CM

CM
O

in

z:?,2i

^i5

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

FOUKDED BY JAMES LOEB, LL.D.

EDITED BY
fT. E. PAGE, C.H., LITT.D.

tE. CAPPS, PH.D., LL.D. tW. H. D. ROUSE, litt.d.

L. A. POST, l.h.d. E. H. WARMIXGTON. m.a., f.r.hist.soc.

PLINY

NATURAL HISTORY

IX

LIBRI XXXIIl-XXXV

PLINY

NATURAL HISTORY

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION
IN TEN VOLUMES

VOLUME IX
LlBRi XXXIII-XXXV

BY

H. RACKHAM, M.A.

FELLOW OF CHR1ST'S COLLEGE, CAMBKIDQE

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS

HAllVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

First print..-d 1952
Rpprintcd 1961

Printed in Great Britain

CONTENTS

PAQE

INTKODUCTION vii

nOOK XXXIII 1

BOOK XXX IV 125

BOOK XXXV 259

INDEX OF ARTISTS 413

MUSEOGRArUlC INDEX 417

INt>EX OF MINERALS ^IJ

INTRODUCTION

BooKS XXXIII, XXXIV, and XXXV of Pliny's
Natural History contain interesting accounts of
minerals and mining and of the history of art.

Mr. H. Rackham left when he died a translation
in typescript vvith a few footnotes. The Latin text
has been prepared by Prof. E. H. Warmington, who
has also added the critical notes on this text, many
footnotes on the translation, and marginal helps,
Some parts of the translation were completely
re-written by him. The sections on Greek art were
read and criticised by Prof. T. B. L. Webster, to
whom thanks are now duly rendered.

The codices cited in the critical notes on the Latin
text are as follows : B = Bambergensis ; cd. Leid.
Voss. = V ; cd. Leid. Lips. = F ; cd. Chiffl{eiianus)
= f ; cd. Flor. Ricc. = R ; cc?. Par. Lat. 6797 = d ; c^.
Par. 6801 = h ; cd. Vind. CCXXXIV = a ; cd. ToleL
= T.

PLINY :
NATURAL HISTORY

BOOK XXXIIl

PLINII NATURALIS HISTORIAE

LIBER XXXIII

1. Metalla niinc ipsaeque opes et rerum pretia di-
centur, tellurem intus exquirente cura multiplici
modo, quippe alibi divitiis foditur ^ quaerente vita
aurum, argentum, electrum, aes, alibi deliciis gemmas
et parietum lignorumque ^ pigmenta, alibi temeritati
ferrum, auro etiam gratius inter bella caedesque.
persequimur omnes eius fibras vivimusque super
excavatam, mirantes dehiscere aliquando aut intre-
mescere illam, ceu vero non hoc indignatione sacrae
2 parentis exprimi possit. imus in viscera et in sede
manium opes quaerimus, tamquam parum benigna
fertilique qua calcatur ; ^ et inter haec minimum
remediorum gratia scrutamur, quoto enim cuique
fodiendi causa medicina est ? quamquam et hoc
summa sui parte tribuit ut fruges, larga facihsque in

^ ante quippe transferewlum aut fodinis vel e fodini.s
legendum coni. Mayhoff.

^ lignorumque {vel signorumque) Mayhoff : pictorum
Detlefsen: digitorumque cdd. {rectet): delieiis parietum
digitorumque gemmas et pigmenta Bergk.

^ V .11. caecatur, cecatur, secatur.

" Elecirum, properly amber, was a word applied to an alloy
of gold and silver, and also to native argentiferous gold, be-
cause of their resemblance in colour.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

BOOK XXXIII

I. Our topic now will be metals, and the actual MetaU.
resources employed to pay for commodities —
resources diligently sought for in the bowels of the
earth in a variety of ways. For in some places the
earth is dug into for riches, when life demands gold,
silver, silver-gold " and copper, and in other places
for luxury, when gems and colours for tinting
walls and beams are demanded, and in other places
for rash valour, when the demand is for iron, which
amid warfare and slaughter is even more prized than
gold. \Ve trace out all the fibres of the earth, and
live above the hollows we have made in her, marvel-
ling that occasionally she gapes open or begins to
tremble — as if forsooth it were not possible that this
may be an expression of the indignation of our holy
parent ! We penetrate her inner parts and seek for
riches in the abode of the spirits of the departed, as
though the part w^here we tread upon her were not
sufficiently bounteous and fertile. And amid all
this the smallest object of our searching is for the
sake of remedies for illness, for with what fraction of
mankind is medicine the object of this delving?
Although medicines also earth bestows upon us on
her surface, as she bestows corn, bountiful and

PLINY: NATURAL HISTOR\

3 omnibus, quaecumque prosunt. illa nos peremunt,
illa nos ad inferos agunt, quae occultavit atque
demersit, illa, quae non nascuntur repente, ut ^ mens
ad inane evolans reputet, quae deinde futura sit
finis omnibus saeculis exhauriendi eam, quo usque
penetratura avaritia. quam innocens, quam beata,
immo vero etiam delicata esset vita, si nihil aliunde
quam supra terras concupisceret, breviterque, nisi ^
quod secum est !

4 IL Eruitur aurum et chrysocolla iuxta, ut pre-
tiosior videatur, nomen ex auro custodiens. parum
enim erat unam vitae invenisse pestem, nisi in pretio
esset auri etiam sanies. quaerebat argentum avari-
tia ; boni consuluit interim invenisse minium ruben-
tisque terrae excogitavit usum. heu prodiga ingenia,
quot modis auximus pretia rerum ! accessit ars
picturae, et aurum argentumque caelando carius
fecimus. didicit homo naturam provocare. auxere
et artem vitiorum inritamenta ; in pocuHs libidines

r> caelare iuvit ac per obscenitates bibere. abiecta
deinde sunt haec ac ^ sordere coepere, ut ^ auri
argentique nimium fuit. murrina ex eadem tellure
et crystalHna effodimus, quibus prctium faceret ipsa
fragilitas. hoc argumentum opum, haec vera luxu-

' repente ut Mayhojf : iit repente aut repente.
^ V.l. haberetque non nisi.
^ ac Mayhoff : abs B : et rell.
* ut Mayhoff : et.

" XpuaoKoAAa, 'gold-solder.' This is malachite, basic copper
carbonate.

* See§§ 111 ff.

*■ Or possibly finest agate.

4

BOOK XXXIII. I. wi. =;

generous as she is in all things for our benefit ! The
things that she has concealed and hidden under-
ground, those that do not quickly come to birth,
are the things that destroy us and drive us to the
depths belovv ; so that suddenly the mind soars
aloft into the void and ponders what finally \vill be
the end of draining her dr^' in all the ages, what will
be the point to which avarice vriW penetrate. How
innocent, how blissful, nay even how luxurious life
might be, if it coveted nothing from any source but
the surface of the earth, and, to speak briefly,
nothing but what lies ready to her hand !

II. Gold is dug out of the earth and in proximity to <?oM.
it gold-solder, which still retains in Greek a name ^
derived from gold, so as to make it appear more
precious. It was not enough to have discovered one
bane to plague life, %\-ithout setting value even on
the corrupt humours of gold ! Avarice was seeking
for silver, but counted it a gain to have discovered
cinnabar ^ by the way, and devised a use to make of
red earth. Alas for the prodigality of our inventive-
ness ! In how many ways have we raised the prices
of objects ! The art of painting has come in addition,
and we have made gold and silver dearer by means
of engraving ! Man has learnt to challenge nature
in competition ! The enticements of the \ices have
augmented even art : it has pleased us to engrave
scenes of licence upon our goblets, and to drink
through the midst of obscenities. Afterwards these
were flung aside and began to be held of no account,
when there was an excess of gold and silver. Out
of the same earth we dug supplies of fluor-spar^
and cr\-sta], things which their mere fragility
rendered costly. It came to be deemed the proof

5

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

riae gloria existimata est, habere quod posset statim
perire totum. nec hoc fuit satis. turba gemmarum
potamus et zmaragdis teximus calices, ac temulentiae
causa tenere Indiam iuvat. aurum iam accessio est.

6 III. utinamque posset e vita in totum abdicari
[sacrum fame, ut celeberrimi auctores dixere] ^
proscissum conviciis ab optimis quibusque et ad perni-
ciem vitae repertum, quanto feliciore aevo, cum res
ipsae permutabantur inter sese, sicut et Troianis
temporibus factitatum Homero credi convenit ! ita
enim, ut opinor, commercia victus gratia inventa.^

7 alios coriis boum, alios ferro captivisque res ^ empti-
tasse tradit. quare,^ quamquam ipse iam mirator
auri,^ pecore ^ aestimationes rerum ita fccit, ut c
boum arma aurea permutasse Glaucum diceret cum
Diomedis armis viiii boum. ex qua consuetudine
multa legum antiquarum pecore constat etiam
Romae.

8 IV. Pessimum vitae scelus fecit qui primus induit
digitis, nec hoc quis fecerit traditur. nam de Pro-
metheo omnia fabulosa arbitror, quamquam illi
quoque ferreum anulum dedit antiquitas vinculumque
id, non gestamen, intellegi voluit. Midae quidem
anulum, quo circumacto habentem nemo cerneret,

1 Seclusit J. Muller.

2 inventa cd. Par. 6801 : invecta rell.

^ res Detlefsen : nierum coni. lan : vinum Bergk : rebus
codd. (rerus B^ : reru B^).

* quare MayhofJ : qua B^ : qua B^ : om. rell.

^ ]\l. miratus auri.

^ pecore Mayhoff : pec : B^ pec B"^ : et aut om. rell.

" The MSS. here insert a clause (' aocursed by hunger, as
vcry famous writcrs have said ') adapted from Virgirs famous
phrase in Aen. Ilf . .57 : ' auri sacra fames.'

6

BOOK XXXIII. II. 5-iv. 8

of wealth, the true glory of luxury, to possess some-
thing that might be absolutely destroyed in a moment.
Xor was this enough : we drink out of a crowd of
precious stones, and set our cups ^vith emeralds, we
take dehght in holding India for the purpose of
tippUng, and gold is now a mere accessory. III.
And would that it ° could be entirely banished from
Hfe, reviled and abused as it is by all the worthiest
people, and only discovered for the ruin of human
life — how far happier was the period when goods
themselves were interchanged by barter, as it i-^
agreed we must take it from Homer ^ to have been the
custom even in the days of Troy. That in my view
was the way in which trade was discovered, to procure
the necessities of Hfe. Homer relates how some
people used to make their purchases with ox-hides,
others with iron and captives, and consequently, al-
though even Homer himself <^ was already an admirer
of gold, he reckoned the value of goods in cattle,
saying that Glaucus exchanged gold armour worth
100 beeves with that of Diomede worth 9 beeves.
And as a result of this custom even at Rome a fine
under the old laws is priced in cattle.

lY. The worst crime against man's Hfe was Ooid riTtjs
committed by the person who first put gold on his
fingers, though it is not recorded who did this, for
I deem the whole story of Prometheus mythical,
although antiquity assigned to him also an iron ring,
and intended this to be understood as a fetter, not
an ornament. As for the story of Midas's ring,
which when turned round made its wearer invisible,

* Horaer, II. VII. 472 S.
« II. VI. 234-6.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

9 quis non etiam fabiilosiorem fateatur ? manus et
prorsus sinistrae maximam auctoritatem conciliavere
auro, non quidem Romanae, quarum ^ in more ferrei
erant ut ^ virtutis bellicae insigne.

De regibus Romanis non facile dixerim. nullum
habet Romuli in Capitolio statua nec praeier Numae
Serviique Tullii alia ac ne Lucii quidem Bruti. hoc
in Tarquiniis maxime miror, quorum e Graecia fuit
origo, unde hic anulorum usus venit, quamquam

10 etiam nunc Lacedaemone ferreo utuntur. sed a
Prisco Tarquinio omnium primo filium, cum in
praetextae annis occidisset hostem, bulla aurea
donatum constat, unde mos bullae duravit, ut
eorum, qui equo meruissent, fiUi insigne id haberent,
ceteri lorum ; et ideo miror Tarquinii eius statuam
sine anulo esse. quamquam et de nomine ipso
ambigi video. Graeci a digitis appellavere, apud nos
prisci unguhim vocabant, postea et Graeci et nostri

11 symbolum, longo certe tempore ne senatum quidem

^ romani quorum cd. Par. 6801.
2 ut Hardouin : et.

° Sinistra suggests ' unlucky,' ' sinister.'

^ One of the two first consuls (509 B.c), not a king.

<^ The white toga with a purple border worn by free-born
boys at Rome until they were declared to be of age, between
14 and 16, and assumcd the toga pura or virilis, the white
woollen cloak of the Roman citizen.

^* AaKTvXios, from Sa/fTuAoj.

8

BOOK XXXIII. IV. 8-1 1

who would not admit this to be more mythical still ?
It was the hand and what is more the left ^ hand,
that first won for gold such high esteem ; not indeed
a Roman hand, whose custom it was to wear an iron
ring as an emblem of warHke valour.

As to the Roman kings I find it hard to make a Ring-': and
statement. The statue of Romulus in the Capitol th^e^Roman
has nothing, nor has any other king's statue excep- monarchk
ting those of Numa and Servius Tullius, and not even
that of Lucius Brutus.^ I am especially surprised at
this in the case of the Tarquins, who came originally
from Greece, the country from which this fashion in
rings came, although an iron ring is worn in Sparta
even at the present day. But of all, Tarquinius
Priscus, it is well known, first presented his son with
a golden amulet when while still of an age to wear
the bordered robe '^ he had killed an enemy in battle ;
and from that time on the custom of the amulet has
continued as a distinction to be worn by the sons
of those who have served in the cavalry, the sons of
all others only wearing a leather strap. Owing to
this I am surprised that the statue of that Tarquin
has no ring. All the same, I notice that there is a
difference of opinion even about the actual word
for a ring. The Greek name ^ for it is derived from
the word meaning a finger ; ^Wth ourselves, in early
days it was called ' ungulus,' ^ but afterwards both
our people and the Greeks give it the name of
'symbolum.'/ For a long period indeed, it is quite

* The word survives in fragments of early poetry.

f Greek avix^oXov, originally meaning two parts of a coin or
other object broken in half to serve as a means of identifica-
tion because tallying when put together; and so the word
was used to denote any token or symbol.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Romanum habuisse aureos manifestum est, siquidem
iis tantum, qui legati ad exteras gentes ituri essent,
anuli publice dabantur, credo, quoniam ita exterorum
honoratissimi intellegebantur. neque ahis uti mos fuit
(^uam qui ex ea causa pubhce accepissent, volgoque sic
triumphabant et, cum corona ex auro Etrusca sus-
tineretur a tergo, anulus tamcn in digito ferreus erat
aeque triumphantis et servi prae ^ se coronam sus-
tinentis. sic triumphavit de lugurtha C. Marius
aureumque non ante tertium consulatum sumpsisse
traditur. ii quoque, qui ob legationem acceperant
aureos, in pubhco tantum utebantur iis, intra domos
vero ferreis, quo argumento etiam nunc sponsae
muneris vice ferreus anulus mittitur, isque sine
gemma. equidem nec Ihacis temporibus ullos fuisse
anulos video. nusquam certe Homerus dicit, cum
et codicillos missitatos epistularum gratia indicet et
conditas arcis vestes ac vasa aurea argenteaque et
eas colligatas ^ nodi, non anuli, nota. sortiri quoque
contra provocationes duces non anuhs tradit, fabricae
etiam deum fibulas et aha muhebris cultus, sicut

^ prae se Mayhoff {qni et forte coni.): fortasse cdd.: del.
edd. vett.

^ consignatas coni. Mayhoff.

<• I.e. by the future bridegroom; it was called anulus
pronuhus.

«• II. VT. 168-9.

' Od. VIII. 424, 438-41, 443, 447.

<* II. VII. 171, 175; KXrjpoi Mots,' were raoulded out of clay,
but it is not said that they were markcd with the chiefs' signet
rings.

« Hephaestus. See //. XVIII. 400 ff.

10

BOOK XXXIII. I

V. 11-12

c!car, not even members of the Roman senate liad and in th<
gold rings, inasmuch as rings were bestowed officially p^^yjj^""
on men about to go as envoys to foreign nations,
and on them only, the reason no doubt being that
the most highly honoured foreigners were recognized
in this way. Nor was it the custom for any others
to wear a gold ring than those on whom one had been
officially bestowed for the reason stated ; and
customarily Roman generals went in triumph with-
out one, and although a Tuscan crown of gold was
held over the victor's head from behind, nevertheless
he wore an iron ring on his finger when going in
triumph, just the same as the slave holding the
crown in front of himself. This was the way in
which Gaius Marius celebrated his triumph over
Jugurtha, and it is recorded that he did not assume J=^°- ^»
a gold ring till his third tenure of the consulship. io3 b!c:.
Those moreover who had been given gold rings
because they were going on an embassy only wore
them in pubUc, but in their homes wore iron rings ;
this is the reason why even now an iron ring and
what is more a ring without any stone in it is sent «
as a gift to a woman when betrothed. Indeed I Rms in
do not find that any rings were worn in the Trojan ^^'""^'■-
period ; at all events Homer nowhere mentions
them, although he shows that tablets ^ used to be
sent to and fro in place of letters, and that clothes
and gold and silver vessels were stored away in
chests ^ and were tied up with signet-knots, not
sealed with signet-rings. Also he records the chiefs
as casting lots about meeting a challenge from the
enemy without using signet-rings ^ ; and he also says
that the god ^ of handicraft in the original period
frequently made brooches and other articles of

II

PLINY : NATUllAL HISTORY

inaures, in primordio factitasse, sine mentione

13 anulorum. et quisquis primus instituit, cunctanter
id fecit : laevis manibus latentibusque induit, cum,
si honos securus fuisset, dextra fuerit ostentandus.
quodsi impedimentum potuit in eo aliquod intellegi,
etiam serioris usus argumentum est : ^ maius in laeva
fuisset, qua scutum capitur. est quidem apud
eundem Homerum virorum crinibus aurum inplexum ;
ideo nescio an prior usus feminis coeperit.

