice 439, 445, 446 Interior of houses at, illus..... 462, 469, 480, 495 x THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Machu Picchu, Peru, Face Intihuatana Hill, illus..........+-.eee rere 50 Kitchen utensils, illus....-... sees ee cceeeeees 469 Locks and locking devices, illus.......- 466, 467, 470, 471 Main road to, illus..........--eeeeeeeeeee 449 Miap Ofsiececace es ccc cere rumen entine sects 425 IN oes Cony wllhbGe Oo acaeropoogue Ceo OnGd moO 444 Niches in house at, illus........ 487, 495, 503, 505 North view of, illus........+2-- seer eres 511 Outer city wall, illus.......+.--eee ee ee ees 438 Pottery from, illus.........-++eeeeeeeeeee 573 Precipice near, illus......--++-+eees-eesee 437 Princess Group at.....+++.++seeee- 486, 491, 496 Ridge on which it stands, illus............ 436 Sacred Plaza at, illus............... 409, 498, 512 Sacred rocks at, illus...........+-.-- 481, 482, 497 SiG. OS Ga coe dabUu eo SOO RO OU oOo D Cero coun 453 Snake window in, illus............-- 492, 493, 494 Stairways in, illus......... 451, 454, 456, 457, 458, 459, 507 Stone settee at, illus...........------+--- 469 ‘Sora Ghall are, wdlltSsosccascoacanaccos goagooad 509 Temple of the Three Windows at, illus.... 408, 418, 431 Tower, Semicircular, at, illus....... 489, 490, 401 Typical doorways at, illus...... 470, 4775 478 479 Typical houses in, illus...........-.---- 464, 480 Typical masonry at, illus..............-.-- 476 Wang siniplhy Gist sceeéoooso0ng0oboD0daos 459 \WESe wie Oy allltiso san boaneeooooooedIa00D 510 Wonderful masonry at, illus.... 416, 484, 485, 487, 488, 490, 502, 503, 504, 506, 509 Workmen employed at, illus............... 426 Machu Picchu Mountain, Peru, Signal station on summit of, illus... 441, 442, 443 Madagascan Queen and her court, illus........ 0) Magdalena River, Colombia, Scene on illus..... 232 Madura, India, (Greeeie ineraaqols Ene, WES. 6556c0onacoqc0doDe00 1326 im Gaetestiva lS wate ser-tlerdeeleiaeirrsiiiiarn P2575) LOLs. Mahabaratha, SHORES iO MSs ocncoKosdsgbocuscod 1269, 1270 Mahamadkham, Hindu festival, illus....... 1312, 1313 Mai-Mai-Chen, Business capital of Mongolia.............. 660 Makapuu, Hawaii, ILiclCESS air, aUiGeeacbagoasoooodsoonsb OG 41 Weiler, wecabtaes) wlkeSsggapoocbouacooodseadood 366 Manetho, History of, verified................. 958 Manu, Laws of, relating to ascetics.......... oo "g@2 Map Obs the; Cavicasusiaietcrccs cis oan evevers eunaisvcte eager 1086 One achumeichup mee ntierr er intariaisercr rere ielers 425, OF ikon Eye Olevaeiey oaobcodoonKoonooooaeO 349 OPM eas Misiueyaie re ercts, custereiolesy Chaves soars @eeietine UIE URIS Showing breeding grounds and migration of IRQSS POOSE ara etevais 6 srelensicteslet ed shat sheila: epaveter ere 367 Showing breeding grounds and migration of the white-winged scoter................. 365 Showing breeding grounds of wild ducks AM AWS CESEH err ceseereieeenccaemedestoevein eslersic gies 362 Showing Canadian breeding grounds of ducksrand3eeesecracnce nein ue ee eine 364 Showing Nile from mouth to first cataract. 972 Showing region explored by Yale-National Geographic Society I}xpedition to Peru... 388 Showing U. S. bird reservations.......... 369 Showing wanderings of the Rio Grande.... 384 Showing winter resorts of wild ducks and SER Cras cKO Gis CIO OIE iain oi Rar I eG 368 131 Martin, George C., oe The recent eruption of Katmai Volcano in IGEN CV PCIE 4.4 Hy. Sine Seeemeys am ale Beers 131 Martin, Purple, Desenibedsandellistrated see eee eee 680 ESI Sir Gaston, iscovers tomb of the Kings.............. 986 Mastaba, A, described and illustrated.......... 1055 Matapalortrees Al illus) Ss ae oe ee eee 346 Matterhorn, sea Switzerland, AWAD Corse Ub peeninicnoisio bad 06.00.60 6 8 Maucallacta, Peru, Be ane Tneaertinswatesillise eee Ane ert ee 415 eeauestea CSCHIDECieetcete tte ccs ot sae eee ae Tt Sao eee terae ce 4s acs oe ee ae Page Mayer, Arthur Ellis, Gems of the Italian lakes................. G43 Meadow-lark, described and illustrated......... _ 685 Medinet Habu, Egypt, Pavilion of Rameses III, illus............. 1012 Pylon in temple of Rameses III at, illus... 1013 Temple of Rameses III, illus.............. 1OI4 Meenachi, Hindu goddess................. 1314, 1315 MEGASPELAON, THE OLDEST MONAS- TERY DIN - GREECE o..6 oc eee 310 Magaspeleon, Views of the Monastery, illus... 311, 314, 316, 318 Memmnon, Colossi of; illus. 22... 2 = eieieiletoneenererene 982 Memphis, Egypt, Statue of Rameses II at...... 984 Menaggio, Italy, 4 Described i... ac 0\s e's ee ce ere oe eee 946 View of; ilusi. os os 232s neces oe 951 Menkaura, King, IByervkals; “Wowiaal IeAyeapewGl Gag GaacanedoscnKs 958, 961 Mentuhotep I, King, Templar OF ci.cyeteracuc stsrsterenietoeeotere 980, 981, 983, 1023 Mentuhotep II, : Temple of, at Deir-el-Bahari.......... 1022, 1024 Mer de (Sees: Where Wilewae, wlES5s505cce- coc 866, 867 Merenptah, Pharoah of the Exodus, Date of the Exodus under................ 1020 Miarmimiys ona discovered rr ieritsit tienen 980, 991 Portrait of, illus..¢ 1... caso ee eee 102 Metchnikoff, Eli, Discovers the phagocyte. .... 2.2... II47 Meteora, Greece, Monastery, atest llitiSjrceicrctercaeierereiene ne neneneneneene 308 Min-lin-min, King of Burma, Tomb. of, ilusvaii.les vars tee eeeeeeeee 844 Mink that took its own picture, illus.......... 786 Minots Ledge, Mass., Wighthouse) O15 toy «ees ea eee 18 TU aS. 5-55 fans ccm ay clad cub, autueteiecs poles ere nee I4, 15 Mission architecture, Spanish, lBsehan oles City WhiSoag0ccnnocacoconce> 1331, 1337 Mocking bird, Described and illustrated............----6 678 Moldavia, Hospodars), Of cc iieiac =< cie ci veeeete 1065 Wnttes) wath) Wallachiasensn eee eee 1066 Monastir, Turkish soldiers leaving, illus............. 211 Monch, Switzerland, View of, illus. . seis sca cceeielle eee erate 936 Mongolia, © Capital iC fan tin vin deters Gee ee 641, 661, 663 Commercial metropolis of...........-...--. 660 Ceneralidescription Of 4. seein 669 Mieditim! of exehange an... sees ees iene 669 Mongolian horsemen, illus.................- 656, 657 Well, dWlus..cc05 as aes eter eee 651 Women, Types of, illus........ 658, 659, 664, 665 Mongols, Mieat=eatine habits) oles eerie eee 669 Monks, Greek, AUADES: Clty SINISG Sob on oachoosdoos 317, 319, 321, 322 MONSTERS OF OUR BACK YARDS, THE.. 575 Mont Blanc, At the Seracs of the Junction, illus........ 878 Grevasses tons illuses eee eee 881, 887, 888 Mone) du (Gouterm illic here ieee eee 886 Barly, attempts sto ascend selene 867 General ew Ot illus)... 8 Sh ee eee 5 Soe aciers of, illus....... 870, 871, 874, 876, 877, 87 Grand ivinlersinllitse eee aces i ae ae 882, 884 Grand Plateausalliisee nee ecient 896 How to ascend .....h. 0c scuoe cet e een 879 Flistory Os, <0: sje level ave'ors eens Ase ee eee 895 Janssen Observatory on..:...0-.ssseeeueee 8907 Thus. Of nesodihes wccomtaee Se ee 897 Blistory Of. sis Scat eee 895 Sige: Ori, WES cosooerboosoos 890, 892, 896, 897 Wrorstaccident oneemerete eae earns ‘Saeate 891 Mont Blane du Tacul, TUS aspauetesoee ahecs sim ere (ols eee ence Ret Reel 874 MONT BLANC, THE ASCENT OF.......... 861 Monte Caprino, Switzerland, : Wiew if; il tists ns) 5/0'o.a oe. oidciaiel side s/elave 43> 45 National Geographic Society, PaMaUI ALMA UCE Obi eis el eve;a aed Gis ave sta cere 113, 130 BITE CEOSSTITEPOLL, TLOT2s se sieccc occ wells teh as 251 BEMBEGUIOLINTO DELI ois cele elteiciern stanteln ee eno 116 Map work done by.... sor, 504, 506, 507, 510 RULE SOL rte ciate Patel. is)chereic ardverbicisateio-s © 387 Results achieved by. ...- 0.05. 0.0e ses 391, 395 STEHT, OER) Stes SIGRID IACI 387 Lecture program, 1913-1914.........+-+e00% 1360 ocation or home (of, Wlus so... cece css 740 Mew upundings fOr. WG... wiele ced ben o's 126 SRLEAGUICED GeTePOTt, EGQT2:0 RELIGIOUS PENANCES AND? PUNISH MENTS SELF-INFLICTED BY ; HOLY MEN OF INDIAT ee see eee C2 ee meee sere r ee ene THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Rimpfischhorn, Switzerland, illus.............. 905 RIO GRANDE, WANDERING ISLANDS IN TIED ES. es yavtis lo stetjeiay syeus, sieenee scent cdoty then tet eee ates 381 Robert College, Constantinople, Influence of, in the: Balkans). (oi achieve eitiereicy sere snc cued eee 1081 Robin, described and illustrated............... 673 IRojovran Ehavel saeeie, WhISS oo doncogadoanuocaneouKs 706 Rock temples at Abu Simbel, Nubia; illus...... 1006, 1007, 1008, 1010 Rock tomb, Thebes, Egypt, Intention of a), illus). 962 + Page Sphinxes, Avenue of, at Karnak, illus......... 990 Squash-bug, PIPRGTINEG em cteteis's: arlasis wi ae alah 6 os/ekia ae Sove 611 LULL eee teeMcasiscata a's sieitteteteln aie’ sik wi cis sale:s. ue-ale 614 Squirrel, Gray, takes its own photographs, illus. 810 Standard Rock light, Michigan, illus. of........ 15 se as a SVENC SE TURRET eek orgies cbs: e¥sye'a pitas. e's les a-siia Toi d2e 335.30 Stearns, Wallace N., ae. ae Reconstructing Egypt’s history............ 1021 Strawberry farming in Texas, illus............ 1350 WME OM Velen el clvce shivia tect eae «v0.0 ks Rb wei Bt, ha DUGAIDEE ESTs CAMCEE IN ates at's oc tisiesie sisi sei we abs 56 Sume, Mongolia, Waist Ota te epercte, ope a-tia's) ARIE 6, aha rniale mis's wis ais15 55 MTC US OL INSate cai ero tie siarpik sesNoistnis wie 660, 661, 662 Sun, lowes eat 1s measured’. .'.0)..sc6i 22. sciles 183 Swallow, Barn, Described! and illustrated: . 0.0... serie 0s eee 679 SS THAIN TY GETIN Clerayereie ie cteyerere velo bus sere Gejewreleieyeiats 1266 Swiss cattle, with cow-bells, illus.............. 924 PAINS, ea cp eiai ik iel alone 22, 923, 925, 928, 929, 936 Peasants, Types of, illus........... 928, 929, 930, : by of 931, 932, 933 Syiias Ratlroad: expansion! ats «5 eiern «(ls a elels oye ne 75,78 Cy Nad ERA OOM SiS TIS hod LT Set eesecec choy ra oie o%s ele psleiate re: albie ahers Dix 751 hanhPeak. Canada, View Of, WluSacices..aesoccabsoasonocogscacdpQ008 II51 Tyi, Queen of Egypt, Deeds and character of...........----+-+: 991 Thole) Glee nomics ao. Oncaea OODason nao woe od 999 Necklace found in tomb of, illus.......... 981 ROA aP ERE Ore, MINES 56505 ndgaccagg5500000 978 eeTa22 United States, Boundary of, with Mexico settled.......... 383 IL realness TMS) CORIRUS Cig oaadacdoccGnoqca0 ae I OxStemicul eumeuiileraveneetrerciieiieielscor tetetenetere 263 Urga, Mongolia, WMesen beds eiactevedevsktcrereuyerersieverve 641, 661, 662, 663 Piravier-wileel mir taS eerste ti lensvsicielsieycie steseh=le 670 Summer palace at, illus................-.- 668 Merman ples its etl tis a avieycvopeusteuehsy slaved evecoteyehererso cers 666 Uri-Rothstock, Switzerland, Wie whole illicit 1.tteteierayeitsieretomveretote cictecvens 915 Urubamba Cafion, Peru, Picturesque view in, illus............... Tele aed LO ARoaG ana Nlirs eye pats crate veretetawts(ere ieraenelores wrstoneete 421 WH Wahl mae tetatster suaicletcl etatievev Overs tsuei crane seaavaraterehs, 406 Urubamba River, Peru, IBrid cevacrosssmilllaSs/jerscljsiieeiei a creerererelers 422, 423 IBRid cine Ohh e tre cite eyeree chat Mois atece tees 417, 423 oadWaloneside ys alltish cpr cetesirei cis siete ieee 405 Urubamba Valley, Peru, Cuzcomoardeinemalltitse emcee eer ineiee 410 Ushba, Mount, Caucasus, Wiewsaots lliise si. n% navies clo ereleie detete 1132, 1133 Ushabtis, Ancient Egyptian, illus.............. 975 Uskub, Servia, Marketplace sll iseereeieeemie mci 218 5 CON) Vaccination againstaty pO seis. cm meroneertoenre eat ecioehs T1146 DURES: orc cB EOS OREO a OE Le oe are II51 Peruvian ladiansepractice jeeeeeeeeeennee 3901 Val Bondasca, Italy, Wawro tigillltt Sint. rcucrrcde ate saseuier a nae ence 907 Venizelos, Eleutherios, “3 Boos Se Cenc OES HOC BOREAS Ro ate Kcicueeete 305 iaduct, enerearsbecosnmlcexaswmllis seme Visp River, Switzerland, ase pee Ncane:-Hermapemalliuceeecae ence eon 8909 Maleos, Peru, ASEOTY! VOLE cearsicretertra, Serene see ev pee ee II Mocationpotaras cece ce eee ee ee ae Bra) 613, ee _ Sacred rock mear, illus. ..222).: HNO Sixty RRS Es Mivekananday (Gwamit inane eae Me 1266 Washni Aidevoteelotmallisce seen eemeie 1282 Volcanoes, alse (OL eruphonsen eae en eenae eee INH? Oe, Oa Chime. .o-cnvccasccesbaconne oe ETUPHONS (OL ase ee eee 131, 161, 186 my Alaska). oti pacrcds ci erie ea ea 3 5 ‘ 135 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE Page Volcanic ash, , Wiles Ort, szillitoers Go aaneoohoomnooddd 153, 154, 155 CONN ?? Wiacos Wexasiyeieysreveinie) ucleraleyeteloneteloyeiat=talcteien=Reteieiranens 1359 Walcott, Charles D., The Monarch of the Canadian Rockies..... 626 Wallachia, IBIOR NONI Oaanccasodcoosodnsdbabob odor 1065 Winitest with Moldavia crmcneitetatletet eter 1066 Wallachianmtypessmalltiseieyer)-tte)-)ereietehel tek teneteretetete 221 Wallis archipelago, Curious) rock inthe. allasery eee ieee 1156 Warbler, Myrtle, Described and illustrated.................. 678 Washington, D. C., General view of, illus.................. 718, 740 SeenthesNationsss Capital soe eet tte 717 Streets of, illus....... 724, 725, 726, 727, 729, 730, 732; 733, 734, 736, 741 Water-wheels, WaTreest im cwiOsdl deyeereeerereeteelertteeiene 104, 109 Westcar papyrus, Discovery and contents of..............-. 073 Wetterhorn, Switzerland, Climibine thes alls herve rere eee 908 Wengernalp, Switzerland, Simin cha Utes eo gsocsenoasonodcuoooccocc 919 Wheat field) in Mexass allisaeea rete ieieioeieis ete 1352 WihttePatherss shies illtsirerreien-t-teiteneteteteteteeratetene 753 Whiting, John D., From Jerusalem to Aleppo.............-.. 71 WILD ANIMALS THA TOOK THEIR OWN PICTURES BY DAY AND BY INTGEAT ise ie siiiwis ais oleic le sssepoleen ait kere ROS 763 Woman, Position of, in ancient Egypt............. 1000 Woodcock, Stroking a, illus.................-- 705 Woodpecker, Downy, described and illustrated.......... 601 Red-bellied, wWlusi. cies hee cia c= eisyele « sapeneeenens 710 Wren, House, Described and illustrated.................. 676 Wright, Sir Almoth, Introduces typhoid vaccination........ 1147, 1148 COW : Vale Navional Geographic Society Expedition to eru, Map-work done by......... 501, 504, 506, 507, 510 Report OF 5 «os ibis sis ere cuavsysiavas crore Goetenenee eee 387 Sta tl Of 33. seisveislansd)siece iste. va oe erator ae 387 Results#achwievedmbya eee eerie 391, 395 Yaqui River, California, Oyster beds of, Wlldses eco eer eienenenenener ere 268 Yellow hammers, pair of, illus................ 707 Yellow jacket, DeSCribDe dd) occ & asia ate atelove.e ade orcs ape 603 TSF oe foe eae, wa etanniteVoanniersis ole eie Se IO nee 604 Yellowstone Lake, Map of...................- 818 Yellowstone River, View ons: tltsi Ons Sioa saap Gere ao eee 810 Yellowstone Valley, Wyoming, Moose and other game in...............-- 808 ‘Ey pical wiew, in) dllUseee eee nee 821 Yoga, : : TD EfMItONS OL. heicla stores /alerereee Peon eretre 1265, 1298 Yogi, Definition, OF. tajcs solaris sleaetele eles eee toe 1265 IBGE Olin Ssgncccoce 1265, 1266, 1274, 1308, 1309 Yuaa, Mother of Queen Tyi............ Seo voc 999 Yucay, Peru, View OL iis) aisle aaaceide oes eee eC eee 4Il Yunnan, China, : Wolo%stotee Whe veercoere starter ast orausteiee II55 Whee, Wiciasoll, wikis sooanosboaacds cate ole lane heehee 667 O72) Zermatt, View near, illus........... sre ict eevers ate 899 Zoomorphs at Quirigua, illus....... + 334, 340, 344, 345 Zumbro, Rev. dh Religious penances and punishments self- inflicted by the holy men of India...... VOL. XXIV, No. 1 WASHINGTON JANUARY, 1913 MAGA ZINIE BEACONS OF THE SEA Lighting the Coasts of the United States By Georce R. Putnam, ComMmMIssIoNER OF LIGHTHOUSES HE sea-coast line under the ju- risdiction of the United States is 48,881 statute miles, measured in three-mile steps. The general govern- ment provides lighthouses and other aids to navigation along all this coast, with the exception of the Philippine Islands, 11,511 miles, and Panama, where the marking of the coasts is maintained by the local governments. In addition, the United States provides lights along the American shores of the Great Lakes, 4,020 miles, and on interior and coastal rivers, 5,478 miles. The United States Lighthouse Service thus maintains lights and other aids to navigation along 46,828 miles of coast- line and river channels, a length equal to nearly twice the circumference of the earth. In this distance it has 12,824 aids to navigation of all classes, suficient to place one every two miles around the equator. In respect to territory covered and aids maintained, it is much the most ex- tensive service of its kind under a single management. There are 1,462 lights above the order of river-post lights, and there are 762 lights having resident keepers, 51 light-vessel stations, and 438 lighted buoys. The total lighted aids of all kinds is 4,516. There are in all 933 fog signals, of which 510 are fog-signal stations, 43 submarine bells, 124 whist- ling buoys, and 256 bell buoys. There are 6,281 unlighted buoys, and 1,474 daymarks, or unlighted beacons. There are also 516 private aids to navigation, maintained at private expense, but under government supervision. This service is carried on through an organization of 19 districts, under a cen- tral office in Washington. Each district is in charge of a lighthouse inspector and has a local office and one or more supply depots and lighthouse tenders. In all, there are 46 of these small vessels which carry the supplies to the stations and place and maintain the buoys and light vessels. About 5,500 men are required for the lighthouse work, of whom 211 are in the executive, engineering, and clerical force, 1,733 are keepers of lights and de- pots, 1,570 care for post lights, 1,516 are on vessels, and 489 are in the construc- tion and repair force. The entire personnel is under the civil- service rules, and appointments and pro- motions are on a strictly merit system. This is of great importance for the main- tenance of good organization and rigid ‘discipline in a purely technical service, on the efficient conduct of which is di- rectly dependent, the safety of all the lives and all the property carried on the seas and the navigable waters of this country. UISeq IY} Ul Slopus} pur sdiys-jysi, pue “yop sy} WO sfonq 194}0 -pue sKonq svS JO AjolseA 94} 9J0N “P24S94 pue ope snjeiedde jelsods pue ‘poseyoind sorjddns pue sAonq ‘pottedet eto 948 s[assoA assnoyjyys’] YOINVE MMOA AVIN “ANVIST NYLVIS NO LOdAd ASNOMLHOIT IVIANAD AHL ie EN i fter a Medalin the collection of the Marshe! d’ Estres. LIGHTHOUSES OF ANCIENT TIMES, AS PICTURED ON A lighthouse is mentioned as early as 660 B. C.; Latin Light. nouse, sfte found at Apomes. ROMAN MEDALS the Pharos, at Alexandria, built about 260 B. C., was one of the “seven wonders” of the world, and is estimated to have been about 400 feet high. The annual maintenance cost of the entire service is close to $5,000,000, and in addition in recent years there has been expended about $1,000,000 a year on new lighthouse works and vessels. This service is supported by appropriations out of the general revenues, and no spe- cial light taxes are collected from ship- ping, as is customary in other countries. At all important light stations there are from two to five keepers, who main- tain a continuous watch of the light at night and of the approach of fog at all times. At less important stations there is but one keeper, or sometimes a single keeper cares for several neighboring lights. The average pay of keepers is less than $600 per year, but they receive also a ration allowance and usually quar- ters and fuel. The maximum salary at difficult offshore stations is $1,008. For the care of a post light along the rivers about $1o a month is paid, but this re- quires only a small amount of work each day. At the general lighthouse depot on Staten Island, New York harbor, shops are maintained for the repair and manu- facture of special lighthouse apparatus. ‘This is also a general supply station for the service, supplies and equipment being purchased and tested and experimental and designing work being carried on. Many of the lighthouse vessels are over- hauled or outfitted here. There are em- ployed in this depot and offices persons (see page 2). Light stations and vessels are inspected four times a year, and the districts and offices are themselves inspected from time to time by a general inspector and a traveling auditor. An accurate cost keeping system has recently been introduced for the entire lighthouse service, so that at the end of the year the principal items of cost for each feature can readily be ascertained and compared. The following are aver- age annual costs of operating various features of the service: Large lighthouse tender, $40,500; light vessel on exposed station, $15,300; important light station, with fog signal, $4,200; same without fog signal, $3,000; river-post light, $90; gas buoy, $100 to $300, according to size and type. 253 per- FAITHFUL LIGHT-KEEPERS Although the pay is small and the life often lonely, the work attracts as a rule an excellent class of faithful men, willing to take large risks in doing their duty and also in helping those in distress. There are many cases of faithful service and bravery, of which the following are a few instances: The hurricane of September, 1906, did serious damage to lighthouse property along the Gulf coast and a number of lives were lost at Sand Island and at OLD BOSTON LIGHT (FROM A RARE PRINT OF 1729) The first lighthouse built in North America, several times attacked, and finally destroyed in the Revolu- tionary War. The “great gun” on the right was the first fog signal in America (see page 7). Horn Island light stations; at the latter the keeper, his wife, and daughter being drowned. ‘Twenty-three lights were de- stroyed by this storm. On October 3 the inspector of the eighth district made this report: “The employees of the Lighthouse Service have, as was to be expected, maintained its credit. I have heard stories of gallant actions, and I have witnessed the uncomplaining man- ner in which they and their families have taken their great losses and deprivations, also their cheerfulness in beginning all over again.” The keeper of post lights on the St. Johns River, Florida, after being se- verely injured, went on with his work, as he tells in this report, in May, 1912: “I arrived at the light at 9.30 a.m. I took the lamp out, and as I went to blow it out it exploded and knocked me off the light (22 feet), and I did not know any- thing until 12 m. When I came to I found the lamp gone. I crawled back to the boat (250 feet), got another lamp and put it on the beacon and lit it. Then came home (8 miles). Injury: broken leg just above the ankle and severe bruised shin and bruised arm and lick on head.” There is a pathetic story of the keeper of Key West light, who after 35 years of service became so absorbed in his duty that he would not leave his task, even for a short vacation, laboring under the de- lusion that no one but himself could properly care for the light. On: “a. certamieimeny stormy night a ship was. wrecked near the fort at Key West. The keeper, then nearly 70 years of age, excited by the storm and the prolonged whis- tle blasts of the unfortunate vessel, insisted that the wreck was due to the front-range light being out, although it had_ just been examined by his son. and found burning properly. In spite of his feeble condition he procured a lantern and, re- sisting efforts to detain him, went on foot in the storm to the range light and_ satisfied. himself that it was really burn- ing. He died not long after-. ward. The keeper of Van Weis Point light, New York, died recently at the age of 93 years, having tended this light for 52 years. At present there is no provision in this. country for the retirement of light-keep- ers on account of age, long service, or disability resulting from their work. The keeper of the most distant light in Alaska—Cape Sarichef—returned re- cently, his first absence in three years. At this station there is sometimes an. interval of five months between mails, and the keepers’ only neighbor is a trap- per, 10 miles away. A light-keeper on. the Columbia River, Oregon, has taken only two days leave in 23 years, and one of these two days was for the purpose of being married. WOMEN LIGHT-KEEPERS | There are a number of women light- keepers. One of these, the keeper of Angel Island light in San Francisco Bay, reported that after the machinery of the fog signal was disabled on July 2, 1906, she “had struck the bell by hand for 20 hours and 35 minutes, until the fog lifted,” and that on July 4, when the ma- chinery was further disabled, she “stood. all night on the platform outside and struck the bell with a nail hammer with all my might. The fog was dense.” A widely known woman light-keeper was Ida Lewis, who died about a year’ THE PRESENT BOSTON LIGHT Built in 1783 by Massachusetts and ceded to the United States in 1790 (see page 7) SANDY HOOK LIGHTHOUSE, NEW YORK This and Cape Henlopen lighthouse, both built in 1764, are the oldest existing lighthouse towers in this country. The walls at the base are 7 feet thick un Lighthouse preseerceceegeeras se e —Cloucesteyg-® CapeAnn Light Vessel -=---------—-—--~~—-wy : = SG as Fixed White ie Se aro B Lyn fassachusetts Fixed Red a = BOSTON 2 2)! ‘ Aa = = a White Flash he Un ai aea ea a / Na Redihlasht@-="--sne Se a = / \ The circles indicate the ranges of visibility a i, ye noe ‘ and characteristics of important lights. A= % | | == =O Plymouth’ Cape Cod 5 iS \ larconi Towers tS = \ Bay Nauset —— PROVI T=S Re = = ‘New Bedford ape = 2g ~ N N=E G Nantucket Sd. = 4 | e \ S=jNew Haven i *o Sankaty Hd. ] y Nantucket J. / — So BA 2 Pater = / x / \ WNantucket} Fy \ Shoal D yg Ambrose Chan. WiFireld, / » Na 7 Navesink —— \ / 1G ~ Trenton=&- \ A N S225 ee iE \ = U7) SeaGirt / CG jee) = Ege 5 a! O Le = Lay \ =~ Barnegek | © &y / » —— - Z Ne = / =Alantie Gy Swi + S = Ses Me yy = < BSN + Ge ay 3 ‘S; y~ A AY \ N} Z| ys {_\> é bus C Henlopen, oo \ \ Fenwickwar al Nautical Miles / re —— ———r ————— 742 0 10 505) 522 2 Hl 70° W.E.J. CHART SHOWING THE LIGHTS THAT MARK THE APPROACHES TO THE GREAT HARBORS OF BOSTON, NEW YORK, AND PHILADELPHIA (SEE PAGE 15) Note the overlapping of the arcs of visibility of lights on an important coast. The lights differ in character and thus may easily be distinguished : ago. She lived at Lime Rock lighthouse, on a ledge in Newport harbor, for 57 years, her father having been appointed keeper when she was 12 years old. She was keeper of the light for 32 years. There are reports of her having rescued 13 persons from drowning. On one oc- casion, it is said, she saved three men who had swamped while attempting to pick up a sheep, and then she rescued the sheep also. Because of the difficult life, keepers at isolated stations are granted shore liberty and leave 72 days a year, and crews of light vessels 90 days a year. THE BOSTON LIGHT WAS THE FIRST AMERICAN LIGHTHOUSE The first lighthouse on this continent was built by the province of Massachu- setts, in 1715-1716, on an island in the entrance to Boston harbor. In 1713 a a a slog: . —_ ae ge ay Phin } Li Hips I ny i | HEED vv if * BBD} }. ’ yy LE | | pe ; wa... a ~~ | BIFIFIFTIII= SIE ae el ae Fee ! ; im 1 - HD) “ZONGKLMOIT BMOLBAGGZ MIM BK THE INTERIOR OF THE EDDY- STONE LIGHTHOUSE Showing the foundation, dovetailing of stones, 13 and interior arrangement PRESENT STONE LIGHTHOUSE ON MINOTS LEDGE, MASSACIIUSETTS: NOTE THE BREAKING SURF This structure ranks among the difficult lighthouse engineering works of the world. During the first summer only 130 working hours were obtained on the rock, and after three years work only four stones of the foundation had been laid. Commenced in 1855 and completed in 1860 (see page 18). and do the business a short time; but the case is not so now. “When I hire an Indian to work I usually give him a dollar per day when the days are long and seventy five cents a day when the days are short and give him three meals: Now supposing the meals worth twenty-five cents each they amount to seventy five cents which is seven cents more than the wages for my service both a day and night (while I board myself) only sixty eight cents, computing my Salary (as it now is) at two hundred and fifty dollars a year and the year to consist of three hundred and sixty five days. “T have the use of two acres of land intersected with buildings, the use of a small dwellinghouse and a small barn. “T refer you to Capt. Winslow Lewis Superintendent of the Lamps &c. for the 14 truth respecting all of the above particu- lars that he is acquainted with—and be- fore I forward this Application shall lay before the Selectmen of Chilmark, which adjoins Gay Head, for their inspection ; And in duty bound I humbly pray you to take this Matter into your wise consid- eration and afford me relief by granting an increase to my Salary. “Gay Head 2nd November 1815. “T am Sir with all possible respect yours to command, “EBENEZER SKIFF.” As a result of this letter, President Madison approved of a further increase of $50 in his salary. CHARACTERISTIC ENDORSEMENTS BY JEFFERSON On a recommendation to appoint Jared Hand as keeper of Montauk Point light Rm 4 STANNARD ROCK LIGHT, MICHIGAN Built in 11 feet of water, 24 miles from the nearest land, it marks the most dangerous reef in Lake Superior. It is the most distant from shore of any lighthouse of this country. to succeed his father, President Jefferson wrote this endorsement : “T have constantly refused to give in to this method of making offices hered:- tary. Whenever this one becomes ac- tually vacant, the claims of Jared Hand may be considered with those of other competitors. “’[‘7oMAS JEFFERSON.” In a matter respecting the conduct of the keeper of Cape Henry lighthouse he wrote: “T think the keepers of light houses should be dismissed for small degrees of remissness, because of the calamities which even these produce; and that the opinion of Col. Newton in this case is of sufficient authority for the removal of the present keeper. 