Waar ys 


Smithsonian Institution 
Libraries 


Given in memory of 


Elisha Hanson 
by 


Letitia Armistead Hanson 


erin 
3 


Sigs 
eee 


W27 
THE 
NATIONAL 


GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


VOLUME IV, 1892 


W. J McGer, Chairman 
Hersertr G. OGprEn C. Harr Merriam 


Publication Committee 


INCORPORATED / 
A.D.1888. _4 


WASHINGTON 
PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
1893 


Ei Hoiiing 


NOV 9 1981 
LIBRARIES 


OFFICERS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


1892 


GARDINER G. HUBBARD, President 


HERBERT G. OGDEN } 

EVERETT HAYDEN | 

AS WieG RE BINS ; Vice-Presidents 
C. HART MERRIAM 

HENRY GANNETT | 


CHARLES J. BELL, Treasurer 


F. Ho. NEWELL s 
ELIZA RUHAMAH SCIDMORE /! ecretaries 


MARCUS BAKER 
HENRY F. BLOUNT 
G. K. GILBERT 
JOHN HYDE 


W J McGEE Managers 
T. C. MENDENHALL 

We 18. JRO WADED 

EDWIN WILLITS 


PRINTERS 
JUDD & DETWEILER 
WASHINGTON 


ENGRAVERS 
MOSS ENGRAVING Co. 
New York 


(ii) 


CONTENTS 

Page 

The Evolution of Commerce: Annual Address by the President, 
GARDENER Ge ELUBBARD «2x Sai tate aeese Datars ert itl nm clers, au oloeiseeeteretale 1 
Studies of Muir Glacier, Alaska; by Harry Finitpina Rer........ 19 

Supplement I—Noteson the Geology of the Vicinity of Muir 
Glacier abygele (CUSHING) “45 ee eaee 56 

Supplement II—Notes on some Eruptive Rocks from Alaska ; 
by GHoreE El aWaLETAMS 250.0 5. gas as 63 


Supplement IJ1J—Microscopical Examination of Wood from 
the Buried Forest, Muir Inlet ; by Francis 


Veale ea rag es CONS a ee Meare CeO) SBN oc 75 
Appendix I—List of Plants collected near Muir Glacier ; 
determined by W. W. Rowine............ 79 
Appendix II—Meteorologic Observations.................. 80 
Appendix I]I—Magnetic Observations...............-.8.-0- 82 
Appendix I[V—Suggestions to future Observators............ 83 
Geography of the Air: Annual Report by Vice-President General 
AN, \WY 3 GrReGl hy ois io ats See Ue SIS I eee Rig mito ab ai Con neo eremue ne alec 85 
The Mother Maps of the United States ; by Hmnry GANNETT....... 101 
An Expedition through the Yukon District; by C. W. Hayes...... ily 
Appendix—Cryptogams collected by Dr C. Willard Hayes in 
Alaska, 1891; by Crara.E. CumMINGS... ..... 160 
The North American Deserts; by JoHANNES WALTHER ............ 163 
The Alaskan Boundary Survey : 
Introduction: by dt) C. MENDENEIALI (2 a. aee one eee IL 


JI—The Boundary south of Fort Yukon ;by J.E.McGratn. 181 
IJIJ—The Boundary north of Fort Yukon; by J. Hrenry 


PIS CURUNIEIR ge peaeceme gaye ers ores ses Rem A Mal Ay alan chet Saale cle pera yenta 189 

Collinson’s Arctic Journey; by General A. W. GREELY............ 198 
Notes—Topographic Survey of Canada......................----- 201 
Lieutenant Peary’s Crossing of northern Greenland........ 202 
Geographic Prizes........ Re ware tr tcl: 2 eeptel Bites: 206 

Index to Volume IV...... ROC hee pete eT RE a.) Novak Sahl Une oom 209 
‘ Mile-paee Enel Man OrANOMEHAIe Goose coceuccensnoubeuadenuoddoc i 
Contentspamds illustrations sae cemeer A. see mean bar ae eee iii 
Publications of the National Geographic Society............ Vv 
Fourth Annual Report of the Secretaries................. Bay Maul 
Fourth Annual Report of the Treasurer.................... x 

TR vSyOKOINE Ole tLe) AUK Uy Buoke OlomOMNGTe. aes anaes eeu Goo eaok xil 
Proceedings of the National Geographic Society ............ Xill 

Fifth Annual Report of the Secretaries..................... XX 
HitheAnmaal Report of te Treasurer e454. .4. 9). esse Xxil 
Report ofthe Auditing Commuttecayscy.. 1055 -0s- 246-6 XXIV 


(iii) 


lV National Geographic Magazine. 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
Page 
Plate 1—Front of Muir Glacier and Mount Case, looking eastward. 19 
2—lee, Pinnaclestatiend of Muir Glaciers.) e+ -+-e saree 23 
3—Mount Wright and upper part of Dirt Glacier, from shoul- 
der of Mount) Cases sce. 34 aes Cee tee 25 
A= Wihinte Glaciers fi oy kas ee Rak See ee eae ee 27 
5—The southeastern Tributary, from Tree Mountain........ 29 
6=GurdlediGlacior::5.. sat2 seas ne Pe ne ao nen Eee 3 
7 Mainelice streamnro teins Glacier aan eee ene Bo 
S== Mount] Wario lit 25 cake gle ace tpn arc ena ee cae 35 
== MoumtiYiounens Wins Was ee ee nn ee eee 37 
LO==Miorarmes es set acd + See tee ak Be eee ees ey PO 39 
11—Girdled Glacier, from’ Tree Mountain........-........... 41 
1 2—— BumledbOrests <.) ever see ae se pea oe si Nee apa 5) 
1S ancora lunin, Glaciers as erin tate telah atak ise tency ee ae ee 47 
(4 GeneraleMiap rot) MinieGlacienyar- qe: Gee ae ene seer 53 
J5—Maprotmortherns part online le tener ani er 55 
16=Geolosic Map of Vicinity of MuiriGlacier = 322232 see 63 
17—Estimates of the Map Value of existing Mother Maps.... 116 
i8——Indexivap of the Yukon Disiticthivensssea pees 162 
19—Yukon: District— Sheet liye. seeee ae see ee eee ae 162 
20—NukonvDistict—Sheet 2s se. .hoe ae eee eeee 162 
EIDE ereure dl —hinGdroneslpine: Glacier meee eee eee eer 45 
=| NinGl Ont Ah AUIGleneere GHAI. oo ca ananceccssencsens 48 
3—Diagram illustrating Retraction........°:..--..5. 52 
4—Longitudinal Section of Wood from the buried 
FROKOSE: a... Gen tad deeerede tsqetoe cate Ara ee eee eee 76 


Publications. Vv 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
REGULAR PUBLICATIONS 


In addition to announcements of meetings and various circulars sent to 
members from time to time, the Society issues a single serial publication 
entitled THe Nationan Grocrapuic MaGazinr. During the first two 
years of the existence of the Society this serial was issued in quarterly 
numbers. With the beginning of the third year of the Society and the 
third volume of the MaGazine the form of publication was changed, and 
the serial now appears at irregular intervals in parts or brochures (desig- 
nated by pages and designed either for separate preservation or for gather- 
ing into volumes) which consist either of single memoirs or of magazine 
brochures made up of articles, notes, abstracts and other geographic 
matter, together with the Proceedings and other administrative records 
of the Society. 

The Magazine is mailed free to members of the Society and to exchanges. 
The first three volumes, as well as the separate brochures of the fourth 
and the complete volume, are sold at the prices given below by the Secre- 
tary, Mr F. H. Newell, U. 8. Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. 

To To the 
Members. Public. 


Volume I, 1889: 4 numbers, 334 pages, 16 plates and 26 


THOUS Siarye Wak ans mee ai ae Man b a P $1 40 $2 00 
Volume IT, 1890: 5 numbers, 344 pages, 10 plates and 11 

HVOTUE S earn h> eer iy genset aoa sho gio 1 40 2 00 
Volume ITI, 1891: 5 brochures, 296 pages, 21 plates and 8 

LOUIE Se ee ay. ec eben. a coseaieih re 1 60 3 00 


Volume IV, 1892: Comprising— 
The Evolution of Commerce; Annual Address by 
the President, Gardiner G. Hubbard: pp. 1-18, 


IVI CID OAS OMe ala skate ccin Sade amee a a sy isere a $0 10 $0 25 
Studies of ie Glacier, Alaska ; by Harry Field- 
ing Reid: pp. 19- 84, pls. 1-16, cveren Za, WES) 7d 1 00 


Geography of the Air; Annual Report be Vice- 
President General A. W. Greely: pp. 85-100, 


IWikareela IKSE AUCH) 203 mhaltesste ds \ nig iat tates va: cea eeere er oten 10 25 
The Mother Maps of the United States; by Henry 
Gannett: pp. 101-116, pl. 17, March 31, 1892... 15 25 


An Expedition through the Yukon District; by C. 
Willard Hayes: pp. 117-162, pls. 18-20, May 15, : 
HS OD Ria Sele PO TC vet I, da Blame aa nage cs x= Gc ER avg 3 50 


Magazine brochure, pp. 163-208, February 8, 1893. 20 50 
Administrative brochure, pp. 209-213, i-xxiv, 
Retonmarve 2 0; SOS ns ages ety te ears. b lara isse 15 25 


vl National Geographic Magazine. 


IRREGULAR PUBLICATIONS 


In the interests of exact bibliography, the Society takes cognizance of 
all publications issued either wholly or partly under its auspices. Each 
author of a memoir published in Tun Nationa GroGRapHic MaGAZzInE 
receives 25 copies, and is authorized to order any number of additional 
copies at a slight advance on the cost of press-work and paper: and these 
separate brochures are identical with those of the regular edition issued 
by the Society. Contributors to the magazine brochures are authorized 
to order any number of copies of their contributions at a slight advance 
on cost of press-work and paper, provided these separates bear the original 
pagination and a printed reference to the serial and volume from which 
they are extracted; but such separates are bibliographically distinct from 
the brochures issued by the Society. The Magazine is not copyrighted, 
and articles may be reprinted freely; and a record of reprints, so far as 
known, is kept. 

The following separates and reprints from volume iv have been issued : 


a 


Edition uniform with the Brochures of the Magazine 


Pages 1-18: 125 copies, March 26, 1892. 
‘i 19-84, plates 1-16: 500 “ if ale ee 
i 85-100, eo i aS Net 
‘¢ 101-116, plate 17: Dai sie os Bil, 


“117-162, plates 18-207 225 “ Ilene TS, 
Special Editions 


Pages 163-176: 50 copies, without covers, February 10, 1893. 
a IRS es Ay 6 “ “ GB 


(75 198-200: D5 (13 (3 “ 73 ce (13 
73 201-202 : 25 66 ce (14 (13 (75 (13 
(5 Vv: 1,500 66 6c (73 (T9 7, (73 


Reprints 


2, plate 16: 50 copies, with covers, March 30, 1892. 


Pages 56-6 
Al 4 16 : 100 (73 (73 (19 (13 66 (13 


(73 56 


FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARIES 


(Presented to the Society December 28, 1891) 


Membership—The Society was organized in January, 1888, 
with a membership of 165. At the end of the first year the 
membership was 209; of the second, 228; of the third, 392, 
and at the end of this, its fourth year, the membership is 480. 

Since the last annual meeting the membership has been in- 
creased by the election of 78 new members. It has been de- 
creased by the resignation of 11 members; by the death of 3 
members; by the failure to qualify of 14 members; by declining 
membership 8, and by the dropping of members for non-pay- 
ment of dues 4. There has thus been a net increase of 38 mem- 
bers, and the present membership is 450, as above stated. 

The deceased members were Mr Z. T. Carpenter, Hon William 
Windom, and Mr A. E. Woodward. 

The membership is classified as follows : 


INCH p or ta eect er a eu 33 

WOE SP OM Ohne Mees Ns, <0 ome oe ae ck nie alta ear ae 92 

LIB leas ere e tt py sn Gey. eres Oe aa ee 5 
"TROLS tas ei) note ere aR PRM RnR OER MAAS 430 


Meetings——The Society has held 25 meetings during the year, 
of which 11 were for the reading and discussion of papers; 11 
were free public lectures; one was a public lecture at which an 
admission fee was charged; one was a field meeting at Shendun, 
Virginia, June 3 and 4, and one was the annual business meet- 
ing. Of these, 15 were regular and 10 were special meetings. 

Board of Managers.—The Board of Managers has held 17 meet- 
ings for the transaction of the business of the Society. The aver- 
age attendance was 9; the largest attendance of the 17 members 
composing the board being 13, and the smallest 4. 

There is one vacancy in the board, caused by the resignation 
of Captain Rogers Birnie, Junior, on May 15. 

Explorations.—The work of exploration in Alaska begun last 
year was continued during the present one. Funds for the pur- 


(vil) 


vill National Geographic Magazime. 


pose were provided, as last year, in part by private subscription, 
in part by payment from the treasury of the Society, and in part 
by the United States Geological survey. Material aid was also 
kindly furnished by the Revenue Marine bureau of the Treasury 
department and by the Navy department in transporting the 
party from Puget sound to Alaska and return. 

The exploration was led by Mr I. C. Russell, geologist, of the 
United States Geological survey, who with six men left Port Town- 
send May 30 on the United States revenue steamer Bear, Captain 
M. A. Healy commanding, and reached Icy bay, Alaska, June 6. 
A distressing accident occurred at the very beginning of the ex- 
ploratory work. When landing in the surf at Icy bay, three 
boats were capsized, resulting in the drowning of six persons, 
viz, Lieutenant L. L. Robinson, Cockswain James Hassler, and 
seamen T. F. Anderson, Archibald Nelson and Henry Smith, 
and Will ©. Moore, a member of Mr Russell’s party. 

This mournful accident did not, however, as it might easily 
have done, defeat the plans for the summer’s work. After 
landing, the party at once proceeded on its difficult way across 
the broken ice of the Malaspina and Agassiz glaciers toward 
mount Saint Elias, and established a permanent camp at an 
elevation of about 8,000 feet. From this permanent camp a 
climb of abowt 6,500 feet more toward the summit was made, 
when they were driven back by storms. Stormy weather con- 
tinued for 12 days, when it was decided to be unwise to wait 
longer merely for the purpose of scaling the summit. Reluc- 
tantly, therefore, the party returned to Icy bay, measured a base 
line about three miles long, and determined the altitude of mount 
Saint Elias by vertical angles taken from each end of the base 
line, the resulting height being 18,100 feet. This work com- 
pleted, the party proceeded southward and eastward along the 
border of Malaspina glacier to Disenchantment bay, studying 
and photographing the peculiar phenomena there exhibited. 
Entering Disenchantment bay and proceeding toward its head, 
a large and hitherto unknown arm of the sea was discovered 
lying east of and parallel to the eastern shore of Yakutat bay. On 
October 8, the work of the season having been completed, the 
party was taken on board the United States steamer Pinta, Lieu- 
tenant-Commander Washburn Maynard commanding, trans- 
ported to Sitka, and thence returned by mail steamer to Port 
Townsend. 


INCORPORATED 
A.D.1888. 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 


President: Hon Garpiner G. Hussarp. 

Vice-President of the Air: General A. W. Greery, U.S. Army. 

Vice-President of Life: Professor C. Harr Merriam. 

Vice-President of the Sea: Lieutenant Everrerr Haypen, U.S. Navy. 

Vice-President of Geographic Art: Henry Gannerr, Chief Topographer 
U.S. Geological Survey. 

Vice-President of Land: Professor T. C. MeNDENHALL, Superintendent 
U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. 

Vice-President of Commercial Geography: General R. N. BarcHELDER 
U.S. Army. 

Secretary: Mr F. H. Newest (Washington, D. C.). 

Corresponding Secretary: Miss E. R. ScipMore (Washington, D. C.). 

Treasurer: Mr Cuarurs J. Beit (Washington, D. C.). 


GOLD MEDAL AND GEOGRAPHIC CERTIFICATES FOR 1693 


The subject of the Essay in competition for the Gold Medal and 
Geographic Certificates of the NaTioNAL GEOGRAPHIC SOcIETY, for 
the year 1893, will be— 


THE RIVER SYSTEMS OF THE UNITED STATES. 


ANNOUNCEMENT. 


The NarronaL GrocraPHic Society, with a view of encour- 
aging the study of geography in the public schools of the United 
States, has instituted gold medals and certificates which are to 
be awarded annually, in each state, to such pupil of a public 
high school as shall write the best origittal geographic essay on 
a subject to be selected by a committee of the Society. It is 
intended that each essay shall pertain to the continent of North 
America, and that it shall be comprehensive in its scope and 
limited in its length, so as to afford opportunity for originality 
of treatment. The codperation of State Superintendents of Kdu- 
cation is sought by the Society. The best essayist of each state 
will receive a certificate of proficiency from the NatronaL GEo- 
arapuic Socrery. The Geographic Gold Medal of the NaTtonaL 
GrograprHic Socrery will be awarded to the best essayist of the 
entire country, while the second essayist will receive a certifi- 
cate of honorable mention. 

The subject of the essay for 1893 will be: The River Systems 
of the United States. 


RULES. 


1. Essays will be received only from such public high schools as form- 
ally announce their intention to compete by May 31, 1893. 

2. All essays must be entirely composed by the student, who must cer- 
tify on honor that he has not received aid from any person. 

3. No essay shall exceed 2,000 words in length. é 

4. In each state the Superintendent of Public Schools, if his cobperation 
can be secured, will select, by such process as he deems advisable, the 
three best essays, which shall be passed on by a committee of the 
NatronaAL GroGrapPHic Society in order to select the best essay for each 
state and for the United States. 

5. The certificate issued to the best essayist of each state shall set forth 
in proper terms that , being one of essayists from —— public high 
schools in the state of ——, is awarded this certificate by the NaTronan 
GrEoGRAPHIC Socrery for his proficiency in geographic science. 

6. No certificate shall be awarded to any competitor unless, in the 
opinion of the judges, the essay offered possesses sufficient merit to justify 
such award. 


It is desired that the superintendent of public schools in each 
state shall select, by such method as he deems advisable, the 
three best essays, and from the collection of such essays the com- 


3 


mittee of the NaTronaL GEOGRAPHIC Socrety will select the best 
essay for each state and for the United States. 

One of the most important aims of the NaTrronan GEOGRAPHIC 
Society is to stimulate and make more practical the study of 
geography, particularly with reference to America. The Society 
therefore seeks the codperation of all educational workers 
in making its labors more efficient and general. To this end, 
gifts for medals and scholarships are solicited, and identification 
with the Society by active membership and personal effort is 
suggested. 

The Society already comprises among its active workers a 
considerable number of geographic scientists, who have given 
liberally of their time and efforts with a view of stimulating 
public interest in geographic education. The Society is a work- 
ing one, and in its efforts to exercise an educational influence 
over the whole of the United States feels justified in asking lib- 
eral support from public-spirited citizens. The Society numbers 
over seven hundred members, and has active representatives in 
every state and territory. 


General A-W. Greely, United States Army, Professor T. C. 
Mendenhall, Superintendent of the United States Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, and Professor W. B. Powell, Superintendent of 
Public Schools of the District of Columbia, constitute the com- 
mittee charged with the award of the prizes for 1895. 


Report of the Secretaries. ix 


The results of the season’s exploration are believed to be 
valuable and important, and will be published the coming year 
in the National Geographic Magazine. 

Publications—During the year volume ii of the National 
Geographic Magazine was completed by the publication of 
number 5, consisting chiefly of administrative matter, together 
with title pages, indexes, etc., of both volumes i and ii. 

The form of publication was changed early in the present 
year. The new rules adopted February 6 are printed on pages 
oll—314 of volume ii of the magazine. The general effect of 


. the change instituted by these rules is to substitute for a publi- 


cation at stated intervals, a publication of single papers or mem- 
oirs at irregular intervals, as offered and accepted for publica- 
tion. Under this new mode of publication 204 pages of volume 
ii of the National Geographic Magazine have been published 
and distributed. The principal part of volume iii so far pub- 
lished consists of Mr Russell’s report on the exploration of the 
mount Saint Elias region in 1890. 

Marcus BAKER, 

C. A. KENASTON, 

Secretaries. 


T1—Nar. Grog. Mae., vor. IV, 1892. 


x National Geographic Magazine. 


FOURTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER 


(Presented to the Society December 23, 1891) 


To the President and Members of the National Geographic Society : 


I have the honor to submit herewith my annual report, show- 
ing receipts and disbursements for the year ending December 
23, 1891. 

The receipts for dues for 1891 amount to $1,460, showing an 
increase over the receipts for 1890 of $171. 

The assets of the Society are— 


Note of M. N. Thompson, secured by deed of trust... $750 00 
Cash wath Bele Cos sie 3 tereger eee eer a ame 36 39 
Dues for Soles ard Ae ae eek een eee ene 214 00 
Rene ah $1,000 39 
The habilities are— 
Balance due on note of Bell & Co................... $500 00 
Interest on above note to date.......... far eA oteeee 22 50 
Outstanding bills, not yet presented (about) ......... 80. 00 
$602 50 
Ca BEnu 


Treasurer. 


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xl National Geographic Magazine. 


REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE 


(Presented to the Society January 8, 1892) 


To the President and Members of the National Geographic Society : 


We, a committee appointed at the annual meeting of the 
Society to audit the accounts of the Treasurer for the year end- 
ing December 25, 1891, beg to submit the following report: 

The statement of the receipts, consisting of dues from members, 
receipts from lecture, interest on loan and subscriptions to the 
exploration fund, has been examined and found correct. 

The vouchers for expenditures and checks in payment there- 
for have been examined, compared and found correct. 

We have examined the bank book, showing the account with 
Messrs Bell & Co, and found the balance to be $36.39, as 
reported. 

P. H. Curistin, 

K. EK. HASKELL, 

MIDDLETON SMITH, 
Committee. 


PROCEEDINGS 
OF THE 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY 
(Abstract of Minutes) 


January 22, 1892. 61st meeting. 


Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos:Club. Mr 
G. K. Gilbert in the chair. 

On motion it was voted that the amendment to the By-laws 
proposed December 25, 1891, be adopted, viz: In article iv, in- 
stead of five vice-presidents read “ six vice-presidents,” and insert 
at the end of the list of departments of geographic science, after 
veographic art, the words “ commercial geography.” 

The vice-presidents delivered their annual reports. 

Mr Ogden, for the department of the geography of the land, 
spoke of the progress made in methods of geodetic work. 

Mr Hayden, for the department of geography of the sea, spoke 
on the subject of “ Transatlantic steam lanes,” exhibiting three 
charts showing the changes in position of these lanes. 

General Greely’s report, on the geography of the air, was read 
by title. Printed in this volume, pages 85-100. 

Mr Gannett, for the department of geographic art, read a 
paper on “ Mother maps of the United States,” illustrating his 
statements by a large map showing diagramatically the value 
for mapping purposes, of the various surveys in the United States. 
Printed in this volume, pages 101-116, plate 17. 


January 29, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. 
Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 400. 
Professor C. A. Kenaston read a paper on “The Bryant 
Expedition to Grand Falls, Labrador,” and at the conclusion 
showed a number of lantern slides made from photographs 
taken during the course of the expedition. 
; (xiii) 


X1V National Geographic Magazine. 


February 5, 1892. 62d meeting. 

Meeting held in the Assembly Hallof the Cosmos Club. Mr 
G. K. Gilbert in the chair. Attendance, 80. 

The following amendment to the By-laws was proposed: In 
article III, last paragraph, strike out all words following ‘“ nomi- 
nations for membership,” etc, so that the paragraph shall read 
“The election of members shall be intrusted to the Board of 
Managers.” 

Dr C. Willard Hayes read a paper on “A new track in 
Alaska,” describing a new route pursued by the Schwatka 
party, of which he was a member, in the explorations of last 
year, and illustrating the relative positions by a large wall map. 
Printed in this volume, pages 117-162, plates 18-20. 


February 12, 1892. Special meeting. 

Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. 
Vice-President Ogden in the chair. Attendance, 200. 

Professor Charles Sprague Smith delivered a lecture on “‘ Ice- 
land,” illustrating his subject by lantern slides showing views 
in portions of the island and various objects of interest in con- 
nection with its history. 


February 19, 1892. 63d meeting. 

Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of Columbian University. 
President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 200. 

Mr Lysander Dickerman read a paper on “Art and archi- 
tecture of the ancient Egyptians,” exhibiting on the screen a 
large number of photographs of ancient temples and pyramids. 


February 24, 1892. Special. meeting. 

A social meeting was held at Wormley’s hotel from 9 to 12 
p m for the purpose of bringing the members together for 
mutual acquaintance. Attendance, 220. 


February 26, 1892. Special meeting. 

Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
Attendance, 150. 

Mr Gilbert Thompson read a paper on “ Military survey- 
ing during the Civil War,” and was followed by Major Jed. 
Hotchkiss, who graphically described the map-making opera- 
tions of the topographers of the Confederate army, showing at 
the same time numerous original maps of historical value. 


Proceedings of the Society. XV 


March 4, 1892. 64th meeting. 


Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. 
Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 150. 

By vote of the Society the following amendment to the By- 
laws was adopted: In article III, last paragraph, strike out all 
words following “‘ Nominations for membership,” etc, so that the 
paragraph shall read: ‘‘ The election of members shall be in- 
trusted to the Board of Managers.” 

The subject of the evening, the “Alaskan Boundary Survey,” 
was introduced by Dr T. C. Mendenhall, who was followed by Mr 
John H. McGrath and Mr J. Henry Turner. The papers were 
illustrated by lantern slides. Remarks were afterward made by 
Dr George M. Dawson. Printed in this volume, pp. 177-197. 


March 11, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Universalist church. President Hubbard 
in the chair. Attendance, 550. 

Mr Joseph Stanley-Brown delivered an address on “ The Seal 
islands of Alaska,” illustrated by pictures of the islands. 


March 18, 1892. 65th meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
Vice-President Ogden in the chair. Attendance, 250. 

Mr G. K. Gilbert read a paper on “Coon butte and the canyon 
Diablo meteorites.” . A number of lantern slides were exhibited, 
illustrating the topography and geology of the area, and two 
large meteorites were also shown. 


March 25, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
Mr G. K. Gilbert in the chair. Attendance, 305. 

Dr W. A. Croffut gave a sketch of a trip through Greece and 
Palestine, describing in particular the city of Jerusalem and 
the church of the Holy Sepulchre, illustrating his remarks by 
lantern slides. 


April 1, 1892. 66th meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 

Professor Leslie A. Lee, of Bowdoin College, gave an illus- 
trated lecture on the ‘‘ Cruise of the Albatross through the Straits 
of Magellan.” 


XV National Geographic Magazine. 


April 8, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 375. 

Lieutenant C. H. Harlow, U S N, gave a description of a 
trip through Bolivia, illustrating his topic by lantern slide views 
taken at various points in the country. 


‘April 15, 1892. 67th meeting. 
Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
Attendance, 435. 


Mr W. H. Holmes, of the Bureau of Ethnology, gave an 
illustrated lecture on the “ Cliff Dwellers.” At the close of the 
lecture remarks were made by Major J. W. Powell. 


April 22, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 400. 

Dr John Murray, F RS E, gave a description of the cruise 
of the Challenger and summed up some of the results of the in- 
vestigation of the ocean bottom. The descriptions of the deep-_ 
sea mud and ooze were profusely illustrated by lantern slides. 


April 29, 1892. 68th meeting. 


Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. 
Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 100. 

Lieutenant S. W. B. Diehl, U S N, gave a lecture on “ The 
compensation of the compass on board iron ships,” illustrating 
his remarks by diagrams, and exhibiting a ship’s binnacle to- 
eether with the various magnets and other apparatus employed. 

Professor Cleveland Abbe spoke briefly on terrestrial mag- 
netism. 


May 6, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 268. 

Reverend Professor John P. Peters delivered a lecture on 
“Mesopotamia,” describing the country and his experience 
there during his two seasons’ work of excavation. A large num- 
ber of lantern slides were shown. 


Proceedings of the Society. XVIl 


May 13, 1892. 69th meeting. 


Meeting held in the Lecture Hall of the National Museum. 
Vice-President Hayden in the chair. Attendance, 307. 

Mr Talcott Williams delivered an address on ‘‘ The gates and 
straits of Europe,” describing the influence of the surface con- 
figuration on the development of civilization. 


May 20, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Builders’ Exchange Hall. President 
Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 700. 

Mrs M. French-Sheldon gave a description of her journey in 
Africa, illustrating her remarks with lantern slides made from 
photographs taken on the trip. 


May 27, 1892. Field meeting. 


About 75 members left Washington for Annapolis, where they 
were received by the secretary of state of Maryland and wel- 
comed on behalf of Governor Brown, who was detained at Balti- 
more. The historic State House was first visited, and, after din- 
ner, the Chase mansion. Proceeding then to the Nayal Academy, 
the members were, through the kindness of Superintendent 
Phythian and Commandant Chester, transferred to the cruiser 
Philadelphia, which, with other vessels of the squadron, was an- 
chored in the bay. Returning to the grounds, the party was 
enabled to witness dress parade. After supper the Society, 
through the courtesy of the Governor, held a meeting in the 
House of Delegates, addresses being made by Messrs Gilbert, 
McGee, D. J. Randall, and W. J. Hull, the two gentlemen last 
named giving incidents of the history of the place. Following 
this was an original poem by Mr Croffut. On motion of Rey- 
erend Gilbert F. Williams, it was voted “ That the thanks of this 
Society be extended to the governor of the state of Maryland 
for his courteous tendering of this room for the meeting of the 
Society and for the privilege of entrance to every part of this 
historic building ; that our thanks be also extended to the super- 
intendent of the Naval Academy and to Captain C. M. Chester, 
US N, for giving the Society the opportunity of visiting one 
of the new cruisers of the navy and also for the special parade 
at the academy; also to the lady managers of the old Chase 
mansion for the opportunity of inspecting that building, and to 


I1I—Nar. Grog. Maa., vor. IV, 1892. 


Xvill National Geographic Magazine. 


Messrs Randall and Hull for the interesting narratives of inci- 
dents of local history.” At the close of the meeting the Society 
returned to Washington. 


November 11, 1892. 70th meeting. 

Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. 
President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 25. 

In the absence of the Secretary, Mr Baker was elected Secre- 
tary pro tempore. 

The evening was devoted to a consideration of the program 
of exercises for this session. The President announced it as 
thus far drafted, and invited suggestions. It was generally un- 
derstood that the program should consist of a series of popular 
lectures, alternating with meetings to be held at the Cosmos 
Club Hall, of somewhat more informal character and devoted to 
short or technical papers, with discussions. 


November 25, 1892. 71st meeting. 

Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. 
Vice-President Greely in the chair. Attendance, 40. 

Mr W J McGee gave an address on “ Geographic changes pro- 
duced by earthquakes,” describing phenomena observed within 
the area of the New Madrid earthquake of 1811 to 1813. 


December 2, 1892. Special meeting. 

Meeting held in the Universalist Church. Vice-President 
Greely in the chair. Attendance, 500. 

Miss Annie S. Peck, of Providence, Rhode Island, delivered 
an illustrated lecture on “Athens, the modern city of Greece.” 


December 9, 1892. 72d meeting. 

Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. 
Vice-President Greely in the chair. Attendance, 80. 

Mr Henry Gannett, Geographer of the Eleventh Census, read 
a paper on ‘Movement of population in the United States,” 
illustrated by about 40 charts. The paper was discussed by 
Messrs Ogden, Baker, Gilbert, Thompson, Johnson and Greely. 
To be printed in volume V. 


December 16, 1892. Special meeting. 


Meeting held in the Builders’ Exchange Hall. Vice-Presi- 
dent Greely in the chair. Attendance, 400. 


Proceedings of the Society. KK 
Mr Romyn Hitchcock read a paper on “China,” especial 
reference being made to a trip from Shanghai to Pekin. The 
lecture was illustrated by a number of stereopticon views made 
from photographs taken on the trip, including a number show- 
ing the great wall of China. 


December 23, 1892. 73d (Sth annual) meeting. 


Meeting held in the Assembly Hall of the Cosmos Club. 
President Hubbard in the chair. Attendance, 40. 

Professor W. B. Powell, Superintendent of Public Schools, 
read a paper on “ Methods of teaching geography in the 
Schools.” The paper was discussed by General Greely and Dr 
Mendenhall. 

After a recess the 5th annual meeting convened. 

The joint report of the Secretaries was presented and adopted. 

The annual report of the Treasurer was presented and referred 
to an auditing committee consisting of Messrs Winston and Wain- 
wright and Dr Anita Newcomb McGee. 

The annual election of officers for the year 1893 was then held, 
with the following result: 


President—Gardiner G. Hubbard. 


Vice-Presidents—H. G. Ogden (land) ; 
Everett Hayden (sea) ; 
A. W. Greely (air); 
C. Hart Merriam (life) ; 
Henry Gannett (art) ; 
R. N. Batchelder (commercial Ocean 


Treasurer—C. J. Bell. 
Recording Secretary—F. H. Newell. 
Corresponding Secretary—Eliza Ruhamah Scidmore. 


Managers—Marcus Baker, 
H. F. Blount, 
G. K. Gilbert, 
John Hyde,. 
W J McGee, 
T. C. Mendenhall, 
W. B. Powell, 
Edwin Willits, 


sox National Geographic Magazine. 


FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SECRETARIES 
(Presented to the Society December 23, 1892) 


Membership.—The membership of the Society is now 693. It 
is continuing to increase, and by the codperation of all inter- 
ested should, it is to be hoped, soon reach 1,000. The rate of 
progress is shown by the following figures. 

At the end of the first year, 1888, the membership was 209 ; 
at the end of 1889 it was 228, an increase of 9 per cent; at the 
end of 1890 it was 392, an increase during the year of 72 per 
cent; at the end of 1891 it was 430, an increase of 10 per cent, 
and at the end of 1892 it is 693, or an increase of 61 per cent. 

Classifying the membership, it is found that there are 478 act- 
ive, 208 corresponding, and 7 life members. Taking the active 
members alone, the total number at the end of 1890 was 301; at 
the end of 1891, 333, an increase of 2 only, and at the end of 
1892, 478, an increase of over 40 per cent. The greatest relative 
gain is in the corresponding membership, the number increasing . 
from 57 in 1890 to 92 in 1891 and to 208 in 1892, a gain in the 
last year of over 100 per cent. 

It may be well to note at this point that the corresponding 
members, being non-resident, are not able to take advantage 
directly of the meetings of the Society, and that their interest in 
the organization is sustained mainly by the publications. Con- 
tinual addition to the membership of this class, therefore, must 
necessitate greater attention to the demands of readers of geo- 
graphic literature. 

During the year 323 members have been elected, 23 members 
have resigned, 5 died, 6 declined membership, 13 failed to qual- 
ify, and 13 have been dropped for non-payment of dues. The 
net increase thus has been 263, and the present total membership 
is 693, as stated above. The deceased members were: H. J. 
Pond, January 23,1892; Dr J. H. Chapin, March 14, 1892; Pro- 
fessor John Goodison, October 19, 1892; Lieutenant Frederick 
Schwatka, November 2, 1892 and Captain John M. Dow, Novem- 
ber 4, 1892. 

Meetings.—There have been 30 meetings or assemblies of the 
members of the Society. Of these 14 were regular meetings and 


Report of the Secretaries. sor 


16 special. The latter number includes one social at Wormley’s 
hotel on February 24, a field meeting at Annapolis, Maryland, 
on May 27, and also the lawn party at Twin Oaks, where by 
invitation of the President fully 800 members and guests were 
handsomely entertained. 

One of the regular meetings was for the election of officers and 
transaction of business. The remaining 26 meetings, regular and 
special, were devoted mainly to lectures or reading of papers; 
and the average attendance was 242. On 15 evenings the lectures 
or papers were illustrated by use of the stereopticon, and on these 
evenings the attendance averaged 316. When lantern slides 
were not used the average attendance was 131, or less than half. 

There has been no regularity in regard to place of meeting. 
The hall of the Cosmos club has been used 9 times, there being 
an average of 85 members and guests present; the hall of Colum- 
bian University 4 times, the audience averaging 225 persons; the 
National Museum lecture-room 10 times, averaging 290 persons, 
and other halls or churches 4 times, averaging 500 persons. 

The subjects under discussion by the various speakers have 
been widely diverse, embracing nearly every quarter of the globe. 
Greatest attention has been paid to northern regions, 6 evenings 
being devoted to Alaska, Greenland, Iceland, Labrador, etc. 

Managers.—The Board of Managers have held 18 meetings for 
the transaction of business of the Society. Of these 15 were reg- 
ular and 5 special. The highest attendance of the 17 members 
was 15, and the average was about 9. 

No explorations have been attempted, but the efforts of the 
managers have been directed toward strengthening the Society 
in every way. 

A change in the By-laws was adopted March 4, 1892, by which 
the election of new members was greatly facilitated, being left 
more directly in the hands of the Board of Managers. A new 
office, that of Vice-President of commercial geography, was cre- 
ated at the beginning of the year, but as yet remains unfilled. 

Publications—During the year six brochures have been pub- 
lished, one of these forming the last number of volume ii and 
five the larger portion of volume iv of the magazine. 

F. H. NEWELL, 
Eriza R. ScrpMorgE, 
Secretaries. 


XX1l National Geographic Magazine. 


FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER 


- (Presented to the Society December 23, 1892) 


To the President and Members of the National Geographic Society : 


I have the honor to submit herewith my annual report, show- 
ing receipts and disbursements for the year ending December 28, 
1892. 

The receipts for dues for 1892 amount to $2,165, an increase 
over the receipts for 1891 of $705. 

The assets of the Society are: 


Amount invested in American Security and Trust 


Compamy; 5)pen)cemt Joondstye erases ene $300 00 
Cashwath) Bell &: Company seer acai 205 31 
Dues (for 1892 vumpatd yc enh eee vee rae 271 00 

$776 31 


The liabilities are: 
Outstandinesbilllsi(abowt)aee essa eet ee ee $215 00 


The cash on hand includes $50, dues for one life membership, 
which should be reserved and invested in accordance with in- 
structions received from the Board of Managers. 


Very respectfully, C.J. Bern 
Treasurer. 


eee 


XXI11 


Report of the Treasurer. 


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XX1V National Geographic Magazine. 


REPORT OF THE AUDITING COMMITTEE 


(Presented to the Society January 6, 1893) 


To the President and Members of the National Geographic Society : 


We,a committee appointed at the annual meeting of the Society 
to audit the accounts of the Treasurer for the year ending Decem- 
ber 25, 1892, beg to submit the following report: 

The Theasweien s statement of the receipts, consisting of dues 
from members, interest on investments and sale of magazines, 
has been examined and found correct, as shown by the books of 
his office. 

The vouchers for expenditures and checks in payment therefor 
have been examined, compared, and found correct. 

We have examined the bank book, showing the account with 
Messrs Bell and Co, and found the cash balance to be two hun- 
dred and five and thirty-one hundredths dollars ($205. 3); as 
stated. 

The three bonds for $100 each, registered in the name of the 
Society, were submitted to us for inspection. 

Isaac WINSTON, 

D. B. WAINWRIGHT, 

Anita Newcomp McGes, M D, 
Commuttee. 


VoL. IV, PP, 1-18 MARCH 26, 1892 


THE 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


THE 


HVOLUTION OF COMMERCE 
ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT 


HON GARDINER G. HUBBARD 


WASHINGTON 


PUBLISHED BY THE NationaL GrograPHic Society 


Price, 25 cents. 


VoL. IV, PP. 1-18 MARCH 26, 1892 


Ial= 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ie Vv Ol UT kO NesOr COW M RAR CE. 
ANNUAL ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT, 
\ HON GARDINER G. HUBBARD. 


(Presented to the Society January 15, 1892.) 


For over three thousand years the great highway for commerce 
has been from India by the Persian gulf and the Euphrates or 
by the Red sea to the Mediterranean, and thence through the 
Mediterranean by Gibraltar to western and northern Europe, and 
in our day thence to America. ; 

Along this route cities and nations have sprung up, increased 
in wealth and power, and passed away, giving place to other 
cities and nations further westward. These nations have been 
ereat carriers and distributors of minerals and goods, as well as 
capitalists and bankers, or carriers, bankers and manufacturers ; 
in either case controlling the commerce of the world. This con- 
trol has never for any long period been held by the same race, 
but has passed from one nation to another, always from the east 
toward the west. 

The earliest highway of commerce was from India through the 
Persian eulf, up the Euphrates to the Mediterranean ; and carpets 
and precious stones were then as now carried over this route. 
Explorations and surveys for a railroad have been recently made 
along this “our future highway to India.” Caravans brought 

spices from Arabia and rich stuffs from Babylon and Nineveh to 


1—Nar. Grog. Mag., you. 1V, 1892. (1) 


Z G. G. Hubbard—The Evolution of Commerce. 


the shore of the Red sea. Solomon made a navy of ships and 
Hiram sent in the navy his “‘ Servants, shipmen that had knowl- 
edge of the sea, and they brought gold from Ophir, great plenty 
of almug trees, and precious stones.” 

Tyre and Sidon founded colonies on the shores of the Mediter- 
ranean, enslaving the Spaniards and compelling them to work 
the mines of gold and silver already openedin Spain. Their ships 
sailed through the Mediterranean, by the Pillars of Hercules, into 
the Atlantic ocean, turning northward to England for tin and 
copper and on into the Baltic sea for furs and amber; turning 
southward along the western coast of Africa, passing certainly 
two thousand miles to the equator and probably rounding the 
cape of Good Hope into the Indian ocean., Products from the 
west were brought in ships to Tyre and Sidon and exchanged 
for the goods of the east, their merchants making profits on each 
transaction both as merchants and as carriers. Tyre and Sidon 
became wealthy, luxurious, and effeminate. Some of their citi- 
zens saw in Africa a richer soil and a better situation for a 
large city, and founded Carthage. The Carthagenians inherited 
the trade of Tyre and Sidon, and in addition opened highways 
to Egypt and into the interior of Africa, bartering their wares in 
Eeypt for corn and grain and in Africa for ivory, gems and 
slaves. They planted colonies in Africa and Sicily, and for a 
time were successful rivals of Greece and Rome. 

The rule of the ocean transferred from Asia to Africa remained 
there but a short time, for the day of Europe came with the rise 
of Greece and Rome. 

The Greeks founded colonies in Asia Minor, Sicily, and Italy. 
The ruins of great cities with Grecian temples and amphitheaters 
are found at Girgenti and Syracuse in Sicily, at Peestum and 
other places in Italy. Under Pyrrhus, their armies were defeated 
by the Romans and her colonies captured. Deprived of these, - 
her power rapidly declined and she became a Roman province. 


Rome. 


Rome founded few colonies, but she conquered the nations of 
Asia, Africa, and Europe, and brought under her sway cities, 
kingdoms and empires. She boasted of five hundred cities in 
her Asiatic province that had been founded or enlarged and 
beautified by the Ceesars. One hundred and twenty vessels each 


The Rise and Fall of Rome. 3 


year brought the goods of India from the delta of the Ganges, 
and large fleets from Egypt came laden with corn and grain. 
She imported from every country, but exported little, paying for 
her imports by taxes levied on her colonists. 
AAD :200; Rome was the first power to incorporate conquered 
states into her dominion and extend citizenship to 
all the peoplein herempire; sothat Paul could say in truth, * I 
am a Roman citizen and to Cesar I appeal.” So salutary and 
beneficial was her rule that under it these countries prospered 
more than under their own rulers. What Rome seized with 
strong hand she defended, and in return for taxation gave pro- 
tection. She has no more enduring monument than her roads, 
the remains of which are now found in every country of Europe. 
Though built as military and post-roads, they were used largely 
for commerce. All started from the golden mile-stone in the 
forum ; one ran over the Brenner pass northeastward to the Baltic 
sea, another followed the northwestern coast of the Mediterranean 
to Spain and southern France, another crossed the Alps and ex- 
tended through France to the British channeland through Eng- 
land to Scotland, where the Romans built a wall, ruins of which 
now bear witness to its strength. Another way went southward to 
Naples. and Brindisi, and another led eastward to Macedonia and 
Greece. As these were the only roads in all these countries, it 
was truly said, “All ways lead to Rome ;” and over them the 
messengers of Caesar travelled more rapidly than the mail-carrier 
of our fathers on our mail routes. 


Venice and Genoa. 


After five hundred years of empire Rome fell, and the dark 
ages followed. From A. D. 400 to A. D.800 commerce and trade 
died out. The only vessels on the Mediterranean and Baltic 
were piratical crafts; Jerusalem and the Holy Land were cap- 
tured by the Turks ; the Crusades began, forerunners of a higher 
civilization and more extended commerce. Thousands and tens 
of thousands of people from all parts of Europe and all ranks of 
life, bearing the pilgrim’s badge—the blood-red cross,—journeyed 

toward the Holy Land, first in vast crowds led by 
1096-1291. Peter the Hermit, then in great armies led by kings 
and generals. For two hundred years this move- 
ment continued. Venice and Genoa furnished ships to carry the 


4 G. G. Hubbard—The Evolution of Commerce. 


armies of France from Italy to the Holy Land. The Venetians 
were shrewd merchants and drove hard bargains, stipulating for 
cessions of land at the best commercial points and adequate com- 
pensation for their services. After the failure of each Crusade 
_they brought back remnants of the troops and pilerims, and with 
them the products of Asia Minor, and books and art treasures from 
Greece. These were distributed all over Italy, and led to the 
renaissance of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. 

The trade with the east brought power and wealth to Venice 
and Genoa. They founded colonies on the Black sea, in Asia 
Minor, and on the Asiatic coast. Venice alone had three thou- 
sand merchant vessels. Their commerce was not confined to 
the borders of the Mediterranean, for the goods of the Orient 
were distributed by the way of Augsburg and Nuremberg to the 
interior of Germany and to the towns of the Hanseatic confedera- 
tion. Thus commerce was opened with the interior of Europe. 

By the failure of the Crusades the power of the Turks, 

1450. which had been for the time checked, grew and increased. 

They conquered the holy places of the earth, Asia Minor 

and Syria, and finally, crossing into Europe, gained Constanti- 

nople. The colonies of Venice and Genoa were captured ; their 

fleets disappeared from the Mediterranean. In western Europe 

the Spaniards under Ferdinand and Isabella conquered the 

Moors, who for -many ages had occupied the larger portion of 

Spain; and as the Crescent appeared in eastern Europe, the 
Cross triumphed in the west. | 


Spain and Portugal. 


Then a new power appeared upon the stage. Spain and Por- 
tugal entered upon an era of exploration and discovery in regions 
unknown to Venice and Genoa. Commerce, which in the middle 
ages had been confined to the Mediterranean sea, was now ex- 
tended to the countries on the Atlantic ocean, and the Cape 
Verde islands, Madeira, and the Canaries were discovered. In 
one generation (between 1470 and 1500 A. I).) more and greater 
discoveries were made than in any other period of the world’s 
history. The Portuguese sailed along the eastern coast of Africa 
and rounded the cape of Good Hope; Vasco de Gama crossed 
the Indian ocean to India; Columbus sailed westward to find 
the Orient, and discovered a New World; Magellan cireumnavi- 


Beginning of transoceanic Commerce. ee 


gated the globe; Balboa crossed the isthmus of Panama and was 
the first to see, on the same day, the sun rise out of the Atlantic 
and set in the Pacific ; and soon the eastern and western coasts of 
America were explored from Newfoundland to cape Horn and 
from cape Horn to Panama. 

Both Portugal and Spain claimed all the new world, and as 
they could not agree upon a division of territory they referred 
the matter to the pope, who divided the new world between 
them. The Atlantic became the great highway for commerce, 
while the Mediterranean was deserted, and Venice and Genoa 
existed only in the past. 

The commerce of Portugal was coextensive with her dominion, 
which extended from Japan and the Spice islands and India to 
the Red sea, thence to the cape of Good Hope; and with their 
possessions on the eastern and western shores of the Atlantic and 
in Africa and Brazil‘completed their maritime empire, the most 
extensive the world has ever seen. Then a single fleet of one 
hundred and fifty to two hundred and fifty caracks sailed from 
the port of Goa to Lisbon; now there sails but one vessel a year 
from all India. 

From Spain ships sailed both to the Caribbean sea and to cape 
Horn and thence to Chile and Peru, or directly northwestward 
from cape Horn to the Philippine islands. Spain conquered 
Mexico, Central America, and all South America except Brazil. 
The gold and silver of Peru and Chile and the goods of the 
Orient were brought to Spain and Portugal. As their wealth 
and power increased the spirit of exploration decreased, and for 
nearly two hundred years the Spanish ships sailed in a fixed 
course by the same lanes, exploring the ocean neither toward 
the north nor the south, leaving undiscovered the great conti- 
nent of Australia and numerous groups of islands. 

The Spanish and Portuguese leaders were cavaliers who de- 
spised all commerce excepting in gold and silver, all kinds of 
manufactures, all manual labor, and the cultivation of the 
eround ; they came not to colonize, but to satisfy by the labor of 
the enslaved aborigines their thirst for gold and silver. The 
whole political power was retained by the king of Spain and 
administered by Spaniards. While thesilver and gold of America 
and the wealth of the Indies poured into the treasuries of Spain 
they wanted nothing more. Like ancient Rome, they took all 
the wealth of the conquered countries, makine no return; but 


6 G. G. Hubbard—The Evolution of Commerce. 


they did not, hke Rome, give wise and equitable laws and a stable 
government to the countries they conquered. 


The Netherlands. 


The inhabitants of the Netherlands were manufacturers, and 
supplied the markets of Spain and Portugal and their colonies, 
thus reaping as large profits from their trade with these coun- 
tries as the Spanish and Portuguese from the mines of gold and 
silver. 

No part of Europe, says Motley, seemed so unlikely to become 
-the home of a great nation as the low country on the north- 
western coast of the continent, where the great rivers, the Rhine 
and Scheldt, emptied into the North sea, and where it was hard to 
tell whether it was land or water. In this region, outcast of ocean 
and earth, a little nation wrested from both domains their richest 
treasures. 

The commerce of the Hanseatic towns, which had depended 
for their trade on Venice and Genoa, became less and less as the 
glory of those cities waned. Antwerp, with its deep and con- 
venient rivers, stretched its arms to the ocean and caught the 
golden harvest as it fell from its sisters’ grasp. No city, except 
Paris, surpassed it in population, none approached it in splendor. 
It became the commercial center and banker of Europe; five 
thousand merchants daily assembled on its exchange; twenty- 
five hundred vessels were often seen at once in its harbor, and 
five hundred daily made their entrance into it. The manufact- 
ures of Flanders and the Netherlands had been noted for many 
generations, and now vastly increased and were distributed 
all over the world. The Netherlands, though the smallest, be- 
came the wealthiest nation of Europe. Then came the long- 
continued war with Spain, ending in the siege and fall of Ant- 
werp and in the imposition of such taxation as no other country 
had ever endured. As Antwerp had grown on the ruins of the 
Hanseatic towns, so her fall became England’s gain. 


France and England. 


In America, north of Mexico, neither silver nor gold had been 
found to tempt the Spanish and Portuguese. The larger portion 
of the northern Atlantic coast was one long sand beach, broken 
by great estuaries and the mouths of great rivers; the rest was 


Birth of British Commerce. 7 


rocky and rugged, the temperature generally cold, the land un- 
fertile and barren. For these reasons North America was left to 
the French and English. The French claimed Canada and the 
whole of the territory of the United States save a narrow strip of 
land on the Atlantic coast. The French population was small 
and was made up principally of fur traders and _ half-breeds ; 
Great Britain held New England, Virginia and the Carolinas. 

After the first fever of religious colonization had passed, about 
the commencement of the eighteenth century, there was scarcely 
any emigration from England to America and but little trade 
between the two countries. The population of North America 
was small, its commerce less, with little profit to the European 
merchants. The country possessed no peculiar advantages for 
the production of articles of value in foreign markets ; there was 
nothing, therefore, to invite immigration or commerce. 

The chief inducement to the English to navigate the Atlantic 
was the hope of capturing the treasure-laden Spanish galleons 
and the rich Spanish cities. 

Sir Francis Drake, Sir Walter Raleigh, and other navigators, 
aided by Queen Elizabeth, with bands of buccaneers, refugees 
from all countries though mostly Englishmen, explored the re- 
cesses of the Caribbean sea, crossed the isthmus of Panama, and 
launched their little vessels on the Pacific. In fifteen years they 
captured five hundred and forty-five treasure ships, sacked many 
towns, trained the English seamen, and laid the foundation for 
the navy of Great Britain. 

The growth of English commerce was slower than that of 
Spain, Portugal or Holland, and it was not until the middle of 
the eighteenth century, or two hundred and fifty years after the 
discovery of America, that she entered upon that career which 
gave her the control of the ocean. Her commerce was built up 
by protective laws, founded on the Navigation Act of 1651, which 
prohibited foreign vessels from carrying to or from England the 
commerce of any country but its own. These laws were uni- 
versally regarded as among the chief causes and most important 
bulwarks of the prosperity of Great Britain, and they were con- 
tinued until English ships controlled the carrying trade of the 
world, and were not finally repealed until 1854. 

The mechanical devices of Watt, Arkwright, and other great 
inventors gave to England that supremacy in manufactures 
which she has ever since retained. The French revolution a 


8 G. G. Hubbard—The Evolution of Commerce. 


little later aroused the fear of the statesmen, merchants, and 
capitalists of England that the energy of the new republic would 
be as omnipotent in mercantile affairs as on the field of battle. 
They beheved that France might regain the colonies and with 
them the commerce she had lost, and therefore England declared 
war against Napoleon, which was carried on almost continuously 
from 1793 to 1815. The shipping of the continent disappeared 
or was captured by the fleets of England ; the colonies, and with 
them the commerce, of Spain and Portugal, Holland and France, 
passed to England; and though she is still burdened with the 
debt then created, she has never lost the commerce and carrying 
trade she then obtained. 

The population of the colonies of Great Britain is about one- 
sixth of the entire population of the globe; and their territory 
comprises eighty per cent of the available temperate regions of 
the earth belonging to the Anglo-Saxon race. 

The commerce of England. has given wealth to her bankers 
and merchants, and employment to her artisans, ship-builders, 
iron-workers, miners and manufacturers. Her exports of produce 
and manufactures have increased five hundred per cent in fifty 
years, or from $356,000,000 in 1840 to $1,577,000,000 in 1890, 
and are carried by her ships to every quarter of the globe. 
Though dependent on America for her food supplies, these are 
moved in British ships. The commerce of the world pays 
tribute to the bankers of London and makes that city the 
money center of the world. Her best market is India, and 
from India comes her largest imports; next to these from the 
United States. 


India. 


Eeypt, Nineveh and Babylon in prehistoric times, Tyre and 
Sidon and Greece under Alexander, Carthage and Rome under 
the Ceesars, Venice and Genoa in the middle ages, Portugal and 
Holland, and lastly England, have drawn great stores of wealth 
from India. 

From India science and literature were handed on to Europe, 
and from India has come the religion of more than half of the 
human race. For India the Spanish sailed westward ; for India 
the Portuguese sailed eastward; Portugal was the first to reach 
the goal and obtain the prize. Greater riches have been drawn 
from India than from the gold and silver mines of America, since 


The Wealth of the Indies. 9 


for all ages it has been the storehouse from which treasures were 
derived. Portugal held India from about 1500 to 1600. Ships 
brought the silks and precious stones of India to Lisbon, where 
they were sold to the Dutch and distributed by them through 
Europe. Spain conquered Portugal, and to avenge herself 
on Holland excluded her merchants from Lisbon. They then 
sailed directly for India, dispossessed the Portuguese, and the 
commerce of India was for the next hundred years controlled 
by Holland. 

Then for a short time India was divided between France and 
England, but wader Lord Clive and Warren Hastings the pos- 
sessions of France passed to the East India company, and when 
their charter expired it was made a province of the crown and 
the Queen of England became Empress of India. 

Unhke Rome and Spain in their dealings with conquered 
nations, England gives a fair exchange for all she takes, and 
rules in India for India, giving a more stable and equitable gov- 
ernment than India ever before enjoyed. 

Today Tyre, Sidon, and Carthage are known only by their 
ruins; the glory of Greece and Rome, of Venice and Genoa, has 
passed ; the power of Spain and Portugal has waned, while India 
is developing a social, moral, and political prosperity, with wealth 
and commerce unknown in any former period of her history. 


Suez Canal. 


Much of the trade of India in ancient times passed through a 
canal connecting the Red sea with the Mediterranean, the remains 
of which still exist, and efforts to reopen it have been made at 
different times by Egypt without success. In 1856 de Lesseps 
obtained concessions from the khedive for: the Suez canal, and 
commenced the work under the direction of the best engineers of 
Hurope. De Lesseps applied to Enelish capitalists for help, but 
they were deterred by Lord Palmerston, who said he “ Would 
oppose the work to the very end.” Mr Stevenson, the engineer, 
supported Lord Palmerston, declaring that “The scheme was 
impracticable, except at an expense too great to warrant any 
expectation of returns.” The emperor of France lent his name 
to the company, and large sums of money were raised in France ; 
but the canal was constructed mainly by the money and laborers 
of Egypt. It was opened in 1869, and immediately English 


2—Nart, Grog. Maa, von. IV, 1892. ( 


10 G. G. Hubbard—The Evolution of Commerce. 


steamers began to sail through the canal, and the route around 
the cape of Good Hope was almost abandoned. Other flags 
soon followed, and the commerce with India and the east, so long 
lost to Venice and the ports of the Mediterranean, was revived. 

In 1875 Lord Beaconsfield purchased for England a control- 
ling interest in the Suez canal, and England now rules both 
Egypt and the canal. The vessels of all the maritime nations of 
the world are constantly passing through the canal, with the 
single exception of those of the United States. 


Colonies. Y 


The commerce of the great nations of the world has been princi- 
pally with their colonies or dependencies, and from this com- 
merce they have derived their wealth. The mother country in 
return for its real or nominal protection, and for its own aggran- 
dizement, has restricted the commerce of her colonies. 

The European nations adopted four classes of restrictions : 

1. Restricting the exportation of goods from the colony except 
to the mother country. 

2. Restricting the importation of goods from foreign countries 
into the colonies. Ae 

3. Restricting the exportation or importation of goods except- 
ing in ships of the mother country. 

4. Restricting the manufacture even of their own raw products 
by the colonies. So strong was this feeling in England that even 
Lord Chatham declared in Parliament, “The British colonies of 
North America have no right to manufacture even a nail or a 
horseshoe.” | 

Most of these restrictions have been removed, though the re- 
sult still remains. 

The Pheenicians, Carthagenians, and Greeks had colonies on 
the Mediterranean. The Romans conquered and held as sub- 
jects, nations and empires. Venice and Genoa had colonies on 
the Black and Mediterranean seas. Spain and Portugal held as 
dependencies all Central America, South America, Africa, India, 
and the islands of the Pacific. The Dutch republic and France 
planted colonies in India and America. England has colonies 
in every part of the world, and on her dominion the sun neyer 
Sets. 

Germany, France, Portugal, and Russia, appreciating the neces- 
sity of colonies for the extension of their commerce and for open- 


Growth of our internal Commerce. ilar 


ing new markets for their manufactures. are planting colonies, 
France in Cochin China, Germany on the eastern and western 
coasts of Africa and the islands of the Pacific. Portugal, aroused 
to a new life, is determined to hold her remaining possessions in 
Africa; Russia is steadily adding to her dominions in Asia, and 
her railway from the Caspian sea to Samarcand has opened 
in western and a part of central Asia a market for her manutfact- 
ures and commerce hitherto supplied by Great Britain. 


United States. 


The United States is the only nation that has become great 
without colonies and without foreign commerce and shipping. 
Its vast extent of territory, where the east and west, the north 
and south, are separated more widely than the colonies of Tyre 
and Sidon or of Carthage and Rome from the mother countries ; 
the great variety of climate, the fertile soil, its varied occupa- 
tions and manufactures, and a widely distributed population, 
have created an enormous inland commerce and given that trade 
and wealth which other countries find in commerce and exchange 
with their colonies. Our population, wealth, internal commerce, 
exports and imports have increased at a more rapid rate than 
those of any other nation in a similar period. This is. not due 
in any great degree to immigration, for our population has in- 
creased in no greater ratio since this immigration commenced 
than before, and experts believe tlfat it would have been as large 
and more homogeneous without immigration. We had at one 
time a large foreign commerce, and our merchants were the first 
to establish direct trade with China and the East Indies; the 
Stars and Stripes were seen floating on every sea and flying in 
every harbor, and for years we were the second maritime nation 
of the world. 

The commerce of the world passed from wooden sailing ships 
to side-wheel steamers, to iron and then to steel propellers ; 
England was a worker in iron and machinery of every kind, we 
were not. The civil war came and hastened the day which was 
sure to come. Our shipping faded away faster than it had 
arisen, while that of Great Britain increased as rapidly as ours 
decreased. This was not owing to a decrease of our foreign 
trade, for during the last twenty years our exports and imports 
have increased more than twice as rapidly as those of Great 


12 G. G. Hubbard—The Hvolution of Commerce. 


Britain* Eighty-seven per cent of these exports and imports 
are carried in British ships, consigned to English houses which 
have been established in every large port in the world, and the 
proceeds are usually remitted to the London banker. 

Fortunately, our flag never disappeared from our inland waters 
and from our coasting trade; for foreigners are excluded from 
the coasting trade, even where the ports are fifteen thousand 
miles apart by water. 

The substitution of steamers for sailing ships and of steel for 
wooden propellers, which took place from ten to twenty years 
ago on the ocean, is now going rapidly on upon our lakes. Where 
in 1886 there were but six steel propellers, now there are sixty- 
eight; and of 2,225 vessels on the northern lakes, 1,155 are 
steamers, 902 are sailing vessels. The action of Congress 1n 
providing for the construction and equipment of war vessels by 
competition has led our ship-builders within the last eight years 
to establish ship-yards and machine shops where the largest 
ships can be built, and we are how building as large and fast 
vessels of war as England. Our ship-builders claim that they can 
construct ships equal in carrying capacity, speed and strength to 
those of Great Britain, and at no greater cost; though they can- 
not be run so cheaply because our sailors are better housed, fed 
and paid than those of other nations. The day will surely come 
when commerce will make her last movement westward, when 
America, lying between Europe and Asia, with her boundless 
mineral and agricultural resources, her manufacturing facilities, 
her extended sea-coasts, will be the foremost nation and New 
York the commercial capital of the world. 


Nicaragua Canal. 


From New York to San Francisco by land is about 3,000 miles, 
by water it is about 15,000 miles; yet, notwithstanding the 
ereater distance, freight is constantly sent by water. From San 
Francisco it is about the same distance by water to either New 
York or London. If a waterway could be opened across the 
isthmus of Panama from one ocean to the other, the distance 
from New York to San Francisco would be.diminished more than 


*The exports of the United States have increased 112 per cent, the ex- 
ports and imports 92 per cent; the exports of Great Britain 35 per cent, 


oF 


her exports and imports 37 per cent. 


The Canal will aid American Commerce. ts 


one-half, and San Francisco would be over 2,000 miles nearer 
New York than London. The first proposition for canals con- 
necting the two oceans was made in 1550, suggesting two routes, 
by Panama and Nicaragua ; and explorations and surveys of both 
have been frequently made, and various attempts made for their 
construction. 

The success of the Suez canal induced M de Lesseps to under- 
take the connection of the two oceans by the construction of the 
Panama canal, believing that the tonnage passing through it 
would equal that of the Suez canal. This work has not been 
successful; the canal remains unfinished, with no prospects of 
completion. 

Several hundred miles north of Panama is the lowest conti- 
nental divide; 148 feet above tide water on the Pacific slope of 
this divide is lake Nicaragua, connected .by the river San Juan 
with the Atlantic; up this river and through this lake, some 
thirty years ago, was one of the regular ways of intercommuni- 
cation, both for freight and passengers, between New York and 
California. 

The Maritime Canal company and the Canal Construction 
company, organized by Americans, have obtained concessions 
from Nicaragua, and have made surveys for canal, slack water 
and lake navigation from Greytown on the Atlantic through 
lake Nicaragua to Brito on the Pacific, a distance of 170 miles. 
A harbor has been opened at Greytown and considerable work 
performed on the canal. The Panama route had the great ad- 
vantage of an open channel from ocean to, ocean, whereas the 
Nicaragua route requires several locks to cross the divide; but 
Brito is some six or seven hundred miles nearer California than 
Panama, a saving in distance that will compensate for the delay 
in locking. The opening of this canal will be the greatest benefit 
that could be conferred upon our commerce and shipping. 