14 V. Romae ne fuit quidem aurum nisi admodum
exiguum longo tempore. certe cum a Gallis capta
urbe pax emeretur, non plus quam mille pondo effici
potuere. nec ignoro mm pondo auri perisse Pompeii
III consultu e Capitolini lovis solio a Camillo ibi
condita, et ideo a plerisque existimari mm pondo
coUata. sed quod accessit, ex Gallorum praeda fuit
detractumque ab iis in parte captae urbis delubris —

15 Gallos cum auro pugnare solitos Torquatus indicio
est — ; apparet ergo Gallorum templorumque tan-
tundem nec amplius fuisse. quod quidem in

^ est cdd. (est et B) : esset Mayhojf.

» II. XVII. 52.

* Victor over the Gauls in 390 b.c.

'^ T. Manliiis obtained this surname from the gold necklace,
lorques, which he took from a Gaul whom he slew in single
combat in 3()U b.c.

BOOK XXXIII. IV. I2-V. 15

feminine finery like earrings — without mentioning
finger-rings. And whoever first introduced them
did so with hesitation, and put them on the left hand,
which is generally hidden by the clothes, whereas
it would have been shown off on the right hand if it
had been an assured distinction. And if this might
possibly have been thought to involve some inter-
ference with the use of the right hand, there is the
proof of more modern custom ; it would have also
been more inconvenient to wear it on the left hand,
which holds the shield. Indeed it is also stated,
by Homer ^ again, that men wore gold plaited in their
hair and consequently I cannot say whether the
use of gold originated from women.

\ . At Rome for a long time gold was actually Roman
not to be found at all except in very small amounts. ^goid.
At all events when peace had to be purchased after
the capture of the City by the Gauls, not more than 390 b.c.
a thousand pounds' weight of gold could be produced.
I am aware of the fact that in Pompey's third consul- 52 b.o,
ship there was lost from the throne of Jupiter of the
Capitol two thousand pounds' weight of gold that
had been stored there by Camillus,^ which led to a
general beUef that 2000 pounds was the amount
that had been accumulated. But really the addi-
tional sum was part of the booty taken from the
Gauls, and it had been stripped by them from the
temples in the part of the city which they had
captured — the case of Torquatus ^ shows that the
Gauls were in the habit of wearing gold ornaments
in battle ; therefore it appears that the gold belong-
ing to the Gauls and that belonging to the temples
did not amount to more than that total ; and this
in fact was taken to be the meaning contained in the

13

PLINY: NATUllAL HISTORY

augiirio intellectum est, cum Capitolinus duplum
reddidisset.

Illud quoque obiter indicari convenit — etiam^ de
anulis sermonem repetivimus — , aedituum custodiae
eius conprehensum fracta in ore anuli gemma statim

10 expirasseet indicium itaextinctum. ergo vel^maxime
MM tantum pondo, cum capta est Roma, anno ccclxiiii
fuere, cum iam capitum liberorum censa essent
cLii DLXXiii. in eadem post annos cccvii, quod ex
Capitolinae aedis incendio ceterisque omnibus delubris
C. Marius filius Praeneste detulerat,^ xnri ^ pondo,
quae sub eo titulo in triumpho transtulit SuHa et
argenti vi.^ idem ex reliqua omni victoria pridie
transtulerat auri pondo xv, argenti p. cxv.

17 VI. Frequentior autem usus anulorum non ante
Cn. Flavium Anni filium deprehenditur. hic namque
publicatis diebus fastis, quos populus a paucis
principum cotidie petebat, tantam gratiam plebei
adeptus est — Hbertino patre aHoqui genitus et ipse
scriba Appi Caeci, cuius hortatu exceperat eos dies
consultando adsidue sagaci ingenio promulgaratque

^ etiam B: quoniam rell. : et iam lan: etenim coni.
Ma>/hoff.

2"vel L. C. Ptir.ser: ut.

^ detulerat, erant coni. Mayhoff.

^ xiiii lan : xiiii B : xm rell. (tredeeim milia cd. Par.
080 IJ^

^ VI lan : vi.

" The reference has not been explained.
* It eontained a poiaon, cf. § 2G.
« By the Gauls in 390 n.c.

•* Appius Claudius, censor in 312 b.c. and buiider of the
Appian Way.

14

BOOK XXXIII. V. 15-V1. 17

aiigury," when Jupiter the God of the Capitol had
repaid twofold.

Also, as we began on this topic from the subject
of rings, it is suitable incidentally to point out that
the official in charge of the temple of Jupiter of the
Capitol when he was arrested broke the stone ^ of
his ring between his teeth and at once expired, so
putting an end to any possibility of proving the
theft. It follows that there w^as only 2,000 Ibs.
weight of gold at the outside when Rome was cap-
tured in its 364th year,'' although the census showed
there were already 152,573 free citizens. From the
same city 307 years later the gold that Gaius Marius 82 b.c.
the younger had conveyed to Palestrina from the
conflagration of the temple of the Capitol and from
all the other shrines amounted to 14,000 Ibs., which
with a placard above it to that effect was carried
along in his triumphal procession by Sulla, as well as 8I b.o.
6,000 Ibs. weight of silver. Sulla had Hkewise on the
previous day carried in procession 15,000 Ibs. of gold
and 115,000 Ibs. of silver as the proceeds of all the
rest of his victories.

VI. It does not appear that rings were in more Moreabout
common use before the time of Gnaeus Flavius son ^^pubiican
of Annius. It was he who first pubUshed the dates v^riod.
for legal proceedings, which it had been customary 305-4 b.c.
for the general pubhc to ascertain by daily enquiry
from a few of the leading citizens ; and this won
him such great popularity with the common
people — he was also the son of a hberated slave and
himself a clerk to Appius Caecus,^ at w hose request
he had by dint of natural shrewdness through
continual observation picked out those days and
published them — that he was appointed a curule

15

PLINY: NATURAL HISTOUV

— , ut aedilis curulis crearetur cum Q. Anicio Prae-
nestino, qui paucis ante annis hostis fuisset, prae-
teritis C. Poetilio et Domitio, quorum patres consules

18 fuerant. additum Flavio, ut simul et tribunus plebei
esset, quo facto tanta indignatio exarsit, ut anulos
abiectos in antiquissimis reperiatur annalibus. fallit
plerosque quod tum et equestrem ordinem id fecisse
arbitrantur ; etenim adiectum hoc quoque sed et
phaleras positas propterque hoc nomen equitum adiec-
tum est, anulosque depositos a nobilitate in annales
relatum est, non a senatu universo. hoc actum P.

ii) Sempronio L. Sulpicio cos. Flavius vovit aedem
Concordiae, si populo reconciliassct ordines, et, cum
ad id pecunia publice non decerneretur, ex multaticia
faeneratoribus condemnatis aediculam aeream fecit
in Graecostasi, quae tunc supra comitium erat,
inciditque in tabella aerea factam eam aedem

"20 cciiii annis post Capitolinam dedicatam. id a.^
ccccxxxxviiii a condita urbe gestum est et primum
anulorum vestigium extat ; promiscui autem usus
alterum secundo Punico bello, neque enim aliter

' propterque hoc -RacMam : aliialia: propterque.
2 id a. (anno) C. F. W. Muller : ita.

" Probably in the war with the twelve tribes of Etruria,
who were ronquered by Fabius at Lake Vadimo, 310 B.f.

** A platform Greek and, later, any foreign envoys could
watch proceedings. It was later placed in the Forum.

i6

BOOK XXXIII. VI. 17-20

aedile as a coileague of Quintus Anieius of Palestrina,
who a few years previously had been an enemy at
war with llome,*^ while Gaius Poetilius and Domi-
tius, whose fathers had been consuls, were passed
over. Flavius had the additional advantage of
being tribune of the plebs at the same time. This
caused such an outburst of blazing indignation
that we find in the oldest annals ' rings were laid
aside.' The common belief that the Order of
Knighthood also did the same on this occasion is
erroneous, inasmuch as the following v.ords w^ere also
added : * but also harness-bosses were put aside as
well ' ; and it is because of this clause that the name
of the Knights has been added ; and the entry in
the annals is that the rings were laid aside by the
nobihty, not by the entire Senate. This occurrence
took place in the consulship of Publius Sempronius 305 b.c
and Lucius Sulpicius. Flavius made a vow to erect
a temple to Concord if he succeeded in effecting a
reconcihation between the privileged orders and the
people ; and as money was not allotted for this
purpose from pubhc funds, he drew on the fine-
money collected from persons convicted of prac-
tising usury to erect a small shrine made of bronze
on the Graecostasis,^ which at that date stood above
the Assembly-place, and put on it an inscription
engraved on a bronze tablet that the shrine had
been constructed 204 years after the consecration
of the CapitoUne temple. This event took place in
the 44:9th year from the foundation of the city, and 305 b.o.
is the earliest evidence to be found of the use of
rings. There is however a second piece of evidence
Ibr their being commonly worn at the time of the
Second Punic War, as had this not been the case it

17

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

potuisset trimodia anulorum illa Carthaginem ab
Hannibale mitti. inter Caepionem quoque et Dru-
sum ex anulo in auctione venali intimicitiae coepere,

21 unde origo socialis belli et exitia rerum. ne tunc
quidem omnes senatores habuere, utpote cum memo-
ria avorum multi praetura quoque functi in ferreo
consenuerint — sicut Calpurnium et Manilium, qui
legatus C. Marii fuerit lugurthino bello, Fenestella
tradit, et multi L. Fufidium illum, ad quem Scaurus
de vita sua scripsit — , in Quintiorum vero familia
aurum ne feminas quidem habere mos fuerit, nullos-
que omnino maior pars gentium hominumque, etiam
qui sub imperio nostro degunt, hodieque habeat.
non signat oriens aut Aegyptus etiam nunc litteris
contenta solis.

22 Multis hoc modis, ut cetera omnia, hixuria variavit
gemmas addendo exquisiti fulgoris censuque opimo
digitos onerando, sicut dicemus in gemmarum volu-
mine, mox et effigies varias caelando, ut alibi ars,
ahbi materia esset in pretio. alias dein gemmas
violari nefas putavit ac, ne quis signandi causam in

23 anulis esse intellegeret, soHdas induit. quasdam

" This was after the battle of Cannae in 216 b.c. Livy
says 3^ peeks, Florus savs 2.

" The so-called SociafWar, 91-88 b.c.
« This statement is untrue.

i8

BOOK XXXIII. VI. 20-23

woiild not have been possible for the three <* pecks

of rings as recorded to have been sent by Hannibal

to Carthage. Also it was from a ring put up for

sale by auction that the quarrel between Caepio and

Drusus began which was the primary cause of the war

with the allies ^ and the disasters that sprang from it.

Not even at that period did all members of the

senate possess gold rings, seeing that in the memory

of our grandfathers many men who had even held

the office of praetor wore an iron ring to the end of

their Hves — for instance, as recorded by Fenestella,

Calpurnius and ManiUus, the latter ha^-ing been

Ueutenant-general under Gaius Marius in the war 112-106 b.c.

with Jugurtha, and, according to many authorities,

the Lucius Fufidius to whom Scaurus dedicated his

Autobiography — while another piece of evidence

is that in the family of the Quintii it was not even

customary for the women to have a gold ring, and

that the greater part of the races of mankind, and

even of the people who live under our empire and at

the present day, possess no rings at all. The East

and Egypt do not '^ seal documents even now, but

are content with a \^Titten signature.

This fashion hke everj^thing else luxury has diversi- Methods of
fied in numerous ways, by adding to rings gems of^^^y
exquisite brilliance, and by loading the fingers with
a wealthy revenue (as we shall mention in our book xxxvri.
on gems) and then by engraving on them a variety ' **^'
of devices, so that in one case the craftsmanship and
in another the material constitutes the value. Then
again with other gems luxury has deemed it sacrilege
for them to undergo violation, and has caused them
to be worn whole, to prevent anybody's imagin-
ing that people's finger-rings were intended for

19

PLIXY: NATURAL HISTORY

vero neque ab ea parte, qua dioito occultantur, ^
auro clusit aurum(|ue millis ^ lapillorum vilius fecit.
contra vero multi nullas admittunt gemmas auroque
ipso signant. id Claudii Caesaris principatu reper-
tum. nec non et servitia iam ferrum auro cingunt —
alia per sese mero auro decorant — , cuius licentiae
origo nomine ipso in Samothrace id institutum
declarat.

'A Singulis primo digitis geri mos fuerat, qui sunt
minimis proximi. sic in Numae et Servi Tullii statuis
videmus. postea pollici proximo induere, etiam in ^
deorum simulacris, dein iuvit et minimo dare.
Galliae Brittanniaeque medio dicuntur usae. hic
nunc solus excipitur, ceteri omnes onerantur, atque

!5 etiam privatim articuh" minoribus ahis. sunt qui
uni tantum minimo congerant, ahi vero et huic
tantum unum, quo signantem signent. conditus
ille, ut res rara et iniuria usus indigna, velut e
sacrario promitur, ut et unum in minimo digito
habuisse pretiosioris in recondito supellectihs osten-
tatio sit. iam ahi pondera eorum ostentant. aliis
phires quam unum gestare hibor est, ahi bratteas

^ r./. qiiae digito occultatur.

^ miliis lan: micis Gronov: vilibus coni. Urlichs: millib.
B^ : milibus.

3 in add. Mayhnff.

" Or possibly 'that finger-rings contained a motive for
sealing documents,' i.e., that people were ready to seal deeds
in order to show olf the engraved stones.

" yiaves wore iron rings, a symbol of captivity.

<^ I.e. they were called Samothracian rings.

20

BOOK XXXIII. VI. 23-25

sealing documents ! " Some gems indeed luxury
has left showing in the gold even on the side of the
ring that is hidden by the finger, and has cheapened
the gold with collars of little pebbles. But on the
contrary many people do not alloAV any gems in a
signet-ring, and seal with the gold itself ; this was a
fashion invented when Claudius Caesar was emperor.
Moreover even slaves nowadays encircle the iron
of their rings ^ with gold (other articles all over them
they decorate with pure gold), an extravagance
the origin of which is shown by its actual name <^
to have been instituted in Samothrace.

It had originally been the custom to wear rings
on one finger only, the one next the Httle finger ;
that is how we see them on the statues of Numa and
Servius TuUius. Afterwards people put them on
the finger next the thumb, even in the case of statues
of the gods, and next it pleased them to give the
little finger also a ring. The GalHc Provinces and
the British Islands are said to have used the middle
finger. At the present day this is the only finger
exempted, while all the others bear the burden, and
even each finger-joint has another smaller ring of its
own. Some people put all their rings on their little
finger only, while others wear only one ring even on
that finger, and use it to seal up their signet ring,
which is kept stored away as a rarity not deserving
the insult of common use, and is brought out from
its cabinet as from a sanctuary ; thus even wearing
a single ring on the little finger may advertise the
possession of a costlier piece of apparatus put away
in store. Some again show off the weight of their
rings ; others count it hard work to wear more than
one ; and others consider that filling the gold tinsel

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

infercire leviore materia propter casum tiitius gem-
marum sollicitudini putant, alii sub gemmis venena
cludunt, sicut Demosthenes summus Graeciae orator,

26 anulosque mortis gratia habent. denique vel ^ plu-
rima opum scelera anuUs fiunt. quae fuit illa vita
priscorum, qualis innocentia, in qua nihil signabatur !
nunc cibi quoque ac potus anulo vindicantur a rapina.
hoc profecere mancipiorum legiones, in domo turba
externa ac iam servorum quoque causa nomenclator
adhibendus. ahter apud antiquos singuh Marcipores
Luciporesve dominorum gentiles omnem victum in
promiscuo habebant, nec ulla domi a domesticis

-7 custodia opus erat. nunc rapiendae conparantur
epulae pariterque qui rapiant eas, et claves quoque
ipsas signasse non est satis. gravatis somno aut
morientibus anuh detrahuntur, maiorque vitae ratio
circa hoc instrumentum esse coepit, incertum a quo
tempore. videmur tamen posse in externis auctori-
tatem eius rei inteUegere circa Polycraten Sami
tyrannum, cui dilectus ille anulus in mare abiectus
capto relatus est pisce, ipso circiter ccxxx urbis

^ vel Bergk : ut.