06 9 AND CONSTRUCTION OF HOUSES 66 4 - ‘Dec. 31, Tu. JEFFERSON. LOCATION LIGHT- The first-class light and fog-signal sta- tions are located at the more prominent 15 SECTION OF MINOTS Showing fastening arrangement. It is summit. LEDGE of stones and 107 feet from LIGHTHOUSE interior base to and dangerous points along the seaboard, and on a well-lighted coast such stations should be sufficiently close that a coast- ing vessel may always be in sight of a light. The smaller lights are placed to mark harbors, inside channels, and dan- gers. Along the navigable rivers numer- ous post lights are maintained to indicate the channels. For New York harbor and immediate approaches alone 268 aids to navigation are required, including 46 shore lights, 2 light vessels, and 36 lighted buoys there are 192 buoys of all classes and 37 fog signals, including sounding buoys. A chart of New 4 ork harbor in 1737 shows not a single aid to navigation there at that time. One may imagine the difficulties of Henry Hudson when in 1609 he sailed into New Y ork Bay in the Halfmoon. ‘The diary says: “We found 16 BUILDING THE TILLAMOOK ROCK LIGHT STATION, OREGON Open to the sweep of the Pacific Ocean and one of the most exposed stations: in the world; completed in 1881 (see page 21) it to have 2a yer shoald barre before it; and, again, | te mouth of that land hath many shoalds.”’ Boats were repeatedly sent ahead to sound as the Halfmoon worked her way into the harbor and river. The natural altera- tions in channels and coast lines, the prog- ress of improvements, and the changes in the trend and character of commerce and_ ship- ping make numerous modifications neces- sary in the aids to navigation, so that this is a work that will never be complete while nature and man are active. During the past year notices have been published of about 1,600 distinct changes in aids to navigation maintained by the United States Lighthouse Service. Among the light- houses of the country may be found ex- amples of great engi- neering skill and of dignified and simple design. Some of the tall lighthouse struc- tures are of beautiful architecture, suited to the purpose, and set off by picturesque lo- cation on headland or rock overlooking the sea. “The tower must be built to give the light a suitable height above the water, and hence tall lighthouses are required on low- lying coasts. A light must be about 200 feet above the water to be seen from the deck of a THE TILLAMOOK The seas here are terrific. ROCK LIGHT COMPLETED On October 19, 1912, a wave broke a pane of the lantern 132 feet above the sea (see page 21) vessel 20 nautical miles distant ; beyond that distance the curvature of the earth would prevent a light at this elevation being seen. The light and lens are pro- tected by an outer lantern of glass. At the principal stations provision is made either in the tower or in separate buildings for the mechanical equipment connected with light and fog signal, for storage of oil and supplies, for quarters for keepers and their families, boats, etc. Various materials have been employed in lighthouse construction—stone, brick, iron, steel, concrete, reinforced concrete, and wood; in new work, however, the latter is now little used because of the desirability of permanency. The Lighthouse Service at present owns 1,186 distinct pieces of land; be- sides this, many lights stand in the water, and post lights along the rivers are on temporary sites not purchased. WONDERFUL SEA-SWEPT LIGHTHOUSES Lighthouse construction on the land is usually comparatively simple, except when there is difficulty of access to the site. But often it is important for the protection of shipping that lighthouses be erected either on rocks or reefs ex- posed to the sea or actually in the water, on sand or rock bottom. Such work has called forth the greatest skill of engi- neers. 17 Numerous types of construction have been used. Where the foundation is ex- posed, even at the lowest tides, masonry towers have been, with great labor and often danger, fitted to the bed-rock; otherwise the structure has been erected on iron piles driven, screwed, or pumped into the sand or coral, or on caissons floated to the site and set on the bottom or.sunk deeper by the pneumatic process, or by the use ‘of coffer-dams, within which the masonry tower has_ been erected; smaller structures have been placed on rip-rap foundations. The earliest example now existing of a sea-swept lighthouse is the beautiful tower of Cordouan, built in 1584 to 1611. on a rock in the sea at the mouth of the Gironde, on the west coast of France. This lighthouse has since been altered and raised in height. The original struc- ture was elaborately decorated, and one floor was occupied by a chapel (see page 8). The most famous of the sea-swept lighthouses is the Eddystone, 13 miles from Plymouth harbor, England. This was completed in 1699, after four years of work. During the first year all that was accomplished was drilling 12 holes in the rock and fastening irons them. This lighthouse, with the keepers and the engineer who built it, disappeared in the great storm of November, 1703, and since BUILDING THE LIGHTHOUSE ON ST. GEORGE REEF, CALIFORNIA The rock is so exposed that the workmen were obliged to live in the schooner, moored beside the rock, and were carried back and forth by a traveler ona cable (see page 23) ST. that time three other lighthouses have in succession been erected on the Eddy- stone (see pages 12-13). MINOTS LEDGE LIGHT The earliest lighthouse built in this country in a dangerous position, exposed to the open ocean, was that on Minots Ledge, a reef off Boston harbor which had long been a terror to mariners. This was an open-work iron-frame structure, supported on wrought-iron piles wedged into holes 5 feet deep, drilled in the rock, which was bare only at low water. It was completed in 1848 (see page 14). There was a great gale in April, 1851. GEORGE REEF LIGHT, CALIFORNIA, COMPLETED: A DIFFICULT AND EXPENSIVE STRUCTURE “The light on the Minot was last seen from Cohasset on Wednesday night at 10 o'clock. At 1 o’clock Thursday morn- ing, the 17th, the light-house bell was heard on shore, one and one-half miles distant; and this being the hour of high water, or rather the turn of the tide, when from the opposition of the wind and the tide it is supposed that the sea was at its very highest mark; and it was at that hour, it is generally believed, that the light-house was destroyed; at daylight nothing of it was visible from shore, and hence it iS most probable it was overthrown at or about the hour named.”’ Two keepers were in the tower and were lost, and this extract from the official report tells the story of one of the great lighthouse tragedies. The present massive stone lighthouse was built on the same site on Minots Ledge, commenced in 1855 and completed in 1860. It ranks among the difficult lighthouse engineering works of the world. During the first summer only 130 working hours were obtained on the rock, and after three years’ work only four stones of the foundation were laid. The reef rock was prepared to fit the stones of the lower courses and the latter were cut to interlock. Dwellings for the keepers’ families were built on the shore, accommodations for the men only being provided in the tower. Longfellow visited Minots light in 1871, and in a letter thus describes it: “The lighthouse rises out of the sea like a beautiful stone cannon, mouth upward, belching forth only friendly fires.” SPECTACLE REEF AND STANNARD ROCK Spectacle Reef lighthouse, built on a teef near the northern end of Lake Hu- ron, is a stone tower standing in a depth of 11 feet of water, 10 statute miles from land. It is ina position exposed to heavy ice action. A coffer-dam was constructed at the site, the water was pumped out, the bed-rock was leveled off, and the lighthouse was constructed of cut stone, securely fastened. It was completed in 1874, and is a notable engineering work. The first year it was well tested by the ice. When the keepers returned to the tower in the spring of 1875 they found the ice piled against it to a height of 30 feet. As this was 7 feet above the door- way, they had to cut through the ice to enter. Stannard Rock light, 24 statute miles 19 TUG TOWING A CAISSON TO BE SUNK FOR A LIGHTHOUSE FOUNDATION (SEE PAGES 20 AND 20) from the nearest land and marking the most dangerous reef in Lake Superior, is the most distant from shore of any lighthouse in this country. It was com- pleted in 1882, constructed in a manner similar to that on Spectacle Reef, and stands in the same depth of water—r1 feet (see page I5). WHITE SHOAL LIGHT White Shoal, a dangerous spot in Lake Michigan, at the entrance to the Straits of Mackinac, was marked for 19 years by a light vessel anchored over it. On account of the ice, this vessel could not be kept on the station during a portion of the season of navigation in the spring and fall. As the unmarked shoal was a serious menace to navigation at these seasons, an appropriation was made for building a lighthouse, and this was com- pleted in 1911 at a cost of $225,000. A timber crib 72 feet square and 18 feet high was built on shore and floated out to the site, where the depth of water was 22 feet. The bottom, which is of coarse gravel, was covered with 2 feet of rock, and the crib was filled with stone and sunk. Above this was built a con- crete pier, which supports the lighthouse. udu! SMOYS WeIseIp oyy “ZggI ul pozetduroy incon Prt pee Pe LGVHS olV HQRITIAG ut (gz a8ed vas) jo UAOTY St YorY TIVMVIIG SSOOMLHOVI MNV@ LOOg-VI AHL / M ‘pues oy} Suraowed oinssosd sre Japull wosstes oy} ‘ssao0id o1eumoud Aq pooeid sem YoIyYM FO WOHepUNOF olf} ul SuIyIOM ‘Kajunoo Sty} UT IsHoyIYSI] ISI sy, CAPE HENRY FOG SIGNAL, VIRGINIA This fog signal is an air siren driven by oil engines. ward to prevent sand drifting into the sirens. States consist of sirens, wiecles. reed trumpets, aerial “bells, and submarine bells. and whistles are operated by compressed air or steam, and trumpets by compressed air. The trumpets are curved down- “The fog signals now in use in the United Sirens To furnish air, compressors driven by internal combustion engines are used, and for steam signal boilers are employed. The larger fog bells, up to 4,000 ‘pounds, have a weight and clockwork” (see page 47). The light is of 1,200,000 candle power, flashing white every 8 seconds. In ad- dition to the compressed air fog-whistle there is a submarine bell signal, located in 60 feet of water three-quarters of a mile from the station. This bell is sup- ported on a tripod standing on the bot- tom of the lake, is operated by electric power transmitted through a cable from the light station, and strikes “23.” OF THE THE WORLD TILLAMOOK ROCK—ONE EXPOSED IN MOST Two lighthouses involving great diffi- culties have been built on rocky islets off the Pacific coast—Tillamook Rock, com- pleted in 1881, and St. George Reef in 1891. ‘Tillamook is a high, precipitous rock south of the Columbia River and about a mile from shore. It is exposed to the sweep of the Pacific Ocean. Land- ing on the rock was very dangerous, and the foreman was drowned the first day a working party was landed. There was serious difficulty in providing any protec- hammers actuated by tion on the rock for the workmen. It was necessary to blast off the top of the rock to secure sufficient room for the lighthouse (see pages 16-17). This light station is one of the most exposed in the world. The tower is 136 feet above high water, but the keepers reported that in a storm in 1887 the seas broke over the building, some going above the tower, and serious damage was done. In another storm a mass of con- crete “filling weighing half a ton was thrown over the fence into the enclos- ure,” at a level of 88 feet-above the sea. Here is the keeper’s report of a storm in October, 1912, at “Tillamook light. The lighthouse tender, on account of weather conditions, was not able to reach the rock for 7 weeks after this storm: “T regret to state that on the evening of the 18th, or morning of the 19th, we lost a portion of the west end of the Rock, water and rocks coming over with so much noise we could not tell when, and did not know it had departed before (Sz a8ed 90S) ssnoy oY} Ul SAT siodeo0y sy], “Feet [e109 yf} OFT UdALIp Sapid UOT UO paytoddns ‘saM.0} UOJ JOYS UO! jeprueitd V VaINOTI “VHOIT AMM OWTMAINOS Nil ea reee } 1 } ay ee eu (Zz sovd WHS ) VINIOMIA ‘AUNXH Advo LV ASOOHLAOTT GaNOGNVdV ATO HH GNV ASQOHLHOIT PNAStad AN in io] THE OLD AND THE NEW LIGHT TOWERS AT CAPE CHARLES, VIRGINIA The tower on the right was built in 1864, but was abandoned in 1895, as the site was destroyed by erosion of the sea. in 1863 for the same reason. surrounded by iron framework (see page 28). next morning when the sea went down so that we could go outside. Bab 12 :357a, m, on the roth the sea came up and broke one pane in of the middle section of the lantern (132 feet above the sea), which also put the light out and flooded the watch-room, as well as down-stairs. ‘To add to it all the soot and ashes came out of the stove in the kitchen. PAt 12:50 a. m. we had the light burning and storm pane in for the rest of the night. “Siren was running until the crash came, but making no regular blast on ac- count of the water filling the trumpet too fast. After getting the light burning we closed down the fog signal, as the wind hauled to westward and cleared the at- mosphere somewhat. Shortly afterward when taking siren out to clear it I found it filled partly full with rocks; therefore 23 The previous tower, built in 1827, had been discontinued The new tower, shown on the left, consists of an iron cylinder the water could not get out of it (siren horns are 95 feet above the sea). “\Vill also state that every one under my charge worked hard and faithfully, regardless of water and glass, everybody being drenched to the skin.” Before the location of the lighthouse, this rock had been a favorite resort of sea lions, who completely covered its slopes; these at first were hostile and disposed to object to other use of the rock, but finally retired to other resorts. SI. REEF LIGHT, CALIFORNIA St. George Reef light is built on a rock lying 6 miles off the northern coast of California. The rock was so exposed and swept by the seas that workmen could not safely live upon it, and it was necessary to moor a schooner near the rock to provide quarters for the men, who were transported back and forth by GEORGE OOO'EI 0} OOQ WOIF JOMOd J[pULD oY} SuIsvotOUT ‘dey Jodea [IO JUaDsapuLoUL Ue 6} due] YIM [IO ue WO, posueyo A]JUODII SEM SI] SIP, ‘[eUSIS SOF JNOYYM YYSoI] 94M poxy VY ‘JOATY suyof 44 0} suUvI}US 94} Je VsNOYIYsSI] Yq VW VGINOTI “LHOIT WAIN SNHOL ‘LS HHI “yoro Spuosas S JO S}se{q OM} DINUTWT YIVI SUIATS d]}SIYAM Weds B SI [BUSIS SO} OY], “OINUIW JxXoU 9} UL YSsey puodsas-S eB pue ‘oynUIU I JOF JYSI]T Apeojs @ SUIMOYS ‘sulysey pure poxy ‘OPYM SI JUST] VY], “Ysoty Joof S11 ‘toMO} opULIS VW NIV 6 HSNOHLHOII NVNVW Lid HL THE PIGEON POINT LIGHTHOUSE, ON THE RUGGED PACIFIC COAST, CALIFORNIA This light gives each 10 seconds a flash of 4 seconds’ duration and 160,000 candle power. The fog signal is a first-class air siren, giving each 30 seconds two blasts in quick succession a traveler on a cable. The total cost of the work at St. George Reef was about $712,000, making it the most expensive lighthouse that has been built in this country. These two exposed light sta- tions on the Pacific coast are the only ones having five keepers (see pp. 16-18). Of lighthouses built on piles in the water, the original Minots Ledge struc- ture has been mentioned. j Shoal light, in 6 feet of water in Dela- ware Bay, completed in 1850, was the first in the United States built on iron screw-piles. These were bored down 6 feet into the sand bottom, the broad screws at the ends of the piles also fur- nishing additional bearing surface; this structure has stood 62 years, but now must be rebuilt on account of the piles having been damaged by the ice. LIGHTS ON THE FLORIDA REEFS Five pyramidal iron skeleton light- houses have been built in the water along the Florida reefs ; these are supported on Brandywine. LS) on iron piles forced about 10 feet into the coral rock or sand. The piles are driven through large cast-iron discs, with a shoulder bearing on the disc; these discs are about 8 feet in diameter and give a broad support for the structure. Sombrero Key, with its light 142 feet above the sea, is the tallest of these reef lighthouses (see page 22). The keepers’ quarters are carried within the skeleton tower, and they thus live 37 feet above 37 the water. LIGHTS BOTTOM—THE LIGHT ON SAND BANK 14-FOOT The first lighthouse built in the sea distant from the land and not on a rock foundation was the Rothersand. This notable engineering work stands in 20 feet of water, on a sand foundation, in the North Sea, 10 miles from the Ger- man coast, in the approach to LDremen. The first attempt to place a lighthouse in this position resulted in failure, but a structure was finally completed in 1885. A POST LIGHT ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER Post lights are maintained on about 5,500 miles of rivers in the United States A caisson of boiler iron 36 feet wide, 46 feet long, and 61 feet deep was built in port. This caisson was towed to the site and sunk in position. Eight feet above the lower or cutting edge of the caisson was a diaphragm, forming a working chamber, from the center of which rose a cylindrical shaft with an airlock. The caisson was sunk by the pneumatic process to a depth of 73 feet below low water, the sand being removed from the working chamber by a sand blast; the caisson was filled with con- crete and masonry and the light-tower erected on this foundation. Two years later, in 1887, the first light- house in the United States built on a submarine foundation and sunk in a sand bottom by the pneumatic process was completed on Fourteen-foot Bank, Delaware Bay, in 20 feet of water. A 26 timber working chamber 40 feet square was built, with cutting edge 7 feet deep. On this was placed an iron cylinder 35 feet in diameter and 18 feet high, built of cast-iron plates bolted together by their flanges. This was towed to the site and placed in position. It was sunk, by digging and blowing out the sand, to a depth of 33 feet below the surface of the shoal, the cylinder being built up until it was 73 feet high and filled in with concrete (see page 20). Cast-iron cylinders have been used also on other shallow submarine sites affording stable foundations or on rocks nearly awash. Wooden cribs floated to the site have been similarly employed, an example of which is Detroit River lighthouse. Recently reinforced concrete caissons have been used, sunk in place on the bottom, for minor light stations. Wi 4 ti! ~ ny amet THE TALLEST LIGHT TOWER OF THIS COUNTRY, 200 FEET HIGH: THE CAPE HATTERAS LIGHTHOUSE, NORTH CAROLINA The spiral painting is to furnish a distinctive day-mark to mariners. “A light must be about 200 feet above the water to be seen from the deck of a vessel 20 nautical miles distant; beyond that distance the curvature of the earth would prevent a light at this elevation being seen. FAMOUS SHORE LIGHTS Cape Henry lighthouse, at the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, is an example of an iron tower built with cast-iron plates bolted together along their flanges. The old tower at Cape Henry, abandoned in 1881, was the first lighthouse built by the United States government, being completed in 1791. There is a letter dated December 18, 1789, from Gov- ernor Randolph of Virginia to Presi- dent Washington, saying: “The State some years ago placed upon the shore at Cape Henry nearly a sufficient quantity of materials to complete such a light- house as was at that time thought con- venient, which have been in the course of time covered by sand. Measures are taking to extricate them from this situa- tion,” and offering to sell the materials 27 and cede the necessary land to the United States (see page 22 Petit Manan lighthouse, Maine, is a granite tower 115 feet in height. On Thatcher Island, at Cape Ann, Massa- chusetts, are two handsome granite light- towers, each 124 feet in height. St. Johns River light, Florida, is of brick, Ro feet high (see page 24). The tallest light-tower in the United States is that at Cape Hatteras, on the low-lying coast of North Carolina, which is 200 feet from base to top of lantern. The highest light, however, is that at Cape Mendocino, on the coast of Cali- fornia, which is shown 422 feet above high water; it is on a cliff, the lighthouse itself being only 20 feet in height (see pages 27 and 20). The main channel range for the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, is com- THR TWIN LIGHTS OF CAPE ANN, MASSACHUSETTS 28 The two fixed lights were established to furnish a distinctive aid, a purpose which now would be attained by a single flashing light (see pages 27 and 37) * granite towers, originally built in 1789. ‘Two posed of two stations of historic interest, the front-range light be- ing on Fort Sumter and the rear light in the beautiful spire of St. Philips Church (see page 30). LIGHTHOUSE DISASTERS AND PERILS Many are the vicissitudes and tragedies that are connected with lighthouse history. Mention has been made of the destruction by storm of the first Eddystone and the first Minots Ledge lights, with the loss of all the keepers, and of the fact that the first Boston light was burned and finally blown up, incident to the operations of war (see pages 4 and 7). The danger of, nne wis enear There is a quaint report by Jesse Tay, inspector of customs, of the burning on November 7, 1792, of Tybee lighthouse, the first built in Georgia: “About 2 o’clock in the morning the negro that trimed the lites went up to trim them and he discovered the lanthorn in flames heteny ‘d out the litehouse was on fier i jump’d up and run up Stairs . the glass and sinders was fawling so thick and it was so very hot i was not able to tarry half a moment and i saw it was in vain to attempt to save it.” Lighthouses are sometimes un- dermined by the encroachment of the sea. From this cause three successive towers have been built at Cape Charles, Virginia. The first was constructed in 1827, 700 feet from the then shoreline; this was abandoned in 1863, and the whole site has now been washed into the sea. The second was built in 1864, also about 7oo feet from the shore, but the sea continued to encroach until this now stands on the edge of the water. The present lighthouse was built in 1895, about 3,600 feet from the shore, and is an iron cylinder 9 feet in diameter, surrounded and braced by an iron framework. This light flashes “45” every min- ute, four flashes in succession, fol- lowed by an eclipse, and then five flashes (see page 23). Hunting Island lighthouse is a tower of cast-iron plates, built in 1859, about a quarter of a mile from the sea, on the coast of South Carolina. On account of the sea cutting away the end of the island, its position became un- safe, and in 1889 the lighthouse was taken down and reerected on a new site 1'4 miles distant. Sand Island lighthouse, with keepers’ dwelling, was built on a sand island at the entrance to Mo- bile Bay, Alabama. The hurri- cane of September, 1906, carried disaster along the Gulf coast, and this telegram was received from the lighthouse inspector: “Sand Island light out, island washed away, dwelling gone, keepers not to be found.” The tower re- mained, and one keeper had, for- tunately, gone ashore, but the other keeper and his wife per- ished (see page 32). Point Arena lighthouse, Cali- fornia, was wrecked by the great earthquake of April, 1906; it has been replaced by the first light- tower of reinforced concrete built in this country. The foundation of Chandeleur light, on the coast of Louisiana, was un- dermined and the tower thrown out of plumb by a storm in October, 1893. Thimble Shoal lighthouse, in Chesa- peake Bay, was run into by a schooner recently, the structure broken, and the house and light destroyed by the fire which resulted. This is the second time the structure has been destroyed by fire, and it has been rammed a number of times by vessels and tows (see page 33). TROUBLES FROM ICE, BIRDS, AND SAND Winter seriously increases the work of maintaining aids to navigation; the spray or sleet freezing may completely envelop the tower in ice, obscuring the light until the lantern is cleared. In northern waters, where there is floating ice, many of the gas buoys must be re- moved in winter and replaced by spar buoys, over which the ice may pass with- out serious damage to the buoy. The 20 THE CAPE MENDOCINO LIGHT, CALIFORNIA This lighthouse is only 20 feet in height, but it stands on the edge of a cliff, and the light is 422 feet above the sea, the