Freights by water between New York and California are now 
so high that a large portion goes by railroad. The effect that 
this canal should produce will be evident if we consider the great 
difference in expense between land and water carriage. Rail 
rates between New York and Chicago are a trifle over six. mills 
per ton per mile, while the ocean rates on grain to Liverpool in 
1888 were about half a mill per ton per mile; and one mill per 
ton per mile, or three dollars per ton from New York to Liver- 
pool, is said to be a fair rate, while the all-rail rate between New 


14 G. G. Hubbard—The Evolution of Commerce. 


York and San Francisco averages from forty to eighty dollars per 
ton, according to the class to which the freight belongs. It 
takes from seven to ten days to go from New York to Liverpool, 
twice as long from New York to San Francisco by rail, thirty 
days by Panama, and one hundred and twenty days by the all- 
water route around cape Horn. 

The opening of this canal will therefore reduce the Aeiiut on 
goods between the east and west at least three-fourths and pos- 
sibly more. It will give us a free, easy and cheap communication 
by water between the eastern and western states ; our commerce 
will be built up, and the wealth and commerce of the Atlantic 
coast and the population of the states on the Pacific coast will 
be increased in a wonderful manner. 

The opening of this route will give a demand for large steam- 
ships, and when we have such ships large ship-yards and 
machine-shops will spring up, and these alone are wanted to 
enable us to build and run shins on the Atlantic ocean in com- 
petition with Great Britain. Then the prediction of Mr Cramp 
will be fulfilled, that Englishmen will be asking one another, 
“Can we build ships as eeomousneallly as they do in the need 
Stares cy ume 


Modes of Conveyance. 


The earliest transportation of merchandise was by caravans. 
The first caravan of which we have any certain account was that 
of the Ishmaelites and Moabites, who, while they were traveling 
from Gilead with their camels, bearing spices, balm and myrrh 
to Egypt, bought Joseph of his brethren and sold him as a slave 
to Potiphar. These caravans were formed of merchants banded 
together for protection, under a guide and leader, sometimes 
numbering several hundred, with one thousand camels in a 
caravan. They traveled from seventeen to twenty miles a day, 
but only in the spring and autumn months. At night they 
stopped at caravansaries, where free lodging was furnished to 
men and beasts. In Turkistan and Arabia all trade and travel 
was by similar caravans until the railroad was opened across 
the desert by Merv and the Oxus to Samarcand. 

Navigation was first by boat, and ages afterward by vessels. 
The earliest vessels of which we have any account were employed 
in carrying cattle down the Nile, and were propelled by sails 
and rowers. The vessels, at first small and with a few rowers, 


i 


The Evolution of Navigation. 15 


were slowly increased in size and number of rowers until three, 
four and even five banks of oars, one over the other, were used. 
They were often from 150 to 175 feet long, and from 18 to 26 
feet in breadth, drawing from 10 to 12 feet of water and some- 
times carrying two hundred rowers and several hundred men. 
All these ships were without decks, whether sailing on the 
Mediterranean or Atlantic. They sailed by day, putting into 
harbor at night, and never losing sight of land unless driven by 
stress of weather. At first they sailed only with the wind, but 
by slow degrees they learned to tack; then decks were built 
over the stern and prow, leaving the mid-ships exposed to the 
high seas. This class of vessels, sometimes with banks of oars, 
continued until the middle of the last century. In the early 
part of the fifteenth century smaller but stronger vessels of better 
material were built for the voyages of discovery undertaken by 
the Portuguese. At this time also the mariner’s compass was 
brought into geneal use, having been introduced from Arabia ; 
eighty years later it found its way to England. Two of the ves- 
sels of Columbus were decked only at the prow and stern, and 
the three were manned by one hundred and twenty men. 

The Armada of Queen Elizabeth was formed of merchant vessels 
fitted up as men-of-war, and not until the time of Charles the 
First were there any regular ships of war in England or, probably, 
in other countries. 5 

Commerce was usually carried on by companies, with rules 
regulating the quantity of goods to be exported, so that the 
market should not be overstocked and unremunerative prices 
obtained. Sometimes the merchant was owner of the vessel, who 
adventured with his cargo and sailed in his own ship. Theships 
were constructed with little reference to speed, sailing forty or 
fifty miles a day.* 

The steam engine came into use near the middle of the eight-- 
eenth century in England, and two generations passed before it 
was used on vessels. The first steamboat ran on the Hudson in 
1807, im Englandin 1812. Then another generation passed before 
the ocean was crossed by the Sirius and Great Western in 18533. 
These ships sailed from seven to eight knots an hour. Ten years 
later iron ships were built; then came the propeller, the inven- 


*The breadth was about one-fourth the length, and not until within 
forty years were the proportions of one-tenth or one-twelfth of the breadth 
obtained. 


ee 


16 GarGe VERuehany adhe Dighton sae Commerce. 


tion of Ericsson, followed by vessels built of steel, and lastly the 
City of Parisand Majestic, carrying fifteen hundred tons of freight 
and sailing five hundred knots a day or twenty knots an hour. 

Until the present century all commerce between remote points 
was by water, excepting in the Roman Empire. After the down- 
fall of Rome there was neither commerce nor travel and no use 
for roads, the cost of transportation even for a short distance ex- 
ceeding the value of the goods. 

The railroad was introduced about the same time into England 
and America, and was rapidly extended into every country. The 
steam engine on land and water has revolutionized the methods 
of transportation and created a new commerce. ‘ The movement 
of goods in a year on all the through routes of the world did not 
then equal the movement on a single one of our trunk lines of 
railroad for the same period.” Formerly it cost ten dollars to 
move a ton of freight one hundred miles ; now it can be moved 
thirteen hundred miles for the same sum. The grain and corn 
from our western lands, then not worth the transportation to the 
sea-coast, are now sold in London, and our prairies yield to the 
western farmer greater profit than the grain lands of England 
yield to the farmer there. The land commerce created by steam 
probably exceeds today the commerce carried on the water. 

The cost of moving freight by railroads varies greatly in different 
parts of the United States and in different countries. The highest 
cost west of the Rocky mountains is two and a quarter times 
more than in some of our middle states. The average freight 
receipts per ton per mile in this country is $0.922, which is less 
than those of any other country, although the Belgian and Rus- 
sian rates are not much higher. In England the rates are from 
fifty to seventy per cent higher than in America, and in the 
other countries of Kurope higher than in England. 

In England and America the railroads are operated by private 
companies in competition. 

In France railroads are operated: by private companies regu- 
lated by law, the country being divided among different lines of 
road. Lines are constructed by private companies and run at 
rates fixed by the government. 

In Belgium and Germany the principal roads are owned and 
operated by the government. 

Our system has yielded the best results to the people. 

The commerce which was in olden times transported only 


The Future of Commerce. 17 


twenty or twenty-five miles a day is now moved five hundred 
miles a day by water and eight hundred miles by land. Corre- 
spondence, then carried no faster than freight, is now borne by 
telegraph to the farthest ends of the world. 

All these changes have taken place within a single generation ; 
for our fathers could not travel any faster than Alexander or 
Cesar. Steamships, railroads and telegraphs within that time 
have transformed all commercial transactions and the methods 
of commercial business. Formerly eight months were required 
to execute an order in India or China and obtain the return ; 
how one day is sufficient. These commercial changes caused a 
revolution in the modes of business, and were the main factors 
which produced the monetary disturbances of 18738, the effects 
of which we yet feel, so long has it taken the world to adjust 
itself to its new relations. 


The Future of Commerce. 


The commerce of the world originated in Asia; it was carried to 
Africa and thence to Europe, and from Europe to America. This 
movement can go no farther westward, for on the other side of 
the Pacific is China, which has. successfully resisted every at- 
tempt of the European to encroach upon her domains, and India 
with its teeming population of two hundred and fifty millions ; 
so that America, the last of the continents to be inhabited, now 
receives the wealth of India and Asia pouring into it from the 
west, and the manufactures and population of Kurope from the 
east. Here the east and west, different from each other in mental 
power and civilization, will meet, each alone incomplete, each 
essential to the fullest and most symmetrical development of the 
other. Here will be the great banking and commercial houses 
of the world, the center of business, wealth and population. 

The end is not yet. Inventions are increasing in a geometric 
rather than an arithmetric progression. The limit of steam 
power has not been reached, for with a high temperature in the 
steam-boiler the addition of a few pounds of coal increases the 
steam power so greatly that we are unable either to control or 
to use it. 

Electricity has just begun to offer new opportunities to com- 
merce. We are no longer compelled to carry our factories to the 


3—Nar. Grog. Maa., vor. LV, 1892. 


18 G. G. Hubbard-- The Evolution of Commerce. 


water power, for by the electric wire the power may be brought 
to the house of the operative, and we may again see the private 
workman. supersede the factory operative. A few cars and small 
vessels are moved by electricity—the forerunner of greater things. 
We know little of this new agency, but its future growth must be 
more rapid and more wonderful than that of steam. 

The secretary of the Smithsonian Institution (Mr. Langley) 
tells us that ‘ before the incoming of ‘the twentieth century, aerial 
navigation will be an established fact.” 

“The deeper the insight we obtain into the mysterious work- 
ings of-nature’s forces,” says Siemens, “the more we are con- 
vineed that we are still standing in the vestibule of science ; that 
an unexplored world still hes before us; and however much we 
may discover, we know not whether mankind will ever arrive at 
a full knowledge of nature.” 


VoL. IV, PP, 19-84, PLS. 1-16 | MarcH 21, 1892 


THE 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


STUDIES OF 
' || MUIR GLACIER, ALASKA 


HARRY FIELDING REID 


INCORPORATED 
A.D.(888. 


WASHINGTON 


PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GROGRAPHIC SociETy 


| Price, $1.00. 


NAT. GHOG MAG. WOE, I, wil. Zl. 


FRONT OF MUIR GLACIER AND MOUNT CASE, LOOKING EASTWARD. 


VoL. IV, PP. 19-84, PLS. 1-16 MARCH 21, 1892 


all= \ 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


STUDIES OF MUIR GLACIER, ALASKA. 
BY HARRY FIELDING REID. 


(Accepted for publication December 11, 1891.) 


CONTENTS. 

Page 
limeroclineinom Zing! INAWARhahVOom 6 beak 6 oe cmmmo ces co Gbisicuconmcaclicdc 20 
Gomer eornamliyaueies Roonaan ee. Ln SG ii coe 23 
Glacier Bay and Muir Inlet.......... Bipinde is cw ati « ean nent 25 
Iilioutie Gllan@iare 2 pave Sea aie ee as Se 02h ee ET EE RMSE a mle ct 26 
GremenaMe AGUS SMe tee ceri Nee oc cite roa ase ca is op SRN etre laren 26 
Bliraillo wistettar @ see tener tie rar eaye ve cS PL UN, Gao 2 Sone arate 28 
Sitter enone tines Gull Giri renner nce - eh eye) yan ceees sen Se te eles eectede 30 
(CHRENUISSYESE © oo Sloss gto os i ON Ll ee eve Se ett 30 
iighhinine: aiaGl IO ANTE Oe Ae oa doe rane ao ee ane mclolne cmb 34.00 31 
MGaimes Ga bris Comeses ase. ot at ave cise ei eee: 32 
Former Extension and recent Diminution of the Glacier...... 34 
Extent and Date of the last great Advance................... 37 
Evidence that the last Advance was of short Duration........ 38 
AS possible Cause of the recent) Retreat.........-..2--2..-+.-: 40) 
@hangesto be Expected.....:......+.-+ Eat Atk aan oss aE 41 
Wiomo ttle ALC ees sant eta el areata ure LIK y a pa ann ay ant ene B 
Conditions holding at the Ends of Glaciers................... 45 
PN mMe’ Gla Clers Gy 34.5 kata ate ace tee seus ata Selene cee a 45 
idewauer Glaciers). 6. 2ss0cee ae ae Se Tn ia rer aR A 47 
Gu VeA MBO GIO UN oe zoe e iS csss cree eects eee tae val a cessor tects oie shee rea 50 
BiiteteonolmercaleiNo tes...) a! Goh ien ates aes can ue: oes) casrereun iene yeahs gears 52 
‘Tlin’ (SNOMA PER Te ae iP ate Gee cia 8 lem NS action EL aetna mss, 53 

Supplement I—Notes on the Geology of the Vicinity of Muir 
Gloire Joni ial, 12, Cuisine, = se sadeaecesoacunoan 56 

Supplement II—Notes on some Eruptive Rocks from Alaska; by 
Georee Jel Walliams yeh Dern cee ae © ayer ages 63 


4—Nar. Grog. Maa., von. LV, 1892. 19 
? 


2() HI. F. Reid—Studies of Muar Glacier. 


Supplement I1I1—Microscopical Examination of Wood from the 
Buried Forest, Muir Inlet; by Francis H. Her- 
PPI G] Sn ea) Og ee ene as ot eRe Ne Bh 


BANDING CES 85 ee se RIE a5. hd [ya ea Ae a es Sa eee 
Appendix I—List of Plants collected near Muir Glacier; de- 
termined by W. W. Rowlee.................. 

Appendix II—Meteorological Observations; by H. F. R...... 
Appendix III—Magnetic Observations; by H. F. R........... 
Appendix IV—Suggestions to Future Observers; by H. F.R.. 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Plate 1. Frontispiece: Front of Muir Glacier and Mount Case, 

looking eastward ...... AIR e hakenat sls LAE Bie Ra fiat 
» Ice Pinnaclespatendiote Minima Glacier nee ee 
. Mount Wright and upper part of Dirt Glacier, from shoul- 

der/of Mount) Case's yi eye eee arene ee 3 
 Wihite Glacier sine eeevetin ade eer 
. The southeastern Tributary, from Tree Mountain........ 
+ Gand ediGlacrersiticonant epee eee ee ea 
. Main Ice Stream of Muir Glacier, from V............... 
Mount “Wirieltsotromy Vain ties sy eiean ei Seren Pare meena 
2° Mormit- Wot. hc. iee ants oak nee ah rake na ara 
. Moraines seen from V; ¢,1n background). ...°.........: 
. Girdled Glacier, from Tree Mountain................... 
De Birieduborests {uae sae eee oh, A SN a an 
3. Hnd of Minn Glaciey, from) Ve525 55222240525 .40 0. ee i 
“GeneraliMap ofm\luiniGlaciery.: cee seen 
5S: Map ot sNorthern Partrot iin Imlethe. se eee 
16. Geologic Map of Vicinity of Muir Glacier; by H. P. Cush- 


Co bo 


Ce 


ax ie 
SO 


eat peel an Ol oe ll ee ; 
oFRWhNDr OO MeN 


IMACS Wy WMNCHOHE eum wVOUAS® (CURIE, 65 4a bbe scaccosessdacccacesse 

2 olmdyot amide waters Gila ciety saan eer acres 
SDiaeramlallistratimeyine trerctiOmlee eee eee ee 
. Longitudinal Section of Wood from the buried Forest. . . 
. Transverse Section of Wood from the buried Forest ..... 


oo 


OU pS 


INTRODUCTION AND NARRATIVE. 


ce to to bh be 
SU oo HS 8 AT Ot 


go 09 


Je) 


A desire to see the Alaskan coast more thoroughly than is 
possible to ordinary tourists led to the formation of a party to 


spend the summer of 1890 encamped there. 


The description of Muir glacier by Professor Wright * turned 
our attention to that point. Its accessibility and the interest 


*The Ice Age in North America, 1889, chap. iii. 


Organization and Plans. Zak 


awakened by its reported motion of 70 feet a day decided us to 
camp at its mouth and study the glacier and its neighborhood 
as thoroughly as time would permit. The first requisite was a 
reliable map of the region. None such existed, and we deter- 
mined to devote much time to a survey and to make a map which 
would show with some accuracy the extent and form of the 
glacier and the positions of the mountains which surmount it, 
and also serve to determine what changes may take place in the 
future. Wealso planned a careful measure of the motion of the 
ice, a determination of the magnetic elements, a regular meteoro- 
logic record, a study of the geology of the region, a collection of 
plants, and observations of all indications of change in the extent 
of the glacier, the amount of glacial erosion, etc. 

The party consisted of Mr H. P. Cushing, who took charge of 
the meteorologic records, the geologic observations, and the col- 
lection of plants; Messrs H. McBride, R. L. Casement, J. F. 
Morse, C. A. Adams, and the writer. It gives me pleasure to 
acknowledge that it would have been impossible to accomplsh 
the work if it had not been for the cheerful and efficient aid 
which all my companions rendered. 

Muir glacier seems to have been known only to the Indians 
until 1879, when it was visited by Professor John Muir and 
Reverend Mr Young; but they were prevented by bad weather 
from much exploration. In 1886 Professor G. F. Wright devoted 
a month to its study. We are indebted to him for a very inter- 
esting description. Until our visit, in 1890, these were the only 
attempts to obtain any accurate knowledge of the glacier. Glacier 
bay offers the luxury of exploration. Visited weekly during the 
summer by the steamers of the Pacific Coast Steamship com- 
pany, the explorer can take with him everything necessary to 
his comfort, can-renew supplies when necessary, can receive and 
despatch his mail, and still be in a region of which little is 
known—a region of great interest to the geologist and student of 
physical geography. It seems strange that it is not more thor- 
oughly studied. 

On July 1st the George W. Elder cast anchor in Muir inlet, not 
far from the glacier, and landed our instruments, tents, personal 
baggage, and provisions on the eastern shore. We found Pro- 
fessor Muir and Mr Loomis encamped there. They had come 
also to study the glacier, and added much to the pleasure of our 
stay. We immediately set to work to put up our tents, and 


DD H. F. Reid—Studies of Mur Glacier. 


before evening everything was in good shape. We brought’ 
boards from Juneau for flooring, tables, ete, which added mate- 
rially to our comfort and convenience. A book-shelf held our 
small library of works on glaciers, logarithmetic tables, ete. A 
gasoline stove enabled us to cook our meals with ease, and camp- 
stools permitted us to eat them in comfort. This was to be our 
base-camp, and, in honor of Professor Muir, we named it camp 
Muir. Here we stayed until the middle of September, making 
various excursions of several days’ duration to points too distant 
to be visited in one day, always, however, leaving two of our 
party at camp to make the meteorologic observations. We had 
with us a row-boat 16 feet long, provided with a sail, and during 
our stay we bought from the Indians a small dugout canoe 
which would carry three persons. 

On one occasion, in company with Professor Muir, we rounded 
the western headland of Muir inlet and pushed a mile or two up 
Glacier bay. The water was so full of floating ice, in pieces large 
and small, that our progress was very slow, and we finally landed 
for the night, hoping to find clearer water the next daye In this 
we were disappointed, and therefore rowed back again and crossed 
the bay to the large island opposite Muir inlet. It was in this 
limestone island that Mr Cushing found the fossils which make 
it probable that these rocks are of Paleozoic age. Later in the 
evening we returned to camp Muir. On another occasion, fol- 
lowing Professor Muir’s example, we made sleds on which we 
packed our blankets, provisions, and instruments, and spent five 
days exploring and mapping the eastern part of the glacier. We 
ascended Tree mountain (2,700 feet) and Snow dome (8,300 feet), 
which, though of moderate elevation, command excellent views. 
Another time we visited the stations marked S and 7 on the 
accompanying map (plate 14), and ascended one of the peaks 
just to the westward. Wealso ascended Pyramid peak, approach- 
ing it by the valley of the Dying glacier. The weather unfortu- 
nately was misty, so that we added little to our knowledge of the 
mountains toward the west, except to see that they were numer- 
ous and did not seem to surround any very large valleys like that 
occupied by Muir glacier. 

Shorter excursions were made on all clear days to points more 
easily accessible. Among these the most interesting were con- 
nected with the measure of the motion of the ice. To plant our 
flags where we wanted them required us to make a way among 


> 


iC) 


Viet JN 


“TON 


‘MYSIOVIN YININ SO GNSS LV 


SSTOVNNId 3Ol 


DVN SOU9 


Methods of Exploration. 23 


the crevasses, which offered great difficulties. Some experience 

_in the Alps had taught me what means were necessary for pro- 
eress In such places and what precautions should be taken to 
avoid accidents. We were always roped together, and were pro- 
vided with ice-axes which served to cut steps in places where we 
could not otherwise stand. Balancing on narrow ridges, creep- 
ing along steep walls, or crossing crevasses on pieces of ice that 
had fallen in and bridged them over, were the usual methods 
of progress. Our precautions, however, rendered accident im- 
possible. 

When at Pyramid harbor, in Lynn canal, we engaged William 
York to go with us to help in camp-work. At the end of the 
first month, finding the work too confining for him, he left us 
with our consent and made his way back to Pyramid harbor, 
following the stream down Main valley to Lynn canal. After 
his departure we did all the camp-work ourselves. 

The officers of the steamships were very courteous to us. Cap- 
tain Carroll brought us all the material, ready cut, to make ‘a _ 
house with two windows and a door. It was put up during a 
rainy spell, when we could not do any work away from camp. 
Indians, or as they are called in this region “ Siwashes,” had_ 
sealing camps in Glacier bay, but only visited the inlet when the 
steamers brought tourists, with whom they carried on a. lively 
trade. 


GENERAL GEOGRAPHY. 


~ The southeastern extremity of Alaska consists almost entirely 
of an archipelago, which occupies a space nearly three hundred 
and fifty miles long and a hundred miles wide. The islands, 
large and small, are closely packed together, and the waterways 
between them are deep and narrow, and often form long straight 
canals. The islands are mountainous and precipitous, affording 
few landing places. Their slopes are densely wooded, mostly 
with spruce. The rough surveys of Vancouver a hundred years 
ago, as revised later by Tebenkof and others, were until 1867 
largely relied on as supplying the most accurate information of 
parts of the coast. Since that year the explorations and sur- 
veys made by the United States Coast and Geodetic survey under 
the direction of Assistant Davidson, acting Assistant Dall, and, 
during the period from 1881 to the present time, by naval officers 
of the navy attached to the same survey, have resulted in the 


24 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


publications of charts and other data making known the more 
important channels and waterways with ample accuracy for. 
navigation. 

Southeast of the Alaska-British Columbia boundary the 
islands become larger and the waterways wider. Cross sound 
and Icey strait form the northwestern boundary of the archipelago. 
From them two deep inlets, Lynn canal and Glacier bay, stretch 
toward the north and northwest, forming, with the Pacific ocean, 
two peninsulas. The great Fairweather group of mountains 
occupies the western part of the peninsula between Glacier bay 
and the Pacific. The eastern part is occupied by another and 
much lower range, whose peaks rise about 5,000 or 6,000 feet 
above the sea. Their northeastern slopes are gradual and are 
covered with large glaciers, some of which reach tide-water and 
discharge icebergs into Glacier bay. Between these two ranges 
there seems to be a deep valley, which drains the eastern slopes 
of the Fairweather group. This is probably filled by a long 
narrow glacier discharging into Taylor or Dundas bay. Little 
was known of the peninsula between Glacier bay and Lynn canal 
before our expedition mapped its northern part, except that it is 
entirely made up of glacier-bearing mountains, whose peaks are 
from 5,000 to 7,000 feet high. ; 

Northwest of Cross sound the character of the coast changes 
abruptly ; the coast line becomes continuous, without outlying 
islands, and broken by few inlets; and mountains of great height 
rise immediately from the water’s edge. We can, therefore, topo- 
graphically divide the southeastern coast of Alaska into two 
regions. The line between them passes along Cross sound ; then 
follows the valley just northeast of the Fairweather range for 40 
or 50 miles, beyond which point we know nothing whatever 
about it. This topographic difference seems to be accompanied 
by a geologic difference. Mr Russell has shown that the St. 
Elias alps are of Tertiary origin ;* and probably the Fairweather 
group belongs to the same range, though I believe it has not 
been explored. If this is true, the Fairweather mountains are of 
Tertiary origin, while the rocks forming the mountains about 
Muir glacier, and probably the rest of the same topographic region 
toward the southeast, belong to the Paleozoic and Archean. 
Another difference is quite marked. Mr Russell has found raised 


* Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. iii, 1891, p. 172. 
+See Supplements I and II. 


'3SVD INNOW JO YSGTINOHS WOYS ‘YSIOVIO LYId 4O LYvd YaddN GNV LHOIYM LNNOW 


DVN SOHD LYN 


@ Mel “A THOMA 


Configuration of the Coasts. 25 


beaches about Yakutat bay,* indicating that the land there has 
risen, whereas the submerged trees in Muir inlet show that this 
region is sinking. These striking facts seem to show that the 
valley between the Fairweather mountains and Glacier bay fol- 
lows the line of an immense fault, which brings Tertiary and 
Paleozoic rocks into close juxtaposition. It is most unfortunate 
that we have no observations on the Fairweather mountains that 
will enable us to confirm or correct this interesting indication. 


GLACIER Bay AND Mutr INLET.: 


. 


Glacier bay itself has not been surveyed ; the delineation in the 
coast survey charts is correct only in its general outline. It 
trends northwest and southeast, and is about forty miles long by 
ten wide. There are a great many islands in the bay. The 
Beardslee islands, which fill the eastern side for a distance of 
about twenty miles from its mouth, are made up, at any rate in 
part, of modified glacial till, and are generally thickly wooded, 
as are also the shores in the lower part of the bay. The channels 
between these islands are narrow, and often give one the im- 
pression of waterways cut through the land. The islands in the 
upper part of the bay are quite different ; they are of solid rock, 
and are scored, polished, and rounded by glacial action. They 
occur singly, are usually elongated, and have the longer axis 
parallel to the nearest shore. They, like the mainland, descend 
abruptly into the water, and only at long intervals can even a 
small beach be found. In this part there are no trees. Several 
glaciers force their way down to the water level and discharge 
bergs into the bay; most of them end in narrow inlets two or 
three miles back from the bay proper. Muir glacier is of this 
type; its inlet, which runs nearly north and south, has its south- 
western terminus on Glacier bay about five miles from the end 
of the glacier; the eastern shore line rounds gradually into the 
bay without well marked headlands. The inlet gradually nar- 
rows aS we approach the glacier, being about one and a half 
miles wide at its upper end. On each side are deposits of 
roughly stratified sands and gravels, covered with a thin layer 
of moraine débris. On the western side these deposits form a 
comparatively level plateau from 150 to 200 feet high, which 
extends about four miles south of the present ending of the ela- 


* Op. cit., p. 82. 


26 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


cier, and is about a mile wide. Its surface bears a number of 
shallow lakes; and here and there deep ravines mark the posi- 
tions of former watercourses. The western subglacial stream 
has cut a gorge through this plateau, and exposed the buried 
forest described by Professor Wright (see page 39). For three- 
quarters of its length, the plateau ends on the water side in pre- 
cipitous bluffs, below which there is a narrow beach, only covered 
by the highest tides. On the eastern side the bluffs only extend 
for a half mile or so; the upper surface of the deposit is not a 
plateau, but slopes gradually down to the bed of the glacial 
stream at the foot of the mountains. This stream empties into 
the inlet just below where the bluffs end. South of the stream 
the deposits slope gradually up from the beach to a height of 
about 400 feet against the mountain side.* . 

The inlet is quite deep. Professor Wright reports a sounding 
by Captain Hunter of 516 feet about 1,500 yards south of the 
present position of the ice front. Captain Carroll last summer 
(1890) found within a hundred yards of the ice-front a depth of 
720 feet. This does not necessarily indicate that the inlet in- 
creases in depth as we approach the immediate neighborhood of 
the ice, for the earlier sounding may not have been taken in the 
deepest part of the channel. 


Murr GrLaActer. 
General Features. 


Muir glacier occupies a depression in the mountains about 35 
miles long and from 6 to 10 wide. It is fed by a great number 
of tributaries, of which the first northern, the second northern, 
and the northwestern are by far the largest. These again are 
made up of many smaller glaciers. The general slope of the 
surface, based on a barometric reading made between Tree 
mountain and Granite canyon, is about 1° 15’. The appearance 
of the glacier toward the northwest indicates that the slope there 
is about the same. The total area drained by this system is 
about 800 square miles; the actual surface of the ice being about 
350 square miles. The area draining into Muir inlet is about 


*For an excellent description of these deposits see “ Notes on the Muir 
glacier region” by Mr H. P. Cushing in Am. Geol., vol. vill, 1891, pp. 
207-230, pl. iii, and map; c. f. ibid., vol. ix, 1892, pp. 190-197. ~ 


fa 
] 
es 
a 


petri wmene taake 


YSAISVIS SLIHM 


Be ee 


pais SS 


pr ee 


OVN DOHD LVN 


a Tal MNES 


The Ice-Front in the Inlet. Dip 


700 square miles. Most of the precipitation which falls on this 
-area flows off as water in the subglacial streams; the rest, com- 
pressed into ice, is forced through the narrow gateway 23 miles 
wide into the inlet, where the glacier terminates in a vertical wall 
of ice varying from 130 to 210 feet above the water surface, from 
which large masses are continually separating to become icebergs 
(see page 48 and plates 1,2 and13). As already stated, the depth 
of the water is in places 720 feet; and as this is not enough to 
float a mass of ice rising so high above the water as Muir glacier, 
the ice must reach to the very bottom and must attain a thick- 
ness of 900 feet. The actual leneth of the ice-front facing the 
water is 9,200 feet, or 1? miles. 

On each side the glacier sends forward a wing, which rises in 
the shape of a wedge over the stratified sands and gravels of the 
shore.* The upper surfaces of the wings, like the ice-front, are 
about 200 feet above the water level. This applies only to the 
parts of the wings overlooking the inlet; the parts nearer the 
side mountains are 50 to 100 feet lower ; and here the ice ends 
hke an ordinary alpine glacier. The wings are fringed by 
treacherous quicksands, which support large stones and look 
firm enough ; but the tourist who steps upon them carelessly 
will quickly sink in over his ankles. These quicksands are com- 
posed of fine glacial mud, thoroughly soaked with water from 
the melting ice. 

The ice-front has a wonderful coloring. Places from which ice 
has recently broken off are deep blue, sometimes almost black. 
This color lightens under exposure to the air and sun, and ina 
few days becomes pure white. All stages are represented in the 
ice-front, which therefore shows all shades of blue in striking 
variety. The blue color of the ice is caused by the absorption 
of the other constituents of the light passing through it, and is 
exactly analogous to the hues of colored glasses. When exposed 
to the sun and rain the ice undergoes a kind of weathering near 
its surface, which prevents the blue light within from passing 
out and reflects nearly all of the light which falls on it from out- 
side; so that we then see merely ordinary white light reflected, 
practically unchanged, from the ice. 


*Mr Cushing has published (op. cit., pl. iii) a reproduction of a pho- 
tograph showing the glacier riding on the these gravels. 


5—Nar. Grog. Maa., von. TV, 1892. 


28 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


Tributaries. 


Beginning at the right, we find three tributaries coming in 
from the southeast. The Dirt glacier (see plate 3) sweeps around 
in a great curve from behind mount Wright; its lower part is 
completely covered with débris for fully a mile and a half from 
its mouth; above this the glacier is particularly clean. The 
White glacier (see plate 4), which joins the Muir just beyond 
mount Case, is remarkably beautiful. Arising in a circle of 
snowy mountains it flows down a deep narrow valley at an angle 
of about 10°, its perfectly white surface marked by the wonder- 
fully symmetrical parallel curves of three or four dark moraines. 
It is about four miles long and half a mile wide. A little further 
is the southeastern tributary (see plate 5), fed by a number of 
smaller glaciers. This glacier is not hemmed in by mountains 
but crosses a divide east of a,,, over which the ice flows into 
some valley on the other side. This divide has an altitude of 
2,000 or 2,500 feet. About ten miles southeast of our camp a 
large glacial stream discharges into Glacier bay. It must drain 
the southern side of the mountains which bound these three 
tributaries. 

Still further eastward is Main valley, which, though it proba- 
bly once contained a tributary, is now an outlet of Muir glacier. — 
The ice flows down this valley in a stream three miles wide, 
apparently with a very slow motion. A few miles down the 
valley the ice ends in a high wall facing Main lake, into which 
it occasionally discharges a berg. The stream draining this lake 
flows through a broad flat valley of sands and gravels toward the 
southeast, and finally empties into Lynn canal. The three val- 
leys entering the eastern side of Main valiey also have flat gravel- 
covered floors, through which rush the streams from the snow 
fields and small glaciers at their heads. Two of these valleys 
are beyond the present termination of the glacier. Formerly 
the ice must have extended across their mouths, hemming them 
in and converting them into lake beds. The upper valley is now 
in just this condition. The lake which occupies it has been 
called Berg lake on account of the great number of icebergs in it 
last summer (1890). Just north of the entrance to Main valley 
lies Girdled glacier, so called on account of the moraine which 
completely surrounds it (see plates 6 and 11). It can be seen 
from the end of Muir glacier, but is so foreshortened that one 


at % 
abe 


Ki 


NAT. GHOG. MAG. WO, IN, Ill, & 


THE SOUTHEASTERN TRIBUTARY, FROM TREE MOUNTAIN. 


The gathering of the Glaciers. 29 


would not suspect that the visible portion is 33 miles long. West 
of and separated from Girdled glacier only by a narrow ridge is 
Granite canyon, a deep gorge with precipitous sides, running 
about eight miles into the heart of the mountains.* The ice 
slopes downward into the canyon, whose drainage, however, must 
be back under the ice; for although I was unable to see every 
point of the ridge which closes in the further side of this valley, 
I could see sufficient of it from different points of observation to 
convince me that no part of it is less than a thousand feet above 
the floor of the valley. This curious condition ‘seems to be due 
to the fact that the valley once contained a tributary glacier, 
which on account of the present smaller supply of ice and the 
reflection of the heat from the northern side of the canyon has 
melted down more rapidly than the surface of the main glacier, 
so that now (although this I could not see) the glaciers draining 
into this valley are probably entirely separated from the ice 
entering at its mouth. The tributaries so far mentioned supply 
none of the ice which forms the ice-front in Muir inlet; all the 
ice coming from them that does reach the end of the glacier is 
compressed into about 800 yards between the ice-front and the 
mountain on the east. If a line were drawn from the nunatak 
Hf to the eastern side of the first northern tributary and a second 
line toward the northwest at right angles to the first, the sources 
of all the ice which reaches the ice-front would lie in the quadrant 
between them. 

The first and second northern tributaries and the main glacier 
present no striking peculiarities (see plate7). These are immense 
streams of ice, fed by innumerable small glaciers. The moun- 
tains which rise between them and through them are deeply 
laden with snow, and toward the northwest seem to raise only 
their summits through the icy sea. The extremities of these 
branches could not be clearly determined, although they all seem 
to connect by low divides with valleys beyond. The northwest- 
ern tributary heads in two beautiful white conical mountains, 
which we called the Snow cones. <A part of its ice flows over 
the divide between /, and /., and joins a large glacier which is 
probably identical with the one entering the head of Glacier bay. 
The western tributary supplies no ice to the ice-front ; moreover, 


*This was named from the crystalline nature of the rock, which, how- 
ever, according to Professor Williams’ report (supplement ii), is not a true 
granite. 


3 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


its snow fields are too small and too low to supply ice for a 
glacier of its width, and it is evidently melting away. At its 
western extremity it crosses over a divide and flows into a valley 
beyond. 

The mountains immediately surrounding Muir glacier are not 
high, the highest peaks being between 5,000 and 7,000 feet. The 
mountains which first attract the attention of the visitor are 
mount Wright,* mount Case,t and Pyramid peak (see plates 1, 
3 and 8)—the first two by their jagged crests, seamed by snow 
corloirs; the last by its symmetrical form; all three by their 
proximity. The more distant mountains seem to lack somewhat 
in individuality. This is largely due to their distance, for they 
are from fifteen to thirty miles away. Allis bareand bleak, and 
the scenery is entirely lacking in picturesqueness. If we go out 
on the ice as far as H the three bold peaks of mount Young show 
themselves over Tree mountain (see plate 9), and the beautiful 
Snow cones at the head of the northwestern tributary can be 
seen. 


Surface of the Glacier. 


The surface of the ice presents the honeycombed appearance 
common to all glaciers ; it crunches under the foot, making walk- 
ing very tiresome, and rapidly wears out one’s boots. This sur- 
face ice varied very much with the weather. Sometimes after 
ratn the ice was hard, smooth, and blue; sometimes the rain 
increased the roughness. 


Crevasses. 


The eastern part of the glacier was free from all large crevasses ; 
none in this part were too large to be stepped over. This, of 
course, indicates a small differential motion, not necessarily a 
small actual motion. That this, however, is also small follows 
from our measures, which show that although all the ice supply 
from the eastern part of the glacier is crowded through a narrow 
space between the ice-front and the mountain to the east, still 
the greatest motion here is only about two inches a day (see 
page 45). The amount of crevassing in the other parts of the 


* Named after Professor G. Frederick Wright, who spent some time 
studying Muir glacier in 1886. He has described it in his Ice Age in North 
America, chap. 11. 

+ Named after the Case School of Applied Science, Cleveland, Ohio. 


ONL, MN, AL, (6h 


NAT. GHOG. MAG 


GIRDLED GLACIER, FROM P. 


The Yawning Crevasses. ol 


elacier varies much with the locality. From an elevated point 
such as V, from which the minor irregularities are not promi- 
nent, the general smoothness seems broken over limited areas, 
like the surface of a still lake ruffled in places by puffs of wind. 
These are, of course, where the bed of the glacier presents some 
irregularity. Below them the sides of the crevasses are again 
pressed together, and the surface resumes its general smoothness. 
The increase in the width of crevasses during the summer was 
very noticeable. In the beginning of September we were unable 
to cross the northwestern tributary, although earlier in the season 
Professor Muir crossed it without much difficulty. 

The place where the crevasses were most marked was the im- 
mediate neighborhood of the glacier’s mouth. Here two sets of 
crevasses cutting each other obliquely divided the ice into great 
lozenge-shaped masses, which, under the influence of the sun, 
rain and winds, melted, in some cases into narrow ridges, in others 
into sharp pinnacles. The ice, white near the surface, becomes 
bluer and bluer as one looks deeper into a crevasse, which finally 
ends in a dark narrow crack. This gives the impression of im- 
mense depth, but I do not believe that any of these crevasses are 
much over 150 feet deep. We sounded one and found it 123 
feet. The best evidence, however, lies in the sections of the 
crevasses shown in the photograph of the ice-front from which 
plate 13 is reproduced, in which the crevasses do not extend to 
the water level, which in this part of the ice-front is less than 200 
feet below the surface of the ice. The ribbon structure of Forbes 
was everywhere visible. On many of the pinnacles it could be 
seen cutting the stratification at a high angle. 


Melting and Drainage. 


‘The stakes put in the ice to measure the motion of the eastern 
part rose about 14 inches in 7 days, which indicates a melting 
of about 2 inches a day. This method is not reliable, and we 
can consider the result as only approximate. In this particular 
- portion of the glacier the ice is very friable, and the water does 
not collect on the surface in pools and streams, but sinks through 
the ice and is carried off by some crevasse. The portions just 
west of G and between White glacier and J contain many sur- 
face streams which pour into crevasses or moulins; but none of 
these streams were two large to leap, and all of them were per- 
fectly clear. 


a2 H. F. Reod—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


After falling into a crevasse the water sometimes reaches the 
bed of the glacier and sometimes flows along a channel in the 
ice. We saw avery good example of such a channel. When 
we first came to the glacier, early in July, there was a large open- 
ing like a sewer in the face of the ice-front near the eastern shore, 
some fifty or a hundred feet above tide-water, from which issued 
a strong stream of very muddy water. The opening must have 
been 200 square feet in cross-section, of which one-half was 
occupied by the stream. Now, muddiness is a characteristic of 
water which has flowed along the bed of a glacier, clearness of 
the surface water; I therefore infer that this stream was part of 
the water which flowed along under the ice in the shallow side 
of the glacier and was diverted into some channel or crevasse 
which ended in the ice-front. During our stay the mouth of 
the stream steadily sank, until it was on a level with the water 
of the inlet. This may have been due to either of two causes : 
(1) the course of the channel may have been upward as it ap- 
proached the ice-front, so that as the ice melted and broke away 
the section exposed was at lower levels; or (2) the stream may 
have deepened its bed by cutting and melting (see page 42, note). 

On each side of the inlet large streams issue from the end of 
the ice at a number of points, and after rapid courses of between 
a mile and a mile and a half empty into the inlet, forming quite 
large deltas. These streams were about thirty feet wide and two 
feet deep. The current is so’swift that they roll down stones as 
large as one’s fist ; but the principal material that they carry off 
is in the form of fine mud. We used this water largely in our 
camp, and found that although most of the mud would precipi- 
tate when allowed to stand for a few hours, still the water re- 
mained quite turbid even after three or four days. The muddy 
character of the water in the inlet a little west of the middle of 
the ice-front shows that another stream must discharge in that 
region, either under or through the ice. A small part of the 
drainage of the glacier passes down Main valley, but this does 
not amount to very much. I think the principal sources of the 
stream in this valley are from the snow-fields and smaller glaciers 
on its sides. 


Moraines and Débris Cones. 


The moraines of Muir glacier, seen from an eminence, are very 
striking. Coming from many quarters, they sweep in bold curves 


‘\ WOY¥d ‘Y3IOVID YINW JO WVaYLS 351 NIV 


hy Mal “ANG TON SVN SOHD LVN 


The medial Moraines. BS 


across the ice converging toward the inlet. Many of them rise 
30 or 40 feet above the general level of the ice; but near the 
glacier’s mouth they have become so diffused or have lost so 
much of their material in crevasses that they do not affect the 
general surface. In fact, the moraines which cross the crevassed 
region near the end of the glacier have almost entirely disap- 
peared. Itis only from an elevated point that they can be traced. 

The moraines from the east are large and much massed together. 
A large moraine from the eastern side of the southeastern tribu- 
tary curves around and entirely closes in the end of that glacier 
and unites with several moraines from its western side into a 
confused mass, which the time at our disposal did not permit us 
toseparate. Among these moraines occurs the marble mentioned 
by Professor Wright. The moraines from White glacier unite 
with those just mentioned a short distance below its mouth, 
beyond which they approach closer and closer to the mountains. 
They look like huge earthworks holding up the clean ice of this 
tributary 20 or 30 feet above the general surtace of the glacier. 
Dirt glacier is completely closed in by a moraine across its mouth. 
Above this comes a zone of comparatively clean ice, and then for 
a mile or more the glacier is so completely covered by débris that 
no ice can be seen. Girdled glacier also is completely henimed 
in by a moraine. 

The next group of moraines, coming from Main valley and 
Granite canyon (see plate 10), unite near J, where they are ap- 
parently reinforced, and finally flow down the steep slope east of 
the ice-front. These moraines are quite different from any I 
have ever seen or read of. They have two ends, but no begin- 
ning. From the region lying between Tree mountain and Granite 
canyon the ice slopes in both directions toward the glacier’s 
mouth and into Main valley. The former slope, as has been 
said, is a little over 1°; the latter is two or three times as much. 
Two of the moraines have their upper terminations in Berg lake ; 
athird ends in Main lake. To this group belongs also a moraine 
which issues from Granite canyon, flows around Girdled glacier, 
and ends against the side of the mountain a short distance down 
Main valley, or follows the mountain side to Berg lake. 
Another moraine, issuing from Granite canyon, curves as though 
about to flow into Main valley and then abruptly changes 
its direction and flows to Muir inlet (see plate 11). 

A large moraine stretches from nunatak H to the corner of the 


34 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


ice-front and then scatters over the projecting wing. At first 
sight the nunatak seems to furnish the material of this moraine, 
but closer observation shows that this is not so. Mr Cushing 
called my attention to the fact that although the material of this 
moraine is largely dark igneous rock, the nunatak is a light 
eranitoid rock ; and, moreover, the débris on the nunatak is 
almost entirely of the same rock as the nunatak itself. Two 
moraines issuing from the east side of the first northern tributary 
come to an end about half way between Snow dome and H (an 
explanation of these moraines appears on page 56. The remain- 
ing moraines are like those with which we are familiar on other 
glaciers, and call for no special mention. Some must be over 20 
milesinleneth. Their origins are lost in the snows of the higher 
parts of the glacier. Sand cones and glacier tables also occur 
where the conditions are suitable. 

The moraines from J end in a long sharp ridge, the ice of 
which is hidden by only a thin covering of stones of small size. 
There are two other similar ridges between this one and the side 
of the glacier, which, however, are not connected with moraines. 
All the large-sized débris seems to have slid off the steep side 
and left only the smaller fragments. South of the eastern end of 
nunatak G we found two very curious ‘cones of rolled stones. 
The stones were about the size of billiard balls and rested on the 
ice underneath just at the angle of repose, so that the slightest 
disturbance, such as a little melting of the supporting ice, would 
cause some to roll down. Their edges were rounded, and they 
presented exactly the appearance of having been knocked about 
by running water. Their uniform size shows that some agent 
has been at work rejecting both smaller and larger pieces. Per- 
haps they were collected by a stream at some point on the side 
of Gand an avalanche carried them out upon the ice. Other 
cones occur near these, but are not composed of similar material. 


Former Extension and recent Diminution of the Glacier. 


Professor Wright has pointed out the facts which show that 
Muir glacier has been both much larger and much smaller 
than it is at present. The existence of erratics, rounded knobs, 
and glacial scratches at points considerably above the present 
level of the ice shows the first; the existence of the buried forest 
on the western side of Muir inlet and of old logs on some of the 
moraines show the latter. He has also collected the following 


NAT. GHOG. MAG. WO, IN, Pi, &. 


MOUNT WRIGHT, FROM V. 


aed 


Glaciers both melt and flow away. BO 


evidence to show that the glacier is at present retreating, and 
that its retreat is quite rapid, viz: The absence of forests in the 
upper part of Glacier bay, the existence of fresh strie and of 
elacial débris in situations where the material could not have 
resisted erosive agencies for any great length of time, the small 
amount of débris fallen from the nrountains on the eastern side 
of the inlet, the small amount of vegetation on the shore near 
the glacier, the transverse ridges on the shore, the mass of de- 
tached melting ice in front of the glacier, and, finally, the account 
of Vancouver, which makes it probable that a large part of Glacier 
bay was filled with solid ice a hundred years ago.** 

To these evidences I may add the following observations: On 
the sides of the mountains bordering the glacier, and especially 
in the gullies on the northern slopes, there are masses of ice ex- 
tending a hundred feet or more above the present level of the 
glacier. This ice has been protected from very rapid melting by 
the débris which covers it. It must have been a connected part 
of the glacier not many years ago. On the northeastern side of 
Tree mountain there is a spur which projects into the ice of Main 
valley. On its upper side and near its end the ice is only some 
10 or 20 feet below its top; on the lower side the ice is much 
lower. Across this spur in a direction parallel to the valley were 
some small stream beds, beginning abruptly at the upper side, 
whose source must have been the melting ice when it was level 
with the top of the spur. The whole spur was covered with 
bowlders, sand, and some fine detritus. The stream beds were 
marked only by the disposition of the sand. The fine detritus 
must assuredly have been washed away by the rain and melting 
snow if the spur had been uncovered many years. The ice 
between G and the nunatak to the west is at a higher level than 
the western or northwestern tributaries and slopes both toward 
the north and the south. As this region has no independent 
source of supply, it must have obtained its ice from the north- 
western or western tributaries, which therefore must have been 
at a higher level than they arenow. If this subsidence had been 
due entirely to melting, the surfaces of these two tributaries would 
not have sunk more rapidly than that of the ice connecting them. 
We are therefore forced to conclude not only that the ice is melt- 
ing away, but also that it is flowing away. This process has 


*Tee Age in North America, 1889, pp. 51-57. 


6—Nar. Grog. Mag., von. TY, 1892. 


36 HT. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


been noticed among the Swiss glaciers by Forbes and by Agassiz 
as a seasonal change, the glacier partly flowing away during the 
summer and thickening up again during the winter. The loss 
incurred in this way by the Muir glacier in the summer is not 
made up during the ensuing winter, for the difference in level 
just mentioned is far too great to have been produced in one 
season. 

The stratified deposits on the shores of Muir inlet are covered 
by a thin layer of moraine a foot or two thick; scarcely thicker, 
in fact, than the moraine which covers the end of the glacier. 
If the ice had not retreated rapidly this deposit would have been 
much thicker. The mass of detached ice mentioned by Professor 
Wright has entirely disappeared. 

The moraines extending from the lakes in Main valley to Muir 
inlet seem explicable only on the supposition that this valley 
once contained a glacier tributary to the Muir, and that the sup- 
ples of snow having diminished in this region more rapidly than 
in the northwest this tributary has diminished much more 
rapidly than the Main glacier, until now the flow is actually 
reversed. The two moraines issuing from Granite canyon and 
flowing one into Main valley and the other into Muir inlet are 
also due to the same cause. The moraine extending from H to 
the ice-front, and composed of material quite different from the 
granitoid rock of H, is readily explained by the former greater 
thickness of the ice. The moraine which comes from the first 
northern tributary probably flowed just over H, and when the 
ice here was not very thick the very steep southern face of H 
must have caused a break in its continuity, so that the ice and 
moraine fell over this slope to the surface of the glacier below. 

_The accumulation of detritus here is the source of this moraine, 
and it has not yet been entirely carried off. - 

In a valley connecting the western side of Muir inlet with the 
upper part of Glacier bay there lies a small glacier which we 
have called Dying glacier. It is about 3 miles long, slopes both 
eastward and westward, and has moraines running from end to 
end. It has no real feeders, although a tributary joins it on the 
south. It must be the remnant of a much larger glacier, deriy- 
ing its supplies from the lateral valleys; probably also, perhaps 
principally, from the great ice stream which filled the upper part 
of Glacier bay, with which it must have had connection. At 
present its highest point is 760 feet above tide, an elevation much 


“ONNOA LNONOW 


6 Wet INE TWO ‘OVN DSOHD LVN 


a 


(Jy) 


The Dying Glacier. 


lower than the surface of the ice when at its greatest flood. It 
is now without supply, and is rapidly melting away. 

Another element of the diminution of the glacier, and one 
which would appeal much to most persons, is the retreat of the 
ice-front. In the four years between Professor Wright’s visit, in 
1886, and my own, in 1890, the ice-front receded more than 1,000 
yards (see further, page 41). 


Extent and Date of the last great Advance. 


On the northeastern side of Tree mountain the lower slopes 
are covered with moraine débris and with very slight vegetation. 
At a height of about 2,000 feet above tide large trees (spruce) are 
found growing, some of which are quite a foot in diameter and 
must be over a hundred years old. Above this limit the moun- 
tain is free of erratics. On the opposite side of Main valley 
there is a very noticeable line about the same height, marked by 
a variation in the shrubbery, although there are no trees on these 
mountains. This, then, is the highest point reached by the glacier 
in this part. The rounding and scratches show that nunatak G, 
1,855 feet above tide, was covered, as were also the islands in 
Glacier bay, one of which (Willoughby) is 1,000 or 1,500 feet 
high. The height of scratches and erratics in the neighborhood 
of the glacier’s mouth we did not determine, but the height given 
by Professor Wright (2,500 feet) seems to mea little too high. 
At V (8,000 feet) no erratics were found, and as the ground 
here is well adapted to retain them we must conclude that the 
glacier did not rise to this height. JI am inclined to think the 
scratches observed by Professor Wright at a height of 3,700 feet * 
are due to local causes. 

The advance of the ice from Muir and other glaciers of Glacier 
bay must have been near its maximum at the time of Vancouver’s 
visit, 100 years ago, for it seems probable from his narrative that 
the ice extended below Willoughby island, and the large trees 
on the islands in the lower part of Glacier bay show that it did 
not extend that far. That the height given, 2,000 or 2,500 feet, 
was that of the last great advance seems pretty certain from the 
freshness of the scratches up to that limit. Moreover, if at the 


*This would make the ice at this point several hundred feet higher 
than at Tree mountain, which is extremely improbable. Probably only 
a small error would be made if we take 2,000 feet as the maximum height 
of the ice near its present ending. 


38 H.. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


time of Vancouver's visit the ice extended below Willoughby 
island and had a front 300 feet high, it would have to be about 
2,000 feet high on mount Wright to give a surface slope of 50’; 
and a slope of 1°, which is certainly not excessive; would corre- 
spond to a height of about 2,500 feet on mount Wright. 
Another point is worthy of notice. From the divide between 
Tree mountain and Granite canyon the ice is flowing in both 
directions and is receiving no supply. The surface of the ice 
here is now about 1,250 feet high. If we suppose the surface 
melting at the rate of 2 inches a day (the rate observed near the 
elacier’s mouth) for 90 days in the year, and if we entirely neglect 
the loss due to the flow of the ice, we find that it must sink about 
15 feet a year. At this rate it would have been at its hightest, 
some 800 or 1,000 feet above its present surface, between 50 and 
70 years ago; and if we also consider the loss due to flow, the 
ereatest height must have been reached still more recently. This 
rate of loss could not have continued for a longer period or the 
elacier would now be lower than it is. It follows that from 50 
to 70 years ago, or less, the rate of loss of ice in the region near 
Tree mountain was diminished by a supply which was undoubt- 
edly derived from Main valley. This conclusion is supported by 
the moraines in main valley. They could not have retained 
their present course, flowing in two directions, for a long period 
without becoming very attenuated. Taking these facts into con- 
sideration, it does not seem unreasonable to believe that the 
ereatest extent of the glacier was reached 150 or 200 years ago. 


Evidence that the last Advance was of Short Duration. 


I have already mentioned the stratified deposits on the shores 
of Muir inlet over which the ice now rides. We find a similar 
state of things at the eastern end of Dying glacier, where the ice 
rests on earlier deposits. In a gully on the northeastern side 
of Tree mountain the ice detached from the main glacier is rest- 
ing on débris. Although sand and gravel form a pretty solid 
bed, it is hardly possible that they should have resisted the 
erinding action of the glacier for many centuries, especially when 
the ice was.much thicker than itis now. Mr Cushing has called 
my attention to the fact that a gully on the eastern side of H 
and others on G do not correspond in direction to the glacial 
scratches, and therefore could not have been excavated by the 
elacier. Many geologists would consider this a proof of the in- 
ability of the glacier to accomplish much erosion ; otherwise the 


NAT. GEOG. MAG. WO, WA, IeMLy, AKO), 


iD) 


oo 2 - 5 a _ acim 


MORAINES EXTENDING FROM MAIN VALLEY PAST OPENING IN GRANT CANON. 


The buried Forest. 39 


sides of the gullies would have been planed down and these 
features obliterated. We can, however, equally well look upon 
it as evidence that the ice did not cover them’ for a very long 
period. 

The trees of the buried forest (see plate 12) must have grown 
when the glacier was smaller than itis now. The sand and 
gravel was then carried in among them until they were com- 
pletely buried, after which the glacier pressed forward and moved 
over the sand. Now, these trees are most probably of the same 
species as the spruce now growing in the neighborhood of Juneau 
(see supplement 111), and therefore it seems we should reckon the 
time elapsed since they were alive in centuries rather than in 
thousands of years. Another evidence lies in the logs found 
on moraines and on mountain slopes. We found them in the 
moraine in front of White glacier, on the moraine issuing from the 
eastern side of the first northern tributary, on the eastern shore of 
Muir inlet south of the stream, in the gully east of camp, and in 
ceullies on the northeastern side of G; in fact, over most of the 
region about the southeastern part of the glacier. In these gullies 
they seemed much covered with débris, coarse and fine, which 
has apparently protected them from being ground up by the ice. 
Now, it hardly seems possible that this wood should not all have 
been carried away long ago if its origin had not been compara- 
tively recent. 

Before the advance the glacier must have been very much 
smaller than at present to allow the region about the first north- 
ern tributary, which is now bare and bleak, to support trees ; 
and it must have remained smaller for several hundred years to 
allow the trees of the buried forest, some of which are two feet 
or more in diameter, to attain their size. A piece of one of these 
trees shows 22 rings in a thickness of one-third of an inch, which 
would give a rate of growth of one inch in diameter in 53 years. 
It seems probable that this very slow rate does not apply to the 
whole life of the tree, but only to its later years. The wood was 
from the outside. 

Although the evidences indicating a short duration for the last 
advance of the glacier is not decisive, still this supposition seems 
to be in harmony with all the facts. Probably the principal 
objection that can be urged against it is that the changes are 
much more rapid than any we are familiar with. Let me, how- 
ever, call attention to certain historical facts collected by Venetz 
and Agassiz, which show that during the middle ages, from per- 


40 H. EF. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


haps the tenth to the sixteenth centuries, the glaciers of the Alps — 
were much less extensive than at present, and that horses were 
able to cross passes now considered difficult by mountaineers. 
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the glaciers 
increased, attaining their greatest extent in the beginning of this 
century.* At present they are in general retreating. This shows 
a variation almost as great and almost as rapid as that mentioned 
for the glaciers of Glacier bay. 


A possible Cuuse of the recent Retreat. 


When the tide in Muir inlet is very low one can see on its 
eastern shore the stumps of large trees, which Professor Muir 
assures me are in place. The trees must have grown, of course, 
above high tide; they. are now twenty feet below that level. 
Although I cannot say so with certainty, it is not unreasonable 
to suppose that these trees, like those of the buried forest, are 
spruce, and of the same species as those now growing in Alaska ; 
but we must remember that any results deduced from this sup- 
position have no more weight than the supposition itself. If, 
therefore, these trees were growing at the same time as those of 
the buried forest, there has been a subsidence of the land of at 
least 20 feet since the last advance of the glacier; it may have 
been much more; if so, it would have produced an increase in 
the mean annual temperature, which would have increased the 
rate of melting and would also have decreased the proportion 
of the solid to the liquid precipitation; and on account of the 
general lowering of the mountains, more of the moisture from the 
ocean may have been carried over them and precipitated further 
inland. All of these results would tend to diminish the extent 
of the glacier. Not only that, but the diminution itself would 
increase the rate of diminution, for the presence, of extensive 
snow-fields must lower the mean annual temperature (see page 
52) and thus increase the proportion of snow to the total pre- 
cipitation. If for any cause these snow-fields become smaller, 
their influence on the mean temperature becomes less, the snow- 
fall is diminished, and the snow-fields become smaller still. So 
we see that anything causing a slight change in the mean tem- 
perature may result finally in quite a large variation in the ex- 
tension of the glacier, although this large variation may reach 
its limit only long after the cause which started it has ceased to 


*Aoassiz, Etudes sur les Glaciers, 1840, chap. xvi. 


pes erie cm 


Ss 


ent 


BS 
ae 
Es 


‘NIVLINAOW 33YL WOYS ‘YaIOVIH aaqdHYI5 


HE Tet AM PROV. DVN DOHD LVN” 


Decadence of the Glaciers. 41 
act. The ends of glaciers are rarely stationary ; they seem always 
to be advancing or retreating ; the suggestions above show that 
this is just what is to be expected. In other words, glaciers are 
never exactly in stable equilibrium with the surrounding con- 
ditions. 


Changes to be expected. 


Main lake and Berg lake are now separated by a very short 
distance, and it will not be long before they unite. This will 
result in the draining of Berg lake, which event will probably 
be marked by a flood. The melting of ice in Main valley 
must be rapid, for the great extent of its termination there pre- 
sents a large surface for melting. When this termination has 
receded two or three miles and the surface of the ice has sunk 
two or three hundred feet, the ice from the first northern and 
from the southeastern tributaries will probably be in part de- 
flected into Main valley. The small lake which occupies a 
lateral valley opening into Granite canyon will probably extend 
as the ice diminishes and perhaps occupy a large part of the 
canyon itself. 

Professor Wright has kindly sent me some photographs which 
he took of the glacier in 1886. By comparing these with our 
own we can readily fix on our map, within 100 yards, the position 
of the ice-front at the time of Professor Wright’s visit. This 
shows that in the four years from 1886 to 1890 the western end 
of the ice front has receded 1,200 yards and the eastern end 750 
yards. The center also has receded about 1,200 yards, so that 
the average recession of the ice-front is a little over 1,000 yards 
in four years or, say,a mile in seven years. Professor Muir 
writes me that the notes of his first visit to the glacier in 1879 
show that the ice then extended about to our station D; the 
rate of retreat deduced from this accords fairly well with that 
given above. The ice-front, therefore, must have extended as 
far as island C 20 years ago. Below C I think the retreat was 
more rapid; for there the glacier presented a much wider front 
to the water from which a correspondingly larger quantity of ice 
must have broken off, and this could hardly have been entirely 
compensated for by a greater velocity of flow on account of the 
many obstructions in the neighborhood of the present position 
of the ice-front. It does not seem at all incredible that the ice 
from the various glaciers of Glacier bay may have united to fill 
a large part of the bay a hundred years ago. Professor Wright's 


42 HT. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


interpretation of Vancouver’s description seems perfectly in ac- 
cord with what our observations would lead us to conclude. 

The retreat is probably not regular but faster some years than 
others, and even varies considerably at different parts of the same 
season. For two or three weeks in August, 1890, there was 
scarcely any fall of ice; in the two weeks following the fall was 
so rapid that a great bay fully a quarter of a mile deep was made 
in the eastern part of the ice-front, which was before this only 
slightly concave. Plate 13, from a photograph taken on Sep- 
tember 7, 1890, shows this indentation. I have collected on the 
map (plate 15) the positions of the ice-front at several periods ; 
this shows the retreat at a glance much better than it can be de- 
scribed in words. The changes in the shape of the front will 
also be evident. 

The present rate of recession of the ice-front in Muir inlet, a 
mile in seven years, will probably be exceeded in the near future ; 
for it has reached a point where the conditions change. The de- 
posits which support the wings are almost at the water level at the 
ice-front, and slope down at an angle of 6° or 7°; a little further 
back they will be below the water level and the ice-front will be 
broader, resulting in an increased amount of loss by breakage 
and hence a more rapid retreat. Ten or 15 years will probably 
see Dirt glacier on the east and the western tributary on the 
west entirely separate from the main ice stream. 

Dying glacier is rapidly disappearing ; in 15 or 20 years I 
think its bed will be empty. The maps I have made will enable 
us to determine with considerable accuracy the amount of these 
changes in the future. I should, however, say that although the 
northern end of Main lake is in its right place, the southern 
end is only approximately determined. The ends of Dying 
glacier are also only approximate.* 


* Note added November, 1891. From photographs and descriptions sent 
me by Miss E. R. Scidmore I find that there have been some changes in 
the ice-front in the past year. The northwestern corner seems to have 
advanced slightly; the northeastern corner has receded 50 or 100. yards, 
and the rest of the front, which is nearly a straight line, has retreated 
some 300, yards since July 26, 1890. It is not, however, quite so far back 
as the extreme end of the bay formed ,ust before we left in 1890. The 
stream which issued from the ice at the northeastern corner now comes 
out from under the wing and rushes across the beach, which it thus sepa- 
rates from the ice-front. The large glacial stream on the east will undoubt- 
edly follow the channel of this stream before long and fulfill Professor 
Wright’s prophecy (Ice Age in North America, p. 54). 


‘1SaYO4 Qaluna 


Bb Mel VAI TUCUA DVN SOHD LVN 


Measurements of Ice-flow. 45 


Motion of the Ice. 


T had hoped to make an extended series of measurements of 
the motion at different parts of the glacier, but the pressure of 
other work and the great extent of the ice forced us to be con- 
tent with a measure of the motion near the mouth. The reported 
motion of 70 feet a day was so great that we felt that careful pre- 
cautions must be taken to avoid all error. We determined not 
to trust to sighting on pinnacles, but to set out a series of flags 
whose identity could not be mistaken. The middle part of the 
glacier is deeply crevassed, and in reaching the proper positions 
for planting the flags considerable difficulties were met; but, as 
in all such matters, this only added zest to the undertaking, and 
we set ourselves to the task of crossing the ice near its end. In 
this we were unsuccessful, although when setting out the flags 
we made five or six attempts, first from one side and then from 
the other. The furthest points reached from opposite sides were 
about 500 yards apart, and although this interval is greater than 
we wished, still it is not much greater than the average interval 
between the flags; and so our series was practically continuous 
(see map of ice-front, plate 15). 