" Plutarch, Vil. Denwsih. 29 reports a statement that
Demosthenes always carried a poison in a bracelet on his arm,
and that he killed himself with it to avoid falHng into the
hands of Antipater of Macedon, 322 b.c.

* I.e. documents are forged and sealed with faked signet-
rings.

" He was put to death c. 515 u.v. by the Persian Oroetes.

22

BOOK XXXIII. VI. 25-27

of the circle with a lighter material, in case of their
dropping, is a safer precaution for their anxiety
aboiit their gems ; others enclose poisons underneath
the stones in their rings, as did Demosthenes,'^ the
greatest orator of Greece, and they wear their rings
as a means of taking their own Hves. Finally, a
very great number of the crimes connected with
money are carried out by means of rings.^ To think
what Hfe was in the days of old, and what innocence
existed when nothing was sealed ! WTiereas now-
adays even articles of food and drink have to be
protected against theft by means of a ring : this is
the progress achieved by our legions of slaves — a
foreign rabble in one's home, so that an attendant
to tell people's names now has to be employed even
in the case of one's slaves I This was not the way
with by-gone generations, when a single servant
for each master, a member of his master's clan,
Marcius's boy or Lucius's boy, took all his meals
with the family in common, nor was there any need
of precautions in the home to keep watch on the
domestics. Nowadays we acquire sumptuous viands
only to be pilfered and at the same time acquire
people to pilfer them, and it is not enough to keep
our keys themselves under seal : while we are fast
asleep or on our death-beds, our rings are sHpped off
our fingers; and the more important concerns of our
hfe have begun to centre round that tool, though
when this began is doubtful. Still it seems we can
reahze the importance this article possesses abroad
in the case of the tyrant of Samos, Polycrates,
who flung his favourite ring into the sea and had it
brought back to him inside a fish which had been
caught : Polycrates himself was put to death '^

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

28 nostrae annum interfecto. celebratior quidem usus
cum faenore coepisse dehet. argumento est con-
suetudo volgi, ad sponsiones etiamnum ^ anulo
exiliente, tracta ab eo tempore, quo nondum erat
arra velocior, ut plane adfirmare possimus nummos
ante apud nos, mox anulos coepisse. de nummis
paulo post dicetur.

29 VII. Anuli distinxere alterum ordinem a plebe,
ut semel coeperant esse celebres, sicut tunica ab
anulis senatum. quamquam et hoc sero, vulgoque
purpura latiore tunicae usos invenimus etiam prae-
cones, sicut patrem L. Aelii Stilonis Praeconini ob
id cognominati. sed anuli plane tertium ordinem
mediumque plebei et patribus inseruere, ac quod
antea militares equi nomen dederant, hoc nunc
pecuniae indices tribuunt. nec pridem id factum.

.30 divo Augusto decurias ordinante maior pars iudicum
in ferreo anulo fuit iique non equites, sed iudices
vocabantur. equitum nomen subsistebat in turmis
equorum publicorum. iudicum quoque non nisi
quattuor decuriae fuere primo, vixque singula milia
in decuriis inventa sunt, nondum provinciis ad hoc

^ etiam nunc coni. Mayhoff.

" ' Son of the herald.'
^ Eques.

24

BOOK XXXIII. VI. 27-vii. 30

about the 230th year of the city of Rome. Still the 523 b.c.
employment of a signet-ring must have begun to be
much more frequent with the introduction of usury.
This is proved by the custom of the lower classes,
among whom even at the present day a ring is
whipped out when a contract is being made ; the
habit comes down from the time when there was
as yet no speedier method of guaranteeing a bargain,
so we can safely assert that w-iih us money begarf
first and signet-rings came in afterwards. About
money we shall speak rather later.

VII. As soon as rings began to be commonly wearing of
worn, they distinguished the second order from the Eqftlstrian
commons, just as a tunic distinguished the senate ^'"''^-
from those who wore the ring, although this distinc-
tion also was only introduced at a late date, and
we find that a wider purple stripe on the tunic was
commonly worn even by heralds, for instance the
father o'f Lucius Aehus Stilo Praeconinus, who
received his surname ^ from his father's office. But
wearing rings clearly introduced a third order, inter-
mediate between the commons and the senate, and
the title ^ that had previously been conferred by the
possession of a war-horse is now assigned by money
rates. This however is only a recent introduction :
when his late lamented Majesty Augustus made
regulations for the judicial panels the majority of the
judges belonged to the iron ring class, and these
used to be designated not Knights but Justices;
the title of Knights remained with the cavalry
squadrons mounted at the pubhc charge. Of the
Justices also there were at the first only four panels,
and in each panel scarcely a thousand names were
to be found, as the provinces had not yet been

25

VOL.IX. B

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

mimus admissis, servatumque in hodiernum est, ne
31 quis e novis civibus in iis iudicaret. decuriae quoque
ipsae pluribus discretae nominibus fuere, tribunorum
aeris et selectorum et iudicum. praeter hos etiam-
num nongenti vocabantur ex omnibus electi ad
custodiendas sufFragiorum cistas in comitiis. et
divisus hic quoque ordo erat superba usurpatione
nominum, cum alius se nongentum, alius selectum,
alius tribunum appellaret.
;52 VIII. Tiberii demum principatu ^ nono anno in
unitatem venit equester ordo, anulorumque aucto-
ritati forma constituta est C. Asinio Pollione C.
Antistio Vetere cos. anno urbis conditae dcclxxv,
quod miremur, futtili paene de causa, cum C. Sulpi-
cius Galba, iuvenalem famam apud principem popina-
rum poenis aucupatus, questus esset in senatu, volgo
institores eius culpae defendi anulis. hac de causa
constitutum, ne cui ius esset nisi qui ingenuus ipse,
<^ingenuo)> ^ patre, avo paterno hs cccc census fuisset
et lege luHa theatrali in quattuordecim ordinibus
33 sedisset. postea gregatim insigne id adpeti coeptum.

^ principatu B : principatus rell.

* ingenuus ipse ingenuo Z)e<Zc/sew : qui ingenuus ipseai<< cui
ingenuo ipsi.

" Originally it seems officials (tribuni aerarii) who collected
the property-tax from Roman citizens (until 167 B.c), and paid
the soldiers out of a special fund. But in the first century
B.c. they appear as an ordo in the state next below the equites.

" Tiberius.

<= I.e. the gold ring of the Order of Knighthood, whose
members often practised banking, tax-farming and otber
bnsinosse?.

•* The financial standing of aii equen.
26

BOOK XXXIII. vii. 30-viii. T^2

admitted to tliis duty ; and the regulation has
survived to the present day that nobody newly
admitted to citizenship shall serve as a justice 011 one
of the panels. The panels themselves also were
distinguished by various designations, as consisting
of TriJDunes of the Money," Selected Members and
Justices. Moreover beside these there were those
styled the Nine Hundred, selected from the whole
body as keepers of the ballot-boxes at elections.
And the proud adoption of titles had made divisions
in this order also, one person styHng himself a
member of the Nine Hundred, another one of the
Select, another a Tribune.

\TII. Finally in the ninth year in office of the
Emperor Tiberius the Order of Knights was united a.d. 14-3;
into a single body ; and in the Consulship of Gaius ^D- 22.
Asinius Polho and Gaius Antistius Vetus, in the
775th year since the foundation of Rome, a regulation
was estabUshed authorizing who should wear rings ;
the motive for this, a thing that may surprise us,
was virtually the futile reason that Gaius Sulpicius
Galba had made a youthful effort to curry favour
\nth the emperor ^ by enacting penalties for keeping
eating-houses and had made a complaint in the
senate that peddling tradesmen when charged with
that offence commonly protected themselves by
means of their rings.'' Consequently a rule was
made that nobody should have this right except one
who was himself a free-born man whose father and
father's father had been free-born also, and who had
been rated as the owner of 400,000 sesterces ^ and had
been entitled under the JuHan law as to the theatre
to sit in the fourtcen front rows of seats. Sub-
sequently people began to apply in crowds for this

27

PLINY: NATUKAL HISTORY

propter haec discrimina C. princeps decuriam quintam
adiecit, tantumque enatum est fastus, ut, quae sub
divo Augusto impleri non potuerant, decuriae non
capiant eum ordinem, passimque ad ornamenta ea
etiam servitute liberati transiliant, quod antea num-
quam erat factum, quoniam ^ ferreo anulo et equites
iudicesque intellegebantur. adeoque id promiscuum
esse coepit, ut apud Claudium Caesarem in censura
eius unus ex equitibus Flavius Proculus cccc ex ea
causa reos postularet. ita dum separatur ordo ab
34 ingenuis, communicatus est cum servitiis. iudicum
autem appellatione separare eum ordinem primi
omnium instituere Gracchi discordi popularitate in
contumeliam senatus, mox debellata auctoritas
nominis vario seditionum eventu circa publicanos
substitit et aliquamdiu tertiae sortis viri publicani
fuere. M. Cicero demum stabilivit equestre nomen
in consulatu suo Catilinianis rebus, ex eo ordine pro-
fectum se celebrans eiusque vires peculiari populari-
tate quaerens. ab illo tempore plane hoc tertium
corpus in re p. factum est, coepitque adici senatui

^ quoniam Mayhoff : qm in.

" In fact C. Gracchus, tribune 123-2 b.c.
28

BOOK XXXIII. VIII. 33-34

mark of rank ; and in consequence of these distinc-
tions within the order the Emperor Gaius Caligula
added a fifth panel. and so much conceit has this
occasioned that the panels which under his late
lamented Majesty Augustus it had not been possible
to fill will not hold that order, and there are frequent
cases of men who are actually liberated slaves making
a leap over to these distinctions, a thing that
previouslv never occurred, since the iron ring was the
distinguishing mark even of knights and judges.
And the thing began to be so common that during
the censorship of the Emperor Claudius a member a.d. 48.
of the Order of Knighthood named Flavius Proculus
laid before him information against 400 persons on
this ground, so that an order intended to distinguish
the holder from other men of free birth has been
shared with slaves. It was the Gracchi" who first
instituted the name of Justices or Judges as the
distinguishing name of that order of knights — •
seditiously currpng favour with the people in order
to humihate the senate ; but subsequently the
importance of the title of Knight was swamped by
the shifting currents of faction, and came down to be
attached to the farmers of public revenues, and for
some time these revenue officers constituted the
third rank in the state. Finally Marcus Cicero,
thanks to the Catilinarian affair, during his consulship 63 b.o.
put the title of knighthood on a firm footing, boasting
that he himself sprang from that order, and M'inning
its powerful support by methods of securing popu-
larity that were entirely his own. From that time
onward the Knighthood definitely became a third
element in the state, and the name of the Equestrian
Order came to be added to the formula ' The

29

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

popiiloqiic Romano et equester ordo. qua de causa
et nunc post populum scribitur, quia novissime
coeptus est adici.
Sf) IX. Equitum quidem etiam nomen ipsum saepe
variatum est, in iis quoque, qui id ab equitatu tra-
hebant. celeres sub Romulo regibusque sunt appel-
lati, deinde flexuntes, postea trossuli, cum oppidum
in Tuscis citra Volsinios p. vTni sine ullo peditum
adiumento cepissent eius vocabuli, idque duravit

36 ultra C. Gracchum. lunius certe, qui ab amicitia
eius Gracchanus appellatus est, scriptum reliquit his
verbis : Quod ad equestrem ordinem attinet, antea
trossulos vocabant, nunc equites vocant ideo, quia
non intellegunt trossulos nomen quid valeat, mul-
tosque pudet eo nomine appellari. et causam, quae
supra indicata est, exponit invitosque etiamnum ^
tamen trossulos vocari.

37 X. Sunt adhuc aliquae non omittendae in auro
differentiae. auxilia quippe et externos torquibus
aureis donavere, at cives non nisi argenteis, praeter-
que armillas civibus dedere, quas non dabant externis.

38 XI. lidem, quo magis miremur, coronas ex auro
dedere et civibus. quis primus donatus sit ea, non

^ etiamtum cojii. Mayhoff.

" But in fact the regular order of words was senate,
equites, Roman people.

*• Trossum or Trossulum ; there are still remains of a town
at Trosso, two miles from Monte Fiascone in Tuscany.

30

BOOK XXXIII. viii. 34-xi. t^^

Senate and People of Rome.' This is the reason
why it is even now WTitten after " ' People,' because
it was the latest addition introduced.

IX. Indeed the very name of the Knights has
itself frequently been altered, even in the case of
those who derived the title from the fact of their
serving as cavalry. Under Romulus and the Kings
they were called the Celeres, then the Flexuntes
and afterwards the Trossuh, because of their having
without any assistance from infantry captured a
town of that name ^ in Tuscany nine miles this side
of \^olsinii ; and the name survived till after the
time of Gaius Gracchus. At all events in the
writings left by Junius, who owing to his friendship
with Gaius Gracchus was called Gracchanus, these
words occur : ' So far as concerns the Equestrian
Order they were previously called the TrossuH,
but are now simply designated the Cavahy, because
people do not know what the word TrossuH means
and many of them are ashamed of being called by
that name.' He goes on to explain the reason
above indicated, and says that they were even in
his time still called Trossuh, though they did not
\vish to be.

X. There are some additional particulars in Xeckiaces.
regard to gold which must not be omitted. For
instance our authorities actually bestowed gold
necklaces on foreign soldiers, but only awarded
sih'er ones to Roman citizens, and what is more

they gave bracelets to citizens, which it was not
their custom to o-ive to foreifjners.

XI. But at the same time, as is even mor e Crowns oj
surprising, they gave crowns of gold even to citizens. ^^ *
Who was the first person to receive one I have not

31

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

inveni equidem ; quis primus donaverit, a L. Pisone
traditur : A. Postumius dictator apud lacum Regillum
castris Latinorum expugnatis eum, cuius maxime
opera capta essent. hanc coronam ex praeda is
dedit II 1.,^ item L. Lentulus consul Servio Cornelio
Merendae Samnitum oppido capto, sed hic quinque
librarum ; trium ^ Piso Frugi filium ex privata pecunia
donavit eamque coronam testamento ei praelegavit.

39 XI L Deorum honoris causa in sacris nihil aliud
excogitatum est quam ut auratis cornibus hostiae,
maiores dumtaxat, immolarentur. sed in militia
quoque in tantum adolevit haec luxuria, ut M.
Bruti e Philippicis campis epistulae reperiantur
frementis fibulas tribunicias ex auro geri. ita,
Hercules ? idem enim tu, Brute, mulierum pedibus
aurum gestatum ^ tacuisti. et nos sceleris arguimus
illum, qui primus auro dignitatem per anulos fecit !
habeant in lacertis iam quidem et viri, quod ex
Dardanis venit — itaque et Dardanium vocabatur ;

40 viriolae Celtice dicuntur, viriae Celtiberice — ; habe-
ant feminae in armilHs digitisque totis, collo, auribus,
spiris ; discurrant catenae circa latera et in secreto

^ dedit II 1. {i.e. iibrarum) MayhofJ : dedit cdd. (dedit

2 trium add. Hardouin coll. \'al. Max. IV. 3. 10.
■^ gestatum B, cd. Colb. : gestari rell.

32

BOOK XXXIII. XI. 38-xii. 40

myself been able to ascertain, but Lucius Piso
records who was the first person to bestow one,
namely the dictator Aulus Postumius, who when
the camp of the Latins at Lake Regillus had been ^97 b.o.
taken by storm awarded a gold crown to the soldier
who had been chiefly responsible for taking the
place. In this case the crown which he bestowed
was made of gold taken from the booty captured,
and weighed two pounds. Also Lucius Lentulus
as consul awarded a gold crown to Servius Cornehus 275 b.o.
Merenda after the taking of a town belonging to the
Samnites, but Servius's crown weighed five pounds ;
while Piso Frugi bestowed on his son one weighing
three pounds out of his personal resources, leaving
it to him by will as a specific legacy.

XII. As a mark of honour to the gods at sacrifices Further
no other means has been devised but to gild the ^ahoutgoid.
horns of the victims to be immolated, at all events
of full-grown animals. But in military service also
this form of luxury has grown to such dimensions
that we find a letter of Marcus Brutus sent from the
Plains of PhiHppi expressing his indignation at 42 b.c.
the brooches made of gold that were worn by the
tribunes. Really I must protest ! Why, even you,
Brutus, did not mention the gold worn on their feet
by women, and we accuse of crime the man who
first conferred dignity on gold by using gold rings !
Let even men nowadays wear gold bracelets — called
* Dardania ' because the fashion came from the
Dardani — the Celtic name for them is ' viriolae '
and the Celtiberian ' viriae ' ; let women have gold
in their bracelets and covering their fingers and on
their neck, ears and tresses, let gold chains run at
raiidom round their waists ; and let little bags of

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

margaritarum sacculi e collo dominarum auro pen-
deant, ut in somno quoque unionum conscientia
adsit : etiamne pedibus induetur atque inter stolam
plebemque hunc medium feminarum equestrem
ordinem faciet ? honestius viri paedagogis id damus,

41 balineasque dives puerorum forma convertit.^ iam
vero et Harpocraten statuasque Aegyptiorum numi-
num in digitis viri quoque portare incipiunt. fuit et
aha Claudii principatu differentia insolens iis, quibus
admissiones ^ liberae ^ ius ^ dedissent ^ imaginem
principis ex auro in anulo gerendi, magna criminum
occasione, quae omnia salutaris exortus A^espasiani
imperatoris abolevit aequahter publicando principem.
de anulis aureis usuque eorum hactenus sit dictum.