most elevated in this country. spray freezes to bell buoys sometimes until the weight of the ice overturns them. Most of the lighthouses on the Great Lakes are closed during the winter months, when general navigation ceases on those waters. There is risk to men and vessels in taking off the keepers in the winter gales at the close of naviga- tion. In 1893 three lighthouses in Chesa- peake Bay—Wolf Trap, Smiths Point, and Solomons Lamp—were swept away by the ice. Sand creates difficulties at some light stations located among dunes or shifting wastes of sand. At Cape Henlopen the sand driven by the wind has cut deeply into the wood framing of the keepers’ dwellings, and has ground the window glass so that it is no longer transparent; but the lantern of the light is too high to be so affected. Even the flying birds make trouble at yomnyo sdipyg 3S Fo esds [nyHneoq oy} Ul WS ress Sy} pue JoWWNG OY UO JS] yWosZ 9Yy}—4FSoI9IUT S1OFsTY FO 1B WO VNIIONVO HLOAOS WOPUVH NOLSHTYVHO YOu SLHOIT AONVA HHL ‘JOGILF{ UOJso[IeYyH SuUlojue IOF a5 uel & WIOF Ul] UI syst OM} OSol J, 30 Ne THE CHANDELEUR LIGHT-TOWER, LOUISIANA, WHICH WAS ABANDONED AFTER BEING UNDERMINED BY A TORNADO IN 1893 lighthouses, as the brilliant light so at- tracts them that they will fly directly for it, and striking the heavy glass of the lantern are killed and fall to the ground. At Cape Charles light the keeper has seen ducks fly directly through the lan- tern and fall to the floor cut and torn by the broken glass. Some lighthouses are fitted with bird-protecting screens around the lantern, as for instance at Mayo Beach light on Cape Cod. When Sabine Bank light, in the Gulf of Mexico, was increased in brilliancy by installing an oil vapor lamp, a bird-guard was found necessary because of the birds flying for the lantern, attracted by the more bril- liant light. FROM WOOD FIRES AND CANDLES TO OIL VAPOR AND ELECTRIC LAMPS The early lighthouses were lighted by wood or coal fires burned in open bra- ziers, and later by candles inclosed in lanterns; the resulting light was neces- sarily weak and fitful, and a large part was lost by being diffused in directions of no use to mariners. A coal fire was burned at the Isle of May light on the coast of Scotland up to 1816, and the famous Eddystone was lighted with 24 31 wax candles to 1811. Ojl lamps were early used in this country, if not from the first lighting of Boston light. Fish oil, sperm oil, colza oil, lard oil, and mineral oil were in turn burned, increas- ing expense in each case compelling a change. Circular wick lamps, with a central current of air, were invented by Argand in 1782. At the present time lamps with from one to five concentric wicks, and burn- ing a high grade of kerosene oil, are used in a majority of lighthouses. About 610,000 gallons of oil are burned each year at the light stations of the United States, about 340,000 gallons of which are for lighthouse illumination. For the more important lights the in- candescent oil vapor lamp is now used, having been introduced by the French in 1898. In this lamp the oil is heated and then vaporized, and is burned mixed with air under a mantle which is made incandescent. This gives a much more brilliant light than the wick lamp, with a smaller consumption of oil. For instance, this change of lamps recently made at Cape Hatteras light has increased the brilliancy of the light from 34,000 to 160,000 candle power, Dae inten we Ee oe ee THE SAND ISLAND LIGHT STATION, ALABAMA, BEFORE THE HURRICANE OF SEPTEMBER, 1906 THE SAND ISLAND LIGHT STATION AFTER THE HURRICANE This storm washed away the island with the keeper’s dwelling, and the keeper and his wife were lost (see page 29) 32 = ied THE THIMBLE LIGHT STATION AFTER A SCHOONER HAD COLLIDED WITH IT AND SET IT ON FIRE A temporary light is shown, pending the building of a more substantial structure, now under way while the consumption of oil has been reduced from 2,280 gallons to 1,300 gal- lons a year. Electric lights are used at a few light stations only. The expense is too great to warrant the employment of electricity at many important stations. For some harbor lights it can be used to advantage by taking current from a local source of supply, and a light can thus be main- tained in an exposed position and con- trolled from the shore. 33 The electric light at Navesink, on the highlands just south of New York har- bor, is the most powerful coast light in the United States. This light shows each five seconds a flash of one-tenth second duration estimated at 60 million candle power. Although, on account of the curvature of the earth, the light it- self cannot be seen more than 22 miles, its beam has been reported to have been observed in the sky at a distance of 70 nautical miles (see page 39). THE RACINE REEF LIGHTHOUSE, IN LAKE MICHIGAN, COVERED WITH ICE “Winter seriously increases the work of maintaining aids to navigation; the spray or sleet freezing may completely envelop the tower in ice, obscuring the light until the lantern is cleared. In northern waters, where there is floating ice, many of the gas buoys must be removed in winter and replaced by spar buoys, over which the ice may pass without serious damage to the buoy. The spray freezes to bell buoys sometimes until the weight of ice overturns them” (see page 20). 34 , LIGHTHOUSE TENDER CROCUS JUST IN FROM WINTRY WORK ON LAKE END OF THE Most of the lighthouses on the Great Lakes are closed There is risk at the close of navigation” general navigation ceases on those waters. the keepers in the winter gales LIGHTS THAT BURN WITHOUT FOR MONTHS A KEEPER There has in recent years been a greatly increased use of gas as an illuminant for minor lights, such as unattended lighted beacons and lighted buoys; this is due to the facility w ith which gas may be stored or generated, the light burning for con- siderable intervals without attention. There are also a few coal or oil gas har- bor lights, supplied from local sources. There are in use a large number of acetylene gas-lighted beacons, supplied by tanks of gas of sufficient capacity to maintain a quick flashing light for five months without attention. In other acetylene lights the gas is generated from carbide at ‘the station or in the buoy. Oil gas under compression is also ex- tensiv ely used for lighted buoys, having been first employed ‘for this purpose in ERIE NEAR THE SEASON OF NAVIGATION during the winter months, when to men and vessels in taking oft (see page 20). 1878. Some of the acetylene beacons are provided with a sun valve, which saves gas by automatically cutting off the gas supply during the time the sun shines. A gas beacon has recently been estab- lished on Richardsons Rock, a wave- swept rock west of the Santa Barbara Islands, California. It would have been very expensiv e to build a lighthouse with keepers’ quarters on this this flashing beacon was established to give present protection to vessels from the rock, SO danger. ‘This beacon, without atten- dance, will flash its warnings every 3 seconds for 7 months (or over 6 million flashes) before it requires another charge of gas (see page 30). Ten years ago the first light in Alaska was established ; now there are 95 in that territory, and the rapid increase of recent years has been due largely to the facility on CALIFORNIA AN UNATTENDED FLASHING GAS LIGHT ON RICHARDSONS ROCK, 30 This would be a difficult and expensive site on which to establish a regular lighthouse with keeper’s quarters (see page 35) This light will flash every 3 seconds for seven months before it requires another charge of gas. with which flashing gas lights, un- attended, may be established in that region, where it would be difficult and expensive to main- tain keepers. At stations, how- ever, where there are fog signals, keepers must be stationed, as there is not yet available a practical automatic fog signal for land use. POWERFUL REFLECTORS, LENSES, AND PRISMS ARE USED In order to increase the effec- tiveness of illumination, reflectors, lenses, and prisms are used to con- centrate the light and throw it out either in a plane around the hori- zon or in a beam or limited arc, where it will be most useful. Parabolic: reflectors were intro- duced about 1763, and to show around the horizon or to render the light more powerful it was necessary to mount on a, chan- delier a number of lamps each with its own reflector. Thus in an early list of American lights the number of lamps is given, as Boston lighthouse 14 lamps, and Sandy Hook 18 lamps. The French physicist, Augustine Fresnel, beginning in 1822, revo- lutionized lighthouse practice by inventing a system of annular lenses, refractors, and reflecting prisms, all of glass and surround- ing a single central lamp. Various forms of lenses designed on these principles, with further improve- ments, are now universally used in lighthouse work, varying from the simple lens lantern, with a single annular lens, to the great first-order lenses, built of many pieces of beautifully cut and pol- ished glass. Of such a lens the distinguished lighthouse engineer, Alan Steven- son, wrote: “Nothing can be more beautiful than an entire apparatus for a fixed light of the first order. It consists of a central belt of re- fractors, forming a hollow cyl- inder 6 feet in diameter and 30 inches high; below it are six tri- angular rings of glass, ranged in a cylindrical form, and above a crown of thirteen rings of glass, " forming by their union a hollow cage, composed of polished glass, 10 feet high and 6 feet in diameter. I know of no work of art more beautifully creditable to the boldness, ardor, in- telligence, and zeal of the artist.” With the most complete lenses about 60 per cent of the light is rendered useful, the balance being lost at the top and bottom and by absorption of the glass of the lens and the lantern. The first lens in the United States was installed at Navesink light in 1841. The largest lens in this service is that at Makapuu Point light, Ha- waii, which is 834 feet in diameter. The introduction of more powerful illuminants and quick-flashing lights, with lenses concentrating more of the light, has rendered large diameter lenses unnecessary (see page 41). INGENIOUS METHODS TO DISTINGUISH LIGHTS FROM EACH OTHER It is important that lights be so distinguished from each other as to avoid the possibility of the mariner mistaking one for another. To this end lights are distinguished by their number, color, intensity, or time of b-- visibility. Before the introduction of flashing or occulting lights, in a few cases two or three light-towers were built close together to give a dis- tinctive combination, an example be- ing the two lighthouses on Thatcher Island, Cape Ann. This is an expen- sive method not now employed for new lighthouse work. Color distinctions, especially red, have been widely used, but are not suitable except for minor lights because of the great loss of power; with the best color, red, the loss is about 60 per cent. For lights to be seen at close range, two lights are sometimes shown, one vertically above the other. With the systems now available of flashing and occulting lights, it is possi- ble to obtain a great variety of clearly distinguishable characteristics. The first revolving light was installed in Sweden in 1763. The earlier slow revolving lights are now generally superseded by lights giving a flash or various combina- tions of flashes at shorter intervals, or every two seconds. tern automatically cuts off the light while the sun shines. AN ACETYLENE GAS LIGHT, THE FAIRPORT WEST PIER LIGHT, OHIO Gas tanks at base; light automatically occulting Sun valve to the left of lan- lights showing continuously except for short occultations. Quick-flashing lights were first introduced in France about 1892. The most powerful flashing lights are arranged to have the entire lens revolve, the beam from each panel of the lens appearing as a flash as it sweeps past the observer. To obtain rapid and smooth revolution, the lense is mounted on a mercury float, and a lens weighing, with fittings, as much as 7 tons may make a complete revolution in 30 seconds. A recent example is the lens for Kila- uea light station, Hawaiian Islands, built in France and costing about $12,000, in- cluding import duty. The moving part weighs nearly 4 tons and turns on a mer- cury float, making a complete revolution 37 "(€€ pue ce sased vas) teak e& suoljes OOF‘I 0} suOTTeS oge‘z wo1y poonpos udeq sey [10 Jo uonduimsuos ay} a[1yM ‘1aM0d a[pued OO0‘OgI 0} OOOD'FE ae ISI] oy} JO AOuRI]IIq dy} posvasoul sey yYySIT sesroyjep_Y odeg ye apeu ATWUa00I sdure] Jo osueyo sty} ‘oouRysul 104 JIO JO uodwNsuOD saTjeUIS & YIM ‘Guiry 3SIM oY} URY} JYSI] JURIT[IIq d10UL YONUI B Soars sty, ‘JUSISOPULIUT OPPUL ST YIYM J]JUPUI B JopuN IIe YIM Paxttu pousnq st pue ‘pazisodea Woy} pue pazvoy SI [10 ay} dure] sry} uy “gogT ur Yous y dy} Aq poonposjur udeq Suravy ‘pasn mou st dur] todea [10 Jus2sapuRoul oy} s}YSI] JUe}10du o10UL 9} 10q,, “(1€ ased 90s) due] 1odea [10 JusoSapuvouUT YWM JOJOYaI pue suds] poxy oy} SMOYS UlOJULT 94} FO JOLI9}UI ay} FO MaIA oT, MYOA MAIN “THNNVHO HSOMTWV YOM LHOI'T AONVU YUVA ANY : LTASIT GNWISI NALVIS AHL FO SMTA 38 THE MOST POWERFUL LIGHT OF THIS COUNTRY, ESTIMATED 60,000,000 CANDLE POWER: THE NAVESINK LIGHTHOUSE, NEW JERSEY “The electric light at Navesink, on the highlands just south of New York harbor, is the most powerful coast light in the United States. one-tenth second duration estimated at 60 million candle power. This light shows each 5 seconds a flash of Although, on account of the curvature of the earth, the light itself cannot be seen more than 22 miles, its beam has been reported to have been observed in the sky at a distance of 70 nautical miles (see page 33). every 20 seconds and giving a double flash of about 940,000 candle power every 10 seconds. The light is suffi- ciently powerful to be visible 40 miles, but because of the earth’s curvature it can be seen only 21 miles (see page 42). Occulting lights are less efficient, the occultations being obtained by revolving a screen around the light, by a drop shut- ter, or by blank panels in a revolving lens. With gas lights, flashes or occulta- tions may be obtained by automatically interrupting the gas supply, a small pilot light still remaining. The earlier lighthouses all showed fixed lights, and were equipped with lamps giving only moderate candle power. There is always danger of mis- taking the identity of a fixed light, as it may be confused with other lights on shore or on vessels, or one lighthouse mistaken for another, and marine dis- asters have resulted from such mistakes. 39 All countries have, therefore, long since undertaken to change the fixed lights at important coast points and give them a distinctive characteristic, and also to in- crease the brilliancy of illumination. To indicate the steady progress made along these lines, during the past two years this service has changed 47 lights from fixed to flashing or occulting, and at 68 light stations has substituted in- candescent oil-vapor lamps for oil-wick lamps, the latter greatly increasing the brilliancy, with a diminished consumption of oil. DAY MARKS In addition to the lights, many other marks are provided to assist navigators. The light-towers themselves are painted and shaped to make good landmarks in the daytime, and special beacons and spindles are placed usually to mark shoals or other dangers. Nature and man also provide many landmarks valu- AN UNATTENDED FLASHING LIGHT AT THE ENTRANCE TO PRINCE WILIIAM SOUND: HE ZAIKOF POINT LIGHT STATION, ALASKA (SEE PAGE 35) ie 8 4 ke ‘ ‘ : . “) a RE a Sige Es aad oni ees Z nt A LIGHT WHICH FLASHES EVERY 3 SECONDS FOR 5 MONTHS WITHOUT ATTENDANTS Many such lights have been installed to mark the inside passages in Alaska. ‘This one is placed at Point Retreat, Alaska 40 able to mariners, but which are not included in the official aids. LIGHT VESSELS All thus far mentioned are known as fixed aids to navigation, but it is frequently desirable to put marks in the water where the depth or other conditions do not permit of the building of a light- house or beacon. More than half the aids to navigation maintained by the Lighthouse Service are floating—light vessels or buoys moored in position. Light-ships are placed in loca- tions off the coast, where it would be impracticable or needlessly’ ex- pensive to build a lighthouse, and they usually mark the approach to a port or bay or the outer limit of an offlying danger. They are also sometimes used in _ inside waters. They may be moored in the channel or close to it, and they have the advantage over most lighthouses, that a vessel may steer directly for them without danger so long as collision with the light vessel is avoided, and also that they may be moved and moored in another position when change of conditions or necessity requires. On the other hand, a light vessel is more expensive to maintain, and there is the possibility of its being driven from its station, though this is reduced in recent years by improved vessels and moorings. The first light-ship, the Nore, was established in England in 1732, at the ‘mouth of the Thames. The first in this country was stationed in 1820 in Chesa- peake Bay, off Willoughby Spit. Sandy Hook, now Ambrose, light vessel was established in 1823. A light vessel was placed off Cape Hatteras in 1824 and was driven ashore in 1827, and a ship was not established again in this dan- gerous position until 1897, after unsuc- cessful attempts had been made to build a lighthouse on Diamond Shoal. The United States maintains light ves- sels on 51 stations, and there are a num- ber of relief ships, so that the regular ships may be brought in for repairs. Some of these positions are of the great- eclipsed for 1% seconds each 9 seconds. Point Light, Hawaiian Islands. 41 THE LARGEST LENS OF THE U. S. LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE The lens is 834 feet in diameter, an occulting light Makapuu est importance to mariners, as, for ex- ample, the Nantucket Shoals light vessel, moored 41 miles from land, for which most of the transatlantic vessels steer in approaching America, and the Dia- mond Shoals light vessel, moored in 30 fathoms of water 13 miles off Cape Hatteras and marking the most danger- ous locality on the Atlantic coast of the United States. ‘These larger ships are full-powered vessels, capable of return- ing to their station, and they each have a crew of I5. The latest ships are provided with powerful and distinctive lights and fog signals. They more nearly approach the lighthouse in design, having a heavy tubular iron mast surmounted by a lan- A BEAUTIFUL GLASS LENS AND MOUNTING RECENTLY BUILT IN FRANCE FOR THE KILAUEA LIGHTHOUSE NOW UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS It will be the landfall light approaching the islands from Japan. The light will give a double flash of 940,000 candle power every 10 seconds. The lens and mounting “weighs nearly 4 tons and turns on a mercury float, making a complete revolution every 20 seconds and giving a double flash of about 940,000 candle power every 10 seconds. The light is sufficiently powerful to be visible 4o miles, but because of the earth’s curvature it can be seen only 21 miles” (see pages 37 and 39). 42 MA ceN Aone k \ \ \ rh Bo ae oN \ ve yx ot \ Novy A \ WN \ SSSR pees Se \\ . ASSAM ee ee SS SSE ae SS acy 7 / / rity OMT, Se Ly LW, Sas Ppp tll y ayy \V\\ pa ately hey ey V7 Cite eee ANNAN AOS hse a, Sal al Fok plo \\ en aS Ce A / j| Vues erg: ered | | Gos 0" / / / / / / Ae a WS Reet foros Bene! if Cpe ics, A CROSS-SECTION THROUGH THE LAMP OF THE LENS SHOWN ON PRECEDING PAGE, SHOWING HOW THE LENS DIRECTS ALL THE LIGHT OUT IN FOUR BEAMS, IN TWO GROUPS tern, sometimes with a revolving lens supported like a pendulum to hang verti- cally, so that the light beam will be kept near the horizon regardless of the mo- tion of the vessel. An example is the recently completed Milwaukee light ves- sel, which will show a double flash every 10 seconds. This vessel has a fog signal giving two blasts each minute, with in- tervals of 7 and 46 seconds. LIFE ON THE LIGHT-SHIPS Life on a light-ship is somewhat dreary, but not without excitement. During ev- ery fog the crew on Nantucket ship know that numerous vessels are headed directly for them, and in a storm, anchored as they are in the open sea, they may be far from comfortable. The men in turn are allowed liberal leave ashore. There are often serious difficulties in getting coal and provisions to the ships on ex- posed stations, so that it is necessary that they carry sufficient supplies to last over stormy periods. In 1899 the Columbia River light vessel 43 was stranded near Cape Disappointment, and as it could not be gotten off into the sea again, it was hauled 700 yards across the land through the woods and launched in the Columbia River. The light-ships, being necessarily near the channel ways, are frequently collided with. In January, 1912, a schooner ran into Diamond Shoal light vessel. The master, in his report, describes the dam- age done and states that “the 6 seamen and also the cook worked manfully all night in trying to save the mainmast,” and that “repairs having been made, the light having been kept burning as usual, and the ship kept in right position, unless very severe weather sets in the vessel will stay here until relieved.” The directions of the Superintendent of Lights in 1829 to the master of a light vessel instruct him “not to slip or cut the cable, or suffer it to be done, in any event, and if the vessel should be likely to founder, to abandon her with his crew.” DIAMOND SHOAL LIGHT VESSEL, NORTH CAROLINA This vessel is anchored in 30 fathoms of water in the Atlantic Ocean 13 miles off Cape Hatteras, and occupies one of the most exposed and dangerous positions. The vessel is shown after being stranded in 1899. The diagram below shows the improved method now in use of mooring light vessels with a submerged buoy. In recent years some unattended light vessels have been established abroad. These are small vessels without any crew and with all the apparatus automatic in operation. The Barrow light vessel, on Notwithstanding the severe conditions, Diamond Shoal light vessel has in recent years been maintained on the station with little interruption. ‘The vessel is now moored with a 7,500-pound mushroom anchor and 150 fathoms (goo feet) of heavy chain. About one-third of the length from the vessel a submerged spherical buoy is attached to the chain, carrying a part of its weight and greatly the coast of England, with no crew, has an automatic flashing gas light with a revolving lens, a fog bell in the air, and a submarine bell, both actuated by the motion of the vessel in the sea (see easing the pull of the vessel. page 48). eee — 7500 Lb. Mushroom Anchor —— —_~ ; ; == = SSS S150 Fathoms Chain Cable — = = —— eae ee Ne = Sa eS en a SSS SS Sa DIAGRAM SHOWING THE MOORING ARRANGEMENT OF DIAMOND SHOAL LIGHT VESSEL Length of chain on buoy, 7!%4 fathoms; from the anchor to buoy chain, tos fathoms; from buoy chain to ship, 45 fathoms 44 ? THE AMBROSE LIGHT VESSEL AND AN OCEAN LINER This light vessel is anchored off the entrance to New York Bay. Ocean passages are reckoned to or from this ship. ‘“Light-ships are placed in locations off the coast where it would be impracticable or needlessly expensive to build a lighthouse, and they usually mark the approach to a port or bay, or the outer limit of an offlying danger. They are also sometimes used in inside waters. They may be moored in the channel or close to it, and they have the advantage over most lighthouses, that a vessel may steer directly for them without danger so long as collision with the light vessel is avoided, and also that they may be moved and moored in another position when change of conditions or necessity requires. On the other hand, a light vessel is more expensive to maintain, and there is the possibility of its being driven from its station, though this is reduced in recent years by improved vessels and moorings” (see page 41). Le oe Fe cae: — = ‘4 all ph 4 agi a = BS tiny r sHah ts a5 —— THE NANTUCKET LIGHT VESSEL, MOORED IN THE ATLANTIC 4I MILES FROM LAND Most of the transatlantic vessels steer for this vessel. “Life on a light-ship is somewhat dreary, but not without excitement. During every fog the crew on Nantucket ship know that numerous vessels are headed directly for them, and in a storm, anchored as they are in the open sea, they may be far from comfortable. The men in turn are allowed liberal leave ashore. There are often serious difficulties in getting coal and provisions to the ships on exposed stations, so that it is necessary that they carry sufficient supplies to last over stormy periods” (see page 43). 