Two independent sets of measurements were made, the first 
on a series of ten flags from July 21 to 24, the second on a series 
of nine flags from August 4 to 8. The first three flags on each 
side were recovered after the first set of observations and replaced, 
so that observations on them extended from July 21 to August 
8, a period of 18 days, with a corresponding increase in accuracy 
in the determination of their daily rate. Three or four days was 
about as long as the flags would stand before falling, although 
they were planted in holes 18 inches deep. The flags marked 
with one dash belong to the first period, those with two dashes 
to the second ; the others were observed during both. No results 
were obtained from 7’, as it fell between July 21 and 24. The 
flags were observed from E and A, which were 5,513 yards apart, 
about three and one-quarter miles. These were the most avail- 
able points of observation, and although they were not well 
adapted for determining with high accuracy the actual positions 
of the flags, still these positions were determined with quite sufti- 
cient precision. The direction of the motions could not be de- 
termined from our observations, for very small errors of observa- 
tion produce large errors in this direction. This, however, was 
unimportant, for the direction is given by the moraines, which 


7—Nat. Grog. Mag., vor. LV, 1892. 


44 Jak Je, Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


was about at right angles to the line E-A. The change in the 
positions of the flags could be well measured from these stations, 
as the motion made a large angle with the lines joining the station 
to the flags. The part of this motion at right angles to E-K was 
taken as the actual motion. We have thus for the first period, 
July 21 to 24, two independent measures, one from Hand one 
from K, which agree very well. The average is given in the table- 
For the second period, observations of motion were made from A” 
only. The observations on the side flags from 4’, which extended 
from July 21 to August 8, are given in the column headed iii, 
and in the last column are collected what I consider the most 
reliable results. It will be seen that the motion, scarcely observ- 
able at the sides, increases rapidly toward the center, where it 
amounts to about 7 feet a day. A consideration of the size of the 
instruments, their distance from the flags, and the size of the 
flags themselves, shows that there is a possible, though scarcely 
probable, error of some two feet in the determination of the 
motion of the center flags, and not more than half so much in 
that of the side flags.* 


Table showing Motion of the Flags in the Ice. 


| law Dist. in feet | Daily Motion of Flags, in 
5 | from— | feet. 
| 
i les ere 4 | 
INGe ul Clolkoye, I BR a Oe USE PNY 
| | | 
1h BAC ke aie SiG? 2: er. 32il oy ee Oe uened 0 A 
Do Red S221) 12.0644) %5:850: | "3:0) | Ssh ie 2iGn ine 
3) | Black No ti5d I~ 6.614 |e A ato ole aso 
ATI) Rede ie OSS ee tao Sale eken clean otonl ace cee 6.6 
LOM el I MOM 7 OS oc \ oat dco 4.8 
Ban | Blackest i893"), S,003 0) stelle aa ae 6.1 
5/7 ..| Black. .|| GAA ES ClO eee eee ti (feel oi ava 7.1 
ING 2 se eRedhenual 8/498 1h Su eaTle le 742 ae) el eee 72 
ee REM elie eG339| 1Osollo: | Braue ae Necoleeetcce WenGez 
8. ...| Black. «|| - 6.378 | 10,106 3}. 5:7 | 69) G21) 62 
Q.. | |Red! 9281 775,226 | 11,986 4.35] 8 Aon ered 
Oe 222] Red ees 3 652 1 13.2750 h2 NOs em ee eat ese 


I. Daily motion from July 21 to 24. 
US Feeueae August 4to8 
UTA as os ie July 21 to Aueust 8. 
IV. Best value of daily motion deduced from 1, i1, and ili. 


*The flags were six feet long and three feet wide. The instruments 
were those used in our survey and described later (see p. 53, foot-note). 
+ This determination was made from F for the period July 21 to Aug. 4. 


The Rate of Ice-flow. 45 


Tn addition to the flags, five stakes were planted in a line and 
about equal distances apart on the eastern side of the glacier, as 
shown in the map. Their movement was determined from 
August 6 to 29. The table gives the total movement during 
that time at right angles to the line of the flags, which was the 
direction of the slope. The direction of the moraine shows that 
this is approximately the direction of motion. 


Movement of Stakes. 


a ) 

h 7 inches. 
( 1 

d 3.0 

e ) 


This amounts to about 2” a day for the middle flag. 


Conditions holding at the Ends of Glaciers. 


Alpine Glaciers—It has been long recognized that the com- 
paratively stationary position of the end of a glacier is due to the 


Figure 1—Hnd of an Alpine Glacier. 


general equality between the quantity of ice flowing down and 
the quantity melted. The mean temperature of a valley increases 
as we descend ; if, therefore, the end ofthe glacier should advance 
beyond the point where the rate of melting equals the rate of 
supply, the ice would melt more rapidly and the end would 
recede. If, on the other hand, the glacier should not reach this 
point, ice would flow down faster than it would melt, and the 
~end of the glacier would advance. This point is not merely a 
point of equilibrium, but a point of stable equilibrium. This 
explanation is sufficient, so long as we merely look upon the end 
of a glacier as a whole. But when we consider each part of the 
end by itself we are met by difficulties which do not seem so far 
to have been noticed. 


46 IT. F. Reid—Studies of Mui Glacier. 


As one approaches the end of the glacier the surface of the ice 
becomes steeper and steeper, and frequently becomes too pre- 
cipitous to allow one to stand onit. The diagram (figure 1) 
shows the form of the surface cut by a longitudinal section. 
Now, why does the glacier assume this shape? We know that 
the surface of a drop of water or of a small quantity of honey on 
a plate will assume some such shape; but this is the result of 
molecular forces which can not have any appreciable effect on 
large bodies like a glacier. The end of a flowing lava stream 
will have a somewhat similar form, but this is a case of contin- 
ued flow and not one of equilibrium. These analogies throw 
no light on the question. If we divide the glacier into layers 
by a series of surfaces parallel to the direction of flow, the con-_ 
dition that the end shall be stationary requires that the ice sup- 
plied by each layer shall be melted at its end. Now, the upper 
layers move more rapidly than the lower ones; therefore their 
ends must melt more rapidly. A glance at the diagram will 
show that, on account of the form of the end of the glacier, the 
ends of the upper layers expose a larger surface than the lower 
to the air and sun, resulting in their more rapid melting. This, 
although undoubtedly a part of the explanation, is not the whole 
of it, for the form of the glacier’s end would be one of unstable 
equilibrium. If anything should cause the surface to become 
somewhat steeper, the exposed ends of the upper layers would 
become smaller, and these layers would no longer melt away 
rapidly as they advance; the surface would continue to grow 
steeper until the upper part would break off and thus restore the 
slope. Although glaciers have been observed to advance I have 
never heard of it océurring in this manner. A series of meas- 
urements of the rate and direction of motion, and the rate of 
melting at the end of some glacier, such as the Gorner or Morte- 
ratsch, in Switzerland, would undoubtedly throw hght on this 
problem. 

At the end of the valley of Norris glacier, Taku inlet, there is 
a broad expanse of gravel, etc, on which the glacier, after issuing 
from its gorge, spreads itself like a great fan, thus presenting a _ 
large surface to the air and sun; so that the melting of the ice 
is as rapid as the supply.* If it were prevented from spreading 
it would extend much further than it does, and would undoubt- 


* This level expanse must be either the accumulation of glacial débris 
or a delta formed when the glacier was less extensive than now. 


A WOYS Y3IOV1IN YINW 4O GN3 


BL Mel AA WOM DVN SOHO LVN 


The Glacier’s Snout. AM. 


edly reach deep water. The Taku glacier, close by, finds no 
such support at the opening of its gorge, and therefore discharges 
into the water as a tide-water glacier. Davidson glacier, Lynn 
canal, has a termination exactly lke that of the Norris. The 
ereat Malaspina glacier seems to be merely the united ends of the 
many large glaciers flowing from the St. Elias alps, expanded on 
the great plateau which borders these mountains on the south.’* 

Tide-water Glaciers—The Muir glacier is an excellent ex- 
ample of this class. The inlet into which it pours increases 1n 
depth from the sides to not less than 720 feet near the middle ; 
but the ice is so thick that even this depth is not sufficient to 
float it. Here we have an entirely different method of waste. 
The ice breaks off and floats away in the water as icebergs. 
What is it that regulates the rate at which the ice breaks off? 
What is the form of the glacier’s end below the water? Above, 
it is practically vertical. I can only give a partial answer to 
these questions. 

Suppose the end of Muir glacier were vertical from top to bot- 
tom; let us appiy what we know of the motion of glaciers to 
this case and see what would follow. The more rapid motion 
of the upper part would result in its projection beyond the lower 
part, and this would become greater and greater until its weight 
was sufficient in itself to break it off. The extent of the projec- 
tion before a break would occur depends evidently on the 
strength of ice. The water supports the ice by its buoyancy, so 
that the weight tending to cause fracture is slightly less than the 
weight of that portion of the ice which is above water. The line 
of fracture is determined by the position of some crevasse or some 
uregular melting below the surface. This form seems to be one 
of stable equilibrium, forif the iceshould project too far it would 
break off, and if it did not project far enough no break would 
oceur until its proper motion had carried it out further. That 
the ice for several hundred feet below the surface does not in 
general project further than that above is evident from the fact 
that I have frequently seen large masses, extending to the very 
top of the ice-front, shear off and sink vertically into the water, 
(lisappear for some seconds, and then rise again almost to their 
original height before turning over. If there were any projection 
within 300 feet of the surface, this mass would have struck it and 


*See Russell, Exp. to Mount St. Elias: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. ii, 1891, 
p. 121. 


48 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


been overturned so that it could not have arisen vertically out of 
the water. 

Let us picture to ourselves what takes place at the end of the 
glacier, noting first that there are three ways in which the ice 
breaks away: (a) a piece may break off and fall over—this is the 
usual way with small pinnacles; (6) a piece may shear off and 
sink into the water—this is the usual way with the larger masses : 
or, again, (¢) ice may become detached under water and rise to 
the surface. The diagrams in figure 2 illustrate what I conceive 
to be successive forms of the ice-front. They show how, after a 
number of pieces break off from above, one large piece will break 
off from below, but, in all probability, not from near the bottom. 
The broken line shows where the break occurs. The dotted lines 
show the form of the front just after the last break. 


Fiaure 2—End of a Tide-water Glacier: 


In addition to waste by breakage, there is the waste by melt- 
ing. Above the water surface this is unimportant, for there 
the quantity of ice floated away is much greater than that 
melted ; but near the bottom of the glacier, where the motion is 
very slow, the melting is the principal, probably the only, cause 
of waste, for the ice is in contact with water which is probably 
not very cold* and is, moreover, salt. That the ice does melt 


* Professor Wright found the surface water in Muir inlet to be 40° F. 
I did not take the temperature, but I was once much astonished on 
putting my hand into the water to find it not at all cold, although there 
was a large amount of ice floating about. This high temperature must be 
due to the tides and warm winds prevailing here, and to the compara- 
tively warm sea near by. 


The Birth of Bergs. 49 


below water more rapidly than it does in the air, is shown by 
the fact that icebergs roll over, which is due to this alone. It 
is quite possible that the icebergs darkened by mud and _ rock 
may not have come from the bottom, but may be merely expos- 
ing the side of some old crevasse into which débris from a sur- 
face moraine has fallen. The bergs which we saw rise from 
below the water usually came up after a very heavy fall from 
above, as though some crack had been started by the shock of 
the falling ice; only a few of them were discolored by débris ; 
most were pure blue ice* Moreover, they did not rise very 
high out of the water. All this makes me think that they did 
not originate at any very great depth. Just as a stick thrown 
obliquely into the water may rise again at an angle, so a berg, 
on account of its shape, may rise so obliquely as only to reach 
the surface some distance from the ice-front, thus suggesting 
that the glacier sends out a foot along the bottom of the inlet, 
from the end of which the ice breaks off; but the considerations 
I have mentioned make it evident, I think, that this is not the 
ease. <A series of observations on the temperature and density 
of the water of Muir inlet at different depths and at different 
distances from the ice would undoubtedly afford information 
that would enable us to reason very accurately about the form of 
the ice-front below the water. 

The ice at the bottom of the glacier in contact with its bed 
moyes very slowly, and it is not improbable that the melting, 
where it meets the salt water, quite equals the advance. The 
slope from that point up is determined by the strength of the 
ice. If the progression of the bottom is greater than the rate of 
‘melting, the glacier will advance until it comes to a broader part 
of the fiord, and thus presents a broader front to the water. If 
the fiord were of uniform depth and breadth, the ice could only 
find a position of equilibrium at one end or the other. 

The effect of the depth of the water in determining the posi- 
tion of the glacier’s end is not apparent. As the depth is greater 
the pressure against the ice is greater, but at the same time the 
water produces a greater upward pressure on the ice, diminish- 
ing its pressure against its bed and thus reducing the friction. 
Although these effects cannot balance at all depths, I am unable 
to indicate which one is in general the stronger. 


*The discolored bergs seen by Mr Russell in Disenchantment bay are 
probably from the débris-covered parts of the neighboring glaciers. 


50 FT, F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


If a glacier reaches water which is so deep that it does not. 
touch the bottom, and the motion of the ice is more rapid at the 
bottom than the melting, then its end will be forced further and 
further into and deeper and deeper under the water, following 
the slope of the bed, until the buoyancy of the water is sufficient 
to break it off. The place where the fracture will occur, and the 
size of the iceberg formed, are problems of mechanics. 


Glacial Erosion. 


The general scratching and smoothing of rock by glaciers is 
familiar to all. Another method of erosion, not so generally 
recognized, was observed here. The spur of Tree mountain, 
which I have already mentioned and on which we camped one 
night, isa compact slate ; parts of it were smoothed and scratched ; 
other parts bore a confusion of mixed rock, the rock of the spur 
largely predominating ; in still other places the bed-rock showed 
where angular pieces had been broken out, leaving holes which 
in some cases contained water. Near thesummit of nunatak Hl 
is a rock-basin lake which must have been formed in the same 
way. Itis about 40 feet lone and 20 feet wide.* Its sides are 
much seratched; on one side the rock rises vertically eight or 
ten feet above the water. The rock which formerly filled this 
hole, separated probably by joints from the rock beneath, must 
have been torn out: by the ice in its passage over the spot—not 
necessarily as a whole, but possibly by pieces. The rocks thus 
torn out are in part pushed by the glacier to its end, in part 
rubbed and ground into fine mud and carried off by the sub- 
‘glacial streams. This method of glacial erosion seems to me 
much more efficient in digging valleys than the simple scratch- 
ing and smoothing that is so much more noticeable in valleys 
formerly occupied by glaciers. 

Probably the best method available for determining the rate 
of erosion is to calculate the amount of sediment carried off by 
subglacial streams, as Professor Wright did. Repeating his cal- 
culation with the more accurate data at our disposal, we find that 
an average of about three-quarters of inch is eroded annually 
from the bed of Muir glacier.t 


*These dimensions are given from memory. 

+The following data were used in this calculation: Area drained hy 
glacier, 700 square miles; area of glacier bed, 350 square miles. If we 
assume no motion at bottom, then in the middle of the ice-front the quan- 


Or 
— 


The Work of. the Ice-mill. 


The erosion, of course, cannot be uniform, but must vary much 
with the nature of the rock and the thickness and rate of motion 
of the ice. Near the mouth of the glacier all of these conditions 
cooperate to increase the action, for the rock is slate, the motion 
more rapid, and the thickness of the ice probably greater than 

elsewhere. It does not seem excessive to consider the erosion 
here five or ten times as great as the average. The sudden fall 
between G and H probably marks the line between the harder 


tity of ice carried out per day would be a triangle of 7 feet base (see page 
44) and 920 feet altitude. Near the sides the triangle would have a smaller 
base and a less altitude. Let us suppose a wedge having 7 feet base and 
560 feet altitude (half the greatest depth plus the height.of the ice above 
water) anda breadth equal to the whole ice-front, 9,200 feet, to be break- 
ing off daily ; let us suppose this daily loss constant throughout the year 
(our ignorance of the law of glacial motion below the surface will not per- 
mit a closer approximation—double this quantity would certainly be too 
much, and would still only slightly affect our result). The Signal service 
sendsme as the average of six years’ observation of rainfall at Sitka 105.62 
inches, and the average at Juneau 89.30 inches. Our own observations at 
camp Muir for two months gave about the same rainfall as at Juneau for 
the same period. I have therefore adopted 90 inches for the yearly pre- 
cipitation (see appendix ii). The rest of the data I have taken from Pro- 
fessor Wright’s account (Ice Age in North America, p. 64), viz: 708.48 
grains of sediment in each United States gallon of water of the subglacial 
streams ; specific gravity of this material, 2.5; loss by evaporation, one- 
eighth of precipitation. We thus find for the total precipitation over the 
area drained by the glacier, 146,300,000,000 cubit feet; annual loss in 
bergs reduced to water, 5,906,000,000 cubic feet; loss by evaporation, 
18,300,000,000 cubic feet ; leaving, say, 120,000,000,000 cubic feet of water 
per year carrying off sediment, which gives an average of about } inch 
eroded from the whole bed of the glacier. It is assumed that all the 
water coming from the glacier is charged with sediment. This is in ac- 
cord with observations so far as they go. The clean surface streams near 
the end of the glacier empty into the subglacial streams, from one of which 
the determination of the amount of sediment was made. It may be ob- 
jected that much of this sediment comes from the surface moraines, the 
rocks either there disintegrating into fine material or falling through cre- 
vasses to the glacier bed and being there ground up. The clearness of the 
~ surface streams show that the former is not the case; and the fact that all 
the moraines on the surface of the glacier would hardly be enough to supply 
material equal to the sediment carried out ina single year is conclusive 
evidence against them both. We have not taken into consideration the 
material pushed out from under the glacier before it has been ground fine, 
and this is probably of large amount (although we have no means of meas- 
uring it) and would increase the above estimate of the erosion. 


8—Nar. Grog. Maa., vor. TV, 1892. 


oy, HL. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


crystalline rock above and the softer slate below, and is prob- 
ably due to the different rates of erosion of these rocks. 


METEOROLOGICAL NOTES. 


The prevalent wind on the Alaskan coast is from the south- 
west, but the glacier, by cooling the air in contact with it, pro-. 
duces a cold wind which slides down its slope. Thus a north- 
easterly wind blew continuously at our camp except occasionally 
when a strong southerly gale overcame it. On the western trib- 
utary the wind was from the west and in Main yalley from 
the northwest ; in fact, everywhere it flowed down the slope of 
the glacier. Its influence on the temperature was very marked. 
The mean temperature during July and August was 45°.1 F., 
about 10° lower than that at Juneau during the same period, 
although this latter place is only about 35 miles further south- 
ward. At no time during our stay, however, was a freezing tem- 
perature reached. : 

This cold wind did not usually extend very high; frequently 
mist could be seen moving northward not 1,000 feet above our 
camp, where the flag was streaming toward the south. The 


Figure 38—Diagram illustrating Refraction. 


temperature was higher on elevations than lower down. At V’ 
(3,000 feet) the thermometer was once observed 6°.7 C. (12° F.) 
higher than at camp; also, at the same time, on the top of Tree 
mountain (2,700) the temperature was 4°.3 C. (7°.7 F.) higher 
than at camp. The increase of temperature with altitude causes 
an unusually rapid decrease of density in the atmosphere, with 
a corresponding increase in refraction, thus producing the mirage 
which is so common here. It is noticeable only when both the 
observer and the object are in the cold layer. A ray of light 
may reach the observer after following a horizontal path, or after 
rising slightly and then being refracted down again. The result 
is to make the object appear stretched out and to give it increased 
height. We often saw islands with apparently vertical sides ; 
the icebergs in Glacier bay were magnified vertically so as to 


ln an yee ee rt 


. 


: 
ft 
ia 
i: 
: | 


ve is 


Peer 
oe yn 


i] 


VOL. 1892,_PL_|4 


— 


Mit 
a 


5 Aaa 


MUIR CLACIER 


ALASKA 


Surveyed with Plone Table in 1899, by 
HARRY FIELDING REID. 


Scale 1:rs0e00, 


Rod Nssannse 
NS 


p 


3 


i S 
SNe 


ida reck seamed 


Pharpbogy 


wae 


; he Ans 
Kdleng et ay Wnty ‘ ay 


Pallibe Oredediean rs o> ity ia ibe ets 2 


sp nets setae intial tena tt OE 


The fabled “Phantom City.” 59 


look like the ice-front of another glacier; the pinnacles of Muir 
glacier sometimes look like minarets. These appearances have 
given rise, by a considerable stretch of the imagination, to the 
so-called “ Silent city,” or ““ Phantom city,” figured in some books 
which describe this region. This mirage is just the opposite to 
that seen in hot deserts. There the rays are bent up, making 
the image look as if it were reflected from the surface of water ; 
here the rays are bent down; yet the bending is not sufficient to 
entirely separate the image from the object, but only makes the 
latter appear distended, as though it were made of rubber and 
had been stretched upward. | 

We had rather less rain than we expected; about one day in 
three was rainy during July and August; September was much 
wetter. There were no thunder-storms, and usually the rain 
was in small drops. In August aurore were frequently seen, so 
frequently that I think they must have occurred every night; 
possibly all the time, although, of course, daylight would have 
masked them. Earlier in the summer the twilight, which lasted 
all night, would also have drowned them if they occurred. 


THE SuRVEY.* 


A base line was measured off witha steel tape from 4 to B 
on the plateau on the western side of the inlet; here we found 
fairly even ground. The base was measured twice; first from 
B to A, then from A to B. The two values obtained were 
962.301 and 962.5530 meters respectively. The length adopted 
was 962.52 meters, = 1,052.8 yards. By means of small transits 
we then made a network of triangles and fixed the points 4 B, 
D, Camp, E, K, L, M,64,¢2. The maps were made entirely with 
the planetable. This instrument was set up at Camp, D, E, H, 
L, N, O, P, R, S, T and V, for the general map. The map of 


* The instruments used in the survey were lent by the United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. They consisted of—1, a 39-meter steel tape, 
with which we measured the base line; 2, two small Casella transits, with 
23-inch vertical and horizontal circles, divided to half degrees and read- 
ing by two verniers to minutes, which were used in the triangulation, in 
the measure of the motion of the ice, and in determinations of latitude : 
3, a planetable 14 by 18 inches, with which the maps were actually made. 
In addition, we had four aneroids, only one of which, however, was found 
to yield reliable results. This one was used in determining the height of 
VY, and the height of the glacier near P. 


o4 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


the inlet and ice-front was made from Camp, D, Z and M_ 
Photographs were made from many points, and these have been 
of the greatest use in drawing in the general topography. As to 
the accuracy of the maps I think that none of the points marked 
thus © are out of their place by 1% of their distance from # ; 
many are much more accurately fixed. Many points where the 
rocks and ice were in contact, etc, were, of course, determined, 
but with much less accuracy. 

Tn order to connect our map with any future survey that may 
be made in this region, we made two cairns of heavy stones, one 
at Dand one at E. Dis on the gravels on the eastern side of 
the inlet, at a height of 107 feet above mean tide. His on a flat 
knoll of the ridge descending from mount Wright, at an eleva- 
tion of 890 feet. The horizontal distance between D and Fis 
2,785 yards, and the line connecting them runs N. 41° 43% E., 
astronomical. 

The latitude of our camp was determined on several occasions ; 
the average, 58° 49.7, can hardly be in error by more than a 
half minute. The longitude was not determined ; on first going 
into camp the chronometer was allowed to run down, and when 
we left, it stopped for some reason unknown. ‘The chronometers 
of the steamers were not sufficiently accordant among themselves 
to give reliable results by comparison with our local time. The 
longitude adopted by reference to the best map of the region in 
the Coast Survey office is 136° 5’ W., which can hardly be in 
error by 5’. 

On platting our map into the general chart of the United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, we see that the area we surveyed 
occupies much of the region between Lynn canal, Chilcat river, 
and the upper part of Glacier bay. The mountains on the east- 
ern part of our map must be visible from Lynn canal, which is 
only ten or twelve miles distant. Davidson glacier must have 
tributaries in the mountains which close in Granite canyon. 
There is a rumor that the Chilcat Indians were accustomed to 
make the passage to Glacier bay over the Davidson and Muir 
glaciers. If this is true there is probably a low divide between 
some tributary of Davidson and the first northern tributary of 
Muir. This region, unfortunately, we were unable to see. 

The scale of the general map is 45/97, Which is large enough 
to show the detail we were able to make out, except in the neigh- 
borhood of the mouth of the glacier. I have added contour lines 


NAT. GEOG. MAG. 


Mf I 


Hi 
Uh i 
IN 


by I 
SS) 


AW 
\\ 
WS 


il 


HH 


| N \ 
un 


Yfy 
WY, 


yl 
4 Y\ 
YJ) 


Ai 
AW WN 


(EN 


WI 


l 


\\ 


MUIR INLET 


NORTHERN PART 


ENS Si 
~~ y 


Hf 


MUIR INLET 


by 


HARRY FIELDING REID, 


Oe tle aan 


\ 


Bas 


Motion of Glacier 


Measuring 


45 for 
Approximate Contour Lines 


fla 


Heights above mean tide in feet, thus; (87 ‘ 


1 


ia oe 


Pogirions or Icr-Frowr. 


PRU: 4 


=S== 
———— 
po 


K XXX 


y Prof Muir 
1886, from photogyaph by Prof Wright ~-s-— 


, 1890, from survey by HER 
Scale 1/40 000 


v2.6 


fa 7,189.0, from plotegrahh by HFR 


187g, from desereption b 


Jul 


7so0 Wieters, 


Ta 


er TT eT eT 


150 Yarde. 


ETT} 


108 Ate Jeo 08 


The Maps of the Glacier. dd 


at 200-foot intervals ; it must be remembered that these pretend 
to no accuracy, but merely serve to show the general form of the 
surface, as well as I can indicate it by aid of memory and pho- 
tographs. The altitudes above mean tide which were deter- 
mined trigonometrically are given in black figures; those deter- 
mined by barometer or estimated, in blue figures. Camp Muir 
was estimated to be 25 feet above mean tide. 

For the inlet I have made a separate map on a scale spto0; 
which shows well the position of the flags we used for measuring 
the motion of the glacier and the form and position of the ice- 
front at various times. The contour lines here also are only very 
roughly approximate; the interval between them is 100 feet. 
The numbers give altitudes determined trigonometrically, ex- 
cept those on the contour lines, which are estimated. 


SUPPLEMENT I. 


NOTES ON THE GHOLOGY VORA VREE VlOiN ican OE 
MUIR GLACIER. 


BY 


H. P. CUSHING. 


ae 
CONTENTS. 

Page 
General ‘Features; eae ea ae We ne en aie an es 56 
Sedimentary /Rocksic fee he 2 4 We See evel Ge o7 
Phe vA rorilite cece. hctha Uk tein Sere a tenes old ae nn eae o7 
The Dimestome..6 Alok aa eae On ee ee ee 59 
Hiruptive ROCKS) 2a oh Daa Masala a recur tye weatiug Mae AiG ce en eae 60 
Phe AioribkeEs Hes. SS ae a ee a 60 
Quart z-diorite sa Whe Cee Ae eae, Ok Ae at A 60 
Haterirap tives: ..2.5 sae Seer ohn ia ee ee ea aan oie ee 61 


GENERAL FEATURES. 


Both aqueous and igneous rocks occur in the vicinity of Muir 
glacier, and the plutonic rocks belong to two distinct periods. 
All the rocks of the vicinity have suffered much dynamically, 
the recent eruptives excepted. The whole series is much shat- 
tered and fissured. Three sets of fissures are generally readily 
made out, dividing the rock into small prismatic blocks. These 
fissure planes are seldom vertical, but present varying angles. 
Generally they are mere cracks, often filled by infiltration, but 
sometimes they have a width of several feet. The numerous 
small dikes of andesitic rock appear to have the same directions 
as the fissure systems, and were probably formed at the same 
time. Evidence of small faults of comparatively recent origin, 
involving these dikes and determined by their aid, is occasionally 
forthcoming, showing a certain amount of disturbance in the 
region since they were formed. Evidence of earlier faults is dit- 
ficult to obtain, owing to the homogeneity of the rocks and the 

(56) 


( 


di 


Structure of Rocks and Mountains. : 


ereat difficulty in making determinations of dip on account of 
the obliteration of the bedding planes; but it is clear that a 
considerable amount of faulting took place prior to the forma- 
tion of the dikes. The strike of the sedimentary rocks is about 
N. 50° W. (N. 80° W. magnetic). The dips are generally at high 
angles toward the south, but are extremely variable. Short 
monoclinals involving a considerable change of dip are not un- 
common. Small anticlinals and synclinals occasionally occur, 
but are of minor importance, soon giving way to the prevailing 
southerly dip. These frequent variations in dip are well shown 
along the eastern shore of Headland island. <A considerable 
fault is also shown about midway along this shore, clearly indi- 
cated by the difference of dip on the two sides; but the simi- 
larity of the rocks on both sides renders any determination of the 
amount of throw impossible. Sufficient country was not coy- 
ered to at all clearly exhibit the type of mountain structure 
obtaining here. The dip is pretty persistently away from the 
diorite peaks, which were the most northerly ones reached. 
What lies beyond them no man knows. The work done makes 
it probable that we have here a tilted and raised block accom- 
panied by faulting. 


SEDIMENTARY Rocks. 


Two great series of sedimentary rocks are exposed in the 
Glacier bay region, one of argillite, the other of limestone; both 
are of great thickness. The limestone is the younger. The 
contact between the two is well shown on the eastern shore of 
the bay, has an extremely steep southerly dip, and reaches tide- 
water about eight miles south of the present front of Muir 
elacier. 


The Argillite—The mountains adjoining Muir inlet and the 
upper northeastern shore of Glacier bay and those surrounding 
the eastern part of Muir glacier amphitheater are entirely com- 
posed of slaty rocks (see geologic map, plate 16). The thickness 
of these argillites | was unable to determine, but it clearly reaches 
several thousand feet. They present three main phases: 

1. Very hard, fine-grained, gray argillo-siliceous bands, of some- 
what varying shades, occasionally approaching quartzite in 
character. 

2. Equally abundant with the last, and with them making up 


58 H, F. Reid—Studies of Muir~ Glacier. 


the, larger portion of the series, are bands of nearly equal hard- 
ness of a blue or black slaty rock, containing a smaller arenaceous 
admixture than the last, but being somewhat caleareous. The 
first variety is more abundant in the lower portion of the series, 
the second in the upper. Both are very homogeneous and fine- 
erained, and extremely compact. The black variety weathers to. 
a dark-brown color, the gray to a yellowish brown and sandy- 
looking surface. These give characteristic colors to the moraines 
in the southeastern portion of the amphitheater, a medial moraine 
sometimes appearing one color or the other as it is viewed from 
one side or the other. The extreme hardness of these slates is 
due to their metamorphosed condition. The degree of meta- 
morphism is quite uniform throughout. So faras can be told by 
the eye, it has nowhere been carried to a point where recrystal- 
lization has begun, so that none of these rocks are at all schistose 
in character. The metamorphism and the numerous fissures 
which cut these rocks have nearly obliterated the old bedding 
planes, so that dips are generally most perceptible from a dis- 
tance, owing to the banded appearance given by the presence of 
the two varieties. Little or no tendency to split on the original 
bedding planes is now shown, the fissures determining the shape 
and size of the blocks, which themselves often display the color 
bands. These bands are well shown in many places ; for example, 
on the highly glaciated slopes of mount Wright which face the 
inlet. 

3. Comparatively thin bands of more fissile, black graphitic 
slates are found interstratified with the others. These are found 
at numerous localities, and there are certainly several such bands, 
though their apparent number may be increased by faulting. 
They are softer than the other slates, and readily split into thin, 
even slabs. They become dotted with brown specks on weather- 
ing. The fissures which intersect the slates are commonly filled, 
wholly or in part, by crystalline calcite, somewhat binding un- 
weathered blocks together. This is universally the case with the 
blue-black slates, and more commonly so with the gray ; but 
such fillings do not occur in the graphitic slates. This would 
indicate that the calcareous matter was largely derived from the 
slates themselves, and that the graphitic slates lack it from hay- 
ing contained none originally. Generally these fillings are mere 
films, but occasionally wider fissures occur which contain calcite 
masses of considerable size. The large blocks of white crystalline 


Fossils of ancient Aspect. 59 


marble occurring on some of the moraines have had such a source. 
Two large calcite seams of this character show beautifully on the 
eastern face of Pyramid peak, looking, to an observer in Dying 
glacier valley, like rills of water on the mountain side. In the 
vicinity of the eruptives these fissures are often metalliferous, 
and oceasional quartz veins occur. 

Careful search for fossils was made in these argillites at many 
points, but no discovery rewarded the search. It is very possi- 
ble that the series comprises rocks of more than one age. The 
whole is so homogeneous in appearance that its dissection, if 
dissection is possible, will be a matter of vast and painstaking 
labor. 

The Limestone-—The mountains forming both shores of the larger 
part of Glacier bay, and all the islands in the bay except the two in 
Muir inlet and the Beardslee islands, are made up of metamorphic 
limestone. This first appears on the eastern side of the bay, form- 
ing the mountain peak just south of the peak of mount Wright, 
follows along the mountain summits for some little distance with 
slight dip. and then abruptly plunges down to the shore with a 
very steep southerly dip. Near its contact with the slates it con- 
tains considerable argillaceous admixture ; otherwise it is an ex- 
tremely pure dolomitic limestone, containing only a trace of 
insoluble matter. More commonly it is of a dark purplish tint, 
though some portions are drab. It is cut by the same fissure 
systems as the argillites, but is bound into a more compact mass 
by the calcite which everywhere completely fills the fissures, so 
that it disintezrates with less rapidity. Search for fossils in the 
limestone was rewarded at only one locality, on the island in 
Glacier bay nearly due south of Headland island. Here but a 
handful were found. The only recognizable forms were shells of 
Leperditia. Sections of large gasteropods showed beautifully on 
the highly polished limestone surface, but it was impossible to 
break out specimens which would give any indication of external 
form. I sent the collection to Professor H. 8. Williams for ex- 
amination. He replied that Leperditia was recognizable, while 
the others would scarcely repay careful examination ; that the 
age was probably Paleozoic, but that the collection would war- 
rant no more decisive statement. The superior limit of the lime- 
stone was not seen, but it has a thickness of several thousand 
feet. It appears conformable with the argillites below, indicating 
their probable Paleozoic age. 


9—Natw. Grog. Mag, vor. LV, 1892. 


- 


60 HT. F. Reid—sStudies of Muir Glacier. 


ERruptivké Rocks. 


Shdes of all the eruptive rocks found in the district, ground 
by the United States Geological Survey, through the courtesy of 
the director, were sent to Dr George H. Williams for examina- 
tion. It is much to be regretted that, owing to a misunderstand- 
ing, no field-notes were sent him. His paper accompanies this, 
and to it the reader is referred for the nature of the rock species 
under discussion (supplement 11). There are two main classes 
of igneous rocks in the district: (1) ancient eruptives occurring 
in large masses, classed as diorites by Dr Williams, and (2) more 
recent eruptives, occupying dikes generally of small size, which 
cut both the sedimentary and the older eruptive rocks. 

The Diorites—The northern and northeastern tributaries of 
- Muir glacier have brought down on their moraines great quanti- 
ties of diorite, derived from the mountains adjoining the upper 
portions of their valleys. These diorite mountains he just north 
of those of argillite which form the southeastern boundary of the 
glacial amphitheater. - I saw the rock in place only from a dis- 
tance, and had no opportunity to examine the contact between 
it and the argillite. This renders it impossible to state which of 
the two is the older. No evidence of-shore conditions is obsery- 
able in the vicinity of the contact, nor is there any evidence per- 
ceptible to the eye that the argillites derived any of their material 
from the diorite, affording a sheht negative evidence in favor of 
the diorite being the younger. ‘To the eye the diorite seems to 
consist of nearly black hornblende and a white plagioclase, the 
hornblende largely predominating. A distinctly fohated arrange- 
ment is often observable, simulating a rough gneissic structure. 
In the main it is fine grained, but sometimes quite coarsely 


crystalline. 

Quarte-diorite—Another great plutonic mass, having a very 
different appearance from the last and completely separated from 
it in the region examined, is described as quartz-diorite by Dr 
Williams. Its outcrop is fan-shaped, running out toward the 
east, but havirte a great development toward the northwest and 
west. Nunataks Gand H are composed of it, and also the moun- 
tains toward the west and northwest as far as the eye can reach | 
the peculiar light tint of the rock making it easily recognizable 
at some distance. The moraines that come down from that 
direction are almost entirely composed of this material. To the 


oe 


Ancient igneous Rocks. 61 


eye this rock consists of a mixture of white plagioclase and glassy 
quartz, in which is imbedded occasional prisms of hornblende 
which seldom haye a length of less than a quarter of an inch ; 
oceasional plates of biotite also occur. The contact of this rock 
with the slates is best shown on the northern wall of the valley 
of the small glacier which lies north of Pyramid peak and was 
formerly tributary to Dying glacier. An angle in the wall cuts 
through the slates into the quartz-diorite, showing two contacts. 
The westerly one is sharp and nearly vertical. The eastern one 
is inclined toward the west, and numerous stringers are seen 
penetrating the slates. This indicates the more recent date of 
the eruptive rock. The slates in the near vicinity are apparently 
not greatly affected by the heat consequent on this outflow, but 
the same holds true of them when in juxtaposition to the more 
recent dikes, and is accounted for by the metamorphosed condi- 
tion of the whole series. 

Three small exposures of rock, clearly distinguishable from 
the main quartz-diorite mass macroscopically, but which Dr 
Williams also describes as quartz-diorite, occur. One of these 
is on the most northerly spur of mount Wright, at Mr Reid’s 
station #; another forms the southern projection of the ridge 
west of Granite canyon; the third is found cutting the limestone 
on the shore of the bay 10 miles south of Muir glacier. Their 
relations to the main mass could not be determined. They are 
easily distinguishable from the main mass, which is very uniform 
in appearance, by their greater percentage of hornblende and 
their metalliferous contents. Their contacts with the adjoining 
rocks clearly indicate their outflow to be of later date than the 
deposition of those rocks. 

These quartz-diorites are clearly quite old, and have suffered 
equally with the clastic rocks from the disturbances which the 
region has undergone. They are cut by the same sets of fissures, 
though not so numerously ; they are also cut by the more recent 
dikes. Dr Williams strongly urges the ancient date of these 
diorite masses from his microscopic examination. This is cor- 
roborated by their appearance in the field and strengthens the 
meager fossil evidence obtained as to the early age of the clastic 
rocks. 

Later Eruptives—All the rocks previously described are cut by 
numerous small dikes of later date. The key to their arrange- 
ment was not apparent. They seem to lie in all possible atti- 


62 FT. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


tudes and to dip in several directions, generally at high angles. 
They seem to follow the fissure systems. Their width is com- 
monly but a few feet, but some were found twenty feet and over. 
They keep their width with great persistency for considerable 
distances. No surface flows were found. To the eye all these 
dike rocks strongly resemble one another. They have a nearly 
black or dark greenish color, a sandy appearance on weathered 
surfaces, and are generally distinctly porphyritic in structure, 
with considerable variation in the size of the porphyritic crystals. 
The specimens I collected from these small dikes and sent to Dr 
Wilhams he classifies without exception as diabases. From a 
somewhat larger and much decomposed dike on the ridge east 
of Dirt glacier valley I sent him a specimen which he describes 
as micropegmatite. What relation this dike bears to the diabase 
dikes could not be determined, and I found no others like it, 
though the loose pieces on the moraines show that they occur to 
the north. With this one exception, all the dikes seen presented 
a very uniform appearance, save for such slight differences of 
texture as depend on slight variations in the rate of cooling. 

No evidence was found of successive outflows of varying charac- 
ter, though that may be furnished by the exploration of a wider 
area. The dike rock occurs in blocks of varying shapes and 
sizes. How much of this is due to fissuring and how much to 
contraction of cooling I cannot say. That a certain amount of 
dislocation has occurred since their formation is evinced by the 
fact that occasionally they are somewhat faulted. But their 
appearance in the field shows that they have suffered but little 
dynamically compared with the enclosing rocks. 

No direct evidence was forthcoming, bearing on the age of 
these later eruptives ; all that can be stated with certainty being 
that they are the youngest rocks hereabouts and are contemporary 
with a great disturbance of the region. Their appearance is very 
sunilar to that of certain eruptives of Tertiary age occurring in 
the Cordilleras further southward. The earlier eruptives indicate 
a certain amount of disturbance of Paleozoic or Mesozoic date in 
the region. Ata later date further and greater movements took 
place, the rocks were upturned, faulted, and fissured, and certain 
of the fissures were penetrated by lavas of Tertiary habit. 


* These later eruptions probably took place at the time of the upheaval 
of the St. Elias range. See page 24 [H. F. R.]. 


MORSE IVGIS Oa eG 


NAT.. GEOG. MAG. 


ms wine 
an 
<“--Main Valley 


4 
/ 


NINN 
SSS 
N 


1 


I 47 
1eY 4 
for 
Ae ee 


up } Re RENN Yo 
Ewes Branclats AN 
Y @ fi Lj 


X Island where fossils were found 


Fo Jetacial gravels —-——Moraines 
Geologic Map 


of 


Muir Glacier Basin 
By H. P. Cushing 


J piterver®. 
Sn “| Quartz-diorite GW Argillites 


poe 


14] Diorite 


SUPPLEMENT II. 
NOTES ON SOME ERUPTIVE ROCKS FROM ALASKA. 
BY 


GEO. H. WILLIAMS, PH. D., OF JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. 


CONTENTS. 


Page 

HErnrteI@ Clute i MMs elo seek SIR Gan eet ne PMB regen Te Bes var tesGe ce iea are is 63 
Coanse-orammeamelimbonile MOCKS. 2G nce.ns Seed oe een ae oa ieee oth 65 
ND TONKS Me ee See) Uk Miter Rotel bees Naneet Ea at Rasim bolas Mutat 65 
PANTONE =CH OTA ys au eaten een terme Senta Sato) g 65 

NUMA SATAN IO RKO a al eee iets mas Ones Get jet earl aai ea HE 66 

AUSSUMITEH LORIE ose Mj enn nya eeem beseech OOS 67 

Q Want 7Z-CvOvibe aes astnes Uae ey sen tte ners mene nae ne 67 

GAloaro oi Miomwamey Cool (ARC KONE) .o 2 vo docdocoeceacsscas ce 68 

ie mmc da Dikerorieurtace IOCKS. ice et Gems secs ke ucos oe. iyi 68 
TEXOTE DIM APS AUPE eRe gra Cae et Re EREER IB STOREILA RN eSiR OMe aa ic LAD) BA ALL He 69 

IN GKOP COT AEC ere tegee ee aap Muni ces Aas oppo eats eae 69 
huantz-pOrp ly Ty in wae oats eats ane ae a aleaees Soh 70 

HESONTGIO ONTO ey cosa ese ace Sapcne Gidea s stamens ae Seats nahn Ren Rie ar 52 70 
Etornblende=pOKp lytic anne eee eee ee 70 
Augite-porphyrite (labradorite-porphyrite?) ........... 71 

HT TaN) ASV erates res sa crci spy heh nce Ba reat Suey ated RID yey orate my 72 


INTRODUCTION. 


The rocks described in the following notes are for the most 
part comprised in a collection of fifty erratic bowlders and peb- 
bles gathered near the foot of the Muir glacier by Professor H. 
F. Reid during his visit there in the summer of 1890. Forty-one 
of these specimens were examined microscopically, the others 
being too much altered to repay such a study. Microscopic sec- 
tions of twelve specimens of eruptive rocks, collected in sitw near 
the glacier by Mr H. P. Cushing, who accompanied Professor 
Reid, were also examined. The description of a single specimen 
(olivine-gabbro or forellenstein) obtained from the southern side 

(63)" 


64 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muw Glacier. 


of mount Cook by Mr I. C. Russell, of the United States Geo- 
logical Survey, during the same season is also incorporated with 
the others. 

Thanks are due to the director of the United States Geological 
Survey for his kindness in authorizing the preparation of the 
microscopic sections necessary for this investigation. 

No elaborate or exhaustive study of this material was under- 
taken: first; because a preliminary examination showed that 
neither the intrinsic interest of the rocks nor their state of preser- 

ration warranted it; and still more because the bare petrograph- 
ical description of a lot of disconnected hand-specimens, with no 
information in regard to their occurrence or geologic associa- 
tion, is of but doubtful value. 

The real interest of this rock collection consists in the light it 
throws on the nature of the Alaskan mountains, which are for 
the present at least inaccessible to the geologist, and in the strong 
similarity between these specimens and the rocks which have 
been more carefully studied from portions of the Cordilleras and 
Great Basin farther southward.* 

While none of the specimens in this small series give any clue 
to the nature or horizon of any sedimentary deposits, we do find 
in the coarsely crystalline diorites, quartz-diorites and gabbro a 
correspondence to the most ancient and probably Archean ter- 
ranes occurring in the regions farther southward which are cut 
by dike rocks very similar to if not identical with those collected 
on the Muir glacier by Professor Reid. Although in the absence 
of geologic data this correspondence is only an indication, 
still it is too apparent to be overlooked. In the succeeding 
petrographical descriptions I shall therefore distinguish between 
the more coarsely crystalline plutonic rocks, whose structure 
indicates their occurrence in large masses, and the finer-grained 
though still for the most part holocrystalline rocks derived in 
all probability from dikes. 

These latter rocks, as is usual in such series, cover a wide | 
range, both structurally and mineralogically. ‘The different 
types pass almost too gradually into one another to allow of 
any sharp division; and yet fer convenience of description, 
rather than because they stand for any petrographically well- 
defined groups, they may be ranged under quartz-porphyry 


*See J. P. Iddings: Bull. U.S. Geol. Sury., no. 66, 1890, p. 9. 


Definition of Rock Types. 65 


(rhyolite ?), hornblende-porphyrite, augite-porphyrite and dia- 
base.* 
COARSE-GRAINED PiLutTontc Rocks. 


Not only does the structure of the more coarsely granular rocks 
examined by me from Alaska indicate that they originated, as 
above explained, under very different physical conditions from 
the more finely grained porphyritic specimens, but another of 
their characteristics renders it probable that they are also much 
more ancient than these. This is the evidence of extensive 
dynamic action to which they have been subjected, manifested 
in the fracturing, optical derangement, granulation, or meta- 
~morphism of the constituent minerals. The absence of such 
phenomena from the dike rocks is the second and more important 
reason for correllating the coarser specimens with a geologically 
earler and possibly Archean terrane. 

These plutonic rocks will be considered under the heads of 
diorite and gabbro. 


Diorite. 


Nine of the specimens collected by Professor Reid from the 
foot of the Muir glacier are representative diorites. They are 
numbered 1, 2, 3,4, 5,6, 7,15 and 22. All are well preserved 
and differ from one another principally in the coarseness of their 
erain, in the evidences which they exhibit of dynamic action, 
and in their proportions of accessory pyroxene or biotite. 

Augite-diorite——Numbers 1 and 2, evidently identical, are rather 
coarse-grained augite-bearing diorites. Their principal constitu- 
ent visible to the unaided eye is dark green hornblende, whose 
cleavage surfaces reach two centimeters in diameter. The spaces 


*The terms porphyry and porphyrite must be understood as used 
throughout this paper in a purely structural sense, with no reference to 
either geologic age or secondary alteration. In classifying a collection like 
this one, any reference to geologic age is plainly out of the question, and 
the specimens, while often much altered, still show the original structure 
of their groundmass with distinctness. This is in almost every case holo- 
crystalline, and often quite coarsely crystalline, indicating in general a 
slower rate of cooling than that common to purely surface rocks. In this 
sense only then are the porphyries and porphyrites herein described sup- 
posed to differ from their less crystalline and more superficial equivalents, 
the rhyolites and andesites. In this usage I profit by the counsel of my 
friend, Mr J. P. Iddings, whose extensive researches among kindred rocks 
entitle him to speak with authority upon such a point. 


66 I. Fr. Reid--Studies of Murr Glacier. 


between the hornblende individuals are filled with opaque white ~ 
feldspar. The hornblende surfaces are often seen to be poikilitic, 
through a mottling with small idiomorphie feldspar crystals. 

Under the microscope the hornblende is brown and pleochroic 
where freshest. It has the usual tendency to become green or 
colorless where it has undergone incipient alteration. It is 
closely associated with a quite abundant pale greenish-gray 
pyroxene. The two minerals are intimately intergrown, the 
small areas of the hornblende in the pyroxene lookingas though 
they had resulted from the alteration of the latter mineral. A_ 
narrow fringe of hornblende frequently surrounds the pyroxene, 
while every grain of magnetite occurring in the pyroxene is 
bordered by a deep green hornblende zone. The feldspar is basic 
and much striated by twinning. It is also considerably altered 
to sericite and saussurite. . 

Augite-mica-diorite—This rock (number 3) has a much finer 
erain than the preceding, and differs from it mineralogically in 
containing a considerable proportion of biotite. Asa consequence 
of this the amount of its pyroxene is much less and occurs only 
as occasional cores surviving in the center of large hornblende 
individuals. The hornblende in this rock is full of inclusions 
which are irregularly distributed, like Judd’s “ schillerization ” 
products. 

Number 4 is a rock quite like the last, but which shows evi- 
donce of intense dynamic action. It contains neither mica nor 
pyroxene in the particular section examined. AlI the constitu- 
ents show the effects of pressure. The feldspar especially is 
bent, broken and dislocated, showing in a beautiful manner a 
peripheral granulation of the fragments.* 

Number 5 is another augite-bearing mica-diorite, which, like 
the last described specimen, shows the extreme effect of dynamic 
action. Its feldspars are bent, broken and granulated, while its 
pale-gray pyroxene is peripherally altered to a new green horn- 
blende, as is the case in the Saxon gabbros and granulites de- 
scribed by J. Lehmann.+ Its mica scales are also greatly bent, 


* All of the four preceding rocks show a striking resemblance to the 
diorites described by the writer from the Cortlandt series from near Peeks- 
kill, on Hudson river, New York, in Am. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. xxxv, 
1888, p. 440. 

+ Untersuchungen tiber die Entstehung der altkrystallinischen Schie- 
fergesteine, Bonn, 1884, pp. 198 and 250. 


Varieties of Dviorite. 67 
and the interior of its hornblende individuals is often granulated 
with quartz or albite, as in the Baltimore gabbro-diorites.* 

Saussurite-diorite—Number 6 is a rock similar to those de- 
scribed above, but much altered. Its triclinic feldspar is changed 
in part to scapolite, in part to saussurite. Its hornblende, of 
which there is comparatively little present, is largely changed 
to epidote and its biotite to chlorite. Considerable irregular 
areas of secondary quartz are also present. 

Numbers 7 and 15 are medium-grained diorites with nearly 
idiomorphie feldspar crystals. They contain much twinned 
hornblende and accessory biotite. Number 15 differs only from 
7 in containing more sphene and apatite. 

Number 22 is another diorite much like the last, but whose 
hornblende has a poikilitic structure, being mottled with plagio- 
clase crystals. This specimen also contains another mineral 
now wholly decomposed and undeterminable. It somewhat re- 
sembles biotite with calcite lenses, but it may once have been 
cordierite, as it greatly resembles the altered form of that min- 
eral described and figured by the writer in a granite from the 
Black Forest, in Baden.t The groundmass of this rock consists 
of nearly idiomorphic plagioclase, much altered. 

Number 44 is a diorite which differs from the others in being 
of a very much finer grain. In the hand-specimen it is dark 
ereen and quite aphanitic, while under the microscope it appears 
as a fine mixture of allotriomorphic green hornblende, plagio- 
clase and sphene. This is evidently a dike rock. 

Quartz-diorite—Closely allied to the foregoing diorites and 
differine from them chiefly in their content of quartz, are six 
specimens collected in situ by-Mr Cushing near the foot of the 
Muir glacier. These are somewhat more acid rocks than the 
quartz-free diorites, and are free from pyroxene. They contain 
either biotite or green hornblende, or both, in varying amounts. 
Their feldspar is a much striated and almost wholly idiomorphic 
plagioclase, with a finely developed zonal structure. The quartz, 
which is not particularly abundant, occupies the interstices be- 
tween the well-formed feldspar crystals as the augite does in 
diabase. It is very plainly the last product of crystallization. 


* Bulletin U. S. Geological Survey, no. 28, 1886, pl. i11, fig. 1. 
+ Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min., Beil. Bd. ii, 1883, p. 598, taf. 12, fig. 1. 


10—Nar. Grog. Maa., vor. LV, 1892. 


68 Hf, F. Read—Studies of Muir Glacier. 
Gabbro of Mount Cook ( Troctolite). 


In the collection of Alaskan rocks intrusted to me by Professor 
Reid and Mr Cushing there are no representatives of gabbro, but 
a single specimen of this type collected in the summer of 1890 by 
Mr I. C. Russell on the southern side of mount Cook has been 
sent me by Mr J. 8. Diller, of the United States Geological Sur- 
vey, and may appropriately be noticed in this place. 

This rock bears the ‘closest macroscopic resemblance to the 
well-known forellenstein of Neurode in Silesia,* nor is the like- 
ness less striking when the two rocks are compared under the 
microscope. The thin sections of the Alaskan rock which I have 
examined show an evenly granular aggregate of serpentine grains 
and a basic feldspar, which appears from its optical properties 
to belong to the labrador-anorthite series. The serpentine now 
contains no trace of the original olivine from which it has eyi- 
dently been derived. The feldspar is striped with broad twin- 
ning lamelle, and shows evidence of considerable alteration, 
although none of the constituents of this rock exhibit any indi- 
cations of having been subjected to any particular dynamic action. 
Around each serpentine grain is a border of compact greenish 
hornblende, which for considerable distances belongs to single 
individuals. - 

To designate this peculiar modification of olivine-gabbro from 
which pyroxene is nearly or quite absent, the English petrog- 
raphers employ a translation of the German term “ forellenstein ” 
(trout-stone) troctolite. As early as 1872 Professor Edward 5. 
Dana proposed the name “ ossipyte” to designate a rock from 
New Hampshire of the same mineral composition. 


FINE-GRAINED DIKE OR SURFACE Rocks. 


A goodly proportion of the specimens examined are fine- 
grained porphyritic rocks, covering aconsiderable range of types. 
Their structure indicates that they belong to small masses, which 
in all probability break through the crystalline complex of more 
coarsely granular rocks above described in the form of dikes, or 
perhaps in some instances cover them as surface flows. These 


*Vom Rath: Pogg. Ann., vol. 95, 1855, p. 551; and A. Streng: Neues 
Jahrbuch fiir Min., 1864, p. 257. 
{+ Am. Journ. Sci., 3d ser., vol. 11, 1872, p. 49. 


Varieties of Porphyry: 69 


rocks, in spite of often possessing an extremely fine-grained 
groundmass, are in almost every instance holocrystalline. In 
only rare instances was there a truly amorphous base present in 
any appreciable amount. For this reason they will be classified 
for description (in accordance with the foot-note on page 65) as 
porphyries, porphyrites, and diabases. 


Porphyry. 


Micropegmatite—The absence of granitic rocks is noticeable 
in the series examined from Alaska. The nearest approach to 
this type appears to be number 13, collected by Professor Reid. 
Both this and two other specimens which are related to it in the 
structure of their groundmass, are, however, more basic than we 
should expect true porphyries to be. They none of them con- 
tain any porphyritic quartz. Their phenocrysts are altogether 
hornblende and feldspar (mostly striated); so that, in the ab- 
senceof a complete analysis, they might perhaps be better classi- 
fied as acid porphyrites. 

Number 13 is a pale gray rock of medium grain, which under 
the microscope is found to be considerably altered. Its por- 
phyritic hornblende is largely changed to epidote and chlorite. 
Its groundmass is rather coarse in texture, and consists almost 
entirely of the intimate intergrowth of quartz and_ feldspar 
knowh as micropegmatite. Allied to this specimen is number 
7° of the suite collected in situ by Mr Cushing. This rock has 
rather an andesitic habit, consisting of porphyritic feldspar crys- 
tals or groups of crystals imbedded in a groundmass of smaller, 
but well-formed idiomorphic feldspars, mostly striated. These 
are not in actual contact, but are themselves connected by a still 
finer groundmass of quartz and feldspar,*which are united in a 
very minute micropegmatitic growth. The idiomorphic feldspar 
forms a very large proportion of this rock. It is considerably 
altered. The ferro-magnesian constituents, whatever they once 
were (mica or hornblende), are comparatively rare, and are now 
almost completely changed to chlorite. 

The third specimen, related both in composition and structure 
to the foregoing, is number 9 of Professor Reid’s collection. Its 
phenocrysts are altogether striated feldspars. Its groundmass is 
rather fine grained and hypidiomorphic. The micropegmatite 
here manifests itself in an abundance of pseudospherulitic tufts 


70 HT, F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


and spheres, which grow out from the angles of the porphyritic 
crystals. E 

Quartz-porphyry.—The one specimen of the collection which 
may be classified without doubt as a quartz-porphyry or rhyo- 
lite is number 12 of Professor Reid’s collection. This consists of 
a yellowish-white lithoidal groundmass, enclosing sharp crystals 
of bipyramidal quartz and orthoclase. Under the microscope 
the groundmass appears to be holocrystalline and obscurely 
eranular. It is full of minute kaolin flakes, due to imeipient 
alteration. The quartz crystals have their forms corroded with 
characteristic embayments of the groundimass. They are sur- 
rounded by a yellow stain. This rock is without doubt acid 
enough to belong to the rhyolite series, and it has a strong macro- 
scopic resemblance to certain rhyolites; still, im accordance with 
the principles set forth in the foot-note on page 65, we may more 
consistently call it a quartz-porphyry on account of the holo- 
crystalline character of its eroundmass. 


Porphyrite. 


Hornblende-porphyrite—By far the greater proportion of Pro- 
fessor Reid’s fine-grained rocks contain amphibole as their only 
original ferro-magnesian constituent. The amount of this min- 
eral present is\usually very scanty, while both it and the feld- 
spars are so altered and decomposed as to be hardly recognizable. 
Some dozen or more of these specimens, of which thin sections 
were made for study, are so uniform in structure and composition 
that they might readily have been derived from a single geologic 
sotiree, while their weathered condition deprives them of any 
special interest or individuality. 

One of these speciniens, however, number 52, 1s in this respect 
an exception. It is a brownish-gray rock of typical andesitic 
habit, which is thickly studded with small white rectangular 
feldspars. Under the microscope these plagioclase phenocrysts 
are found to be peripherally and sometimes entirely altered to 
calcite. The groundmass of this rock is its ‘most interesting 
feature. This consists of a rather coarse ageregate of idiomorphic 
or hypidiomorphic feldspar laths and crystalloids of brown horn- 
blende. These are well developed in their prism-zone but are 
without terminations. They are somewhat altered to chlorite, 
but on the whole are remarkably well preserved. Magnetite is 


Varieties of Porphyrite. Aa 


also abundant in the groundmass. If, as seems very probable, 
this rock is really a Tertiary andesite, then it is related to the 
older camptonite in a way similar to that in which the mica- 
trachyte of mount Catini, in Italy, described by Rosenbusch,* 
approaches the minettes. 

The remainder of these andesitic rocks must be classified 
principally with reference to the structure of their groundmass. 
This is coarsest and most granularin numbers 8 and 17, where it 
is almost granitic, though with but little free quartz. The former 
is extensively altered, and the latter, though less so, has its horn- 
blende and part of its feldspar phenocrysts changed to brightly 
polarizing epidote, 

The remaining specimens form a series for the most part holo- 
crystalline, though exhibiting as extreme members a few ex- 
amples of unindividualized base. Their phenocrysts of plagio- 
clase and hornblende are quite the same throughout. The holo- 
crystalline groundmass, while differing considerably in fineness, 
is in some granular (19, 25 and 26) and in others microlitic or 
trachytice (34, 35, 28, 10 and 11). In number 37 a well marked 
flow structure is apparent in the arrangement of the little feldspar 
microliths. The uncrystallized character of the groundmass is 
most apparent in numbers 27 and 39. 

Number 88, aside from being a typical andesite like the others, 
possesses an additional interest on account of containing numer- 
ous rounded grains of porphyritic quartz surrounded by absorp- 
tion halos or zones, like those described by Mr J. 8. Diller in 
basalt F and by Mr J. P. Iddings in basalt and other rocks.t 
This rock once contained an abundance of brown hornblende, 
which is now mostly altered to green hornblende or chlorite. 
Its groundmass is hypidiomorphic and granular. The absorp- 
tion zones, whatever they once were, consist now mostly of green 
hornblende and calcite. 

Augite-porphyrite (Labradorite-porphyrite ?)—Number 31 is at 
once noticeable on account of its strong macroscopic resemblance 
to that well-known type of labrador-porphyrite. the so-called 
porfido verde antico, which is so common among the Roman 
lapidaries, and which is now known to have been extensively 
quarried for ornamental purposes by the Romans at Marathonise 


*Neues Jahrbuch fiir Min., 1880, ii, p. 206. 
tf Am. Journ. Sci., 3d series, vol xxxiii, 1887, p. 45. 
{ Bulletin U. 8. Geological Survey, no. 66, 1890. 


72 H. F. Reid—sStudies of Muu Glacier. 


in southern Greece.* Under the microscope, however, the simi- » 
larity is seen to be less close. The groundmass of the Alaskan 
specimen is much finer grained and more altered. It consists of 
‘ hypidiomorphic laths of plagioclase, magnetite, and secondary 
calcite. The large pale green crystals of porphyritic feldspar are 
very much the same in both rocks. 

Number 29 is a rock somewhat like that last described, but 
whose porphyritic crystals are neither so pronounced nor so 
abundant. Its groundmass is a network of panidiomorphic 
plagioclase laths connected by a mesostasis which was probably 
once a glass, but which now is a brown, extremely fine-grained, 
but ne polarizing mass carrying chlorite and secondary 
amphibole. Magnetite is also abundant. 

Number 46 is probably also classed as an augite-porphyrite. 
It is macroscopically a green aphanitic rock in which no por- 
phyritic crystals are visible to the unaided eye. Under the 
microscope it proves to be a panidiomorphic aggregate of plagio- 
clase and a pale gray pyroxene connected by a green interstitial 
serpentinous mass, which may represent an original glassy base. 
The feldspar and pyroxene of this rock are both quite fresh. 

Number 86 may be either an augite-porphyrite or an augite- 
andesite. It is full of zonally banded phenocrysts of plagioclase 
and occasional glistening black augites. Under the microscope 
the porphyritic crystals are seen to be largely plagioclase. The 
pyroxenes have a pale-brown color in the section and are im- 
bedded in an ophitie groundmass of feldspar laths, magnetite, 
and chlorite. There is some basaltic brown hornblende not in- 
frequently intergrown with the pyroxene. 


Diabase. 


Quite a number of this suite of Alaskan rocks may with pro- 
priety be classed as diabases. These present a variety of structures 
through which they grade into the augite-porphyrites and ande- 
sites. Indeed, in the absence of all knowledge of the field rela- 
tions, a sharp distinction between these types is impossible. 

Number 21 of Professor Reid’s collection is a dark close grained 
rock containing many ovoid white spots. The microscope shows 
it to possess a rather coarse typical ophitic structure with pale- 
eray pyroxene, which is surrounded and supplemented by ex- 


* See Rosenbusch: Mikr. Phys., 2nd ed., vol. 11, 1886, p. 499. 


Varieties of Diabase. 73 


terior growths of brown basaltic hornblende. These two minerals 
are always in parallel position—. e., with their clinopinacoids in 
common and their extinction directions on the same side of their 
vertical axes, necessitating, as the writer has suggested before, 
the change of the plane usually designated the unit orthodome, 
Px (101), on hornblende to the basal pinacoid, OP (001), for this 
mineral.* 

The parallel growths of pyroxene and hornblende in this rock 
closely resemble those described and figured by Rohrbach in the 
Moravian teschenites.- The rock is in the main quite fresh, but 
contains considerable patches of serpentinous substance which 
from their form appear to represent former hypersthene in- 
dividuals. 

Numbers 45 and 47 are medium-grained non-porphyritic dia- 
bases whose feldspar forms stout idiomorphic or hypidiomorphic 
crystals, and whose pyroxene is also to a considerable extent 
bounded by its own crystal planes. Both are fairly well pre- 
served, although they contain much chlorite, which in number 
47 contains highly refractive, spherical bodies. These are iso- 
tropic, but their nature could not be determined. 

Numbers 20 and 50 are both considerably altered porphyritic 
diabases, which form transition rocks toward the porphyrites. 
Their groundmass is an ophitic mass of feldspar and pyroxene, 
and their,phenoecrysts mostly, if not altogether, labradorite. 