42 XIII. Proximum scelus fuit eius, qui primus ex
auro denarium signavit, quod et ipsum latet auctore
incerto. populus Romanus ne argento quidem sig-
nato ante Pyrrhum regem devictum usus est.
libraHs — unde etiam nunc Hbella dicitur et dupondius
— adpendebatur assis ; quare aeris gravis poena
dicta, et adhuc expensa in rationibus dicuntur, item

^ converrit J. Mulhr.

2 admissiones Movimsen : admissionem cdd. pler. : admis-
8ion//i//s B-.

3 liberae B : Hberti rell.
* ius Lips : eius,

^ dedisset coni. lan.

<» I.e. gold ornaments on tbe sandal-straps.

" Said to have been the Egj^ptian god of silence.

" I.e. committed against the welfare of mankind. The
worst crime was tlie introduction of gold rings, § 8.

^ Equal in value to 25 silver denarii.

« 'the as was reduced in weight in the Ist Punic War or
soon after.

•^ A piece worth two asses.

34

BOOK XXXIII. XII. 40-xiii. 42

pearls han^ invisible suspended by gold chains from

their lady owners' neck, so that even in their sleep

they may retain the conscioiisness of possessing

gems : but are even their feet to be shod with gold,"

and shall gold create this female Order of Knight-

hood, intermediate between the matron's robe and

the common people ? Much more becomingly do

we men bestow this on our page-boys, and the

wealthy show these lads make has quite transformed

the pubhc baths ! But nowadays even men are

beginning to wear on their fingers a representation

of Harpocrates ^ and figures of Egyptian deities.

In the time of the Emperor Claudius there was also a.d. 41-54.

another unusual distinction, belonging to those

whose rights of free access to the presence had

given them the privilege of wearing a gold likeness

of the emperor on a ring, this affording a great

opportunity for informations ; but all of this was

however entirely aboHshed by the opportune rise

to power of the Emperor Vespasian, by making the a.d. 69-79.

emperor equally accessible to all. Let this suffice

for a discussion of the subject of gold rings and their

employment.

XIII. Next in degree was the crime committed <^ Roman
by the person who first coined a gold denarius,^ a in'three
crime which itself also is hidden and its author un- metais.
known. The Roman nation did not even use a
stamped silver coinage before the conquest of King 275 b.c.
Pyrrhus. The as weighed one pound — hence the
term still in use, ' httle pound ' ^ and ' two pounder ' / ;
this is the reason why a fine is specified in ' heavy
bronze,'^ and why in book-keeping outlay is still
designated as ' sums weighed out,' and Ukewise
0 On aes, see XXXIV. 1, note.

35

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

43 inpendia et dependere, quin et militum stipendia,
hoc est stipis pondera, dispensatores, libripendes, qua
consuetudine in iis emptionibus, quae mancipi sunt,
etiam nunc libra interponitur. Servius rex primus
signavit aes. antea rudi usos Romae Timaeus tradit.
signatum est nota pecudum, unde et pecunia appel-
lata. maximus census cxx assium fuit illo rege, et
ideo haec prima classis.

44 Argentum signatum anno urbis cccclxxxv,^ Q.
Ogulnio C. Fabio cos., quinque annis ante primum
Punicum bellum. et placuit denarium pro x libris
aeris valere, quinarium pro v, sestertium pro dupon-
dio ac semisse. librale autem pondus aeris inminutum
est bello Punico primo, cum inpensis res p. non
sufficeretjconstitutumque ut asses sextantario pondere
ferirentur. ita quinque partes lucri factae, dissolu-

45 tumque aes alienum. nota aeris eius fuit ex altera
parte lanus geminus, ex altera rostrum navis, in
triente vero et quadrante rates. quadrans antea
teruncius vocatus a tribus unciis. postea Hannibale

^ ccccLxxxv Cellarius : ccccLxxxxv B : dlxxxv rell.

" I.e. an as.

36

BOOK XXXIII. XIII. 42-45

interest as ' weighed on account ' and paying as
* weighing do^vn,' and moreover it explains the
terms * soldiers' stipend,' which means ' weights of
heaped money,' and the words for accountants and
paymasters that mean ' weighers ' and ' pound-
weighers,' and owing to this custom in purchases that
deal with all larger personal property, even at the
present day, an actual pair of ' pound '-scales is
introduced. King Servius was the first to stamp a ^"^'1*"!"''
design on bronze ; previously, according to Timaeus, 534 b.o.
at Rome they used raw metal. The design stamped
on the metal was an ox or a sheep, pecus, which is the
origin of the term ' pecunia.' The highest assess-
ment of one man's property in the reign of Servius was
120,000 as-pieces, and consequently that amount of
property was the standard of the first class of citizens.

Silver was first coined in the 485th year of the city, 269-8 b.o.
in the consulship of Quintus Ogulnius and Gaius
Fabius, five years before the first Punic War. It
was decided that the value of a denarius should be
ten pounds of bronze, that of a half-denarius five
pounds, that of a sesterce two pounds and a half.
The weight of a standard pound " of bronze was
however reduced during the first Punic War, when
the state could not meet its expenditure, and it was
enacted that the as should be struck weighing two
ounces. This effected a saving of five sixths, and the
national debt was Uquidated. The design of this
bronze coin was on one side a Janus facing both
ways and on the other the ram of a battleship ; the
third of an as and the quarter as had a ship. The
latter had previously been called a teruncius, as
weighing three ounces. Subsequently when the
presence of Hannibal was being felt, in the dictator- 217 b.c.

37

PLINY: NATUllAL HISTORY

urguente ^ Q. Fabio Maximo dictatore asses unciales
facti, placuitque denarium xvi assibus permutari,
quinarium octonis, sestertium quaternis. ita res p.
dimidium lucrata est, in militari tamen stipendio

46 semper denarius pro x assibus datus est. notae
argenti fuere bigae atque quadrigae ; inde bigati
quadrigatique dicti.

Mox lege Papiria semunciarii asses facti. Livius
Drusus in tribunatu plebei octavam partem aeris
argento miscuit. is, qui nunc victoriatus appellatur,
lege Clodia percussus est ; antea enim hic nummus ex
Illyrico advectus mercis loco habebatur. est autem
signatus Victoria, et inde nomen.

47 Aureus nummus post annos li ^ percussus est
quam argenteus ita, ut scripulum valeret sestertios
vicenos,^ quod effectum* in Hbrali^ ratione sestertii,^
qui tunc erat, cccc.'^ postea placuit X xxxx signari
ex auri Ubris, paulatimque principes inminuere pon-
dus, et novisissime Nero ad xxxxv.

48 XIV. Sed a nummo prima origo avaritiae faenore
excogitato quaestuosaque segnitia ; nec paulatim
exarsit rabie quadam non iam avaritia, sed fames auri,

^ urguente B, cd. Par. 6801 : urguente Mareum rell. :
urguente Marcum Minucium Brotier.

^ lA B: Lxn rell.

^ sestertios vicenos Brotier: sestertius vicenus aut sestertiis
vicenis (sestertio B : viciens B^ : vincens B^).

* effectum K. C. Bailei/: efficit B, cd. Par. 6801: effecit
rell.

^ librali B : libras rell. : libram Mayhoff.

^ sestertium Urlichs : sestertiorum Caesarius.

' erat cd. Par. 6801: erant relL: cccc B: D nongenti rell.
(sestertios dcccc cd. Par. 6801) : varia editores.

3«

BOOK XXXIII. XIII. 45-xiv. 48

ship of Quintus Fabius Maximus, asses of one ounce
wei^i^ht were coined, and it was enacted that the
exchange-value of the denarius should be sixteen
asses, of the half-denarius eight and of the quarter-
denarius four ; by this measure the state made a
clear gain of one half. But nevertheless in the pay
of soldiers one denarius has always been given for
ten asses. The designs on silver were a two-horse
and a four-horse chariot, and consequently the coins
were called apair ofhorses and 2ifour-in-hand.

Next according to a law of Papirius asses 39 b.o.
weiffhiniT half an ounce were struck. Livius
Drusus " when holding the office of tribune of the
plebs alloyed the silver with one-eighth part of
bronze. The coin now named the victory coin was
struck under the law of Clodius ; previously a coin c 104b.o.
of this name was imported from Illyria and was looked
on as an article of trade. The design on it was a
figure of Victory, which gives it its name.

The first gold coin was struck 51 years later than 217 b.o.
the silver coinage, a scruple of gold having the value
of twenty sesterces ; this was done at 400 to the
pound of silver, at the then rating of the sesterce.
It was afterwards decided to coin denarii at the rate 49 b.c.
of 40 from a pound of gold, and the emperors grad-
ually reduced the weight of the gold denarius, and
most recently Nero brought it down to 45 denarii to a.d. 54-68.
the pound.

XIV. But from the invention of money came the Ezampies o/
original source of avarice when usury was devised, ^^'^*^-^
and a profitable life of idleness ; by rapid stages
what was no longer mere avarice but a positive

" Probably the tribune of 123 b.c, not his son who was
tribune in 91 b.c.

39

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

utpote cum Septumuleius, C. Gracchi familiaris, auro
rependendum caput eius abscisum ad Opimium
tulerit plumboque in os addito parricido suo rem p.
etiam circumscripserit ; nec iam Quiritium aliquis,
sed universo nomine Romano infami rex Mithridates
Aquilio duci capto aurum in os infudit. haec parit

49 habendi cupido ! pudet intuentem nomina ista, quae
subinde nova Graeco sermone excogitantur insperso
argenteis vasis auro et incluso, quibus deliciis pluris
veneunt inaurata quam aurea, cum sciamus inter-
dixisse castris suis Spartacum, ne quis aurum haberet
aut argentum. tanto plus fuit animi fugitivis nos-

50 tris ! Messalla orator prodidit Antonium triumvirum
aureis usum vasis in omnibus obscenis desideriis,
pudendo crimine etiam Cleopatrae. summa apud
exteros Hcentiae fuerat Philippum regem poculo
aureo pulvinis subdito dormire solitum, Hagnonem
Teium, Alexandri Magni praefectum, aureis clavis
sufRgere crepidas : Antonius solus contumelia natu-
rae vilitatem auro fecit. o dignum proscriptione,
sed Spartaci !

51 XV. Equidem miror populum Romanum victis
gentibus in tributo semper argentum imperasse, non

" Consul in 121 b.c.

* After the battle of Protomachiura in Asia Minor, 88 b.c.

* Leader of a great slave-rising in Italy, 73-71 b.c.

^ I.e. by a slave, not by a fellow freeraan. Antony was
infamous for the proscription which he inflicted in 43 b.c.

40

BOOK XXXIII. XIV. 48-xv. 51

hiinger for gold flared up with a sort of frenzy,
inasmuch as the friend of Gaius Gracchus, Sep-
tumuleius, a price having been set on Gracchus's 121 b.c.
head to the amount of its weight in gold, when
Gracchus's head had been cut ofF, brought it to
Opimius," after adding to his unnatural murder by
putting lead in the mouth of the corpse, and so
cheated the state in addition. Nor was it now some
Roman citizen, but King Mithridates who dis-
graced the whole name of Roman when he poured
molten gold into the mouth of the General Aquilius
whom he had taken prisoner.^ These are the
things that the lust for possessions engenders ! One
is ashamed to see the new-fangled names that are
invented every now and then from the Greek to
denote silver vessels filigreed or inlaid with gold,
niceties which make gilded plate fetch a higher
price than gold plate, when we know that Spartacus "
issued an order to his camp forbidding anybody to
possess gold or silver : so much more spirit was there
then in our run-away slaves ! The orator Messala
has told us that the triumvir Antony used vessels of c. 83-30 b.c.
gold in satisfying all the indecent necessities, an
enormity that even Cleopatra would have been 69-8-30 b.o.
ashamed of. Till then the record in extravagance
had lain with foreigners — King Philip sleeping with /'«'f<i 359-
a gold goblet under his pillows and Alexander the %n^%Q-
Great's prefect Hagnon of Teos having his sandals -^^s b.o.
soled with gold nails ; but Antony alone cheapened
gold by this contumely of nature. How he deserved
to be proscribed ! but proscribed by Spartacus ! ^

XV. It does indeed surprise me that the Roman Emmpies oj
nation always imposed a tribute of silver, not of gokl, ^^e!juihin^
on races that it conquered, for instance on Carthaere precwus

^ ° metals.

41

PIJNY: NATURAL HISTORY

aurum, sicut Carthagini cum Hannibale victae octin-
genta milia, xvi ^ pondo annua in quinquaginta
annos, nihil auri. nec potest videri paenuria mundi
id evenisse. iam Midas et Croesus infmitum pos-
sederant, iam Cyrus devicta Asia pondo xxiiTi
invenerat praeter vasa aurumque factum et in eo
solium,^ platanum, vitem. qua victoria argenti D ^
talentorum reportavit et craterem Semiramidis,

52 cuius pondus xv talentorum colligebat. talentum
Aegyptinm pondo lxxx patere M.* Varro tradit.
iam regnaverat in Colchis Saulaces Aeetae suboles,
qui terram virginem nactus plurimum auri argentique
eruisse dicitur in Suanorum gente, et alioqui velleri-
bus aureis incluto regno. et illius aureae camarae,
argenteae trabes et columnae atque parastaticae
narrantur victo ^ Sesostri, Aegypti rege tam superbo,
ut prodatur annis quibusque sorte reges singulos e
subiectis iungere ad currum solitus atque ita trium-
phare.

53 XVI. Et nos fecimus quae posteri fabulosa arbi-
trentur. Caesar, qui postea dictator fuit, primus in
aedilitate munere patris funebri omni apparatu

1 XVI lan : avt cdd. (om. B : argenti a/. Par. 6801).

* soliu {{.e. soliura) Mai/hoff: solia ac Pintianits: foliatam
lan : folia B : folia ac rell.

^ D coni. Warmingion.

* patere M. Detlefsen : capere Gelen : pendere aut habere
coni. Mayhoff : patere cdd. (paterem cd. Leid. Voss.).

5 victae cd. Par. 0801.

" Probably the right reading is d = 500.
^ The legend was that Phrixus flew there on a ram with a
fleece of gold to escape from his stopmother, and married the

42

BOOK XXXIII. XV. 51-XVI. 53

when conquered together with Hannibal, 800,000 202 b.c.
pounds weight of silver in yearly instalments of
16,000 pounds spread over 50 years, but no gold. Nor
can it be considered that this was due to the world's
poverty. Midas and Croesus had already possessed
wealth without Umit, and Cyrus had ah-eady on con-
quering Asia Minor found booty consisting of 24,000 516-5r.c.
pounds weight of gold, besides vessels and articles
made of gold, including a throne, a plane-tree and a
vine. And by this victory he carried ofF 500,000 ^
talents of silver and the wine-bowl of Semiramis the
weight of which came to 15 talents. The Aegyptian
talent according to Marcus Varro amounts to 80
pounds of gold. Saulaces the descendant of Aeetes
had already reigned in Colchis, who is said to have
come on a tract of virgin soil in the country of the
Suani and elsewhere and to have dug up from it a great
quantity of gold and silver, his realm being moreover
famous for golden fleeces.^ We are also told of his
gold-vaulted ceilings and silver beams and cokimns
and pilasters, belonging to Sesostris King of Egypt
whom Saulaces conquered, so proud a monarch that
he is reported to have been in the habit every year
of harnessing to his chariot individual kings selected
by lot from among his vassals and so going in
triumphal procession.

XVI . \Ve too have done things to be deemed
mythical by those who come after us. Caesar, the
future dictator, was the first person in the office of
aedile to use nothing but silver for the appointments 65 b.c.
of the arena — it was at the funeral games presented
in honour of his father ; and this was the first

daughter of King Aeetes. The jfleece was later carried away
b}' Jason and the Argonauts.

43

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

harenae argenteo usus est, ferasque etiam argenteis
vasis incessivere tum primum noxii, quod iam etiam *
in municipiis aemulantur. C. Antonius ludos scaena
argentea fecit, item L. Murena ; Gaius princeps in
circo pegma duxit, in quo fuere argenti pondo

54 cxxiiii.^ Claudius successor eius, cum de Brittannia
triumpharet, inter coronas aureas vTi ^ pondo habere
quam contulisset Hispania citerior, viili * quam Gallia
comata, titulis indicavit. huius deinde succesor
Nero Pompei theatrum operuit auro in unum diem,
quo Tiridati Armeniae regi ostenderet. et quota pars
ea fuit aureae domus ambientis urbem !

55 XVII. Auri in aerario populi R. fuere Sex. luHo
L. Aurelio cos., septem annis ante bellum Punicum
tertium, pondo xvn ^ ccccx, argenti xxTi lxx, et in
numerato JLxTl xxxv cccc, Sexto luho L. Marcio cos.,
hoc est belli socialis initio, auri . . .^ ptvT] xx dcccxxxi.