45 THE COLUMBIA RIVER LIGHT VESSEL, AFTER BEING STRANDED ON CAPE DISAPPOINT- MENT IN 1899, WAS HAULED THROUGH THE WOODS 700 YARDS AND LAUNCHED INTO THE RIVER (SEE PAGE 43) BUOYS Floating buoys are efficient and rela- tively inexpensive aids to navigation. They are used to mark dangers—as shoals, rocks, or wrecks—to indicate the limits of: navigable channels, or to show the approach to a channel. They vary in character according to their purpose or the distance at which they should be seen. The simpler forms are the wooden and iron spar buoys, and iron can and nun buoys. For warning in thick weather, buoys are fitted with bells, whistles, and submarine bells, all actu- ated by the motion of the sea. Some important buoys are lighted, usually by means of oil gas compressed in the buoy itself or acetylene gas com- pressed in tanks placed in the buoy or generated in it. The light is often flash- ing or occulting, for the purpose both of providing a distinctive mark and of pro- longing the supply of gas. The use of gas buoys has greatly increased in recent years, there being at present 346 in this country. ‘They are a very valuable addi- tion to the aids for the benefit of mari- ners, and often obviate the necessity of establishing much more expensive light vessels or range lights on shore. The buoy off the entrance to Ambrose Channel, New York harbor, at a height of 27 feet above the water, shows a light of 810 candle power, occulting every 10 46 seconds and visible 10 miles. This buoy recently burned for one year and four months without. recharging. The buoy is nearly 60 feet long and weighs over 17 tons (see page 50). Buoys are painted and numbered to indicate their position and the side on which they should be passed. ‘To keep the 6,700 buoys of this country on their proper stations and in good order is a heavy work and is one of the principal THE COLUMBIA LIGHT VESSEL THE WOODS uses for the lighthouse tenders. Buoys may be damaged or sunk, or dragged or broken from their moorings by vessels or tows, or wreckage, or ice. Two buoys from the Atlantic coast of this country have been picked up on the coast of Ireland, and one from the Cali- fornia coast was found in the Hawaiian Islands, these having gotten adrift and been carried across the oceans by the currents. For use in mooring buoys and light vessels, the Lighthouse Service purchases annually about 15,000 fathoms of chain, a length equal to 17 statute miles. FOG SIGNALS ~The most powerful coast lights may be rendered of little or no use to navi- gation by thick fog or rain. To assist vessels under such conditions, making 47 JOURNEYING THROUGH their course more safe or allowing them to proceed, fog signals of many sorts have been established. Of these the bell is the most common, and until about 1850 the only signals in use were bells and guns. The ‘first fog signal on the Pacific coast of the United States was established at Bonita Point, San Fran- cisco Bay, in 1856—a fog gun to be fired each half hour. The fog signals now in use in the United States consist of. sirens, whistles, reed trumpets, aerial bells, and submarine bells. Sirens and whistles are operated by compressed air or steam, and trum- pets by compressed air. To furnish air, compressors driven by internal com- bustion engines are used, and for steam signals boilers are employed. The larger fog bells, up to 4,000 pounds, have ham- mers actuated by a weight and clock- 4 ie ‘ — 6 ee 3 se SMM eLS 35 THE MILWAUKEE LIGHT VESSEL, THE LATEST BUILT IN THIS COUNTRY It has a hollow steel mast, through which access is had to the lantern surmounting it. The lantern will be fitted with a revolving lens giving a flashing light (see page 43) AN UNATTENDED LIGHT VESSEL ON THE COAST OF ENGLAND It has no crew, and is equipped with flashing gas light, aerial fog bell, and submarine fog bell, all automatic. The bells are operated by the motion of the vessel in the sea 48 se on ay agit oe A BELL BUOY TAKEN ON BOARD LIGHTHOUSE TENDER Shows marine growth and the necessity for periodic cleaning and painting of buoys work. The smaller bells are rung by hand. Besides the above, there are vari- ous noise-making buoys; bells, whistles, and submarine bells are attached to buoys and are made to sound by the movement of the buoy due to the sea. There are also used abroad several other types of fog signals. The dia- phone, similar to the siren, explosive sig- nals, consisting of a tonite or other ex- plosive fired from the top of a mast, and recently there has been installed, experi- mentally, at several light stations in France apparatus for sending signals by wireless telegraphy, and a compass has been invented which from a vessel will give the direction of the sending station. Nearly all fog signals excepting those on buoys are operated to sound a charac- teristic signal so that they may be distin- guished, there being a succession of blasts or groups of blasts or strokes at regular time intervals, which are made 49 known for each station. Even adjacent buoys are differentiated by the use of whistles and bells and by variation of tone. A first-class fog-signal station requires powerful and expensive machinery and skilled attendance. Such a station may have duplicate engines of 20 horsepower each, and the signal may consume 100 cubic feet of free air per minute. While aerial fog signals furnish a very valuable aid to navigation under weather conditions when assistance is most needed, yet they are far from the ideal of perfection. Sounds are transmitted through the air erratically, and some- times within a comparatively short dis- tance of a station the fog signal may be inaudible, while in other directions it may be heard for long distances. This is due to the effect of the adjacent land or to conditions in the atmosphere, the sound being reflected or the sound waves Spuodes OL A1aAO Butjpnos0 ‘UOIWIe OYA syJWOW OI JOF pou ApJWEde1 YOIYM ‘Ja}VM 9y} dAOGe Jooy Le ISI] YM soURIJUS YIOR MON YO Aonq Ses jeo1s oY], SVD TIO HLIM GHOUVHOUN ONIAd ‘MHANAL V ACISDNOIV AON SVD h's x al ra. }- \ 50 BEACONS OF THE SEA 5] deflected or retarded; the subject is one of importance, requiring further investi- gation. There is sometimes an unfortunate conflict of interest between the need of a loud and distinctive sound to aid the mariner in a fog and the quiet and com- fort of seashore residents in whose midst the fog-signal station may be located. Even the mournful note of the whistling buoy may bring complaints from the near-by shore residents. Keepers at fog-signal stations must maintain a continuous watch day and night, as the signal must be started promptly on the approach of fog. Some portions of the coast have little or no fog, as on the south Atlantic and Gulf coasts, where there are but few fog sig- nals; there are no fog signals in Porto Rico or in the Hawaiian Islands. Fogs and thick weather are very prevalent on the New England and the Pacific coasts. At the station at Seguin Island, Maine, there were, in 1907, 2,734 hours of fog, more than 30 per cent of the entire year. SUBMARINE BELLS Submarine bells were first regularly employed as fog signals in the United States in 1906. The bell is suspended in the water from a light vessel to a depth of 25 to 30 feet and is operated by compressed air, or the bell is mounted on a tripod on the bottom and worked by electric power transmitted from the shore through a cable, or it is suspended from a buoy and actuated by the motion of the sea, which moves a vane and winds a spring (see page 52). Sound from submarine bells is trans- mitted through the water more uni- formly and effectively than it is through the air from an aerial signal, but the effi- cient use of submarine bells requires that vessels be equipped with suitable receiv- ing apparatus attached to the hull on each bow and telephonically connected with the wheel-house; by comparing the loudness on the two sides the direction of the signal may be obtained. Subma- rine bells have frequently been heard through the water at distances of 15 miles and more. LIGHTHOUSES MAINTAINED BY ALL COUNTRIES As of the surface of the earth 51,886,- 000 square miles is land, as compared with 145,054,000 square miles of water, it is evident that a large part of the com- merce of the world will always be carried on this great water area. Lights and buoys and fog signals are essential to safeguard the ships as they approach the continents and follow the coasts, and these or other suitable guides will be needed for aerial traffic, should it ever develop. The proper lighting and marking of the coasts is an obligation assumed by all modern maritime nations. The lights protect not only the ships of the country maintaining them, but the vessels of other nations as well. The lighthouse, for in- stance, at Cape Maysi, on the east end of Cuba, is of great value to many ships which never call at a Cuban port. A lighthouse on Cape Spartel, Africa, at the entrance to the Mediterranean, is maintained jointly by the contributions of I1 nations, including the United States. But there is a great difference today in the manner in which the shores of different seas are lighted. The official British lists give a total of about 11,600 lighthouses and light-ships for the entire world, but of these 8,900 are on the coasts of Europe, the United States, and Canada, while Asia, Africa, Australia, the remainder of America, and the islands of the sea have together about 2,700. South America has but 300 lights, and Africa 500. A region of interest to our shipping, much of which is badly lighted and marked, is the area including the Carib- bean Sea, the West Indies, and Central America. For example, the large island of Haiti has not a lighthouse at any one of its three prominent extremities. The only lights on Haiti are four harbor lights, which are marked in the list “not to be depended upon.”” A number of the lighthouses on the Central American coast are maintained by an enterprising steamship company. Around the entire shore line of Bering Sea there is but one lighthouse—that at yim peddinbs sjessoa Aq osour pue ay} Ysnosy} poeytusuesy St punos pure wi0}0q 2Y} UO pods} e gaprur SI FO sadueySIP Je prkvoy Uosq eAvY SIP “eas ot} JO UOOW sy} Aq poyenjoe pue Aonq UO peJUNOU Ss! [Jaq oy} 10 ‘sre pessorduros Aq poyesrodo SIVNOIS DOA TI ANTEV ‘snjeiedde SUTATIIO4 q oullewgns pue ‘are ey} Ysnory} uy, AjW4OF1UN oroOUr JoVeA B WOJZ SUNY SI Ht JO ‘atoys oy} WOIF J9MOd d11;Da]9 Aq Paytom pue essed 4S] @ WOIy pepuedsns sr [Jed sulIeUIqns YT Was ee eae a BS ea Ca a ar Doe i lle ile ioe atat 52 THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS 53 Cape Sarichef, Alaska—and some small lights near St. Michael; but this is a region where the commerce would not at present justify a costly lighting system, particularly as navigation is mostly con- fined to the season of no darkness at night. It seems almost incredible to find, only three centuries ago, powerful opposition to the establishment of lighthouses. In 1619 a heroic Cornish gentleman, Sir John Killegrew, petitioned the king for permission to build a lighthouse on the Lizard, the southernmost point of Eng- land, where there is now an electric light whose powerful beam sweeps around the horizon. ‘The nautical board to whom was referred the petition advised the king that it was not “necessarie nor con- venient on the Lizard to erect,a light, but, per contra, inconvenient, both in re- gard of pirates, or foreign enemys; for the light would serve them as a pilot to conduct and lead them to safe places of landinge; the danger and perill whereof we leave to your majesty’s absolute and profound wisdom.” Notwithstanding the flattery, James I granted the petition. Next the local Cornish people opposed the work, as thus told by Killegrew: “The inabytants neer by think they suffer by this erection. They affirme I take away God’s grace from them. ‘Their English meaning is that now they shall receive no more benefitt by. shipwreck, for this will prevent yt. They have been so long used to repe profitt by the cal- lamyties of the ruin of shipping, that they clayme it heredytarye, and heavely com- playne on me.” The light was, however, completed and the fire kindled, which, wrote Killegrew, “I presume speaks for yt selfe to the most part of Christendom.” But it was impossible to obtain, for sup- porting it, the “voluntary contributions” from shipping which the king’s grant authorized. Finally the corporation of the town of Plymouth pulled down the lighthouse, which the shipowners con- sidered ‘“‘burthensome to all ye countrie,” and there was no light at the Lizard for 132 years thereafter. Some of the early lights and buoys in England. were maintained by religious men. On a tradition of such a philan- thropy is founded Southey’s ballad re- garding the buoy on Bell Rock, where now stands a great lighthouse: “The good old Abbot of Aberbrothock Had placed that bell on the Inchcape Rock; On a buoy, in the storm, it floated and swung, And over the waves its warning rung. “When the rock was hid by the surge’s swell, The mariners heard the warning bell; And then they knew the perilous rock, And blessed the Abbot of Aberbrothock.” THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS An Account of Some Remarkable Experiments by the U.S. Department of Agriculture With Photographs by Dr. Erwin F. Smith HERE is no disease to which mankind is liable more produc- tive of intense suffering than can- cer, and yet its origin is unknown and no certain method of cure has yet been discovered. In recent years, particularly during the last decade, the attention of experts in medical research all over the world has been more and more focused upon this subject. Thanks to the munificent coéperation of various public bodies and individual philanthropists, a number of splendidly equipped laboratories have been founded, and international con- gresses are held from time to time, at which investigators from all parts of the world submit the results of their re- searches. But, in spite of much patient and laborious investigation, no definite clue has been found, and we are still ap- parently far from a knowledge of the causes producing this disease. This is the more unfortunate because, if we may trust the statements of statis- ticians, cancer is becoming increasingly PLATE I. A MARGURITE OR PARIS DAISY IN WHICH PLANT CANCER HAS BEEN PRODUCED BY INOCULATION (SEE PAGE 61) “A sterilized needle is taken and dipped into the culture containing the bacteria and one or more small pricks are then made in the skin of the plant. After a few days nodules appear.” 54 THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS 56 common. According to the very care- fully prepared statistics covering the death rate in England and Wales, it ap- pears that while in every million living in 1871-1875 the annual death rate from cancer was 445 cases, in 1901-1904 the rate had risen to 861 cases. With an in- crease so appalling, the need of discover- ing the cause and cure of this disease is urgent. WHAT THE CELLS ARE Cancer is a disease of the cells of the body, and to obtain a clear idea of its nature it will be necessary to consider very briefly the cells as the living units of protoplasm, of which all bodies, both of plants and animals, are composed. For example, the human body has its origin in the union of two small cells, and the single cell thus produced divides in its turn into two, these two into four, each cell dividing upon an arithmetical maoetession of 2.4.8 .16.32.. with incredible rapidity. Some concep- tion of the diminutive size of these cells can be formed when we know that ten days after the union of the original male and female cells the cell-structure, which will ultimately develop into the human body, has attained the size of a pin’s head, yet it contains hundreds of thou- sands of cells. All cells act automatically and repro- duce themselves under internal’or exter- nal stimulus, but only in accordance with the needs of the body to which they be- long. Just what that stimulus is and how it is caused is still a matter of some obscurity, but recent researches by Dr. Alexis Carrel, of New York, and many others tend to show that all normal cell stimulation, as far as the human body is concerned, is due to secretions produced by certain cell-groups, such as the pan- creas, the thyroid, and other glands. So long as this automatic self-division of cells, or proliferation, as it is called, coincides with the needs of the body, a normal condition exists. HOW A CANCER BEGINS A cancer results from an abnormal proliferation of certain of these cells. When from some still unknown reason a cell is stimulated to abnormal, malignant ~ proliferation it becomes the mother cell of the cancer and gives rise to daughter cells, which often multiply with immense rapidity and so on indefinitely. These abnormal cells also react upon normal cells and stimulate them also into rapid growth until the typical cancer is formed. A great number of theories have been put forward to account for this abnor- mal cell growth, the more important be- ing the following: Virchow’s theory, which attributes all tumors and cancer to the direct results of injury or irrita- tion; Cohnheim’s theory, which accounts for cancer by a supposition that during embryonic life certain cells are isolated or “displaced from their normal relation- ship or fail to undergo normal atrophy” (Adami, Principles of Pathology, vol. 1, p. 835), the result being that they lie dormant until roused into activity by some stimulus, and that, having the enormous power of proliferation which characterizes all embryonic cells, they outstrip the adult cells and a cancer re- sults. Those who maintain these and other theories of the non-parasitic origin of cancer, and they constitute at present the major part of all research workers in the field of cancer, have always main- tained that this disease cannot be para- sitic, not only because no one has ever been able to isolate or demonstrate any parasite, but also, they claim, because the cancer cell is itself the parasite. Cancer, as of rats, mice, etc., cannot be repro- duced, they have said, except by the in- troduction into the animal experimented upon of living cancer cells, usually from another animal of the same species. THE PARASITIC THEORY The parasitic theory, however, has en- thusiastic supporters, and is still a matter which excites keen discussion in medical circles. As will be shown later, it is along this line that present indications show the greatest promise of future re- sults. This theory holds that cancer is due to an abnormal stimulation pro- duced by some still undiscovered micro- organism, and its adherents point out that cancer, with its localized primary growth and widespread secondary infec- tions, bears a remarkable similarity to -NOONI WiLAV “(19 Hova HAS) HLMOND INVNOVIVN HHL 10 ALTdTaVa AMT MONS OL NOnIW'T SHINON OM GHHaAVYOOLOHA 181 AVOAS NO NOMVINOONI Ad GHoNdOUd SYXONVO INVId “Il eel TT NE et LVI i q i 3 a 56 THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS certain other diseases which are known to be of parasitic origin. Dr. Borrel, of the Pasteur Institute, has found animal parasites (acarids) buried in the cell masses of certain can- cers of the face, and he conceives that possibly these parasites introduce an or- ganism or a poison much in the same way as the mosquito introduces the ma- laria virus into the system. Still more recently (1911-1912) Dr. Peyton Rouse has announced* that a chicken sarcoma (cancer) is inoculable in the absence of cancer cells, and that the tumor material, even when dried for six months, is still infectious. THE LATEST DISCOVERY But perhaps the strongest support of the parasitic theory of cancer has come from what at first sight would seem to be the most unlikely source, namely, the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. This, how- ever, is not so remarkable when we re- member that cancer is a disease result- ing from abnormal cell stimulation, and that the cell is substantially the same in both plants and animals. Indeed it is to comparative pathology that we must look for the most striking results of our future investigation. For some nine years past Dr. Erwin F. Smith, the pathologist in charge of the Laboratory of Plant Pathology of the Department of Agriculture, and his as- sistants have been conducting a series of investigations into the origin and _his- tology of the crown gall. The crown gall is a plant disease which causes an annual loss to farmers of mil- lions of dollars and has become a serious problem to the agriculturist on account of the number of species of plants liable to its ravages. It is known to attack the daisy, the almond, peach, and other stone fruits, the apple, quince, raspberry, black- berry, the rose, the grape, red clover, alfalfa, cotton, hops, sugar-beets, and va- rious shrubs, hot-house plants, and shade trees. Up to the time that Dr. Smith undertook his investigations its cause and -character were entirely unknown. * Journal American Medical Association; American Association for Cancer Research; Journal Experimental Medicine. Or a A NEW BACILLUS FOUND He has proved the parasitic nature of this disease (Bulletin 213), and now states (Bulletin 255) that it is nothing more or less than a plant cancer, since it is due to parasitic stimulation going on within the cells and leading to abnormal proliferations essentially like those pres- ent in cancer of men and animals. While Dr. Smith has surrounded his conclusions with all those qualifications so dear to the modesty of the scientist, there is no doubt that he has made a dis- covery of the first magnitude in pa- thology, and has indicated a line of re- search which investigators of human cancer will be unable to ignore. In 1904 the Department of Agriculture received a number of margurites, or Paris. daisy plants, which were infected with gall-like growths on the stems and leaves. They were sent in to the De- partment by one of the large commercial growers in New Jersey, accompanied by the statement that the galls appeared, without apparent cause, both on plants grown in the open in summer and under glass in winter. HOW THE DAISY HELPED The first result obtained from the in- vestigations undertaken by Dr. Smith was the establishment of the fact that these growths were not due to insect in- juries. The next step was to discover whether the galls were due to infection by fungous growths, and this was de- cided in the negative after very conclu- sive experiments. The possibility of these growths being due to bacteria next presented itself and was investigated, but for some time the results obtained from the experiments were so inconclu- sive that the bacterial hypothesis was temporarily abandoned. Every effort was then made to produce the galls by mechanical injuries practised upon the plants in every stage of growth, but ex- periments in this direction were fruitless. More than two years of careful in- vestigation had been consumed before Dr. Smith and his assistants were able, by bacteriological culture-methods, to iso- late any organism which would reproduce the disease when plants were inoculated _< ON SOW Cy 7 7 PLATE III. A CROSS-SECTION OF A PLANT SHOWING BOTH NORMAL AND DISEA CELLS (SEE PAGE 61) IN ca 2 oe AND DISEASED CELLS SHOWING HEALTHY EAS, ott yen wy, vai 4 ‘ mT sii “Sesintin : : . ait cui a ina SE eS SAT _— a BAAN a : o ao eu = a ravi aD) Ny SAA Tea i SECTION As \O \O w Oo — ee eal oa {] n ~~ ae Ay < pe o i) & 2) an} Loe Au a o WHY % ma oy vA A 2 Zi Z, > oO am) N 1d 9) < — al La w S) 7A < J on ww ee a, Sa) ie) 1) % << Ay ww _— a < fp) go a sa] A LONGITUDINAL PLATE IV. PLATE V. THE EFFECT OF THE CONTINUED ABNORMAL GROWTH OF THE CANCER CELLS IS SHOWN IN THIS LONGITUDINAL SECTION OF A PLANT STEM The tumor in course of formation is very apparent (see page 66) 60 2” THE DISCOVERY OF CANCER IN PLANTS * 61 with it. ° They finally succeeded in sep- arating a white bacterio-organism found in the ‘tumors which they discovered would produce the crown gall when in- troduced into a’ healthy plant. This they have named the Bacterium tumefaciens, or tumor-producing organism. Subsequent experiments showed that the most uniform success followed ex- periments upon young and rapidly grow- ing plants, it being often possible to ob- tain 100 per cent of infections. But eight years passed before they were able satisfactorily to stain the organism in the tissues so that it could be demonstrated under the microscope. Still further work was necessary be- fore Dr. Smith was convinced that the time had come when this disease could be properly described as plant cancer. THE PLANT CANCER DISCOVERED These results have been announced in two luminous bulletins of the Bureau of Plant Industry, Nos. 213 and 255, con- taining a series of admirable photo- graphs and photo-micrographs, which show the plant cancer in all its varia- tions. With the aid of some of these photo- graphs, we will follow Dr. Smith through one of his experiments, showing how the cancer is produced; how it sends out tumor-strands from the original point of infection; how secondary cancers de- velop from these tumor-strands ; also the different structure of primary and sec- ondary leaf tumors, and finally we shall see both the disturbance produced in the normal cell structure and the Bacterium tumefaciens, which is responsible for the trouble. In Plate I (page 54) we have one of the Paris daisies, or margurites, which served as the medium for very many im- portant experiments. A sterilized needle is taken and dipped into the culture con- taining the bacteria, and one or more small pricks are then made in the skin of the plant. After a few days nodules ap- pear, which finally grow into the pri- mary cancer, producing the malforma- tions shown in this plant at the points marked X, where the inoculations were made. From this point the cancer be- gins to throw out its roots or tumor- strands, which work their way up and down the stem and into the leaves, throw- ing off secondary cancers as they pass. These secondary cancers can be plainly seen at the points marked A and GC, where they have ruptured to the surface, while a number of them, still buried in the normal'tissues, are visible along the leaf E, with others. at D. In the -right-hand corner of’ the plate there is a cross-section of the stem taken at the.point marked 1, which shows how _a-large'tumor-strand (marked S) ap- pears to the naked eye. WHAT A TUMOR-STRAND IS This tumor-strand is of great impor- tance in determining the cancerous na- ture of the gall disease. In the Ency- clopedia Britannica, Dr. Louis Court- land says: “A cancer follows a course very different from that of an innocent tumor. Its growth has no appointed ter- mination, but continues with unabated vigour until death; moreover, it is more rapid than that of the innocent tumours, and so does not permit of the formation of a capsule by the neighboring tissues. In consequence such a tumour shows no well-defined boundary, but from its mar- gi fine tendrils of cancer cells make their way in all directions into the sur- rounding parts, which gradually become more and more involved in the process. Thus a cancer of the breast will attack both the skin covering it and the under- lying muscle and bone; a cancer of the intestine will eat its way into the liver, spleen and kidney, until these organs be- come to a great extent replaced by can- cer cells, and can no longer perform their proper functions.” In this tumor-strand, therefore, we find just exactly what we should expect to find in a plant suffering from cancer. The enormous rapidity with which plant cancers may develop is shown on Plate II, which exhibits two sugar-beets inocu- lated by needle pricks with pure culture, the photograph being made only two months after the roots were infected. WHAT CELLS LOOK LIKE We will now turn to Plate III and see how the tumor-strand disturbs the nor- mal cell structure. This plate shows a PLATE VI. THE CANCER ROOT OR TUMOR-STRAND AS IT LIES IN THE SURROUNDING TISSUE, SHOWING THE NUCLEI OR POINTS FROM WHICH CELL DEVELOPMENT STARTS (SEE PAGE 66) Note the black spots in this and the following photograph. ‘These spots are the nuclei or points from which the proliferation starts, due to the stimulation of the parasite 62 PLATE VII. AN ENLARGEMENT OF THE TUMOR-STRAND SHOWN IN THE PREVIOUS PLATE, SHOWING A CLEARER VIEW OF THE NUCLEI Note the black spots, or centers of activity, are very prominent (see preceding plate) 63 PLATE VIII. THE CROSS-SECTION OF A STEM BETWEEN TWO TUMORS, SHOWING THE SMALL, TUMOR-STRAND (AT POINT X) WHICH CONNECTS THEM (P. 66) 64 . ¥ v ge Py vl » ee - } Jai y SX edy RAS { 3G VAL 1@. 