Number 55 is a coarsely amygdaloidal diabase whose vesicles 
are filled with epidote and calcite. 

Among the rocks collected in situ near the foot of the Muir 
glacier by Mr Cushing are five diabases, three of which are dis- 
tinguished by the presence of brown hornblende. Of these 
number 5’ is almost identical with Professor Reid’s number 21. 
Number 9 contains large porphyritic crystals of pale pyroxene, 
which throughout the rock is idiomorphic and seems to have 
been the earliest product of crystallization. The groundmass is 
composed of a network of idiomorphic plagioclase laths, con- 
nected by interstitial brown hornblende and serpentinized glass- 
base. This rather unusual sequence of minerals in diabase 
makes this specimen particularly noteworthy. 


* Am. Jour. Sci., 3rd series, vol. xxxix, 1890, p. 356. 
+ Ueber die Eruptivgesteine im Gebiete der schlesisch-mihrischen 
Kreideformation: Tsch. Min. u. Petr. Mitth., vol. 7, 1886, pg. 1. taf. i. 


74 HT. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


The other three of Mr Cushing’s diabase specimens are quite — 
typical representatives of this rock, although they are all con- 
siderably altered. They differ mostly in the coarseness of their 
structure. One contains a little basaltic hornblende and one is 
slightly amyedaloidal. 


PETROGRAPHICAL LABORATORY, 
Jouns Horxrys University, April, 1897. 


SUPPLEMENT ITI. 


MIOCROSCOPICAL EXAMINATION OF WOOD FROM THE 
BURIED FOREST, MUIR INLET, ALASKA. 


BY 


FRANCIS H. HERRICK, PH. D. 


The wood which I examined at the request of my friend, Mr 
Reid, is in a remarkably perfect state of preservation. Weath- 
ered portions are somewhat decomposed at the surface and show 
traces of wood-borers, but the deeper parts are perfectly sound. 
The wood is of medium weight, fine grained or of medium grain, 
and compact. It is odorless and light brown in color, the grain 
being noticeably brownish. This color is due principally to a 
brown, or slightly reddish-brown, homogeneous deposit in the 
cells of the medullary rays. As no portions of the bark were 
obtained, I can speak of the structure of the wood only. This is 
illustrated by two drawings (figures 4 and 5) of thin sections made 
in longitudinal. vertical (tangential to the medullary rays), and 
transverse planes respectively.* 

Two elements only are met with in the wood, namely, trache- 
ides, or wood-fibers, and the parenchyma of the medullary rays. 
The tracheides are characterized by the presence of bordered 
pits on their walls, a common mark of the wood of conifers. 
The outer border of the pit is about 74; mm in diameter, and 
the inner border or aperture is s4,; mm. The aperture of the 
canal leading from the cavity of the pit to that of the fiber is 
frequently slit-like (figure 4, a »), and in the preparations this sht 
is all that can be seen, in most cases, when the fibers are viewed 
en face. The outer border of the pit can, however, be distinctly 
seen in exceptional cases. The pits shown in figures 4 and 5 
were introduced from another part of the section. The dotted 
lines in the adjoining fiber show the probable outlines of the pits 

An that cell. The two openings of the pit cavity are shown 
where the slits apparently intersect. The cavity of the pit is 


* Before sectioning the wood was Soaked for about a month in glycerine. 


11—Nar. Grog. Maa., vor. TV, 1892. (75) 


76 Hf, F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


sectioned in many places between adjoining fibers, as in p, figure 
4; and in figure 5, x, it is seen that neighboring cells communi- 
cate with each other by a canal or aperture in the center of each 
wall of the pit: A limiting lamella sometimes, if not always, 


a, mr fe. £2 t4, 


Figure 4—Longitudinal Section of Wood from the buried Forest. 
my —= Medullary ray ; p = Pit-cavity ; d = Deposit in cell of medullary 


ray ; wp — Aperture of pit; bp = Bordered pit; ¢ 7,12, t3, t4—=Tracheides, 


occurs in the fresh wood of coniferous trees, stretched across the 
cavity of the pit. This serves as a screen to block the direct 


Wood from the buried Forest. 77 


communication of fiber with fiber. No such membrane could 
be detected in the buried forest specimens. 

The medullary rays (m7) are very minute, narrow and quite 
uniformly distributed sheets of parenchymatous tissue. There 
are about 40 rays to the square millimeter of surface (in tan- 
gential section). The rays are uniseriate—that is, one cell broad, 
as in most conifere. The breadth of the ray is thus measured 
by that of the medullary cell, which is about 4;mm. The height 
of the rays varies from about 34 to 2 mm, and is from three to 
about seventeen cells deep. The medullary rays exactly fill the 
meshes between the bundles of wood-fibers. In some cases the 
cell-walls of the parenchyma have undergone alteration, and 
contain the brownish deposit (d) already noticed. 

The transverse section shows parts of two annual rings or layers 
(figure 5). In one (the later growth—late summer or autumn, 


Fraure 5—Transverse Section of Wood from the buried Forest. 
ag — Outer portion of annual layer representing later growth; vg = 
Inner portion of succeeding annular layer, representing earlier erowth ; 
d = Deposit in cell of medullary ray ; mr== Medullary ray; ac= Altered 
cell wall of parenchymatous tissue ; p = Pit-cavity ; « = Internal opening 
of pit; t= Tracheide. 


a, g) the cells are flattened and have very thick walls; in the 
other (the earlier growth—spring or early summer, v, g) the cells 
are much larger, and the walls are thinner. Pits occur in both 


78 Hl. F. Reid—Studics of Muir Glacier. 


late and early wood, although they are represented in the draw- 
ing only in the latter. 

A specimen of recently grown spruce was obtained by Mr 
Reid from Alaska,[*] and I have compared it carefully with the 
preceding and find that the two agree in every structural detail. 
Figures of transverse and longitudinal sections of the recent wood 
are not given, since they would be merely repetitions of figures 
4dand5. The size and shape of the medullary rays are essentially 
the same, and the average number of rays per square millimeter 
of section is the same in the two specimens. Resin canals are 
occasionally seen in the midst of a thickened medullary ray in 
the modern wood, and while I have not observed them in the 
buried-forest wood, yet I have no doubt that they would be 
found by persistent sectioning. Transverse sections of the new 
wood show the same differentiation between the earlier and later 
cells of the annular ring. The modern wood is several shades 
lighter than the old, and the brownish tinge of the grain is due 
to the color of the medullary tissue. The conclusion would be 
warranted, upon the evidence above given, that the wood taken 
from a forest at one time buried under glacial deposits in Alaska 
and submitted to me for examination by Mr Reid is specifi- 
cally identical with that of the Alaskan spruce (Abies sitkensis or 
A. menziesii) which grows«n the neighborhood of the glaciers of 
Alaska to-day, provided that microscopical examination of the 
wood alone could be relied upon for the determination of species 
of coniferous trees. Unfortunately for the student of this subject, 
the structure of the wood must be supplemented by other char- 
acters before the species can definitely be settled. The preced- 
ing observations can, however, be said to render quite probable, 
at least, the conclusion intimated above. 


ADELBER? CoLLEGE, March 14, 1891. 


[*] This was sent to me from Juneau by Reverend Eugene S$. Willard. 
Tels 1B Lis, 


APPENDICES. 


APPENDIX I. 


LIST OF PLANTS COLLECTED NEAR MUIR GLACIER; 


DETERMINED BY 


W. W. ROWLEE, BOTANICAL DEPARTMENT, CORNELL UNIVERSITY. 


Anemone multifida, DC. 

A. narcissiflora, L. 

Ranunculus repens, L. 

Aquilegia formosa, Fisch. 

Aconitum napellus, L., var. delphini- 
folium, Seringe. 

Arabis (?) 

Arabis ambigua, DC. (?) 

A. petrea, Lam. 

Cardamine hirsuta, L. 

Arenaria lateriflora, L. 

Honckenya oblongifolia, Gray. 

Cerastium alpinum, L. 

Geranium erianthum, DC. 

Lupinus versicolor, Lindl. 

Astragalus frigidus, Gr., var. ameri- 
canus, Wats. 

Oxytropis monticola, Gr. 

Hedysarum mackenzii, Rich. 

Spirea pectinata, Gr. 

Dryas drummondii, Hook. 

Geum calthifolium, Smith. 

G. strictwm, Ait. 

Potentilla anserina, 1. 

Rubus arcticus, L. 

Rubus pedatus, Smith. 

Savifraga davurica, Willd. 

S. pseudo-burseriana, Fisch. 

S. tricuspidata, Retz. 

S. vestivalis, Fisch. 

Fleuchera glabra, Willd. 

Parnassia finbriata, Banks. 

P. palustris, L. 

Sedum rhodiola, DC. 

Epilobium hornemanni, Reichb. 

LE. affine, Bongard. 

E. latifolium, L. (purple). 

EH. latifolium, L. (white). 

E. angustifolium, L. 

Conioselinum fischeri, Wimm. and Grab. 

Cornus canadensis, L. 

Valeriana sitchensis, Bong. 

Solidago multiradiata, Ait. 

S. humilis, Pursh., var. nana, Gr. 

? ’ ? 

Aster foliaceus, Lindl. 

A. peregrinus, Pursh. 

Erigeron ursinus, Eaton (?) 


Erigeron. (?) 

Senecio (?) 

Antennaria dioica, Gaertn. (only fe- 
male plant). 

Anaphalis margaritacea, Benth. and 
Hook. 

Achillea millefolium, L., var. lanata, 
Koch. 

Arnica unalaschensis, Less. 

A. latifolia, Bong. 

Campanula lasiocarpa, Cham. 

C. scheuchzeri, Vill., var. heterodoxa, 
Gr. 

Pyrola secunda, L., var. pumila, Gr. 

Bryanthus glanduliflorus, Gr. 

B. aleuticus, Gr. 

B. empetriformis, Gr. 

Trientalis ewropaca, \., var. 
Ledeb. 

romanzoffia sitchensis, Bong. 

Veronica alpina, 1. 

Castilleia parviflora, Bong. 

C’. coccinea, Spreng. 

Huphrasia officinalis, L. 

Rhinanthus crista-galli, 1. 

Pedicularis verticillata, L. 

Pinguicula vulgaris, L. 

Phlox cxspitosa, Nutt. 

Gentiana parryi, Engl. 

G. arctophila, Griseb. 

G. amarella, L., var. acuta, Hook. f. 

G. prostrata, Haenke. 

Polygonum viviparum, L. 

Veratrum viride, Ait. 

Salix ovalifolia, Traut. 

S. sitchensis, Sauson. 

S. reticulata, L. 

y. arctica, Pallas. 

S. speciosa, Hook. and Arn. 

Aspidium lonchitis, Swz. 

A. spinulosum, Swz. (?) 

A.s., Swz.,var. dilatatum, Hornemann 

Asplenium viride, Huds. 

Woodsia hyperborea, R. Br. 

Cryptogramme acrostichoides, R. Br. 

Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. 

Adiantum pedatun, L. 


arctica, 


(79) 


AppENpDIXx II. 


METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS. 
BY 


HARRY FIELDING REID. 


A louvred box, open below, was mounted on posts about 6 feet above 
the ground ; it was about 20 feet behind our tents. In it were placed the 
wet and dry bulb, the maximum and minimum, and the self-recording 
thermometers. To one of the supporting posts was fastened a long box 
with a hinged door in which hung a mercurial barometer (lent by the 
United States Coast and Geodetic Survey). The rain gauge (lent by the 
United States Signal Service) was placed on the ground about 30 feet in 
front of the tent. Readings of these instruments (except the maximum, 
minimum, and self-recording thermometers) were made three times a 
day, at7a.m.,2 p.m.and9 p.m. These observations, though made by 
all members of the party, were under the direct charge of Mr Cushing.* 

IT append some meteorological data which may be interesting: The dif- 
ference between the mean temperature at Muir inlet and at Juneau (the 
latter averaged from 8 a.m. and 8 p. m. readings) will be at once noticed. 
The observations from the latter place were sent me by the Signal Service. 

The dial of the self-recording thermometer showed rapid variations of 
temperature, amounting sometimes to 5° F. in as many minutes. During 
our stay at the glacier we had three or four strong southerly gales. The 
thermometer rose 10° or 15° within an hour, held this high temperature 
during the gale, which usually lasted six or eight hours, and fell even 
more suddenly to its usual height. Our highest temperatures were re- 
corded during these gales, even when they occurred at night. 

The 2 p.m. barometric mean does not show a depression. This, of 
course, is partly due to the high latitude, but I do not think that is the 
whole cause. The difference of temperature between the air over the 
snow-fields and over the neighboring country is greatest in the early after- 
noon, resulting in a maximum difference of pressure at that time. The 
flag at our camp blew more strongly toward the south during the warm 
part of the day than at other times. For several consecutive days in Sep- 
tember it hung quietly all night. Thus the proximity of extensive snow- 
fields holds the barometer up in the afternoon and interferes with the 
usnal minimum. We have, unfortunately, no observations at a near 
station with which we can compare our own in order to deduce a quanti- 
tative value of the glacier’s influence on the barometer. 


* A complete record of these observations has been sent to the United 
States Signal Service. 
(80) 


Meteorology. Sl 


Temperature and Rainfall Observations. 


Mean tempera- | Maximum tem-) Minimum tem-_ Rea eall 
ture. perature. | perature. is ragas 
| 
Camp Camp Camp | Camp 
WREEE, Juneau Mae Juneau Mone Juneau Naat Juneau 
| 
1890. 4 9 2 = | 2 A “ Ve 
July . 45.2 F.| 56.9 F. |63.1 F.| 74 EF. | 354 FP.) 42 F. 5.06 5.51 
Aug.. 45.1 Bd (G39) 7 137.2 3 | 4.88 eat 
Barometer Observations at Camp Muir. 
| Mean barometer. Daily barometer. 
| 
|; 7a.m.| 2p.m.|}9p.m.| Mean. |Maximum.| Minimum. 
| 
Lest CALI At LE a The Teed SLE 
July, 1890...| 30.113 | 30.078 | 30.077 | 30.089 30.335 29.565 
NUS e ee OOS 30128) |) 30125) 30123 30.418 29.787 


Number of days on which 0.01 or more of rain fell: 


Camp Muir. Juneau. 


Rl Ut vig Reeder serosa ac cuey evs he na 12 16 
PAVUIOUIS tye cect latan cuneate ais, Cale Nel ves yin 10 11 
SEPLOMMDSL Se ee irs Set vent. late goers eeu tue a 26 


Mean humidity at Camp Muir: July, 82.2; August, 83. 


APPENDIX III. 


MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 
BY 


HARRY FIELDING REID. 


The instruments for this work were supplied by the United States 
Coast and Geodetic Survey. They were a small magnetometer, known 
as the Bache Fund magnetometer; a dip circle (number 12) of about 12/7 
diameter ; and a mean time chronometer. 

The magnetometer was not adapted for determining the magnetic 
moment of the needle; and as this was not done until some time after 
my return, the resulting value of the intensity cannot be considered very 
accurate. The moment of inertia was, however, determined in the field. 
His given in ¢-g-s units (7. e., in centimetre-gramme-seconds). 

Special tents were erected for the instruments. The magnetometer was 
85 yards and the dip circle 65 yards from our tents. During the obserya- 
tions with the former, the latter was about 100 yards distant. 

4 


Approxi- . : 
Date. Declination.*| mate daily | Dip. to naone | 
SETHE intensity. 
range. 
WaXj (xe ties Loh ese ceertaeeh Gill RUSS 4 eta e ens uaeRRE aN, raed eee hielo 150 
DS ata Cake UNE StAT cidl agate ies Se eval fer oe Sara 75° 497.8 150 
SE pia: cova lien ate ten tells ee een aay Sees Rae Doren cee 19. OL T see eee 
Chiesa maura tg = 3) 2s O°. 6709 ete cen 
Or Met eh eee em —30 26.1 Sieg | te eee rene _ eee 
OSM Soe ae Weep —30 24.1 Ep LE I hr er deat ees 
Mieamrsie i a. ya — 30 26. OM | 07> B08 150 


*The negative sign means that the north end of the needle points to 
the east of astronomical north. 


(82) 


APPENDIX JV. 
SUGGESTIONS TO FUTURE OBSERVERS. 
BY 


H. F. REID. 


The accessibility and growing fame of Muir glacier make it certain that 
parties will frequently spend two weeks or a month there in future sum- 
“mers. They will have the opportunity of making observations of con- 
siderable interest. 

The most important is the rate of recession of the ice-front. Much the 
easiest way of doing this is by taking photographs and comparing them 
with others taken earlier from the same points. These photographs 
should show the mountains behind. The following would be useful: A 
photograph of the northwestern corner of the ice-front taken from the 
beach close to camp Muir, the northeastern corner taken from the top of 
the bluff on the western side of the inlet, just south of the mouth of the 
glacial stream; the whole front taken from #, the front taken from J’. 
This latter would show better than the others what change has taken 
place and can be compared directly with plate 18. V can be found with- 
out much trouble. It isthe highest point in its neighborhood (3,000 feet), 
and lies N. 65° W., magnetic, from the peak of mount Wright. It is most 
easily reached by the stream between it and E (see map, plate 14). 

Compass bearings also will serve to determine the position of the ice- 
front. They should be taken on the corners and on any well-defined 
points of the ice-front. These bearings had better be taken from VW and L. 
M can easily be found. It is on the projecting point of the bluff on the 
east side of the inlet near the edge. JL is just opposite and bears N. 70° 
W. astronomical or S. 80° W. magnetic. The distance between them is 8,019 
yards. From such observation the position of the ice-front can be imme- 
diately platted on the map and the recession measured. Neither of these 
methods will yield very accurate results. 

The map which I have made, though accurate so far as it goes, is far 
from complete. The upper parts of all the tributaries and much of the 
region between them is left blank. Any one with the proper training 
would find it very interesting to map these portions. Starting from the 
points Hand D, his map could readily be fitted to mine (see page 54). 
For such work I strongly urge the use of a planetable. 


12—Nart. Grog, Maa., von. 1V, 1892. (85) 


84 H. F. Reid—Studies of Muir Glacier. 


These suggestions are not, of course, intended for scientific explorers; 
but for persons of some scientific knowledge who may wish to add to the 
general pleasure of a stay at Muir glacier the special interest of a definite 
object, viz, to increase our knowledge of the region. I may say that a 
small piece of work done well, such as the mapping of a single tributary— 
e. g., Dirt glacier, White glacier, or Granite canyon—is more useful than 
indefinite observations over a wider range. 


hat Ba? 
heets 


Eee: 


VoL. IV, PP, 85-100 f . MARCH 18, 1892 


THE 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


ESS rd ERODES ORC PSSST AP: EEA Sea do 


(GHOGRAPHY OF THE ALK 


|| ANNUAL REPORT BY VICE-PRESIDENT 


GENERAL A. W. GREELY 


INCORPORATED 
A.D.1868, x 


WASHINGTON 


 - PupLisHeD By THE NatronaL Grograpuic Society 


Price, 25 cents. 


VoL. IV, PP. 85-100. MARCH 18, 1892 


THE 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


GEOGRAPHY OF THE AIR. 
AnnuaAL Report By VICE-PRESIDENT, 
GENERAL A. W. GREELY. 


(Presented hy title before the Society January 22, 1892.) 


If the poet finds retrospection one of the delights of the mind, 
the investigator finds it to be a useful mental process at certain 
stages in order the better to determine not only the results cer- 
tainly attained but also the methods and directions promising 
most in the future. Such a retrospective study has not infre- 
quently been more valuable to the scientist than would an 
uninterrupted continuance of his investigations involving double 
the effort. 

The object of these annual reports is to give yearly, for the 
benefit of the Society, a retrospective glance to appropriate 
branches of physical sciences or physical research. 

I have said physical ‘‘ research” as well as science, for only 
the enthusiastic yet class my subject—meteorology—as a science, 
certainly no one as an exact science. It is of course a matter of 
opinion as to when the epoch arrives wherein any distinct 
department of nature can be properly designated as a science, 
and as being no longer an immense aggregation of facts, theories 
and assumptions. Within the century the world has seen chem- 
istry, mineralogy, botany, zoology and other now recognized 
sciences emerge from their previously uncertain and indefinite 


13—Nar. Grog. Mac., von. TV, 1892. ' (85) 


86 General A. W. Greely—Geography of the Avr. 


status. Of meteorology, however, using this term as especially 
applying to weather and not to climate, which will be referred 
to later, it-may fairly be said that the generalizations are too 
indefinite in terms and too scanty in number, the ascertained 
and acknowledged facts too insufficient as well as too disjointed 
in their relations, to form the indispensable work of fundamental 
principles whereon is to be woven the regular, graceful curves 
which nature ever presents to us under the magic wand as waved 
by the specialist in any science. 

The term “science” carries with it in a degree the idea of 
prevision, so that exemplifications of its principles shall always 
find expression in foreseen results, whose ultimate variations 
should not exceed certain narrow limits. 


Abercrombie and the writer have published, almost simul- 
taneously, the latest works in English on the weather. My own 
opinions as to the status of this department of nature were 
clearly put in “ American Weather,” 1888. To quote: 

“All skilled meteorologists realize how comparatively local are weather 
conditions and how impossible it is, at times, to make predictions for a 
definite period with any feeling of certainty. * * * It is evidentthat 
fair-weather conditions are those which are most persistent [1. e., they 
partake more of climatic conditions than of weather] and from the pre- 
diction of which the highest percentages of accuracy will be obtained.” 


Professor Marvin, a careful, conscientious official, whose duty 
has included the examination and verification of forecasts, after 
three years of study, says (referring to verification-percentages 
not being strictly comparable) in confirmation: “ The reasons 
for this are principally because of the much greater difficulty of 
successfully forecasting rainy and unsettled than fair weather, 
together with the seasonal spasmodic variations in their respect- 
ive occurrences.” His illustrations make clear what has been 
beleved by all close observers, namely, that high percentages 
and satisfactory forecasts are attendant on the persistency of 
climatic or permanent conditions (such as no summer rain in 
California) when unbroken by the violent and marked changes 
which distinguish weather from climate. 

It is safe to say that the percentage of successful forecasts of 
rain twenty-four hours in advance is not one-half, and probably 
not more than one-third, so successful as forecasts of fine, clear 
weather for the same period. 


Rules for Weather Prediction. 87 


The scientific investigator or student who longest appled him- 
self to the study of American weather endeavored a few years 
since to deduce a practical rule for weather forecasts which might 
be applied to current and daily work. It is significant that no. 
single application of this rule or theory has ever been made. If 
the test had been made it is to be feared that the criticism of 
Strachey would recur, viz, that theory finds not its counterpart 
in actual values. 

It may or may not be indicative of the state of meteorology 
that the eleven rules for practical predictions laid down by me 
in “American Weather” in 1888 have received no accretions. 
Many are willing to indulge in criticism and glittering gener- 
alities, but in any scientific work practical and particular appli- 
cations are demanded. Careful and continued observations have 
indeed determined the usual paths of storms, but most uncertain 
and so far indeterminate have been all researches to so determine 
the cause of storm development and movement that from ob- 
served meteorological phenomena can be seen not only the cer- 
tainty of the storm’s approach but also its particular course. 

What do experts abroad think? Abercrombie says: “The 
service of weather forecasting can never be treated mathemat- 
ically. * * * Many isolated principles have been discovered, 
but no attempt has been made to lay down the broad principles 
of the science of the weather as a whole.” The terse dictum that 
“The successive ‘changes in the shape of isobars * * * in- 
dicate the sequence of weather’ in any place” is declared to be 
the fundamental principle of all synoptic meteorology, and we 
have only to work out the local details connected with the 
changes of isobars to formulate and connect therewith sequent 
and appertaining weather changes. 

It may well be questioned if any meteorological expert out- 
side of the British office accepts this principle or limitation of 
Abercrombie’s. Statistical methods, he goes on to remark, are 
practically devoid of physical significance, and through misuse 
have tended to bring modern meteorology into disrepute. While 
most meteorologists agree with him in their disapproval of 
certain statistical methods as appheable to meteorology, yet 
they endorse others, these or those according to circumstances, 
-as valuable or invaluable aids to successful work in weather 
- forecasting. 

Among investigators following statistical methods is M Teis- 


88 General A. W. Greely—Geography of the Aw. 


serence de Bort, the very able assistant of Professor Mascart in 
France. who believes that the recurring weather changes can be 
reduced to types, and who has devoted his perspicacity, talents 
and industry to the solution of the problem for France in par- 
ticular and Europe in general. 

While perhaps no scientist of high standing now invokes the 
moon’s phases as potent factors in weather changes, yet the 
influence of atmospheric electricity is believed by some to 
possibly dominate the weather, while again others turn to 
terrestrial or interplanetary magnetism as the essential basis. 

Not a few distinguished physicists refer the whole question 
directly to the radiative energy of the sun, which all, however, 
necessarily admit as an ultimate and predominating cause. 
When, however, we come to particularly apply the principle, a 
distinguished English astronomer claimed that the rainfall of 
India (which may be said to be the weather of that country) 
follows in its phases the curve of sunspots.. Immediately the 
meteorological reporter, Mr. Blanford, proved that not only 
was this not true of the locality directly referred to, but that in 
India there was no year in which extended areas of country did 
not present striking contrasts as to precipitation, excesses 1 
some provinces and marked deficiencies in others. 

It is significant that in an article of 45 pages in the Encyclo- 
pedia Britannica, Buchan gives no law for any meteorological 
phenomena, and says, referring to the formulas of Ferrel, Mohn, 
Hann, Everett and others, that in “‘ The development of the law of 
the relation of the wind’s velocity to the barometric gradients,” 
the evident inexactness of the various investigations justify Stra- 
chan’s criticism that “ The theoretical values do not accord with 
the actual values.” 

Delauney, in announcing a new theory of storms, says that 
meteorology has not yet emerged from the domain of observa- 
tion, is now unprogressive, and, in fact, under present methods 
has reached its limits as a science. Further progress is only 
possible by ascertaining the causes of meteorological disturb- 
ances and in defining the fixed laws which bring about weather 
changes. Similar opinions could be drawn from other author- 
ities if time and space permittted. 

When the duties of forecasting storms devolved by Congres- 
sional joint resolution of February 9, 1870, on the War depart- 
ment, its success was by many considered most doubtful, espe- 


a 


Foreign Estimates of the Signal Service. 89 


cially in view of the fact that the efforts of Admiral Fitz Roy in 
Great Britain had resulted so unsatisfactorily. The problem was 
to evolve out of unknown and unsatisfactory gonditions a system 
suited to America, or in other words, a system that should. 
ensure to citizens and tax-payers practical results commensurate 
with expenditures. How the system of weather forecasting was 
built up in detail, it is neither the province nor purpose of this 
report to consider. It is, however, not a theory but a fact that 
under the military administration this service throye wonder- 
fully; though be it understood the military administration is 
no more indorsed in all its details than is the civilian adminis- 
tration of governmental bureaus in all its details. Bickerings, 
jealousies, repressions, maladministration and inefficiency are not 
necessary characteristics of either civilian or military methods, 
nor can either be absolutely free therefrom. In short, in every 
bureau the ability, application, energy and all the common- 
sense characteristics of its chief, be they great or little. find their 
exaggerated reflex in the work done and the policy followed, in 
the working out of details and in the accomplishment of results. 

The Weather bureau of the United States, however, soon 
speedily attained a degree of efficiency and success sufficient to 
commend it not only to the practical American citizen, but yet 
more to the admiring judgment of foreign scientists, who, in- 
spired by the satisfactory work in the United States, speedily 
increased the scope of their own duties or persuaded the govern- 
ment to initiate a like system for their own country. 

The conference of European meteorologists at Leipsic in 1872 
resulted in a national congress at Vienna in 1873; and in an 
official invitation extended to the government of the United 
States to take part, it is said—‘ The wonderful results which 
have been obtained by meteorological observations on this conti- 
nent [the United States] renders its participation in the afore- 
said congress highly desirable ;” and the hope is expressed that 
this government will, “In the interests of science and the 
general welfare, unite through its representatives at this congress 
the experience of its meteorological institutes to the observations 
of the meteorologists of Europe.” 

The Universal exhibition at Prussia in 1876, in considering 
the Signal service exhibit, acknowledged in express terms that 
no award within the power of the committee would adequately 


90 General A. W. Greely—Geography of the Avr. 


express its appreciation of the merits of the Signal service me- 
teorological exhibit, and consequently sent a special letter. A 
diploma of honor, the highest award granted, was received from 
the National exhibition of electricity at Paris; and a letter of 
distinction, also the highest award, came from the Geographical 
exhibition congress at Vienna, Austria, for tri-daily weather 
charts. 

Some Americans may deprecate the strong language used in 
these resolutions, but it should be borne in mind that distance 
is necessary to give a just perspective to all great undertakings. 
If it be considered that no nation can justly estimate the tenor 
and effect, either of its ordinary and average contributions to 
modern progress or of its greatest achievements, So a just opinion 
of the ability displayed in the management of any service, or of 
the results obtained, can rarely, if ever, be given by the scien- 
tists of that country. Their mental vision is liable to dis- 
tortion, perhaps through indifference to or distaste for the work 
in question; perhaps by a sense of present or fear of possible 
encroachment on their own lines of research; perhaps by a 
feeling of scientific jealously, either personal to the staff con- 
cerned or general as to the branch of natural science under 
inquiry. One does not have to go out of the city of Wash- 
ington to hear disparaging and unprofessional reflections on the 
scientific standing of persons, the highest in the opinion of the 
world in their specialties ; and as with men, so with bureaus.., 

Be this as it may, the Weather bureau under military admin- 
istration has made its indelible impression upon the meteoro- 
logical societies of all civilized countries from year to year; and 
even in countries where a lurking suspicion of jealously toward 
the growing scientific importance of the United States has 
existed, in these countries as in all others the means and 
methods employed in the United States are being followed. 

It was interesting at the late conference of meteorological — 
chiefs in September, 1891, at Munich, Bavaria, to note from 
time to time that the military Weather bureau of the United 
States had been the only office which had endeavored to live up 
to the scientific meteorological ideals elaborated and endorsed 
by previous conferences and congresses. Similarly it may be 
mentioned that the same peculiarity developed at the Interna- 
tional polar congress, wherein it appears that the United States, 


Extent of the Signal Service. 91 
through the Signal service, was the only country which had 
endeavored to follow the line of obligation agreed on for inter- 
national use in publication. 

If for no other reason, meteorology owes its debt of gratitude 
to an officer of the army, the late General Myer, from whose mind 
in August, 1873, proceeded the idea of an exchange of interna- 
tional telegraphic weather reports as widely as possible, and to 
whose initiative in connection with the congress at Vienna is 
due the unparalleled, important and successful international 
meteorological work. 

During thirteen years, 1875 to 1887 inclusive, the land obser- 
vations of this service covered the countries of almost the entire 
northern hemisphere and a part of the southern hemisphere, 
and reports were also received from regular naval and merchant 
marine vessels of the principal countries of the northern hemis- 
phere. More than 150,000 monthly reports, representing up- 
wards of 5,000,000 daily simultaneous observations, were re- 
ceived, collected, and published or charted by the Signal office. 
The number of vessel reports reached 600, and the foreign land 
stations increased to a total of 459, exclusive of the interna- 
tional polar stations. The following countries codperated dur- 
ing a part or a whole of the period 1875 to 1887: Algeria, 
Australia, Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Brazil, Great Britain, 
Canada, Cape Colony, Chili, China, Costa Rica, Denmark, Egypt, 
France, Germany, Greece, Hawaiian islands, India, Italy, Japan, 
Mauritius, Mexico, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, Scotland, 
Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey. In addition to the reports 
furnished by the regular services of the several countries, obser- 
vations were made and forwarded from the islands of the north- 
ern Atlantic ocean, of Central America and northern South 
America, and: from Bering island, the Aleutian islands, Alaska, 
Greenland and Iceland. 

The international publications of the Signal service, which 
commenced with the regular issue of the daily bulletin of simul- 
taneous .opservations in July, 1875, embodied data whose value 
cannot be overestimated. The network of stations which covered 
the northern hemisphere for a period of years furnished a vast 
number of reliable observations, the study of which has in no 
small measure contributed to recent discoveries and advances in 
meteorology, and in future investigations these observations will 
be invaluable. 


ys General A. W. Greely—Geography of the Air. 


These publications and charts are based upon an unparalleled - 
series of observations; they represent graphically the labor of 
meteorologists throughout the civilized world for a period of thir- 
teen years; they are unique in the annals of meteorology ; and 
their proper presentation, rendered impracticable heretofore 
owing to insufficiency of funds, is alone needed to class them 
with the most treasured products of modern meteorology. In 
completing this work, the Signal office has compiled maps show- 
ing the mean pressure of the northern hemisphere as deduced 
from ten years observations under this system, and the changes 
in pressure from month to month; and it has also charted the 
average storm frequency for each month of the year. 

In considering these great labors, one may be named who is 
no longer sensitive to criticism, the late General Albert J. Myer, 
whose diplomatic skill and wonderful persistency in dealing with 
the legislative branch of the government and whose judgment in 
selecting his subordinates ensured ultimately both a financial 
support for the service in general, and also an excellence of exe- 
cution in general weather predictions and in detailed work 
throughout the country which have never been attained by any 
other meteorological service in the world. Then theoretically 
equal credit is due to the late Professor Ferrel, whose relations 
were maintained with the Signal service until he sought his well 
earned retirement, and from whose intelligent ability and apti- 
tude for research have proceeded the most complete and satisfac- 
tory treatises on meteorology from a scientific and mathematical 
standpoint. The important services rendered by other distin- 
euished professors merit similar praise. 

As to the officers and professors forming the general staff of 
the bureau, it may be remarked that their labors in organizing, 
developing and operating the meteorological work of this service 
will never be adequately stated or generally recognized. It is, 
howeyer, a matter of record that the meteorological system de- 
vised by officers of the United States army has proved to be the 
most successful practical service in the world, and has served as 
a working model and example for other nations, while its unique 
exhibits have elicited unparalleled commendation. The records 
of such officers as have participated in the work of this service 
for any prolonged period show the native ability and special 
adaptitude of army officers, when ordered to scientific duty for 
which they had not been educated and which more than one 


Development of Meteorologic Methods. 93 
accepted with reluctance, and proves, if proof were needed, that 
the holding of a commission does not emasculate intellectual 
qualities. 

As to the Signal service in general, it collects and distributes 
an enormous amount of weather data. In accuracy of collation, 
in speed of collection from and distribution to distant points, in 
extent and in legibility even of its ephemeral publications, the 
service is not only unrivaled, but is not even approached by any 
other weather service in the world. In attaining this practical, 
excellence, many peculiar methods of work and a large number 
of special mechanical devices were essential to the present suc- 
cess, and in this connection the intelligent ability and interest of 
the enlisted men who served as observers is evidenced by the 
fact that far the greater part of these improvements in mechani- 
cal details and office inethods is due to ideas, suggestions, ete, 
therefrom. The local observers in charge of stations throughout 
the country have, almost without exception, obtained their entire 
knowledge of weather predictions and their meteorological in- 
formation while in this service. More than one-third of the 
observers in charge of stations have had the benefit of some col- 
legiate training, and the satisfaction of observers with their 
status is evinced by the fact that their average length of service 
has been 15 years, while the entire life of the service has only 
been 20 years. Only a small percentage of the observers have 
left the Signal service save to benefit themselves by accepting 
duties of a more responsible and better compensated character, 
which often have opened up to them through their connection 
with the Signal service. 

The military staff of the Signal service has all these years 
worked under the greatest possible disadvantages, receiving no 
additional pay for the performance of weather duty. Their pro- 
fessional standing in the army often suffered from their absence 
from their corps, and they received scant acknowledgment and 
honor from other sources. This, too, while serving on such a pay 
and under such conditions in a large city as to prevent officers 
from living in accord with their brother officers serving with their 
regiment or corps. More than one hundred officers have been 
detailed for signal duty, but not more than a dozen have ever 
been willing to remain for any length of time, and the number 
of these was subject to change and depletion by promotion, resig- 
nation, or the assumption of better paid duties bringing profes- 


14—Nat. Grog. Mac, vor. LV, 1892. 


o4 General A. W. Greely—Geography of the Air. 


sional and personal reputation. In other words, the Signal 
service staff has been poorly compensated, either in money or 
reputation, has had no definite status, and has worked merely 
for the love of science, which is indeed the most beautiful and 
stimulating sentiment animating men of science, but which alone 
and unsupported, as is well known, does not always lead to the 
best results either in theoretical or in applied sciences. 

As regards detailed studies and scientific theses, it may be well 
admitted that the meteorologists of other lands have contributed 
more fully to the literature of the day than the meteorologists of 
the Signal service, but it should be borne in mind that eight 
years ago a Congressional commission reported against the con- 
tinuance of scientific investigations previously fostered by the 
Signal service, and a clause in an appropriation bill compelled 
the abandonment of the school of instruction and the discontinu- 
ance of theoretical meteorological research, except incidentally. 
As to the regular publications, reference elsewhere shows that 
the unequaled Weather Review of the Signal service has been 
imitated abroad, and as to the more ephemereal publications, it 
may be pointed out that the example of the Signal service has 
also been followed out as to daily weather maps and accompany- 
ing meteorological data. 

In Australasia, by the combined efforts of several states, there 
is issued each day a weather map; in Belgium, one map is 
issued; in Austria-Hungary, one; in Algeria, one; in France, 
one; in Japan, three; in India, one; in Russia, one; and in 
Switzerland, one. 

The intellectual activity of the staff of the Weather bureau 
may be indicated by the fact that more than four hundred sepa- 
rate articles were mentioned by title in the report of the Chief 
Signal officer for this year as having emanated from these offi- 
cials during their connection with the Signal service. Far the 
ereater number pertain directly to meteorological subjects, and a 
majority of them have been printed without expense to the goy- 
ernment. 


There has been assertion on the part of ill informed persons 
that proper attention has not been given under army adminis- 
tration to the collection and discussion of climatic data. As an 
answer to this, it is only necessary to point to the monthly 
Weather Review initiated in 1878, which is, and always has been, 


The monthly Weather Review. 95 


the most complete repository of climatic data in the world. 
This publication, for eighteen years, has presented both in tab- 
ular and graphic form the salient climatic conditions of the 
United States so far as could be determined. From a folder the 
size of ordinary letter paper, with only 37 lines of text and one 
chart, it has grown to be a large, well printed quarto, averaging 
28 pages to the month and having 50 charts annually. 

The Review from the very first was largely climatic, two-thirds 
of the earliest numbers being given to temperature and rainfall, 
and gradually this proportion in regard to climatic data and 
discussion has increased until it amounts at length to fully 
three-fourths. 

The single chart of storm-tracks was speedily followed by two 
others, on which were respectively represented for the United 
States (1) the monthly rainfall, and (2) the isobars, isotherms 
and prevailing winds for the individual month. Other appro- 
priate charts have likewise been reproduced, such as mean depth 
of snowfall, the amount of snow on the ground in the middle or 
at the end of month, the range of temperature, the move- 
ments of high areas, the departures of temperature from the 
normal, the distribution of thunder-storms in the United States 
and Canada, ete; and also charts indicating the lmits of dan- 
verous ice-in the northern Atlantic, and international charts for 
the northern hemisphere, showing for the month the mean press- 
ure and the mean temperature and prevailing winds at the hour 
(Greenwich noon) of simultaneous observations. Similar maps 
for the yearly means have also been issued for Canada and for 
the United States and the northern hemisphere. 

From occasional and widely separated data as to wind, tem- 
perature and rainfall on chart or in text of the first Review, the 
present publication includes observations and means from ob- 
servers as to maxima temperatures, minima temperatures, mean 
temperatures and rainfall for each month, exceeding 2,000 in 
number in the United States; and other data from about 500 
more stations in Canada and along the sea-coast of North Amer- 
ica have also been discussed, thus making over 2,500 separate 
monthly reports as to climatic conditions made available in 
such manner that “he who runs may read.” 

This summary conveys no adequate idea of the variety and 
character of the immense and valuable masses of climatic data 
which the monthly Weather Review of the Signal service has 


96 General A. W. Greely— Geography of the Avr. 


scattered over the world relative to, and in the interest of, the 
United States. ° 

The great value set on this publication both by skilled meteor- 
ologists and by the reading public of this and other countries 
has been a source of astonishment and gratification to other 
chiefs and to myself. ; 

As to the opinion of the distinguished meteorologists abroad, 
recalling the saying that imitation is the sincerest form of flat- 
tery, it is to be remarked that monthly publications similar in 
literary form and substance have been instituted in Canada, 
Germany, Great Britain, India, Jamaica, Mexico and Victoria. 


Among other valuable compilations and graphic representa- 
tions of climatic data for the United States in general published 
by the Sienal service may be mentioned : 


1. Isothermal charts for each month of the year, based () 
on observations of ten years, and also (>) on observations of 
elehteen years. 

2. Charts of normal temperature at 8 a.m. and 8 p.m. for 
each decade in the year. 

3. Charts of absolute maxima and minima in each decade and 
also for each year at all Signal service stations (awaiting press). 

4. Charts of isotherms and isobars and prevailing winds for 
each month from January, 1871, to 1875, inclusive. 

5. Tables indicating diurnal fluctuations of temperature for 
each hour and month at 47 typical and representative stations. 

6. Charts and tables of average dates of first killing frosts of 
autumn and last killing frosts of spring. 

7. Charts and tables showing the normal rainfall for each 
month based on record (a) of 10 years; (b) of 18 years; (¢) of 
20 years (May and June; rest awaiting publication). 

8. Charts and tables showing the rainfall for each month from 
January, 1870, to December, 1873. : 

9. Excessive precipitation for month, day and hour at all 
available stations from establishment to 1890. 

10. Charts for each month, showing the probability of rain at 
all Signal service stations as deduced from 18 years’ observations. 

11. Charts and tables of possible annual evaporation. 

12. Charts of average cloudiness for each month of the year. 

13. Charts of most frequent wind-direction and average hourly 
velocities at 65 typical and representative stations at 8 a, m. and 
8 p.m. 


Data collated by the Signal Service. O7 


14. Hourly wind travel at principal and representative sta- 
tions, 1881-1890. 

15. Tables showing the diurnal fluctuations and pressure of 
the atmosphere for each hour of the day and month of the year 
at 29 representative stations. 

16. Charts with tables of supporting data from 654 separate - 
stations, showing for Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Indian 
Territory, Nevada, Oregon, New Mexico, Utah and Washington 
state the average precipitation and the greatest and least quan- 
tity of rain for each month of the year. 

17. Climatic charts and tabular matter, with discussion rela- 
tive to temperature, rainfall, sunshine, frost, evaporation, etc, of 
the states of Nebraska, Oregon, Texas and Washington. 

18. Climatic charts, diagrams and tables from 651 stations 
relative to irrigation and water-storage in Arizona, California, 
Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico and Utah. 


Many other similar climatic publications of less extent and 
mnportance might be added; but reference will only be made to 
the chart of rainfall and temperature for Michigan, and several 
charts of normal temperature for New York, both prepared at 
the office of the Chief Signal officer. 

The annual reports of the Chief Signal officer have been 
largely given up to chmatic data, which for years were published 
on so liberal a scale as to induce criticism from members of 
Congress. For several years the amount of climatic data an- 
nually published exceeded five hundred octavo pages, and for 
the past eighteen years has averaged over three hundred octayo 
pages. 

The chmatic work of the Signal service of the army can be 
summarized by the general statement (which can be verified by 
any one who wishes) that the climatic characteristics of the 
United States have been determined and are better known than 
those of any other equal area on the surface of the earth. 


The forecasting of weather was not the only duty imposed by 
law on the office. The construction, maintenance and opera- 
tion of about 5,000 miles of telegraph lines on the Indian and 
Mexican frontiers and along the uninhabited coasts of the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans, the performance of military signal- 
ing duty, the gauging of the principal rivers of the country and 


98 General A. W. Greely—Geography of the Air. 
Y Graply 


the predicting of floods and low waters therein, have also 
demanded special application, ability and energy which could 
not but somewhat impair the interest in the weather work and 
detract from the success with which it was prosecuted. The 
high degree of success in these other branches has been recog- 
nized by those interested in the practical work involved therein. 
The accuracy of river and flood forecasts and the ample notice 
thereof in advance have elicited well deserved encomiums from 
the inhabitants of the valleys of our great rivers, and the rules 
for flood forecasts have been laid down with most satisfactory 
results. 

It is not the intent to convey an idea that no further proeress 
in these various branches of work is possible, for knowledge ever 
goes on from more to more, and improvement is the order of the 
day. ate. 

The spirit toward other scientific branches of investigation, if 
not so catholic as extremists could wish, has been so liberal as to 
compare favorably with that of any other governmental bureau. 
Few realize how difficult it is for any bureau chief to obtain from 
the legislative branch of the government sufficient appropriations 
for the liberal support of the special duties of his bureau, but the 
difficulty is greatly enhanced when it is sought to obtain funds 
for contingent purposes involying the carrying on or the investi- 
gating of subjects relating indefinitely, if indeed at all, to the 
more specific duties of the bureau. Again, instances are not rare 
in which individuals or institutions desire to obtain the aid of 
governmental bureaus in the investigation and support of matters 
which, although worthy in themselves of encouragement and 
aid, in their nature partake rather of private and personal schemes 
than of the more general investigations for the public benefit. 
In short, it rarely occurs that means and sense of duty permit 
the diversion of large sums from the narrow scope of official 
action imposed on a bureau by the limiting provisions of appro- 
priation acts and the perhaps more important restrictions of the 
auditing officials of the treasury. 

Considering limitations of law, restrictions of auditors, and 
amounts of appropriations, the Signal service has shown great 
liberality in extending aid to collateral investigations and _ re- 
searches. It has spent for such purposes not simply hundreds 
or thousands of dollars, but tens of thousands. Among other _ 
noteworthy instances involving important or essential aid may 


Collateral Work of the Signal Service. eS) 


be mentioned International meteorology, Langley’s magnificent 
and unique work at mount Whitney, the contributory observa- 
tions for the Fish commission, demanding special instruments 
and sometimes extra observers; extensive and, as Professor 
Baird said, “indispensable aid during this transition period ” in 
ethnological and other work throughout the extent of all Alaska ; 
eodperation with the Polaris expedition ; the Cumberland sound 
work; the solar total eclipse of 1878; the investigation of the 
locust plague; the point Barrow and Lady Franklin bay expedi- 
tions, which otherwise could never have started; the Labrador 
expedition; the Death valley investigations; and the western 
Africa eclipse expedition. 

It should be borne in mind that the civilian organization now 
in operation is due entirely to the military force. The lately 
lauded system of local forecast officials at the more important 
cities 1s simply a continuation of duties initiated several years 
since, and which, as to name, compensation and scope of work, 
were planned and carried into execution by officers of the army. 

The estimates and proposals for liberal pay to civilians in the 
reorganized Weather bureau were also the work of an officer, 
and the pay obtained was not only considered exceedingly 
liberal by the legislative branch but also by the civilian organ- 
ization, as evinced by the omission of two professors of highest 
pay from the estimates of this year. 


En résumé, it has been shown that the Signal corps of the 
United States army has so conducted the meteorological work 
entrusted to its charge as to develop and advance meteorological 
investigation to very near the dignity of a science, partly through 
the high class of work done by the service.and partly by the 
stimulus it has given to this work through its international system 
and other liberal methods; that the practical application of 
weather forecasts has attained a degree of perfection unexcelled, 
if even equalled, by any other nation; that its system of river 
observations and flood forecasts, taking into consideration the 
enormous area of the drainage basins and the unparalleled 
amount of material interests concerned, has reached a stage com- 
paring most favorably with that of any foreign country; and 
that the graphic and tabular data representing the climatic ele- 
ments of precipitation, temperature, wind, sunshine, evaporation, 
humidity, prevalence of cloudiness and probability of rain, have 


100 General A. W. Greely— Geography of the Air. 


covered the entire United States with a fullness and perfection 
of detail unknown over any other equally extensive area on the 
face of the globe. 

It is beheved that no branch of meteorological or climatie im- 
vestigation has been neglected by the army administration of the 
Weather bureau, and the character and reliability of the work 
thus done is submitted with confidence that it will stand the test 
of investigation and discussion as well as that’ of any other de- 
partment of natural science through a period of equal length in 
its organization, development and transition upwards. 

One broad field opens up to the Weather bureau under its 
happy organization, freed from the heayy burden of conflicting 
duties foreign to scientific work, and in this field of the relation of 
weather and climate to agricultural productions the prospects for 
ereat usefulness is possible. This field the army administration 
made unavailing efforts to cover through codperation with the 
department of agriculture, but to a bureau of its own this depart- 
ment will no longer maintain an indifferent attitude such as was 
displayed toward the army. 

In its development in this and in all directions, and in the 
efforts of its professors and advocates to place meteorology 
among the acknowledged and exact sciences, the United States 
Weather bureau has no more interested or friendly sympathizers 
than the officers of the army who have contributed by their 
labors to the perfection of the splendid, practical system on 
which this bureau now rests. 


a VoL. IV, PP, 101-116, PL. 17 MARCH 381, 1892 
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VOL. IV, PP. 101-116, PL. 17 MARCH 831, 1892 


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NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


THE MOTHER MAPS OF THE UNITED STATES. 
BY HENRY GANNETT. 


(Presented before the Society January 22, 1892.) 


INTRODUCTION. 


We read of topographic maps and of geographic maps. Both 
of these classes of maps represent similar features—the drainage 
_ and other bodies of water, the relief of the earth’s surface, and 
the artificial features, such as railroads, roads, towns, houses, ete. 
The distinctions between them are merely those of scale and of 
area represented. A map on a small scale and covering a large 
area is commonly known as a geographic map. 

Mother maps are those made from original sources of informa- 
tion. Commonly they are the maps for the production of which 
a survey was carried on, while compiled maps are secondary 
productions, being reduced or changed in certain respects from 
the mother maps. Topographic maps may be mother maps or 
compiled maps. Geographic maps are in most cases compiled 
maps. 

Most of the countries of Europe have been surveyed under a 
uniform plan or system and mother maps produced therefrom. 
In these cases the mother map is everywhere of uniform quality 
and character. In the United States, on the other hand, many 
partial surveys have been made under independent authorities 


15—Nar. Grog. Mac., von. TV, 1892. (101) 


102. Henry Gannett—Mother Maps of the United States. 


and of widely differing degrees of accuracy, and the maps result- 
ing therefrom differ in scale and value. 

It is my purpose to sketch the principal of these surveys, 
characterizing the methods employed and the accuracy and value 
of the maps which have resulted from them, in order to learn 
what parts of the country have been well mapped, what parts 
have been indifferently mapped, and what parts have not been 
mapped at all. Such surveys have been executed under au- 
thority of the general government and of state governments and 
have been carried on by private enterprise. 


SURVEYS OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT. 


The Coast. and Geodetic Survey —The most prominent organiza- 
tion under the general government, and that one which is execut- 
ing the most accurate work, is the United States Coast and 
Geodetic survey, which, commencing its actual work in 1882, 
has continued down to the present time. During this period 
nearly the entire coast line of the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific, with 
the exception of the coast of Alaska, has been mapped, together 
with a strip of inshore topography ranging from half a mile to 
five miles in breadth. The area of- topographic suryeys is not 
extensive, being at the present date only about 54,000 square 
miles. In addition to this work, triangulation has been extended 
inland in various directions for a number of different purposes : 
It has been extended southwestward along the Appalachian 
mountains for the purpose of furnishing a suitable control for the 
work along the southern coast; it has been extended westward 
from the Atlantic coast in the neighborhood of the 40th parallel 
of latitude to central Kansas, and from the Pacific coast east- 
ward to eastern Utah for the purpose of ultimately joining together 
by triangulation the work upon the eastern and western coasts. 
For assisting in state surveys, triangulation has been done in the 
interior in many of the states, among which are New Hampshire, 
Massachusetts, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Indiana, Kentucky and 
Tennessee. Besides all this triangulation, numerous astronomic 
determinations have been made in the interior. 

The triangulation of this organization is of the highest order 
of excellence. Topographic details are mapped by the plane- 
table. The planetable sheets are in the main made on a scale 
of 1: 10,000, or about 6 inches to 1 mile, and are published on 


Federal Surveys by cwil Bureaus. 103 


various scales from 1: 10,000 to 1: 80,000. Contour lines at verti- 
eal intervals of 10 or 20 feet are located on the planetable sheets. 
The small scale charts are published in hachures, those on the 
larger scales commonly in contours. 

Geological Survey.—The United States Geological survey is the 

‘only organization which has ever undertaken to map the United 
States under a comprehensive and well defined plan, and it has 
surveyed a greater area than any other organization. It was 
formed in 1879 upon the discontinuance of the three rival western 
surveys, hamely, the Hayden, Wheeler and Powell surveys. At 
first it was restricted in its operations to the public domain, but 
was soon authorized by law to include the entire United States. 
The work of topographic surveying on a large scale, with a view 
to mapping the entire country, was commenced in 1882 and has 
been prosecuted actively since that time. 

The work, wherever practicable, is controlled by triangula- 
tion, which, though not of geodetie refinement, is suitable for the 
control of the maps upon the adopted scales. Where it is not 
practicable to carry on triangulation for control, traverses are run 
for that purpose with instruments of considerable power and with 
all possible precaution to prevent the accumulation of sensible 
error. 

Aside from the primary control, location is effected by graphic 
methods. The planetable is used for secondary triangulation 
and for traversing. Heights are measured with the spirit level, 
by vertical angles, and by aneroid. The maps are now pub- 
lished on two scales, one of 1:62,500, or about one mile to an 
inch, the other of 1: 125,000, or about two miles to an inch. 
Considerable work has been executed on the scale of 1: 250,000, 
but that scale has been abandoned. Relief is expressed by con- 
tours, the intervals ranging from 5 feet up to 200, depending upon 
the scale and upon the degree of relief of the country. 

The Geological survey has worked in codperation with four 
states, namely, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and 
New Jersey, and has completed the surveys of these states. It 
has also surveyed large areas in New York, Pennsylvania, Mary- 
land, Virginia and West Virginia, the southern Appalachian 
region, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, 
Missouri, Kansas, and the western states and territories gen- 
erally. Altogether an area of 550,000 square miles has been 
surveyed. The maps are engraved on copper. Three plates 


104 Henry Gannett—Mother Maps of the United States. 


are required, the culture, drainage and relief being printed in 
different colors. — . 

Lake Survey —The shores of the Great lakes and of the St Law- 
rence river have been mapped, together with a narrow strip of 
topography, by the organization known as the United States 
Lake survey, which was under the control of the Engineer corps 
of the United States army. Besides mapping the shores of the 
lakes, this organization carried a belt of triangulation from the 
head of lake Michigan to that of lake Erie across the southern 
end of the peninsula of Michigan, and another strip of triangula- 
tion through eastern Illinois to the neighborhood of Vincennes, 
Indiana, and located by astronomic means a large number of 
points in the lower peninsula of Michigan. All these determi- 
nations of positions were connected directly with section corners 
of the United States Land survey, to be hereafter described. 

The work of this organization was of a high order of excellence, 
comparable in most respects to that of the United States Coast 
and Geodetic survey. 

Engineer Surveys.—In connection with river improvements, the 
United States Engineer corps has made surveys of many navi- 
gable rivers. In many cases these are merely local surveys 
covering trifling areas, but in the cases of the lower Mississippi 
and the Missouri river excellent maps, controlled by triangula- 
tion, have been produced. 

Army Explorations—The western part of the United States 
has, ever since its acquisition, been a favorite field for explora- 
tion and survey. Fora long time the War department monopo- 
lized this field. The explorations began with the famous expe- 
dition of Lewis and Clarke in the early years of the century, 
followed by those of Long, Pike and Fremont. Then, in the 
early fifties, came that remarkable series of explorations known 
as the Pacific railroad surveys. These were followed by numerous 
other army expeditions, some of which are of comparatively 
recent date. Altogether a large number of military parties have 
traversed the Cordilleran region and each of these expeditions 
has furnished more or less geographic information. 

Their methods of survey were, in nearly all cases, similar: A 
traverse survey of the route was made, using the compass for 
directions. Distances were measured by the ‘revolutions of a 
wheel or by estimates based upon the time of travel. Points off 
the line were intersected upon and thus located roughly with refer- 


Military Explorations and Surveys. 105 


ence to the line of travel, and, resting upon this rather imperfect 
skeleton, the topography in sight of the line was sketched, while 
that out of sight of the line was often added from the statements 
of hunters, trappers and Indians. These lines were checked at 
intervals by astronomic determinations, the latitude being deter- 
mined by altitudes of the sun or a star, the longitude by moon 
culminations or lunar distances, or by chronometer. 

Many such lines were run in various directions over the 
Cordilleran region. From such as were at that time available, 
General G. K. Warren constructed in 1857 the first map of the 
western United States which was in any way worthy of the name 
of map. 

Nearly all of the areas thus explored have since been resur- 
veyed by more accurate and detailed methods. 

Survey of the 40th Parallel—In 1867 Mr Clarence King, a civil- 
ian in the employ of the War department, organized a survey 
for the exploration of a strip of country adjacent to the line of the 
Union Pacific and Central Pacific railroads, from the longitude 
of Cheyenne on the east to the eastern boundary of California on 
the west, and about 100 miles in breadth from north to south. 
This work, which was completed in 1871, comprises an area of 
about 87,000 square miles. It was published on a scale of 4 
miles to 1 inch in approximate contour lines 300 feet apart. The 
work was controlled by triangulation ; heights were measured by 
barometer and by vertical angles, and sketching was done in 
note books, the sketches being adjusted to the locations in the 
office. 

Surveys west of the 100th Meridian.—This was the most exten- 
sive of the surveys within the Cordilleran region. It was com- 
menced in 1869, and for several years was carried on by traverse 
methods similar to those followed by the other explorations 
under the War department, and the maps produced were pub- 
lished on a scale of 8 miles to an inch, the relief being expressed 
by hachures. In 1873-’4—5 the methods of this survey were 
radically improved, A system of control by triangulation was 
adopted, the scale of publication was increased from 8 to 4 
miles to an inch, and areas, instead of lines of travel, were 
mapped. This survey was discontinued in 1879. The entire 
area surveyed is said to have been 361,000 square miles, of which 
103,000 square miles was on a scale of 4 miles to an inch, the 
balance being on that of 8 miles to an inch. 


106 Henry Gannett—Mother Maps of the United States. 


The Hayden Survey.—This organization, which was initially a 
geologic exploration, was instituted in 1867. No topographic 
work was done by it until 1871, when certain route surveys were 
made in Montana, Idaho and Yellowstone park. In 1872 similar 
surveys were carried on in the same region. Between 1873 and 
1876, inclusive, the work of this organization was confined to 
Colorado and adjacent strips of Arizona, New Mexico and Utah, 
while in 1877 and 1878 work was done in Wyoming, Idaho, Utah 
and Yellowstone park. During 1875 and following years the 
methods of survey were greatly improved. The work was con- 
trolled by triangulation originating in measured bases, within 
which was-a secondary triangulation, by means of which nearly 
all control points were located; traverse being used to locate only 
minor details of roads, streams, etc. Sketching was done in note 
books, and the sketching was adjusted to the control in the office. 
The maps were published on a scale of 4 miles to an inch, in 
approximate contour lines 200 feet apart. Altogether an area of 
about 100,000 square miles was surveyed by this organization, 
which was discontinued in 1879. 

Powell Survey.—This survey originated in an exploration of the 
Colorado river, commenced in 1867. After the completion of this 
exploration, systematic work was undertaken in the territory of 
Utah, and up to the time of the discontinuance of the survey in 
1879 about 67,000 square miles had been surveyed, comprised in 
Utah and the northern part of Arizona. The methods of work 
were quite similar to those of the Hayden survey, but with this 
notable exception, that the minor control and the sketching were 
done upon planetables, the sketching being adjusted to the con- 
trol in the field upon the stations. The maps were published 
by the present Geological survey on a scale of 1: 250,000, the 
relief being expressed by contours 250 feet apart. 

Boundary Surveys—The boundary lines of many of the western 
states and territories have been run at the expense of the general 
government, and in connection with these boundary surveys 
narrow strips of topography have been mapped. 

In 1875, when public attention had become drawn to the gold 
deposits of the Black hills, an exploration of this region was 
undertaken by the Indian bureau under the authority of the 
general government. This exploration included both the prep- 
aration of a topographic map and a geologic examination. The 


The System of Land Surveys. 107 


map was produced on a scale of 4 miles to an inch in approxi- 
mate contour lines. 

Public Land Surveys.—In the latter part of the last century a 
system was devised for the subdivision of the public lands held 
by the United States, for the purpose of cutting them up into 
convenient parcels for sale or other mode of disposal. Thesystem 
then devised has been extended with little modification over all 
the states, with the exception of the thirteen original colonies, 
together with Maine, Vermont, Kentucky, Tennessee and Texas. 
Many of the states have been surveyed entirely under this sys- 
tem, while the others have been in greater part surveyed. 

The method of subdivision is a very simple one, and is learned 
by every western child in connection with the alphabet. An 
initial point is selected from which a base line is run east and 
west and a principal meridian is run north. At intervals upon 
this base line, ranging from twenty-four miles upward, other 
lines are run north, known as guide meridians, and at similar 
intervals on the principal meridian secondary east-and-west 
lines are run, known as correction lines. The blocks of country 
thus laid out into approximately rectangular shape are sub- 
divided into approximate squares by running lines northward, 
eastward, and westward at intervals of six miles, forming what 
are known as townships. Each township is then subdivided by 
means of lines.run at every mile in both directions, forming sec- 
tions, each section being approximately a mile square. The 
north lines are theoretically run on true meridians and therefore 
converge, the convergence increasing from the base line north- 
ward until a correction line is reached. Upon the correction line 
a new start is made, the townships and sections resuming their 
former bases of six miles and one mile respectively. 

The principal and guide meridians, the base lines and correc- 
tion lines, as well as all other township lines in this work, are 
run by solar compass, and distances are measured by chain with 
considerable care. The subdivision of townships into sections is 
generally done with a compass, and the chaining is executed with 
less care. The accumulated errors in the survey of a township 
are thrown into the northern and western tiers of sections, cul- 
minating in the northwestern corner. 

In the prosecution of these surveys no attention has been paid 
to geographic positions. The initial points have been selected 
arbitrarily, and it is only by connecting these surveys with posi- 


108 Henry Gannett—Mother Maps of the United States. 


tions determined independently that they have been located. 
Such determinations have been made in abundance by one means 
or another, and they are well distributed ; so that for maps on 
small scales there is no difficulty in locating these surveys. 

As these surveys have been made merely for the purpose of 
subdividing the land, little attention has been directed toward 
making them available for the production of maps. The instrue- 
tions under which they have been made, however, require that the 
points of crossing of all streams by the lines of survey be noted, 
together with the directions of the streams; that all streams 
above a certain breadth, as well as the borders of all lakes and 
ponds, be traversed; and that the limits of all swamps and marshes 
and timbered lands be noted. Had these instructions been every- 
where carried out a large amount of geographic information 
would have been gathered ; but unfortunately they have not been 
fully carried out, and hence the township plats differ’greatly in 
the amount of information which they present. These plats are 
made on a scale of 2 inches to a mile, a scale many times 
ereater than the degree of detail upon them requires. From 
these plats, with the addition of information from other sources, 
the General Land office prepares and publishes a series of very 
useful state and territorial maps on-scales ranging from ten to 
eighteen miles to an inch, and a map of the United States upon 
a scale of about 40 miles to an inch. 


There is another group of maps published by the general goy- 
ernment, the material of which is, in the main, compiled, but 
which contains certain elements of originality. These are the 
postal-route maps which are prepared by the Post-office depart- 
ment for illustrating the location of post-offices and the lines of 
transportation of mails. The natural features of these maps are 
of course compiled. The boundary lines of counties, on the 
contrary, are in the main laid down directly in accordance with 
statute. The location of railroads is effected mainly by means 
of plats furnished directly from the railroad surveys, and the 
location of post-offices is in a corresponding measure derived from 
similar sources. 


With the exception of a few minor matters, the above list covers 
the survey works and the sources of geographic information 
furnished by the general government. We turn next to the work 
done by the various state governments. 


Maps produced by indiwidual States. 109 


STATE SURVEYS. 