56 C. Caesar primo introitu urbis civili bello suo ex
aerario protulit laterum aureorum xv, argenteorum
XXX, et in numerato'' |ccc|. nec fuit aliis temporibus

1 iametiam B : etiam rell. : iara et coni. Mayhoff.

2 cxxiiii B : cxxiiii aut cxxxiiii rell.

3 vTi J5 : VII rell.

* vTin B : viiii rell.

^ In §§ 55-56 numeri varie traduntur.

® lac. Detlefsen, 3Iommsen.

V.ll. nummo, numero {add. HS cdd. nonnulli : pondo

cd. Par. 6801).

° A wooden edifice on wheels in two or more stages, which
were raised and lowered, opened and closed, by machinery;
on them performances were given.

" So cd. B. The number 124 or 134 of the other cdd. is of
course much too small.

« So cd. B. The other MSS. give 7 and 9. The higher
number is so absurd that perhaps we should omit inter and

44

BOOK XXXIII. XVI. 53-xvii. 56

occasion on which criminals made to fight with wild
animals had all their equipment made of silver, a
practice nowadays rivalled even in our municipal
towns. Gaius Antonius gave plays on a silver
stage, and so did Lucius Murena ; and the emperor
Gaius Caligula brought on a scaffolding " in the a.d. 37-41.
circus which had on it 124,000 ^ pounds weight of silver.
His successor Claudius when celebrating a triumph
after the conquest of Britain, advertised by placards a.d. 43.
that among the gold coronets there was one having
a weight of 7000 '^ pounds contributed by Hither
Spain and one of 9000 '^ from GalHa Comata. His
immediate successor Nero covered the theatre of a.d. 54-C8.
Pompey with gold for one day's purpose, when he was
to display it to Tiridates King of Armenia. Yet how
small was the theatre in comparison with Nero's
Golden Palace which goes all round the city !

X\TI. The gold contained in the national
treasury of Rome in the consulship of Sextus JuUus 156 b.c.
and Lucius Aurelius, seven years before the third
Punic War, amounted to 17,410 Ibs., the silver to
22,070 Ibs., and in specie there was 6,135,400
sesterces ; in the consulship of Sextus Julius and 9i b.c.
Lucius Marcius, that is to say, at the beginning of the
war with the allies,'^ there was . . . Ibs. of gold and
1,620,831 Ibs. of silver. Gaius JuUus Caesar, on
first entering Rome during the civil war that bears 49 b.c.
his name, drew from the treasury 15,000 gold ingots,
30,000 silver ingots, and 30,000,000 sesterces in
coin ; at no other periods was the state more wealthy.

translate : ' that there were crowns weighing in aU 7000
pounds contribnted by Hither Spain and 9000 pounds from
Gallia Comata.'
<* See n. on § 20.

45

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

res p. lociipletior. intulit et Aemilius Paulus Perseo
rege victo e Macedonica praeda [mmm], a quo tempore
populus Romanus tributum pendere desiit.

57 XVIII. Laquearia, quae nunc et in privatis domi-
bus auro teguntur, post Carthaginem eversam primo
in Capitolio inaurata sunt censura L. Mummi. inde
transiere in camaras quoque et parietes, qui iam et
ipsi tamquam vasa inaurantur, cum varie sua aetas
de Catulo existimaverit, quod tegulas aereas Capitoli
inaurasset.

58 XIX. Primos inventores auri, sicut metallorum
fere omnium, septimo volumine diximus. praecipuam
gratiam huic materiae fuisse arbitror non colore, qui
clarior in argento est magisque diei similis, ideo
miUtaribus signis famiUarior, quoniam ^ longius fulget,
manifesto errore eorum, qui colorem siderum pla-
cuisse in auro arbitrantur, cum in gemma aliisque

59 rebus non sit praecipuus. nec pondere aut facilitate
materiae praelatum est ceteris metalHs, cum cedat
per utrumque plumbo,^ sed quia rerum uni nihil igne
deperit, tuto ^ etiam in incendiis rogisque. quin
immo quo saepius arsit, proficit ad bonitatem,

^ 1'./. quo nimis : quouiam in iis coni. MayhofJ.
- plumbo cdd. : plumbum coni. K. C. Bailey.
'^ V.ll. tota, toto.

<" King of Macedonia, defeated at Pydna, 168 b.c.
^ It was not levied after 167 B.c.
* I.e. he was by no means universally approved.
<* This is not true.

46

BOOK XXXIII. xvn. ^r^-xix. 59

Aemilius Paulus also after the defeat of King
Perseus " paid in to the treasury from the booty won
in Macedonia 300 million sesterces ; and from that
date onward the Roman nation left off paying the
citizens' property-tax.^

XVIII. At the present day we see ceilings
covered with gold even in private houses, but they
were first gilded in-the Capitol during the censorship

of Lucius Mummius after the fall of Carthage. 146 b.c.
From ceiHngs the use of gilding passed over also to
vaulted roofs and walls, these too being now gilded
like pieces of plate, whereas a variety of judgements
were passed ^ on Catulus by his contemporaries for Betwem 79
having gilded the brass tiUngs of the Capitol.

XIX. We have already said in Book VII who vii. 97.
were the people who first discovered gold, and Popuiarity
almost all of the metals Hkewise. I think that the

chief popularity of this substance has been won not
by its colour, that of silver being brighter and more
Hke dayHght, which is the reason why it is in more
common use for miHtary ensigns because its briHiance
is visible at a greater distance ; those persons who
think that it is the colour of starHght in gold that has
won it favour being clearly mistaken because in the
case of gems and other things with the same tint it
does not hold an outstanding place. Nor is it its
weight or its maUeabiHty that has led to its being
preferred to aU the rest of the metals, since in both
quaHties it yields '^ the first place to lead, but because
fiold is the only thing that loses no substance by the Spedal

i.- r n \ ^ ' n 4.- J qualities oj

action or fire, but even m confiagrations and on goid.
funeral pyres receives no damage. Indeed as a
matter of fact it improves in quaHty the more often
it is fired, and fire serves as a test of its goodness.

47

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

aurique experimentum ignis est, ut simili colore
rubeat ignescatque et ipsum ; obrussam vocant.

60 primum autem bonitatis argumentum quam difficil-
lime accendi. praeterea mirum, prunae ^ violentis-
simi ligni indomitum palea citissime ardescere atque,
ut purgetur, cum plumbo coqui.

Altera causa pretii maior, quod minimum usus
deterit, cum argento, aere, plumbo lineae praedu-

61 cantur manusque sordescant decidua materia. nec
aliud laxius dilatatur aut numerosius dividitur, utpote
cuius unciae in septingenas quinquagenas pluresque
bratteas quaternum utroque digitorum spargantur.
crassissimae ex iis Praenestinae vocantur, etiamnum
retinentes ^ nomen Fortunae inaurato fidelissime ibi

62 simulacro. proxima brattea quaestoria appellatur.
Hispania strigiles ^ vocat auri parvolas massas. super
omnia solum in massa aut ramento capitur. cum
cetera in metallis reperta igni perficiantur, hoc
statim aurum est consummatamque materiam suam
protinus habet, cum ita invenitur. haec enim in-
ventio eius naturalis est ; aha, quam dicemus, coacta.
super cetera non robigo ulla, non aerugo, non aliud
ex ipso, quod consumat bonitatem minuatve pondus.
iam contra salis et aceti sucos, domitores rerum,
constantia ^ superat omnia, superque ^ netur ac

^ pruna cd. deperd. recte ?
2 retinente B.
^ V.H. strigile, striges {B).
* fonstantiam B.

^ sujierat omnia superque Mayhoff: superque superat
omnia B : superque omnia rell.

" Cf. Schol. ad Thuc. II. 13 6^pvl,ov xpvalov.
^ A variant reading ' striges ' gives ' grooves.'

48

BOOK XXXIII. XIX. 59-62

making it assume a similar red hue and itself becomes
the colour of fire ; this proccss is called assaying."
The first proof of quahty in gold is however its being
affected by fire v/ith extreme difficulty ; beside that,
it is remarkable that though invincible to live coal
made of the hardest wood it is very quickly made
red hot by a fire of chaff, and that for the purpose of
purifying it it is roasted with lead.

Another more important reason for its value is
that it gets extremely Httle worn by use ; whereas,
with silver, copper and lead, Hnes may be drawn,
and stuff that comes off them dirties the hand. Nor
is any other material more malleable or able to
be divided into more portions, seeing that an ounce
of gold can be beaten out into 750 or more leaves 4
inches square. The thickest kind of gold leaf is
called Palestrina leaf, still bearing the name taken
from the most genuinely gilded statue of Fortune in
that place. The foil next in thickness is styled
Quaestorian leaf. In Spain tiny pieces of gold are
called scrapers.** Gold more than all other metals is
found unalloyed in nuggets or in the form of detritus.
Whereas all other metals when found in the mines
are brought into a finished condition by means of
fire, gold is gold straight away and has its substance
in a perfect state at once, when it is obtained by
mining. This is the natural way of getting it, while
another which we shall describe is artificial. More §^gs sqq.
than any other substance gold is immune from rust
or verdigris or anything else emanating from it
that wastes its goodness or reduces its weight.
Moreover in steady resistance to the overpowering
effect of the juices of salt and vinegar it surpasses
all things, and over and above that it can be spun

49

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTOKY

t)3 texitiir lanae modo vel sine lana. tunica aurea tri-
umphasse Tarquinium Priscum ^ errius docet ; nos
vidimus Agrippinam Claudi principis, edente eo
navalis proelii spectaculum, adsidentem et indutam
paludamento aureo textili sine alia materia. Atta-
licis vero iam pridem intexitur, invento regum Asiae.

04 XX. Marmori et iis, quae candefieri non possunt,
ovi candido inlinitur, ligno glutini ratione conposita,^
leucophorum vocant. quid sit hoc aut quemadmo-
dum fiat, suo loco docebimus. aes inaurari argento
vivo aut certe hydrargyro legitimum erat, de quis, ut -
dicemus illorum naturam reddentes, excogitata fraus

65 est. namque aes cruciatur in primis ^ accensumque
restinguitur sale, aceto, alumine, postea examinatur,^
an satis recoctum sit, splendore deprehendente.
iterumque exhalatur ^ igni, ut possit, edomitum mix-
tis pumice et ^ alumine, argento vivo inductas accipere
bratteas. alumen et in purgando vim habet qualem
esse diximus plumbo.

()G XXL Aurum invenitur in nostro orbe, ut omitta-
mus Lidicum a formicis aut apud Scythas grypis

^ composito vel re composita coni. Mayhoff.
2 ut cd.. Par. 6801 : om. rell.
^ primis cdd. : prunis coni. D'Arcy Thompson.
* examinatur K. C. Bailey : exharenatur.
^ exhalatur cdd.: exharenatur JJetlefsen : excitatur coni,
Mayhoff.

« et wld. K. C. Bailey.

" Probably Attalus I of Pergamum, 241-197 b.c.

' Literally ' fiuid silver.'

' See XXXV. 183 ff.

<* I.e. alum purifies copper as lead purifies gold.

50

BOOK XXXlIi. XIX. 62-xxi. 66

into thread and woven into a fabric like wool, even
without an addition of wool. Verrius informs us
that Tarquinius Priscus celebrated a triumph wearing Traduionai
a golden tunic. \Ve have in our own times seen the ^1^**!?^
Emperor Claudius's wife Agrippina, at a show at
which he was exhibiting a naval battle, seated at
his side wearing a mihtary cloak made entirely of
cloth of gold. For a long period gold has been
woven into the fabric called cloth of Attahis," an
invention of Kings of Asia.

XX. On marble and other materials incapable
of being raised to a Mhite heat gold is laid with M'hite
of egg ; on wood it is laid vrith glue according to a
formula ; it is called leucophorum, white-bearing ;
what this is and how it is made we will exph^in in its
proper place. The regular way to gild copper xxxv. 36.
would be to use natural or at all events artificial
quicksilver,^ concerning which a method of adultera-

tion has been devised, as we shall relate in describing §§ 100. 125.
the nature of those substances. The copper is
first subjected to the violence of fire ; then, when
it is red hot, it is quenched with a mixture of brine,
vinegar, and alum,'^ and afterwards put to a test, its
brilliance of colour showing whether it has been
sufficiently heated ; then it is again dried in the fire,
so that, after a thorough poHshing with a mixture of
pumice and alum, it is able to take the gold-leaf
laid on with quicksilver. Alum has the same clean- § 60.
sing property here that we said is found in lead.^

XXI. Gold in our part of the workl — not to speak Methodsfor
of the Indian gold obtained from ants or the gold ^ow?'^""^
dug up by griffins in Scythia «^ — is obtained in three

*■ This Indian and Scythian gold was perhaps got from Tibet.
The stories about it go back to Herodotus.

51

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

erutum, tribus ^ modis : fluminum ramentis, ut in
Tago Hispaniae, Pado Italiae, Hebro Thraciae,
Pactolo Asiae, Gange Indiae, nec ullum absolutius
aurum est, ut cursu ipso attrituque perpolitum. alio
modo puteorum scrobibus effoditur aut in ruina
montium quaeritur ^ ; utraque ratio dicatur.

67 Aurum qui quaerunt, ante omnia segullum ^ tol-
lunt ; ita vocatur indicium. alveus hic est harenae,
quae lavatur, atque ex eo, quod resedit, coniectura
capitur. invenitur aliquando in summa tellure
protinus rara felicitate, ut nuper in Delmatia princi-
patu Neronis singulis diebus etiam quinquagenas
libras fundens. cum ita inventum est in summo
caespite, talutium ^ vocant, si et aurosa tellus subest.
cetero montes Hispaniarum, aridi sterilesque et in
quibus nihil aliud gignatur, huic ^ bono fertiles esse
coguntur.

68 Quod puteis foditur, canalicium vocant, ahi cana-
liense, marmoris glareae inhaerens, non illo modo,
quo in oriente « sappiro atque Thebaico aliisque in
gemmis scintillat, sed micans '^ amplexu ® marmoris.
vagantur hi venarum canales per latera puteorum et
huc illuc, inde nomine invento, tellusque Hgneis

69 columnis suspenditur. quod effossum est, tunditur,

^ tribus Berglc : apud nos tribus.
2 quaeritur B : quare rell.
^ \'.L segutilura.

* talutium B : talutatium rell. : alutatium Hardouin :
alutiatum Gronov: an alutium (c/. XXXIV, 157)?

^ hoc coni. Warmington.

* orientis coni. Mayhoff.
' micans B"^ : micas.

* amplexu Solinasius : amplexum.

52

BOOK XXXIII. XXI. 66-69

ways : in the detritus of rivers, for instance in the
Tagus in Spain, the Po in Italy, the Maritza in
Thrace, the Sarabat in Asia Minor and the Ganges in
India ; and there is no gold that is in a more perfect
state, as it is thoroughly polished by the mere friction
of the current. Another method is by sinking shafts ;
or it is sought for in the fallen debris of mountains.
Each of these methods must be described.

People seeking for gold begin by getting up
segullum^ — that is the name for earth that indicates
the presence of gold. This is a pocket of sand,
which is washed, and from the sediment left an
estiraate of the vein is made. Sometimes by a rare
piece of luck a pocket is found immediately; on the
surface of the earth, as occurred recently in Dalmatia
when Nero was emperor, one yielding fifty pounds ^-^- ^4-08
weight of gold a day. Gold found in this way in the
surface crust is called talutium if there is also auri-
ferous earth underneath. The othervvise dry, barren
mountains of the Spanish provinces which produce
nothing else whatever are forced into fertility in
regard to this commodity.

Gold dug up from shafts is called * channelled ' or Goid-miidng.
' trenched ' gold ; it is found sticking to the grit of
marble, not in the way in which it gleams in the
lapis lazuli of the East and the stone ^ of Thebes ^'
and in other precious stones, but sparkling in the folds
of the marble. These channels of veins wander to
and fro along the sides of the shafts, which gives the
gold its name; and the earth is held up by wooden
props. The substance dug out is crushed, washed,

" Segullo is still the miners' name for surface earth in
auriferous deposits in Castile.

^ Apparently some micaceous granite. * In Egypt.

53

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

lavatur, uritur, molitur in farinam ; farinam ^ a pila
scudem 2 vocant ; argentum, quod exit a fornace,
sudorem. quae e camino iactatur spurcitia in omni
metallo scoria appellatur. haec in auro tunditur
iterumque coquitur. catini fiunt ex tasconio ; hoc
est terra alba similis argillae, neque enim alia flatum
ignemque et ardentem materiam tolerat.

70 Tertia ratio opera vicerit Gigantum. cuniculis
per magna spatia actis cavantur montes lucernarum
ad lumina ; eadem mensura vigiliarum est, multisque
mensibus non cernitur dies.

Arrugias id genus vocant. siduntque rimae subito
et opprimunt operatos,^ ut iam minus temerarium
videatur e profundo maris petere margaritas atque
purpuras. tanto nocentiores fecimus terras ! relin-
quuntur itaque fornices crebri montibus sustinendis.