6): 6p ‘s a 5 , o & . » . sees Baw 2 Ef cilia ‘i i oe + ae j i ea : a ee 7 = - Ta “ m 2% PLATE IX. AN ENLARGED PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SMALL TUMOR-STRAND OF THE PREVIOUS PLATE Showing how the cells have been displaced from their normal relationship, which supports Cohnheim’s hypothesis (see pages 55 and 00) 66 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE typical cell formation in the stem of a plant as it appears in a cross-section or looking down upon it from above. This is a photo-micrograph, and the tiny cells have been magnified until, taken collec- tively, they look like a cobblestone pave- ment; but we can now see how the cells look when they are subject to both nor- mal and abnormal stimulation. The great majority.of the cells shown here are behaving quite normally, but in the center of the picture, where the large pith-cells join the smaller wood-cells, we notice a little group of cells which seem to be different from the others and to be forming a little circular colony of their own. ‘These are the cells which, under the stimulus of the cancer bacillus, form the tumor-strand. Just how abnormally these cells are behaving will be immediately apparent when we view a tumor-strand in longi- tudinal section or in a front view as given in Plate IV. Here the cells in the tumor-strand, which is shown in the cen- ter of the plate and looks not unlike a sweetbread, have a markedly different appearance from those of the normal tissue surrounding them. ‘The effect of their continued abnormal growth is shown in Plate V, where a young tumor is developing, while a more detailed pho- tograph of a cross-section of a tumor- strand lying in the midst of less abnor- mal cells is shown on Plate VI. THE NUCLEUS AND ITS FUNCTION This is a particularly interesting plate, as it shows that the tumor-strand, just like many human cancers, has a strong affinity for the stain used upon the mi- croscope slide, and this shows especially quite dark. A series of small black spots at the edges of the strand, which appear will also be observed, very numerous in the cells in the tumor-strand and ap- pearing at intervals in a few cells on other parts of the plate. These spots are the nuclei or points from which prolif- eration starts, and the superabundant proliferation in the tumor-strand, due to the stimulation of the parasite, can be easily seen. An enlargement of the tumor-strand area is given in Plate VII, which affords a much clearer view of the nuclei. It will be observed that these points of pro- liferation are distributed all over the tumor-strand area, but are especially numerous at the edges. Plate VIII shows a cross-section of the stem of a daisy plant between the . primary and secondary tumors. The tumor-strand occurs at the point x, and the rest of the stem is quite normal ex- cept for a slight thickening of the ring of wood-cells at the point nearest the tumor-strand. An enlargement of this tumor-strand and the surrounding cells appears in Plate IX, the tumor-strand being at the junction of the small wood-cells above and the larger pith-cells below. Here in the tumor-strand we have the cells “dis- placed from their normal relationship,” referred to in Cohnheim’s hypotheses (see Pp. 55), the pitted portion being vessels (trachids) which have developed out of place and still contain nuclei which are absent from these vessels when fully de- veloped. They also show, by their feeble staining, that they are still in process of of development, as adult vessels of this type usually stain heavily. HOW PLANT CANCER DESTROYS TISSUE A cross-section of a leaf stalk in which a tumor has developed is shown in Plate X. The ravages of the cancer can be ap- preciated when we realize that the light- colored cells at the top and left are all that is left of the normal tissue. This is a secondary tumor developed from a tumor-strand which has pushed its way up from a primary tumor situated on the stem below, and consequently it has an imperfect stem structure, consisting of a central tumor-strand, which takes the place normally occupied by the pith. From it radiate in all directions woody plates (the dark rays in the picture), separated by enlarged pith rays (the light rays), the whole being inclosed by a ring of bark cells. The great excess of soft cells leading to rapid decay and the ab- sence of pith are the chief differences between this and a normal stem. The very striking contrast between such a secondary leaf tumor and a pri- mary leaf tumor can be seen in Plate XI, which is a cross-section of a primary leaf tumor produced from a pure culture PLATE X. A CROSS-SECTION OF A LEAF STALK IN WHICH ALMOST ALL THE NORMAL CELLS HAVE BEEN EATEN AWAY BY THE CANCER (SEE PAGE 66) PLATE XI. CROSS-SECTION OF A LEAF TUMOR PRODUCED IN THE LEAF FROM A PURE CULTURE BY A SINGLE NEEDLE PRICK (SEE PAGE 66) No normal cells remain; the whole body is a tumor composed of fleshy tissue and woody fiber 68 ee rmets , Py * wey =a 7 ve a ee . % i) ” ok, . a =e . ‘ Ps / * PLATE XII. PHOTO-MICROGRAPH OF EIGHT LEVELS IN A CELL, SHOWING THE ROD-LIKE ORGANISM WHICH PRODUCES PLANT CANCER, THE Bacterium tumefaciens, AS IT APPEARS UNDER THE MICROSCOPE These bacteria are from a daisy tumor 690 70 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE by a single needle prick on a healthy leaf. Here no normal cells remain; the whole body is a tumor composed of fleshy tissue and woody fiber, the minute dots all over the picture being the nuclei of the tumor cells, from which further proliferation will take place. It is not a simple matter to obtain photo-micrographs showing the bacteria actually in the cells, but on Plate XII we have photographs of eight different levels in a cell, and the irregular rod-like bac- teria are easily distinguishable. ‘These bacteria are described by Dr. Smith as follows: ‘““The galls on Paris daisy are due to a white schizomycete named Bac- terium tumefaciens. This organism is a short rod multiplying by fission and mo- tile by means of a polar flagellum. It can be grown in many sorts of culture media, but does not live very long upon agar. It forms small, round, white colo- nies in agar or gelatin poured plate.” HOW THE PARASITE WORKS The fight between the infected cell and the bacillus is most interesting, and shows how the cell responds to the stimulation and reproduces itself. This is how Dr. Smith conceives it to take place: “The relation between host and para- site in this disease may be regarded as a symbiosis (or condition in which two dis- similar organisms live together), in which the bacterium has the advantage. ‘The bacterium derives its food from the cells of the host and drives them at a break- neck speed. It gives to them in return its waste carbon dioxide for the use of their chloroplasts.” (Chloroplasts are the bodies in the cell which contain chlo- rophyll or green coloring matter, and are the most important bodies concerned in the making of starch from the water in the cell and the carbon dioxide of the air.) “The bacterium does not destroy the cells of the host, but only stimulates them into an abnormal and often exceed- ingly rapid division. “This stimulus, it would seem, takes place through the following delicate ad- justment of opposing forces: Within the host cell the sensitive parasite produces as one of its by-products an acid. As this acid accumulates it stops the growth of the bacteria and destroys a portion of them without, however, destroying the host cell. ‘The membranes of these dead bacteria, which have now become perme- able, allow the diffusion into the host cell of bacterial endotoxines.” (Endo- toxines are poisons produced by the bac- teria, but held within them while alive, and only escaping when the membranes of the dead bacteria disintegrate. ) THE CELL DIVIDES “The host cell now contains, of abnor- mal bacterial products, (a) these escaped endotoxines, (b) a certain amount of weak acid (acetic ?), (¢) some ammo- nia, and (d) an excess of carbon diox- ide. Under the stimulus of one or more of these poisons the nucleus (or point from which proliferation commences) divides by mitosis (the usual but more complex of the two methods by which cells multiply). In process of division the nuclear membrane (the envelope in- closing the nucleus) disappears and the contents of the nucleus flows out into the cell. The dormant bacteria under the stimulus of this nuclear substance renew their activities in the daughter cells until again inhibited, whereupon the daughter cells divide. By this rocking balance, in which first the parasite and then the host cell has the advantage, the tumor develops rapidly and independently of the needs of the plant.” This rapid growth of the tumor, inde- pendently of the needs of the plant, and the tumor-strand, which produces the secondary tumors with structure of the primary tumor, show very clearly the cancerous nature of the disease, and its development closely parallels what takes place in cancer in men and animals. Dr. Smith is very careful to point out that he considers that his discoveries have no absolutely direct bearing upon human cancer, and the following closing words are characteristic : “Nothing in this bulletin should be construed as indicating that we think the organism causing crown galls is able to cause human cancer, but only that we be- lieve the latter due to a cell parasite of some sort.” FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO Being the experiences and impressions of the writer while making a trip starting from Jerusalem via Jaffa and Tripoli of Syria to the Cedars of Lebanon, through the Lebanon pass to Baalbek, and on to Homs, Hama, and Aleppo, during the months of August and September, 1912, and illustrated by photo- graphs taken specially on the trip by members of the American colony. By Joun D. Wuirinc, oF THE AMERICAN CoLony, JERUSALEM HE chief boatman at Jaffa called out Yalla! Yalla!” to his men, who were making their way de- liberately to the large row-boat in which we were seated. The steamer was soon to leave, and the call of the chief had the result of electrifying the men, and in a few moments eight brown, muscular boatmen were pulling us through the narrow opening between the rocks to which tradition states Andromeda was chained, to be eaten by a sea monster. These rocks have been the terror of pil- grims and tourists for centuries, but the Jaffa boatmen are renowned for their skill as well as courage and endurance. We were now able to compose our- selves and count our packages. We had only decided after dinner the evening be- fore to take the trip, and Mr. Larson and Mr. Baldwin, my two companions, were up all hours of the night getting ready. Yes, the pieces were there; thir- teen in all. It might seem strange for three men to need so much baggage, but the fact is we had only two small suit-cases between us, and the balance was photographic ap- paratus of all kinds and a couple of heavy boxes of plates. A few hours of slow steaming brought us round the promontory of Mount Car- mel, which figures so largely in Old Tes- tament history, and which, since Haifa during the past half century has grown so rapidly in importance, has become quite a summer resort. The sun was almost setting as the large barges were being filled and emptied as fast as possible by yelling Arabs, who can do no sort of work without exercis- ing their lungs as well as muscles. 71 THE SYRIAN EMIGRANT The lower decks of the steamer were packed with steerage or deck passengers, who, from the time we were nearing 3eirut, occupied themselves in arrang- ing their toilet preparatory to disem- barking. From their appearance many could have been taken for Italians, but one had only to watch a few moments to see that they were Syrians who had been seeking their fortunes in America. Suit-cases and ponderous trunks were opened, dis- closing a mixture of old clothes, silk dresses, patent-leather shoes of distinct- ive American type, onions, garlic, bread, and the like, thrown in together with true Arab shiftlessness. Their attire and talk disclosed that they were just return- ing from various parts of America, and their gala dress and glad faces that they were nearing their native homes. The entire costumes of both men and women were of the Occident, while the head-gear just donned was that of their native land, to which they had been used from their youth, until laid aside, with their Oriental costumes, when they launched out to seek their fortune in a foreign land. They are extremely proud of returning clad in a foreign costume, but few, especially of the men, want to be seen by their countrymen wearing hats. Some landed at Beirut, while the larger portion waited to disembark at Tripoli. Some had been very successful in their enterprises and were talking of soon going again to the land of their adoption; some had made the trip back to Syria with the sole object of getting married and returning to pursue their fortune-making, while a few had been SMM sepin act TAT NSU VL 5 cay S, ) Zen 2 aie, \ 4 \ ny SE bay he , SB == S xs Ans D a0 eS European intervention, since when the Lebanon has been an independent Sanjak or province, governed by a Mushir, who must be a Christian and is appointed for five years, with the consent of the Great Powers. There is no compulsory Turkish military service, and there is a small local force of paid soldiers who do police duty. Taxation is light. Under this adminis- tration excellent roads have been built throughout the province, by which nearly all villages are reached and benefited. During the day the valleys were ob- scured by a haze caused by the heat of the day evaporating the moisture below, but in the cool of the evening, by twi- light, climbing the mountains quite a dis- tance above Bsherreh, a never-to-be-for- gotten view was obtained. Here nature seemed to have carved out a huge amphi- theater, terrace above terrace, the upper one being that whereon the majestic cedars stand, though not then visible from our point of view. Below, in the bottom of the valley, was a deep ravine, rock-bound by high precipitous cliffs of gray limestone, which contrasted strik- ingly with the green terraces of mulberry and vine that extended upward, one above the other, and which broadened in so doing. On our left the River Kadisha, which rises not far from the cedars, falls in foaming cascades down into the center of the amphitheater and loses itself in a silver line in the bottom of the gorge. Bsherreh is on the edge of a great cliff almost at the head of the valley, but a little to the left, as one looks down to- ward the sea. Its water-supply is an ice- cold stream flowing down from the re- gion of almost perpetual snow. THE CEDARS OF LEBANON We left Bsherreh at dawn and made our way up the steep and winding road towards the cedars. In some places it was difficult to pass the loaded animals coming or going. Having made all pos- sible haste, we reached the cedars just as the sun was sifting its first rays through the thick foliage—a sight calculated to make any heart beat faster. The grove numbers about 400 trees. With the ex- ception of a few stragglers, the grove is inclosed by a neat stone wall to protect the smaller trees from goats. In the cen- ter is a small Maronite chapel (see page 82). To dwellers in Syria, where forests of tall trees do not exist, these majestic cedars must be overawing. A modern Syrian writer says of them, that they are “undeniably the most lofty of all the vegetable kingdom.” The fact is that they are about 80 feet high, which is more than the height of the trees of an average American forest. They are justly renowned for the size of their trunks, the girth of the largest reaching 47 feet. A striking peculiarity of these trees is the growth of their branches, which ex- tend straight out at right angles to the trunk and are furnished with exceedingly thick foliage, brown as seen from be- neath, but when viewed from the hill- sides their upper surface resembles a rich, dark-green lawn studded with cones standing erect. These latter are the size of large goose eggs. LEBANON NOW DENUDED In some other parts of the Lebanon there are cedar groves, but the trees are much smaller. Here we have a sugges- tion of what the Lebanon was in ancient times, when the now bare peaks and mountain sides must have been covered with these trees. It was here that King Solomon’s sev- enty thousand hewers wrought, with their three thousand six hundred overseers, besides those supplied by Hiram, King of Tyre, to get the cedar wood required for the temple at Jerusalem, and which was taken in rafts to Jaffa and thence car- ried up to Jerusalem. These trees were also used in the construction of David's house, and later in the building of the second temple. A white resin which they (1g WOVE “UNM AAS) LAT ANAYIXA AHL, NO TWdVHO WINOMVIN HL ONIMOHS “IAOND AVCHD PHL NI 82 FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 83 exude served in the ancient process of embalming. These trees (Cedrus libani), called by the natives ‘“Arz,” are a local variety of a widely distributed species. ‘The wood is cream color and works up easily, much resembling soft pine. This grove stands on a small hill situated at 6,315 feet above sea-level, and above it rises ab- ruptly the lofty Jebal el Arz, whose sum- mit is seldom without snow. The Christian natives attach a sanc- tity to these trees, and here is held an annual feast, to which pilgrims flock from all directions. It also serves as a delightful summer camping place. At the time of our visit a number of fam- ilies were encamped among the trees, in- cluding some of the professors from the American College at Beirut, who, with their families, were here for their sum- mer vacation. WHEN DID SOLOMON LIVE? While sauntering through the grove we encountered the Maronite priest in charge of the chapel. He asked how we liked the cedars, and in reply we ex- pressed our admiration, but said it was a pity there were so few left. He replied, “So they have been for 4,000 years, and history tells us that they have been just as you see them since the flood.” “But,” we remonstrated, “Solomon got all his timber for the building of his temple from these mountains, so there must have been many more.” “It is true,” he said, “that Solomon got his timber here, but that was long before what I have just mentioned.”’ A peasant stand- ing by, regarding with awe the wisdom of the priest, added, “You see, khawaja (gentleman), these trees,” pointing to some of the smallest of the cedars, “have been growing since the days of Christ.” As we turned away we mused upon this new leaf of history, that Solomon. lived before the flood, and that it takes 2,000 years for a cedar to attain a di- ameter of about 18 inches. Shortly after noon we reluctantly left the cedars, as between us and Baalbek there lay 10 hours on horseback, and we wished to deviate a little from the direct road, so we pushed on so as to shorten the next day’s work. Soon we came to the very steep ascent of Jebal el Arz (Cedar Mountain), which brings one to the top of the pass 7,700 feet above sea-level, while to the north towers a higher peak, Dahr el Ko- dib, 10,050 feet. Both sides of this pass were covered with a thick layer of finely crushed stone, as if a gigantic stone-crushing ma- chine had been at work for ages. The upper part of the ascent had to be done on foot, as well as all of the descent, for the horses’ feet buried themselves in this loose mass, which kept slipping from under them at every step. This road has been described as akin to those encoun- tered in Alpine climbing. ON THE ROAD TO BAALBEK The view from the top was superb. Far below, to the east, lay Baalbek and the great plain on which it stands, like a raised map, terminated by the Anti- Lebanon and the snow-capped peak of Hermon. To the east, far down through the beautiful valley we had traversed, Tripoli and its bay were plainly seen, and all bathed in shades of transparent blue. Descending to Aineita, we spent the night in the priest’s house. It is a small, poor village, lying just on the upper edge of the timber-line. The houses, all but the little church and a couple of others, are built of small stones without mortar, with low ceilings and with roofs of rough timber covered over with clay to shed the rain. The house of the priest, which might be taken as a typical one, consisted of three rooms, two on one side and one on the other, connected by a roofed court. Native mattresses were spread for us on the floor and native quilts of exceptional thickness and weight served as covers. Everything was remarkably clean, and the night we had been dreading was passed comfortably. THE LAKE OF VENUS By dawn we were en route for the vil- lage of Yammouneh and the mountain lake of the same name. The latter in winter is large, but by the end of sum- mer has dried up, even though it is fed A TYPICAL CEDAR OF LEBANON, AS USED BY SOLOMON IN BUILDING THE TEMPLE “And Solomon sent to Hiram, saying, . . . Now therefore command thou that they hew me cedar trees out of Lebanon; . . . for thou knowest that there 1s not among us any that can skill to hew timber like unto the Sidonians. . . . And Hiram sent to Solomon, saying, . . . I will do all thy desire concerning timber of cedar, . . . My Servants shall bring them down from Lebanon unto the sea: and I will convey them by sea in floats unto the place that thou shall appoint me, . . . So Hiram gave Solomon cedar trees and fir trees according to all his desire’ (1 Kings 5: 2-10). IN THE HEART OF THE CEDAR GROVE, SHOWING THE CONTRAST BETWEEN THE OLD AND YOUNGER TREES The big tree in the center, while not the largest, is one of the oldest. These trees were much admired by the Crusaders, who attempted to introduce them into Europe. Some of these efforts were successful, and at Warwick Castle, in England, there are still some famous old cedars planted by one of the crusading earls of Warwick nearly 800 years ago. oO On THE SIX PILLARS THAT REMAIN OF THE GREAT TEMPLE “These lofty pillars do not taper as they appear to do when seen from below.” Behind the pillars is seen the Temple of Bacchus. The Great Temple was dedicated to Jupiter, identi- fied with Baal and the Sun, and with him were associated both Venus and Mercury, under whose triple protection the ancient city of Heliopolis was placed. The extreme license which ESE worship in this temple is often referred to by early Christian writers (see text, page 99). 86 ONE OF THE DOORWAYS LEADING FROM THE GREAT WHICH MAY HAVE BEEN FOR THE USE OF THE COURT INTO A SMALL ROOM PRIESTS: BAALBEK The ruins at Baalbek were first visited in modern times in 1507, by a German, Martin von Baumgarten, and again, in 1555, by a Frenchman, Pierre Belon, who wrote two books upon the subject. Much damage was caused by an earthquake in 1759, the disorder then occasioned remaining till 1901, when the German Archeological Institute intrusted the work of clearing and excavating to an expedition headed by Professor Puchstein, under whom admirable work has been done. 87 66 36rd “}X0} 99S) jYystoy ul Joop , aman TI ZI St oinjqeyqejua oy} ‘][R UT “You suo oY} soyIeot ATIIeq JUSSI} SIY} JO WOO ayy YIM JPAd] @ UO Surpurys uew je} y MHWMIVVE -HIdNAL LVAD AHL FO AOINWOD NY TIva HHL TO NOLLOWS Vv 88 es FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 89 constantly by numerous springs around its shores. ‘There is no visible outlet. The natives account for this in various ways. Some of them say that the water finds its way by a subterranean passage to the other side of the mountain range, where it flows out, forming the spring called Afka. They base this theory on the fact that the fountain increases its flow and also diminishes and ceases its flow simultaneously with the lake. On the shore of the lake.is a ruin, cen- sisting of large blocks of drafted stones, which is said to be the remains of a tem- ple of Venus. Local mythology claims this as the lake in which Venus, when pursued by Typhon, changed herself into a fish.* Shortly after leaving Aineita until we struck the Plain el Bika (the ancient name being Ccelesyria), the broad valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, these mountain slopes were covered with forests of wild oak, juniper, almonds, and pears. The latter were fu!l of fruit, and a proportionate number of small stones lodged among the twigs, thrown up by youngsters in their attempts to bring down the fruit. The forests are now denuded of about all their tall, straight trees, and those now left are short and gnarled. Seen from a distance, this low range looks black in comparison with the higher ridge, which is bare of trees and there- fore called in Arabic Ras el Akrah (the Bald Head). THE WONDERFUL RUINS OF BAALBEK From these forests to Baalbek on the other or eastern side of the plain there was little of interest, except large herds of camels and their young, until we came to the column of Yaat, which is an iso- lated shaft 65 feet in height, composed of 16 drums of limestone crowned with a Corinthian capital. Traces of an in- scription can be seen near the base, which, however, does not disclose its secret, and one can only guess why and by whom it was built. A half hour’s ride to the southwest brings us to the world-renowned ruins * History of Baalbek. Michael M. Alouf. of Baalbek, an adequate description of which would fill a volume. These ruins, properly speaking, are known as El Kalla (Citadel) and are composed of only two temples, and they do not cover a large area when compared with other ruins in Syria. They are, however, unique in their massiveness and in the great amount of both bold and delicate carving with which they are adorned, of which there is so much and in such variety as to make one’s first visit quite bewildering. Since these temples were built on a flat plain, it was important to raise them above the surrounding level to render them more imposing, and to that end there are vast substructures of vaults and passages supporting these shrines. THE GREAT TEMPLE The Great Temple, or the Temple of Jupiter, as it is called, had its main en- trance from the east. Here a wide flight of steps led up to the propylea, 19 feet above the gardens and orchards that now surround the ruins. This portico was open to the east the full width of the stairs, and the worshipers used to enter between rows of columns, on the bases of three of which are inscriptions stating that the temple was erected to the “great gods” of Heliopolis by Antoninus and Caracalla. At an early period the Arabs converted these temples into a fortress, and to a certain extent remodeled them. The columns mentioned were removed, the staircase taken up, and the material used to construct a solid wall where the columns had been. Next came the hexagonal forecourt, entrance into which was made by means of a central doorway, with a smaller one on each side. This small court was sur- rounded by a colonnade, and on four of the six sides by exedre. The Arabs have also blocked this three-fold entrance and converted the exedrz into fortifications, filling them with brick masonry. WORK OF THE GERMAN ARCHEOLOGISTS Since the visit of Emperor William to these ruins, in 1898, a body of German excavators were sent to Baalbek, who worked here from 1901 to 1904, and LI HIVANHH ONIGNVLS aunolM AHL Wow GINIVIGO Ad “WIGNAL SIHL HAOPV LING NOLLVOMILIOA OlaVUV AHL ALON NvO ‘IVIMOd LVAD AHL AO AZIS AHL JO VACI AIWOS ‘SOHOOVA WO WIdNAL AHL FO GNA LNOW AHL FO MAIA QC ANCIENT MATERIALS FROM RUINS OF ONE OF THE MOSQUES AT BAALBEK, BUILT OF THE TEMPLES Although the population of Baalbek now numbers only about 5,000, it was in the middle ages a flourishing and well fortified Moslem city, which was visited and described by the Arab geographer Abulfeda, Prince of Hama (see page 109). The mosque shown above probably dates from the reign of Sultan Kalaun (1282). So well fortified was Baalbek that, while the Crusaders raided the valley several times, they never succeeded in taking the city. OI (66 1OVd “LXAL TAS) ATIWAL LVAID AHL JO NOMOWMIG THT WOW MAA :SAHOOVE AO WIaWaL (66 a8ed 9} 99S) d1nzPIqQeUS ey} JO IYsIOY SUINT 94} JO 9ZIS ay} JO UOda.U0D aWOS YyoIyYM Aq ‘ULUN[OD 4SVT 94} JeoU “yJa_ dy} UO Surpurys a \eu dy} 9 IVVG :SAHOOVE AO WIdNAL AHL JO MAIA WAH LONV LOOKING OUT THROUGH THE GREAT DOORWAY, TEMPLE OF BACCHUS The native in the doorway supplies an approximate scale of measurement. Note how, through the cleavage of the inside face of the door post, to the right, the winding stairs leading to the top of the building are exposed. THE GREAT PORTAL INTO THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS (SEE TEXT, PAGE I01) The view of this exquisite portal was long obstructed by an Arab screen in the vestibule. This was removed by the famous orientalist, Sir Richard Burton, when he was British consul at Damascus, in 1870. He also propped up the cracked door-lintel, which has since been more firmly secured by the German archeologists. . , oe EXAMPLES OF PLAIN AND FLUTED COLUMNS, TEMPLE OF BACCHUS Note the great doorway seen between the columns. The structure at the top of the picture is the remains of the Arab fortification, which is also shown from the other side in the picture on page 90 (see text, page 101). 