New Hampshire—This state supported recently a geologic sur- 
vey, which undertook the preparation of a topographic map, a 
work which was effected mainly, however, by compilation, little 
original work being done. A number of positions in the state 
were obtained from the United States Coast and Geodetic survey 
and to these were fitted traverses of roads which had previously 
been surveyed by private enterprise. Upon this skeleton asome- 
what pretentious contour map was produced by using for heights 
the profiles of the railroads of the state, supplemented by numer- 
ous aneroid measurements made by the geologic survey. This 
map was printed on a scale of 2% miles to an inch with a con- 
tour interval of 100 feet. It was issued in 1878. 

New York.—From 1877 to 1884 the state of New York main- 
tained a survey under Mr J.T. Gardiner. By this survey much 
triangulation of a high degree of accuracy was carried on, but 
no topographic work was executed. This state also maintained 
for many years an organization known as the Adirondack sur- 
vey, which was instituted for the purpose of mapping the Adi- 
rondack region. No results, however, have been published 
beyond the positions of a few geodetic points and a large number 
of measurements of altitude. 

Pennsylvania.—In Pennsylvania considerable money has been 
expended in topographic surveys for special purposes, but these 
have been on so large a seale and are so detailed in character 
that, areally, they are of slight importance. Most of them are 
on the scale of 1,600 feet to an inch, in contours 10 or 20 feet 
apart. 

Wisconsin.—In Wisconsin some work was done in the south- 
western part of the state by the state geologic survey. This work 
was based on the triangulation of the United States Coast and 
Geodetic survey. The Land office plats were utilized and the 
relief was expressed by 50-foot contours. 

Minnesota.—Most of the area of Minnesota has been mapped 
by the state geologic survey on a scale of 4 miles to an inch, in 
50-foot contours. The horizontal element of this map was fur- 
nished by the surveys of the General Land office, the vertical 
element being supplied from the profiles of railroads, supple- 
mented by aneroid measurements. 

Kentucky. Drainage maps of many of the counties of Ken- 


16—Nat. Grog. Maa., von. LV, 1892. 


110 Henry Ganneti—Mother Maps of the United States. 


tucky have been prepared from traverses of the roads. These 
‘maps, which make no attempt to show the relief, are published 
on a scale of 2 miles to an inch. 

California.—Between 1860 and 1870 the state of California 
maintained a geologic survey, which, like all other well regulated 
geologic surveys, found it necessary to devote much of its means 
to making topographic maps. By this organization a large part - 
of central California was mapped, the greater part being on a 
scale of 6 miles to an inch, while a small area about the bay of 
San Francisco was on a scale of 2 miles to an inch, the rehef in 
both series of maps being expressed by hachures. 

New Jersey.—The only state which thus far has devised and 
put into operation a reasonable and economical plan for map- 
ping its area is New Jersey. In 1877 this state commenced sur- 
veys for a map in connection with its geologic survey upon a 
plan and by methods very similar to those subsequently adopted 

in the geologic survey of the United States. The work was con- 
- trolled by triangulation, in the main executed by the United 
States Coast and Geodetic survey and supplemented by the state 
survey. Minor control was furnished by means of traverse lines, 
and elevations were measured by spirit level and vertical angles. 
The resulting maps were published on a scale of one mile to an 
inch, in contours of 10 and 20 feet. When the state was about 
half surveyed the United States Geological survey undertook 
and carried the work through to completion upon the same 
plan and by the same methods which the state had originated. 


PRIVATE SURVEYS. 


In consequence of the neglect of the government in the matter 
of mapping this country, a wide field has been left open for pri- 
vate enterprise, and this field has been worked actively, but with 
curious results. Maps have been produced by private parties of 
practically every county in the northern states and of some 
counties of the southern states. The material for these maps 
has been obtained by traverse surveys along the roads. These 
maps are generically similar, and can be characterized in a very 
few words. They are essentially diagrams of roads. The houses 
along the roads are generally represented, together with the 
names of the owners, as it is found that this aids in the sale of 
the maps. Streams are but feebly represented, and relief is rarely 
shown. ; 


Maps produced by private Enterprise. 111 


Most of the railroads of the country have prepared maps of 
their lines showing at least the alignment of the road and in 
many cases the adjacent topography. They have prepared also 
profiles of their lines, and as this is an important element from 
the railroad point of view, much more attention has been given 
to this than to alignment. 

There is one railroad company which has done more than 
this. The Northern Pacific railroad organized in 1882, and sup- 
ported for three years, a survey of the country adjacent to its 
line. During these three years an area of 43,000 square miles 
was mapped in Montana and Washington. The methods used 
were similar to those of the Hayden survey, and the maps were 
designed for publication on a scale of 4 miles to an inch, in 200- 
foot contours. <A part of this area has been published by the 
United States Geological survey. 

Large areas of the eastern.and most densely settled portion of 
the country are dependent entirely for their maps upon these 
road diagrams of counties and upon railroad maps and profiles. 
Such is the condition of all in which no public land surveys 
have been carried on, excepting the areas surveyed by the organ- 
izations above described. Thus, New York has no other maps 
besides these road diagrams, excepting some 2,000 square miles 
mapped by the United States Geological survey and some trifling 
additions by the United States Coast and Geodetic survey, while 
Pennsylvania is almost as poor in information regarding its 
topography. : 

The foregoing is a summary of the principal sources of geo- 
graphic information concerning this country. It comprises prac- 
tically all the material which is available for the compilation of 
a map of the United States. Of course, it is understood that in 
numerous cases the same area has been mapped by two or more 
organizations, thus affording opportunity for selection between 
them. In such cases, generally speaking, the later survey is the 
better, but in certain cases one piece of work is better for one 
purpose, and another for another purpose; one for one class of 
features, another for another class. 


RELATIVE VALUES OF THE Maps. 


I propose to classify the body of diversified material in accord- 
ance with my estimate of its map value as expressed by the scale 


112 Henry Ganneti—Mother Maps of the United States. 


upon which it is worthy of being represented, and thus to make 
an estimate of the area of the country which can be mapped from 
existing material upon each of several different scales. 

The scales which I shall consider are 1, 2,4,8 and 16 miles to 
an inch. I exclude from consideration, for the present, the ter- 
ritory of Alaska. | 

On a scale of 1 mile to an inch, I find that only 100,000 square 

miles can be mapped, or about one-thirtieth of the area of the 
country (that area being a trifle over 3,000,000 square miles). 
This area possible to map includes the states of Massachusetts, 
Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Jersey and parts of numer- 
ous other states, mainly in the north. It includes a narrow strip 
of topography along the sea and lake coasts and the Mississippi 
and Missouri rivers. Two-thirds of this area is the work of the 
United States Geological survey, the balance being mainly that 
of the United States Coast and Geodetic survey. 
- On the scale of two miles to one inch, an area of 360,000 
square miles has been surveyed by the Geological survey. No 
work adapted to representation upon that scale has ever been 
surveyed by other organizations. This area is widely scattered 
over the country. On this scale, therefore, an area of 460,000 
square miles, or between one-fifth and one-sixth of the area of 
the country, can be mapped. 

On ascale of 4 miles to one inch, the work of several organiza- 
tions is included,.viz, the exploration of the 40th parallel, the 
Hayden, Powell and Northern Transcontinental surveys, the 
Black hills survey, the 4-mile work of the Wheeler survey, and 
the 4-mile work of the United States Geological survey. The 
work of these organizations foots up, after deducting the over- 
lapping areas, 460,000 square miles. All this area is in the Cor- 
dilleran region. 

The area in the United States which can be mapped on a 
scale of 4 miles to one inch is, therefore, 920,000 square miles, or 
between one-third and one-fourth of the area of the country. 

The original maps of this area are all of such character as to 
furnish material for representing all the three elements of a 
topographic map—the hydrography, the culture and the relief. 
They include most of those parts of the country which present 
high relief, including the southern Appalachians and most of the 
Cordilleran region. With the exception of 60,000 square miles 
furnished by the Wheeler survey, the relief of this area can be 
expressed quantitatively by contours. 


The Area not yet mapped. 113 


The additional material which is adapted for smaller scales 
than those mentioned above shows, in the main, only hydrog- 
raphy and culture. Except for certain comparatively small 
areas, relief is not expressed at all. Still, the fact should not be 
overlooked that by far the greater proportion of the areas of high 
relief have been mapped upon the larger scales. In the remain- 
ing areas the relief element is not of so great importance. 

On the scale of 8 miles to one inch, 1,530,000 square miles 
in addition to the areas above enumerated can be mapped. Of 

‘this area, 1,200,000 square miles are furnished by the maps of 
the General Land office and 100,000 square miles by county 
maps of the New England states, both of which classes of maps 
show no relief. 100,000 square miles are included from the 8- 
mile work of the Wheeler survey, which shows relief by hachures. 
The remainder comes in small areas from various sources. On 
this scale, therefore, a map including 2,450,000 square miles, or 
nearly five-sixths of the country, can be prepared, showing hy- 
drography and culture. 

A reduction of the scale to 16 miles to one inch, or about 
1: 1,000,000, increases but little the area possible to map. It adds 
only such parts of the southeastern states as are not already in- 
cluded, a portion of Texas, and some trifling areas in the Cordil- 
leran region. The southeastern states can be represented on this 
scale by the aid of compilations of railroad maps, war maps, etc, 
notably the compilations made by the United States Coast and 
Geodetic survey during the civil war, the compilation of North 
Carolina made by Professor W. C. Kerr, and others. 

A compilation from railroad surveys has been made of Texas, 
which, excepting for the western part of the state, will answer 
for this scale. In the Cordilleran region some small areas not 
included in later maps have been run over so closely by army 
expeditions and exploring parties as to be worthy of a place in 
this category. 

Altogether, an area of about 2,800,000 square miles can be 
mapped on this scale. This leaves, besides Alaska, about 225,000 
square miles which is too little known to be represented on a 
scale of 16 miles to one inch. 

Much of this material is measurably deficient in the culture 
element, inasmuch as the surveys were executed many years 
ago and, in the interval which has elapsed, this element has 
changed greatly. This is particularly the case in the west, where 


114 Henry Gannett—Mother Maps of the United States. 


most of the present stage of development has been produced 
since the work of the Hayden, Wheeler, King and Powell sur- 
veys was done. ) 

To bring this culture element up to date on maps of the 
two last-mentioned scales, viz, 8 and 16 miles to one inch, the 
postal-route maps are of great service—are, indeed, well-nigh 
invaluable. 


SUMMARY. 


About 76 per cent of the area of the United States, exclusive 
of Alaska, has been surveyed by the general government on 
various scales, and fully 16 per cent more has been surveyed 
by other organizations or private parties in such manner as to 
yield useful maps, leaving barely 8 per cent of our territory un- 
surveyed. The mother maps of the country are based upon 
these surveys. 

The areas represented on the various mother maps of the 
United States and available for compilation, classified by the 
scales on which they are worthy of reproduction, are summarized 
in the appended table. They are also shown graphically in the 
accompanying map of the United States forming plate 17. 

The scale of 1: 1,000,000, or nearly 16 miles to one inch, has 
been adopted by the Geographic congress for mapping the earth, 
and it is therefore of interest to know how much of this country 
can be mapped on this scale, and where the areas are located 
concerning which our information is too scanty to warrant such 
representation. These areas may briefly be enumerated. They 
are: 

Northern Maine. 

Adirondack plateau of New York. 

Southern Florida. 

Most of Idaho and much of Montana. 

The Cascade and Coast ranges of Oregon and Washington. 
Western North Dakota and South Dakota. 

Western Texas and southeastern New Mexico. 


115 


Mother Maps of the United States. 


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0 sdnyy “ayjoyy snowmea ay} Uo paquasaldat snarl y 


116 Henry Gannett— Mother Maps of the United States. 


The territory of Alaska is still in the exploration stage. Its 
condition, as regards our geographic knowledge of its area, is 
quite similar to that of the Cordilleran region half a century ago. 
The shore line has been explored and laid down upon charts in 
its approximate position, and a part of the intricate shore line of 
southeastern Alaska has been mapped with some accuracy. The 
interior of the territory has been traversed by a number of expe- 
ditions, and thus a few routes have been surveyed; but far the 
greater part of the interior is still utterly unknown. 


VoL. IV, PP, 117-162, PLS. 18-20 ; MAY 15, 1892 


4 THE 
‘ _ NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


AN EXPEDITION 


THROUGH 


EL MOURN: OTS TR LOT 


CHARLES WILLARD HAYES 


WASHINGTON 


_ PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GroGRaPHic Sociery 


. Price, 50 cents. 


VOL. IV, PP. 117-162, PLS, 18-20 MAY 15, 1892 


ee 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


AN EXPEDITION THROUGH THE YUKON DISTRICT. 
BY CHARLES WILLARD HAYES. 


(Presented before the Society February 5, 1892.) 


CONTENTS. 

Page. 
IMT CUO LOTR TAL, cipher Pan aauar rel earge es ire ye In pee <P te a elas eR Dt ae ee ee 118 
Reimer omune Hx peditiOls.. owe uk ate Ose ee a aca tices bas 120 
‘TRO sG/G BARAT OI IN ire ED eee eee aetna ahs eal ae ENS A ue ee IS Ik ca 127 
Cartographic Data ..... 5 Cake SALAS AT MMM el el ce eta mens TAN 45 127 
Man cmayliiG CAtTILES: «401, See soe oe leh OA © cent teabes enh 128 

ID Ieee age iui eo Ree Lae ie ome ie rane aay hc MORE ne Mew ang lel aa 13 
AW Site Om he CART er eC A am AG. TAA CRAM I BRO Me) lees ORAL: 136 
Telarnot (Ci@Okoysny eae Regere ten eee elena erie ten ak ) Seek eae rar AIR ete ce ae Cle ee aoe 37 
CharacternotulesODsenveblOl cee e eet eres 137 
TOG GSace. “AAW eH ca ba | Khe ha eee enstat sea ache valle AMR iy PPM Succes se 138 
JEMOVCES Oe HAS Timer Ore IPANKER 4 coc kc bese ucoaogyodeoesonee 138 
ROCKS Or Scolar Tease) wavy aes wae ee cee eee 140 
Rockslots@opperminiversaviellleyeeemesas ai iar ee eee 141 
IROCKS Orr lermonGe: Why illlnenmms StomumGl . oe cco dea bacccobnecooues 142 
PVF lM eSOUNGESS 62 <1 seater Meee Rea Senn AU IE Meg tecauh een Sy cuape PRE 5 Mev ve 142 
Gio) Clie satasta ah oa De Par cone ern Pee yn ere ardn sie arene CSI Ry A Sat 142 
(OOo) ONSLCR Siemens ax ote rs ear eta eben chics uk ranean Ghai? ets cca ge 148 
MoleanmicevPhemomienmsy hive o see eseiey td ary tere ee asec ea | teuenulc: hou a. 145 
NCEE ANEO ICAI OCS 2 cus nytt eee eC ee Rm wen ilnars BAN aM Uae RAL S 145 
INGORE AO GANG EVN a oo eo Fbud abo s cinldiaadeo sh ocenuocEs ooee 146 
sesh vol cami CON CENVAi yas, Seed imei aia ala siete pnd Aa ks 150 
Cilrerallaleinen ot Gi esses eee regs eg ee hcge een le Fi ni oe a 150 
JESS TEI AVES CEN OH TRS epee coe ic Ris becuse cs ales Nic cone creer Oem ra ea 150 
Hormone Glevelaitito means ewer ey eer eet Sa ee on Nice ea dana se 155 


Appendix—Cryptogams collected by Dr C. Willard Hayes in Alaska, 
HS Oey Clarack)s © umanmmnnieswee sa sceeas oae nck tele aie el ss wets oie 160 


17—Nart, Groc, Maa., von. IV, 1892, (117) 


. 


118 CW. Hayes—EKxpedition through the Yukon District. 


INTRODUCTION. 


An expedition in the interest of a syndicate of newspapers was 
organized in the spring of 1891 by Mr Frederick Schwatka for 
exploring portions of the Yukon basin in the British Northwest 
Territory and Alaska, particularly the region lying north of the 
St Klas mountains. A request was made to the director of the 
United States Geological survey for a geologist to accompany 
the expedition, and it was the good fortune of the writer to be 
detailed for that duty. 

Under the conditions of travel only a hasty reconnaissance of 
the region traversed was possible, but so little has been known 
of it geologically or otherwise that such observations as were 
made possess a value out of proportion to their completeness. 
It is the object of this paper to give in systematic form the main 
facts of scientific interest observed during the journey. A full 
account of the journey itself, which is not without interest, can- 
not be given here, but will appear elsewhere through its appro- 
priate channels. Enough of the narrative will be included, how- 
ever, to indicate the route and means of travel and something 
of the conditions under which the scientific observations were 
made. 

Mr Schwatka’s original plan was to go over Chilkoot pass and 
down the Lewes, following the regular miners’ route to the inte- 
rior; but on reaching Juneau, at the request of the citizens, 
backed up by their substantial assistance, it was decided to go 
in by way of Taku river, with a view to determining whether a 
trail for pack-animals could be constructed over that route. 

Considerable information of an indefinite sort was available 
concerning the country to be traversed before reaching Lewes 
-river. The pioneers of the Western Union Telegraph company 
crossed the upper portion of the Taku basin in passing from the 
Stikine to the Lewes, but the map which resulted from their 
explorations is only a very crude approximation to the topo- 
eraphic facts, and must have been drawn largely from memory, 

Dr Dawson obtained from a prospector named Boswell some 
information concerning Teslin river and lake Ahklen which he 
embodied in the map accompanying his report on the Yukon 
district. The location and form of the lake proved to be re- 
markably accurate, though the regularity of the topographic 


The Route and the Surveys. 119 


features of the region is such that a clear idea of their relations 
is easily obtained even without instruments. 

The whole of the route from Taku inlet to the Lewes was 
traversed in the spring and summer of 1890 by a party of eight 
miners, among whom Mark Russell, a member of our party, was 
a leading spirit. They started from Juneau before the ice was 
out of the river, hauling their outfit on hand-sleds so long as the 
snow lasted, and then packing them. It required eighty days to 
reach the lake, where the party built a number of boats. After 
prospecting the Nisutlin and other streams on the eastern side 
of Ahklen valley they went down the Teslin and back to the 
coast by Lewes river and Chilkoot pass. This is an example of 
the many unheralded expeditions which the Alaskan prospectors 
have carried out, facing dangers and privations which appear in- 
credible to one who is not familiar with the men themselves. Less 
arduous or novel expeditions have brought fame to explorers 
better versed in the art of advertising than these unassuming 
miners. Unfortunately, however, geography is but slightly the 
gainer from the work of the prospector, since he usually has 
neither the training nor the inclination to use instruments even 
if he should be supplied with them, which is rarely the case, and 
ordinarily the map which he draws from memory, unassisted by 
notes of any sort, is not a model of accuracy. 

At the head of Taku inlet a “track survey” was begun and 
carried continuously to the mouth of Tesln river, where it 
connected with the line surveyed by Mr Ogilvie in 1886. The 
instruments used were a prismatic compass for determining 
direction, and a sextant for latitude. Distance was obtained 
during the boat journey on the Taku, lake Ahklen, and Teslin 
river by time and eye estimates, and on the portage between 
Taku river and the lake by pacing. Altitudes were determined 
from the mean of four aneroids with synchronous readings of a 
base barometer at Juneau, for which we are indebted to the 
kindness of Mr H.S. Willard. The route was plotted in the 
note book and relief indicated by sketch contours ; all prominent 
points within sight along the line of travel being approximately 
located by compass bearings. While such a survey does not, 
of course, possess the precision of an instrumentally measured 
line, still, when carefully executed, it represents the character 
and relations of the topographic features of a country with a 
fair degree of accuracy. 


120 C.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


Between Yukon river and the St Ehas mountains les a 
large area, embracing the whole of White river and its tribu- 
taries, as well as the headwaters of the Copper and Tananah, 
which has been geographically a blank. So far as can be 
learned it had never been penetrated by a white man, and the 
lakes, rivers and mountains which appear on many maps are 
products of the geographer’s imagination. Across this un- 
known region a track survey was made similar to the one 
already described. Excepting about fifty miles traversed by 
water, the whole distance of 330 miles from Selkirk on the 
Yukon to the junction of Chittenah and Nizzenah rivers was 
carefully paced; and the two ends of the line being located by _ 
astronomic observations, the former by Ogilvie and the latter by 
Allen, the location of intermediate points cannot be far-out of 
the way. 

The portion of our route between the mouth of the Teslin and 
Selkirk, at the junction of the Lewes and Pelly, had already 
been twice surveyed, first by C. A. Homan, the topographer of 
Schwatka’s party in 1883, and more accurately by Ogilvie in 
1887. Chittenah and Copper rivers had been surveyed by Allen 
in 1885, so that no continuous survey of these rivers was under- 
taken though numerous observations were made to supplement 
those embodied in Allen’s map. 


\ NARRATIVE OF THE HXPEDITION. 


Our party consisted at the start of three white men—Mr. 
Schwatka, the prospector Mark Russell, and the writer—with 
seven Indians engaged as boatmen and packers for the first stage 
of the journey. After a few days spent in completing the outfit 
and waiting for the river to become free of ice, we lett Juneau 
May 25, 1891. 

The large two-ton dugout canoe in which we embarked was 
well adapted for navigating the deep waters of the inlet, but we 
found it poorly suited to the swift and shallow river. When the 
wind blew up stream rapid progress was made in spite of the 
current by spreading two large sails wing and wing, but when 
the wind failed our progress, by poling or tracking wherever the 
banks permitted, was painfully slow. Seven days were spent 
in reaching the head of canoe navigation, eight miles above the 
South fork and about eighty from Juneau. During this part 
of the journey little opportunity was afforded for studying the 


Modes of Travel and Transportation. 12a 


geology of the region traversed, since the boatmen generally kept 
to the middle of the valley and we usually made camp at night 
on one of the small islands which separate the river into many 
channels. 

While Taku river is far from being an ideal highway to the 
interior, still a flat-bottomed steamer of light draft and good 
power would probably have no serious difficulty in reaching the 
mouth of the South fork, less than a hundred miles from a 
point on lake Ahklen which could be reached by steamer from 
‘the mouth of the Yukon. The country intervening between these 
points is practicable for pack-animals with the expenditure of 
comparatively little labor in constructing a trail. It is probably 
only a question of time when some better way of reaching the 
upper Yukon basin than Chilkoot pass will be demanded, and 
the Taku route is, so far as yet known, the least objectionable. 

At the head of canoe navigation our outfit was made up into 
twelve packs of about one hundred pounds each for the portage 
of eighty-five miles to the head of lake Ahklen. As there were 
but six packers, each was obliged to make two trips; so that our 
progress was extremely slow. The first twenty miles of the 
portage are in the narrow canyon-like valley of an eastern branch 
of the river, and the next fifty in broad valleys of the upper Taku 
basin, from 3,500 to 5,000 feet above sea level. The last fifteen 
miles are in the densely wooded Ahklen valley among innumer- 
able small lakes and ponds. We reached lake Ahklen June 16, 
and from this point the Indians were sent back to the coast. It 
was with a feeling of great relief that we watched them disappear 
on their homeward journey and knew that we were no longer 
dependent on their caprice. 

Setting up the two portable canvas canoes which had been 
packed in from the coast, we continued our journey toward the 
northwest, down lake Ahklen and Teslin river, which forms its 
outlet. The Lewes was reached June 24 and Selkirk, at the 
junction of the Lewes and Pelly, four days later. The original 
plan had been to continue down the Yukon to the mouth of 
White river and up that stream so far as possible by boat, but 
the Indians whom we found at Selkirk told us the easier route 
to the head of White river was overland, keeping southeast of 
the main river valley ; and this route we decided to follow. 

A store has recently been established on the site of old fort 
Selkirk, the Hudson Bay company’s post, which was burned by 


122) CW. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


the coast Indians in 1848. The trader, Mr Harper, was down 
the river and we found only a couple of Indians whom he had 
left in charge. These were dispatched up the Pelly to collect 
the natives in the vicinity and we soon had about forty of them 
camped around us. Only a few of them, however, were able- 
bodied men, and it was extremely difficult to persuade these to 
go with us; and when they had promised it was only to back 
out the next day. After laboring with them for over a week it 
seemed that the attempt to secure the necessary packers was 
hopeless, and we were preparing to go down to the mouth of: 
White river and try the ascent by boat, when the tide was turned 
by the opportune arrival of a prospector, Frank Bowker. He 
had come up the river from Forty-mile creek, intending to spend 
the summer prospecting in White River basin. With him were 
two natives from further down the river, muscular and willing 
fellows, very different from the wretched specimens from Pelly 
river. Bowker’s arrival, as he came with authority from Mr 
Harper, who has great influence over the natives, put new back- 
bone into our enterprise. Five packers were soon secured, who 
promised to go with us to the country of Scolai, beyond the 
mountains. Dogs were obtained to carry the remainder of the 
outfit, from twenty-five to forty pounds being packed upon each 
in panniers of birch bark or moose skin. 

On July 9 our combined party of four white men, eight In- 
dians, and eleven dogs left Selkirk. Our course lay toward 
the southwest, over the great interior plateau which stretches 
from the Yukon to the St Elias mountains. The headwaters 
of Selwyn river were crossed and several eastern tributaries 
of White river. 

The country is very scantily peopled, and although we prob- 
ably saw most of the natives inhabiting the White River basin 
they only numbered alogether between fifty and sixty persons. 
The first party, consisting of six families, was camped on the 
Nishneg, making a fish trap in anticipation of arrival of the 
salmon, which was anxiously looked for. These Indians are 
closely related to those living on the Pelly. They are similar 
in appearance and mode of life, and apparently speak the same 
language. They have no permanent dwellings, but several sub- 
stantial log caches were seen, which. they use for storing their 
winter’s supply of dried fish and moose meat. The country 
seems to be fairly well supplied with game, goats on the highest 


Path-making in the Wilderness. 123 


rocky summits, moose and bear in the river valleys, and rein- 
deer or barren-grounds caribou on the plateau above timber 
line. Several of the latter were killed by members of our party, 
and our supply of provisions was also helped out by the dried 
meat which we obtained from the natives. On the Kluantu 
was found a second party of Indians, most of whom had never 
before seen a white man. Obtaining a number of rafts from 
these natives we descended the river about fourteen miles to its 
confluence with the Donjek, since both the Kluantu and Donjek 
were too deep and rapid to ford. The Klutlan was also found 
to be unfordable, and we were compelled to go around its head 
and cross upon the glacier from which it flows. Although this 
was not attended by any special danger it caused great dismay 
among the Indians, who regard a glacier with superstitious 
terror. 

. About twelve miles beyond Klutlan glacier we reached a small 
stream called the Klet-san-dek, or Copper creek, coming from a 
narrow gorge in the mountains. This is where the Yukon In- 
dians have been accustomed to come for supplies of native copper. 
It was as far as any of our packers had ever been from home and 
they knew of the country beyond only by report. They refused 
to go with us further, assuring us that it was quite impossible to 
get through the mountains at that season since the pass was 
only traveled by Indians in the winter on snow-shoes. Bowker 
had already come further than he originally intended, so that he 
turned back with the Indians. It was something over two hun- 
dred miles back to Selkirk, and although through an unknown 
country a considerably shorter distance to an Indian village on 
the other side of the mountains. Trusting in our ability to reach 
the latter inside of two weeks, a period for which we had provis- 
ions, we decided to push forward. Discarding everything not 
absolutely essential our packs still amounted to seventy-five or 
eighty pounds apiece, so that progress was necessarily slow. The 
weather since leaving the coast in May had been very warm, with 
little rain except local thunder showers, but from this time until 
we again reached the coast rain was falling most of the time. As 
we had no tent, this added greatly to our discomfort. 

Leaving the Kletsan, our party now reduced to three, we con- 
tinued toward the northwest through the densely wooded valley, 
with the White river on our right and the steep mountain face 
on the left. At the end of the third day we came out upon 


124 CW. Hayes— Expedition through the Yukon District. 
White river, flowing from the south ina deep narrow valley. 
This we concluded must be the pass of which the Indians had 
told us, and our belief was strengthened by meeting a high wind, 
amounting almost to a gale, blowing through from the south. 
A couple of miles back from its mouth a wall of moraine-covered 
ice stretched across the valley, the river emerging from a tunnel 
on the extreme western side. This was undoubtedly the ice 
which the Indians said it would take us at least four days to 
cross. As usual, however, their statement was wide of the truth. 
Crossing a couple of miles of rough moraine-covered glacier with 
a gradual ascent toward the south, we came to a long stretch of 
firm white ice upon which walking was a positive luxury after 
our days of floundering in the deep moss and alder thickets of 
White River valley. We continued to ascend gradually for 
about ten miles, directing our course toward a low saddle in the 
mountains on the south which we supposed to be the pass. 
Toward evening, however, we were surprised to find the surface 
of the glacier descending and a little later discovered a deep 
narrow gorge turning off to the right almost at right angles with 
our former course. We had crossed the divide, and in a short 
time were off the ice and camped on a stream flowing into the 
Pacific. This was the Nizzenah, a tributary of the Chittenah, or 
eastern branch of Copper river. 
The next four days we continued our journey down the nar- 
row canyon which this stream has cut through the mountain 
range and encountered the most difficult traveling we had yet 
found. The vegetation on the southern side of this range rivals 
in luxuriance that of the coast. Forcing our way through the 
dense growth of alder and spruce which covers the steep slopes 
at the base of canyon walls was extremely slow and painful 
work. A mile in four or five hours was counted fair progress. 
At length, after having been compelled to ford the river several 
times, we reached a point at which it appeared not wholly im- 
practicable for boating, and it was decided to stop and build a 
boat. Our tools consisted of a very dull axe and our pocket 
knives, but with these we hewed out a keel and gunwales from 
spruce saplings and fashioned ribs from willow poles, lashing 
the structure together with twine ravelled from our pack ropes. 
Over this frame was stretched the canvas in which our bedding 
had been wrapped and finally the covering was smeared liberally 
with sprucegum. In this craft our progress was more rapid and 


\ 


The Return to the Coast. 125 


not without excitement. The river has a fall of about twenty feet 
to the mile, so that it is practically a continuous rapid from the 
point where we embarked thirty-five miles down to its conflu- 
ence with the Chittenah. For seven miles above the confluence 
the river flows through a canyon with rocky walls from 350 to 
500 feet high. It is extremely narrow and crooked; the water, 
which above the canyon frequently spreads out half a mile or 
more in breadth, being compressed into a channel in places only 
a few yards across. 

We were presumably on a part of the river descended by 
Lieutenant Allen in 1886 with a crew of natives, but thus far 
had been unable to make the country fit his map and were in 
doubt until we reached the lower end of the canyon, when it was 
of less interest to know that another had been through than it 
would have been before we started in. After endeavoring with 
poor success to learn something of the character of the canyon 
from the top of the bluffs, we decided to attempt its passage. 
Our boat was tossed from side to side likea shuttlecock, whirled 
around sharp projecting points of rock and through narrow 
chutes with a velocity that fairly took our breath. Twice 
more the canyon wall was scaled, but the river could be seen 
only ashort distance ahead. Several times we came uncom- 
fortably near disaster, and that we got through in safety is largely 
due to the coolness and skill with which Mark Russell navigated 
our craft. 

Continuing down the Chittenah about forty miles to its con- 
fluence with Copper river, we reached Taral, a few miles below 
the confluence, August 12, just fourteen days after the natives 
left us on White river. We had come through exactly on schedule 
time, with three pounds of flour and a handful of tea remaining 
of the provisions with which we left Selkirk. 

At Taral we found Nicolai, or “ Scolai,’ as the Yukon Indians 
call him, the autocrat of the Copper river country. He gave us 
a most hospitable reception and supplied us with provisions so 
far as his limited stores. permitted. Salmon, both fresh and 
dried, were abundant, so that we had no further apprehension 
of famine. The Copper river Indians have an unenviable repu- 
tation for treachery and hostility to the whites; but we saw 
nothing to justify it. They are greatly superior to the Yukon 
natives, physically at least, and have a much more elaborate 
family and tribal organization. 


1s—Nat. Grog. Maa., von. LV, 1892, 


126 C.W. Hayes—KExpedition through the Yukon District. 


We were so. fortunate as to reach Taral just as Nicolai was 
preparing for his annual visit to the coast, and after a delay of 
four days we embarked in a large skin boat manned by ten of 
his vassals. A couple of days brought us down to Miles glacier, 
where the river tumbles over a dam of huge moraine bowlders. 
It is necessary to make a portage here sometimes across both 
moraine and glacier. Crossing about two miles of moraine 
covered with a dense alder thicket, we came out upon a high 
ridge of freshly deposited bowlders. Immediately in front was 
a broad expansion of the river in front of the glacier, which 
formed an ice cliff along one side nearly four hundred feet in 
height. Bergs were almost constantly falling, with reports like 
thunder, dashing the spray high above the top of the cliff. The 
current of the river sets across the lake toward the front of the 
glacier, and where it meets the swell produced by a falling mass 
of ice the water is thrown into enormous breakers which, with 
the grinding icebergs, would swamp a boat instantly. Nicolai 
decided that we might get past by waiting for a lull in the fall- 
ing of the ice and for a wind from the right direction to open a 
passage through the floating bergs. The right moment came 
after a wait of nearly a day, and tumbling things into the boat 
we were soon past the dangerous spot, to the evident relief of 
Nicolai and his crew. A short distance below we passed the 
front of Childs: glacier, running within a stone’s throw of the 
lofty wall of ice, and found ourselves at the head of the river 
delta, with the blue Pacific in sight far to the southward. It 
lacked a few days of being three months since we had left the 
coast at Juneau, and in that time we had travelled almost 
exactly a thousand miles, nearly half the distance being on 
foot. 

Nicolai intended going to Eyak, where two salmon canneries 
are located on a narrow neck of the peninsula between the 
Copper River delta and Prince William sound. When within a 
few miles of that place we were met by a native with the report 
that the Eyak canneries had closed and the traders had left. 
This report, which we afterward found to be the invention of a 
rival trader, turned us back to the head of the delta and down 
one of the eastern channels fifty miles out of our way and de- 
layed our arrival at Eyak about four days. On account of this 
delay we missed the August mail steamer from the sound by 
twelye hours and were obliged to wait there a month for the 


Previous Explorations and Surveys. {27 


September steamer. Thanks to the abundant hospitality of 
Captain Humphrey, superintendent of the Pacific Steam Whal- 
ing company’s cannery, our detention there was rendered far 
from unpleasant, and the opportunity was afforded of examining 
this little known region. Taking passage September 21, on the 
mail steamer Elsie, from Nutchek, we reached Sitka four days 
later, connecting there with the steamer Mexico for Puget sound. 


TOPOGRAPHY. 
Cartographic Data. 


The topographic data embodied in the accompanying map 
sheets (plates 19 and 20) are from the following sources : 

On sheet i the region from the head of Taku inlet to the mouth 
of the Teslin, embracing Taku river, lake Ahklen, and Teslin 
river, is mapped from my track survey made in 1891, which I 
have already briefly described. The relief is indicated by sketch 
contours with an approximate vertical interval of 250 feet. 

The portions of Pelly river shown on sheets 1 and ii are from 
the track survey made in 1887 by Dr Dawson. The region from 
the mouth of the Lewes, shown on sheet 11, across Chilkoot pass 
to Pyramid harbor, at the head of Lynn canal, is from the in- 
strumental traverse made by Mr W. Ogilvie in 1887 and em- 
bodied, together with Dawson’s track surveys, in the map of a 
portion of the Yukon district which accompanies the report on 
an expedition to the Yukon district, Northwest Territory, and 
adjacent northern portion of British Columbia, in 1887, by Dr 
George M. Dawson. 

The region embracing the head of Lynn canal. Chilkat river, 
and the sources of Altsek and Tahkeena rivers is from the Karte 
des Tschilkat-Gebietes mit dem Pissen zum Yukon.t Lake 
Arkell and Tahkeena river are from data furnished to the Census 
office by Mr WH. J. Glave from surveys made by him in 1891. 
Muir glacier is from a planetable survey made by Professor 
Harry Fielding Ried in 1890, embodied in the map accompany- 
ing a paper entitled Studies of Muir glacier, Alaska. 


* Ann. Rep. Geol. Survey Canada, pt. B, Montreal, 1888. 

+ Nach eigenen Aufnahmen im Jahre 1882 von Dr Arthur Krause, Ber- 
lin, 1883. 

t Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. iv, 1892. pl. 14. 


128 CW. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


The coast from Taku inlet to cape Spencer, and also from Icy 
bay to the western edge of sheet 11, is from the general chart of 
Alaska, number 900, issued by the United States Coast and 
Geodetic survey, Washington, 1891. The topography of the 
region shown on sheet ii between Selkirk, at the confluence of 
the Pelly and Lewes rivers, and the mouth of the Nizzenah is 
from my track survey, the greater part of which was a paced 
traverse. 

The Yukon from Selkirk to the edge of sheet i is from the 
sketch survey by Charles A. Homan, published as sheet 5 of 
map accompanying the report of a military reconnoissance 
in Alaska, made in 1883 by Lieutenant Frederick Schwatka 
(Washington, 1885). 

Chittenah river and the mount Wrangell region are from the 
survey made by Allen in 1885; sheet 2 of map accompany- 
ing the report of an expedition to the Copper, Tanana and Koyu- 
kuk rivers, in the territory of Alaska, in the year 1885 by Lieu- 
tenant Henry T. Allen (Washineton, 1887). 

The coast from Icy bay to Yakutat bay, with the region to- 
ward the north including mount St Elias, is from the surveys 
of Kerr in 1890 and Russell in 1891, embodied in the map of the 
mount St Elias region accompanying-a recent paper on mount 
St Elias and its glaciers by Israel C. Russell.* ; 


Orographic Features. 


From the vicinity of Frazer river, in southern British Columbia, 
the western mainland range of the Cordilleran mountain system 
follows the coast toward the northwest as far as the head of Lynn 
canal. Here it becomes an interior range, while to the westward 
its place next the coast is taken by the St Elias range. The 
southern Alaskan coast mountains form a broad elevated belt 
with many scattered peaks, of which none perhaps have an alti- 
tude of more than 8,000 or 9,000 feet, while there is no dominant 
chain. The southwestern front of the range rises abruptly from 
the waters of the inland passage, forming a rugged:barrier to the 
interior. A few rivers have cut their channels through the range, 
and it is penetrated varying distances by numerous deep fiords. 
From the head of Lynn canal northwestward the range decreases 
in altitude and probably spreads out and merges in the broken 


* Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. xliii, 1892, pl. iy. 


Mountain System and Ranges. 129 


plateau which occupies the eastern part of White River basin. 
This region is practically unknown, however, and the precise 
relation of the Coast range to the St Elias range has not yet been 
determined. Where the former range is cut through by Taku 
river its northeastern face, like its northwestern termination, is 
not sharply defined, but the mountain range merges with the high 
plateau lying to the eastward between the Coast range and the 
Rocky mountains. 

The St Elias range appears to be due to a separate and more 
recent uplift. Its continuation southward is partially submerged 
and forms the islands of the Alexander archipelago. Still 
further southward, in Queen Charlotte and Vancouver islands, 
it has been called by Dawson the Vancouver range, the western- 
most member of the Cordilleran system. Like the southern 
coast range, it is a broad elevated belt with numerous peaks and 
short ridges, probably the highest being along its southern 
border, culminating in mount St Elias. Westward from this 
peak the range is separated into two divergent ranges by the 
valley of Chittenah river. The one continuing toward the north- 
west contains the high volcanic peaks of the Wrangell group. 
The southern divergent range follows the coast toward the west 
and, bending round Prince William sound, continues toward the 
southwest in the Kenai peninsula and perhaps Kadiak island. 

The eastern limit of the Coast range may be fixed approxi- 
mately at the junction of the northern and southern forks of the 
Taku, the region east of this being a high plateau which extends 
to the Cassiar range, the northern representative of the Gold 
ranges of British Columbia. The elevation of the interior plateau, 
where it is crossed n passing from the Taku to lake Ahklen, is 
about 5,000 feet above sea level. From this point it descends 
gradually toward the northwest, its altitude at the junction of 
Lewes and Pelly rivers being Ks than 3,000 feet. Southwest of 
Selkirk the same plateau extends with gradually increasing 
altitude to the base of the St Klas mountains. It is only ina 
general way, however, that these areas are to be regarded as 
plateaus. When considered in detail the surface is extremely 
rough and broken. The river valleys lie from 2,000 to 2,500 feet 
below the general plateau level, while broad and rounded dome- 
like summits and afew sharp peaks rise from 700 to 1,200 feet 
above it; but there appear to be no well defined ridges or 
chains of peaks. For about 150 miles southwest of Selkirk the 


130 O.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon Distrect. 


contours are generally smooth and flowing, and the surface, 
except in the southern and glaciated portion of the region, shows 
the effect of long continued exposure to the action of subaérial 
agencies. While rock decay has made little progress, so that 
the surface is practically free from soil, rock disintegration has 
been extremely active and the country is thickly mantled with 
rock débris of varying degrees of coarseness. Projecting through 
this mantle of débris, above smooth gentle slopes, are many 
isolated pinnacles and towers of rock rendered especially con- 
spicuous by contrast with their moss-covered talus slopes. Sur- 
face degradation is greatly retarded by the luxuriant growth of 
moss which covers practically the entire surface of the country. 
The annual precipitation is largely confined to the winter momths, 
and the water from the melting snow is held by the sponge-like 
moss, which remains saturated throughout the short but hot and 
dry summer. Thus, with a rainfall which in lower latitudes 
would condition an arid region, a large part of the surface 1s 
swampy, quite irrespective of slope; that is, wherever the ma- . 
terial composing it is sufficiently compact to become impervious 
to water by freezing. On account of this slow and imperfect 
surface drainage the slopes are not cut into the ravines and 
arroyas so characteristic of arid regions. The plateau extends 
west of White river, though it is there rather more diversified 
than toward the east by a number of high sharp peaks, probably 
of voleanic origin. 

Approaching the northern base of the St Elias range the 
plateau character is almost wholly lost, giving way to steep and 
rugged though not lofty mountains separated by rather wide 
river valleys. There is, however, no merging of the plateau in 
the St Elias mountains, but south of a well marked limit the 
whole character of the topography suffers a complete change. 
Between the southern limit of the interior plateau and the 
northern base of the St Elias mountains is a depression running , 
parallel with the mountain range-and having an altitude of 
about 4,000 feet. It contains the upper part of White river for 
a distance of about thirty miles. and probably also in its north- 
western continuation the headwaters of the Tananah. South- 
ward across this depression was seen the abrupt northern face 
of the St Elias mountains, with many sharp and rugged peaks 
rising to altitudes of 10,000 to 12,000 feet. Only the steepest 
slopes were free from snow, and the region presented a striking 


Plains and Snow- Fields. USL 


contrast to the green moss-covered plateau country toward the 
north. The range here occupies a belt about eighty miles in 
width from north to south. Mr Russell saw the same region 
from the eastern flanks of mount St Elias, and he describes it as’ 
“A vast snow-covered region, limitless in its expanse, through 
which hundreds and probably thousands of barren, angular 
mountain peaks project. There was not a stream, not a lake, 
not a vestige of vegetation in sight. A more desolate or a more 
utterly lifeless land one never beheld. Vast, smooth snow sur- 
faces, without crevasses or breaks, stretched away to seemingly 
limitless distances, diversified only by jagged and aneular moun- 
tain peaks.” * 


Drainage. 


The Taku, like the Stikine and other rivers toward the south, 
is flowing in a deeply buried channel excavated when the land 
stood relatively much higher than at present. Its valley, which 
is a continuation of Taku inlet, is from one to two miles wide 
with steep sides rising in many places almost vertically from 
3,000 to 5,000 feet. The river, interrupted by many sand bars 
and low, wooded islands, meanders over a gravel floodplain be- 
tween the high walls of the valley. Its current is rapid and it 
is transporting to the inlet great quantities of sediment from its 
upper course. Beyond the junction of the northern and southern 
forks, which may be regarded as approximately at the eastern 
limit of the Coast range, the valley sides are rather steep to an 
elevation of about 1,500 feet from the river, while above that 
elevation the slopes are gentle to broad, rounded summits of the 
interior plateau. The upper branches of the Taku flow in open 
valleys from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea level, indicating a long 
period of erosion during which the land stood at a much lower 
level than at present. Similar broad valleys at the upper courses 
of many rivers in British Columbia have been referred by Dr 
Dawson fF to long-continued erosion in middle Tertiary time, and 
it is probable that the same conditions prevailed far to the north- 


*Mount St. Elias and its Glaciers: Am. Jour. Sci., 3d series, vol. xliii, 
Also 105 IA 

7 On the later Physiographical Geology of the Rocky Mountain Region 
in Canada, with special reference to changes in elevation and to the his- 
tory of the Glacial Period: .Trans. Roy. Soc. Can., vol. vill, sec. iv, 1890, 
pp, L721. 


132. C.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


ward, producing the broad valleys of the upper Taku tributaries. 
The deep canyon-like valleys in the lower portion of the river 
basin represent a part of the erosion due to uphft in late Tertiary 
and Pleistocene time. 

The divide between the Taku and Yukon drainage basins is 
on the edge of an escarpment by which the surface drops from 
the high plateau 2,600 feet to the level of Ahklen valley. The 
altitude of the pass is 5,100 feet, which corresponds very nearly 
with the average altitude of the interior plateau at this point. 
The valley is from twelve to twenty miles broad, and on its 
eastern side is the steep edge of a plateau corresponding to the 
one on the west and extending eastward to the base of the Cas- 
siar range, forty or fifty miles beyond. Bounded by these ap- 
proximately parallel plateau escarpments, the valley extends in 
an almost perfectly straight line for at least 250 miles in a north- 
west-southeast direction. The upper, that is, the southeastern, 
half of the valley is occupied by lakes. From one point on the 
escarpment, affording only a partial view of the valley, fifty-four 
were counted. Of these lakes, Ahklen* is the northernmost and. 
by far the largest. This lake is ninety-five miles in length and 
from six to ten in breadth. Several small streams enter the 
upper end, but its main feeder comes in from the northeast 
about midway between the head of the lake and its outlet. This 
stream, the Nisutlin, enters the head of an inlet about ten miles 
in length which extends at right angles to the direction of the 
lake. According to Mark Russell, who has prospected the stream, 
its current is very sluggish for seventy-five or one hundred miles 
above the head of the inlet. 

Beyond the lake the valley continues with little change, ex- 
cept that the bounding escarpments draw somewhat closer to- 
gether and decrease in height with the decreasing altitude of the 
plateau toward the north. 

A consideration of the name to be applied to the river which 


* Among the various names which have been applied to the lake, Ahklen 
is undoubtedly the one which should be retained. It is the name in com- 
mon use among the Taku Indians. One branch of this tribe claims the 
country about the southern end of the lake, spending a part of the year 
there and coming out to the coast during the salmon season. The name 
is a T’linket word, meaning “big water.” I have changed the spelling of 
the word from “Aklene,” as it appears on some maps, to Ahklen, which 
more nearly represents the native pronunciation. ; f 


River Systems and their Names. 153 


forms the outlet of lake Ahklen brings up the whole subject of 
the nomenclature of the Yukon and its tributaries. The sub- 
ject has received very thorough treatment by Dall, Dawson, and 
Russell, so that the history of discovery in the Yukon basin 
and the origin of the names applied to the Yukon tributaries 
need not be discussed here. From aconsideration of the physi- 
ography of the basin, its main axis must be regarded as coincid- 
ing with the Ahklen valley ; but I can hardly agree with Russell 
that this is sufficient ground for disregarding well established 
usage, as he has done in continuing the name Yukon up to the 
lake.* Inasmuch as the rivers in question le almost wholly 
within Canadian territory, the final authority upon the nomen- 
elature must be the Canadian board of geographic names, and 
as Dr Dawson has given the subiect the most thorough consid- 
eration I have followed him,f with a few minor changes in the 
most of which he has signified his concurrence. The name 
Yukon is applied to the river from its mouth to Selkirk. The 
name Pelly is confined to what. has been called the ‘ Upper 
Pelly,” 7. ¢., from Selkirk to its head. The name Lewes is applied 
to the river from Selkirk to lake Lindemann, called the “ Yukon ” 
by Schwatka. Finally the river flowing from lake Ahklen is 
called the Teslin, that being the native name as determined 
by Schwatka and Dawson, with the generic portion dropped. 
Thus Schwatkat gives “ Tesel-hina ” (more probably Tes-el-in- 
hina) and Dawson, “ Teslin-too;” but “hina” and “too” are 
generic terms for river, so it is properly Teslin river. The name 
Newberry, appled to the river by Schwatka in 1883, has never 
come into general use, and the name Hotalinqua, which is com- 
monly used by the miners, was, as Dawson has shown, trans- 
ferred through misapprehension from another tributary of the 
Lewes. 

The floodplain of Teslin river is something over a mile in 
width, between high bluffs of silt and gravel which will be 
more fully described under the head of glacial phenomena. 


’ *Notes on the Surface Geology of Alaska: Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., vol. 1, 
1889, p. 107. 

+ Report on an Exploration in the Yukon district, N. W. Territory, and 
adjacent northern portion of British Columbia, in 1887: Ann. Rep. Geol. 
Surv. of Canada for 1887-88, vol. 3, pt. 1, 1889, pp. 14B-1SB. 

t Report of a Military Reconnoissance in Alaska made in 1883, Wash- 
ington, 1885, map (pt. 1, sheet 4). 


19—Na, Grog. Maa, vor, LV, 1892, 


1384. C.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


The current is from four to six miles per hour and, except for a 
few sluggish expansions near the lake, is quite uniform through- 
out. The water was exceptionally high in the spring of 1891, 
however, and this would tend to increase the uniformity and 
velocity of the current. There are no shoals or rapids which 
would prevent the passage of a river steamer from its mouth to 
the head of the lake. 

The course of White river, except for a short distance near its 
mouth, has hitherto been entirely unknown. Some miners are 
said to have spent a winter at the first fork, about sixty miles 
from the Yukon, but beyond this they have failed to penetrate, 
probably because of the unpromising character of the stream, 
for it is difficult to conceive physical obstacles sufficiently for- 
midable to turn back these hardy explorers. 

The White River basin was entered by the writer fifty miles 
southwest of Selkirk. From the high land between the Nisling* 
and Donjek the main valley could be seen for a long distance 
north and south, with the river pursuing its extremely tortuous 
course among innumerable low islands and bars. At one point 
above the mouth of the Nisling the river passes through the point 
of a mountain spur by a narrow canyon, probably a case of 
superposed drainage due to the occupation of the valley by ice. 
Further northward it turns sharply toward the west and enters 
a deep narrow valley, in which, by native report, there are many 
dangerous rapids. 

For the first seventy miles in the White River basin only clear 
tributaries were crossed. The largest of these, the Nisling, prob- 
ably drains the greater part of the large area bounded on the 
east by the Tahkeena and Lewes, occupying very nearly the 
position which Dawson has assigned for the main White river, 
but receiving no part of its waters from the high Coast range. 
Hyidently the greater part of the northward-flowing drainage of 
the St Elias mountains is carried off by other tributaries of the 
White river, which show ample evidence of glacial origin in 
their extreme turbidity. The Donjek is the largest eastern tribu- 


*TIn naming the tributaries of White river I have followed usage among 
the native Indians so far as possible. Some of the names required slight 
modification to render them pronounceable, and in most cases the generic 
part of the name has been dropped, as “too,” meaning river, and “dek,” 
creek. The names, however, are near enough to their indigenous forms 
to be recognized by the natives themselves. 


An Ice-dammed Lake. UBS 


tary, and receives the northward drainage from the greater part 
of the St Elias mountains east of the 141st meridian. There was 
some question as to which branch should be regarded as the 
main river and which the tributary, but the western is more 
nearly in the axis of the main valley and is probably also some- 
what larger than the Donjek, although no satisfactory compari- 
son could be made as the confluence was not seen. ‘The western 
branch rises in Scolai pass from the northward-flowing lobe of 
Russell glacier. In the fifty miles of its course lying west of the 
international boundary it receives a number of tributaries from 
the south, all of which flow from glaciers. This part of the 
river is in unstable condition. It flows in many channels, con- 
stantly shifting its position upon a wide gravel plain which is 
being built up by contributions of coarse sediment from the over- 
loaded stream. 

Scolai* pass is a low gap cut through the range which extends 
northwestward to the Wrangell group. Russell glacier, from the 
southeast, flows into the pass against the steep western wall, 
which turns a part of the stream northward into White river 
basin and turns a smaller lobe toward the south, so that for about 
ten miles the pass is filled with ice at least several hundred 
feet in depth. The altitude of the divide, which is near the 
northern edge of the range, is 5,040 feet, or about 1,000 feet higher 
than the upper White River valley. The southern lobe of the 
glacier gives rise to the Nizzenah river, which flows at first west- 
ward through a deep canyon-like valley for fifteen miles, and 
then nearly southward about twenty miles, emerging into the 
valley between the two divergent mountain ranges already de- 
scribed. At the point where the river makes its sharp bend to- 
ward the south, a glacier coming into the valley from the north- 
west has dammed its waters so as to form a lake several miles in 
length. Pushed out of its old channel by the ice, the stream 
flows a short distance across a rocky point and then plunges 
into a tunnel in the ice from which it emerges half a mile below. 
After leaving the mountains it flows nearly westward for thirty 
miles, to its confluence with the Chittenah, and the latter stream 
continues in the same course about fifty miles further to Copper 
river. These eighty miles are in a rather broad, open valley, 


* “Seolai” is the name by which the Copper river chief, Nicolai, is known 
among all the Yukon natives. 


? 


136 CW. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


though the floodplain is bordered by gravel bluffs about a mile 
apart and from 200 to 400 feet high. 

The course of Copper river from the mouth of the Chittenah to 
the coast is nearly duesouth. The river has cut through the Coast 
range a valley which closely resembles that of the lower Taku. 
Its walls. are high and rugged, and the stream meanders from 
side to side over a floodplain of coarse gravel. 

Miles glacier, which is the largest of several ice streams tribu- 
tary to Copper river along its lower course, has pushed across 
the valley, forming slack water several miles up the river. The 
elacier is now retreating, but its northern lateral moraine remains 
as a dam, over which the river tumbles in a series of rapids. The 
lake formed by this dam is almost entirely filled with gravel in 
its upper portion and with fine sand and mud below, so that the 
water is for the most part only a few inches in depth. 

A short distance below Miles glacier is the head of the delta, 
which reaches thirty miles southward to the line of bars or keys 
at the edge of deep water. Excepting a few sand dunes, the delta 
consists of broad, level meadows and still more extensive mud 
flats exposed at low tide. Deposition is going on at a rapid 
rate over this considerable area, and it is interesting to note 
that subsidence also is taking place.- There are no trees grow- 
ing upon the delta now, but the remains of many large spruce 
trees were observed standing several feet below tide-water. 


VEGETATION. 


The vegetation of the Yukon basin presents a marked contrast 
to that of the coast, the luxuriance of which is too well known to 
require description. This contrast consists more in the amount 
of vegetation than in the difference of species. Cut off by high 
mountains from the abundant supplies of moisture which the 
coast enjoys, the interior supports a comparatively scanty growth, 
especially of arboreal vegetation, while some of the ‘moisture- 
loving species of the coast are absent. Excepting surtaces 
covered by snow or ice throughout the year and the steepest 
rocky cliffs and serees, practically the whole Yukon basin, as 
well as the Alaskan coast strip, is covered by a more or less 
luxuriant growth of moss. Meadows of coarse grass were seen 
in a few of the interior valleys and some of the gravel terraces 
along Teslin and Lewes rivers are covered with sage brush, but 


The Tundra and the meager Forests. 137 


these areas are wholly insignificant when compared with those 
which are covered with moss. The black alder, so abundant on 
the coast, is also very common in the interior, but in a dwarfed 
form, decreasing in size with increasing altitudes from ten or 
twelve feet in the valleys to a few inches on the higher parts of 
the plateau. The upper limit of the spruce forests is reached 
along the coast at an altitude of about 1,800 feet, but this limit, 
along with the snow line, gradually ascends toward the interior. 
The high valleys of the Taku tributaries have considerable spruce 
timber, although the trees are not close together and the largest 
are Seldom over a foot in diameter. Taku pass, with an altitude 
of 5,100 feet, is approximately at the timber line and only a few 
stunted trees manage to exist there. 

Ahklen valley is quite heavily timbered, and some trees 
eighteen inches in diameter, the largest seen anywhere in the 
interior, were among the drift from Nisutlin river. 

In the White River basin only the valleys are wooded, the 
timber extending less than a thousand feet up their sides, while 
the greater part of the plateau surface is practically treeless. 
The timber line on the northern side of the St Elias mountains 
has an altitude of about 4,500 feet. 

The Chittenah and Copper river valleys feel the influence of 
the coast climate, and their vegetation is consequently much 
more luxuriant than in the valleys of White River basin. 


Harp GEOLOGY. 


Character of the Observations.—Any attempt to solve the many 
difficult problems connected with the geology of the region tray- 
ersed would necessitate detailed study of large areas. The op- 
portunities afforded by a hasty reconnaissance along a single 
line of travel are obviously inadequate to the solution of these 
problems, particularly when the greater part of the geologist’s 
energy is absorbed in overcoming the physical obstacles to his 
progress and in making even the crudest topographic map to 
which to refer his observations. 

The most satisfactory information on the hard geology of any 
portion of this region is contained in Dawson’s report, already 
cited, on the geology of the Yukon district. Dr Dawson had the 
great advantage of familiarity with similar rocks and geologic 
problems from previous study in British Columbia. He was also 


138 C.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


in a position to control the movements of his party, and so was 
able to give more than a passing glance to points of special im- 
portance. Since the writer was without previous acquaintance 
with the rocks of the Cordilleran system and had no opportunity 
for observation, except as it was afforded along the route or at 
stops selected without reference to the geology, the information 
obtained is offered only as supplementary to the observations 
made by others and as preliminary to the more thorough study 
of those who may hereafter visit the region. 

Rocks of Taku Vailey.—The section afforded by Taku river as it 
cuts through the Coast range is quite similar to those described 
by Dawson on Stikine river and Chilkoot pass. After leaving 
the argillites of the coast, which extend to near the head of Taku 
inlet, a broad belt of gray hornblende granite is crossed ; this is 
called the Coast Range granite by Dawson. The belt is about 
forty miles in width, extending nearly to the South fork of 
the Taku. In addition to the granites, this belt also contains 
altered eruptive rocks in horizontal or undulating and some- 
times highly contorted beds. 

Rocks of the interior Plateaw.—Forming the high plateau between 
the Coast range and Ahklen valley is a somewhat broader belt, 
containing a great variety of rocks, both eruptive and sediment- 
ary but all highly altered. The sedimentary rocks consist of 
limestones and: marbles, shales and slates with conglomerates, 
sandstones and quartzites. The least altered members of this 
series are along the western side of the belt. At the junction 
of the North and South forks of the Taku, near the eastern 
limit of the Coast Range granites, there are black slaty shales and, 
apparently overlying them with a dip of from 25° to 50° north- 
eastward, are compact bluish hmestones. Still farther eastward 
there are siliceous shales with large conglomeratic pebbles of the 
underlying limestone. ‘The pebbles contain some obscure fossils, 
probably Carboniferous, which would indicate a Mesozoic or later, 
age for the shales. These slightly altered rocks occupy a belt 
about eight miles wide, east of which lies a region traversed by 
many dikes that have converted probably similar shales and 
limestones into talcose slate and highly crystalline marble. 

Among the non-sedimentary rocks of this plateau belt there 
are many basic eruptives largely altered to serpentine, and also 
considerable areas of granite. A portion at least of the granite 
is older than the sediments as indicated by basal conglomerates 


Complex geologic Structure. 159 


at the contacts. The basic eruptives are confined to a narrow 
strip less than a quarter of the width of the plateau belt and 
lying along its western side. The sequence of these rocks, as 
well as their relation to the Coast Range granite, is extremely 
involved, and much further study will be required in order fully 
to determine these relations. Their age is probably upper 
Paleozoic and Mesozoic, though very few fossils were found and 
none except in the less altered western portion of the belt. 

Kast of Ahklen valley there is another belt of granite, quite 
distinct in character from that of the Coast range. It is free 
from hornblende and contains a large amount of pink feldspar, | 
giving a decided red color to the rock in mass. The granite has 
in some places a well developed gneissoid structure, the cleavage 
being approximately parallel with the direction of the lake. 
Teslin river flows in a valley deeply filled with silt and gravel, 
so that not more than two or three rock exposures occur through- 
out its whole length ; but so far as could be determined at a dis- 
tance the escarpments on both sides of the valley are composed 
of rocks similar to those forming the plateau west of the lake. 
About thirty miles above the mouth of the river the hills toward 
the northeast are composed of bright red sandstones with yellow 
and gray shales, probably less altered and perhaps younger than 
any of the sandstones above described. 

The extensive plateau region between the Yukon river and the 
northern base of the St Elias mountains 1s composed of various 
kinds of crystalline rocks with small areas of highly altered sedi- 
ments. Gray hornblende granite similar to that forming the 
Coast range of southern Alaska occurs in a somewhat narrow 
belt just north of the St Elias mountains. The prevailing rock 
of the greater part of the region north of this belt is a reddish 
eranite quite free from hornblende and frequently containing 
large porphyritic crystals of feldspar. Both kinds of granite are 
cut by numerous dikes or covered by sheets of eruptive rocks, 
from the most recent vesicular basaltic lavas to highly altered 
diabase. The red granites, at least, appear to be Archean, de- 
posited upon which are small areas of sedimentary rocks that 
have been infolded with the granite and penetrated by the basic 
dikes and thus so completely changed from their original con- 
dition that no clue is afforded as to their age. They consist of 
arkose-conglomerates, slates and marbles. North of the Kluantu 
valley the only clastic rocks seen were a few exposures of con- 


140 C.W. Hayes—EKxpedition through the Yukon District. 


glomerate and schist. The district between the Donjek and 
Koidern rivers is composed almost entirely of white marble and 
talcose schist, and is the largest observed area of sedimentary — 
rocks between the St Elias mountains and the Yukon. 

Rocks of Scolai Pass—As already described, two slightly diver- 
gent ranges, separated by the Chittenah valley, extend toward 
the west and northwest from mount St Elias. The geology of 
the northern range is simple. In the walls of Scolai pass, by 
which the range was crossed, its stratigraphy and structure are 
magnificently displayed. The rocks are comparatively recent, 
for the most part Carboniferous, Triassic, and Cretaceous. A 
bed of limestone about 500 feet thick contains many crinoids 
and corals, probably of Carboniferous age. Above it are red 
sandstone and jasper and a great thickness of black shale. Col- 
lections of fossils from the hmestone and the black shale were 
made, but before reaching the coast they unfortunately were 
lost, with the exception of a single small piece of shale; this, 
however, contained several tolerably perfect impressions and 
was submitted to Professor Alpheus Hyatt for identification. 
He says: “The fossils in the shale are clearly the remains of a _ 
Monotis of a Triassic type, allied to M. subcircularis, Gabb, a char- 
acteristic Triassic form in California. This one seems to be 
distinct specifically, but is evidently of the same age.” 

Interbedded with these sedimentary rocks and penetrating 
them as dikes are fine-grained, greenish amygdaloid lavas form- 
ing perhaps half of the whole rock-mass. The structure of the 
range consists essentially of a broad, gentle synclinal, with a 
highly contorted belt on either side. 

Excellent examples of typical fan structure were seen in 
the intensely plicated rocks which form the abrupt northern face 
of the range. This structure is remarkably well shown in the 
sides of the gorge from which Kletsan creek issues. The 500- 
foot stratum of white ihmestone above referred to is folded in 
with dark greenish-black eruptive rocks so as to form a double 
Y; the overturned southern synclinal limbs dip southward about 
30° and 45°, while the normal northern limbs are nearly hori- 
zontal. 

This plicated belt on the northern side of the mountains is 
about six miles wide, and south of it the synclinal in which the 
beds are practically horizontal (coinciding with the axis of the 
range) occupies a belt from twenty-five to thirty miles in width. 