71 occursant in utroque genere silices ; hos igne et
aceto rumpunt, saepius vero, quoniam id cuniculos ^
vapore et fumo strangulat, caedunt fractariis cl libras
ferri habentibus egeruntque umeris noctibus ac
diebus per tenebras proximis tradentes ; hicem
novissimi cernunt. si longior videtur silex, latus

1 molitur {aut mollitur) in farinam ; farinam Warmingfon :
mollitur {B, cd. Par. 6801 : molitur rell.) farinam (in farinam
(xl. Flor. Ricc. et ut videtur cd. Par. 6801).

2 a pila scudem Madvig : a.p. cudem Detlefsen : apitascudem
B : varia rell. cdd. et edd.

^ V.ll. operantes, operarios.

* id cuniculos B : in cuniculis rell.

" A given amount of oil is known to last a specified time.
^ Arrugia is said to be the term for a deep mine in Spaiii
to-day. Tlie word is probably connected opvaaoj, dig.

54

BOOK XXXIII. XXI. 69-71

fired and ground to a soft powder. The powder
from the mortar is called the ' scudes ' and the silver
that comes out from the furnace the ' sweat ' ; the
dirt thrown out of the smeltinsr-furnace in the case
of every metal is called ' scoria,' slag. In the case
of gold the scoria is pounded and fired a second
time ; the cruc:bles for this are made of tasconium,
which is a white earth resembhng clay. No other
earth can stand the blast of air, the fire, or the
intensely hot material.

The third method will have outdone the achieve-
ments of the Giants. By means of galleries driven
for long distances the mountains are mined by the
Hght of lamps — the spells of work are also measured
by lamps,« and the miners do not see daylight for
many months.

The name for this class of mines is arrugiae ; ^ also
cracks give way suddenly and crush the men who
have been at work, so that it actually seems less
venturesome to try to get pearls and purple-fishes
out of the depth of the sea : so much more dangerous
have we made the earth ! Consequently arches are
left at frequent intervals to support the weight of
the mountain above. In both kinds of mining
masses of flint are encountered, which are burst
asunder by means of fire and vinegar, though more
often, as this method makes the tunnels suffocating
through heat and smoke, they are broken to pieces
with crushing-machines carrying 150 Ibs. of iron,
and the men carry the stuff out on their shoulders,
working night and day, each man passing them on
to the next man in the dark, while only those at the
end of the line see dayhght. If the bed of flint
seems too long, the miner follows along the side of it

55

PLTNY: NATURAL HISTORY

sequitur fossor ambitque. et tnmen in silice facilior

72 existimatur opera ; est namque terra ex quodam
argillae genere glarea mixta — gangadiam vocant —
prope inexpugnabilis. cuneis eam ferreis adgredi-
untur et isdem malleis nihilque durius putant, nisi
quod inter omnia auri fames durissima est. peracto
opere cervices fornicum ab ultimo caedunt.^ dat
signum rima, eamque^ solus intellegit in cacumine

73 eius montis vigil. hic voce, nutu ^ evocari iubet
operas pariterque ipse devolat. mons fractus cadit
ab sese longe fragore qui concipi humana mente
non possit, aeque et flatu incredibili. spectant vic-
tores ruinam naturae. nec tamen adhuc aurum est
nec sciere esse, cum foderent, tantaque ad pericula
et inpendia satis causae fuit sperare quod cuperent.

74 Alius par labor ac vel maioris inpendii : flumina ad
lavandam hanc ruinam iugis ^ montium obiter duxere
a centesimo plerumque lapide ; corrugos vocant, a
conrivatione credo. mille et hic labores : praeceps

^ cadunt B.

2 rima eamque cd. Par. G801 : ruina eamque B et al. :
ruinamque rell. : ruinae eamque Celen : ruinae rima eamque
Detlefsen.

^ voce nutu B: voce ictuve cd. Tolet.: vocent utve reU.:
voce in tutura Dellefsen.

* fortasse <a> vel <ab> iugis.

56

BOOK XXXIII. XXI. 71-74

and goes round it. And yet riint is considered to
involve comparatively easy work, as there is a kind
of <'arth consisting of a sort of potter's clay mixed
with gravel, called gangadia, which it is almost
inipossible to overcome. They attack it with iron
wedges and the hammer-machines mentioned above ;
and it is thought to be the hardest thing that exists,
except greed for gold, which is the most stubborn of
all things. When the work is completely finished,
beginning with the last, they cut through, at the
tops, the supports of the arched roofs. A crack
gives warning of a crash, and the only person who
notices it is the sentinel on a pinnacle of the mountain.
He by shout and gesture gives the order for the
workmen to be called out and himself at the same
moment flies down from his pinnacle. The fractured
mountain falls asunder in a wide gap, with a crash
which it is impossible for human imagination to
conceive, and likewise with an incredibly violent
blast of air. The miners gaze as conquerors upon
the collapse of Nature. And nevertheless even now
there is no gold so far, nor did they positively know
there was any when they began to dig ; the mere
hope of obtaining their coveted object was a sutficient
inducement for encountering such great dangers
and expenses.

Another equally laborious task involving even
greater expense is the incidental operation of
previously bringing streams along mountain-heights
frequently a distance of 100 miles for the purpose of
washing away the debris of this collapse ; the
channels made for this purpose are called cornigi,
a term derived I beheve from co?irivatio, a uniting of
streams of water. This also involves a thousand

57

VOL. IX. C

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

esse libramentum oportet, ut ruat verius quam fluat;
itaque altissimis partibus ducitur. convalles et in-
tervalla substructis canalibus iunguntur. alibi rupes
inviae caeduntur sedemque trabibus cavatis praebei-e

75 coguntur. qui caedit, funibus pendet, ut procul
intuenti species ne ferarum quidem, sed alitum fiat.
pendentes maiore ex parte librant et lineas itineri
praeducunt, quaque insistentis vestigiis hominis
locus non est, amnes trahuntur ab homine.^ vitium
lavandi est, si fluens amnis lutum inportet ; id genus
terrae urium vocant. ergo per siHces calculosve
ducunt et urium evitant. ad capita deiectus in
superciliis montium piscinae cavantur ducenos pedes
in quasque partes et in altitudinem denos. emissaria
in iis quina pedum quadratorum ternum fere rehn-
quuntur, ut repleto stagno excussis opturamentis

7(3 erumpat torrens tanta vi ut saxa provolvat. alius
etiamnum in plano labor. fossae, per quas profluat,
cavantur— agogas vocant — ; hae sternuntur grada-
tim uHce. frutex est roris marini simiHs, asper
aurumque retinens. latera cluduntur tabuHs, ac per

^ trahuntur ab homiiie B : trahuntur ad homines rell. :
trahunt. omne Hanlouin.

" I.e. the gold-beariag dcbris.

^ The identification is doubtful in view of the alleged
resemblance to rosemary. Rosemary may be called ' rough,'
but it is not prickly Uke gorse.

58

BOOK XXXIII. XXI. 74-76

tasks ; the dip of the fall must be steep, to cause
a rush rather than a flow of water, and consequently
it is brought from very high altitudes. Gorges
and crevasses are bridged by aqueducts carried
on masonry ; at other places impassable rocks
are hewn away and compelled to provide a position
for hollowed troughs of timber, The workman
hewing the rock hangs suspended with ropes, so that
spectators viewing the operations from a distance
seem to see not so much a swarm of strange animals
as a flight of birds. In the majority of cases they
hang suspended in this way while taking the levels
and marking out the Hnes for the route, and rivers
are led by man's agency to run where there is no
place for a man to pUmt his footsteps. It spoils the
operation of washing if the current of the stream
carries mud along with it : an earthy sediment of
this kind is called uritnn. Consequently they guide
the flow over flint stones and pebbles, and avoid
nrium. At the head of the waterfall on the brow of
the mountains reservoirs are excavated measuring
200 ft. each vray and 10 ft. deep. In these there
are left five sluices with apertures measuring about a
yard each way, in order that when the reservoir is
full the stopping-barriers may be struck away and
the torrent may burst out with such violence as to
sweep forward the broken rock.« There is also yet
another task to perform on the level ground.
Trenches are excavated for the water to flow through
— the Greek name for them means ' leads ' ; and
these, which descend by steps, are floored with
gorse * — this is a plant resembling rosemary, which
is rough and holds back the gold. The sides are
closed in with planks, and the channels are carried

59

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

praerupta suspenduntur canales. ita profluens terra
in mare labitur ruptusque mons diluitur, ac longe
terras in mare his de causis iam promovit Hispania^

77 in priore genere quae exhauriuntur inmenso labore,
ne occupent puteos, in hoc rigantur. aurum arrugia
quaesitum non coquitur, sed statim suum ^ est. in-
veniuntur ita massae, nec non in puteis, et denas
excedentes libras ; palagas,^ alii palacurnas,^ iidem
quod minutum est balucem vocant. ulex siccatur,
uritur, et cinis eius lavatur substrato caespite her-

78 boso, ut sidat aurum. vicena milia pondo ad hunc
modum annis singulis Asturiam atque Callaeciam et
Lusitaniam praestare quidam prodiderunt, ita ut
plurimum Asturia gignat. neque in alia terrarum
parte tot saeculis perseverat haec fertilitas. ItaUae
parci vetere interdicto patrum diximus ; aUoqui nuUa
fecundior metallorum quoque erat tellus. extat lex
censoria Victumularum ^ aurifodinae in Vercellensi
agro, qua cavebatur, ne plus quinque milia hominum
in opere publicani haberent.

79 XXII. Aurum faciendi est etiamnum una ratio ex
auripigmento, quod in Syria foditur pictoribus in
summa tellure, auri colore, sed fragile lapidum
specularium modo. invitaveratque spes Gaium prin-

^ sudum coni. Hermolaus Barharm.

* palagas B : palacas rell. : palacras ed. Basil.
^ V.ll. psalacurnas, palacranas.

* Victumularum B: V.ll. victim-, vittim- : (vici) Ictimu-
iorum Hermolaus Barharus coll. Strab.

" See § 70. ^ Yellow sulphide of arsenic.

6o

BOOK XXXIII. XXI. 76-xxii. 79

on arches over steep pitches. Thus the earth carried
along in the stream sHdes down into the sea and the
shattered mountain is washed away ; and by this
time the land of Spain owing to these causes has
encroached a long way into the sea. The material
drawn out at such enormous labour in the former
kind of mining so as not to fill up the shafts is in § 67.
this latter process washed out. The gold obtained by
means of an arrugia'^ does not have to be melted,
but is pure gold straight away. In this process
nuggets are found and also in the shafts, even
weighing more than ten pounds. They are called
palagae or else palacurnae, and also the gold in very
small grains baluce. The gorse is dried and burnt
and its ash is washed on a bed of grassy turf so that
the gold is deposited on it. According to some
accounts Asturia and Callaecia and Lusitania produce
in this way 20,000 Ibs. weight of gold a year, Asturia
supplying the largest amount. Nor has there been
in any other part of the world such a continuous
production of gold for so many centuries. We have
stated that by an old prohibiting decree of the
senate Italy is protected from exploitation ; other-
wise no country would have been more productive
in metals; as well as in crops, There is extant a
ruHng of the censors relating to the gold mines of
Victumulae in the territory of Vercellae which pro-
hibited the farmers of public revenues from having
more than 5000 men engaged in the work.

XXII. There is moreover one method of making
gold out of orpiment ^ which is dug up in Syria for
use by painters ; it is found on the surface of the
earth, and is of a gold colour, but is easily broken,
Uke looking-glass stone. Hopes inspired by it had

61

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

cipem avidissimum auri ; quam ob rem iussit excoqui
magnum pondus et plane fecit aurum excellens, sed
ita parvi ponderis, ut detrimentum sentiret propter
avaritiam expertus, quamquam auripigmenti librae
X iiii permutarentur. nec postea temptatum ab
ullo est.

80 XXIII. Omni auro inest argentum vario pondere,
aliubi decuma parte,^ aliubi octava. in uno tantum
Callaeciae metallo, quod vocant Albucrarense, tri-
censima sexta portio invenitur ; ideo ceteris praestat.
ubicumque quinta argenti portio est, electrum
vocatur ; scobes hae reperiuntur in canaliensi. fit et
cura electrum argento addito. quod si quintam portio-

81 nem excessit, incudibus non resistit. vestusta et
electro auctoritas Homero teste, qui Menelai regiam
auro, electro, argento, ebore fulgere tradit. Miner-
vae templum habet Lindos insulae ^ Rhodiorum, in
quo Helena sacravit calicem ex electro ; adicit
historia, mammae suae mensura. electri natura est
ad lucernarum lumina clarius argento splendere.
quod est nativum, et venena deprehendit. namque
discurrunt in cahcibus arcus caelestibus similes cum
igneo stridore et gemina ratione praedicunt.

* decuma parte B : non rell. (nona cd. Par. Lat. 6797 :
dena alibi nona cd. Par. 6801).

^ insula B : in insula coni. Maijhoff.

" Properly the word means ' amber.' See § 1, note.
" Od. IV.' 71 fif.

62

BOOK XXXIII. XXII. 79-xxiii. 8i

attracted the Empcror Gaius Caligula, who was a.d. 37-41.
extremely covetous for gold, and who consequently
gave orders for a great weight of it to be smelted;
and as a matter of fact it did produce excellent gold,
but so small a weight of it that he found himself a
loser by his experiment that was prompted by
avarice, although orpiment sold for 4 denarii a
pound ; and no one afterwards has repeated the
experiment.

XXIII. All gold contains silver in various pro- ' Ekcirum:
portions, a tenth part in some cases, an eighth in
others. In one mine only, that of Callaecia called
the Albucrara mine, the proportion of silver found
is one thirty-sixth, and consequently this one is more
valuable than all the others. Wherever the pro-
portion of silver is one-fifth, the ore is called
electrum « ; grains of this are found in ' channelled ' of. § 68.
gold. An artificial electrum is also made by adding
silver to gold. If the proportion of silver exceeds
one-fifth, the metal produced offers no resistance on
the anvil. Electrum also held a high position in
old times, as is evidenced by Homer ^ who represents
the palace of Menelaus as resplendent with gold,
electrum, silver and ivory. There is a temple of
Athena at Lindus of the island of Rhodes in which
there is a goblet made of electrum, dedicated by
Helen; history further relatcs that it has the same
measurement as her breast. A quahty of electrum
is that it shines more brightly than silver in lamp-
light. Natural electrum also has the property of
detecting poisons ; for semicircles resembling rain-
bows run over the surface in poisoned goblets and
emit a crackling noise hke fire, and so advertise the
presence of poison in a twofold manner.

63

PLINY: NATLRAL HISTORY

82 XXIV. Aurea statua prima omnium iiulla inani-
tate et antequam ex aere aliqua modo fieret, quam
vocant holosphyraton, in templo Anaitidis posita di-
citur quo situ terrarum nomen hoc signavimus,

83 numine gentibus ilUs sacratissimo. direpta ea est
Antonii Parthicis rebus, scitumque narratur vetera-
norum unius Bononiae hospitali divi Augusti cena,
cum interrogatus ^ esset, sciretne ^ eum, qui primus
violasset id numen, oculis membrisque captum ex-
spirasse ; respondit enim cum maxime Augustum e
crure ^ eius cenare seque ilhim esse totumque sibi
censum ex ea rapina. hominum primus et auream
statuam et soHdam lxx* circiter olympiade Gorgias
Leontinus Delphis in templo posuit sibi. tantus erat
docendae artis oratoriae quaestus.

84 XXV. Aurum pluribus modis poUet in remediis
volneratisque et infantibus adplicatur, ut minus
noceant quae inferantur veneficia. est et ipsi
superlato^ vis malefica, galHnarum quoque et
pecuariorum ® feturis. remedium abluere inhtum "^
et spargere eos, quibus mederi veHs. torretur et cum

^ interrogatus B : interrogaretur rell.
2 esset sciretne B^ : esset B^ : essctne {aut essene) verum
rell. : esset verumne esset lan.
^ cruore cd. Par. 6801.
* Lxxxx Bergk.
^ superlito Gronov.

® pecuariorum cd. Flor. Ricc. : pecorum rell.
' inlitum Gronov. : inlatum.

" V. 83, where Anaitica is said to be a region divided from
Cappadocia by the upper Euphrates.

^ 500-497 B.c. But Gorgias the ' sophist ' visited Athens
in 427 B.c. and professed rhetoric and philosophy there in
subsequent years. Probably the right date is the 90th
Olympiad (420-417 b.c).

64

BOOK XXXIII. XXIV. 82-xxv. 84

XXIV. The first gold statiie of all that was made Goiden
of soHd metal and even before any was made of "'"***
bronze, of the kind called ' made of solid beaten
metal,' is said to have been erected in the temple of
Anaitis, in the region of the earth where we have
designated this name," that goddess' deity being
held in the highest reverence by those races. This
statue was taken as booty during the campaigns of c. 36 b.c.
Antonius in Parthia, and a story is told of a witty
saying of one of the veterans of our army who was
entertaining his late lamented Majesty Augustus

as a guest at dinner at Bologna. He was asked
whether it was true that the man who was the
first to commit this sacrilege against that deity was
struck blind and paralysed and so expired. His
answer was that the emperor was at that very
moment eating his dinner off one of the goddess's
legs, and that he himself was the perpetrator of the
sacrilege and owed his entire fortune to that piece of
plunder. The first solid gold statue of a human
being was one of himself set up by Gorgias of
Leontini in the temple at Delphi about the TOth
Olympiad. ^ So great were the profits to be made
by teaching the art of oratory !