96 INTERIOR OF THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS On the wall to the left is a tablet in late Arabic art, put up by the Turks to commemorate the German Emperor’s visit in 1898. The modern and ancient styles of art may rudely clas but as the visit resulted in the expedition under Professor Puchstein, it well deserves com- memoration (see text, page &9). JYSIt ay} Ur Ppunoise10F Ud9S SI }X9} OY} Ul pouvoljusM sjotvUIW oteNbs 94} JO 9UQ “PUNOISI10} OY} UT SasnOY JO sojA}s Ja}Jaq pue Jat00d jo sajduiexo 9}0N SWOH JO MHAIA IVAANAD 08 FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO 99 every visitor owes them a debt of grati- tude. They not only dug down and re- moved the debris, but strengthened weak parts, and, where necessary, they have removed the Arabic work so as to make the original plan more easily compre- hensible to the visitor. However, it was not entirely a disinterested work, for the Berlin museums now possess many of the finest examples of the carvings found here. The workmen built a narrow staircase where the broad old one used to be, have torn away the wall constructed over the bases of the columns, and have opened an entrance through a great block of stone which was placed across the cen- tral doorway into the forecourt, so that today we enter again as did the Roman worshipers of old. Proceeding inward we pass through a triple entrance into the Great Court, or Court of the Altar. It is about 440 feet long by 370 feet wide. The central portal, as well as one of the smaller side ones, has fallen in, and the pieces which formed the arches have been collected and laid together on the ground below the place where they had originally been. Around this court, on three sides, omit- ting the west end, where a staircase led up to the level of the Great Temple, are square and semicircular exedre, each of which contain many handsome niches for statues, of which, unfortunately, not a single example remains. These were de- signed as resting places for the devotees who came here to worship. In front of these exedrz ran a colonnade of polished Egyptian granite surmounted by an en- tablature bearing carvings of rare beauty. The columns have all fallen and now with fragments of their entablature and capitals lie about the court. HOW THE CHRISTIANS USED THE TEMPLES In the center of the court, rather nearer to the steps ascending to the temple, stands what is left of the large altar. On each side of it is a pool or basin used for ablution in connection with the religious rites here observed. When these temples were taken pos- session of by the Christians, a church was erected over this altar, part of which was destroyed, and then the space leveled up with the earth so that the church floor was above the top of the altar; so, also, the lower part of the staircase was filled over, while the upper part was removed to accommodate the apses. The construction of this basilica is at- tributed to Theodosius, Roman Emperor of the East, who reigned towards the end of the 4th century of our era. The Great Temple was demolished to furnish materials for the construction of this church. The idea was to obliterate heathenism by placing this Christian shrine right in the center of this renowned temple of the heathen gods. As it seemed to work in best, the apses were placed as above described on the west, with the entrance from the east. Later this was considered unorthodox, and an apse or apses were built at the west end, so that now traces of them appear at both extremities of the ruins. The Great Temple itself has been al- most entirely destroyed. All that is left are six columns of the peristyle, still standing im situ, capped with Corinthian capitals and joined by ornate and mas- sive entablature. These lofty pillars do not taper as they appear to do when seen from below (see page 86). They are over 60 feet high and 7% feet in diameter and are each composed of three drums. The deep entablature is also in three layers, the uppermost, or cornice, having a gutter cut in its upper edge to receive the rain water from the roof, and at in- tervals mammoth lion heads with open jaws serve as spouts. In all, this entab- lature measures 17 feet in height (see page 88). THE TEMPLE OF BACCHUS One can perhaps best mentally recon- struct the Great Temple by an inspection of the smaller one, dedicated to Bacchus, which lies to the southeast of the Great Temple, entirely independent of it and on a lower level (see pages 92 and 93). It had no court, but was entered by a flight of steps from the east. The walls of the cella, which is ob- long, are quite plain on the outside and are built of carefully dressed stone, the “RITAG YOY pue YON fo ABMYSIY & UVaq SuO] SPY SMOG HU YIM Ysnosy} Ad][ea ay} ynq > UOSIIIT OF ISN 9]}}I] FO St pue ‘o[qesiAeuUN ATUIeU SI 47 ‘sHixy pue ‘uoydAy ‘ooelqd 94} Se UMOUH Uso OS[e SeY jt PUL ‘*SoLIT] [BOISSE[D UL JOATI SIY} JO} posn seM SoJUOIQ sWeU 34] SNOH LV SHALINOYO YHA AAW 100 FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO joints so perfect that a knife-blade can- not enter between. Around this at a dis- tance of 10 feet runs on the two sides and ends a row of smooth columns which forms the peristyle. These, including their capitals, are about 52 feet high and are surmounted by a magnificent entablature. This en- tablature is connected with the walls of the cella by enormous slabs of stone, which are elaborately carved with the heads of emperors, deities, and inter- woven with floral designs, forming an exquisite ceiling. While the walls of the cella are still perfect, more than half of the columns forming the peristyle have fallen, the north side being the best preserved. Not- withstanding the profuse ornamentation of the peristyle, it is exceeded by that of the portal to the temple, which is indeed the gem of the entire edifice (see page 95). The door posts are elegantly carved with figures of Bacchus, fauns, cupids, satyrs, and bacchantes, woven around which are grape-vines and clusters of fruit, also poppies and ears of wheat, all of which are symbolical of the attributes of the revelling god to whom the temple is dedicated. This great doorway stands 43 feet high and 21% feet wide, while the carv- ing of the posts just mentioned covers a space about 6 feet wide. On both sides of this door stand graceful fluted col- umns, forming the prostyle or portico, while the plain ones of the peristyle, which stand behind them, seem to re- flect their beauty. The decorations of the walls of the interior of this temple resemble the carv- ings of the exedrz of the Great Court, having two rows of niches for statues one above the other and divided perpen- dicularly from each other by engaged fluted columns. As already mentioned, these temples stood on a raised platform resting on substructures. The Great Temple lies 44% feet above the level of the plain and is the highest part of the entire in- closure, while the Great Court was only 23 feet lower. 101 THE ENORMOUS MONOLITHS OF BAALBEK An inclosing wall, the mammoth stones of which have been the marvel of engi- neers for ages, deserves mention. ‘The lowest courses are built of stones of mod- erate dimensions, but which grow rap- idly in size until we come to a row of three enormous stones, the shortest being 63 feet and the longest 65 in length, and each being about 13 feet high and 10 feet thick. The course of which they form part is some 20 feet above the sur- face of the ground. They are the largest building blocks ever known to have been used by man; and a still larger one lies in the ancient near-by quarry, never having been de- tached from the rock beneath. This one is 70 feet long by 14 by 13 feet. In addition to the Acropolis, as the ruins described are called, there are at Baalbek several other objects of minor interest, such as the Temple of Venus. At the hotel in Baalbek we met an in- teresting Turk. He was traveling, being sent out by a newly established depart- ment of agriculture at Damascus, with a carload of American and European farm machinery for sale or exhibition to the peasants. He had a very clear concep- tion of the reforms needed to aid the agriculturist in Turkey, and his eyes snapped with delight as we drew from our scanty knowledge of what the De- partment of Agriculture at Washington had done for our American farmers. A short train ride northward from Baalbek, first through a flat valley which broadened into a plain, brought us to Homs, a town of some 60,000 inhabit- ants, located on the banks of the River Orontes, which here flows far below the level of the plain, so that the town lies cradled, invisible to one approaching it, until almost upon it. A large mound rises to some height above the level of the valley, on which at one time stood the citadel of the town. The houses are built of unbaked bricks and have flat roofs, with some better edifices constructed of black basalt deco- rated with white limestone. There are numerous minarets, but very unlike the 102 ordinary type. They are square and do not taper upward, and instead of a bal- cony arrangement for the muezzin, or caller to prayer, a window is provided on each side, the top terminating in a sort of dome. THE UBIQUITOUS ADVERTISEMENT Homs, the ancient Emesa, which has _a varied and interesting history, today gains its living as a market for the large Bedouin tribes of the adjacent country. The bazaars remind one quite a good deal of Damascus, as one wanders through them, seeing here a man work- ing a primitive hand loom, on which he turns out bright fabrics for which Homs is noted, and there a small spice shop, and again a dyer, with hands stained dark with indigo, hanging up his wet cloths in the street. When we had lost ourselves in these strange surroundings, which seemed to place civilization at a remote distance, our eyes were struck by a placard, on which appeared in bold English “Use Fel’s Naptha Soap.” On the outskirts we came across nu- merous potters’ shops, where large water jars, some 20 inches high, were being turned out by ancient methods. The plain ones retailed at 214 cents each, while those striped with bands of red and otherwise decorated sold at double this price. Further on were extensive threshing floors, where the grain was being threshed out with appliances that have probably been in use for thousands of years. | Here we also found limekilns, the fuel being a common pricker that grows in the wheat fields and which has to be col- lected and transported from a distance requiring two to three hours’ travel (see page 103). We were often told that we would find the people of Homs and Hama very fanatical and anti-European, but our ex- perience did not bear this out. We found them very polite and not averse to being photographed. Moreover, we never heard the familiar word ‘“bakshish,’ the only person who asked for a tip being a tired native wo- man, who had been carrying bunches of THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE thorns all day to the limekiln, when she was asked to hold her bundle up while a picture was being taken. When the money was handed her she seemed to be ashamed of herself and only took it after much persuasion. ‘The secret lies in the fact that they have not been spoiled by Europeans. If you want to see the Arabs at their best, take them where they have not been tainted by outside influence, for, like most primitive peoples, they more readily take on the vices than the virtues of civ- ilization. A TEST OF KEEPING RAMADAN On our return to the town we were stopped by a native, who seemed to be a friend of our carriage driver and who asked him if he was keeping the fast. The driver replied that he was. “Then,” answered the friend, “by Mohammed, the prophet of Allah, show me your tongue.” The driver produced that mem- ber and the questioner used both hands to draw the jaws open wider in order to complete his examination, after which he turned away, shaking his head with a kind of unexpected satisfaction, mutter- ing to himself, “By Allah, he is really fasting.” We said nothing, for not long before we had seen him, while waiting for us, go into an obscure corner to sat- isfy his hunger with some bread he had with him. Curious windmills are to be seen here on the tops of some of the houses. Round disk-like pans of sheet-iron are fastened to wooden arms and are so dis- posed that the wind striking them causes them to revolve. A curious custom also obtains of en- snaring domestic pigeons. Our atten- tion was called to it by seeing a man on his housetop swinging round over his head what resembled a huge tennis racket, only instead of the tight strings a loose bag was attached to the frame. Over him hovered a large flock of pig- eons. We were told that his own pigeons decoyed others which followed and were caught. After being taken, if they proved to be the property of a friend they were returned, but if of an enemy they were kept. They did not regard it as stealing, A NATIVE LIMEKILN Large tracts of Syria are completely destitute of trees, and consequently anything in the nature of fuel is exceedingly scarce. Often the only tree to be found is a small, scrubby thorn bush, which nevertheless has its value. The woman shown in the picture had collected fuel for this limekiln at a distance requiring between two and three hours’ travel. 103 ‘TIVYANAD WATER-WHEEL AT HAMA CALLED “NAURAT EL KELENEY” These water-wheels, which in working make the most curious and discordant noise, not unlike a brass band in which every instrument is out of tune, not only serve to supply the town of Hama with water, but they also irrigate the adjacent gardens (see text, page 109) 105 ee WALLY MA Wad SZ [nodv “VNVH LV .VaNVN,, ISHouvl FHL 100 ‘}x0} 99s) AemM jaivd dn suos Surarvy J9}Je TOA oy} OJUT yYOrq Suiddoip oq oy4 ION ‘dn 19}8M dy} OYL} WII dy} UO SjayoN [[PUS I[IYM “TIAII oY} JO UOTJOW 4JIMS dy} Aq puNo le UdAI VAVH LV ,VanvNn YIdNOd V »* NATIVES OF HAMA WASHING WHEAT IN THE ORONTES and ground in mills, making “borghal,” which is the chief food of this ‘en shown in this picture are all peasants and do not veil their faces 108 FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO but viewed it from the same standpoint as the Bedouins, who raid their neighbors for what they can get from them, as long as they are not friends. HOW THE ORONTES GETS ITS ARABIC NAME The country over which we passed after leaving Homs was at times quite level and free from rocks, planted in watermelons and yellow corn; then again it would become quite rocky and covered with boulders of tufa; and still again, as we neared Hama, level and rich with extensive vineyards. The fallow ground was as if sown by nature’s hand with countless wild holly-hocks in bloom. At times the road ran quite near the edge of the Orontes, whose turbid waters flowed along many feet below the level of the surrounding plain. It is called in Arabic “El Asi,” which means stubborn or unwieldy. We asked a native why this name was given to the river, and he gave the following explana- tion: “A Jew once filled a bottle with water from the ‘Sea of the Nile’ (the Arabic name for the Nile River) and came to this country to perform magic with it. Our Lord Ali* met him and asked what he had. The Jew denied that he had anything, but when hard pressed, he threw the bottle against a rock and a river issued forth. Our Lord Ali bade it stop, but it would not, and so he named it El Asi.” A fellow-passenger ques- tioned if this were an actual fact, to which our informant replied that a look at the color of the water proved it, for it was exactly like that of the Nile. Finding our friend communicative, we asked him what use this corn was put to which here grew so plentifully, but was not known in Palestine. Opening his capacious jaws and gesturing with his fingers, he answered, “To eat; and when the loaves are hot they are mighty good, but when cold it would take one of Ibrahim Pasha’s cannon to force it down -Olie > throat.” THE HOME OF THE ARAB GEOGRAPHERS Shemsi Bey, to whom we had a letter -of introduction, met us at the station at *Ali, the caliph and successor of Mohammed. 109 Hama and took us to his home, where we were guests during our stay. After a sumptuous repast, we began our in- spection of the town. It much resembles Homs, and like it is located on the Orontes, has a mound crowned by a citadel, and cannot be seen until one is right upon it. Like every part of this region, Hama has a checkered history. It is first men- tioned by the prophet Amos as “Hamath the great’ (Amos 6:2). A small mosque called Jami el Haiya (Mosque of the Snakes), so named from its two inter- twined columns, contains the tomb of Abulfeda, Prince of Hama, whose geo- graphical work is still renowned. Under his rule Hama prospered until his death, in A. D. 1331. The famous Arabian geographer, Ya- kut, is said to be a native of Hama, and while we were there we heard of a manu- script written by him which is in the pos- session of one of the rich families of the town. If one would know the full beauty and picturesqueness of Hama, let him climb to the top of the citadel hill, and around will be spread out a scene which cannot be outdone in Syria. An Arabic proverb says that three things make the heart of man glad—water, vegetation, and beautiful faces. Here we have the first two, and other features in combina- tion, whose value is enhanced by con- trast with the arid lifelessness of the country which surrounds it, for at the time we were there the wheat fields were all harvested and bare. THE WATER-WHEELS OF HAMA The Orontes flows through the town and drives the large water-wheels, here called naura. They serve not only to supply the town with water, but also irrigate the adjacent gardens. We had long before heard of these singular wheels, and in fact had seen similar ones at Antioch. As we began the ascent of the citadel hill, creaking, groaning, and other weird sounds reached our ears. It at first suggested a pipe-organ, then a brass band practicing, and it was not until, after a little time, the top of one of them came into view that we realized [ony 10; pasn ‘amueu parsp JO ose soprd peoruos soypeus oy, “Av[D Fo Suryeod 1oyno sy JnoY}M Uses St 9UCG Odd VIV MVAN SHOVTIIA ASOOH AAIHWAA UVITNOAd AH AO WNO 110 FROM JERUSALEM TO ALEPPO that these sounds came from the water- wheels. A large crowd of men and boys fol- lowed us around during our inspection of the water-wheels and the town, but were very courteous and went out of their way to show us little kindnesses. Small boys bathing in the river would, for fun, get in between the spokes of the wheels and allow themselves to be carried around many times, or they would hang on the outside of the wheel and drop back into the water when half way up, which made the faces of the old men who were looking on beam, undoubtedly reminding them of like achievements in their boyhood days. Our cameras were a source of much curios'ty, and a peep at the ground glass was considered a treat. AN EVELESS EDEN A couple of long streets arched over with masonry were the chief bazaars and were in their aspect Oriental in the extreme. Here Bedouin men armed with sword and pistols jostled townsmen in a variety of native dress. Not a Euro- pean suit was to be seen except our own. A few swarthy daughters of the desert, with their tatooed faces and flowing gar- ments of indigo, were the only females we saw. In fact during our entire stay at Hama we did not see a towns-woman, Christian or Moslem, veiled or unveiled, upon the streets. We understood that the Moslem men are very particular about their harenis, and the Christians likewise as to their ladies. The men are very fond of outdoor life, and spend their summer evenings on the banks of the river sipping coffee and lis- tening to the curious music of the nauras. At Hama one can witness a most crude method of printing cotton goods. The operator sits cross-legged on the ground before a low table, on which is laid the hand-woven cleth. He dips short blocks of wood, with patterns carved upon them, into a dye mixed with. gum arabic and presses them upon the goods. It re- quired six to eight impressions to cover the width of the cloth and a great num- ber of them to complete the length of a small bolt, and this tedious operation had to be repeated with every color used. 11) ryA am oi : lhe finished article resembles a very coarse Persian shawl and is sold to the peasants to cover mattresses with, A VISIT TO THE MARKET GARDENS As we were going out from our friend’s house to visit the souks, or mar- kets, our aged hostess, a Christian wo- man, followed us out into a garden, through which our path lay, and accosted two wrinkled, gray-haired men, one of whom was handling the plow and the other dropping seeds into the furrow. “May Allah give you strength!” sounded the voice of the old lady. “And may Allah strengthen you,” replied the two men. “May your crop be blessed,’ re- turned our hostess. “By your pres- ence,’ both murmured. After exchang- ing more elaborate salutations, which are common among the Arabs, she learned that they were planting corn for roasting ears, but on only half the tract. “We are keeping half to plant with bits of soot,” said one, with a roguish twinkle in his eye. “Soot! What do you mean?” “To raise negroes” (slaves), came the reply. We had now advanced too far to hear the end of the conversation, but on our return we found the old men resting under the trees, sitting on their heels. Their long-legged cows were unyoked and chewing their cud, while the wife of one of the men was cutting up water- melon to feed to a couple of half-starved sheep. We asked how their negro crop was coming on, and did not have to wait for the answer. “Khawaga (gentlemen), we are poor and own nothing. The land all belongs to the Effendis, and they ex- act the rent from us whether we get a crop or not. Now it is Ramadan, and during the fast they use much water in their homes, so very little of the water the wheels turn up, which we need for our vegetables, gets to us. But we dare not complain. Life is getting so hard here. We realize but one mettalic (1% cents) for a rottle (six pounds) of egg- plant, and tomatoes are only half that price. So I thought if I could only plant some negro slaves they might bring me better returns.” We parted, all laughing, and we walked away reflecting that even here, pinched VIEW OF ALEPPO, SHOWING THE CITADEL DOMINATING THE TOWN Note the round minarets with balconies, in contrast with the square minarets of Homs. A minaret of the type most common in the Moslem world is shown near the great dome to the left of the picture. by poverty, the heart was still young that throbbed in that dried-up old case. The low price of many commodities was noticeable. In the market we ob- served a sweet-meat vendor, on one side of whose tray was a little pile of the money his produce had brought in, but of it all there was no coin representing more than a fraction of a cent. THE BEAUTY OF THE LARGER HOUSES Most of the townspeople are rich, and it is said that about two-thirds of the farming land of the surrounding villages is owned by a few of the influential fam- ilies. The houses of the wealthy much resemble those of Damascus, with a II2 large open court in the center, where a fountain of water plays. We visited several, one belonging to the heirs of Muaiyad Bey being espe- cially interesting. One guest-chamber contained a small fountain ; the windows were of colored glass, and the walls were covered with woodwork, ornamented with carving and stucco work in elegant floral designs, relieved with pictures and inscriptions with dates, one of which made the work about 200 years old. The general color was a commingling of deep reds, blues, green and brown on a back- ground of gold and silver, which were reflected through the semi-transparent colors. One of the panels held a picture Te EE RIT HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY of the citadel hill, crowned with a fort, mosques, and houses, surrounded by a wall, the approach to which across the moat resembled the one still to be seen at Aleppo. Leaving Hama and the Orontes, with its gardens and water-wheels, which ex- tended some way up along the course of the railroad, we found ourselves rolling over a lifeless plain, except for here and there a flock of sheep with Bedouin shepherds. With each flock was a small donkey as a mount for the shepherd, and which followed the sheep almost like one of them, as they ran away in terror of the train. THE “BEEHIVE” HOUSES We now came into a region where we found a peculiar style of village, com- posed of “beehive houses,” so called on account of their similarity in shape to the abodes of bees (see page II0O). 113 The country is destitute of trees from which to hew rafters, and in parts there is no stone at all, and therefore the na- tives resort to building these curious structures of sun-dried bricks with high and steep domes, so as to resist the heav y rain and snow storms which prevail here. Fach home consists of several of these huts standing near together and_ sur- rounded by a wall of similar materials. One or more is used to live in, another ‘is for the animals, and still another serves as a granary, and so on according to the possessions of the proprietor. We pulled up at Aleppo, one of the greatest cities of the East, a once som- nolent mart, whose past prosperity and importance as a center of commerce is fast returning to it with the advent of the railway, now in the course of rapid construction, which is to connect Con- stantinople with Bigdad. HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY HE annual banquet of the Na- tional Geographic Society, held on January I1, 1913, at the New Willard Hotel, Washington, was marked by several features of more than usual interest. The 700 members and guests had the satisfaction of hearing the announcement that the total membership of the Society had grown to the very gratifying total of 170,000, the Society thus ranking, in point of numbers, not only as the first geographical society in the world, but also as the largest educational association ‘in existence. But no statistics, however satisfactory, could have accounted for so large and so distinguished a gathering. It was, as Ambassador Bryce remarked, ‘“‘an occa- sion which had never happened before and could never happen again,” a unique event in geographic history, for those present saw the discoverer of the South Pole meet the discoverer of the North Pole, from whose hands he received the special gold medal voted by the Society as the tribute of the American people to his great achievement. With Capt. Roald Amundsen as its guest of honor and Admiral Peary as its toastmaster, the Society had before it two men who had literally come from the uttermost ends of the earth to enjoy its hospitality. As would be expected on such an occa- sion, there were representatives from almost all the embassies accredited to the United States and from nearly every State in the Union. The one note of regret was sounded when Ambassador Bryce, an old and tried friend, made his speech of farewell to the members of the Society. It was a speech worthy of his fame—graceful, witty, learned, and kindly reflecting the personality of the great English states- man and scholar who will soon leave these shores to pass the evening of his life in his native land. When he goes no good wishes will follow him more cordial and sincere than those of the National Geographic Society. The encouragement of agriculture was represented by the novelty of the menu, which this year consisted of a fruit new to America—the Chinese jujube. 