Typical overthrust Faulting. 141 


On the southern side of the range there is a region of disturbed 
rocks similar to that on the north, but somewhat wider and less 
minutely plicated. The structure is well shown in the lower 
portion of the Nizzenah canyon, whose walls rise from 2,000 to 
3,000 feet vertically above the river. One excellent example of 
faulting was observed. A bed of white limestone about 500 feet 
in thickness, probably a continuation of the one in which the 
fan structure was observed on the northern side of the range, 
has been broken across and thrust over upon itself a distance of 
half amile. Within this space there appear to be two conform- 
able beds of limestone in place of one. The diagramatic form 
in which the fault is displayed on the canyon wall confirms cer- 
tain theories as to the mechanism of such faults derived from 
much more obscure phenomena in other regions. Evidently 
folding, due to lateral compression, had been only slightly de- 
veloped when a shearing fracture took place across the rigid bed. 
The fracture did not extend far on either side of the limestone, 
but the thin-bedded black shales above and below are intensely 
plicated, having taken up the lateral compression by folding 
instead of faulting. Apparently the conditions which determined 
the formation of a fault rather than a series of folds in the lime- 
stone were, first, the great difference in rigidity between that bed 
and the adjacent shales and, second, the absence of a heavy load 
upon the beds during the compression. 

Nizzenah river, for about seven miles above its confluence 
with the Chittenah, flows in a narrow canyon with rocky walls 
from 400 to 500 feet high. Fora short distance above the canyon 
the gravel bluffs are replaced by cliffs of calcareous black shale 
apparently very recent and only slightly affected by the com- 
pression which has disturbed the rocks lying on the north. At 
the upper end of the canyon the black shale contains beds of 
extremely coarse conglomerate, and is succeeded by black slate 
and mica schist, the latter containing many small quartz veins. 
An east-and-west line through the upper part of this canyon ap- 
pears to be the approximate limit of the little altered rocks 
forming the northern range. 

Rocks of Copper River Valley.—Several massive dikes intersect 
the course of the Chittenah a few miles above its junction with 
the Copper, forming high cliffs, and a number of rocky islands 
in the river channel. The dikes are composed of a very com- 


20—Nat, Guog, Mac., von. IV, 1892. 


142 CW. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


pact greenish-black rock, traversed by many streaks of lighter 
ereen serpentine and white veins apparently of calcite. The 
rocks of the southern range which extends westward from St 
Elias differ widely from those exposed in Scolai pass.. About 
Taral they consist for the most part of siliceous talcose schist 
with gray hornblende granite, which is apparently eruptive. 
Between Taral and the coast the prevailing rocks are bluish-gray 
quartzite or quartzite-schist. The moraines of glaciers along the 
lower course of Copper river flowing from the eastward are com- 
posed largely of eruptive granites and granitoid gneiss contain- 
ing inclusions of black slate and schist. All the sedimentary 
rocks between the Chittenah and the coast have been go thor- 
oughly metamorphosed that their original bedding is wholly 
obliterated, and no statement can yet be made as to their prob- 
able age. . 

Rocks of Prince William Sound.—Forming the shores about 
Prince William sound there is a series of black shales and thin- 
bedded dark-brown sandstones. They are highly contorted and 
somewhat altered, especially the shales. The strike, wherever 
any regularity can be detected, is about north-and-south, and 
the dips are generally steep, often vertical. They bear a strong 
resemblance to the rocks of the Yakutat series described by Rus- 
sell,* and it is not improbable that they are the continution west- 
ward of that series. Fossil plants are reported to occur in these 
rocks at some points on Prince William sound, but none have 
yet been collected. While the series is perhaps all Mesozoic or 
younger, any statement as to its age made at the present time 
must be regarded as purely hypothetic. 


MINERAL RESOURCES. 


Gold.—Placer gold occurs widely disseminated throughout the 
Yukon basin, though only in a few places has it been found in 
sufficient quantity to make profitable working. The most im- 
portant of these are bars along the Lewes between Teslin and 
Little Salmon rivers and on Forty-mile creek, a southern tribu- 
tary of the Yukon emptying near the 141st meridian. Ten men 
were located on the bars of the Lewes, and, although the water 


* An Expedition to Mount St Elias, Alaska: Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. iii, 
1891, p. 167. 


Alaska’s Gold and Copper. 143 


was very high when we went down, they are said to have done 
well in the latter part of the season. 

One member of our party, Mark Russell, was equipped with 
long experience in prospecting both for placer and vein gold, 
and while the necessity for getting through the country as rap- 
idly as possible prevented anything like an exhaustive examina- 
tion, still enough was done to give a fair idea of the resources of 
the region traversed. While in White River basin we also had 
the benefit of Mr Bowker’s experience. A few “colors” were 
found on most of the branches of White river which we crossed, 
but it was all fine gold and afforded nothing which could be 
regarded as a good prospect. The indications of gold-bearing 
quartz were even less encouraging. Practically no vein quartz 
was seen between Selkirk and Scolai pass, either in place or 
among the stream gravels. Along the lower portion of the Niz- 
zenah and thence southward to near the mouth of Copper river 
considerable quartz occurs in small stringers through the schist, 
so that there is a possibility of this region containing gold-bearing 
veins. , 

Copper.—Native copper has long been known to exist in the 
Copper River basin, but exactly where or in what quantity has 
never been ascertained through actual examination by a com- 
petent observer. Its occurrence in White River basin also has 
been suspected from the presence of native copper among the 
Yukon Indians, although they were known to trade with those 
living on Copper river from whom they might have obtained the 
metal. The Pelly Indians whom we secured at Selkirk for 
packers promised to show us the source from which in the past 
they had secured copper for making arrow-heads and more 
recently for making bullets, which are still used to some extent 
when lead cannot be obtained. While still at Selkirk they 
told us of great masses of copper as large as houses on a stream 
called the Klet-san-dek, or Copper creek, flowing into White river 
near its source. As we approached this locality, however, the 
masses of copper rapidly decreased in size, first to pieces as big 
ag aman and then to bowlders of such size that they could be 
lifted by prying with a stout stick, and finally what they actually 
showed us consisted of small nuggets, the largest only a few 
~ ounces in weight. ’ | 
Kletsan creek issues from a narrow gorge in the steep northern 


144 OW. Hayes— Expedition through the Yukon District. 


face of the St Ehas mountains, flowing from numerous small 
glaciers a mile or two back from and several thousand feet above 
the valley of White river. Ata former stage, probably when the 
glaciers descended to a much lower level, the stream deposited 
a broad alluvial cone about the mouth of the gorge. This de- 
posit of gravel is now being cut away and in its lower portions 
or in erevices of the bed rock numerous small nuggets of native 
copper are found. This seemed to be the only locality for the 
metal known to the Indians who were with us, though pieces 
which had been cut from a larger mass were shown us by those 
whom we met on Kluantu river. It is not probable, however, 
that any of the Yukon basin Indians are acquainted with exten- 
sive deposits of native copper, since they have very little of the 
metal in their possession and hold a greatly exaggerated idea of 
its value. Some time was spent in searching for the source of 
the copper on Kletsan creek but without success as we soon 
reached the snow line, beyond which, of course, further search 
was impracticable. It appears to have been brought by glaciers 
from the region toward the south which is still covered by snow 
and ice. It is associated with greenish-black amygdaloid lava 
and red sandstone and jasper, rocks which resemble, superficially 
at least, those of the copper-bearing series of the lake Superior 
region. 

A small quantity of what appeared to be azurite, pulverized 
and used as a pigment, was shown us by the Yukon Indians. 
They said it came from the country beyond Scolai pass, but we 
were unable to learn its exact source or how they obtained it. 

According to Allen’s account, the chief of the Copper river 
Indians told him of the existence of native copper and also of 
copper ores in the upper Chittenah valley between the two main 
streams, but he did not visit the locality. We expected to find 
Indians on the Nizzenah near the point where it emerges from 
the mountain pass and to be able to examine the copper of this 
region, but unfortunately Nicolai and his tribe were at their 
summer fishing station, Taral, and it was too late in the season 
to return to the copper region which we had passed. 

Doubtless this interesting region on both sides of Scolai pass 
will be found on careful examination to contain considerable 
mineral wealth, but the extreme difficulty of access together with 
the unfavorable climatic conditions will greatly retard, if not 
wholly prevent, the development of its resources. 


Living and lately dead Volcanoes. 145 


- VOLCANIC PHENOMENA. 
Active Volcanoes. 


Voleanic activity in the United States within historical times 
has been confined wholly to Alaska, and, excepting somewhat 
mythical eruptions of mount Calder on Prince of Wales island 
in 177%, and of mount Edgecumbe in 1796 it has been confined 
to the southwestern extremity of the territory. The most 
easterly known crater which shows any activity at present is 
mount Wrangell. This was observed for several days during 
August, 1891, from Taral, at the confluence of Chittenah and 
-Copper rivers. It les about fifty-five miles nearly north of 
Taral, and only the top of the mountain, a sharp black cone, 
appears above the intervening broad snow-covered dome of 
mount Blackburn. From this cone masses of densely black 
vapor were constantly rising. At intervals of about half a 
minute a cloudy pillar would rear itself to a height of several 
thousand feet and, floating off toward the east, quickly dis- 
appear, to be replaced by another burst of vapor from the 
crater. No illumination of the vapor was noticed at night and, 
so far as I could learn from the chief Nicolai, no appearance of 
fire was ever seen. According to the diary of John Brenner,* a 
miner, who spent the winter of 1884-85 at Taral, the volcano 
was at that time in a state of somewhat violent eruption. He 
Says: 

“The volcano has been very quiet a good while, but today it is send- 
ing out a vast column of smoke and hurling immense stones hundreds of 
feet high in the air. The masses it is throwing up must be very large to 
be seen here. * * * It has made no loud reports, only a sort of rum- 
bling noise.” 


It is possible that an active volcano may exist east of mount 
Wrangell in the upper White river basin, but our information 
as to its existence depends on the vague and unreliable state- 
ments of the Yukon natives—statements that may refer to 
mount Wrangell. Some sharp cones were seen northwest of 
lake Wellesley and also some in the St Eas mountains between 
Klutlan glacier and Scolai pass. Their volcanic origin, how- 
ever, could only-be inferred, and any present activity would 


* The Shores and Alps of Alaska, H. W. Seton Karr: London, 1887, p. 
219. 


146 OC.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


have been concealed from us by the clouds which hung about 
their summits. 


Recent volcanic Activity. 


The most striking effect of recent volcanic activity in this 
region is the wide-spread deposit of volcanic ash, or tufa, which 
covers the southeastern portion of the Yukon basin. This 
_ deposit was first noted by Schwatka in his reconnaissance of 
1888. It was more fully described as it occurs on the Pelly and 
Lewes by Dawson in his report of the Yukon expedition of 
1886, and was noted by McConnell in 1887 and Russell in 1889 
on the Yukon and Lewes. 

It was first seen by our party on Teslin river shortly after 
leaving lake Ahklen, and from this point northward it forms a 
conspicuous and nearly continuous white band in cut banks 
of the river nearly down to Selkirk, at the confluence of the 
Lewes and Pelly. Where first seen the layer of tufa was less 
than an inch in thickness, and from this increased to a maxi- 
mum of nearly a foot near the mouth of the Teslin, with some 
local accumulations of two or three feet. The alluvium which 
has accumulated upon the layer of tufa is generally about a foot 
in depth, but it occasionally varies -from nothing to three or 
four feet. A foot, however, probably represents the normal 
accumulation of soil under the prevailing conditions since the 
deposit of the tufa. 

The first point at which the tufa was noticed in the White 
River basin was about one hundred miles southwest of Sel- 
kirk, on the divide between the Nisling and Donjek, eastern 
tributaries of White river. It is altogether probable that the 
deposit was continuous over the whole of this country, but no 
localities favorable for its preservation and display were seen on 
the high land traversed. A layer much heavier than that ap- 
pearing on the Lewes would in a short time be wholly lost on a 
surface almost entirely destitute of soil and composed of rock 
fragments of varying degrees of coarseness. 

In the banks of the Kluantu and Donjek the tufa does not 
form a distinct layer as along the Lewes, but is probably repre- 
sented by certain stratified beds of white sand, which were re- 
earded at the time as lake deposits. They are indistinguishable 
from the sediments carried and deposited by the river at the 
present time, except in being somewhat coarser. 


The great Tufa Deposit. 147 


The original thickness west of the Donjek must have been at 
least several feet, and the increase is very marked toward the 
southwest. The white tufa is washed down from the steep slopes 
and forms considerable alluvial fans at the mouths of the ravines 
closely resembling the cones of snow which form in similar posi- 
tion. After passing the Koidern the narrow valleys were found 
deeply filled with tufa which had accumulated from the steep 
mountain slopes. From the divide the upper White River valley 
was seen stretching forty miles to the westward, and appeared 
almost completely covered with drifts of snow. On reaching the 
valley the drifts proved to be tufa, which forms a deep mantle 
over the country north of the St Elias mountains, and for twenty 
miles west of the Klutlan forms a desert of drifting snow-white 
sand into which one sinks from four to twelve inches in walk- 
ing. A scanty growth of dwarf alder and blueberry bushes has 


‘gained a precarious foothold in some places, and a few stunted 


spruce trees grow in protected spots along the streams. The 
tufa extends up the mountain sides on the south, covering every 
surface where the slope is not too steep for it to lie and finally 
merging with the névé snow, which begins about 1,500 feet above 
the valley or 6,090 feet above sea level. The valley was covered 
with a sheet of glacial drift before the deposition of the tufa, and 
in consequence the drainage is very imperfect. Many small 
lakes and ponds, usually without outlet, occur scattered over the 
surface. 

The greatest observed thickness to which the tufa deposit at- 
tains is between 75 and 100 feet. This was seen on the western 
bank of the Klutlan, where there is no reason to suppose that 
its original thickness has been increased at the expense of sur- 
rounding regions except, perhaps, by wind drift. 

Toward the upper end of the valley the thickness of the de- 
posit decreases very rapidly, and at the entrance to Scolai pass, 


‘less than forty miles from its maximum, it appears as a narrow 


white streak in the freshly cut river banks, exactly as it does 
alone the Lewes and Pelly, 300 miles to the eastward. The de- 
posit also appears to decrease in thickness rapidly toward the 
north, and there is no indication of any considerable accumu- 
lation on the gentle slopes of the valley or on the mesas north of 
White river. 

The gradual increase in thickness of the deposit from east to 


west is accompanied by an increase in the size of the fragments. 


148 CW. Hayes— Expedition through the Yukon District. 


As described by Dawson* from the Yukon, “ It is a fine, white, 
sandy material * * * consisting chiefly of volcanic glass, 
*  -* the greater portion of which has been drawn out into 
elongated shreds, frequently resembling the substance known as 
‘Pele’s hair.’” Where first noticed between the Nisling and 
Kluantu it had the appearance of sand which results from the 
disintegration of a rather coarsely crystalline marble, the indi- 
vidual fragments being from 0.5 mm to 1 mm in diameter. The 
average dimensions increase to the westward, and in the Klutlan 
valley the deposit contains many fragments of white vesicular 
pumice from two to ten centimeters in diameter, though the 
ereater part is much finer, perhaps from 1 mm to 5mm in diam- 
eter. Nothing in the nature of true voleanic bombs was seen in 
the tufa, though their presence may have been overlooked. 

Taking the approximate limits of the deposit, as observed on 
the Yukon by McConnell, on the Pelly and Lewes by Dawson, 
and on the Teslin and at Scolai pass by the writer, it will be seen 
to cover an oval area, with the maximum thickness near the 
western extremity. The oval area (which is depicted on plate - 
18) is about 370 miles from east to west and 220 from north to 
south, or about 52,280 square miles. Assuming the deposit to 
be in the form of a flat cone with the above base and a vertical 
height of but fifty feet, its volume amounts to 165 cubic miles of 
material. 

From the facts of distribution, as above stated, a fairly safe 
inference may be drawn as to the source of the deposit. The 
explosive eruption which produced the tufa probably occurred 
in the northern part of the St Elias mountains, near the source 
of Klutlan glacier. As already stated, it was impossible to 
tell whether there is any present volcanic activity in this region. 
One conspicuous peak, of which the top remained hidden by 
clouds, was pointed out by the natives as having some unusual 
characteristics of which they seemed to stand much inawe. The 
name by which they called the mountain was Nat-azh-at, mean- 
ing, as near as I could make out, “ shape of a man ;” but, owing 
to native reticence and lack of an interpreter, it was impossible | 
to obtain any satisfactory information concerning the mountain. 
Mount Wrangell has been suggested as the source of the tufa, 


* Report of an exploration in the Yukon district, N. W. T., and adja- 
cent northern portions of British Columbia, 1887; Ann. Rep. Geol. Sury. 
Canada, Montreal, 1889, p. 46B. 


The Tufa traced to its Source. 149 


but this is clearly impossible, as it lies wholly beyond the area 
covered by the deposit. 

The strong winds prevailing in the upper White River valley 
during August, 1891, were from the west and were evidently in 
the same direction during the great eruption. It would be 
interesting to fix the date of the eruption, but it is impossible to 
do so with any degree of certainty. From a study of the rela- 
tions of the tufa bed on the Pelly and Lewes Dr Dawson says: 
“While the eruption must have happened several hundred 
years ago, it can scarcely be supposed to have taken place more 
than a thousand years before the present time.” A similar con- 
clusion is reached from a study of the deposit in the White 
River basin. As already stated, for ten miles on either side of the 
maximum thickness the surface tufa is unconsolidated and sup- 
ports only a very scanty vegetation ; but the tundra moss covers 
with great readiness even the most barren surfaces, wholly inde- 
pendent of soil, so that it seems impossible this should have 
remained bare for any great leneth of time. 

From its position near the greatest thickness of the deposit a 
vast quantity of the tufa must have fallen on the surface of the 
Klutlan glacier as well as on the névé fields at its source. The 
fact that this has nearly all been deposited in the terminal moraine 
and remains only on the surface of the stagnant ice a short dis- 
tance back from its front indicates an interval since the eruption 
sufficiently long for ice which then formed the névé to flow the 
whole leneth of the glacier and deposit its burden in the termi- 
nal moraine. Neither the length of the glacier nor the rate of 
motion of its different parts is known, but the time required for . 
the transfer of material on the névé fields to the terminal moraine 
must be at least several hundred years. The time since the 
eruption has also been sufficient to permit the recession of the 
glacier front about three miles. 

The color of the waters of White river has been noted by all 
travelers on the Yukon who have passed its mouth. Schwatka* 
describes it as resembling “a river of quid mud of almost 
white hue,” and McConnell? says: ‘ The turbid character of the 
White river is famous, and sufficient sediment is brought down 
to change the color of the whole Pelly-Yukon flood from a pale 


* Along Alaska’s Great River: New York, 1885, p. 240. 
+ Report of an exploration in the Yukon and Mackenzie basins, N. W. 
T.: Ann. Report Geol. Sury. Canada, Montreal, 1891, p. 144D. 


21—Nat. Grog, Maa,, von, IV, 1892. 


150 C.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


ereen to a milky white.” This turbidity has been attributed to 
the glacial source of the river, but glaciers could scarcely supply 
such an enormous quantity of mud unless acting under peculiar 
conditions. The presence of this great deposit of unconsolidated 
material, which is being ground up by the ice and removed by the 
englacial streams, affords a ready explanation of the turbidity 
of the water. The highly vesicular character of the tufa permits 
a much larger amount of it to be held in suspension than of sedi- 
ment derived from compact rocks. 


Tertiary volcanic Activity. 


Evidence of volcanic activity, geologically recent though very 
much more remote than the eruption of the tufa deposit, is 
somewhat abundant. Perhaps the most striking example of 
such activity is seen in the basaltic mesa at the junction of Pelly 
and Lewes rivers. This lava flow took place after the river 
valleys had been eroded perhaps below their present levels and 
extended entirely across the valley. The river has since cut 
through the barrier, leaving only a few fragments of the basalt 
resting on the granite on the western side of the channel. This 
lava flow probably came from two ormore vents; one about ten 
miles north of Selkirk still retains the form of a symmetrical 
cone, and according to the native accounts has a small lake upon 
its summit, probably occupying the crater. A second vent was 
the high hill on the western side of the Yukon, about four miles 
northwest of Selkirk. Between the Yukon and St Ehas moun- . 
tains black vesicular lava was seen at a number of localities, and 
north of the upper part.of White river are broad mesas which 
appear to be formed of black lava. These are all probably of 
Tertiary age. 


GLACIAL PHENOMENA. 
Existing Glaciers. 


So far as known the existing glaciers of Alaska are confined to 
a narrow belt along the southwestern coast. Although the high- 
est land lies in the coast belt, this is not the sole or chief reason 
for the notable absence of glaciers in the interior, except in so 
far as climatic conditions are thereby modified. There are 
numerous points in the Yukon basin from which practically all 


Dependence of Glaciers on Precipitation. 151 


snow disappears in summer, although they have an altitude of 
from 6,000 to 7,000 feet and a mean temperature much lower 
than any portion of the southern coast. The explanation must 
be found in the very much greater precipitation and prevalence 
of clouds along the coast than in the interior. 

The glaciers farthest removed from the coast are those flowing 
from the mountains of the Wrangell group, where the moisture- 
laden winds of the north Pacific are able to pass up the Copper 
River valley and across the coast range, which is here much 
lower than toward the east. 

Four considerable glaciers descend to or nearly to tide level 
on Taku inlet and river, though only Taku glacier, entering the 
head of the inlet, discharges bergs. A few miles up from the 
mouth of the river are two glaciers which come down into the 
valley nearly opposite to each other. Neither quite reaches 
the river, but, like the Norris* glacier'on the inlet, they spread 
out into fan-shaped expansions with low wooded deltas of mo- 
raine material in front. Along the steep sides of the river val- 
ley above these glaciers a slight but distinct terrace has been cut 
about 150 feet above the river. Itis probable that Wrightf glacier, 
pushing across the valley to its northern side, dammed the 
stream for a short time after the main valley was clear of ice. 
Above Wright glacier only a few small masses of ice or glacierets 
occur in the Taku basin in cirques about the higher mountain 
summits. No parts of the high interior plateau, either in the 
Taku or Yukon basins, carry glaciers, and probably very little, 
if any, snow remains throughout the year between the Coast and 
Cassiar ranges, though much of the surface is fully 3,000 feet 
above the snow line at the coast. The reason for this rapid rise 
of the snow line toward the interior is the dry climate, with 
short but hot summers prevailing throughout this region. In 
like manner the high plateau east of White river is wholly free 
from summer snow, and the first glaciers seen in the Yukon 
basin were those flowing northward from the St Elias range. 
Kluantu and Donjek rivers undoubtedly head in glaciers, but 
these were not seen, since they lay too far east of the route 
traveled. Three large glaciers flow into the White River basin 
west of the Alaskan boundary, and numerous streams crossed 
while following the southern bank of the upper White river 


* Named in 1886 for Dr Basil Norris, surgeon United States Navy. 
+ Named by the writer for Professor G. F. Wright of Oberlin college. 


152 CW. Hayes—LExpedition through the Yukon District. 


rise in small glaciers which do not descend to the level of the 
valley. 

The largest glacier known to discharge wholly in the Yukon 
basin is one which lies approximately on the 141st meridian, 
called the Klutlan from the native name of the river to which it 
gives rise. Its source is in the great snow fields between mount 
St Elias and the high peak or the northern border of the range 
called Nat-azh-at by the natives. It extends several miles be- 
yond the foot of the range, though it is rapidly receding at the 
present time, and is between four and five miles broad where it 
enters the valley. The stagnant ice at the front of the retreating 
glacier is buried under a great accumulation of moraine material 
continuous with the terminal moraine, so that it is impossible to 
determine the exact limits of the ice. The heavy mantle of vege- 
tation which covers the terminal moraine continues a mile or 
more beyond the outer edge of the ice, becoming gradually less 
abundant as the active portion of the glacier is approached. 

The moraine in front of the Klutlan is the largest accumulated 
by any of the interior glaciers. It is composed very largely of 
the white volcanic tufa already described, but with this are min- 
gled many angular fragments of amygdaloid lavas and a few of 
granite and gneiss. Much of the moraine has been removed by 
streams flowing from the glacier, but remnants 200 feet or more 
in thickness extend nearly across to the high land north of the 
valley. 

The second of the White river glaciers is about midway be- 
tween the Klutlan and Scolai pass. It is much smaller than 
the Klutlan and does not push“out into the valley, but its front 
forms a wall of ice something over a mile in length from side to 
side of the narrow valley in which it lies. 

The third and largest of the interior glaciers flows from the 
high mountains northwest of St Elias down into Scolai pass, 
and from the divide sends a lobe of ice toward White river and 
a smaller one toward Copper River basin. This was named in 
honor of Mr I. C. Russell, whose exploration and study of the 
St Elias region during the past two years have added very | 
largely to our knowledge of Alaskan glaciers and to the science of 
glaciology. The northern or White river lobe of Russell glacier 
is buried under a heavy accumulation of moraine, bearing some 
vegetation, while the southern lobe is almost wholly free from 
moraine material and the exposed ice has melted down to the 


A single Glacier now advancing. 153 


smooth convex surface and feather edge characteristics of stag- 
nant ice at the front of a retreating glacier. 

Taken altogether, the ice flowing northward from the St Elias 
mountains is insignificant in amount when compared with that 
flowing southward. The Seward glacier alone probably contains 
a greater volume than all of those flowing into the White river 
basin combined. The great difference in climatic conditions, on 
which the formation of glaciers depend, is indicated by the 
difference in altitude of the lower limit of the névé snow on the 
north and south. According to Russell’s observations about 
~Yakutat bay and my own on Prince William sound, that limit 

on the seaward side of the mountains is at an altitude of about 
2,000 feet, while on the north the altitude of the lowest névé 
observed was 6,300 feet. This rise in the snow line toward the 
north, over 4,000 feet in a distance of about eighty miles, is an 
important fact in the consideration of the causes of glaciation, 
either local or general. 

The Nizzenah river rises from one lobe of Russell glacier and 
in the upper part of its course is fed by a number of glaciers 
coming in from the high mountains on either side of Scolai pass. 
One of these, the Frederika, possesses a peculiar interest in that 
it appears to be the only well marked case among Alaskan 
elaciers of active advance at the present time. Flowing south- 
ward in a lateral valley which joins that of the Nizzenah at right 
angles, its front is parallel with the river and about three-quar- 
ters of a mile distant, the intervening space being a smooth 
eravel plain. ‘The glacier terminates in a nearly vertical ice cliff 
stretching across the lateral yalley a mile in length and about 
250 feet high. Its surface is free from moraine, but is extremely 
rough and broken, wholly unlike the surface of stagnant ice at 
the end of a retreating glacier. At the foot of the cliff there is 
a small accumulation of gravel and ice fragments, apparently 
being pushed along by the advancing mass. 

Since the same climatic changes must affect all the glaciers of 
the region alike, the cause of this anomalous advance must be 
sought in some peculiar local condition affecting this glacier 
alone. A simple explanation is suggested, though it must be 
regarded merely as a suggestion since no means of verification 
areat hand. Ten miles to the westward of the Frederika another 
and much larger glacier flows into the valley of the Nizzenah. 
This is formed by the union of three separate streams, and of 


154. C.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


these the eastern appears to be retreating much more rapidly 
than either of the others; but this eastern branch probably has 
its source in the same basin as the Frederika glacier, and it seems 
not improbable that by some means the drainage of the basin 
has been diverted from the western to the eastern outlet, thus 
causing the rapid retreat in the former glacier and advance in 
the latter. 

The large triple glacier above referred to flows from the high 
mountains forming the eastern members of the Wrangell group. 
After the union of its three branches the combined stream occu- 
pies the valley of the Nizzenah for about six miles, crowding the 
river out of its channel and forming a berg-filled lake above the 
ice barrier. Its great volume, together with the distance which 
this glacier pushes down into the valley, indicate an increased 
precipitation, due to proximity to the Copper River valley through 
which pass the warm winds from the ocean. 

No glaciers flow into the Chittenah valley from the ranges on 
either side, though all the upper portions of the Wrangell group 
are snow-covered and doubtless the high ravines are filled with 
ice. Several large glaciers flow ito the Copper River valley 
from the Coast range, although its altitude is not so great as that 
of many portions of the interior plateau, which is entirely free 
from summer snow. The largest of these Coast range tributaries 
of Copper river are Miles and Childs glaciers, named by Lieu- 
tenant Allen in 1885. Several others of considerable size higher | 
up the river do not appear on Allen’s map, probably because he 
passed up the river while the surface was still covered with snow. 
Miles glacier is quite comparable in size with those of the St 
Elias region and is formed under essentially the same climatic 
conditions. It is evidently retreating at present, and the river 
spreads out in a lake-like expansion along its front in a part of 
the glacial channel from which the ice has receded. This ex- 
pansion of the river is about a mile in width and one side is 
formed by the glacier front, a cliff of ice 350 feet above the water 
and over five miles in length. Although the ice no longer 
reaches entirely across the valley, there remains a heavy lateral 
moraine, indicating its former position and damming back the 
river as already described. The fact that the river has cut only 
part way through the moraine indicates a very recent recession 
of the glacier. 


Records of ancient Ice- Work. fi 


Former Glaciation. 


In common with other parts of the coast region, the Taku 
basin shows signs of intense glaciation from the westward- 
moving portion of the Cordilleran ice sheet. Evidence of this 
in the way of glacial deposits is wanting along the lower portion 
of the river, while the polished and striated rock surfaces so 
abundant there may be due to the action of a glacier occupying 
simply the river valley. The evidence of an ice sheet becomes 
more abundant, however, toward the upper part of the basin. 
Thus, on a spur of the high plateau east of the forks of Taku 
river, bowlder clay and stratified gravels were seen 3,100 feet 
above the river. The movement of the ice in the greater por- 
tion of the Taku basin was apparently in the same direction as 
the present drainage. The high broad valleys of the upper 
Taku branches are deeply filled with a mantle of bowlder clay 
and gravel. In most cases this is spread out in a comparatively 
even layer over the surface, but also many narrow ridges occur 
from ten to fifty feet in height, with the lon ver axes in the direc- 
tion of the present valleys. These, however, probably mark -a 
phase of deposition by a greatly diminished and waning ice 
sheet, so that they afford little if any indication of the direction 
of ice movement during the maximum glaciation. A much 
better indication is afforded by the transportation of bowlders. 
From the head of canoe navigation on the Taku to a point 
nearly half way across to Ahklen valley, increasing numbers of 
bowlders were observed composed of a peculiar granite contain- 
ing large porphyritic crystals of black hornblende. At this 
point their source was found in a range of hills composed of the 
same granite, and no bowlders of this rock were seen to the 
northeastward. At the summit of the divide but little evidence 
was seen which would indicate the direction of the ice move- 
ment, though it seems probable that it was toward the north- 
west, as it certainly was in Ahklen valley. 

Some deposits of true bowlder clay occur at various points 
along the lake, and a single occurrence was noted on the Teslin 
river about five miles from its mouth. Among the many lakes 
in the upper part of the valley are ridges and mounds of 
rounded bowlders and gravel, which, with terraces of the same 
material about the head of Ahklen, were evidently deposited by 


156 C.W. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


a rapidly retreating glacier and the streams to which it gave 
rise. These gravels are younger than the bowlder clay which 
_they overlie and also younger than the silt of the river bluffs to- 
ward the north. 

Among the most interesting deposits associated with the 
second period of glaciation in the northwest are those forming 
the river bluffs along the Teslin and other tributaries of the 
Yukon. Bluffs are continuous throughout the whole length of 
the Teslin river, increasing shghtly in height from about 100 
feet at the lake to 150 feet at the mouth, and frequently cut 
into a number of terraces. The materials of which they consist 
are light colored silts or fine sand interbedded with layers, one 
to three inches in thickness, of tough bluish clay. The layers 
of sand are often cross-bedded and contain sufficient clay to 
give the material considerable tenacity. At some places inter- 
mediate beds are highly contorted, while those above and below 
are undisturbed. Although the deposit differs widely from the 
true bowlder clay which it was seen to overlie, yet 1t contains 
occasional large angular bowlders, evidently brought to their 
present position by floating ice. The bluffs are usually capped 
by a bed of coarse gravel, ten feet or more in thickness, but 
sharply separated from the underlying silt formation. More 
rarely, layers of coarse sand and gravel a few feet thick occur, 
interbedded with the silt, usually toward the top. 

This deposit undoubtedly belongs to the wide-spread “ white 
silt” formation which Dr Dawson has described as occurring at 
many localities in British Columbia and the upper Yukon basin. 
He regards the white silt as a deposit laid down in estuaries by 
waters containing glacial mud supplied by streams from the re- 
treating or stationary ice front. The altitude of Ahklen is 2,500 
feet, and hence the upper limit of the silt in the bluffs at the 
lower end of the lake is about 2,600 feet. The upper limit of the 
white silt, as observed by Dawson at various points in British 
~ Columbia and the Yukon basin, is between 2,400 and 2,700 feet, 
indicating a subsidence to that extent for a considerable period 
toward the close of the second epoch of glaciation. During this 
period of subsidence the present lake basin was doubtless occu- 
pied by a lobe of the retreating glacier which prevented. the 
silting up of the portion of the valley so occupied. On its with- 
drawal at the close of the stationary period, the lake was left 


_ Evidence of non- Glaciation. 157 


much as it appears at present, only somewhat larger, its waters 
being held by the dam of silt which had been laid down in front 
of the ice. 

Having in mind the conclusions of Dawson, McConnell and 
Russell as to the northern limit of glaciation in the Yukon basin, 
evidence on that point was carefully sought in the plateau region _ 
southwest of Selkirk. For the first one hundred and twenty- 
five miles the evidence was wholly negative. No sign of glaci- 
ation was seen, and this too in a country well calculated to retain 
the marks of ice action, The stream gravels consist of a very 
small number of rock species, and on following a stream to its 
head the source of each was usually found, showing that no 
foreign material had been brought into their basins. While in 
general the surface contours are smooth and flowing, this is the 
result of long-continued subaérial rock disintegration, and gen- 
erally the surface rock is deeply buried beneath great accumu- 
lations of fragmental débris, though occasional sharp pinnacles 
and towers of rock project from the smooth talus slopes. Had 
this recion been subjected to the action of an ice sheet during 
the glacial epoch, not only would the greater part of the rock 
débris have been removed but the projecting pinnacles would 
have been planed down to rounded knobs which would still 
retain polished and striated surfaces. 

Where Nisling river was crossed its broad valley is filled with 
a deposit of coarse gravel and bowlders, and from their great 
quantity and variety it was inferred that the stream had its 
source in a drift-covered region. The first undoubted evidence 
of ice, however, was found on the divide between Nisling and 
Kluantu rivers, where the northern edge of a sheet of bowlder 
clay was passed. From this point southward the character of 
the surface suffers a marked change. It is no longer composed 

of the fragments of one or two kinds of rock occurring in place 
near at hand, but rather of many varieties confusedly mingled 
with clay and sand. The drainage system is imperfectly adjusted 
to the topographic surface, so that wide valleys carry small 
streams, and large streams like the Kluantu and Donjek flow, for 
considerable distances at least, through narrow valleys. 

The ice which has left its records in this sheet of bowlder clay 
was probably a confluent glacier formed by streams coming from 
the south through narrow valleys now occupied by Kluantu 
and Donjek rivers. These valleys do not appear to have been 


* 


22—Nart. Groc. Maa., von. TV, 1892. 


158 CW. Hayes—Expedition through the Yukon District. 


glaciated high up their sides, and it is probable that those de- 
tached southern portions of the interior plateau already de- 
scribed were not wholly covered by ice, even when the Cordil- 
leran glacier had its greatest extension. The absence of a 
terminal moraine along the northern limit of the glaciated area 
would indicate that the Kluantu valley was filled by ice from 
comparatively small streams bearing little moraine material. 

Southward from the Kluantu valley, records of former ice 
action continued to the coast, but the glaciation was by no means 
so intense as one might be inclined to expect from the high 
latitude of the region and the great altitude of the neighboring 
mountains. The marks of this former general glaciation have 
been removed from many of the river valleys, or at least greatly 
obscured by more recent glaciers which have but lately with- 
drawn from the valleys. 

It seems probable that at the period of maximum glaciation 
the relative amounts of precipitation on the northern and 
southern sides of the St Elias mountains were much the same 
as at present, and then as now by far the greater ice drainage 
was toward the south. Some measure of the relative volume of 
the ice streams flowing in the two directions may be obtained 
from the relative amounts of moraine material which they have 
left. On the north, as already stated, there is no terminal 
moraine—only a comparatively thin sheet of bowlder clay. 
South of the mountains, on the other hand, a deposit of morainal 

material at least several thousand feet in thickness was accumu- 
lated on the sea bottom in front of the glacier and is now shown, 
according to Russell, in the recent uplift forming the Chaix hills. 

Connecting upon the map the points which have been de- 
termined by various observers as the northern limit of the 
glaciated area in the Yukon basin, the position of the Cordil- 
leran ice sheet at the period of its greatest extension 1s approxi- 
mately outlined. Striated rock surfaces were observed by Daw- 
son on the Pelly down to the point at which it crosses the 136th 
meridian and on the Lewes as far north as 61° 40’. Although 
he does not regard these as strictly limiting points, still, in the 
light of facts observed on the plateau southwest of the Pelly- 
Lewes confluence, the former at least may safely be regarded as 
such. McConnell'and Russell considered the limit of glaciation 
on the Lewes to be near the mouth of Little Salmon river, and 

"my own observations led me to think it is at least as far north 


Limit of ancient Glacration. 159 


as that. The point to which glaciation extends in the White 
river basin has already been indicated, with the evidence on 
which the conclusion is based. The extension of the line west of 
White river is less satisfactorily fixed than its eastern portion, 
depending on a statement of Lieutenant Allen that he saw no 
drift north of the Alaskan mountains, as he called the Tananah- 
Copper river divide. The ice sheet, a part of whose northern 
limit is thus approximately outlined, had its principal center of 
dispersion in the high plateau of British Columbia, between the 
Coast and Rocky mountains. From this center two subordinate 
lines of dispersion diverged toward the north and northwest, 
following the axes respectively of the Rocky mountains and the 
St Elias range, while the non-glaciated area formed a deep em- 
bayment in the Yukon basin between these divergent lines. 
The northern limit of glaciation is shown approximately on 
plate 18. : 

It is probable, however, that many lobes from the main 
glacier extended down the valleys beyond the limit above in- 
dicated, while the confluent ice sheet was not sufficiently thick 
toward its northern border to override the greater inequalities of 
the surface. Thus the White River valley, at least, must have 
been occupied by ice well north of the general glacier front even 
after a considerable amount of recession had taken place. The 
altitude of the valley at the mouth of the Nisling is about 2,400 
feet; so that it must have formed an estuary during the period 
of subsidence marked by the white silt deposits, and the forma- 
tion of lake Wellesley is probably analogous to that of lake 
Ahklen. 


APPENDIX. 


CRYPTOGAMS COLLECTED BY DR C. WILLARD HAYES IN 
ALASKA, 1891. 


BY CLARA E. CUMMINGS. 


LYCOPODIACER. 


Lycopodium complanatum, L. Taku, June. A small form without fruit. 


Mossgs. 


Sphagnum acutifolium, Ehrh. \ Prince William sound, September. 

Sphagnum acutifolium, Ehrh., var. purpurem, Schimp. Taku, June. <A 
stunted form. 

Dicranum fuscescens, Turn. Prince William sound, September. On de- 
cayed wood. : 

Dicranum scoparium, Hedw. Prince William sound, September. 

Diganum majus 2, Tarn. Prince William sound, September. Sterile. 

Tetraphis pellucida, Hedw. Prince William sound, September. Male 
plants, on wood. 

Mnium punctatum, Hedw. Prince William sound, September. Sterile. 

Aulacommium palustre, Schwaegr. Taku, June. 

Polytrichum commune, L. Prince William sound. 

Polytrichum juniperinum, Willd. Taku, June. Male plant. 

Hypnum (Plagiothecium) undulatum, L. Prince William sound, September. 
Sterile. 

Hypnum circinale, Hook. Prince William sound. Sterile. 

Hypnum (Pleurozium) splendens, Hedw. Prince William sound. Sterile. 

Hypnum (Hylocomium) loreum, L. Prince William sound. Sterile. 


Hepatic. 


Frullania (probably a new species). Prince William sound, September. 

Bassania defleca, Br. Gr. Prince William sound, September. 

Lepidiosa reptans, L. Dum. Prince William sound, September. 

Scapania albescens, Stephani. Prince William sound, September. A species 
not before contained in any American collection. 

Mylia taylori, S. F. Gray. Prince William sound, September. 


(160) 


The cryptogamous Flora. 161 


LICHENS. 


Cetraria artica, Hook. Taku, June. Represented by young and mature 
conditions. 

Cetraria islandica, (L.) Ach. Taku, June. Sterile. 

Cetraria cucullata, (Bell) Ach. Taku, June. Sterile. 

Cetraria nivalis, (L.) Ach. Taku, June. Sterile; represented by aslender, 
light colored form. 

Cetraria lacunosa, Ach. Prince William sound, September. Sterile. 

Cetraria glauca, (L.) Ach. Prince William sound, September. Sterile. 

Cetraria glauca, (.) Ach., b stenophylla, Tuck. Prince William sound, Sep- 
tember. Sterile. 

Alectoria ochroleuca, (Ehrh.) Nyl., a rigida. Taku, June. Sterile. 

Alectoria ochroleuca, (Ehrh.) Nyl.,esarmentosa, Nyl. Prince William sound, 
September. Sterile. 

Nephroma articum, (L.) Fr. Taku, June. Sterile; growing on Dicranum. 

Peltigera aphthosa, (L.) Hoffm. Taku, June. Sterile. 

Peltigera horizontalis, (L.) Hoftm. Prince William sound, September. 

Peltigera canina ? (L.) Hoftm. Taku, June. 

Lecanora frustulosa ? (Dicks.). Taku, June. Mass. 

Cladonia alcicornis, (lightf.) Floerk. Taku, June. 

Cladonia fimbriata, (.) Fr. Prince William sound, September. Sterile. 

Cladonia fimbriata, (u.) Fr., b tubeformis, Fr. Prince William sound, Sep- 
tember. 

Cladonia cornucopioides, (L.) Fr. Taku, June. 

Cladonia bellidiflora, (Ach.) Schaer. Prince William sound, September. 

Cladonia deformis, (.) Hoffm. Taku, June. Sterile. 

Thamnolia vermicularis, (Sw.) Schaer. Taku, June. Sterile. 

Beomyces xruginosus, Scop. D. C. Prince William sound, September. On 
wood. 

Buellia parasema, (Ach.) Th. Fr. Prince William sound, September. On 
dead wood. 

Sphearophorus globiferus, (L.) D.C. Prince William sound, September. On 
earth. 


In examining the geographic distribution of the species represented in 
this list it is interesting to note that the only Lycopodium is a common 
and widely distributed species. 

Of the mosses, three are from the upper Taku basin, a locality inside 
the Coast tange, while eleven are from Prince William sound, on the 
coast. Four of the fourteen species are confined to the western coast. 
These were all found at Prince William sound. Only one species is alpine 
or subalpine. 

Of the Hepatice, one has not before been reported from this country, 
while one is probably an undescribed species. 

Eleven lichens are arctic or alpine, while several others reach their best 
development in mountainous regions. Of the arctic and alpine forms, 


162 OW. Hayes—Hepedition through the Yukon District. 


seven are from Taku and four from Prince William sound. The total: 


number of species from Taku is twelve, while eleven were obtained at 
Prince William sound. It is thus seen that the percentage of arctic and 
alpine forms from Taku is considerably the larger. Only one of the 
lichens is confined to the western coast. 

It is greatly to be regretted that all the valuable collections which De 
Hayes made in the interior had Lo be abandoned because of lack of means 
of transportation. 

In the determination of these plants I have been indebted for aid to 
Professor L. M. Underwood, who.examined some of the Hepatice, and to 
Professor A. B. Seymour, who compared several of the lichens with the 
collections in the Tuckerman herbarium. 


WELLESLEY COLLEGE, April 21, 1892. 


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———- 


INDEX MAP 


YUKON DISTRICT 


SCALE _— 1*10,000,000 


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eng e meen een ROUTE CF EXPEDITION 189 


Me vaaerarinels NORTHERN LIMIT OF GLACIATION 


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VoL. IV, pp. 163-208 FEBRUARY 8, 1893 


NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC 


MAGAZINE 


INCORPORATED 
A.D.1888. 


WASHINGTON 
' PUBLISHED BY THE NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SocIETY 


Price 50 cents 


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VoL. IV, PP. 163-208 FEBRUARY 8, 1893 


ini 
NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC MAGAZINE 


THE NORTH AMERICAN DESERTS 
BY 
HERR PROFESSOR DR JOHANNES WALTHER 


(Separate from Verhandl. d. Geselisch. f. Erdkunde zu Berlin ; 1592, 
Heft 1. Translated by Robert Stein) 


Four years ago I had the honor to report to you on the 
observations which I made with Professor Schweinfurth in the 
Keyptian deserts. Since that time I have been again in Egypt, 
have touched the desert of northern India, and have been much 
occupied with the literature of deserts; and last autumn I seized 
the opportunity offered by the fifth International Geologic Con- 
egress at Washington to look at the American deserts. 

The great geologic excursion through North America, under 
the professional guidance of our American colleagues, passed for 
some days through deserts and gave me opportunity for sev- 
eral side trips into neighboring deserts; afterward, in company 
with Dr von dem Borne, I spent two weeks in traveling through 
the deserts of Arizona, California and Texas, and met with a 
hospitable reception in the tent camp of Professor Streeruwitz, of 
the geological survey of Texas. Through his kind leadership 
I was enabled in a few days to visit the most interesting points 
in western Texas, in the Sierra de los Dolores, and in the Sierra 
del Diablo. 


23—Nar. Groc, Mag,, von, LV, 1892, , (163) 


164 Dr Johannes Walther—The North American Deserts. 


Our first acquaintance with a desert-like region was made in 
the ‘‘ Bad Lands” of Dakota. When we awoke on the morning 
of September 5 our train was on the prairie. A gently undulat- 
ing plain allowed our eyes to roam to the distant horizon. The 
gray moraine soil was covered with a dense nap of grass, now 
sulphur-yellow, now rust-brown. Over it extended, gossamer- 
like, a silvery gray veil, formed of countless delicate ears of 
grass. Wherever a depression gave rise to an accumulation of 
water there appeared a dark-green swamp carpet, overgrown 
with reeds and rushes, and where the dry prairie grass had been 
lit by sparks there were seen black bare spots with jagged fire- 
eaten edges and studded with small, blackened drift bowlders. 
Inquisitive prairie-dogs sat upright on their hills, a few butter- 
flies were on the wing, one small bird soared in the clear air; on 
all the wide plain there was nothing else to strike the eye. 

In the afternoon there emerged on the horizon sharply out- 
lined table mountains, and at Kurtz station we found our- 
selves in a landscape full of ‘‘Zeugenberge” and mesas. The 
Americans call the “‘Zeugenberge” very appropriately “sentinel 
buttes;” and for the blind-pouchlike wadi valleys penetrating 
into the table mountains the cowboys use the expression “ rim- 
rock.” The rimrock valleys are of great value to the cowboys, 
because they can drive their great herds into them without dan- 
ger of losing a single head; for the steep slopes from the gate- 
way to the innermost recesses of these valleys prevent all possi- 
bility of escape. Quite similar “sentinel ” landscapes were seen 
by us again in Utah, Colorado and Arizona. 

At Ogden, a Mormon town at the northeastern end of Great 
Salt lake, I left the train in company with Professor Krassnoff 
of Kharkof. We traversed the tree-lined streets of the pleasant 
little town and ascended the slope of the Wasatch mountains. 
Fields of Helianthus covered the plain, low oak brush grew along 
the granite mountains, and scattered opuntias and artemisias pro- 
claimed the dryness of the climate. Finally we reached a gravel 
terrace 100 paces broad, which could ‘be traced as a horizontal 
band along all the mountain slopes, 120 meters above the bottom 
of the valley; this was accompanied by similar parallel lines 
which might be observed along the rocks to a height of 3800 meters. 

A superb picture here offered itself to our gaze. At our feet, 
surrounded by fertile fields and orchards, lay the town of Ogden. 
An ingenious system of canals irrigated the land and caused a 


The ancient Lake Bonneville. 165 


verdant oasis to rise in the midst of the salt steppe. Next we 
surveyed the bright blue mirror of the saline lake, from which 
jagged islands emerged in picturesque beauty ; toward the west 
there followed a white lustrous plain bounded on the far horizon 
by violet mountain silhouettes. 

At present the lake has an average depth of 4 meters; but 
there was a time when the wide valley basin, 4,500 square kilo- 
meters in extent, was covered by a lake 300 meters deep. At 
that period the breakers cut a terrace in the rocks of the lake 
shore, and while the lake water evaporated and its level gradu- 
ally sank, there were formed the various shorelines which now 
may be traced as horizontal bands in parallel course along all the 
mountain slopes. Great Salt lake is the last scanty remnant of 
old “ Lake Bonneville,” and the salt desert is a dried lake bottom. 

In yellow radiance the sun’s disk sank behind the mountain 
crags when on the Southern Pacific railway we traversed part of 
the salt desert; the night fell quickly, and soon the desert 
gleamed in the moonshine like glistening hoar-frost. 

When we set out next morning from the lonely station of 
Terrace on a ramble over the desert our expectations were raised 
tothe highest pitch. Krassnoff recalled his travels in Turkestan ; 
I remembered the Arabian desert; and we looked around anx- 
iously, scanning with care each pebble, each sandhill, each sage 
bush and each rock, in order to compare them with our expe- 
riences in Africa and Asia. While Krassnoff quickly felt at 
home and everywhere discovered resemblances to the steppes of 
inner Asia, I marveled to see a desert picture unwonted and 
strange to me. Wherever my eye might stray, it rested on the 
yellow bloom of Halophyta, the silver-grey bushes of Artemisia, 
and spiny cactuses. Among creeping opuntias I saw a few small 
moss cushions, and at the foot of the granite hills grew juniper 
trees two meters high with stems a foot in thickness. We walked 
in short serpentine windings among bushes a foot in height ; 
some scattered spots were covered with brown pebbles; small 
sandy water-courses wound, with many a loop, to end on the 
dazzling white salt plain. As we approached that plain the 
scrub became scantier, rising island-like from the flat surface, 
and finally there lay before us the floor-like horizontal plain of 
saline clay, entirely devoid of plants. The salt formed a coat of 
fine powder over the gray clay, and the small crystals glistened 
and sparkled in the sun like fresh-fallen snow, The ground was 


166 Dr Johannes Walther—The North American Deserts. 


honeycombed with polygonal heat cracks, and reflected a glare 
so intense and dazzling that one could look about only with half- 
shut eyes. 

Krassnoff told me that this landscape agreed in many points 
with the deserts and takyrs of inner Asia, but I found myself 
face to face with an entirely new type of desert. I was wont, 
after several hours’ ride over gravel-covered serir or brown 
hamada, to come to a wadi distinguishable, even from afar, from 
its plantless surroundings asa green band; I had often been 
engaged with my bedouin for an hour in gathering dry scrub 
in order to have the fuel necessary for the fire. Here in the 
American desert there were plants in abundance, and only the 
increasing salinity of the soil checked vegetation. Apart from 
the salt-covered lowlands, I received everywhere the impression 
of an Keyptian wadi vegetation. Bush stood beside bush, and 
between them was plantless soil; but on looking over the region 
from an elevated point, everything seemed sprinkled with bloom- 
ing green bushes. Now this phyto-geographic habit, or, if | may 
so term it, the ‘‘ wadi character ” of the whole desert, is not con- 
fined to Salt Lake desert, but a similar abundance of plants was 
found by me in the Mohave desert, Hee Gila desert, and the des- 
erts of western Texas. 

It may often have called forth a smile on the part of my com- 
panions to hear me complain again and again of the many plants 
in the North American deserts; but I cannot sufficiently em- 
phasize the difference as compared with northern Africa. The 
salt-covered tracts on the shore of Great Salt lake, the bottom of 
the ancient lake Bonneville, are indeed absolutely plantless, and 
in this respect delight the heart of the desert traveler; but it 
must be remembered that in this case it is merely the increasing 
salinity of the soil that kills vegetation. And when we recall 
that we here tread on the bottom of a drainless, desiccated 
diluvial lake, the theory of a Saharan sea, which in the case of 
northern Africa may well be assumed to have been definitively 
refuted, might seem to find complete confirmation in Great Salt 
lake of Utah. There we have a desert whose poverty in vegeta- 
tion is an effect of evaporated salt water. 

T supposed at first that this great wealth of plants in the desert 
of Utah and Colorado is a consequence of the great topographic 
altitude, for these deserts have an altitude of more than 1,500 
meters. The plateau of the southern Galala in the Arabian 


The Plants of the American Desert. 167 


desert in fact is also much richer in plants than the lowlands of 
the wadi Arabah. But in the low-lying deserts of southern Cali- 
fornia I soon convinced myself that this conjecture was incorrect. 
The depression of the Coahuila desert, 260 feet below tide, was un- 
fortunately traversed by me at night, from Indio to Tortuga; but 
the picture of the landscape which presented itself early next 
morning at Aztec was almost as rich in vegetation as the Van- 
horne desert in western Texas, although Aztec lies at an altitude 
of 500 feet, Vanhorne at 4,500 feet. Itis apparent from this that 
topographic altitude is not the cause of the wealth of vegeta- 
tion in American deserts. It seems, on the contrary, either that 
the average precipitation in American deserts is greater, or that 
American desert plants are better adapted to dry air. Accord- 
ing to Mr Marcus E. Jones of Salt Lake city, that place has an 
annual rainfall of about 15-16 inches; Salt Lake desert about 
6-10 inches. 

The conductor of the Southern Pacific railway, who has trav- 
eled through Gila desert daily for many years, told me that there 
is a rainy season in that desert in July and August. The desert 
sky, at other times so clear, is then clouded; there are occasional 
thunder-storms in the afternoon; and irregular rain showers fall, 
their area being so limited that at times the strip receiving rain 
is only 5 kilometers broad, though the water there covers the 
ground to a depth of afoot. For the deserts of Texas, according 
to von Streeruwitz, a mean annual amount of rain cannot be 
given at all; for in some cases it does not rain for two years, and 
again there is a rainfall of two inches in two hours. 

The plants of the American deserts attain no inconsiderable 
dimensions. In southern Arizona we rode for three hours 
through a desert in which columnar cactuses half a meter in 
diameter and 7 meters in height were to be seen by the thou- 
sand. Never have I witnessed so curious a sight as these huge 
specimens of Cereus giganteus in such multitudes. The salsula- 
ceas and artemisias form bushes a meter in height, and their 
branches are of an arm’s thickness; and, while in the Arabian 
desert one finds but slight protection against the sun’s rays 
under acacias and tamarisks, in Utah the upper slopes bear 
shade-giving juniper trees. 


While there exist thus in the conditions of vegetation wide 
differences, on the other hand there are a series of important 


168 Dr Johannes Walther—The North American Deserts. 


and characteristic desert phenomena in North America and 
Africa that present surprising resemblances. In the beginning 
of October I rode from The Needles through the Mohave desert. 
On both sides of the railway extended an almost horizontal 
plain, gently rising toward the granitic and yoleanic mountains. 
So far as the eye could reach, I saw everything covered with 
scattered desert shrubbery, sprinkling even the slopes of distant 
mountains in the form of small green points. All mountains, 
mostly volcanic rocks, dikes and ash-cones, rose island-like from 
level desert land. The horizontal plain and the steep mountain 
slopes were not linked together by a débris-covered foothill, but 
plain and mountain slope intersected without any transition. 
It is surprising to see steep mountainous islands rise from a sea 
of débris, and yet this phenomenon is characteristic of all deserts 
that I have seen in Africa, India and North America. Just as 
the granite mountains of Sinai or of the Gharib rise island-like 
from the débris plain in imposing dimensions, and as the plains 
rise toward the base of the mountains so slowly as hardly to be 
perceptible until the craggy granite colossus rears its head like 
our own mountains of massive dolomite, so in the Sierra del 
Diablo do the plateaus of the Carboniferous limestone rise steeply 
from a boundless plain, of whose accumulated débris masses one 
may form an idea on learning that near Torbert at the foot of the 
Sierra Vanhorne a well was dug 1,050 feet deep in débris. The 
phenomenon becomes especially striking, because it is noticed 
that there are no débris deltas at the mouths of valleys 1,000 
feet deep; there, too, the horizontal plain is seen to abut directly 
against the steep slopes of the mountains. 

If we conceive each landscape picture as the result of definite 
processes of denudation, the relation of such a desert plain to its 
rocky cliffs will at once indicate that denudation in the deserts 
acts differently from what it does in Kurope. But this horizon-— 
tality of the surfaces of denudation has a further claim on our 
interest from another point of view. 

In the geologic exposures that exhibit to us sections through 
parts of the earth’s crust it is found very frequently that the rock 
is parted by horizontal planes into layers lying above each other. 
This structure is called stratification. Now that which in the 
cross-section of a block of strata appears as a horizontal plane is 
merely the expression of the fact that at a certain time in the 
formation of that body of strata the freshly formed sedimentary 


Deposition in the Deserts. 169 


surface had the character of a widely extended and approximately 
horizontal plain. If we now look around on the earth’s present 
surface for regions in which the freshly formed deposits with 
horizontal planes are being formed, we find them, in the first 
place, at the bottoms of seas and large inland lakes. In them 
are formed deposits with horizontal surfaces—that is to say, 
stratified deposits. 

Now, it is very important to note that besides the sea bottom 
there exists another class of regions of the earth’s surface on 
which the products of denudation are spread with great regu- 
larity over wide horizontal areas. These are the deserts and 
steppes. Both therefore are areas which must not be left out of 
view in the discussion of the origin of stratified deposits. Strati- 
fication does not all originate under water. 

The activity of denudation is a double one. It destroys the 
rocks of the earth’s surface and transports the comminuted ma- 
terial from its place of origin. In our regions it is water that 
destroys the rocks; it dissolves them chemically and frost fissur- 
ing comminutes them mechnically. Water is also in our lati- 
tudes the most important transporting agency. In the desert it 
rains but seldom. The time in which water may there destroy 
rocks and transport débris is at most 65 days in the year. It 
has been thought that during the remaining 300 days denuda- 
tion in the desert is at a standstill; yet careful, unbiased study 
teaches that in these 300 dry days denudation is intense. A 
burning sun beats down on the rock surface, unprotected by any 
plant cover. In Texas daily variations in temperature of 40° C. 
are not at all rare; and large and small stones are cracked by 
the heat. Often have I picked up the halves of such cracked 
pebbles still fitting together. In Texas I saw granite blocks as 
high as houses divided by wide cracks, and Mr von Streeruwitz 
told me that he had seen and heard the cracking of such blocks. 
The variously colored constituents of the granite become heated 
to different degrees and fall apart in the form of coarse gravel. 
In a valley of the Sierra de los Dolores a rainfall had filled the 
rocky bottom of the valley with granite gravel to a depth of 3 
feet; this gravel had been formed by insolation on the granite 
rocks in the course of years. Deep caves weather out of the 
granite wherever the water remains longer, and these increase 
the mass of the products of denudation. 


170 Dr Johannes Walther—The North American Deserts. 


Thus rocks are destroyed by dry heat at a time when denuda- 
tion by water sinks to a minimum. On the 300 dry days of the 
year the process of rock destruction continues uninterruptedly. 
On rainy days, of course, the loosened rock material is carried 
off by running water. That such a desert rain-storm, falling 
like a cloud-burst, may carry off immense masses of débris needs 
no proof. The question is merely this: Is the transportation of 
the products of denudation at a standstill in the desert during 
the 3800 dry days? To this question also we must reply in the 
negative. Almost daily I saw columns of dust traveling slowly 
over the plain. These raise great quantities of loose material 
high in the air; there this material is caught by horizontal air 
currents and carried farther away. I also saw in Colorado how 
within one-quarter of an hour the desert plain was wrapped in 
clouds of dust so dense that one could hardly see two kilometers 
away, while previously the eye might discern everything within 
a radius of many miles. 

Thus we see that even when it does not rain there exists in 
the desert a transporting force, and that on the 3800 dry days 
neither the destruction of rock nor the transportation of the 
products of destruction is at rest. We also recognize that this 
“dry denudation,” as it has been called by an English reviewer, 
is of intense power and may well be compared qualitatively, 
though not quantitatively, with the denuding effect of water. 
It will be exceedingly difficult, however, to find a scale by which 
erosion, that is, denudation by water, can be compared with 
deflation, that is, denudation by wind; and so long as such a 
scale is wanting, all conclusions regarding their relative activity 
must rest on subjective estimates. 

Many rocks and rocky surfaces of the African deserts are coy- 
ered with a peculiar coating, which may be designated as “ brown 
protective coat” or “desert varnish.” This coating is also found 
widely distributed in the deserts of North America, and if I did 
not succeed in forming a definitive judgment concerning the 
origin of this product in Egypt, I have now in America made 
observations which promise to bring the problem nearer to its 
solution. Mr von Streeruwitz in the beginning of September 
had made excursions to several parts of the Sierra del Diablo, 
observing instances of the protective coat, which he intended 
afterward to show me. ‘Toward the end of September cloud- 


Deflation and Desert Varnish. 171 


bursts descended there, and when in the beginning of October 
we entered the valleys of the Sierra, we found to our astonish- 
ment that the protective coat had everywhere been torn away, 
and only a few shreds of it hung against some of the walls. Even 
where there had merely been a pool of water in a depression, 
and where therefore the chemical rather than the mechanical 
force of the water had been active, we found the desert varnish 
removed. From this appears with certainty what previously I 
could express only as conjecture: 

(1) That the brown protective coat is not formed by the aid 
of water, and— 

(2) That it is torn off and removed wherever rainwater has 
access. 

Now, the latter fact also throws some light on a phenome- 
non which was previously a perfect enigma. In the African 
deserts, sandstones or limestones, more rarely granite, are found 
weathered in such manner that the face of a rock wall is broken 
by niches or crannies 10 to 100 centimeters high, 5 to 50 centi- 
meters broad, separated by columns reaching a meter in height. 
Behind these columns—that is to say, in the interior of the rock 
wall—runs a passageway, at times large enough to allow a man 
to crawl along it. Both Professor Schweinfurth and myself were 
convinced that in the formation of these columned passages rain- 
water had played a part; our views diverged only on the ques- 
tion whether the columns had at one time been washed by de- 
scending rain rills or whether that had been the case with the 
holes between them. By the recent observations it is placed 
beyond doubt that only the holes can have been formed by water. 

Professor Sickenberger of Cairo has been engaged for a year on 
investigations on the chemical processes involved in the forma- 
tion of desert varnish, and important results are to be expected 
from him, confirming the views here set forth. 

I attach great importance to a letter I received frem Professor 
von Streeruwitz, who, in his laboratory at Austin, “ Kept a pro- 
tective coat, absolutely free from manganese, in an ozonized 
atmosphere for two weeks. It rapidly grew darker, and in the 
course of a few months assumed the color which those rocks had 
before the cloud-burst.” This fact shows how correct is G. Rohlfs 
in calling attention, as he did again recently, to the significance 
of electricity in deserts, and how important would be the insti- 
tution of exact determinations of electricity in some desert. 


24—Nat, Grog. Maca, von. LV, 1892, 


172 Dr Johannes Walther—The North American Deserts. 


From what has thus far been stated, it is evident that the 
North American deserts agree with the Egyptian deserts in all 
essential and characteristic points. There are striking differ- 
ences in plant geography, it is true, in that the American deserts 
on the whole are much richer in vegetation, probably by reason 
of greater precipitation. It is probably for this reason that ero- 
sion plays a larger and more important part than in Egypt. But 
the topographic character is the same: the’ prevalence of hori- 
zontal plains with island-lke mountains rising from them; the 
frequency of isolated ‘‘ Zeugenberge,” or island mountains and 
of amphitheaters in the valleys ;. the intense energy of insolation, 
cracking bowlders and pebbles and causing varicolored granite 
to crumble into loose gravel ; the appearance of mushroom rocks 
and columned galleries ; and the wide distribution of the desert 
varnish, a phenomenon which must be regarded as a specific 
effect of dry climate and scarcity of rain. The denuding effect 
of wind is apparent not only in the characters of the surface 
forms just named, which are essentially different from the forms 
of erosion, but it may also be observed directly when dust storms 
career over the desert. As in northern Africa, so in North 
America there are found four types of denudation products or 
sediments: gravel deposits, sand dunes, clay tracts and salt 
deposits. 