XXV. Gold is efiicacious as a remedy in a variety Medidnai
of ways, and is used as an amulet for wounded g^i^f^
people and for infants to render less harmful
poisonous charms that may be directed against
them. Gold has itself however a maleficent eifect if
carried over the head, in the case of chickens and

the young of cattle as well as human beings. As a
remedy it is smeared on, then washed off and
sprinkled on the persons you wish to cure. Gold
is also heated with twice its weight of salt and

65

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

salis gemino pondere, triplici misyis ac riirsus cum ii
salis portionibus et una lapidis, quem schiston vocant.
ita virus trahit rebus una crematis in fictiH vase,

85 ipsum purum et incorruptum. reliquus cinis ser-
vatus in fictili olla, ex qua ^ inlitas ^ lichenas in facie
lomento eo convenit abhii. fistulas etiam sanat et
quae vocantur haemorroides. quodsi tritus pumex
adiciatur, putria ulcera et taetri odoris emendat, ex
melle vero decoctum cum melanthio inlitum umbilico
leniter solvit alvum. auro verrucas curari M. Varro
auctor est.

86 XX^^L Chrysocolla umor est in puteis, quos
diximus, per venam auri defluens crassescente limo
rigoribus hibernis usque in duritiam pumicis. lauda-
tiorem eandem in aerariis metallis et proximam in
aegentariis fieri conpertum est. invenitur et in
plumbariis vilior etiam ^ auraria. in omnibus autem
his metallis fit et cura multum infra naturalem illam
inmissis in venam aquis leniter hieme tota usque in
lunium mensem, dein siccatis lunio et lulio, ut plane
intellegatur nihil aliud chrysocolla quam vena putris.

87 nativa duritia maxime distat ; uvam vocant. et
tamen illa quoque herba, quam lutum appellant,
tinguitur. natura est, quae lino lanaeve, ad sucum

^ qua J5 : aqua rdl. ^ inlitas B^ : inlitus.

^ fortasse tamen.

" Lotnentum is properly barley-meal mixed with rice,
* See § 4, note.

"■ Or : ' Another sort is found in lead mines, but it is inferior
to the true " gold "-kind.'

66

BOOK XXXIII. XXV. 84-xxvi. 87

three times its weight of copper pyrites, and again
>vith two portions of salt and one of the stone called
' spHttable.' Treated in this way it draws poison
out, when the other substances have been burnt up
with it in an earthenware crucible while it remains
pure and uncorrupted itself. The ash remaining
is kept in an earthenware jar, and eruptions on the
face may well be cleansed av/ay by being smeared
with this lotion " from the jar. It also cures fistulas
and what are called haemorrhoids. With the addition
of ground pumicestone it reHeves putrid and foul-
smelHng ulcers, while boiled down in honey and git,
and appHed as a liniment to the navel it acts as a
gentle aperient. According to Marcus ^ arro gold
is a cure for warts.

XXVI. Gold-solder ^ is a liquid found in the Ooid-
shafts we spoke of, floving down along a vein of gokl, §§67 53/.
with a sHme that is solidified by the cold of winter
even to the hardness of pumicestone. A more
highly spoken of variety of the same metal has been
ascertained to be formed in copper mines, and the
next best in silver-mines. A less valuable sort also
with an element of gold is also found in lead mines. <^
In aH these mines however an artificial variety is
produced that is much inferior to the natural kind
referred to ; the method is to introduce a gentle
flow of water into the vein all winter and go on till
the beginning of June and then to dry it off in June
and July, clearly showing that gold-solder is nothing
else than the putrefaction of a vein of metal.
Natural gold-solder. known as ' grape,' differs very
greatly from the artificial in hardness, and neverthe-
less it also takes a dye from the plant called yeHow-
weed. It is of a substance that absorbs moisture,

67

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

bibendum. tunditur in pila, dein tenui cribro ccrni-
tur, postea molitur ac deinde tenuius cribratur.
quidquid non transmeat, repetitur in pila, dein

88 molitur. pulvis semper in catinos digeritur et ex
aceto maceratur, ut omnis duritia solvatur, ac rursus
tunditur, dein lavatur, in conchis siccatur, tum
tinguitur alumine schisto et herba supra dicta pin-
giturque, antequam pingat. refert quam bibula
dociUsque sit. nam nisi rapuit colorem, adduntur et
scytanum atque turbistum ; ita vocant medicamenta
sorbere cogentia.

89 XXVII. Cum tinxere pictores, orobitin vocant
eiusque duo genera faciunt : elutam,^ quae servatur
in lomentum, et Hquidam globuHs sudore resolutis.
haec utraque genera in Cypro fiunt. laudatissima
autem est in Armenia, secunda in Macedonia, largis-
sima in Hispania ; summa ^ commendationis, ut
colorem in herba segetis laete virentis quam simil-

90 lime reddat. visumque iam est Neronis principis
spectaculis harenam circi chrysocolla sterni, cum ipse
concolori panno aurigaturus esset. indocta opificum
turba tribus eam generibus distinguit : asperam, quae

^ luteam Hermolam Barbarm fortasse recte (cf. § 91).
2 V.l. summae : summa est lan.

« Cf. XXXV. 186.

* These two substances have not been identified.

* Perhaps we should adopt the reading luieam.

68

BOOK XXXIII. XXVI. 87-xxvii. 90

like flax or wool. It is pounded in a mortar and then
passed through a fine sieve, and afterwards milled
and then sifted again with a finer sieve, everything
that does not pass through the sieve being again
treated in the mortar and then milled again. The
powder is all along separated off into bowls and
steeped in vinegar so as to dissolve all hardness, and
then is pounded again and then rinsed in shells and
left to dry. Then it is dyed by means of ' spHttable '
alum « and the plant above mentioned and so given
a colour before it serves as a colour itself. It is
important how absorbent it is and ready to take the
dye ; for if it does not at once catch the colour,
scytanum and turbistum ^ must be added as well —
those being the names of two drugs producing
absorption.

XXVn. When painters have dyed gold-sokler,
they call it orobitis, vetch-like, and distinguish two
kinds, the purified,^ which is kept for a cosmetic,
and the Hquid, in which the little balls are made into
a paste with a hquid. Both of these kinds are
made in Cyprus, but the most highly valued is in
Armenia and the second best in Macedonia, while
the greatest quantity is produced in Spain, the
highest recommendation in the latter being the
quahty of reproducing as closely as possible the
colour in a bright green blade of corn. We have
before now seen at the shows given by the emperor
Nero the sand of the circus sprinkled with gold- a.d. 54-68.
solder when the emperor in person was going to
give an exhibition of chariot-driving wearing a coat
of that colour. The unlearned multitude of artisans
distinguish three varieties of the substance, the
rough, which is valued at 7 denarii a pound, the

69

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

taxatiir^ in libras X vii, mediam quae X v, attritam,
(|iiam et herbaccam vocant, X iii. siiblinunt autem
harenosam, priusquam inducant, atramento et
i)l Paraetonio. haec sunt tenacia eius, colore blanda.
Paraetonium, quoniam est natura pinguissimum et
propter levorem tenacissimum, atramento aspergitur,
ne Paraetonii candor pallorem chrysocollae adferat.
luteam putant a luto herba dictam, quam ipsam
caeruleo subtritam pro chrysocolla inducunt, vilis-
simo genere atque fallacissimo.

92 XXVIII. Usus chrysocollae et in medicina est ad
purganda volnera cum cera atqne oleo. eadem per
se arida siccat et ^ contrahit. datur et in angina
orthopnoeave Hngenda cum melle. concitat vomi-
tiones, miscetur et collyriis ad cicatrices oculorum ac
viridibus emplastris ad dolores mitigandos, cicatrices
trahendas. hanc chrysocollam medici accsim appel-
lant, quae non est orobitis.

93 XXIX. Chrysocollam et aurifices sibi vindicant

adglutinando auro, et inde omnes appellatas similiter

virentes dicunt. temperatur autem Cypria aerugine

et pueri inpubis urina addito nitro teriturque Cyprio

^ mataxatur B : iam taxatur coni. Mayhoff.
2 siccat et B, cd. Par. 6801 : et sicca rell.

« Paraetonium ; see XXXV, 30, 36.

* afcecrt?, a remedy, healirig.
*■ Or, child (of either sex).
70

BOOK XXXIII. XXVII. 90-xxix. 93

middling, which is 5 denarii, and ttie crushed, also
called the grass-green kind, 3 denarii. Before
applying the sandy variety they put on a prehminary
coating of black dye and pure white chalk " : these
serve to hold the gold-solder and give a softness of
colour. As the pure chalk is of a very unctuous
consistency and extremely tenacious owing to its
smoothness, it is sprinkled with a coat of black, to
prevent the extreme whiteness of the chalk from
imparting a pale hue to the gold-solder. The yellow
gold-solder is thought to derive its name from the
phmt vellow-weed, which is itself often pounded up
with steel-blue and applied for painting instead of
gold-solder, making a very inferior and counterfeit
kind of colour.

XXVIII. Gold-solder is also used in medicine,
mixed with wax and olive oil, for cleansing wounds ;
likewise appHed dry by itself it dries wounds and
draws them together. It is also given in cases of
quinsy or asthma, to be taken as an electuary with
honey. It acts as an emetic, and also is used as
an ingredient in salves for sores in the eyes and in
green plasters for relieving pains, and drawing
together scars. This kind of gold-solder is called
by medical men ' remedial solder,' * and is not the
same as orobitis.

XXIX. The goldsmiths also use a special gokl-
sokler of their own for soldering gold, and according
to them it is from this that all the other substances
with a simikar green colour take the name. The
mixture is made with Cyprian copper verdigris and
the urine of a boy ^ who has not reached puberty with
the addition of soda «^ ; this is ground with a pestle

^ Sodiura carbonate.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

aere in cypriis mortariis ; santernam vocant nostri.
ita feruminatur aurum, quod argentosum vocant.
signum est, si addita santerna nitescit. e diverso
aerosum contrahit se hebetaturque et difficulter
feruminatur. ad id glutinum fit auro et septima
argenti parte ad supra dicta additis unaque tritis.

94 XXX. Contexique par est reliqua circa hoc, ut
universa naturae contingat admiratio. auro gluti-
num est tale, argilla ferro, cadmea aeris massis,
alumen lamnis, resina plumbo et marmori, at plum-
bum nigrum albo iungitur ipsumque album sibi oleo,
item stagnum aeramentis, stagno argentum. pineis
optume lignis aes ferrumque funditur, sed et Aegyptio
papyro, paleis aurum. calx aqua accenditur et
Thracius lapis, idem oleo restinguitur, ignis autem
aceto maxime et visco et ovo. terra minime flagrat,
carboni vis maior exusto iterumque flagranti.

95 XXXI. Ab his argenti metalla dicantur, quae
sequens insania est. non nisi in puteis reperitur
nullaque spe sui nascitur, nulHs, ut in auro, lucentibus

" Here zinc oxide. See also XXXIV. 100.
b Tin.

*■ Or atannum, an alloy of silver and lead.
<* Probably lignite.

72

BOOK XXXIII. XXIX. 93-xxxi. 95

made of Cyprian copper in mortars of the same
metal, and the Latin name for the mixture is
santerna. It is in this way used in soldering the
gold called silvery-gold ; a sign of its having been
so treated is if the appHcation of borax gives it
brilliance. On the other hand ' coppery ' gold
shrinks in size and becomes dull, and is difficult to
solder ; for this purpose a solder is made by adding
some gold and one seventh as much silver to the
materials above specified, and grinding them up
together.

XXX. While speaking of this it wili be well to
annex the remaining particulars, so as to occasion
all-round admiration for Nature. The proper solder
for gold is the one described ; for iron, potter's clay ;
for copper in masses, cadmea "■ ; for copper in sheets,
alum ; for lead and marble, resin. Black lead how-
ever is joined by means of white lead,'' and white
lead to white lead by using oil ; stagnum ^ likewise
with copper fiHngs, and silver with stagnum. For
smelting copper and iron pine-wood makes the best
fuel, though Egyptian papyrus can also be used;
gold is best smelted with a fire made of chaff. Water
puts heat into quicklime and Thracian stone,*^ and
oHve-oil puts it out; fire however is most readily
quenched by vinegar, mistletoe and eggs. Earth it
is quite impossible to ignite, but charcoal gives a
more powerful heat if it is burned till it goes out and
then catches fire again.

XXXI. After these details let us speak about the sUvcr.
varieties of silver ore, the next madness of mankind.
Silver is only found in deep shafts, and raises no
hopes of its existence by any signs, giving off no
shining sparkles such as are seen in the case of gold.

73

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

scintillis. terra est alias rubra, alias ^ cineracea.
excoqui non potest, nisi cum plumbo nigro aut cum
vena plumbi — galenam vocant — , quae iuxta argenti
venas plerumque reperitur. et eodem opere ignium
discedit pars in plumbum, argentum autem innatat ^
superne, ut oleum aquis.

96 Reperitur in omnibus paene provinciis, sed in
Hispania pulcherrimum, id quoque in sterili solo atque
etiam montibus, et ubicumque una inventa vena est,
non procul invenitur alia. lioc quidem et in omni
fere materia, unde metalla Graeci videntur dixisse.
mirum, adhuc per Hispanias ab Hannibale inchoatos
durare puteos. sua nomina ab inventoribus habent,

97 ex quis Baebelo appellatur hodie, qui ccc pondo
Hannibali subministravit in dies, ad md passus iam
cavato monte, per quod spatium aquatini ^ stantes
noctibus diebusque egerunt aquas lucernarum men-

98 sura amnemque faciunt. argenti vena in summo
reperta crudaria appellatur. finis antiquis fodiendi
solebat esse alumen inventum ; ultra nihil quaere-
batur. nuper inventa aeris vena infra akmien nullam
finem spei fecit. odor ex argenti fodinis inimicus
omnibus animahbus, sed maxime canibus. aurum
argentumque quo molHus, eo pulchrius. Hneas ex
argento nigras praeduci plerique mirantur.

99 XXXII, Est et lapis in iis venis, cuius vomica

^ V.l. rufa alia. ^ natat B.

3 aquatini coni. Sillig : Accitani coni. Hardouin : lacetani
Pintianus : aquitani.

" Still 80 called. It is lead sulphide, the most useful lead
ore. For galena in a different sensc, see XXXTV. 159.

^" Taking ficraXXa as (dAAa) /xer' dXXa * one after another'.

' Possibly carbun dioxide, which, since it lies low, would
affect dogs before men.

74

BOOK XXXIII. XXXI. 95-xxxii. 99

The ore is sometimes red, sometimes ash-coloured.
It cannot be smelted except when combined with
lead or with the vein of lead, called galena," lead ore,
which is usually found running near veins of silver
ore. Also when submitted to the same process of
firing, part of the ore precipitates as lead while the
silver floats on the surface, Hke oil on water.

Silver is found in almost all the provinces, but the
finest is in Spain, where it, as well as gold, occurs in
sterile ground and even in the mountains ; and
wherever one vein is found another is afterwards
found not far away. This indeed also occurs in the
case of almost every metal, and accounts it seems for
the word ' metals ' used by the Greeks.^ It is a
remarkable fact that the shafts initiated by Hannibal 221-219 b.c.
all over the Spanish provinces are still in existence ;
they are named from the persons who discovered
them ; one of these mines, now called after Baebelo,
furnished Hannibal with 300 pounds weight of silver
a day, the tunnelling having been carried a mile and
a half into the mountain. Along the whole of this
distance watermen are posted M-ho all night and day
in spells measured by lanterns bale out the water
and make a stream. The vein of silver nearest the
surface is called ' the raw.' In early days the
excavations used to stop when they found alum,
and no further search was made ; but recently the
discovery of a vein of copper under the ahim has
removed all limit to men's hopes. The exhalations ^'
from silver mines are dangerous to all animals, but
specially to dogs. Gold and silver are more beautiful
the softer they are. It surprises most people that
silver traces black lines.

XXXII. There is also a mineral found in these QuicksUver.

75

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

liquoris aeterni argentum vivum appellatur. vene-
num rerum omnium est perrumpitque vasa perma-
nans tabe dira. omnia ei innatant praeter aurum;
id unum ad se trahit. ideo et optime purgat, ceteras
eius sordes expuens crebro iactatu fictilibus in vasis.
ita vitiis ^ eiectis ^ ut et ipsum ab auro discedat, in
pelles subactas effunditur, per quas sudoris vice

100 defluens purum relinquit aurum. ergo et cum aera
inaurentur, sublitum bratteis pertinacissime retinet,
verum pallore detegit simplices aut praetenues brat-
teas. quapropter id furtum quaerentes ovi liquore
candido usum eum adulteravere, mox et hydrargy-
rum,3 de quo dicemus suo loco. et alias argentum
vivum non largum inventu est.