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A quarter of a century ago a few score of men assembled in the Cosmos Club and organized this Society and elected Gardiner Greene Hubbard its first President. The Society has had a wonderful growth in its membership, and today its members number 170,000. The business of the Society has likewise grown, and the total income last year from all sources was $370,000. Of this amount, after paying the running ex- penses and spending some $14,000 in geographic research, the sum of $50,000, more or less, was added to our reserve fund, which now stands at a total of about $175,000. We have carried on geographic re- search this year in Peru and on the east coast of Hudson Bay and have made an examination of Katmai volcano, in southern Alaska, which broke out seri- ously last summer. The theme this evening is the South Pole. We are fortunate to have with us Capt. Roald Amundsen, the hero of the South Pole, to whom is to be awarded a gold medal by the Society. The Toast- master this evening is Robert Edwin Peary, the hero of the other end of the earth. I have the honor to present Ad- miral Peary. THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY Mr. President and fellow-members of the National Geographic Society: I fancy it is superfluous for me to say to you how deeply I appreciate the honor of being elected by the Society as Toast- master for this distinguished occasion. I will say to you that I recognize fully that the first qualification for the posi- tion of Toastmaster is to let the others do the talking. L145 Before beginning with the program of the evening I am going to read two an- nouncements to you, the first in regard to the special delicacy which you will have the opportunity this evening to test. I might say that our members and guests always appreciate and welcome the op- portunity given us by our friends, the Secretary of Agriculture and his assist- ants, to test some of the discoveries made in foreign lands by the agricultural explorers of the Department. Two years-ago the members of the Society were the first at a large function to test the American-grown dasheen, im- ported from China. Last year Amer- ican-grown dates, imported from Africa and grown in California, were served to us. This year we are given the oppor- tunity of tasting some preserved Chinese jujubes. The story of their discovery in China and of their cultivation in America is told on the printed matter which is placed at every plate this evening. AWARD OF GRANT SQUIRES PRIZE The first award of the Society from the Grant Squires fund, relating to com- merce and industries of the Orient, has been made to the author of ‘Farmers of Forty Centuries,” Mr. F. H. King. This book is an exhaustive study of the meth- ods by which a very populous nation have been so skillfully cultivating their lands for more than 4,000 years that the fields of China are today more fertile than when first cultivated by man. ‘That is a wonderful record. Mr. King’s book represents what the Society believes is an ideal study of foreign places. This Society, among other efforts in the wide field of research which it has undertaken, has been assisting in ex- ploration in South America, and the first speaker of the evening will be the leader of the Yale-National Geographic Society Peruvian Expedition during the year 1912. This expedition, under the leader- ship of Dr. Bingham, has performed a most interesting work, and procured, af- ter trials and tribulations, most valuable material. I have the pleasure of introducing Dr. Hiram Bingham, who will tell us of the home of the Incas and their predecessors. 116 THE YALE-NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY PERUVIAN EXPEDITION BY HIRAM BINGHAM Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentle- men: I must confess that I feel rather chilly, having recently come from the tropics and finding myself so close to both poles. In fact I am reminded of an experience a friend of mine had in the Northwest, where so many of our most healthy American citizens are from the land of Captain Amundsen. This friend had the bad taste to try to take an automobile trip, bumping over some of the unmacadamized roads of the district and losing some of his tools. He finally ran into trouble and looked for a farmer to help him out of it. He asked the farmer if he could borrow a monkey- wrench. ‘The farmer looked very sad and said, “I don’t think so, my friend. My father he got cattle ranch, and my brother John, he got sheep ranch, but I think it too damn cold here for monkey ranch.” Nevertheless, it is a great pleasure to talk with members of the National Geo- graphic Society about Peru, for one does not have to explain, as my good friend the Minister from Peru has to do some- times, where Peru is. I went down on the steamer with a healthy young Amer- ican from Chicago, who was spending some of his father’s money in securing an acquaintanceship with South America, and he asked me confidentially a day or two before we got to Lima, if I would please tell him whether Lima was in Peru or Peru was in Lima. THE EXPEDITION TO PERU When we got to Lima we received that very cordial reception from the Peru- vian government which I have always received on going to Peru. We were given every facility, and it is a pleasure to take this occasion to thank the govy- ernment of Peru, through the Minister, for the many courtesies we received. In fact those who know the character of some of the mountain Indians will realize that it would have been quite impossible for us to have done our work had it not been for the kind assistance the Peruvian government extended to us on account THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE of our connection with the National Geo-— graphic Society and Yale University. I do not hold it against the Minister that when I got to the wharf in Callao some one (I think it was a reporter from a Lima paper) said to one of the officials to whom I had been introduced, and who was courteously passing all our baggage without any examination or difficulty: “Who are these people?” The customs official said: “Oh, some of them are scien- tific men.” “And who are the rest?” “Well, the rest are professors.” In 1911 we began a _ topographical cross-section of the Andes, which, owing to the tremendous difficulties of the undertaking and the magnitude of our program, we were unable to complete. Owing to your generosity, we were able this year to take an expert topo- graphical engineer and a corps of as- sistants, who did excellent work, and whose work I hope you will all live to be proud of. We also made a special study of the osteology and geology of the Cuzco re- gion, and came to the conclusion that the human remains found there last year were not nearly so old as had been at first supposed. One of our principal geographical tasks lay in the identification of several, cities and towns described in 1911. In particu- lar, there was that remarkable ‘White City,’ a remarkable buried city, away down in the jungles on the Urubamba River, below Ollantaytambo, which place was supposed by Squier and other stu- dents of Peruvian archeology to be one of the frontier fortresses of the Incas. Down below this place, and buried in jungle, we found a city called Machu Picchu. THE FIRST CAPITAL OF THE INCAS That is an awful name, but it is well worth remembering. The city, built of white granite, is on top of a ridge sur- rounded by precipices from two to three thousand feet high, above the Urubamba River, at a distance of four or five days journey from Cuzco, the well-known Inca capital. Last year we were not able to do more than make a reconnaissance of this old city, but we realized that it HONORS BO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY was very important and were anxious to study it more, and to try to find out something about its builders. We could find nothing in the chronicles anywhere. No one, with the exception of a few In- dians, had ever heard of it. The name was not known in Cuzco, only a few days’ journey away. Nobody in Lima had heard of it. Fortunately, owing to your interest, and largely through your generosity, we were able to go back this year and spend four months and a half at Machu Picchu. We spent about $2,000 simply in clearing the tropical jungle from these ruins and excavating them, taking off the dirt and decayed foliage that had accumulated for many centuries. We found the city had 150 houses, built of white granite; palaces, temples, and more especially stairways. We un- covered over 100 stairways of white granite, containing a total of more than 2,000 steps. This does not include sev- eral stairways leading off into the jungles and up the side of the mountains, one of which was nearly half a mile in length. We found also that Machu Picchu was a city essentially of windows. Standing at one point, after we had cleared the ruins, we could count in the walls of the houses about 55 windows—a very extra- ordinary occurrence. This fact leads me to believe that Machu Picchu was the place from which the Incas came when they started for Cuzco and established the Inca Empire. When we went down there last year we were looking for Vitcos, the last capi- tal of the Incas. By accident, in running down those ruins, we stumbled on the first Inca capital. As it was owing to your generosity that we were able to make these and several other important discoveries, I take great pleasure in thanking you on behalf of Yale Uni- versity. We hope eventually to be able to prove by our excavations and the ma- terial we have brought away the connec- tion of Machu Picchu with the later Inca Empire.* *An early number of the Nationa, GEo- GRAPHIC MAGAZINE will contain a complete ac- count, with 150 illustrations, of Dr. Bingham’s remarkable discoveries. 117 THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY I may say, supplementary to Dr. Bing- ham’s brief, modest, and interesting re- marks in regard to his work, that his discoveries of these ancient cities have astounded the scientists of the world. We have with us tonight the beloved familiar face of our old, tried, and true friend, an indefatigable globe-trotter, who has been everywhere on earth except, perhaps, at the poles. He is the repre- sentative of our cousins across the sea, one of whom, Shackleton, pioneered the way to the South Pole, and another of whom, Scott, is still down there, or, as we hope, may be now on his way home with a splendid record of exploration and scientific work. I do not know what Ambassador Bryce is going to talk about any more than you, nor do I need to know; but whatever he says will be worth saying and it will be well said. His Excellency the Right Honorable James Bryce, Ambassador from Great Britain. ADDRESS BY THE BRITISH AMBASSADOR, MR. BRYCE Mr. President, Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentlemen: | am very much honored by being asked to say a few words to you this evening, and | feel that it is a real privilege to be present on an occasion so historic that it makes us all feel as if we were historic figures ourselves. This is an occasion—a conjunction of discov- erers—that has never happened before and can never happen again. My friend, Professor Bingham, says that he felt cold in the neighborhood of the poles. I have the honor of being between the two poles and therefore in a warm climate. I suppose I cannot call myself the Equator, for that honor be- longs to your President, who is exactly in the middle. May I claim, being nearer the South Pole, to represent the tropic of Capricorn? It is a great occasion, ladies and gen- tlemen, when we meet both of the dis- coverers of these two remotest and least accessible parts of our earth. They have accomplished that which all nations have 118 dreamed of for centuries as doubtfully possible at all, and that has been accom- plished by the enterprise, courage, science, perseverance, and faith of two such re- markable men. Their names will go down to the remotest posterity, and it is a privilege to all of us to have met them on the first occasion when they are to- gether. As we heard from Admiral Peary two years ago, so we heard from Captain Amundsen, a narrative of his achievements—plain, simple, straightfor- ward, modest, impressive. I cannot fancy listening to what he told us today without being struck by the fact that the man who approached his great task in so simple a spirit and with such a forecasting mind showed his qual- ities in the way in which he told it as well as in the way he accomplished it. A TRIBUTE TO PROFESSOR BINGCHAM’S WORK You will hear, from those who are to succeed me, more about the South Pole and about what Captain Amundsen has done. Jet me therefore say one word about what our friend, Professor Bing- ham, has done. His modesty has pre- vented him from giving you anything like a full account of the additions he has made to geographic knowledge. He has cleared up some very long-standing and difficult problems in primitive Peruvian history; he has explained many features of the neighborhood of Cuzco which had puzzled previous inquirers; he accom- plished in his previous journey a remark- able ascent of one of the loftiest peaks in the Andes, and he has now secured a mass of archeological material which I think will occupy him and your arche- ologists in this country years in collating, describing, and interpreting. I think, ladies and gentlemen of the National Geographic Society, that you may now feel well pleased with the gen- erous liberality which your council ex- ercised a year ago when it made a grant for the undertaking of this expedition by Mr. Bingham. The expenditure has been amply justified and amply rewarded by that which he has discovered and brought home. THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE WHAT GEOGRAPHIC DISCOVERIES REMAIN FOR THE EXPLORER? I remember, on: one of the previous occasions when I had the honor of ad- dressing you, observing that those of us who care for geographical science seemed to lie under the danger of having, sooner or later, our theme exhausted. We have not yet found a means for the exploring of any other part of this universe except our own planet. With our planet so limited in its area, and now rendered so comparatively accessible in every part, with its population growing so fast, and the number of its explorers increasing, it is natural to believe that before very long there will be no great discoveries left to make. Certainly no discoveries remain to be made so striking as these which have been made of the two poles. We may, however, comfort ourselves by reflecting that there is another kind of work to be done, and the work which Professor Bingham has done seems to me to show how large that work is and how full of interest and instruction it may be made. Professor Bingham has taken a region which has been known, more or less, since the time of the Span- ish Conquest, in the middle of the 16th century; but he has revealed immense fields of further inquiry, which had not been little thought of until he went there. Has not the time come when we may apply to geography what may be called, in the language of agriculture, “inten- sive cultivation,’ when we may begin to bestow upon the surface of our planet a study so full, so exact, so carefully sci- entific, that we shall examine every part of it from the point of view of the vari- ous sciences and from the point of view of the events that have happened since man found him strong enough to deal with and overcome nature. Orography, seology, botany, meteorology, zoology— all these sciences are the handmaids of geography. THE OBSOLETE TERM, “MAN” In the largest sense of the word, they may all be called branches of geographic science, which is nothing less than the HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY 119 whole knowledge of our globe, and which is to be worked out by study applied in these various departments. That is to be supplemented also by a study of history of what man has done in these parts of the world where nature permitted him to settle and thrive. So you may say geog- raphy is the meeting point of all these sciences, a great stream into which they all pour their tributary brooks. Geog- raphy tells us what Nature has offered to Man and what Man has made of Nature. Possibly I should apologize for using the perhaps obsolete term “man,” con- sidering that some of your Western States, following in the wake of Aus- tralia and New Zealand, have recently transferred the political, as well as the social scepter from man to woman, and especially considering the fact that this victory is going to be celebrated in Wash- ington upon the third of March by a pro- cession. I will therefore withdraw the obnoxious term and say “human _ na- tires” MR. BRYCE’S FAREWELL Ladies and gentlemen, I reflect, with sadness, that this is probably the last oc- casion on which [ shall have the pleasure of meeting you here—at any rate, as the representative of my country. I wish to take this opportunity, in saying farewell, of thanking the National Geographic So- ciety for its constant invitations to my wife and myself, and not only for the hospitality we have received from you, which we have warmly appreciated, but also for that welcome which doubles the value of your hospitality. Among all the pleasant gatherings which we have been privileged to attend in Washington, among all the friends whose constant kindness we gratefully acknowledge, here and elsewhere through your country, there are no gatherings which we shall look back upon with more pleasure and with a more grateful mem- ory than those of the National Geo- graphic Society. Here we have rejoiced to meet many who were interested in the same subject, who were alive to all the movements of the world and were eager to help them forward. Here we have al- ways noted and been impressed by the feeling which has pervaded your gather- ings, that all nations and all men of sci- ence and learning ought to be united by ties of sympathy and mutual helpfulness in endeavoring to advance science and learning and to promote also the peace and good understanding between nations which ought always to go therewith. To be present at such gatherings as this has been to us a constant pleasure. We shall always remember them, and we venture to hope, ladies and gentlemen, that some- times you will remember those friends who have left you to recross the Atlantic and who will never forget you. May I express my wish for the con- tinued growth, prosperity, and useful- ness of this Society, which in so short a time has attained a position of such prominence among the geographic socie- ties of the world, in its numbers as well as in its activity. It is the hope of all your English fellow-workers that for centuries to come the members of your Society may still find something fresh to do, and that their zeal and earnestness may know no weariness or abatement. THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY I voice the thought of every one in this room when I say I sincerely hope that Ambassador Bryce’s prophecy may not come true, but on the contrary we shall many more times have the pleasure of welcoming him and Mrs. Bryce here at the meetings of the National Geo- graphic Society. Comments upon Am- bassador Bryce’s remarks are impossible and superfluous. Diplomat, student of people and countries, whenever he speaks the fullest measure of pleasure and in- struction goes to his hearers. Our next speaker is a successful man of business affairs, one of our prominent legislators, a man who has felt and seen and believes in the extension of geo- graphic instruction. Whatever he may have to say upon this subject of the need of geographic knowledge will be well worth our consideration. I have the pleasure of introducing to you Hon. William C. Redfield, of New York. “Peed “DO WeTTTM “SAT + 19YSIy “T F972 AM “JOlI9}UT 9Yy} FO Areya190g oY} § ‘AJWIOG IYydeisoar) [euONeN JUapiss1g “Wjouuey Asuayfy ooAIG sowel "T PUPM SIN + PPUPEM “D WRIA eAnejuosoidsy ‘Aivag “q yoqoy ° oY} Suey oulepey] suey, ulA suryD “Ay ‘JoIsIUIPY osourYD oy, +918 § TVIOAdS HHL “ATIOd HLNOS AHI, JO VWAWTAOOSIC ‘NASGNOWV @IvOud OL INTL vee ee ee ft IN AEMION WOTe JIISIETPY IY}. play puviossnf ‘{ *{ ‘topessequiy youasy oy *OAIG “SIP : puvsossnf owepryy ‘Jopessequiy YSi}itgq oy} SAreag “| Weqoy suespunury pyeoy {s9ysi7 SIP. /weysurg weilfy :uolapyed oleusy UOT IOUS “JoJstIuly UeIAIlog JJ9] SWso1}x9 OY} UO SurTuUIseq ‘a[qe} oy} ye dnoss ayy UI S1oy}O OY, €161 ‘Il AUVANVE ‘ALAIOOS OIHaVADOND 'IVNOMLVN AH JO ‘Tya"N C109 NUSHad “A’l0Od HIMON AHI, FO WAWTAOOSIA ‘ARAVA TVALINAV HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY MR. REDFIELD, ON THE NEED OF GEOGRAPH- ICAL TEACHING Mr. President, Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentlemen: If we may follow the geographical parallel, the position in which | find myself this evening is that of the English Channel, which separates Great Britain from France. It has a somewhat unsavory reputation, but I venture to hope it may not add tonight to the evils which it has visited hereto- fore upon suffering humanity. I am but a voice this evening to men- tion a need and to offer a suggestion, neither more nor less. It is somewhat embarrassing, when one has tried faith- fully to teach a working force of sup- posedly intelligent young Americans something as to where some places are on this globe, to be told by one of them, in answer to a question, “Where is Ja- maica?” that it is an American island in the Pacific Ocean. It is almost as bad to be told in Manila that a large Boston firm wrote to a house there on the 8th of June demanding payment of an ac- count, and wrote again on the 25th of June wondering why they had not re- ceived a response. It is also equally bad to be told that a large New York concern referred an actual inquiry from Panama to its agent in the Philippine Islands. I have, unfortunately, been obliged to make an effort to employ young Amer- ican men and women who were sup- posed to have some elementary knowl- edge of geography. I have never found it possible to get one with those qualifi- cations. I think that statement, if you mean by “elementary” the fact that there are continents, is not correct, but if it means any sort of useful knowledge that was available at call as to where the im- portant countries and cities of the world were, I believe it is correct. ‘That is to say, if you attempt to employ young peo- ple of from 16 to 25 years of age at any pay running from $10 to $20 a week, you will not find it practicable to obtain from any of them a ready, ordinary common knowledge of the chief cities of the globe. I think that statement is well within the fact. 121 I doubt very much if a graduating class in our universities could answer correctly 20 out of 25 rather ordinary geographical questions. For example, let us take a practical illustration out of every-day office life. THE LACK OF GEOGRAPHIC COMMERCE KNOWLEDGE IN A shipment of machinery is to go to the town of Bandoeng, in the center of Java, and we will call our clerk or tell our stenographer to find out whether this shipment should go by way of Rotterdam and by Dutch steamer to Batavia and thence by rail, or whether it should go to London and thence by P. and O. steamer to Colombo and then via Sing- apore to Batavia and thence by rail, or whether it should go west by way of San Francisco and Manila and Hongkong, on a chance of catching the steamer for Soerabaja or Semarang and by rail from either point. I imagine, Mr. Toastmaster, that some of them are caught now, and yet, ladies and gentlemen, with the exception of Bandoeng, there is not one place men- tioned that is not a large seaport of prime commercial importance. Not one of those cities but has daily in its harbor many large commercial vessels. There is not one of the towns mentioned with which this country is not in daily, if not hourly, communication by mail and wire, and the statements I have made are taken from facts out of the ordinary commonplace work of a business office. Our clerks do not know, and there is no place in America today where our young people can get the thorough teach- ing that will give them a working knowl- edge of where these places are. Every day young women as stenog- raphers and young men as clerks are called upon for this knowledge, and their employers are keeping kindergartens to instruct them because the schools do not. It is not the fault of our young people, but their misfortune. That is a very plain statement of a commonplace fact that every business man who is engaged in foreign com- merce knows all about. It is a very seri- ous handicap. 