In view of such agreement in the primary and secondary geo- 
logic phenomena of the deserts, geographically so far apart, of 
northern Africa and North America, despite the different condi- 
tions of vegetation, one is justified in regarding the phenomenon 
of desert formation as one of the great telluric processes, a process 
having its own laws just as much as the glacial phenomena of 
the polar zone or the cumulative weathering of the tropics. 
Transferring this principle to the domain of earth history, there 
arises the problem of searching for the remains of fossil deserts 
in the strata of the earth’s crust with the same care with which 
in recent time fossil glacial periods are reconstructed. 


But the study of deserts has another important consequence. 
The desert is an extreme of climatologic conditions. Dry air 
and dry heat, which in our temperate climate make their ap- 
pearance on a few days only in the year, are active in the desert 
for the larger part of the year. Their effect in the desert is 
prominent; in our regions it occupies a very modest place; but 


The grand Colorado Canyon. 173 


it would be unfair to deny their denuding agency even in our 
‘regions. There are so many phenomena near us which can 
hardly be explained as effects of water and ice, but which be- 
come easily intelligible as soon as we recognize dry air in motion 
as a geologic force. There is perhaps not a spot on earth that 
bears no trace of erosion; neither, on the other hand, is there a 
spot where the activity of wind denudation or deflation is en- 
tirely absent. It is only a question of unbiased observation of 
nature, and of not attributing to water things which it cannot 
accomplish. 

How close together and in how intimate union erosion and 
deflation act is shown by an eloquent example, the famous Colo- 
rado canyon in Arizona. Most of the members of the great ex- 
cursion expected that our way from the railway at Flagstaff to 
the Colorado canyon would lead through a desert. What was 
our surprise, therefore, when we found that it led for 120 kilo- 
meters over a plateau more than 2,000 meters high, with prairies 
and beautiful pine woods. The shady growth of Pinus ponderosa 
extended to the very edge of the canyon gorge, and as we climbed 
the last steep slope we were able to come within two steps of the 
canyon without imagining how close we were to the coveted 
goal. One step, and we stood on the verge of a gorge 2,000 
meters deep, and only at a distance of 20 kilometers did we see 
the steep verge of the other shore. A magic twilight as yet 
reigned in the purple depth; only the topmost crags of some 
rocky towers burned with the rosy glow of the rising sun. Our 
eyes swept along the horizon, and as far as they could reach 
there appeared an uninterrupted mantle of forest; only toward 
the southeast the snow-covered peak of mount San Francisco 
emerged like another Etna, while toward the north, more than 
200 kilometers away in an air-line, arose the gourd-like mount 
Navajo. Again we looked down into the fathomless depth, 
gradually illumined by reflection from the upper peaks glitter- 
ing in the sunlight. The rock walls seemed to glow as with 
transparent light, and only with difficulty could the eye distin- 
guish details. Little by little the purple glow and the deep blue 
shadows of the abyss disappeared, and as the sun rose higher 
and higher, the shadows grew shorter. Like jutting battlements 
and fairy-like palaces, one rock structure after another disclosed 
itself. At last we were able to scan the steep walls, to recognize 
with complete distinctness the Cambrian unconformity, and even 
at one point to see the river rushing along. 


174. Dr Johannes Walther—The North American Deserts. 


The relation of the bed of the Colorado to the canyon can be 
better recognized, however, if, proceeding along the upper edge 
eastward, one finally reaches the point seen and described for 
the first time by the Spanish commander Coronado in 1542. 
Spanish point lies at the extremity of one of those wooded 
tongues of land which project so far toward the middle of the 
gorge that one is able to survey the river for a considerable dis:- 
tance along its middle line. It has already been pointed out by 
Dutton, and the view from Spanish point easily shows it, that 
the canyon is divided into two parts. At the bottom the river 
is seen rushing along in a narrow gorge cut in gneiss, and our 
ears catch the muffled roar of the mighty stream that rolls its 
brown-red flood over rapids and reefs. The bed at times is so 
narrow that the rocks rise perpendicularly 400 meters from the 
water, and only on turning northward, where the Littie Colorado 
breaks forth from its narrow gateway of rock,do we see the 
river bed widening and even bordered by a green fringe of low 
bushes. 

That this trench traversed by the Colorado and mostly of 
vorge-like narrowness is an effect of erosion, that it was cut by 
the river and is still being deepened, is not open to the least 
doubt; but when we turn our eyes to the edge of this interior 
eroove of erosion we see at once a different landscape.’ The 
strata referred to the Silurian and Devonian represent a shelf 
several kilometers in breadth, designated by Dutton as the 
“esplanade.” The edges of the strata appear distinctly as deli- 
cate isohypsal lines, and the valley widens with very gentle 
slope, to be sueceeded again by escarpments 1,000 meters high. 
But the widening above the esplanade is not uniform; for the 
promontory of Spanish point forms a sheer wall only a few 
kilometers distant from the river, while alongside it deep, semi 
circular kettles enter 5 to 8 kilometers into the plateau, and 
thereby carry back the edge of the canyon gorge as far as 10 
kilometers from the erosion groove of the river. 

Were we to cast a birdseye view on the whole valley system 
we should see in the middle a uniform, steeply carved groove, 
which at a certain point of its depth all at once widens greatly 
and appears fringed with deep, semicircular bays. If from 
Spanish point we look westward, we gaze into such an amphi- 
theater. With sheer walls 800 meters high, it rises from the 
esplanade; nowhere could the bold foot of a mountain-climber 


Deflation in Colorado Canyon. .. 175 


find a hold; with dull rumbling the blocks loosened by our feet 
from the edge of the abyss tumble down into the vast depth. 
The upper edge is cut sharp as with a knife; nowhere do we see 
a rivulet descending; nay, the plane of the plateau slopes so 
steeply away from the edge that even in heavy rainfall no tor- 
rent could tumble over it—the whole region is drained toward 
the land, away from the gorge. 

Like an enigma these amphitheaters now appear to us; all the 
more so when we learn from Major Powell, the famous explorer 
of the canyon, how rarely it rains here. Major Powell had not 
thought it necessary to take along tents for us, and when in one 
bad, stormy night we lay shivering around the smoky fire, un- 
protected against the hail and the streaming rain, not a few of 
us must have received the impression that we were in a region 
of large precipitation; and yet that storm was an unforeseen 
exception. But even if rain were more frequent than it is, still 
on account of the topographic conditions of drainage the amphi- 
theaters would be affected only by the erosion of that water 
which falls on their surface. Bursts of rain from thunder-storms 
generated within the canyon, such as were graphically described 
to us by Major Powell, may indeed wash down all the débris 
which has become loosened in the course of the rainless period, 
but nevertheless the denuding effect of water can there be only 
secondary. 

But where is the force that carved such amphitheaters ? 
Where is the cause of so singular forms of denudation? Again 
we stand face to face with the question whether in these kettles 
denudation is at rest during the 300 rainless days. If we ob- 
serve with unbiased minds what are the forces that act during 
these 500 rainless days, we see dry airand dry heat exerting their 
destructive influence on the rocks. The eye trained for such 
processes recognizes that the heat of the day, alternating with 
.the cold of the night, may produce the same effect as fissure- 
frost in our latitudes. We ourselves experienced variations of 
temperature of 30° C. within the canyon. Thus insolation and 
weathering penetrate into the rocks and break them, and the 
wind carries off the ight powder of the weathering. The harder 
ledges of rock are undermined without the aid of eroding water, 
hang over, and await the first rain-storm. Now comes one of 
those rare cloud-bursts. The water everywhere finds loose débris 
and shaky blocks. Thus the relatively small amount of water 


176 Dr Johannes Walther—The North American Deserts. 


is able to detach and sweep down a much larger amount of 
débris which afterward the Colorado carries out into the gulf of 
California. 

Thus we see in the canyon of the Colorado an interesting ex- 
ample of the combined action of erosion and deflation. We 
recognize in the inner gorge a simple channel of erosion; we ob- 
serve that the upper amphitheaters owe their existence to the 
cooperation of erosion and deflation. 

Now, what we here see in the Colorado, that we see every- 
where on earth where the soil is not covered by a mantle of 
water, snow or vegetation. There is no need of traveling into 
the deserts in order to recognize the denuding activity of wind ; 
and in the driest desert the traces of erosion may be observed. 
There is no region absolutely devoid of precipitation, and, on 
the other hand, deflation may be observed in the rainiest climate. 
When on a dry autumn day you walk along the highway and 
are annoyed by whirling clouds of dust, you are witnessing the 
denuding effect of wind. Every sand dune is the result of the 
same force. Every clay bed (‘‘ Lehmlager”) teaches how vast 
deposits are produced by wind, and the loess beds of China are 
supposed to be merely a product of deflation. We say of the 
wind that it ‘““sweeps” over the ground; for this word means 
nothing else than that the wind cleans the ground of all loose 
particles that cover it. Translated into technical geologic lan- 
guage, it is called “ deflation,” but that means nothing else than 
the every-day word “sweep.” 

One must learn to recognize the sweeping activity of the wind 
not only in the desert but everywhere, and in so doing to de- 
tect in its very beginning the process whose final product von 
Richthofen sees in the loess. 


THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY SURVEY 
I—INTRODUCTION 
BY 
Dr T. C. MENDENHALL 


(Presented before the Society March 4, 1892) 


As an introduction to what Mr McGrath and Mr Turner will 
have to say to you to-night, I have been requested to say some- 
thing with regard to the origin of the expedition from which they 
have so recently returned. Everybody present is doubtless famil- 
iar with the fact that in 1867 the United States government pur- 
chased from Russia that which was then known as Russian 
America and is now known as Alaska, paying for the same the 
sum of $7,200,000. There can be no doubt that this was a wise 
and profitable investment at the time, as it can readily be shown 
that the territory has returned to the United States in cash more 
than it cost, and we are just beginning to measure and to under- 
stand the real resources which will some time in the future be 
available. It was perhaps not generally expected at the time, if 
indeed it was expected at all, that in the purchase of the terri- 
tory we were also coming into possession of two or three inter- 
esting and somewhat provoking controversies. One of these is 
with regard to the boundary line which separates Alaska from 
the possessions of Great Britain in North America. This bound- 
ary line was originally defined in a treaty between Great Britain 
and Russia in the year 1825; and in purchasing Alaska from 
Russia we acquired an interest in the boundary line as defined in 
that treaty. 

Although it was doubtless thought at first that the bound- 
ary line was well and satisfactorily defined, it has since come to 
be generally recognized that the definition is very unsatisfactory, 
byfreason of the fact that it was based upon the very meager 
information available at the time the treaty was made. I may 
remind you briefly that the treaty defines the line as beginning 


(177) 


178 7.0. Mendenhall—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


at the southernmost extremity of Prince of Wales island, which 
point was supposed to lie on the parallel 54° 40° north latitude ; 
thence, “It shall ascend along the Portland canal until the 50th 
parallel of north latitude is reached.” From this point, in ac- 
cordance with the treaty, it shall follow the line marked by the 
summits of the range of mountains parallel to the coast until 
such line meets with the 141st degree of longitude west of Green- 
wich. From this point it shall proceed along the 141st meridian 
west of Greenwich until the Arctic ocean, or the “ frozen ocean,” 
which is the term used in the treaty, is reached. In a supple- 
mentary paragraph it was agreed that all of the island known as 
the island of the Prince of Wales should belong to Russia, and 
hence, in virtue of our purchase, to the United States; and also 
that whenever the summit of the range of mountains referred to 
before shall be at a greater distance from the coast than ten 
marine leagues, the limit of the possessions of Russia shall be 
formed by a line parallel to the windings of the coast and never 
more than ten marine leagues from the shore. 

It will thus be seen that the boundary line is divided into two 
parts which differ materially from each other. One of these is 
that line which proceeds from a point near mount Saint Khas— 
that is to say, the 141st meridian of longitude west from Green- 
wich—and runs directly north to the frozen ocean. This, being 
an astronomical line, can readily be located by astronomical 
methods and should vive rise to no controversy. That part of 
the line, however, which separates what is known as southeastern 
Alaska from the British possessions is by no means simple and 
easily determined. At the time the treaty was made between 
Russia and Great Britain the best information available was 
that contained in Vancouver’s map, which was, and in some re- 
spects is still, the best available representation of Bering sea and 
that part of North America. Itseems tolerably certain, however, 
at the present time that the range of mountains which was as- 
sumed to run parallel to the coast has no real existence, and that 
it is therefore necessary to fall back upon the second definition 
of the boundary line—that is, the line which is to run parallel to 
the windings of the shore and he nowhere more than ten marine 
leagues from the same. 

Experience has shown that the longer a question concerning the 
location of the boundary between two great nations is left unsettled 
the more difficult it becomes to decide it in a manner satisfactory 


Definition of the Boundary. 179 


to both. In a region which is sparsely settled and where there 
are and can be few interests, either public or private, that con- 
flict in any way, it is not difficult to determine a boundary line 
without dispute. The postponement of the question, however, 
may leave it undetermined until the population is greatly 
increased, property becomes more valuable, and mineral or 
other resources have been discovered which make it important 
to each contending side that every foot of territory shall be con- 
tested for. 

A very few years after the Alaska purchase (in 1872) General 
Grant, then President of the United States, recognizing the diffi- 
culties attending the settlement of this question, and especially 
the difficulties which might arise from its further postponement, 
recommended in his annual message to Congress the appointment 
of a commission for settling the boundary line between Alaske 
and the possessions of Great Britain. The country being practi- 
cally unsurveyed, it became necessary to consider a method for 
a suitable survey of the country adjacent to the boundary line 
in order that it might be correctly defined, and various estimates 
of the cost of such an operation and the length of time required 
for its execution were made at that time. The matter was 
then allowed to drop, however, and nothing further was done 
until nearly fifteen years later, when President Cleveland again 
brought the subject forward by referring to it in his message 
to Congress. 

In the estimates submitted for the year 1888 an item of 
$100,000 was inserted by the Department of State for a prelimi- 
nary survey of this boundary. No action was taken upon this 
item, however, but in the following year an appropriation of 
$20,000 was made, the survey to be conducted by the United 
States Coast and Geodetic Survey in accordance with plans or 
projects approved by the Secretary of State. In drawing up the 
plan for the work it was agreed to begin the operations by the 
establishment of points upon the 141st meridian west of Green- 
wich. In order to. accomplish this it was necessary to send ob- 
servers into the interior, and for this purpose in the spring of 1889 
two parties were organized to ascend the Yukon river and its 
branch, the Porcupine, in order to establish camps as near as 
possible to the 141st meridian for the purpose of making the nec- 
essary astronomical observations for the determination of its 
location. They were also instructed to execute such triangula- 


25—Nat. Grog. Maa., vor. IV, 1892. 


180 TT. C. Mendenhall—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


tion and topography as would be necessary for the identification 
of the locations of the observing camps, and to establish perma- 
nent monuments as nearly as may be upon the meridian line. 

These two parties, one to occupy a camp on the Yukon river 
as nearly as possible where it is intersected by the 141st meridian 
and the other on the Porcupine, were directed respectively by 
Mr McGrath and Mr Turner, whose observations are summarized 
in the following papers. 

It was estimated that one year would be sufficient for the ac- 
complishment of the work, and this estimate was a liberal one, 
provided ordinary weather conditions had prevailed in that part 
of the country. It was found, however, that these conditions 
were extremely unfavorable, especially for astronomical work, on 
account of the continued cloudiness, rendering observations for 
a long time absolutely impossible. The extreme low tempera- 
ture also rendered work difficult, and this of itself would have 
stood in the way of an early completion of the task had it been 
possible to carry on the astronomical observations. [+t thus hap- 
pened that, notwithstanding the rigor of the climate and the diffi- 
culty, if not impossibility, of obtaining supplies from outside 
sources, these parties were obliged to remain in the interior of 
Alaska during two years. Notwithstanding the unfavorable con- 
ditions under. which they existed during this time, every indi- 
vidual of both parties returned in good health and in good con- 
dition. Indeed, there was scarcely a case of even ordinary illness 
during the entire campaign, a fact which must reflect great credit 
upon those charged with the management of the parties. 

So far as we have been able to ascertain by recollections and 
comparisons made up to this date, the work with which Messrs 
McGrath and Turner were charged has been done in a manner 
entirely satisfactory and so as to reflect great credit upon these 
gentlemen. Iam sure they have very much to tell you which is 
of interest in relation to their experiences in this almost unknown 
and unexplored region, and I will not longer stand in the way of 
their doing so. 


II—THE BOUNDARY SOUTH OF FORT YUKON 
BY 


J. E.‘McGRATH 


The address of Dr Mendenhall haying satisfactorily described 
the duties which called our party into the interior of Alaska, I 
shall confine myself to a plain statement of the most prominent 
points of interest connected with the people and country that 
came under my observation during a two years’ stay in our 
ereat northwestern possession. Itmay not be amiss to call atten- 
tion to afew salient facts about this vast territory, whose remote- 
ness from the rest of the country has caused but little attention 
to be paid to its possibilities and character by the people at large 
until the rights of certain of its old-time inhabitants to peaceful 
occupation of some favorite summer resorts of theirs on a few 
small islands off its coast had been rudely interfered with. 

Alaska has an area of nearly 580,000 square miles. Its shore 
line exceeds in length the combined lengths of the Atlantic, 
Pacific and Gulf coasts belonging to the United States by 7,23 
miles. The ocean that freezes along its northern coast is the 
resort of the greatest whaling fleet in the world. Its islands of 
Saint Paul and Saint George are the breeding places of the fur 
seal, for hunting which a company pay the United States gov- 
ernment a royalty which equals GQvhen the maximum catch is 
allowed) about ten per cent on the cost of the whole of Alaska ; 
in the archipelago which extends about the national domain and 
nearly 8° of longitude into the eastern hemisphere are the haunts 
of one of the most highly prized of all fur-bearing animals, the sea 
otter; on the banks off the Alaskan peninsula the Fish Commis- 
sion steamer Albatross has found those very valuable food fishes, 
the cod and halibut, in such numbers as to make these seas 
compare favorably with the rich fishing banks of Newfoundland; 
along the southeastern coast a large mining population is profita- 
bly employed, and at the great Treadwell mine on Douglas 
island (near Juneau) the largest stamp mill in the world is 
engaged in crushing Alaskan ores; along every favorable bay 
and stream on the southern coast salmon canneries are to be 
found, and the importance of this industry may be appreciated 
when it is considered that the season’s pack for 1889 amounted 


(181) 


182. J. BE. McGrath—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


to 708,000 cases. In the interior gold, copper and coal have been 
found, but as yet the most valuable exports are the many rich 
furs for which Alaska has long been noted. 

No feature of Alaska is more remarkable and noteworthy, geo- 
graphically, than its great river, the Yukon. This mighty stream, 
rising within twenty miles of the Pacific ocean (estimated from 
the head of Lynn canal), flows for about 1,000 miles northwest- 
erly, passing inside the arctic circle, near fort Yukon, and then, 
bending its course south-southwestward, flows on for another 
1,000 miles until it reaches Bering sea. 

The Russians during their domination in Alaska did but little 

in the way of exploring the interior, and it remained for the 
hardy pioneers of the Western Union Telegraph expedition, who 
were occupied during 1866 and 1867 in selecting a route for a 
telegraph line to connect Europe and America by way of Siberia, 
established the identity of the river known to the British as the 
Lewes and to the Russians as the Kwikpak or Yukon. 
. In the early days the trade of the river was divided between 
the two peoples just mentioned. The Hudson Bay company 
had established a post at fort Yukon, and the servants of this 
-company received their goods by dog trains from the Mackenzie 
River district, extending their operations as far down the river 
as Nuklukayet, near the mouth of Tanana river, and so securing 
the trade which at the present day is considered the best in the 
Yukon district. The Russians had to bring their supplies up 
the Yukon in sailing vessels, and with this slow means of trans- 
portation found Nulato far enough in the interior for their trad- 
ing post. The English occupation of the site of fort Yukon con- 
tinued until 1869. In that year Captain Raymond, of the United 
States Engineers, was sent up the river to determine the location 
of the post. A total eclipse of the sun afforded him an admirable 
opportunity to determine his longitude. This being supple- 
mented by observations of the moon and moon-culminating stars, 
a latitude was observed; and then, as it was placed beyond doubt 
that the station was in the United States territory, the Hudson 
Bay company retired up Porcupine river to a point that the 
factor, Mr McDoueall, thought was well within the British pos- 
sessions. Captain Raymond also mapped the river between fort 
Yukon and its mouth, and when Lieutenant Schwatka made his 
famous raft journey down the river (from its head) in 1885 he 
supplemented Raymond’s work, and for the first time a fair idea 
of the course of Yukon river was given to the world. 


People of the Yukon. 185 


Captain Everett Smith, of the Western Union Telegraph expe- 
dition, made a reconnaissance of the delta, and the present maps 
nearly all use the chart made by him of the mouth of the river. 
The great reward for the pioneers in the salmon canning trade 
on this river has made the agents of the Alaska Commercial 
company at Saint Michael very anxious to discover a channel 
in the river up which ocean-going vessels might be taken. At 
present all stores intended for the Yukon river valley must be 
taken to Saint Michael and there transferred to small, lght- 
draught river steamboats, which then have a risky outside sea 
voyage of eighty miles before they can find safety in the most 
northerly of the outlets of the river, which is the Aphoon mouth. 
Its great volume of water is poured out through so many dif 
ferent channels that in no one can a sufficient depth be found to 
allow of admittance into the river of sea-going vessels. Tempted 
by the prize which is in store for the first ones to establish sal- 
mon canneries on the river, the Alaska company’s agents have 
spent much time in searching for a deep-wate1 channel. In this 
quest they can secure no help from the natives, who appreciate 
what the consequences will be for themselves if the white man 
ean bring his ships in, and hitherto the search has been a failure.. 

The inhabitants of the lower Yukon were the most miserable, 
foul and degraded beings that we saw in Alaska. Of personal 
cleanliness they seem to have no conception, and it was distress- 
ing to note the terrible diseases under which some of them 
seemed to be wasting away. The chief reason for their dreadful 
personal condition is their partiality for seal oil under all condi- 
tions and circumstances. They seemed to steep themselves in it. 
It never hasan odor which would make it acceptable to civilized 
people, and coat after coat of this stuff, laid on from childhood 
to old age, results in making the person so treated a very unwel* 
come object for notice for either nose or eye of the white man. 
The lower part of the delta is regularly submerged each spring, 
and often the miserable dwellers therein have to seek refuge in 
their boats; but just so soon as the waters subside the people 
return to their damp and sodden hovels, which really never dry 
out entirely, on account of the excessive rain that characterizes 
the lower river. This condition of person and dwelling, together 
with an almost exclusive fish diet for one-half the year, results 
in some terrible forms of diseases among the Maklemuts, and at 
various points we saw poor miserable creatures whose condition 


184. J. BE. McGrath—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


was more hideous than anything I ever read of the worst effects 
of plague or leprosy. P 
In spring, summer and fall this section is the home for in- 
numerable geese, swans and ducks. The Maklemut then lives 
well, and we were told wonderful stories of the number of birds 
killed by single hunters in a day’s hunting. Two wild geese 
could be bought in some places for a head of tobacco, and a 
miner told us that the ruling rate for wild-goose eggs at the 
trader’s store near cape Romannoff was a head of tobacco, or one- 
third of a pound of lead for 150 eges. It is needless to say that 
the native inhabitants of this section are not very particular 
about the quality or condition of the food they eat. There are 
no fastidious scruples about the cause of the death of their game- 
A white whale or seal that drifts ashore is taken with thanks, 
and if it is evident that the creature has been dead for some time 
there is the compensating advantage that the flesh is more tender, 
The Yukon river does not lack for settlements, but their size 
and condition hardly satisfied the ideas we had formed of them 
before they greeted our view. Kotlik is the home for a single 
white man, the old Russian trader and his family. Andreatski 
is only a name; a portion of the old storehouse here came in 
very handy for wood supplies when-we passed it going up river. 
Ikogumut has some importance because it is the home of the 
Russian priest'who has spiritual charge of most of the natives of 
the lower river. Kozerehhski is a few miles above the large 
‘atholic mission of the Holy Cross. White Anvik affords a home 
to the bishop elect of the Episcopal diocese of interior Alaska. 
Next above Anvik is Nulato, once the outpost of the Russian 
Trading company and noted for being the scene (so graphically 
described by Professor Dall in his work on Alaska) of the only 
massacre perpetrated by the Indians on white people in the 
Yukon valley. The next station of note after passing Nulato is 
Nuklukayet, the emporium for the trade of Tanana river and the 
most productive trading post on the Yukon. About 100 miles 
above Nuklukayet the Yukon begins to spread out into the great 
lake-like section which is locally known as the “ flats.” In this 
portion of its course the stream is dotted with myriads of islands 
The great width of the river and the constant changes in the 
shallow channels leading to every point of the compass make 
this the most dreaded part of the river for the steamboat-men, 
Near fort Yukon the river is said to be seven miles wide. 


Removal of Fort Yukon. 185 


Probably no point on the Yukon is better known by name to 
people who have not visited the interior of Alaska than fort 
Yukon. Here once was the largest and best-equipped trading 
station on the river. It was the most westerly of the Hudson 
Bay company’s posts, and until Captain Raymond determined 
that the site was within the territory of the United States, it 
controlled all the trade of the upper river. Nowa broken chim- 
ney, several mounds of ashes, and a few graves are all the evi- 
dences that remain to show where the great station once was. 

Above fort Yukon the names of a number of places appear on 
our maps, but in reality only two locations are permanently 
occupied on the whole upper half of the river. These are at the 
mouth of Forty Mile creek and at the site of old fort Selkirk. 
The scenery along Yukon river will compare favorably with any 
views I have ever beheld myself or seen reproductions of from 
any river in our country. Our summer trip up the stream was 
one continued succession of pleasant surprises. The hills were 
heavily wooded with spruce, birch and aspen; on shore we found 
flowers on every side, while birds and insects were as plentiful 
as we ever saw them in the northern states. At fort Yukon, 
which is little over a mile inside the arctic circle, the heat was 
almost insufferable, both in August and July ; and the only warn- 
ing given us of what we might expect a little later on was afforded 
at Nulato, where we saw a well being sunk which had already 
been driven through twenty-five feet of frozen ground. In spite 
of our pleasant summer, as we were all ignorant of what might 
be the rigors of an arctic winter, there was much anxiety about 
what the future would have in store for us. All the traders at 
Saint Michael were certain that the coming winter would be a 
Severe one, because the one just passed had been very mild. 
Rain had fallen on Forty Mile creek on January 1, 1889, and, 
according to all the laws of Alaskan weather, the approaching 
winter would have to make up for the mildness of the preceding 
one. Mr McGuesten told us of the winter of 1886, when the 
signal service thermometer at his station recorded —70°, and 
his face was frozen while going about fifty feet from his house to 
call some miners who lived in a cabin near by to see how low 
the temperature was. Mr Mayo was certain that a later winter 
was still colder, but unfortunately he had no spirit thermometer 
that year, and so he had to judge entirely by his sensations. 
With all this expert testimony we began to anticipate trouble, 


186 J. E. McGrath—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


A careful estimate was made of what wood we would need for 
our three fires, and it was with much foreboding of its inadequacy 
that we saw the winter start in while we had only enough wood 
on hand to last, as it afterwards turned out, for two years, and 
then have enough left over to give the steamboat Arctic four or 
five cords when we abandoned the camp in 1891. 

During the first winter the temperature fell to — 59°, while the 
second season gave us a still lower minimum, or — 60.5°. We 
had a long spell in January and February, 1890, when the 
temperature did not get above 82° below the freezing-point 
(— 50°), but at no time did this cause any suffering. Our sys- 
tems became gradually inured to the cold and, without any such 
amount of extra clothing as would excite comment in the middle 
states in winter, we were able to go about attending to our reg- 
ular duties, and taking the indoor exercise that was necessary 
for our keeping in good health. Fur garments were worn only 
when the members of the party went on journeys, and then they 
were taken for use at night, as we used no tents in any of our 
trips. In the quarters fires were not kept up beyond our time 
for retiring, except when observations kept us up all night; but. 
in spite of this, water never froze in the room the men occupied, 
and in the roof of the officers’ room-an opening eighteen inches 
square was kept open summer and winter for ventilating pur- 
poses. I suppose our capacity for assimilating fats was very 
much increased from a little discovery I made last March. One 
day, while looking over the report of the provisions used by the 
party, I noticed an extraordinarily large amount of lard charged. 
As it showed that the.man who was acting as cook was using 
monthly twice as much of this article as his predecessor in office 
(who was allowed to return home in the previous August) had 
used in six months, I called on him for an explanation. He 
claimed that he was using it in a reeular and proper way, and 
when asked for what purposes it went, he said that, for one 
thing, he always put a pound of it in the soup every day. No 
one had developed any attack of dyspepsia during the season, 
and I suppose we must thank our climatic surroundings for 
being saved from the natural consequences of this practice. 

During the intense cold the mereury froze, of course. On 
Forty Mile creek one experimenter made bullets of this metal, 
which he fitted into cartridges and fired from his rifle. We 
amused ourselves with making mercury discs which we would 


( 


Short Winter Days and Summer Nights. 187 


break to see the fracture. Coal-oil and California brandy were 
also experimented with and solidified in a very short time. 

The principal sources of worry and suffering at an arctic 
station are to be found in the short, dark days of winter and the 
long, bright days of summer. Our first winter was made rather 
worse than usual because of the small amount of oil we had to 
carry us through. For twenty hours each day during the months 
of December and January no reading or writing could be done 
in quarters without the aid of artificial light, and as we only had 
enough oil on hand to allow us to keep a lamp going for four 
hours per day, we had many a dark hour to endure, and those 
two months appeared almost endless. The long day of the 
summer seems to affect some people even more than the long 
night of winter; they appear to become nervous, and on the 
whaling fleet it is not unusual for men to become insane, and 
some are driven to suicide. At camp Davidson we were not in- 
side the arctic circle, but nevertheless no stars were visible to the 
naked eye from about April 25 to August 15, and in June at 
midnight diamond print could be read by natural light out of 
doors. Some members of the party suffered severly from insom- 
nia during the summer, and it did not seem to help them in any 
way when the heaviest cloths were used to curtain their cots. 

Although 1,400 miles in the interior and certain of a mail only 
once a year. we could not complain of loneliness while the 
Indians were near us, and very few indeed were the days that 
some of those social people omitted calling and breakfasting, 
dining or supping with us. Taken as a whole, the Indians 
in our vicinity were clean, honest, gentle and virtuous. Never 
have they occasioned the white men who came among them any 
trouble, and hitherto the mutual relations of the two races have 
been of the most cordial and pleasant character. 

The miners early recognized the necessity of seeing that none 
of their number should do the Indians injustice, and rigid laws 
have been adopted to enforce due consideration of Indian rights. 
Whatever work an Indian does for a miner or whatever he sells 
one is paid for, generally at a high price. Indians working in 
mining claims receive three to four dollars per day, which is 
relatively higher than the eight dollars paid to white men. 

What the outcome of the Alaskan placer mines will be is be- 
yond any one’s power to estimate now. The miners have pros- 
pected on nearly every stream in the country; even the Arctic 


26—Nat. Grog. Mag,, von, TV, 1892, 


188 J. FE. McGrath—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


portions of the territory have not proven inaccessible to those 
solitary searchers for the precious metal, and everywhere they 
have found “ color,” but up to the present time no place has paid 
steadily and well, except the small river called by the natives 
Chitandipeh, and by the whites Forty Mile creek. Here last 
season there were about 150 white men, and when we left camp 
Davidson in June, 1891, it was the only river below Pelly, except 
the Kuyukuk, on which mines were worked. The lower part of 
the Forty Mile is abandoned now, but the richest ground is in the 
gulches near the head of the creek, and it is estimated that it 
will be several years before their treasures’ are all extracted. 
Mayo and McGuesten are the traders who supply these men with 
stores, and they told me that their shipments of gold dust for 
the past year amounted to $40,000, and this, they estimated, was 
a little less than one-half of the total output of the creek. The 
regular mining season lasts for only about three months, but 
some men do a little winter mining, which is extremely laborious. 
It necessitates first chopping a great quantity of cord-wood, 
which then has to be hauled to the bar that is being worked. 
Here it is heaped up in piles and fired, and then the thawed 
ground is dug out and piled on some bank above high water, 
and when summer comes and the ice goes it is taken down 
and washed out. In the winter of 1889-1890 three men took 
out 23,000 buckets of dirt, which netted them $1,000 apiece for 
their three months of the hardest kind of mining work known. 
The largest nuggets ever found in Alaska have been found on 
Forty Mile creek; one was shown us which was worth $56, and 
in last July a man named Nelson took out a nugget worth $260. 
The evidences that Alaska gives on all sides of the existence of 
gold will always tempt men to go there, but real exhaustive ex- 
aminations of her streams will not be made until the miners feel 
sure that when they return to the trading posts after a long sea- 
son’s prospecting they can depend upon finding food there. As 
affairs are managed now, they must return to the stations in the 
middle of their short working season to see what the steamboat 
has brought, and no one can tell when some accident will happen to 
the one steamer that connects the interior with Saint Michael, and 
force all hands to leave the country or else face the possibility 
of starvation, as was the case in the fall of 1889. Itis avery risky 
venture trying to live on the country in the interior of Alaska. 


TII—THE BOUNDARY NORTH OF FORT YUKON 
BY | 


J. HENRY TURNER 


There is perhaps no portion of the vast territory of Alaska so 
little known as the country stretching northward from fort Yukon 
to the Arctic ocean, eastward to the international boundary, and 
westward to the headwaters of Koyukuk river. Simpson and 
Franklin skirted its northern shore, Allen penetrated into it a 
short distance, and Stoney proved the existence of a mountain 
range trending to the eastward. Notwithstanding the fact that 
the summits of lofty mountains are visible in the horizon to the 
north of fort Yukon, the impression has long prevailed that the 
river plains extend to the shores of the frozen ocean. This idea 
has even been advanced by an explorer of note within the last 
few years. Travelers have sedulously avoided this region for the 
obvious reason that the supposed absence of navigable rivers and 
remoteness of trading posts and other means of communication 
with the outer world would render it peculiarly unsuited for 
summer exploration. 

It is believed that certain discoveries made during a journey 
northward from camp Colonna in the spring of 1890 will throw 
considerable light on the geography of this terra incognita. I 
shall take occasion to revert to this question in closing my re- 
marks. 

Mr McGrath has already described the river from its mouth to 
old fort Yukon, at which point the two parties separated. On 
August 3 the steamer Yukon, with the Porcupine River party and 

_its supplies aboard, left fort Yukon and three days thereafter 
reached camp Tittmann, the then head of navigation, distant 158 
miles from the mouth of the river. The time of arrival was un- 
avoidably ill chosen, as the July droughts had reduced the stream 
to its lowest summer ebb. 

Observations placed camp Tittman 39 miles west of the bound- 
ary. Captain Peterson refused to tarry, since the river was still 
falling, as plainly indicated by wet lines along the banks and 

| (189) 


190 J. H. Turner—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


mud flats, and the danger of being stranded on a sand-bar until 
the following spring was too great a possibility to be overlooked. 
Supplies were consequently unloaded with all the expedition 
possible, and the steamer returned to fort Yukon. 

Had our time of arrival been delayed a week no difficulty 
whatever would have been experienced in landing the party at 
the boundary, as the river rose rapidly in a few days. A whale- 
boat brought from San Francisco and a large, unwieldly lighter 
borrowed from the Alaska Commercial company were ine sole 
means of transportation at our command. 

Lack of time forbids me to enter into a detailed account of the 
many difficulties and vexatious delays encountered in conveying 
25 tons of supplies piecemeal 60 miles upstream in the face of a 
strong current, broken into rapids in many places, and around 
banks undermined by the action of the water and fringed with 
fallen trees. Many mishaps occurred despite all precautions, and 
serious casualties were often avoided by a mere hair’s breadth. 
On one occasion the entire party, including several Indians, nar- 
rowly escaped drowning by being drawn into the swirling waters. 
Harkert, a member of the party, had the misfortune to lose the 
end of one finger while handling a heavy box, and Polte, another 
of the men, had an ankle broken while assisting the men in 
tracking the heavy lighter upstream. 

The Indians, unfitted by disposition or previous training for 
such arduous work, proved unreliable. It was unfortunate, too, 
that early in the season an Indian, while attempting to convey 
a heavy tow-line across stream in his frail canoe, was capsized 
and drowned. The accident led to open hostility on the part of 
the natives, and but for the timely intervention of the Hudson’ 
Bay company’s post trader, Mr Firth, the consequences might 
have proved serious. Several plans to murder the entire party 
were discussed among the hot-headed younger Indians, but the 
wiser counsels of older heads prevailed, and as our acquaintance 
with the natives progressed their mistrust and hostility gave 
place to friendliness. 

Preliminary observations made at Rampart house demon- 
strated the necessity of a further march of 33 miles upstream 
before the boundary would be reached. A well sheltered spot 
was finally selected in a timbered valley at the mouth of Suna- 
ghun river, and preparations were at once begun to build a com- 
fortable log house for winter quarters. The work was often 


The dark Arctic Winter. 191 


interrupted by snow-storms of frequent occurrence, beginning in 
August. Ice began to form along the river banks in early Sep- 
tember, and by the end of October a snowy mantle covered the 
country, and all the streams were fast locked in ice. The log 
cabin and all observatories were ready for occupation by October 
1. The days rapidly shortened as the season progressed, and on 
November 16 the sun in his course southward disappeared be- 
neath the horizon. During the shortest days lamps were extin- 
guished at 11 am and lighted at 1 pm. By 2 p m observations 
upon the stars were perfectly practicable. This state of affairs 
prevailed until January 26, on which date the sun reappeared. 
As the first few feeble rays of the luminary struggled through 
the frost-laden windows the spirits of the men brightened, and, 
rushing forth from the cabin, they capered about like mad men 
in an excess of joy. 

Many Indians visited our camp during the winter months, 
the best season for travel. In this region of soft snow the kind 
of sled used on the coast is unsuitable, and is replaced by a to- 
boggan seven feet long and two feet wide, with a large roll in 
front to fend off the snow. The dogs, usually four in number, 
are hitched tandem and so close together as to necessitates cut- 
ting off their tails. No sled dog in the Porcupine river country 
possesses this ornamental appendage, for it is amputated early 
in youth. 

Among the coast tribes all the dogs possess large bushy tails, 
which serve the admirable purpose of keeping their noses warm 
in the cold winter nights. No sled trips, with the single excep- 
tion of one to Rampart House late in December, were made at 
this time. There was no particular necessity for them, and no 
member of the party possessed sufficient enthusiasm to under- 
take a journey for the pleasure to be derived from it. 

As stated before, scarcely a day passed that some Indian did 
not make camp Colonna his abiding place until kicked out. We 
found the natives inveterate beggars. There was some excuse 
for this, as early in January the stock of provisions at Rampart 
house became exhausted. The natives with characteristic im- 
providence had neglected in summer to lay up food for the win- 
ter, and the new year found starvation staring them in the face. 
Several hunting parties had gone out, to return empty-handed 
and to report that the deer had migrated southward. Many In- 
dians were reduced to the necessity of subsisting upon moose- 


192. J. A. Turner—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


skin bags, deer-skin thongs, and old sled covers. Several old 
people died of sheer starvation, and the outlook grew gloomy. 
Timely assistance from the missionary, Mr Wallis, and a case of 
flour from camp Colonna tided over the emergency until a few 
deer were secured by an expert hunter, who had been permitted 
the use of a Winchester rifle from our camp. 

The main food supply of the Porcupine River Indians consists 
of fish and reindeer meat. In early spring this fare is supple- 
mented by a vegetable diet of wild rhubarb and a root resem- 
bling licorice. Later in the season blueberries, raspberries and 
wild currants are found in abundance. 

Salt is never used. Although we were supplied with an abun- 
dance of this article and offered it to the natives gratis, none 
seenred to desire this addition to their cooked meat. Scurvy is 
unknown in this portion of Alaska, and the remoteness of the 
settlements from the civilizing influence of the whites has pre- 
vented the introduction of several fatal diseases, but scarlet fever 
nearly depopulated the country many years ago. The prevail- 
ing distemper now seems to be of a pulmonary nature. Many 
natives seemingly in perfect health were suddenly attacked, and 
in a few weeks succumbed to acute pneumonia or galloping con- 
sumption. Medicine is of no avail. . The doctor who accompa- 
nied the expedition administered gallons of physic, but if not 
present to watch the patient the course of treatment was at once 
discontinued unless beneficial results followed the first dose. 
As several Indians treated by the doctor died, his influence over 
them rapidly waned. From implicit confidence, the natives sud- 
denly reverted to extreme distrust and resumed the rites for cur- 
ing the sick practiced by their own “shamans.” Very little 
attention is shown the sick. We detected the post trader’s hunter 
in the act of devouring some crackers supphed him for his 
daughter, who was sick abed. The girl subsequently died, doubt- 
less of starvation, abandoned to her fate by her unnatural father. 
Shortly afterward a young woman in the settlement was taken 
sick and permitted to slowly starve to death by a sister, who 
subsequently attempted the destruction of her surviving child 
by tying it to a stake out of doors and leaving it to freeze in the 
winter night. 

Though the Indian may evince affection for his children, it 
extends to no other member of the family. Father and mother, 
brother and sister, wife and husband are neglected as soon as 


9 


Native Dishonesty and Hospitality. 193 


sickness overtakes them, often abandoned, and not'seldom expe- 
dited into the other world by means of a club in order to save 
further trouble. No instance of infanticide came under my 
notice during our stay on Porcupine river, although very com- 
mon among the coast tribes of Bering sea, and especially at 
Saint Michael. Cannibalism is by no means rare. A shocking 
instance of this was reported to us during our stay at Rampart 
house. Two women, running short of provisions, killed a man 
and a boy while asleep, and subsisted upon the remains for 
several weeks. 

Though grasping, unscrupulous, and often dishonest in his 
dealings with the whites, in his own tent the Indian is a creature 
of another stamp. His ideas of hospitality are strangely incon- 
sistent with his conduct in other matters. The last morsel of 
food is shared cheerfully with the hungry stranger, the warmest 
place before the fire is assigned for his use, and the snuggest 
corner in the tent is reserved for his sleeping hours. Inthe matter 
of cleanliness and morality the native is like unto his ancestors. 
No exhortation by the most eloquent missionary can force him 
to bathe. He fears the water like a cat. No amount of script- 
ural teaching can convey to his brain the first glimmering of the 
meaning of such a word as morality; and unless he is permitted 
to carry with him at all times a plentiful stock of certain insects 
he considers his usefulness at an end. It is somewhat singular 
that a race of beings so degraded and having so little need of a 
full language should be credited with a vocabulary of twenty 
thousand words. Mr Wallis, the present Church of England 
missionary at Rampart house, doubtless carried away by enthu- 
siasm, assured me that in every respect the native language was 
far superior to the English tongue. While this statement should 
be taken cum grano salis, it is undoubtedly true that the lan- 
guage in question is superior to most of the native tongues in 
northern Alaska. Commencing at Senati’s village, the language 
remains unchanged until Peel river is reached. It is much to be 
regretted that Archdeacon McDonald has provided no vocabu- 
lary or grammar to accompany his translations of the New Tes- 
tament into the native tongue. 

The various tribes speaking this language are divided into the 
Kutcha Kutchin (Senatis tribe); the Natsei Kutchin (Dwellers 
in the North), numbering 150 or thereabouts, residing in the 
country north of fort Yukon, and known also as the Gens de 


194 OJ. EB. Turner—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


Large; the Vunta Kutchin, or Lake Indians, inhabiting the 
region of the lakes northeast of Rampart House; the Nun 
Kutchin or River Indians; the Trangik Kutchin, or Black River 
Indians, residing on the river of the same name; and the Takudh 
tribes, living in the vicinity of la Pierre’s house. Excepting 
the Takudh tribes, the other natives enumerated, numbering 
perhaps 500, trade at Rampart house. In former times this 
post was a source of great profit to the Hudson Bay company, 
as many black-fox skins were brought in by the Natsei Kutchin. 
During our ten months’ residence but two skins of this kind 
were secured, and the yearly total of other furs has correspond- 
ingly diminished. The greatest bulk of furs is now obtained 
from the Black river country, and consists chiefly of black bear 
and beaver skins. 

Eskimos from the northern coast sometimes visit Rampart 
house in order to exchange walrus lines for wolverine skins, 
which are afterwards traded to passing whalers for whisky or 
old-fashioned breech-loading Winchesters. 

Early in March it was decided to take a journey northward 
along the boundary to the shores of the Arctic ocean. 

A request was therefore sent to Mr Firth, at Rampart house, 
to provide dried meat for the trip and engage the services of two 
reliable natives with sleds and a runner to go ahead. This was 
accordingly done. Seven men and four sleds of four dogs each 
left camp on March 27, bound for the Arctic ocean. Two of the 
Indians, Edward and Moses by name, had traveled over the 
proposed route before, while engaged in trading with the Innuit 
of the northern coast, so no concern was felt on this score. The 
temperature had risen gradually during the previous day, and 
bright skies and sleeping winds indicated that the time was ripe 
for making the start. In addition to the dried meat, pemmican 
and a supply of canned meats, with a modicum of alcohol stowed 
away in the event of snake bite, completed the stock of provis- 
ions. My sled was loaded with a camera outfit and various 
instruments for the determination of geographical positions, 
heights, ete. 

It was noon when the final preparations were completed 
and the party started. Bergman, Foreman and LEngelstad 
accompanied the party. On the first day six miles were made, 
and the party camped for the night ina grove of spruce, with 
dry standing wood conveniently near. The mode of camping 


Camp Life amid Arctic Snows. 195 


as practiced by the Indians and hunters along the river is as 
follows: A well-sheltered spot is selected in a clump of spruce, 
with abundance of dry wood in the immediate vicinity. After 
unhitching the dogs, which is the first proceeding, the snow- 
shoes are removed and used as shovels to clear away a space 
twenty feet square and from two and a half to five feet in depth. 
An abundance of green boughs are then scattered evenly over 
the floor, the sides braced by brush, and a back rest is secured by 
laying several sticks lengthwise to a height sufficient to serve 
as a wind break. A quantity of dry timber is then heaped up 
on the opposite side and fired. Skins are spread over the spruce 
brush on the floor, parkas, blankets, harness, etc, are hung over the 
sides, and the camp is finished. The dogs are fed first, after 
the meat carried for the purpose has been thawed out before the 
fire. During this interval the men, in our case at least, stay the 
pangs of hunger by pieces of pemmican, succulent as chips, fol- 
lowed by the inevitable pipe. A pot full of dried meat is then 
boiled and a large kettle of strong tea brewed ; pilot bread or flap- 
jacks, if procurable, complete the bill of fare. We had pro- 
visions for twelve days, but expected to be away for eighteen, 
so it behooved us to watch the larder with a jealous eye. 

Early in the morning, next day, the party followed the wind- 
ings of Sunaghun river, and ascended the long slope leading to 
Boundary rock, so named from its proximity to the international 
boundary. It was decided to ascend the rock, which projects 
about 100 feet above the general. surface. From this elevated 
point, 2,700 feet above the sea and 1,900 feet above camp Co- 
lonna, an excellent view was obtained of the surrounding 
country. To the eastward the windings of the Porcupine could 
be traced for miles; to the westward a short but bold range of 
mountains, seemingly voleanic, cut off the view. A bank of fog 
overhung the river, and masses of vapor filled the valleys in 
various directions. There was scarcely enough wind blowing to 
lift a feather, and all looked forward in happy anticipation to 
a swift and easy journey. It was determined to camp for the 
night in a small valley some few miles to the northward, 
and all haste was made to rejoin the sleds, which were on the 
full gallop and liable to outdistance us. A few minutes after 
overtaking the sleds a sudden roaring assailed our ears, a fog- 
bank to the eastward burst asunder, and from its recesses issued 
forth a wind that nearly swept us from our feet. Clouds of glit- 

27—Nat. Groc. Mac, vou. IV, 1892. 


196 J. E. Tuwrner—The Alaskan Boundary Survey. 


tering snow filled the air and beat upon us with all the fury of 
a hail-storm. It was only by the most strenuous exertions that 
we were enabled to reach the sleds, which had taken shelter 
under the lee of a small hill. In that brief time the end of my 
nose, one temple and the tip of the right ear were frozen solid, 
and a broad white streak fully an inch wide, extending from eye 
to chin, bore evidence of the rapidity with which a man may 
freeze if the conditions be favorable. All expedition possible 
was necessary to gain the shelter of the friendly trees. For the 
remainder of that day, that night, and until noon of the fol- 
lowing day the shrieking north wind swept over the trackless 
wastes in all the fury of a Dakota blizzard. Traveling was quite 
out of the question; men and dogs huddled together in a pro- 
miscuous heap, striving to secure protection from the biting 
blast. 

The next morning everything had changed; the sun shone out 
bright again,-and the wind had died away. During the fore- 
noon we climbed continually up the further side of the valley, 
and about 12 o’clock reached the summit of a pass at an alti- 
tude of 2,500 feet. Spread out before us and extending eastward 
to the furthest horizon, appeared a plain covered with a dense 
growth of spruce, birch and cottonwood—a veritable oasis in the 
midst of utter desolation. Its western limit was a plateau, 
doubtless the northern continuation of the eastern front of the 
Porcupine ramparts. Fifty miles away to the northward a range 
of low mountains was discerned, trending to the eastward, and 
forming the northern boundary of the plain. As I afterward 
discovered, they form the true water-shed of northeastern Alaska 
and the country beyond to Mackenzie river. 

It took three days to cross this plain. On the first day a 
tribe of Nigalek Eskimos were encountered. They were fine- 
looking savages and seemed much surprised to meet white men 
so far away from the trading posts. They broke camp on the 
following day and started northward for the summer hunt on 
the Arctic. 

We crossed innumerable lakes during the next few days, and 
on the fifth day crossed the mountains at an altitude of 3,006 
feet. The descent on the northern slope was abrupt, My burly 
foreman covered the distance rapidly by sliding down head 
foremost, necessitating various repairs to certain portions of his 
trousers. We found the temperature much lower on the north- 


The Shores of the Arctic. 197 


ern side of the mountains, ranging from — 20° to — 50° Fahr. 
I slept in a parka and beneath a deerskin robe. In the morn- 
ing the long hair around the front of the hood was one mass of 
ice, which had to be thawed out before the parka became man- 
ageable. | 

After descending the mountains, the route led through a 
valley hemmed in by most forbidding-looking mountains, run- 
ning up in jagged spurs to a height of 6,000 or 8,000 feet. Three 
rivers in this valley run into one, which has its outlet near the 
eastern extremity of the basin. A large area was covered with 
ice, the result of overflow, but at the outlet the current had worn 
its way through the ice, and the vapor arising from the exposed 
surface gave the appearance, at a distance, of a boiling spring. 
This river was followed to the shores of the Arctic ocean, pass- 
ing often between towering mountains or through gloomy can- 
yons, where the wind howled dismally. 

On the eighteenth day, April 8, the ocean was reached. A 
stiff breeze was blowing from the southeast and the mercury 
registered — 30°. A fire of driftwood was made and shelter 
was secured under the lee of a snow bank. The drifting snow 
shrouded the horizon until late in the afternoon, when the wind 
ceased and a long line of hummocky ice was revealed skirting the 
gloomy shore. 

A record of our visit was inclosed in a brass shell, some observa- 
tions were made, and early the next day the return trip was 
begun. Camp Colonna was reached in six days, a rapid journey 
considering the nature of the country, the frigid temperature 
and the depth of the snow. 

Although the season was already well advanced and the sun 
well on his northern journey, not the slightest evidence of a 
thaw could be detected north of the valley of the Three Rivers. 
The stream, which was followed to the ocean, was frozen to the 
bottom, objects ten feet beneath the ice being plainly visible 
through the transparent medium. 


COLLINSON’S ARCTIC JOURNEY 
BY 
GENERAL A. W. GREELY 


(Presented by title before the Society April 3, 1892) 


Somewhat more than a year ago the members and guests of 
the National Geographic Society had the great pleasure of hear- 
ing from the lips of Lieutenant-Commander Charles H. Stockton, 
U S N, a detailed and interesting account of his remarkable 
voyage in the USS Thetis, during the summer and autumn of 
1889, from San Francisco through Bering strait, around point 
Barrow, eastward to the mouth of Mackenzie river, and thence 
westward to Herald and Wrangell islands, whence he returned 
to his home port. It was a remarkable voyage, and Commander 
Stockton deserves especial credit for the professional ability and 
personal energy displayed by him throughout so trying and so 
successful a trip. 

This account, somewhat enlarg ca has been written up by an- 
other hand than Stockton’s and “rclbllistne:| for a very large audi- 
ence, the readers of Scribner's Magazine, April, 1891. The value 
of all journeys to remote regions depends primarily on the fidel- 
ity and accuracy with which the account of such voyages may 
be written. Noone who knows Commander Stockton, or who has 
heard his personal account, doubts that he has rather under- 
stated than exaggerated the circumstances of his voyage. It is 
therefore with a feeling of very great disappointment that every 
well informed reader must have perused the opening paragraphs, 
which are incorrect in statement and most unjust by inference to 
the gallant predecessors of Commander Stockton. 

The article, entitled ‘Where the Ice never Melts,” begins as 
follows : 

“Two score years ago—it was in August, 1850—a vessel lay at anchor 
far to the north, beyond the Arctic circle. To the south of her rosea 
lofty cone-shaped island; to the north, to the east, to the west, beyond 


the narrow lane of open water wherein she lay, stretched for untold miles 
the blue ice, that, hard as granite, yields nothing to the blaze of the sun- 


(198) 


Stockton’s Arctic Voyage. 199 


Above her was the gray Arctic sky, colder even to behold than the blue 
ice itself. All around was the silence of the far north—the terrible Arctic 
silence that drives men mad with the longing for some sound. Only the 
coming and going of the vessel’s crew gave life to the scene. 

“The vessel was Her Britannic Majesty’s ship Investigator, Captain 
McClure; the place was the mouth of the great river Mackenzie; the 
island was that named in honor of the famous astronomer, Sir William 
Herschel. 

“or nearly two score years no vessel crossed the waters of Mackenzie 
bay. Herschel island, unvisited for more than a generation, was but a 
name on the maps. At last one summer drove back the ice farther than 
before in forty years, and the west wind helped it, and then through the 
narrow lanes of water and through the shifting ice came nine vessels) 
eight of them dingy craft—whaling vessels—but the other a trim ship, 
whose sails were white, whose metal-work shone, from whose peak flut- 
tered the stars and stripes—the United States steamer Thetis, commanded 
by Lieutenant -Commander Stockton, the first man-of-war that ever 
reached Herschel island, the first vessel ever to fly in that lonely place 
the flag of the United States.” 


The Arctic voyage made by the late Captain (afterwards Ad- 
miral) Sir Richard Collinson in H M § Enterprise, from 1851 to 
1854, was perhaps, everything considered, the most successful 
expedition made in Arctic research prior to the use of steam. 
Collinson passed point Barrow in 1851 and wintered for that 
season in Walker bay (71° 35’ N., 170° 39’ W.), on Prince Albert 
land, to the east of Bank’s or Baring’s land. The next season, 
1852-3, he wintered in Cambridge bay (69° 3’ N., 105° 12’ W.)- 
He left Cambridge bay in the summer of 1853, on August 10, 
and on September 15 reached Camden bay, near Flaxman island, 
between the Mackenzie and point Barrow. The sea was nearly 
open, but strong easterly winds, packing the ice to the west of 
the bay, formed a sufficient barrier to prevent Collinson escap- 
ing from the ice, especially as he was depending entirely on sail. 
The Enterprise here wintered in 70° 8’ N., 145° 29’ W., and in 
the ensuing summer, on July 20, 1854, was able to sail eastward 
to Bering strait. 

As already said, Collinson’s voyage was remarkably success- 
ful. Herschel island, which was reached by Stockton and the 
American whalers wader steam, is about 15° in longitude east of 
point Barrow; but Collinson took his vessel wnder sail about 
40° east of that point, or nearly three times as far beyond point 
Barrow. 


200 General A.W.Greely—Collinson’s Arctic Journey. 


Parry, in his wonderful voyage to Winter harbor, traversed 
only 30° of longitude from the open water of Lancaster sound, 
but Collinson took his vessel nearly twice as far from the free 
waters of Bering strait. It should be noted to Collinson’s credit 
that the series of straits through which he tacked his vessel were 
the worst that have ever been successfully navigated to a consid- 
erable distance by any Arctic expedition, and that in addition 
to his journey from Bering strait to Cambridge bay and return 
he also carried the Enterprise up McClure strait to as high a 
point as was reached by the Investigator. In short, no other ves- 
sel came so near completing the Northwest Passage as the Enter- 
prise. 

The writer of the article referred to was not ignorant of Collin- 
son’s journey, for on page 480 he refers to the fact that Collin- 
son wintered at Camden bay in 1855-4. 

On the other hand, McClure never visited Herschel island. It 
is not mentioned in any of his reports, and the track charts, both 
in Armstrong’s “ Northwest Passage ” and in Osborn’s account of 
McClure’s voyage, show that the Investigator, under McClure, left 
the American coast near Camden bay and steered northeastward 
into the polar pack, into which the Jnvestigator penetrated nearly 
ninety miles from land. Obliged by the closing ice to turn back- 
ward, McClure made Pelly island, on the eastern side of Mac- 
kenzie river, thus making a long detour in which his nearest 
approach to Herschel island was at a point about twenty-five 
miles northeast of it. 

The records thus show that McClure found an open sea from 
point Barrow eastward in 1850, Collinson in 1851 and 1853, and 
Stockton in 1889, while the American whalers came safely back 
in 1890. In short, it may be said that nearly every year the 
Mackenzie may be reached by steam whalers, and that the ice 
is neither eternal nor fixed along the shores of northern Alaska 
and the Mackenzie River region. 


It appears to be a proper labor for the National Geographic 
Society to favor the correction of errors relating to noted journeys 
and ill known regions; hence this attempt to do justice to Col- 
linson and to correct the inferential error as to the Mackenzie 
river which by a flight of fancy only, can be described as a land 
‘Where the ice never melts.” , 


NOTES. 


Topographic Survey of Canada.—Some two years ago a book on 
the subject of photographic surveying by Mr E. Deville, sur- 
veyor general of Canada, was issued by the Dominion land office. 
Apparently this is a book of instructions, and treats exhaustively 
of the methods of photographing and of using photographs for 
constructing maps therefrom. 

Since few are acquainted with this subject, it may be well to 
characterize briefly the method of surveying by photography. 
A few points, including all occupied stations, are located by 
angularmeasurements. Irom the occupied points, photographs 
of the surrounding topography are taken, a complete round of 
the horizon usually being made from each station. Devices are 
employed for facilitating the measurement of horizontal and 
vertical angles from the photographs, and the photographs are 
sent to the central office at Ottawa, where maps are constructed 
from them. Angles are measured from the photographs, and 
thus all points for location are fixed, their heights determined 
and contour lines located. 

To topographers on the southern side of the boundary this ap- 
pears to be a very indirect way of making a map. Most of those 
who have studied the subject are aware that this method has 
been experimented with by several countries and discarded by 
all except Italy and Canada. The topographers of all other 
countries are accustomed to making maps directly in the field, 
using the country itself as copy, and not passing it through the 
medium of a photograph. By this simple and direct method it 
is believed that a more lifelike transcript of the original can be 
obtained, and, moreover, that the work can thus be done more 
rapidly and at less expense. 

A few sheets recently issued by the Dominion land office ap- 
pear to sustain this position. They are lithographed on a scale 
of 1: 40,000, relief being expressed by contours at intervals of 
100 feet and by shading. They represent a portion of the Rocky 
mountain region on the line of the Canadian Pacific railway. In 
many respects these maps are very creditable productions. A 
commendable attempt has been made to map a wild and un- 
known region, and the use of hill shading, combined with con- 

(201) 


202 Notes. 


tours, is a move toward giving a graphic presentation of the 
appearance of the country. The shading is not altogether satis- 
factory, owing, perhaps, to lack of practice on the part of the 
draughtsman, as this is something which requires years of study 
to produce with good effect. The maps are printed in five 
colors, though probably one of these, red (used to represent trails 
and roads) might well have been replaced by black. The brown 
for the contours, green to represent forests, and blue for drainage, 
with black for culture, gives one of the most satisfactory and 
effective combinations possible. 

There are, however, some serious defects in these maps. The 
representation of the topographic features is hardly natural. 
There is a want of detail and little suggestion of the ruggedness 
of the country. An experienced topographer immediately notes 
many features which are plainly due to misinterpretation of the 
photographs. From the appearance of the country as mapped 
one would expect to be able to take a pack-train anywhere, 
whereas in reality the ruggedness of the country forbids travel 
even on foot in the greater portion of this region. These are re- 
sults of the extreme generalization due to the making of maps 
from photographs. The scale employed might well be reduced, 
say, to 2 miles to an inch. This scale would be amply large to 
show every detail represented, and would be more in consonance 
with the vertical scale of 100-foot contour intervals which is em- 
ployed. 

Apparently but a small number of stations were occupied in 
mapping the country. On one of these sheets in particular, 
the Anthracite sheet, but one station appears to have been occu- 
pied in a total area of 65 square miles. The expense of this 
work, eight dollars per square mile, is double that of work on a 
scale of 2 miles to the inch on this side of the boundary, with 


which it may be compared. 
H. M. W. 


Lieutenant Peary’s Crossing of Northern Greenland.—The follow- 
ing account of this remarkable journey is condensed from the 
only official sources available, which are the accounts over 
Lieutenant Peary’s signature in the New York Sun of October 
25 and 381, 1892. Lieutenant Peary’s party of seven wintered 
at Red cliff, on the shore of McCormick bay, in about 77° 7’ N. 
71° W. On April 80, 1892, the advance travelling party left 
Red cliff, followed May 2 by Lieutenant Peary. Besides the 


Peary’'s Journeys in Greenland. 208 
leader, the expedition consisted of Dr Cook, Gibson, Astrup, 
Matt and seven Eskimo, with three sledges and 20 dogs. Within 
a few miles the summit of the inland ice was reached at a spot 
2,900 feet above sea level, where a cache camp was established 
near a “nunatak” (the Eskimo name for a rocky peak rising 
above the level of the surrounding inland ice). From this point 
Matt was sent back, owing to a frozen heel. A second*‘‘igloo” 
(snow-house) was built on May 8, but afterward snow-houses 
were dispensed with as demanding too much time to construct. 

By May 14, after extremely fatiguing work and double banking, 
the true inland ice may be said to have been reached. By this 
time 16 out of 20 dogs remained and the disabled sledges were 
reduced from eight to four, all of one type. The party were 
individually equipped with a deerskin “ kooletah ” and sleeping 
bag, a sealskin “timiak,” and seal ‘“‘ kamiks” or moccasins. The 
party crossed the divide of the inland ice between Whale sound 
and Kane basin at an elevation of 5,000 feet, and thence de- 
scended toward the basin of Humboldt glacier. The course of 
travel was toward the northeast, and camp Separation was made 
130 miles from MeCormick bay. At this point it was decided 
that Lieutenant Peary should go forward with Astrup, while Dr 
Cook and Gibson, with a light sledge and two dogs, and rations 
for twelve days, should return to McCormick bay. 

On May 51 Lieutenant Peary reached the divide of inland ice 
and looked down on the basin of Petermann fiord. He was 
obliged, owing to crevasses, to deflect ten miles to the eastward, 

where he made camp Petermann, at which he remained 36 
hours to determine his position and take bearings. From this 
point gigantic crevasses obliged him to travel due eastward for 
ten miles, when he took a course northeastward, hoping to clear 
the basin of Sherard Osborne fiord. 

Crossing another divide of the inland ice, June 8 found Lieu- 
tenant Peary and his party descending into Saint George fiord, 
which penetrates far inland. Here they were detained two days 
by a severe storm, after which the character of the glacier ice to 
the northward was so unfavorable that they were obliged to turn 
southward and eastward, and after two days of hard work found 
that they had lost 15 miles of their northing, besides injuring 
their team. The point reached on the inland ice was now 6,000 
feet above the level of the sea. A northeasterly course was again 


28—Nar. Grog, Mag,, vou, LV, 1892, 


204 Notes. 


followed, but unfavorable ice and enormous crevasses obliged 
frequent detours eastward. 

‘On June 26, still at an elevation of 6,000 feet, the course was 
northeastward, but land appearing in that course, a detour east- 
ward was again necessary, which led to a comparatively flat, 
round-topped, ice-clad land. Skirting the edge of the inland 
ice parallel with the land, they reached their highest northing 
on the 82d parallel. Here there was land to the northwest, 
northward and northeast. Of its character Lieutenant Peary 
says: “ Dark-brown and red cliffs looked down into a grand, 
vertical-walled canyon reaching up toward our camp ; and every- 
where, to the northwest, north and east, black and dark-red 
precipices, deep valleys, mountains capped with cloud-shadowed 
domes of ice, stretched away in a wild’ panorama.” From this 
point Lieutenant Peary was obliged to travel toward the south- 
east parallel with the edge of the inland ice and the shore land. 

On July 1 a wide opening between high vertical cliffs allowed 
Lieutenant Peary to travel northeastward and quit the summit 
of the inland ice, then 5,000 feet above sea level. Following 
down a steep gradient toward the red-brown land, rivers and 
lakes became visible along the margin of the ice, and the party 
finally reached the highest point of a moraine after wading 
many streams and floundering through much melting snow. 
Leaving Astrup and his team at this point, Lieutenant Peary 
started northeastward to climb a cliff which apparently com- 
manded a view of the coast and seemed to be only five miles away. 
The mountain appeared to recede as he advanced, and after . 
eight hours’ work to reach the summit, it proved that interven- 
ing hills shut out a full view of the coast. By this time Lieu- 
tenant Peary’s foot-gear was practically worn out and his feet 
injured from the broken sharp rocks, and it was only by im- 
provising foot-gear from his sealskin mittens and cap that he 
was able to return to camp. On July 3 with Astrup he de- 
scended to the shore and kept along the crest of rock-strewn 
mountains. 

Finally, on July 4, they reached the summit of a rocky plateau 
with a sheer face rising 4,000 feet above the bay, which was 
named Independence bay from the day of its discovery. On 
the east was a great ice stream named Academy glacier, beyond 
which rose a yet higher vertical cliff, on a portion of which 
rested a great projecting tongue of inland ice. 


The mysterious eastern Arctic Ocean. 205 


Of the view Lieutenant Peary says: ‘Some 15 miles north- 
east from where we stood these cliffs ended in a bold cape, just 
beyond the fan-shaped face of the great elacier, and the shore 
from there swept away to the eastward. West of us lay the 
opening of the fiord which had barred our northern advance. 
Northwest stretched steep, red-brown bluffs with a flat foreshore 
reaching to the water’s edge. The resemblance of these bluffs 
to the eastern shore of McCormick bay was very striking. Close 
at hand a single isolated ice cap crested these bluffs, but disap- 
peared in the middle distance, and beyond that the shores which 
stretched far away to the northeast were free of snow and the 
summits free of ice caps. 

“The bay itself beyond the glacier face seemed perfectly 
smooth, and far out in its center a clouded appearance showed 
the beginning of the process of disintegration in the formation 
of water pools upon the surface. Between the bold cape on the 
right and the distant northern shore the white level of the sea ice 
stretched out to meet the distant horizon over the mysterious 
- eastern Arctic ocean.” 

Observations for position were made, those for longitude being 
based on equal altitudes, with the resulting latitude of 81° 37’ 
4” N, and a longitude (from map) of about 34° W. A cairn 
was raised, in which were placed a record of the journey, a ther- 
mometer, and copies of the New York Swn and Harper’s Weekly. 
The national flags belonging to the Philadelphia Academy of 
Natural Sciences and the National Geographic Society (the latter 
flag presented by Miss Dahlgren) were displayed. The arctic 
poppy and other flowers, purple and white, were present, to- 
gether with the snowbunting. Musk-ox trails were frequent, 
and five musk-oxen were killed. The return to McCormick bay 
was made in nearly a straight line, and the main divide of the 
inland ice was crossed at an elevation of 8,000 feet. The main 
incidents of the return journey were an experience of the most 
violent storm and the loss of several dogs, whereby the number 
was reduced to five. The return journey occupied thirty-one 
days. ; 

The journey of Lieutenant Peary is most extraordinary. Its 
most important geographic result is the determination of a great, 
fiord opening eastward into the Greenland sea at a point some 
200 miles north of the highest position reached on the eastern 
coast of Greenland by any of Lieutenant Peary’s predecessors. 


206 Notes. 


Perhaps not less important is the confirmation of the opinion 
expressed eight years ago by General Greely that Greenland 
ends near the 82d parallel, and that the land to the northward is 
probably separate. Lieutenant Peary’s most northerly point, in 
latitude 82°, was that looking down on the great fiord which de- 
bouches in Independence bay. It is of course not proved, but 
it is almost beyond question, that this is a continuation of Nor- 
denskiold inlet, which begins in the Polar ocean near the 88d 
parallel. Of this fiord, discovered by Lieutenant Lockwood 
May 6, 1882, that lamented and distinguished officer says: “ The 
fiord at whose mouth we camped ran to the southeast or south 
to an immense distance; no land visible at its head.” Lock- 
wood was a very conservative man, and he charted this fiord 
southeastward to only longitude 45, which is but five degrees 
eastward, or less than fifty miles northwest of the most northerly 
point reached by Lieutenant Peary. The character of the land 
seen by Peary to the north and northwest indicates satisfactorily 
that these two fiords are one, as charted by Lieutenant Peary 
in the New York Sun of October 31. The discovery of musk- 
oxen at Independence bay confirms General Greely’s supposi- 
tion, put forth in 1884, that these animals reach the eastern coast 
of Greenland through Nordenskiold or some adjacent inlet. 

In his sketch map (New York Sun, October 31) Peary extends 
the northern coast of Independence bay some fifty miles east- 
ward, to about 25° west longitude. This easterly extension of 
bold, high, ice-free land, with intervening water, whereon the 
ice was in the process of disintegration, makes it exceedingly 
doubtful if a very high northing can be made on that coast, with 
McCormick bay as a base. With Thank-God harbor as a home 
station, however, there will be no serious difficulty in making a 
very high latitude, say 85° N., either via Lockwood’s route or 
across the inland ice to Independence bay. 

A. W. G. 


Geographic Prizes—The National Geographic Society, with a 
view of encouraging geography in the public high schools of the 
United States, has instituted certificates and medals which are 
to be awarded annually in each state to such graduating pupils 
of public high schools as shall write the best original geographic 
essays on subjects to be selected by a committee of the Society. 
It is intended that each essay shall pertain to the continent of 


Geographic Prizes. 207 


North America, and that it shall be comprehensive in its scope 
and limited in its length, so as to afford opportunity for origi- 
nality of treatment. The codperation of state superintendents of 
education will be sought by the Society. The best essayist of 
each’ state will receive a certificate of efficiency from the National 
Geographic Society. The Geographic Gold Medal of the Na- 
tional Geographic Society will be awarded to the best essayist 
of the entire country, while the second best essayist will receive 
a certificate of honorable mention. The subject of the essay for 
1893 will be announced shortly. 


GENERAL RULES. 


1. Essays will be received only from such public high schools as form- 
ally announce their intention to compete by May 31 of each year. 

2. All essays must be entirely composed by the pupil, who must certify 
on honor that he has not received aid from any person. 

3. No essay shall exceed 2,500 words in length. 

4. In each state the superintendent of public schools, if his codperation 
ean be secured, will select by such process as he deems advisable the 
three best essays, which shall be passed on by a committee of the National 
Geographic Society in order to select the best essay for each state and for 
the United States. 

5. The certificate issued to the best essayist of each state shall set forth 
im proper terms that ....... POEINOLONEG Of yen essayists from .....:. 
public high school, in the state of ....... , is awarded this certificate by 
Tue Nationat GrocRApHic Socrery for his proficiency in geographic 
science. 

6. No certificate shall be awarded to any competitor unless in the 
opinion of the judges the essay offered possesses sufficient merit to justify 
such award. 


It is desired that the superintendent of public schools in each 
state shall select, by such method as he deems advisable, the 
three best essays, and from the collection of such essays the 
committee of the National Geographic Society will select the best 
essay for each state and for the United States. One of the most 
important aims of the National Geographic Society is to stimu- 
late and make more practical the study of geography, particu- 
larly with reference to America. The Society therefore seeks 
the cooperation of all educational workers in making its labors 
more efficient and general. To this end gifts for medals and 
scholarships are solicited and identification with the Society by 
active membership and personal effort are urged. 


208 Notes. 


The Society already comprises among its active workers a 
considerable number of geographic scientists, who have given 
liberally of their time and efforts with a view of stimulating 
public interest in geographic education. The Society is a work- 
ing one, and in its efforts to exercise an educational influence 
over the whole of the United States feels justified in asking lib- 
eral support from high-spirited citizens. The Society numbers 
among its members over 700 persons and has active representa- 
tives in every state and territory. 

General A. W. Greely, United States Army; Professor T. C. 
Mendenhall, superintendent of the United States Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, and Professor W. B. Powell, superintendent 
of public schools of the District of Columbia, constitute the 
committee charged with the selection of the subject and award 
of the prizes for 1893. 


Nie 


Ay ho 


Sie 
He 


INDEX. 


Page 
Axper, CLEVELAND, Record of remarks by.. an 
ABERCROMBY, Rawpu, cited on weather..... &6 
Axixs sitkensis from buried forest........... 78 
ABLATION: RUACClOfcsecscvavesisscasecssasseosses creme 
ACHILLEA millefolium, Occurrence of ...... 79 
Aconitum napellus, Occurrence of .... > OE! 
Apams, C. A., Acknowledgment to.. 21 
ADIANTUM pedatum, Occurrence of......... 79 
Arrica, Record of lecture on...............5 Xvii 
—, Reterence to deserts of...................-- 165 
AGassiz, Louis, cited on glaciers......... 36, 39 
AukLEN, Derivation and orthography of.. 132 
AHKLEN, Laker, Surveys Of..........:.ceeeceeeee 119 
Air, Geography of the...... 85 
ALAskA, Boundary survey Of...........-.206+- V7 
—, Explorations in............... vil, 117 
—, Meteorologic Worle in........10...--.0t.000-- 91 
—, Muir Glacier in........ Ste UY) 
—, Record of papers on. XIV, XV 
SLU COS OLE GOS Ole rscresstoccscnearsacstedeserpicasens 181 
Axecroria ochroleuca, Occurrence of...... 161 
AuegertA,Codperation by, in meteorologic 
WLM Kannanaene ad MUMas Setiaaesle saicivotsomeeachientces 91 
AuLEN, Henry T., cited on Alaskan gla- 
CHET Mi cieor sets: dsussiectecseaeutevevestesceswesss 1 


— — — drift in Alaska 


—, Reference to exploration by ...... 125, 189 
—, Surveys in Alaska by.............:06 120, 128 
ALPINE GLACIERS, Conditions Of ............... 45 


ANAPHALIS margaritacea, Occurrence of.. 79 
Anperrson, T. F., Record of drowning 


OMaticnn cee sts satan coh aticety ceeecunssteeveuen teNeoseve vii 
ANEMONE multifida, Occurrence of.. 79 
— narcissifiora, Occurrence of.... 79 
Annapouts, Field meeting at...... XVil 
ANTENNARIA dioica, Occurrence of. 79 


ANTWERP, Supremacy of................. Es OG 


AQUILEGIA formosa, Occurrence of. 79 
Apraxia, Karly commerce of......... if 
—, Reference to deserts of........ 165 
Arazis ambigua, Occurrence of . 79 


— petrea, Occurrence of 
Arcuran rocks of Alaska 
Arotic exploration........... 
ARcTIC OCEAN, Shores of 
ARENARIA lateriflora, Occurrence Of.. 
ARGILLITE of Muir inlet 


ARIZONA, DESCLtS OF 2.1.2. 0.-ceeves) ooceeceseceseees 
ARKwRriIGut, Sir RrcHarp, Influence of in- 
WGIMUITOTIS 1A occ parseqosonconccacannechoosoOnDOOSEE: 
Army explorations, Character and re- 
SUITS! Of areas bat vernuhceaanatneeucccne pe ekinre ey LOA: 
Arnica latifolia, Occurrence of ... 79 
— unalaschensis, Occurrence of. 79 
Asta, Reference to deserts of...... 165 


Asprpium lonchitis, Occurrence Of ........... 
— spinulosum, Occurrence of............ ee 


ASPLENIUM viride, Occurrence of. 79 
AstER foliaceus, Occurrence of .. tee 
— peregrinus, Occurrence Of .............-.--- 79 
AsrRacatus frigidus, Occurrence of ........ 79 


AHens, Record of lecture on 
AUGITE-DIORITE from Alaska ...... 
AUGITE-MIcA-DIORITE from Alaska. ae 
AvGITE-PORPHYRITE from Alaska.............. 71 
AuLAcomnivm palustre, Occurrence of ..... 160 
AusTtRALIA, Cooperation of, in meteoro- 
LOpiC Wiomrlaiececesencovesses seneecoreeueredsmects 91 


Page 

Austro-Huncary, Codperation of, in me- 
teorologie work.........0.c-..... Svaubedewnesee 91 
AzURITE! trom Alasikciesdereceecscescseaseeceesee-© 144 
Basyton, Early commerce of........... ...... u 


BAD-LANDS Of Dakota.............--0000--- 
Bmomyces ceruginosus, Occurrence Of....... 
Barrp, 8. F., quoted on work of the Sig- 

TOA ISLeNA CES cae nsongascananneoonteaecco sconoceos BE) 
BaxeEr, Marcus, Election of, as Manager.. xix 
-—; Fourth annual report of the Secreta- 


vil 


Bauzoa, Discoveries by 5 
BaRromerer observations at Muir glacier.. 81 


Jey ANS) Arn aha AMI EIST) een ep eeeeocen oeecccecoacceca 150 
Bassanta deflewa, Occurrence Of............+ 160 
BarcHeLper, R. N., Election of, as Vice- 
PRESTO OMG casnesessee-tslsseserensaeeeee eee xix 
BEACONSFIELD (BENJAMIN DisraEtt) Lorn, 
Influence of, on commerce............... 
Brterum, Coéperation of, in meteorologic 
WOVE (oh 02s calcceciecdevetvoucuadeeeeds samerne saetane 91 
Bett, C. J., Election of, as Treasurer...... xix 
—; Fifth annual report of the Treas- 
UUEG cacs. case cess cuw ens ssedonss soetee meres coset On 
—; Fourth annual report of the ‘lreas- 
WHHL? npr enecde cere se cpioboceceorpooasmecereoana. ceca acc x 
Bere take, Description of .........-.---....0 28 
Brianrorp, Henry F., cited on weather... 88 
Buount, H. F., Election of, as Manager.. xix 
Botrvia, Record of lecture on ............... Xvi 
BonnevittE, Lake, Shore lines and de- 
MOSIUS Of. 25.00 secdescessdens ee svecsceusereeteee 165 
Borne, Max yon prem, Reference to jour- 
MOMS OL se ee is ices iwostngas ee ae 163 


Bort, T'EISSERENCE DE, cited on weather... 88 
Boranweot Alas lian jvsessrecacceetshen en cetesene 
—'—— SMU Pla CIOL .....2:ccscnstceaeewonsesce lenacets 79 
Bounpary survey (The Alaskan); T. C. 


INLSiaCleh AV MEN Be nteasooseacacce- poonacisancceadcacs 177 
Bowker, Franx, Acknowledgment to...... 122 
= PLOSME CULMS DY-snsccceecversreacetesencatteensets 143 
Bow ver Clay, AlaSkan..............c00ecensceeeee 155 


Brazit, Codperation of, in meteorologic 


WW Ol Keusaosstesstesseecssnsceseaseuecete eres 91 
BRENNER, JOHN, quoted on vulcanism in 

AMES eet re esnepinace dawns scene ene sreassee-eameetieatens 45 
Brown, GOVERNOR , Acknowledgment 

10) ceocasoocnacaae ceo osocdovoconcacronon goncsndOerooeaNE XVi1l 
Bryantuus aleuticus, Occurrence of........ 79 
— empetriformis, Occurrence of...... 79 
— glanduliflorus, Occurrence of........ cee 08) 
BucHan, ALEXANDER, quoted on weather.. 88 
BuELiia parasema, Occurrence Of........... 161 
Burtep Forrest, Wood from 75 
By-Laws, Amendments to......... Xlll, Xiv, XV 
MO CC ALTON Of cenesedossse-ee-naeaeeaescetanee Xxi 


CarirorniA, Deserts of 
—, Mapping by.........--..+++ 
CAMPANULA lasiocarpa, 
— scheuchzeri, Occurrence of. 
CampIneG, Arctic ........... Beeeodcpenpe=nscocCeerto ep 
Canapa, Codperation of, in meteorologie 

work : ok 
—, Topographic survey of . me 
CANNIBALISM, AlaSlkan ..........-2...0c-cereeceeene 


210 


Page 

Caper Cotony, Codperation of, in meteoro- 
LOPUCHWONICH ML Ae es ea Ley oe re nee 91 
CarpDamMIne hirsuta, Occurrence Of ......... 79 


Carpenter, Z. T., Record of death of...... 
CaRROLL, CAPTAIN, qa eee to.. 23 


_, Record of soundings by... 26 
CARTHAGE, Commenrcexo teen 2 
CasE scHoot, Mount named in honor of.. 30 
CASEMENT, Telus , Acknowledgment to..... 21 
CASTILEEIA coccinea, Occurrence oOf......... 79 


— cucullata, Occurrence of. 
— glauca, Occurrence of ....... 
— islandica, Occurrence of.... 
— naculosa, Occurrence of.. ae 
— nivalis, UCCULTENGE OF .......22..2...02.ce-e0- 
CHALLENGER investigations, Lecture on 


TREISWULS) OL DS) cascaceoroaqenos6000500000000000000 Xvi 
CHAMBERLIN, T. C., Mapping by .. ..- 109 
Cuarin, J. H., Record of death of............ XX 
Cuester, Caprain C. M., Acknowledg- 

TETOTUL EO. osu Sata O Te MRNA Oe xvii 
Cur11, Coédperation of, m meteorologic 

WOT eesact costestecee settocet wenncrreecmenecot cs 91 
Cuina, Codperation of, in meteorologic 

SOL mae: NASON Uah WeaMAOM TORIC cree 
—, Record of paper om «0.00... xix 
Curistin, P. H., Report of, as Auditing 

(Carico Oe a omnes on eae xii 
Criaponica alcicornis, Occurrence of........ 161 
— bellidifiora, Occurrence Of.....sse0ess 
— cornucopioides, Occurrence of... 

— deformis, Occurrence Of............ 


— jfimbriata, Occurrence of... 
CLARKE, WILLIAM, Exploration Teivoen 
CLEVELAND, GRovER, Reference to presi- 
dential WASSER LOT, donersscoeoseonseoc0cse0n 
CLIFE-DWELLERS, Record of lecture on..... xvi 
Curve, Lorp Rozert, Influence of, on com- 


WOSIHOCes aononasnavsoagssoanagcasnnadsaccasoaqsesqa00A 9 
COAHUILA DESERT, Character of Pe asseeesitc deacs 167 
Coast AND GEODETIC suURVEY, Acknowledg- 

TM OTUGGLOMereecesetesnsseeeceraee ener eee 53, 80, 82 
—, Mapping by.. .. 102, 115, 128 
Ciel DN AE NTASI] ONE concer nae eeee D soeocEranbSnoctA 110, 179 


CoLinson’s arctic journey; A.W. Greely. 198 
Cotonres, Development Of...............ss0000 0 
Cotorano, Deserts of............. 
CoLoRADO CANYON, Erosion of 
CoLumsus, CuristoPHER, Expeditions by.. 4 


CommeErcer, Evolution Of............c00.000eeeeeeee 1 
Compass, Record of lecture on the......... Xvi 
Conioser1um jishcheri, Occurrence of...... 79 
CONVEYANCE, Modes Of,...........ssscceeeeceeeeees 
Coox, Grorce H., Mapping by..... 
Coon’ Burts, Record of paper on 
CoperRpinyAlaskKareerccccatemteeresses tee 
Coprrer RIVER, Description of.................. 
Cornus canadensis, Occurrence Of ........... 79 
Costa Rica, Codperation of, in meteoro- 
LOSI GIWO Lge theccensaccerenceauoenetns ene 91 
Cramp, W., quoted on ship-building....... 14 
CREVASSES of Muir glacier................... cece BX) 
Crorrur, W. A., Record of lecture WONfoooscs XV 
— — — poem by SDD O USERS SUDSRORCHOCUC Hee REE Xvi 
CRYPTOGRAMME ACROSTICHOIDES, Oc cur- 
INS) AV EKS) ©) cs dasnocedaceeanosoboansnoccscooudaes,ase3 79 
Cryprogams collected by Dr. C. Willard 
Hayes in Alaska, 1891; Clara E. Cum- 
TDN SS re foet a cesccestenceetcetes ete arene 160 
Cummines, Crara EL: Cryptogams col- 
lected by Dr. C. "Willard Hayes in 
Allaigkcas al SON: ccscacetesne. seven ein cine ver 160 
CusHING, H.P. , Acknowledgment to........ 21 
-_, cited on aqueo- eect geposits anon002t 26 
+ COMO CHOMNS)OiVvjwtecersssnssast- sence REA eas 63 


National Geographic Magazine. 


Page 

Cusuine, H. P., Finding of fossils by...... 22, 

— =p Husson ose observations by............ 80 
; Notes on the geology of the vicinity 

” of Muir glaciers cet sssescsseeteees 56 

—, Observations by, on ice-work............ 38 

— — —, ON MOTAINES.........0. 0 cceceeeeeee a. 84 

Cysropreris fragilis, Occurrence Of........ 5 1) 


DaucrEn, Miss Unrica, Display of flag 


presented TO eee ee rae oe ane 205 
Daxora, Prairies and bad-lands of......... 164 
Datt, W. H., cited on Alaskan Indians .. 184 
— — — — NoMENCIAture ...............sncneeeee 133 
=) SUEMCYS) bys Cll ssenteseeaeeseseeeetee ee 23 
Dana, E.S8., cited on crystalline rocks.. 68 
Davipson, GEorGE, Surveys by, cited...... 23 

' Davipson GLACIER, Termination of ...... Boo adh 


Dawson, Grorce M., cited on Alaskan 


Seoera phys ese ecccsc ce eee 118 
=== == ——- PCOlO LY. eee 137 
— — — — glaciation......... 157) 
— — — — nomenclature .. 133 
———-— topography ... sora la3iL 
1 AONE RNAI, AISI yo scerceonos-neosoasceanannscs 146. 
—, quoted on recent Alaskan tuff ... 148, 149 


—, Record of remarks by 
-, Sur WRENS DW foosan sgasaccosocesene 
DEFLATION, Definition OF Lee 
Drrormation about Muir Slaclenieeresse 56 
— of Alaskan rocks ..............0.0.c00 F 


DELAUNEY, cited on storms................0000 88 
Denmark, CHares B., Codperation of, in 
meteorologic WOrk...........0.c..cceeceen eee 
Drnvupation, Discussion of....... 
Drserts, American................... 
DESERT VARNISH, Discussion of 


veying 


wogabcsbeavouecobecadssscesses eaten chutes eee xiv 
Dicranum fuscescens, Occurrence of... 160 
— majus ?, Occurrence Of.................. ... 160 
— scoparium, Occurrence of .. ... 160 
Dren1t, 8. W. B., Record of lecture. by... pee, PVA 
Diet, pe oN ee We Dal 186, 195 
DiKgs, Alaskan ccs. sccsuecteesenstorceerereeeeee 141 
Ditter, J. $., Acknowledgment to soso (ats) 
—, cited on crystalline rocks .......... aon il 
Drorire of Glacier bay............... «+ 60 
— from Muir glacier................ eese 00, 
Drier qguacter, Description of...............0 28 
Does, Mode of harnessing...............e0e0 191 
—, Use of, in Arctic travel ....... 203 
Dow, Joun, Record of death of .... XxX 
Draxe, Sir Francis, Piracy by...... 7 


Dryas drummondii, Occurrence of......... 79 
Dvuvrron, C. E., cited on Colorado canyon.. 174 


Dy1ne GLACIER, Description of........ paaedsG00 36 
Hartruquakes, Record of paper on........ xviii 
Eeypr, Codperation of, in meteorologic 

ARO) id an sareecacececon sa nrucooeeAScobaguscecocooau-ces 91 
—, Record of lecture on........ xiv 
+, Reference to deserts of..... Peeelos 
IKUECTION Of OGMCCTS ......ceecceecseccecneecssseeeee xix 
Execrricitry, Influence of, on commerce.. 17 
ENGINEER corps, Mapping by the............ 104 
Enetanp, Colonies and commerce of...... 6 
—, Cooperation of, in meteorologic 

WORKS 525 Saccret recess ences uliece asker eee Mewes Ot 
Epinosium afini, Occurrence Ofe one 
— angustifolium, Occurrence of.. 79 
— hornemanni, Occurrence of ..... com I) 
— latifolium, Occurrence Of ............cccceee 79 
Ericsson, Joun, Influence of inventions 

|OhY/ pasepsedadactodcuaagordasacacsocaascenods CAS asoness 15 
ERIGERON ursinus, Oceurrence of.. 79 


Index. 


Page 
IB;ROSLONSA Gul Ciel eescetnes se ccyeacesceaeleve vcresesre 49 
Ervrtive rocks about Muir glacier.......... 60 
Esqurmaux, Alaskan...........22-..-02esecees 194, 196 
Evpurasia officinalis, Occurrence of........ 79 
Evurorr, Record of lecture on............... li 


Everett, J. D., cited on weathe ‘ 
Evyorurion (The) of commerce; Gardiner 


18101) 0) O90 le ek Gneceesuecceea-eocaceaaceoosnchoren il 
Experprrion (An) through the Yukon dis- 
trict; C. Willard Hayes..............se00-. 117 
Expiorattons by the Society............-.0 vii 
FAIRWEATHER MOUNTAINS, Position and 
OIMENTEXOUGIE Oli cacccosoncececonceoooeoe-begOCeCcG 24 
SREATINAGO Iu Gore Grn ONG eeaesreeceneesseceeessineseccce 205 
Ferret, WitLIAM, cited on weather........ 88 
See NTT TA UO) UOljs cones cecccess csicceceewatse dencseosseees 92 
FIELD MEETING at Annapolis ... so 2 Qa 
Firru, ——, Acknowledgments to.... 190, 194 
IMISHPR IGS OLVATAS Kitt cessevecaseset-cccsclevecsecnsess 181 
Frirz Roy, Apmirat Rosert, Influence of, 
on weather LORCCASUIN GY. ones seseeseeet sees: 89 
HINO WAC) CSOL bz coctesvessesssesscceses wer LOG 
Gi ot Nlaskea eso 160 
— — the Yukon basin.. 136 
a (Canteyenall ey aol Ripe eeconeeeeec eee eres . 205 
Forsss, J. D., cited on glaciers. 36 
Forest, Bunicden ey ey, 43 
_--, Wood from...cscsccsccssosseesee 75 
Fort YuxKon, Establishment of. were loz 
Fossiis from Glacier bay ............. OD 
== RE COLdIon fndimey Ott: a... a 
FRANCE, Colonies and commerce of........ 6 


—, Cooperation of, in meteorologie work.. 91 
FRANKLIN, Sir Joun, Reference to explo- 
rations NOWRRE er ceed eines s cohesece ede Mosacceuennes 
FREDERIKA GLACIER, Character of............ 
Fremont, Joun C., Explorations by... 
FRENCH- SHELDON, Mrs. M., Record of 


SCOURS MOV ces atiecsossasvacteadestnccteerscnes Xvil 
GABEROMMOMI Aas carseat dacesssseeceschesees 68 
Gama, VASCO DE, Explorations DY tics sarge 4 
GANNETT, Henry, Election of, as Vice- 

BRCa Ones hee van ka et ode Bx 
—, Record of papers by ..............5 , XVili 


a. The mother maps of the United 


FSI WEY) oe Neier rr eee eee eee 101 
GarpINnER, S. T., Mapping by... pene LUD 
GENOA, Commerce off -...--..c-0csscse cece 3 
GENTIANA amarella, Occurrence of. 79 
— arctophila, Occurrence of... 79 
— parryi, Occurrence of....... xeoe 18) 
— prostrata, Occurrence Of..............6..00+ 79 
Grocrapuy of southeastern Alaska......... 23 
— —the air; A. W. Greely.............ecseceee 85 
—, Record of paper on teaching of......... xix 
Grovocrcas survey, Acknowledgments 

BEY RUNENAT See aa hs, 60, 64, 68, 118 

_— ree ene by.. 103, 115 

Eee OLE VCSED Via. sasssuensectiescocciec coche soaseececs 110 
GEoLoGy (Notes on the) of the vicinity of 

Muir glacier; H. P. Cushing ........... 56 


— of southern Alaska 
— — the Yukon basin 


GERANIUM erianthum, Occurrence Of........ 79 
GERMANY, Codperation of, in meteoro- 

NO PNCRWOTIS EAE, J csdec coos ouesaconecs csesees 91 
Geum calthifolium, Occurrence of............ 79 
— sirictwm, Occurrence Of..................---. 79 
GinBert, G. K., Election of, as Manager.. xix 
—, Record of address Pe Bee otis tceeer XVil 
—'L — discussion by.. Sao ZENE 
| — PAPCM DY se wks. secacteesencases XV 
GIRDLED eLacrer, Description of. 28 
GLACIATION, Ancient, in Alaska... meee) 150) 
GLACIER tables, Occurrence of........ eee 4 
Guacrers, Conditions of flow of...... wee 45 
= HITOSI OMIM Yiouvagcucrcnscehessesevesulsevsdeavesceseey 50 


Page 
GACTHRS Of AAS Kant mee tess accssecesesncsset=eces - 150 
Guacter BAy, Detailed description of..... 25 
—, Observations in........ Pe eta we Uvwvuesecsse 
Guave, E. J., Surveys by.. 
GoLp fom Allas Kales cose So uacesaseseestes 


Galiniael canyon, Description of.............. 
Grant, U.S., Reference to presidential 
message ysis festive scwucecstawactadeaeeeers 
GREAT BRITAIN, Possessions of, egouing 
Alaska 


-, Guo sation of, in meteorologie work 91 
GREELY, GENERAL A. W., cited on arctic 


FOCOSTAPDY: aces cescesesee ease eeete ee 205 
—; Collinson’s arctic journey .............. 198 
_, = aleonan of, as Vice-President......... xix 
; Geography OL GC)AL aecerseteseertceee eats 85 
=} Lieutenant Peary’s crossing of 
northern Greenland.:..c.cccce-cesescetensses 
—, quoted on weather............. 
—, Record of discussion by........ 
—I——\——| TE POLL DY) «.ces-se--cessscccucessszceacnenses 
GREENLAND, Coédperation of, in meteoro- 
LOR C WOK ait ast ce sam conetocsssteenentasectacees 91 
=P XSL OVAG OM UM sscessescacnasseoneasaccrensteness 202 
Hann, Junius, cited on weather.............. 88 
Hartow, C. H., Record of lecture by...... Xvi 


Hasxett, E. E., Report of, as Auditing 
COMMMMUTLC ener sce oecctenceemneenereseenee 

Hasster, James, Record of drowning of.. vii 

Hastines, WARREN, Influence of, on com- 


IMOVEY HOS) cadse-nicoeec seas asoncDancodacamaanoaeaninnacoc 9 
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, Codperation of, in 
MELtEOFOlOSIC WOLK.......feccecoverecnanseoes 91 
Haypen, Evrrerr, Election of, as Vice- 
President... depecensone 
—, Record of report ‘by .. 
Havpen, F. V., Reference to surveys 
Taco a Se DN RHR ISS Tp 103, 106 
HAYpEN SURVEY, Mapping by the ............ 115 
Hayes, C. WILtarp; 


An expedition 
through the Yukon district... a 
—, Collection by ...............c.20000e 
REC OLGIOL PAYSL) DYpeesese coeskeseeeeeee eee 
Heaty, Caprarn M. A., Acknowledgment 


HOME i csdssssvussead sescwastsostecae osescecbeneeenace vii 
Hepysarum mackenzii, Occurrence of...... 79 
Herrick, Francis H.; Microscopical ex- 

amination of wood from the buried 

forest, Muir inlet, Alaska................ 75 
HeErscuE., Sir WitttaM, Island named i in 

Owor Of sks ye ce 198 
Hevucuera glabra, Occurrence of soo _ OY 
Hircucocs, C. H., Mapping by................. 109 


Hirencock, Romyy, Record of paper by... xix 
HOoLianp, Commerce Of.......essesssesssescaeene 6 
Houmgs, W. H., Record of lecture by...... xvi 
Homan, CHARLES A., Surveys in Alaska 


Diy eete ec ove cnckieccoe eer ce fiona mneetecncee tetaueenen 120, 128 
Honckenya oblongifolia, Occurrence of,.. 79 
HorNnBLENDE-PORPHYRITE from Alaska...... TU 
Horatingua River, Abandonment of 

(WEND00 |. pee peBeceeEcEaAaErocpacocsdonencinesadeCnsIosROD 133 
Horenxiss, JED., Record of paper by...... xiv 
HusBpBarp, GARDINER G., Election of, as 

Presidents. occ se ne xix 
—; The evolution of commerce............ 
Hupso Bay company, Acknowledgment 

Waaeiec cccsbseeseeuseeecosae ... 190 
— Work (OF RE RRE ER Eroheeres bontancbonictascras ... 182 
Hutt, W. J., Record of address by......... Xvii 
Humpurey, 0. J., Acknowledgment to..... 127 


HUNTER, Caprain, Record of soundings 
b 


y 
Hyarr, Aupusus, Identification of fossils 


Peyeenenteeeereyeevers 


212 


Hype, Joun, Election of, as Manager...... xix 
Hyrnum circinale, Occurrence of..... 
— (Hylocomium) lokewm, Occurrence of... 160 
oo Croan) splendens, Occurrence of. 160 


— (Plagiothecium) undulatum, Occur- 

RENCOLOlareewee aces osdeeasthetecwneanen ees 160 
HCEHIMOLION ALC Oleercssssesespeenerseneesneceses 3 
IcEBERGS, Mode of formation of.............. AT 
IcELAND, Codperation of, in meteorologic 

TUMOIEES coosnopaaos sococonesgaSoncads Cooaconsea0000000 
—, Record of lecture OM.............:22ceceeee xiv 
Ippines, J. P., Acknowledgments to....... 65 
—, cited on Cordilleran rocks.......... be beec 64 


— — — crystalline rocks 
Igneous rocks in Alaska... a 
InpIA, Commerce Of.............cesecesseecececees 1,8 
—, Codperation of, in meteorologic work 91 


LIN DEANS PAU AS cameeecnnscnceencsrcrentienesccchinsesce 183 
—, Character of Alaskan.. . 187, 190, 193 
—, Diseases of Alaskan .........:c..cescseeeeeees 192 
INFANTICIDE, AlaskKan............2.-ssec-e--see-+s 198 
Iraty, Coéperation of, in meteorologic 
WOE Keeseictnte sue na eercene nse acieranettoesesitsdsreees 
Japan, Codperation of, in meteorologic 
WOT Kala Savg spemeecoas eee cdeecstcecatearerecctenesee 91 
JERUSALEM, Record of lecture on............ XV 


Jounson, J. B., Record of discussion by.. xviii 
Jupp, J. W., cited on crystalline rocks... 66 


Karr, H. W. Seton, cited on vulcanism 
AM VA ASA esenseeceresseecaceecseacecbasecalenrest 
Kenasron, C. A.; Fourth annual report 
Ghitheisecretanics cme aee us 
—, Record of paper by... 
Kentucky, Mapping by...... 
Kerr, W. C., Mapping by ....... 
Kine, CLARENCE, Surveys by....... 
Kine survey, Mapping by the.... oso 
KLUTLAN GLACIER, Character of............... 
. TEE SSENOE, A. N., Reference to Jourmeys 


Krause, ArtHurR, Map by, cited 


Lake AHKLEN, Surveys of 
LAKE survey, Mapping by 


Lanp orricr, Mapping by ................ 107, 115 
Laneuey, S. P., cited on mount Whitney 
observations ...........+. EN ce waraeec cece esas 99 
—, quoted on aérial navigation.. ls 
Lanevace of Alaskan Indians................ 198 


Lecanora frustulosa ?, Occurrence ot...... 
Les, Lestiz A., Record of lecture bya 
LrxMmann, J., cited on erystalline rocks.. 66 
LEPERDITIA, Sp. ?, Occurrence of..... 5 
LEPIDIOSA reptans, Occurrence of 
Lessers, FERDINAND DE, Projecting of 
INCE WRENS Canal LON Gacasneacecacnoasosdae506 ; 
— — — Suez canal by ........... HEL. 


Lewes, Application of name.. 33 
LEWES RIVER, Surveys Of...........02.0s0eeeeeeees 121 
Lewis, Mertwetuer, Exploration by....... 104 
LIMESTONES, AlASKAMN..........c0cceeceecneeeeeeeeeee 140 
= Ot GHEVONEIE JOBAY coccnsmcacnsdannncosonoabonoo8Hn 905 59 
Locxwoop, Lirurenanr J. B., quoted on 
Nordenskiold inlet.s.....ccs0ssessseesceeees 206 
Lone, Srrpuen H., Explorations by......... 104. 


Loomts, ‘ Work of, on Muir glacier... 21 
Lupinus versicolor, Occurrence Of........... 79 


MAGELLAN, Frerpinanpd, Explorations by.. 4 


MaAcGeEtLan, Srrairts or, Lecture on........... XV 
Magnetism, Observations on 2) 82 
Marn take, Description of ..... eS. 
Marin vAutry, Description of ... 5 ts 
Mawnacers of the Society, Work of... Vii, xxi 


Map, Geologic, of Muir glacier............... 62 
— of Muir ISIIEKO ST eogaaqsaned ioricationgcensecooneraiy Oe 


National Geographic Magazine. 


Page 

Map of Muir glacier inlet...... seecasahessnn ane 55 

IAPS Came ciamy yjcsaacnacesteoee estat eeacensseere 201 
— (The mother) of the United States; 

fe miyy, Game hut, ..nscersecsereseh): asks eters 101 
Marvin, C. F., quoted on weather pre- 

(HIG AKON ep peseasb eaecmo rand soneaesoesancreccoddasc3+ 86 


Mascarz, Elenthéne, cited on weather... 88 
Mauritius, Codperation of in meteoro- 


logie WODIS. tick cae el ee 91 
Maynarp, WasHpurn, Acknowledgment 

[HOBBES inoncaanenconsteanbasassseseceoadsadesonodeHcece viii 
Mayo, ——, cited on low temperatures... 185 
MacDoveat, —, Reference to work of... 182 
McBripe, H. , Acknowledgment TO ...,00. co Pall 
McCrurs, Caprarn Roper? G. LE M., Arctic 

EXP lOLAUTON) Dyescerssceeseenesresaeckoons steerer 199 


McConnett, R. G., cited on glaciation in 

AAI as cot reas Coeee are ceenae San ae aenens 
——— VOlCANMLG ASI er scsccccsavesaearsvaeseeesens 
—, quoted on White river, Alaska 
McDonanp, Arcupracon, Reference to 


NO) ALACRA a oeen cyr bosoaecononkosodeenscsosoDadaoda 193 
McGrr, Dr. Anira Newcoms, Appoint- . 
ment of, as Auditing Committee... xix 


—, Report of, as Auditing Committee.. xxiv 


McGex, W J, "Election of, as Ment op 2 
_ , Record of address by. Ebsecuccus dostumeseees Xvi 
Fe ON OIE LON scnaegacecoomcosconantccupsansues Xvili 
McGrartu, J. E., Introduction of...... 177, 120 
—, Record of paper by .............ccsesecneesees XV 
—, Reference to work of..............++- .. 189 
—; The Alaskan boundary survey......... 181 
McGursten, . cited on low tempera- 

LOR Ret tee eecce naan ocaccosagscuenea sabe se scdLOsIaNI2c0 185 
Meetings of the Society....... cen Wilts, Soci 
Memepersuip of the Society... Spon Willy 2G 
Mrnpdenuatt, T. C., Election of, as Man- 

BETS Recs ascBe oococtaobgd 1sq0605: aougsadesonndAO DANI] bab. 
—, Record or discussion by. XxXiIx 
a OF XSI ON bc epee apav senso oseaSs.00IGy: KV 

; The aiaaken boundary survey......... 177 
Mercury, Solidification Of.................0see 186 
Mesoporamia, Record of lecture on......... XVi 
Merroronoey of Muir glacier.........----.5 52, 80 
Mexico, Coéperation of, in meteorologic 

WOKS seo akc ce eae ee 91 
Micro-preamarire from Alaska ...........6e0 69 
MiLrs etacter, Description of..... 136 
Minera resources of Alaska... 142 


Minine, Alaskan ..............-. 
Minnesota, Mappin 

Mrirace on Glacier el 
Mnium punctatum, Occunbence of... 


Monave Desert, Character of........... peeelGs 
Monn, H., cited on weather..............+....55 88 
Moorr, Wi C., Record of drowning of.. vili 
Moratnes, Mlaislcara ee nese .. 32, 152 
—, Ancient, in Alaska.............-..:ssceneeeeeee 155 
Morse, J. F. , Acknowledgment to........... 21 
Moruey, JAMES Lorurop, cited on the 
ING NCTA BING Scena sone acoesoonecomnnce33 35339 


Mount Cas, Naming of.......... onca3 
Mounr WRANGELL, Vulcanism in .. 
Mount Wricur, Naming of......... 


Mountains of Alaska, ..........2.22e00ceereeeeneee 

Muir eriacier, Detailed description of ... 26 
—, Geology About ...............cesecceeseeeeeeeeeee 56 
m8 INE WO Olteacaansadecassesbabsssnac0003000020920003 53, 127 
—, Plants collected near ..............ecseseeees 79 
—, Rate of flow Of .......10.... cc. cceeeecee ee ereenne 43 
—, Recession Of.............ccceseeceneeeeneeneees 35, 37 


—’(Studies of), Alaska ; Harry Fielding 


PROTO Goes ioceb spate cccceuneaceameantaeeeneanees 19 
—, SULVEYS Of ........ ccc ceseceesccea cece ersenweneeeee 53 
—, THICKNESS Of.......-.cccs0ccaecereceeenrnnsacenes 27 


Murr inLET, Buried forest of 
- Detailed description of.. 

_, . Map OBE ss cckieen oSeev eee Rae eae es ne ndeeeee 
Mur, Jonny, Acknowledgment to. 22 


Index. 


Page 

Murr, Jonny, cited on Muir glacier ......... 21 
—, Observations by, on submerged for- 

(iS apedodas nob sosadnccoad GoneE ELAR EE DO Reonarrtng 40 

Murray, Joun, Record of lecture by...... xvi 

Myer, Apert J., Tribute to... ze (92 

Myxia taylori, Occurrence Of..............00+5 160 


NationaL Grocraputic Socrery, Display of 

flag of 
—, Function of.... Fanaa eee ay 
Netson, AncurpaLp, Record of drowning 

Sp ieecta rsa encwae sfecetenes Reaue ees hote Seat ee vili 
NeEPHROMA articum, Occurrence of. 
NETHERLANDS, THE, Commerce of. 6 
—, Cooperation of, in meteorologie work.. 91 
NEWBERRY RIvER, Abandonment of term.. 133 
Newe tt, F. H., Election of, as Secretary... xix 
—; Fifth annual report of the Secreta- 


MUG Shes aitnaveaniasssoccasyaacecee rele ee snalstene eyes LOX 
New Hampsuire, Mapping by .. .. 109 
New Jersey, Mapping by..............-------- 110 
New Manprip earthquake, Record of pa- 

JOVENP Gh moto sedans badicosmocudaeas qobaddEuNADO Sen AOE Xvii 
New Mexico, Deserts of. aa Wal 
New York, Mapping by ............. . 109 
NIcARAGUA CANAL, Projecting of.... 12 


Niconar, Acknowledgment to .... . 125 


Nineyeru, Early commerce of .. 1 
Nistine river, Natives on.......... .. 122 
Nizzenau river, Navigation of ..............- 124 
Norris, Basin, Glacier named in honor 
OTM te sec ebass hous sagdeiemeeanoeeteacesevcdwesene ol 
Norris guacter, Naming of. 
= 5 INeTna MAE No sal Cll Aosconseeseeosbantereonececsecos 
Norn American Deserts (The); Johannes 
SWIdI Gen eeecce seca cevedsvseectatupeseesesssstse 163 


Norruern Paciric rainway, Mapping by.. 111 


Norturrn ‘TRANSCONTINENTAL SURVEY, 

IMT hey ola] On Sse sepecenacaeormnrostecnaacecceecan 115 
Norway, Coéperation of, in meteorologic 

WY OT Kafeds snesen sae dascnsacceonaseersshencisesecnou se 91 
OBSERVERS, Suggestions f0............seseeeeeeee $3 
OFFICERS, HC CtiON Of-vr....cccccesecesccesseeeees xix 
Ogpen, H. G., Election of, as Vice-Presi- 

(CGT Sora seodoancece Cocece nonce Pe aDOCOCAREC EES Gnen0 xix 
—, Record of discussion by .. ac ili 
— — — Leport DY... cc ceeeeeeceseeee ee 


Ocginviz, W., Surveys in Alaska 
GUC ONS eos secession cosvervchecassuseaee 


Oxyrroris monticola, Occurrence of... 


Patmerston (Henry Joun Tremprr) Lorn, 


Opposition to Suez canal by............. 9 
Parnasstia fimbriata, Occurrence of. oo Ee) 
— palustris, Occurrence Of................e.06 79 
Parry, Str WititiaAm E., Arctic explo- 

TATION Viens ness dccssesceaaceeaasnccslcavseestcoces 199 
Peary, R. E., quoted on topography of 

(ne Cm ame re ennuonese-soeeteeccechesacenate 204 


Prary’s, LizuTENANT, crossing of north- 
ern Greenland; A. W. Greely........... 202 

Peck, AnniE S., Record of lecture by... xyiii 

Prpicunaris verticillata, Occurrence of... 79 


Prity, Application of name ..................+ 133 
PELLY RivER, Topography of............. ne ey 
PELTIGERA aphthosa, Occurrence of.. ~ LG! 
— canina ?, Occurrence Of...............- 161 
— horizontalis, Occurrence of.. con UG 
PENNSYLVANTA, Mapping by...............00e0- 109 
Prrmrs, Joun P., Record of lecture by..... xvi 


PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY or NatuRAL Scr- 
ENCES, Display of flag of........ 
PuHtox cceespitosa, Occurrence of. ie 
PHOTOGRAPHY 1M SUIVEYING............002e-eeeees 
Puayruran, Caprain R. L., Acknowledg- 
THO TUDORS ores a tasne rns saeemin nso rses docklees <! xvil 
Pixs, Z. M., Explorations bY ......-ss.secv0. LOL 


Page 
Pinevuicuta vulgaris, Occurrence of........ 79 
Prnus ponderosa, Occurrence Of.............. 173 


Prants (List of) collected near Muir 


glacier; W. W. Rowlee ...............c000 79 
PotyGonum viviparum, Occurrence of...... 79 
PotyrRicHum commune, Occurrence of..... 160 
— juniperinum, Occurrence Of .............+. 160 
Ponp, E. J., Record of death of... are 9 
Porutation, Record of paper on.. Xvili 
PorpuyritE from Alaska ............ 0 
—, Special definition of... 65 
Porpuyry from Alaska .. sso GY) 
—. Special definition Of .................ceeeeeeee 65 
PorrucaL, Commerce and colonies of...... 4 
PorenTILLA anserina, Occurrence of........ 79 
Powett, J. W., Acknowledgments to...... 64 
—, cited on Colorado canyon........... ESO 


—, Record of remarks by....... 


—, Reference to surveys by .. 103 
=e ULE CVS} Oss sscuseassusecedanca aciec comes manese 106 
Powe tt, W. B., Election of, as Manager.. xix 
eae COL) Ota pA Mel Wye secestseee eeeereetenees xix 
Power. survey, Mapping by cece JUNG} 
PRATRImS, DeSCription Of:..1.css-c.ccssseenseeree 164 


Proceepines of the National Geographic 
SOCIO LYi .sces ek fil caw olsen eeaces keacauatevenwenesss 
PUBLIC LAND SURVEYS, Character and ex- 


xiii 


INSTA Oli cepmencceeeeetcecac Gbaccucnoaacoce bau aiOneaasO 107 
Pusrications of the Society........... V, 1X, XX1 
Pyroa secunda, Occurrence Of............. - “9 
Quartz-DioRITE from Alaska.............2265 60, 67 
QUARTZ-PORPHYRY from Alaska.............0008 70 
VATE WAWS, Mapp DY ..<.c.ccccccescecereccocses 111 


RainFatt observations at Muir glacier... 81 
RALEIGH, Sir WauLrTER, Piracy by.............. 7 
Ranpatt, D. J., Record of address by..... 3 
RANUNCULUS repens, Occurrence Of ......... 
Rava, G. vom, cited on crystalline rocks.. 68 
Raymonp, Caprain Cuas. W., Longitude 
determination by, cited... 


REFRActIon on Glacier bay ...............--.--- 

Rep, Harry Fierprne, Collections by.. 63, 78 
—; Studies of Muir glacier, Alaslkka........ 19 
EES UMVCV SW Yircncvcotcvestestedacceseneot-acecen verse 127 


Report (Fifth annual) of the Secretaries; 

F. H. Newell and E. R. Scidmore..... xx 
——-— Treasurer; C. J. Bell........ xxii 
— (Fourth annual) of the Secretaries; 

Marcus Bakef and C. A. Kenaston... vii 
— — — — — Treasurer; C. J. Bell Xe 
— of the Auditing Committee........ Xli, xxiv 
RuHINANTHUS crista-galli, Occurrence of... 79 


RicHTHOFEN, F. F., Baron von, cited on 
OLIP TMV Ol LOC SSieeee seen meme tea teee eee eee 176 
Rivers otvAlasival.::spesckccmmestechneee te eemess 131 
Rosrnson, Lirurenant L. L., Record of 
GEG wi SO fi. ces eccsoessc snes seeanesseeetene vill 
Rock species, Definition of.................0 68 
Rocks (Notes on some eruptive) from 


Alaska; G. H. Williams 
Routrs, G., cited on deserts 


RowrRBAcH, ——, cited on crystalline 
LOCKS: .). csiscapansctesesccemucctestveresnecosaduseet 
RoMANZOFFIA sitchensis, Occurrence Of..... 79 
ROME SMPLEMIa Cia Olsesceusks asseecsseeaeeeesteeeee 2 

RosenpuscH, Hetnricu, cited on crystal- 
nsaWe* TROYOI EES Gar oe A gacacstacnacestesacascoosscosesen 71 
Rowzerz, W. W.; List of plants collected 
TSEUE MYND FAYE ET Ca-coSanocbocoodssson=ue 79 
Rusus arcticus, Occurrence Of..............06 79 
— pedatus, Occurrence of........ 79 
RussEtt glacier, Description of .. jeno USIs) 
Sea aPIN DINU 2) O Ly sccacianesoeniteeseanctnerenier ccocloneeecese 152 
RusseEtt, I. C., cited on Alaskan geology.. 142 
—— — = PIACIOMS) <2... swesencesecsesetecoecsoccere 153 


— — — — nomenclature ......... 
— — — glaciation in Alaska ,,.......... 157, 158 


214 


Page 

Russett, I. C., cited on icebergs ............ 49 
— —— Malaspina glacier..................000 47 
— — — Saint Elias mountains... 24 
=) VOL CAG AS erceneeceensseceseceesee sere 146 
—, Collections by .......... 64, 68 
—, Explorations by .................... . vil 
—, Glacier named in honor of... 152 
_, ’ quoted on Alaskan topogr aphy... . 131 
—, Surveys in Alaska Dby..........c....0.-eeeee 128 


RUSSELL, Mark, cited on Alaskan rivers.. 132 


5 JOP OOM BIOTA TON ccosocamsboovocdcHoosnncoaIAcET6bO 119 
—} ProspeCtine) DY-....ss-s-cescuetescnseces 143 
Russra, Acquisition of Alaska from 177 
—, Codperation of, in meteorologic 
Reve kel et noccososcnorpcenb ares cuneecrosasosaae cecegso 91 
Sawara, Reference to flora of ................. 166 
Saint Hrias, Mount, Height of.... vili 
Saint HLias mounvarns, Age Of ............06 24 
—— Chara GteniOlgae-scsasceeescorenec are ceeeetees 129 
Sax arctica, Occurrence Of..............-.+- 79 
— ovalifolia, Occurrence Of.............-.....+ 79 
— reticulata, Occurrence Of...............ee0e 79 
— sitchensis, OCCUrreNnCe Of...........-.2eceeee 79 
— speciosa, Occurrence Ofer. 79 
SAUSSURITE-DIORITE from Alaska.............. 67 
SAXIFRAGA cestivalis, Occurrence Of......... 79 
— davurica, Occurrence Of ..................0. 79 
— pseudo-burseriana, Occurrence of........ 79 
— tricuspidata, Occurrence of....... 79 
Seat fisheries, Alaskan.................. -. 181 
SEAL IsLANDS, Record of paper On ........... XV 
SEecrErArtEs, Reports of the............... Vil, 223 


SEDIMENTARY rocks about Muir glacier... 57 
SEDIMENTATION, Discussion Of.................. j 

Sepum vhodiola, Occurrence of... 
SELKIRE, Surveys about ........... 


SELWYN RIVER, SUTVEYS Of.........-...2.-00eee eee 
Srymour, A. B., Acknowledgment to ...... 162 
Scapanra albescens, Occurrence of........... 160 

ScuwatKa, FreprERIck, cited on voleanic 
ASIA ae cosnanen aneesenaeactacteeaeraneen cet ccrees ts 146 
—, Explorations by ................00.. 128 
—, Organization of expedition by........... 118 
-, quoted on White river, Alaska ......... 149 
—, Record of death Of................cceseenseeee xx 
= Reference to work Of ...............-c.--00+s 182 


ScHWEINFURTH, G., Reference to work of.. 153 


— cited on desert CroSion.................0e0e 171 
Scrpmore, Eviza RUHAMAH, Election of, 

as Secretary Bqee Ho asaNgD acd road SOR OES TOAONEEEOG xix 

; Fifth annual report of the Secreta- 

SUTIO Be. sc dee ae nae eS ee XX 
—, Photographs of Muir glacier by........ 42 
Science, Definition of.................ccsesee scenes 86 
Sconat pass, Description Of ................00e 135 
Scortanp, Cooperation of, in meteoro- 

LOGIE WOrkits fe cs Uuessescaserscaceesee nencoeeee 91 
SICKENBERGER, ——, cited on desert var- 

MUG cosas svasaecstncasuoceseesr emt atecestrscsdesests 17 
SIMON | COlOMILE STOLE eseeeeee sete eeeeceer esse se eeeeee 2 
Sremens, WERNER VON, quoted on natural 

LOL COS nese Fo sees seco oes ee cee pe eeesecscsteee 


SIGNAL sERvicE, Acknowledgment tothe. 80 
—, List of publications by 
——IWOLKuOlses.e-cceeseceseateersee 


Simpson, Sir Joun, Reference to explo- 
TATLOMMDY) Svseesvecceseccnn eet es accuse ooeeneeeees 
Smirn, Cuartes S., Record of lecture by.. xiv 


Smita, Caprain Evererr, Reference to 
SUTPMOY SUD Vines fissceec vee conenavaceeeeecesctsseee 183 
Smiru, Henry, Record of drowning of... viii 
Suri, Mippeton, Report of, as Auditing 
Gommmittcc meee te eee re xii 
Snow, Camping in......../........ 195 
Snow cones, Description of ... 29 
Sorrpaco humilis, Occurrence of. oo 
— multiradiata, Occurrence of........ pone UY) 


National Geographic Magazine. 


Page 
Spain, Commerce and colonies of........... 4 
—, Cooperation of in meteorologic work.. 91 
SpHagnum acutifolium, Occurrence of..... 160 
SpuEarororvs globiferus, Occurrencé of.. 161 


SPrrmaA pectinata, Occurrence Of.............. 79 
Srantey-Brown, JosepH, Record of ad- 
GLOSS DY esscvetscelee cee che ceeek enone eeewen KV 
SravTE surveys, Character and extent of .. 109 
STEAM NAVIGATION, Influence Of............-+6 15 


Stern, Ropert, Translation by 
SrppHENSoN, GEORGE, Opposition to Suez 


eanal by saat cattle daae See waba ce ecmeeesem Seeetees 9 
Stockron, C. H., Arctic exploration by ... 198 
Sronry, ——, Reference to exploration 
fSinOiaii, ANCHE os sconcoasgeceasceceecaogoceos6 
SrracHan, R.. quoted on weather 
Srrene, A., cited on crystalline rocks..... 68 
Srreruwiirz, W. H. von, Acknowledg- 

TANEWNY, WO Soocacac ceosesoavenacoonoosopsansensoonsoc08 163 


—, quoted on desert varnish.................. 
Surz cana, Influence of, on commerce.. 6 
Summer, Character of arctic.................-.- 
Survey of the Alaskan boundary 
— (Topographic) of Canada; H. M. Wil- 
{0} TY Sean ERR BA MpeucoAcecnece se sedcodean sis onosadoatcio 
SuRVEYING, military, Record of papers on xiv 


SURVEYS In Alaska.............cscccseseeeeeeeeveesee 119 
— of Muir glacier..... . 53 
— — the United States ................0ese0.eee 102 
SwepeEn, Codperation of, in meteorologic 
WOE gi sccad aces conc b sets aceecnsenteenelac eae 91 
SwiTZERLAND, Codperation of, in meteoro- 
HOS CHWiOl Keene crests secsenateneenoseeenet eee 91 
TAKU GLACIER, Character of..................... 161 
, Ter mination Of.........s..000. . AT 
TAKu River, Character of. tore SI! 
py SHOUEAKENVS) GE coccornsgancoonod ssopannoosnoonHabona2020 119 
TEBENKOF, Caprain M. D., Surveys of, 
CnC cascsosssnacocenascooncenmosooncodosannrnansons 23 
TEMPERATURES, Arctic . .... 185, 197 
— on Muir glacier ................ pee ae tall! 
Testin, Application of name.................... 133 
TESLIN RIVER, Character of .. eee loo 
5 SIDIAVONY Ol inaccoananaanqpossocconaoansanasessot pee L9) 
TETRAPHIS pellucida, Occurrence of........ 160 
PREXAS, ICSCLtS Of -rccs-neneeesnccesseeceesnsoreen 167 


THAMNOLIA vermicularis, Occurrence of.. 161 
THOMPSON, GILBERT, Record of discussion 
b XVill 


— — — PAPeL DY... ec eeeeceseensereeeeeeeeee .. XIV 
TIDEWATER GLACIERS, Conditions of .. . AT 
TopoGRAPHY Of Canada.......ccsseeceeseeees .. 201 
— — interior Alaska........... . 127 
TRANSPORTATION, Modes of... oo 
TREASURER’S report.............. X, XXil 
barman, ASIEN O coeaosaoccosansncononass6o. oeedacosoc 193 
TRIENTALIS europaca, Occurrence Of........ 79 
Trocromite, Definition of, asrock species 68 
Turr, Recent, in Alaska............csceeseeeeeree 146 
TURKEY, Coéperation of, in meteorologic 
WOLIS lai in ane a 
Turner, J. Henry, Introduction of... 
— Record of TWO ION? aososococaca moonoaoo Is 


; The Alaskan boundary survey....... 
Tyrer, (CLONOSANIEIS) Wifpocosaococasacoocobeonaanencosmsaces 


Unperwoop, L. M., Acknowledgment to.. 162 
UNITED STATES, Internal commerce of..... 11 
—, Mother maps of. : 
Uran, IDYSSE BUS) OWE sro cognanasonaabacoaqsabos8s00ceCCe0 


VALERIANA Sitchensis, Occurrence Of........ 79 
VANCOUVER, COLONEL ‘GrorcE, Surveys by, 
GIRIEXC | raancosogescesososeeco ouncaaAIOND By 
Veceration of Yukon basin ... 
VENETZ, J., cited on glaciers... 


Index. 


Wanton Comm enrGelOfy.....--::.----1--<ece-2222+r= 
Veratrum viride, Occurrence of. 
Veronica alpina, Occurrence of... 
Vittard, Henry, Mapping by........ 


Vorcanoes Of Alaska..............c.cescseeseseeceee 
Wainricut, D. B., Appointment of, on 
Auditing Gommittcces ee ae xix 
—, Report of Auditing Committee by.. xxiv 
Warais, —,, Acknowledgment to........... 192 
== cited on Indian IBV EATTENEHE on croctaconaaenos 193 


Warner, Jonannes; The North Ameri- 
CAMUGES Cmte. secs cee tate cen escesuaece saaeeeee 163 
Warren, G. K., Map constructed by ...... 
Wart, James, Influence of inventions by.. 9 
WEATHER BUREAU, Efficiency of the......... 89 
WeatHER prediction, Conditions of ........ 86 
WEATHER REVIEW, Issue and character of.. 94 
WHEELER, Georce M., Reference to sur- 


IVEW SUD Virrcctosecactcccescscsscccscossevsveeus 103, 105 
WHEELER SuRVEY, Mapping by the........... 115 
WHITE GLActER, Description of... 28 
WHITE RIvER, Character of ........ 134 
—, Source of sediment in..... 149 
OUI VCW.SE Oli csrcctcersorteccsexece sosvsecesteeh esses 123 
SAW PELET EST? In) ANAS an...sccoxssouessccocces-0 156 
Wuirney, J. D., Mapping by.. 110 


ares EUGENE it, 
aa GHiecEas 
Wittrams, G. H., Identification of rocks 


Acknowledgment 


cong oAtEERSSDONCORE CODERS IERO GAC UCAD AE RORESCECONODOS 60 
Notes on some eruptive rocks from 
gM aS aoa SON, Soc cu aveboasscassassdevenseses 63 
Wititams, Ginrperr F., Resolution of 
HN UTM SUID Vireo eerssace eee eee red eee reese xvil 
Wituiams, H.8., Identification of fossils 
DYaseakest cauenchaccesvessuccesetccoessecctsneess» semis 59 


215 


Page 
Witiiams, Tatcorr, Record of lecture _ 
Rene Ne Meee Re eS oe Ee Sat esas lecdce cas ete xvii 
Witiits, Epwin, Election of, as Man- 
DEST an cteea rare acy mec sescaeuer sexs vetecesvorys xix 
Witson, H. M.; Topographie survey of 
COT ayo be eer eneneee antec cham ee tonerecdceeecctsren 201 
Wincuett, N. H., Mapping by.. :--- LO 
Wirnp action, Discussion Of..................006 173 
WINpDom, Witr1aM, Record of death of...... Vil 
Winns of the Alaskan COaSt.......cseeeeeess 52 
Winston, Isaac, Appointment of, on Au- 
diting Committee eee eee es Exaloxe 


—, Report of Auditing Committee by.. xxiv 
Winter, Character ofancehicmeess.---ce eee 187 
Wisconsin, Mapping by ................-seeeeeees 
Woop (Microscopical examination of) 

from the buried forest, Muir inlet, 


Alaska; Francis H. Herrick............ 75 
Woopsia hyperborea, Occurrence Of........ 79 
Woopwanxp, A. E., Record of death of...... vii 
WRANGELL, Mount, Vuleanism in............. 145 


Wricuar, G. F , Acknowledgment to........ 41 


—, cited on buried forests 26 
— — — glacial erosion 50 
—— — Muir Slacier.......-....cccscses-ee 20, 33, 34 
—, Erroneous measurements ype teteee 48 
—, Glacier named in honor oOf................. 151 
_, ” Mount named in honor Of.....secs-s00-- 30 
SLU P OSC OLELNOL vas eseeeen escent racemase 37 
WRIGHT GLACIER, Naming Of..............c2ee0 151 
York, WiLt1Am, Reference to work of..... 23 
Youne, —, cited on Muir glacier........... 21 
YUKON, Application of name.. eee los 
Yukon pistricr, Expedition through dieses 117 


YUKON RIVER. Description of .. 

—— NEVIS AGI OM) Of ces s-sesecee-seeeseee 
> g 

ib SUDMTAENYS) TEKER) Perc ocecacsccononctcconcmcasoncooaeans 


a stat ONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES 


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