22 THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE HOW TO REMEDY IT The suggestion is this: Cannot this So- ciety, in some way, learn the facts as to the ignorance of the average American young man and woman on the subject of geography? Secondly, having learned them, cannot this Society, in some way, standardize, or attempt to standardize, geographical teaching ? I can say for one very large organiza- tion of business houses that if young men or women were to apply to any of the 150 concerns therein represented, bearing some sort of a certificate that the school in which they had learned geography con- formed to the standards set by the Na- tional Geographic Society, employment would be quicker for these people and wages would be higher. I make the sug- gestion that something of this kind may possibly, in time, be started, because another scientific society, finding a similar state of ignorance in another line, is now attempting to formulate some standard of instruction that will be country-wide. At the present time, however, our school- taught young men and women of 18 and 20 years of age do not know practically enough geography to trust themselves out at night alone. THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY There is certainly much need for thought in Representative Redfield’s re- marks. If ] might venture, I would sug- gest that if Mr. Redfield and others would be willing to utilize their com- manding positions to assist this Society in the construction, either here or in New York, of a great globe on a scale of I to t million—which is a scale advocated by representative national geographic con- gresses for a universal way of the world— that such globe would enable the business men, the traveler, the student, and the school children to keep in touch with the big as well as the small details of geo- graphical information, which information could be transferred to this globe from time to time as secured over the world, thereby making the globe continuously up to date. work on such a globe as that would count for more than days of reading of geographical books. An hour or two of visual Across the water there is a sunny land—the birthplace of the automobile, the leader of the world in aviation today, a country in the front rank of every sphere of human activity. The sons of that country have written French names within the Arctic and the Antarctic. The last of these, Jean Baptiste Etienne Auguste Charcot, the National Geo- graphic Society has elected an honorary member in recognition of his splendid re- searches and explorations in the south polar regions. The certificate of his elec- tion will be received for him by another illustrious Frenchman, also our friend and long acquaintance, His Excellency Monsieur J. J. Jusserand, the French Ambassador. ADDRESS BY THE FRENCH AMBASSADOR, MR. JUSSERAND Though prevented from being present at the comestible part in tonight’s cere- mony, I greatly desired not to miss it altogether, not only because I was sure Admiral Peary would speak with his. wonted forceful eloquence, but because I have made it a rule ever to be present when Captain Amundsen is honored for having discovered a pole. Five years ago we celebrated together the deeds of this Viking’s son and of his. good ship, Gjoa, with which he had, shortly before, ascertained the exact po- sition of the north magnetic pole, and seconded by a crew of six men had, first of all sailors in the world, navigated that northwest passage vainly attempted by innumerable predecessors, from the 16th century to our time. Like the present occasion, that one was- brilliant and memorable, and I am not the only person in this assembly who was. there and still cherishes its remembrance. The members of the National Geographic Society were present in imposing num- bers; at different tables several explorers. of fame were seated; pointing to one of them, a neighbor of mine at table said: “You see that gentleman with the long” mustache? Many are making the at- tempt, but if the North Pole is to be reached by any one, it is he who will do it: he is called Peary.” All the world now knows whether my neighbor was or not a good prophet. ; i A BRANCH OF THE JUJUBE TREE, LOADED WITH FRUIT, GROWING IN CALIFORNIA American-grown jujubes were first served in the United States at a great public function on the occasion of the Annual Banquet of the National Geographic Society, January II. These jujubes represented one of the tangible results of agricultural exploration as it 1s carried on by the Department of Agriculture. [The jujube is one of the five principal fruits of China, and has been cultivated tor at least 4,000 years. A Chinese work published 800 years ago listed 43 named varieties; hun- dreds are described in the more modern works. In China this fruit is highly esteemed, and there are hundreds of varieties, differing in shape, size and flavor. There is even a seedless one and one as large as a hen’s egg. Some are eaten fresh and others are candied and dried or used for preserves. The seedless sort is stewed with rice, much as we use raisins. The jujubes served at the National Geographic Society banquet were grown at the Plant Introduction Garden at Chico, California, and had been candied in syrup and_ dried. Many of the varieties thus preserved have almost exactly the shape, color, and flavor of dates. Here, then, is a new fruit as delicious as a choice date and capable of being grown hundreds of miles further north than the date palm. Trees growing in Washington, D. C were entirely uninjured by temperatures as low as 17 degrees below zero last winter. 123 124 THE ACTIVITIES OF MR. BRYCE And while others were exerting them- selves in far-off lands, most of us Wash- ingtonians were staying at home, anxious for news, but very quiet in this beautiful city. Some exceptions there were, how- ever, one being my British colleague, who was present at the other dinner and is also with us tonight; he did not re- main dormant; it is not his fashion. Sure it is that he has in the interval increased the number of his travels, of his books, of his speeches, but not, to all appear- ances, the number of his years. Between the dates of the two dinners memorable deeds have been accom- plished, causing the unique event which we are going to witness to be possible. Those hands will clasp before us that have planted the flag of their country at the extremities of the world. We went yesterday to the Masonic Temple, holding tickets in our hands. The carefully devised inscription on them read: “Admit to the South Pole,” and we were indeed admitted there. With his clear, plain, straightforward manner of expressing himself, Captain Amundsen truly led us to the pole. We took part in his undertaking, his dog- breeding establishment, his clever prepa- ration, and his long, long journey across unknown solitudes, till at last the goal was reached, Queen Maud’s Land was baptized, and Norway’s flag planted where no man had set his foot before. The orator spoke calmly ; we can scarcely do the same when talking of what he has achieved. In its kindness the National Geo- graphic Society has desired to associate a French name to the famous ones we are honoring tonight, the name of Dr. Jean Charcot. THE EARLY FRENCH EXPLORERS IN AMERICA In the dash to the pole, France, it is true, took no decisive part. There is, however, some dash, I dare say, in my nation, but the kind of discoveries which have ever been the special aim of her sons are the inland ones. While others were exploring coasts we, from the first, have taken a particular pride in assum- THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE ing the often hard task of exploring the interior of countries. This was con- spicuously done on this continent when those singularly bold expeditions of our early explorers took place which are just now the subject of admirable arti- cles by President Finley. The valley of the Mississippi was as a whole first ex- plored by French people, and the names of Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans first appeared on French maps. The same in Asia with Bonvalot, Dutreuil de Rhins, Pavie, Lefévre-Pontalis, and all the others; the same in Africa with Fou- reau, Lamy, Brazza, and their peers. We did not, however, entirely neglect the polar regions; witnes; those sailors whose names have just been recalled by that good judge in such matters, Ad- miral Peary, witness especially the work done before Charcot by Dumont d’Ur- ville, with his tiny frigates, the Astrolabe and the Zélée, and his visit, toward the end of 1837, to the Great Barierwees he sailed along he sighted a rift and drove his ship through the narrow chasm, which closed behind him. For five days he’ was there a prisoner, with no apparent hope for his life and that of his crew, when a lucky storm caused a cleavage in the ice which, with the help of saws and axes, they were able so to increase as to bring the ships safe again to the open sea. THE FRENCH IN THE ANTARCTIC On a second expedition, in 1840, he explored vast antarctic regions yet un- known, some still bearing on every map the names he gave them; in particular that of his dearly admired wife, Adeélie, the god-mother of Adélie Land. On his return, in 1841, he was presented with a medal by our Geographic Society, the same medal which the same society pre- sented the other day to Captain Amund- sen in Paris. Dr. Jean Charcot has proved a worthy successor to Dumont d’Urville, and I offer on his behalf sincere thanks for the way in which you tonight so kindly show your appreciation of what he has done. What he wanted was at all risks to be useful, and he succeeded in perfecting our knowledge of an unknown part of HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY the Antarctic Continent, one not particu- larly easy to explore. Acting with the earnest desire to help toward a complete survey of an unexplored section, he dis- carded all idea of duplicating the work of other explorers or of competing with those who, duly prepared for the at- tempt, were planning their dash to the pole. As testified by your award tonight, by the praise which our chairman has bestowed on him, and by the tokens of appreciation conferred on him by his peers in several countries, he succeeded in what he had planned; our knowledge has been considerably increased, thanks to his exertions, and the fatigues and dangers he and his companions under- went have not been wasted. DR. CHARCOT’S ACHIEVEMENTS Owing to his two expeditions, with the Francais in 1904-1905 and the Pourquoi Pas in 1908-1910, presidential names have been added to the royal and im- perial ones, recalling almost all Europe and the United States, too, at the south- ern end of the world. Europe will be more completely duplicated—a quiet, si- lent, snowbound Europe—now that there is a Loubet Land and a Falliéres Land. No poles at present remain to be dis- covered, and the line of coasts of the Southern Continent has been in a great measure explored. What will such men as Shackleton, Charcot, Peary, Amund- sen now do? We do not know; perhaps they do not know. Of one thing we are sure—that is, that whatever they attempt will be worthy of their name; whatever it be we wish them success. THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY It has been my good fortune on sev- eral occasions and on entirely different subjects to listen to Ambassador Jusse- rand, and in every case it has been a dis- tinct and emphatic pleasure. His clear- cut diction lifts as the wings of the aéro- plane and carries us direct to the point with the directness of the automobile. I wish my friend Charcot could have been here tonight to hear of his magnificent work in the Antarctic regions so ably presented. We have with us tonight a man who has had experience in both the tropical 125 and the Arctic regions, and I am going to ask him to give us a few remarks upon his experience in those localities. I take pleasure in presenting Mr. Walter L. Fisher, Secretary of the Interior. SECRETARY FISHER Mr. Toastmaster, ladies and gentle- men: It has been suggested to me that | should say something to you about those far outlying posts of the Department of the Interior in this country, that after all get into the realm of exploration. | have made two very slight voyages of discovery, one to Hawaii and one to Alaska, but on both occasions my object was the investigation of industrial and economic conditions and not of geog- raphy. Of course, I realize that the Depart- ment of the Interior has much to do with the subject with which this Society is concerned. A great deal of the geo- graphical work of the United States gov- ernment is carried on under its direc- tion, the work of the Geological Survey particularly, and in the opening remarks of the President I noted with some in- terest that this Society has spent some money with some energy upon the recent eruption of a volcano in Alaska. HAWAII AND ALASKA The two countries which have been suggested to me have a singular resem- blance and singular differences. I do not know whether all of you have thought of the points of resemblance so much as you have of the points of differ- ence; but if for a moment we consider the fact that Alaska is largely volcanic ; that it contains some of the few active volcanoes of the world; that it has re- cently had the most active eruption, we may see one of the resemblances. The volcano which can be best observed for scientific purposes, the voleano which is most accessible and most interesting to the traveler, is that which exists upon the island of Hawaii. The territories are very different in most respects. I do not know whether I can in this brief notice succeed in re- peating to you something that has been written to describe these differences in verse, possibly not intentional in either ‘s1aqutout 000'0Zr quopisaig qs1y sy yo Ayrureyz oy} Aq awoY S} 1OF¥ AJOIIOG 9Y} OF UOATS seM TV] [Vow] preqqny, ‘yysit oy} uo surpyinq sy sey MoU AJVIN0G dy, “AJaIOOG ay} JO ouIzeseyy oy} Jo Apasepndod Sursvaisut-jdAad ayy Aq Aressadou speur pue uoTjon J}SUO) Jopun MOU ALHIOOS DIHdVADOAD TVNOLLV SUIP[ING 2YyJO MoU dU} SI fa] OY} UO SuIpyIng syy, “stoqtaw ooo’ PeYy AJaIIOG ay}. (€O61) out} Jey} FY “preqqnyT ouse15 s0urpsey N oH. FO ANOH FAY 126 HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY case, and yet if I am able to remember the lines they may carry home some of these distinctive features and may illus- trate the different spirit which pervades those far outlying territories of ours. The island of Hawaii, of course, lies in the tropic or semi-tropic region, and it has a poetess, in the person of the wife of the present Governor of the island, who has written a poem which perhaps describes the sentiment and the atmos- phere of those islands better than any other of which I know. It runs some- thing like this: MY ISLANDS On the edge of the world my islands lie, Under the sun-steeped sky, And their waving palms Are bounteous alms To the soul-spent passer-by. On the edge of the world, dear islands, stay, Far from clamorous day, Content with calm, Hold peace and balm, Be Isles of the Blest for aye! The port of the northern clime is of much rougher variety. I do not know how much you know about the country which got its greatest notoriety from the rush to the Klondike. That rush was celebrated in a poem, which has in it vigorous lines like this: You've read of the trail of Ninety-eight, but its woe no man can tell; It was all of a piece and a whole yard wide, and the name of the brand was “Hell.” But the poem which best describes that land is perhaps the “Spell of the Yukon,” written by Robert W. Service. THE SPELL OF THE YUKON I wanted the gold and I sought it; I scrabbled and mucked like a slave. Was it famine or scurvy—I fought it; I hurled my youth into a grave. I wanted the gold and I got it, Yet somehow life’s not what I thought it, And somehow the gold isn’t all. No, there’s the land. (Have you seen it?) It’s the cussedest land that I know, From the big, dizzy mountains that screen it To the deep death-like valleys below. Some say God was tired when He made it; Some say it’s a fine land to shun. Maybe, but there’s some as would trade it For no land on earth—and I’m one. 127 There’s gold, and it’s haunting and haunting ; _It’s luring me on as of old; Yet it isn’t the gold that I’m wanting So much as just finding the gold. It’s the great, big, broad land ’way up yonder; It’s the forests where silence has lease: It’s the beauty that thrills me with wonder: It’s the stillness that fills me with peace. THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY In the first chapter of Genesis we read that the Creator, after having first sep- arated the light from the darkness and the earth from the land, filled the land with vegetation and the sea and the air with life, creating man, and said: “Let them have dominion over the earth.” Only now, with the attainment of the two uppermost parts of the earth—the North and the South Pole—has that scriptural command become realized. Today there are, broadly speaking, no large regions on the face of the globe that have not been traversed or pene- trated by that incomparable, wonderful, adjustable machine—the human animal guided by the flame of divine intelligence. Ended is that splendid series of great ventures and voyages, beginning with the first pushing out of the Phoenician navi- gators through the Pillars of Hercules into the frightful storms and fearful terrors of the great Atlantic; the crossing of the Equator, where the sun's furnace heat, it was thought, scorched men black ; the rounding of the Cape of Good Hope; Columbus’ splendid launching into the mysteries of the unknown West; the cir- cumnavigation of the globe; the accom- plishment of the Northeast and the Northwest passages; the attainment of the North Pole and the South Pole. Ended is the long list of strange con- ceptions of the shape and character of this world of ours. THE POLAR MYSTERIES VANISH Vanished are those mysterious regions about the two poles, filled with strange imaginary conditions and peoples. Gone is the “Open Polar “Symnes Hole’—the Garden of Eden: the glistening Lodestone Mountain; the huge ice-cap; the great crater-like basin. Though every one in this hall tonight knows that the last of the poles has been discovered, I fancy there are some ot Sea’ — THE SPECIAL GOLD MEDAL AWARDED TO AMUNDSEN BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY you who have not yet grasped clearly the striking contrast in almost every physical condition at those two points. As a matter of fact, the conditions at the two poles are as far apart as the poles them- selves. Yet, though every one of my auditors knows that the last of the poles has been attained, I have no doubt that some of us have not grasped clearly the striking con- trast of physical conditions exist- ing at those two points. Conditions at the two poles are as unlike as the poles are far apart. The North Pole is situated at the center of the hemisphere of the land, yet is itself located in an ocean. The South Pole is situated at the center of the hemisphere of water, yet is itself located in a continent. An explorer at the North Pole stands up on the frozen surface of an ocean two miles or more in depth. An explorer at the South Pole stands on the surface of a great interior snow cap two miles or more above sea level. The most northery North Polar lands possess a comparative abun- dance of animal life—musk-ox, reindeer, Polar bear, wolf, fox, arctic hare, ermine, lemming, and land birds, as well as forms of insect life—and during a few short weeks in summer numbers of bril- liant flowers. On the Antarctic continent there is absolutely no form of animal or vegetable life, though two or three species of sea birds breed during a few weeks in summer at several localities on the coast. Human life is found within some 700 miles of the North Pole. The nearest human life is some 2,000 miles frorm the South Pole. Efforts to attain the North Pole have been going on for nearly 400 ears. Efforts to reach the South Pole date back 140 years. The history of North Polar ex- ploration is studded with crushed and foundering ships and the deaths of hundreds of brave men. The history of South Polar exploration shows the loss of but one ship and the loss of two or three men. In one respect the two poles are alike. ROALD HONORS TO AMUNDSEN AND PEARY Their conquest depended, in the last analysis, upon the first primal machine, the most wonderful and adjustable of all—the animal, man, and the Eskimo dog. THE DISCOVERER OF THE SOUTH POLE Sitting at this table is a man—look in his eyes and try to imagine to yourselves what those eyes have seen—a man who forced his way across hundreds of miles of icy Antarctic waste; climbed thou- sands of feet into the frozen Antarctic air, and stood at last more than two miles above sea level, with a frozen desert stretching from his feet to the horizon, and the yellow sun circling parallel with the horizon, at the South Pole—Amund- sen, of Norway. Amundsen, for your “Antarctic explo- rations, resulting in the attainments of the South Pole,’ The National Geo- graphic Society has awarded you this special gold medal. You already hold the Society’s other grand prize—the Hubbard ‘gold medal— for your successful forcing of the first ship through the Northwest passage, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and for your definite re-location of the North Magnetic Pole. In one respect this medal is unique. Within its yellow circle is crystallized the appreciation of 175,000 intelligent men and women, the members of this Society. In this respect no other trophy you have, or will receive, can equal it. Health, strength, good luck continue with you. CAPTAIN AMUNDSEN Mr. President, Mr. Chairman, ladies and gentlemen: I am not going to try to make a speech here tonight after all these delightful speeches which we have heard delivered from those illustrious and distinguished men here tonight. I am only briefly going to thank the Na- tional Geographic Society for the great hospitality and the great kindness which they have shown me this time. This is not the first time. I came here five years ago and I was received when I came as a stranger, but I went away, as I felt, a good, dear friend. I went away with 129 the highest honors from the Society. The feelings I had at that time toward the Society were highly strengthened by the hospitality and the sympathy which it extended to me here. I certainly appreciate very highly this special gold medal, the highest medal which the Society can bestow upon an explorer. I appreciate it highly, but | also appreciate still more highly the way in which I have been handed this medal. I have been handed this medal, I might say, from the most illustrious of the liv- ing polar explorers. From the time I was a boy I followed Admiral Peary in his work; I was with him when, in 1890, for the first time, he crossed Greenland. I was with him in my thoughts; I was too young to try to follow him, but I have followed him in my thoughts and later in his work. I followed him when inch by inch he worked his way toward the north, inch by inch, foot by foot, and yard by yard until he finally succeeded in planting the Stars and Stripes on the most difficult part of our globe. I am mighty thankful to you, Admiral Peary, for all the experience and all the assistance you have really given me in my work. SOUGHT THE SOUTH POLE WHY AMUNDSEN There is one thing which perhaps not many of you here tonight know, and that is that it was really Admiral Peary who sent me out to the South Pole. I was preparing my trip toward the North Polar regions—it may be to the North Pole—in 1909. It was not very easy to start an expedition from Norway, for it was hard work among us to raise money and I was preparing this expedition slowly. Then suddenly the news flashed all over the world that the North Pole had been attained; that Admiral Peary had planted the Stars and Stripes up there. The money, which had been scarce, now went down to nothing. I could not get a cent more and I was in the midst of my preparations. One of the last mysterious points of the globe had been discovered. 130 The last one still remained undiscov- ered, and then it was that I took the de- cision to turn from the north toward the south in order to try to discover this last problem in the polar regions. » So you see it was really Admiral Peary who sent me away. Well, I thank you, Admiral, for that. I am now going to thank the National Geographic Society for all they have shown me in the way of kindness and hospitality, and permit me, in closing, to wish the Society every prosperity in the future. The President recently told us that the Society at present holds a mem- bership of 175,000, I think the largest by far of the geographic societies in the world. I wish the Society a continued growth, and when I come back from my North Polar Expedition I hope I may find it holding a membership of at least 300,000. THE TOASTMASTER, ROBERT E. PEARY I thank you heartily, Captain Amund- sen, for your friendly remarks in regard to me. You have listened to the words of a man who has accomplished a great thing. I need not go into details. You have heard from his own lips the story of how he pitted red blood, tense muscles, and the insistence of the human brain THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE against the cold, the hunger, the fatigue of the Antarctic hell, and won. The presence of such a man as Amundsen in our midst ought, and [ hope will, spur us as individuals, as So- cieties, and as a nation to take our proper share and part in the great work yet to be done in the Antarctic. There are two ways in which this country could make up for its past leth- argy in Antarctic work and take front rank at once in this attractive field. One is to establish a station at the South Pole for one year’s continuous ob- servations in various fields of scientific investigation. The other is to inaugurate and carry out in a special ship, with a corps of ex- perts, through a period of several sea- sons, a complete survey and study of the entire periphery of the Antarctic Conti- nent and its bordering ocean. We should also set before ourselves the thorough exploration of the region south of Cape Horn, the Weddell Sea region, which is especially within our sphere of influence, together with a trav- erse from the most southern point of that sea to the South Pole itself. Such traverse, with the work of Amundsen, of Shackleton, of Scott, would give us a complete cross-section of Antarctica. p > VOL. XXIV, No. 2 a WASHINGTON GEOGRAIP ENC MAGA ZINIE, FEBRUARY, 1913 aa THE RECENT ERUPTION OF KATMAI VOLCANO IN ALASKA An Account of One of the Most Tremendous Volcanic Explosions Known in History By Georce C. MartTIn Mr. Martin is the geologist of the U. S. Geological Survey who directed the National Geographic Society Alaska volcano researches in 1912 HE volcanic eruption of Mount Katmai, Alaska, of June, 1912, was undoubtedly one of the most violent eruptions of historic times. This volcano was one of the least known of the many Alaskan volcanic peaks, and had been so long dormant that there were apparently not even local legends of its former outbreaks. No observed warnings of its renewed activity were given other than copious steaming and minor earthquakes. ‘These attracted little attention even among the few dwell- ers in that thinly settled land, for dozens of other volcanoes along the Alaskan coast steam freely from time to time. The peak is usually hidden in the clouds, and local earthquakes are so frequent as to cause little comment. Among other people than the few local inhabitants and the comparatively few others who have had occasion to sail through Shelikof Strait, the very exist- ence of Katmai Volcano was doubtless unknown. Then, without warning, on the 6th of June, 1912, the Katmai Volcano pro- claimed itself by a violent eruption. All southern Alaska ,.knew of the event at once, for the sound of the first mighty explosion carried down the coast as far as Juneau, 750 miles away, and was even heard across the Alaska Range at Daw- son and Fairbanks, distant 650 and 500 miles respectively. THE FIRST ERUPTION Those who did not hear the sound of this first blast, or did not feel the accom- panying earthquakes, did not have to wait long for another form of announcement. The column of steam and ash rose sev- eral miles in the air and was immediately seen as far away as Clark Lake and Cook Inlet. ‘This cloud of ash was car- ried eastward by the wind and within a few hours had shed a shower of ashes over all the east end of the Alaska Penin- sula, the east half of Kodiak Island, and all of Afognak Island (see map, page 12), Intense darkness accompanied the fall of ashes. Midnight blackness in the day- time extended as far east as the Kenai Peninsula. Darkness lasted for 60 hours at Kodiak, 100 miles from the volcano. Dust fell as far away as Juneau, Ketchi- kan, and the Yukon Valley, distant 750, goo, and 600 miles. 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