101 XXXIII. In isdem argenti metallis invenitur, ut
proprie dicatur,* spumae lapis candidae nitentisque,
non tamen tralucentis ; stimi appellant, aUi stibi,
aHi alabastrum, ahqui larbasim.^ duo eius genera,
mas ac femina. magis probant feminam, horridior

^ V.ll. ita vitis, ita ut iis (hiis), avitis: ita autem iis Sillig:
alutis Brotier : vestibus Hardouin.

* eiectis lan : tectis B : V .11. abiectis, iniectis, invectis.
^ hydrargyrum L. Poinsinet de Sivry : hydrargyro.

* dicatur Mayhojf : dicatus B^ : dictus B^ : dicemus rell.
(dicamus cd. Par. 6801).

* larbasim B : turbasim rell. : larbason Hemiolaus Barharus
coll. Diosc. V. 99.

76

BOOK XXXIII. XXXII. 99-xxxiii. loi

veins of silver which contains a hiimour, in round
drops, that is always liquid, and is called quicksilver.
It acts as a poison on everything, and breaks vessels
by penetrating them with malignant corruption.
All substances float on its surface except gold, which
is the only thing that it attracts to itself; conse-
quently it is also excellent for refining gold, as if it is
briskly shaken in earthen vessels it rejects all the
impurities contained in it. When these blemishes
have been thus expelled, to separate the quicksilver
itself from the gold it is poured out on to hides that
have been well dressed, and exudes through them
like a kind of perspiration and leaves the gold behind
in a pure state. Consequently when also things
made of copper are gilded, a coat of quicksilver is
appHed underneath the gold leaf and keeps it in its
place with the greatest tenacity : but if the gold-
leaf is put on in one layer or is very thin it reveals
the quicksilver by its pale colour. Consequently
persons intending this fraud adulterated the quick-
silver used for this purpose with white of egg ; and
later they falsified also hydrargyrum or artificial
quicksilver, which we shall speak about in its proper § 12.3.
place. Otherwise quicksilver is not to be found in
any large quantity.

XXXIII. In the same mines as silver there is found Antimony.
what is properly to be described as a stone, made
of white and shiny but not transparent froth ; several
names are used for it, stimi, stibi, alabastrum and
sometimes larbasis. It is of two kinds, male and
female." The female variety is preferred, the male

" Probably stibnite (sulphide of antimony), and native
metallic antimony respectively (K. C. Bailey, The Elder
Plini/s Chapters on Chemical Subjects, I, p. 213).

77

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

est mas scabriorque et minus ponderosus minusque
radians et harenosior, femina contra nitet, friabilis
fissurisque, non globis, dehiscens.

102 XXXIV. Vis eius adstringere ac refrigerare,
principalis autem circa oculos, namque ideo etiam
plerique platyophthalmon id appellavere, quoniam in
caUiblepharis mulierum dilatet oculos, et fluctiones
inhibet oculorum exulcerationesque farina eius ac
turis cummi admixto. sistit et sanguinem e cerebro
profluentem, efficacissime ^ et contra recentia volnera
et contra veteres canum morsus inspersa farina et
contra ambusta igni cum adipe ac spuma argenti

103 cerussaque et cera. uritur autem offis bubuli fimi
circumHtum in cHbanis, dein restinguitur mulierum
lacte teriturque in mortariis admixta aqua pluvia ;
ac subinde turbidum transfunditur in aereum vas
emundatum nitro. faex eius intellegitur plumbosis-
sima, quae subsedit in mortario, abiciturque.^ dein
vas, in quod turbida transfusa sint, opertum linteo
per noctem rclinquitur et postero die quidquid

104 innatet effunditur spongeave tollitur. quod ibi sub-
sedit, flos intellegitur ac Hnteo interposito in sole
siccatur, non ut perarescat, iterumque in mortario
teritur et in pastillos dividitur. ante omnia autem

^ efficacissime B : efficaci rell. (efficacior cd. Par. 6801).
* abiciturque Gelen : abigiturque aut abicitur.

" See XXXIV. 175.

78

BOOK XXXIII. xxAiii. lor-XAxiv. 104

being more uneven and rougher to the touch, as well
as Hghter in weight, not so hrilHant, and more
gritty ; the female 011 the eontrary is hright and
friable and spHts in thin layers and not in globules.
XXXIV. Antimony has astringent and cooHng
properties, but it is chiefly used for the eyes, since
this is why even a majority of people have given it
a Greek name meaning * wide-eye,' because in
beauty-washes for women's eyebrows it has the
property of magnifying the eyes. Made into a
powder %^ith powdered frankincense and an ad-
mixture of gum it checks fluxes and ulcerations of
the eyes. It also arrests discharge of blood from
the brain, and is also extremely effective with a
sprinkling of its powder against new wounds and old
dog-bites and against burns if mixed with fat and
litharge of silver, or lead acetate '^ and wax. It is
prepared by being smeared round vdXh. lumps of ox
dung and burnt in ovens, and then cooled down with
women's milk and mixed with rain water and pounded
in mortars. And next the turbid part is poured ofF
into a copper vessel after being purified \\-ith soda.
The lees are recognized by being fuH of lead, and
they settle to the bottom of the mortars and are
thrown away. Then the vessel into which the
turbid part was poured off is covered with a cloth
and left for a night, and the next day anything
floating on the surface is poured off or removed ^vith
a sponge. The sediment on the bottom is con-
sidered the choicest part and is covered with a Hnen
cloth and put to dry in the sun but not allowed to
become v^ry dry, and is ground up a second time in
the mortar and divided into small tablets. But it is
above all essential to limit the amount of heat

79

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

urendi modus necessarius est, ne plumbum fiat.
quidam non fimo utuntur coquentes, sed adipe.
alii tritum in aqua triplici linteo saccant ^ faecemque
abiciunt idque, quod defluxit,^ transfundunt, quid-
quid subsidat colligentes. emplastris quoque et
collyriis miscent.

105 XXXV. Scoriam in argento Graeci vocant hel-
cysma. vis eius adstringere et refrigerare corpora,
ac remedio est ^ addita ^ emplastris ut molybdaena, de
qua dicemus in plumbo, cicatricibus maxime glutin-
andis, et contra tenesmos dysenteriasque infusa
clysteribus cum myrteo oleo. addunt et in medica-
menta, quae vocant liparas. ad excrescentia ulcerum
aut ex attritu facta aut in capite manantia.

106 Fit in isdem metallis et quae vocatur spuma argen-
ti. genera eius tria : optima quam chrysitim vocant,
sequens quam argyritim, tertia quam molybditim.
et plerumque omnes hi colores in isdem tubulis in-
veniuntur. probatissima est Attica, proxima His-
paniensis. chrysitis ex vena ipsa fit, argyritis ex
argento, molybditis e plumbi ipsius ^ fusura — quae

107 fit PuteoHs — et inde habet nomen. omnis autem fit
excocta sua materia ex superiore catino defluens in
inferiorem et ex eo sublata vericuHs ferreis atque in

^ V.l. siccant.

2 effluxit B.

^ ac remedio est Mayhoff qui et acribus aut viridibus aut
a Graecis coni. : hac de re Detlefsen : quare his J. Muller :
acre dies B^ : hac re B^ : om. rell.

* addita Mayhoff : additur.

^ potius coni. Mayhoff.

" Really into metallic antimony, mistaken for lead.
^ I.e. debris scraped off.

BOOK XXXIII. xxxiv. 104-XXXV, 107

applied to it, so that it may not be turned into lead.**
Some people do not employ dung in boiling it but
fat. Others pound it in water and strain it through
three thicknesses of linen cloth and throw away the
dregs, and pour ofF the liquor that comes through,
collecting all the deposit at the bottom, and this
they use as an ingredient in plasters and eye-washes.

XXXV. The slag in silver is called by the Greeks siag 0/
the ' draw-off.' ^ It has an astringent and cooling *^^^'^*
effect on the body, and like sulphuret of lead, of xxxiv.
which we shall speak in dealing with lead, it has ^^^ '^^'
healing properties as an ingredient in plasters, being
extremely effective in causing wounds to close-up,
and when injected by means of syringes, together
with myrtle-oil, as a remedy for straining of the
bowels and dysentery. It is also used as an ingre-
dient in the remedies called emollient plasters used
for proud flesh of gathering sores, or sores caused
by chafing or running ulcers on the head.

The same mines also produce the mineral called Litharge.
scum ^ of silver. Of this there are three kinds, with
Greek names meaning respectively golden, silvery
and leaden ; and for the most part all these colours
are found in the same ingots. The Attic kind is the
most approved, next the Spanish. The golden scum
is obtained from the actual vein, the silvery from
silver, and the leaden from smelting the actual lead,
which is done at Pozzuoli, from which place it takes
its name.^ Each kind however is made by heating
its raw material till it melts, when it flows down from
an upper vessel into a lower one and is lifted out of
that with small iron spits and then twisted round on

'^ Litharge, k^ad monoxide.
^ Argyritis Puteolana.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ipsa flamma convoluta vericulo, ut sit modici pon-
deris. est autem, ut ex nomine intellegi potest, fer-
vescentis et futurae ^ materiae spuma. distat a
scoria quo potest spuma a faece distare : alterum,
purgantis se materiae, alterum purgatae vitium est.

108 quidam duo genera faciunt spumae, quae vocant
scirerytida ^ et peumenen,^ tertium molybdaenam in
plumbo dicendam. spuma, ut sit utilis, iterum
coquitur confractis tubulis ad magnitudinem anulo-
rum.* ita accensa follibus ad separandos carbones
cineremque abluitur aceto aut vino simulque restin-
guitur. quodsi sit argyritis, ut candor ei detur,
magnitudine fabae confracta in fictili coqui iubetur ex
aqua addito in linteolis tritico et hordeo novis, donec

109 ea purgentur. postea vi diebus terunt in mortariis,
ter die abluentes aqua frigida et, cum desinant,^
calida, addito sale fossili in libram spumae obolo.
novissimo die dein condunt in plumbeo vase. alii
cum faba candida et tisana cocunt siccantque sole,
alii in lana candida cum faba, donec lanam non
denigret. tunc salem fossilem adiciunt subinde
aqua mutata siccantque diebus xl calidissimis aestatis
nec non in ventre suillo in aqua coquunt exemptamque

^ et foturae B^ : e fusura coni. Mayhoff : del. Hardouin.

^ scirerytida B : varia rell. : lythrida Brotier : sclererytida
Dethfsen.

^ reumenen Detlefsen.

* avellanarum Caesarins coll. Diosc. V. 102 : nucularum
coni. lan.

^ desinant cd. Par. 6801 : desinat rell. : dies desinat
Mayhoff : denigrare desinat C. F. W. Muller.

" Native lead sulphide.
82

BOOK XXXIII. XXXV. 107-109

a spit in the actual flame, in order to make it of
moderate weight. Really, as may be inferred from
its name, it is the scum of a substance in a state of
fusion and in process of production. It differs from
dross in the way in which the scum of a liquid may
differ from the lees, one being a blemish excreted by
the material when purifying itself and the other a
blemish in the metal when purified. Some people
make two classes of scum of silver which they call
' scirerytis ' and * peumene,' and a third, leaden
scum,** which we shall speak of under the head of xxxiv.
lead, To make the scum available for use it is i^^^'
boiled a second time after the ingots have been ■vdphide.
broken up into pieces the size of finger-rings. Thus
after being heated up with the bellows to separate
the cinders and ashes from it it is washed with
vinegar or wine, and cooled down in the process.
In the case of the silvery kind, in order to give it
brilliance the instructions are to break it into pieces
the size of a bean and boil it in water in an earthen-
ware pot Nvith the addition of wheat and barley
^vrapped in new linen cloths, until the cereals are
stripped of their husks. Afterwards they grind it
in mortars for six days, three times daily washing it
with cold water and, when they have ceased opera-
tions, with hot, and adding salt from a salt-mine,
an obol weight to a pound of scum. Then on the
last day they store it in a lead vessek Some boil it
with white beans and pearl-barley and dry it in the
sun, and others boil it with beans in a white woollen
cloth till it ceases to discolour the wool ; and then
they add salt from a salt-mine, changing the water
from time to time, and put it out to dry on the 40
hottest days of summer. They also boil it in a sow's

83

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

nitro fricant et ut supra terunt in mortariis cum sale.
sunt qui non coquant, sed cum sale terant et adiecta

1 10 aqua abluant. usus eius ad collyria et cuti ^ mulie-
rum cicatricum foeditates toUendas maculasque,
abluendum ^ capillum. vis autem siccare, mollire,
refrigerare, temperate purgare, explere ulcera,
tumores lenire ; talibusque ^ emplastris additur et

- liparis supra dictis. ignes etiam sacros tollit cum ruta
myrtisque et aceto, item perniones cum myrtis et
cera.*

111 XXX\T. In argentariis metallis invenitur minium
quoque, et nunc inter pigmenta magnae auctoritatis
et quondam apud Romanos non solum maximae, sed
etiam sacrae. enumerat auctores Verrius, quibus
credere necesse sit lovis ipsius simulacri faciem diebus
festis minio inlini solitam triumphantiumque corpora ;

112 sic Camillum triumphasse ; hac religione etiamnum
addi in unguenta cenae triumphahs et a censoribus
in primis lovem miniandum locari. cuius rei causam
equidem miror, quamquam et hodie id expeti constat
Aethiopum populis totosque eo tingui proceres, hunc

^ cuti Mayhoff {qui et cutem coni.) : litum B^ : situm B^ :
varia rell.

^ V.l. et [aut et ad) abluendum : ad alendum lan.

^ albisque Frohner.

* cera edd. vett. : cetera.

" Sulphide of mercury (' cinnabar ') is meant here. True
red ]ead was properly called minium secundarium. See § 119.

84

BOOK XXXIII. XXXV. 109-XXXVI. 112

paunch in water, and when they take it out rub it
with soda, and grind it in mortars with salt as above.
In some cases people do not boil it but grind it up
with salt and then add water and rinse it. It is used
to make an eye-wash and for women's skins to
remove ugly scars and spots and as a hair-wash.
Its effect is to dry, to soften, to cool, to act as a
gentle purge, to fill up cavities caused by ulcers,
and to soften tumours ; it is used as an ingredient
in plasters serving these purposes, and for the
emollient plasters mentioned above. Mixed with § 105.
rue and myrtle and vinegar, it also removes
erysipelas, and likewise chilblains if mixed with
myrtle and wax.

XXX\'I. Minium or cinnabar ° also is found in cinnabar
silver mines ; it is of great importance among pig-
ments at the present day, and also in old times it not
only had the highest importance but even sacred
associations among the Romans. Verrius gives a
Hst of writers of unquestionable authority who say
that on hoHdays it was the custom for the face of the
statue of Jupiter himself to be coloured with cinnabar,
as well as the bodies of persons going in a triumphal
procession, and that Camillus was so coloured in his
triumph, and that under the same ritual it was usual
even in their day for cinnabar to be added to
the unguents used at a banquet in honour of a
triumph, and that one of the first duties of the
Censors was to place a contract for painting Jupiter
with cinnabar. For my own part I am quite at a
loss to explain the origin of this custom, although
at the present day the pigment in question is known
to be in demand among the nations of Ethiopia
whose chiefs colour themselves all over with it, and

85

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

ibi deorum simulacris colorem esse. quapropter
diligentius persequemur omnia de eo.

113 XXXVn. Theophrastus lxxxx annis ante Praxi-
bulum Atheniensium magistratum — quod tempus
exit in urbis nostrae cccxlviiii ^ annum — tradit in-
ventum minium a Callia Atheniense initio sperante
aurum excoqui posse harenae rubenti in metalHs
argenti ; hanc fuisse originem eius, reperiri autcm

114 iam tum ^ in Hispania, sed durum et harenosum, iteni
apud Colchos in rupe quadam inaccessa, ex qua
iaculantes decuterent ; id esse adulterum, optimum
vero supra Ephesum Cilbianis agris harena cocci
colorem habente, hanc teri, dein lavari farinam et
quod subsidat iterum lavari ; differentiam artis esse,
quod aHi minium faciant prima lotura, apud alios id
esse dilutius, sequentis autem loturae optimum.

115 XXXVHL Auctoritatem colori fuisse non miror.
iam enim Troianis temporibus rubrica in honore erat
Homero teste, qui naves ea commendat, aHas circa
pigmenta picturasque rarus. milton vocant Graeci

116 miniumque cinnabarim. unde natus error Indicae ^
cinnabaris nomine.^ sic enim appcHant ilH saniem
draconis eHsi elephantorum moricntium pondere

^ cccxLViiii Hermolaus Barharus : ccccxxxviiii Casauhon:

CCXLVIIII.

2 nativum coni. Hardouin.

^ Indicae K. C. Bailey : indicio B : indico relL.

* cinnabaris nomine cd. Par. G801 : nominum {om. cinna-
baris) B : nomine {om. cinnabaris) rell.: inscitia nominum
Mayhoff.

» De Lap. 59, 58.

" 315 B.c.

"■ This was really an exudation (still called ' dragon's
blood') from species of the oriental plant Dracaena or Ptero-
carpus.

86

BOOK XXXIII. XXXVI. ir2-xxxviii. ii6

with whom the statues of the gods are of that colour.
On that account we will investigate all the facts
concernino; it more carefully.

XXXVII. Theophrastus " states that cinnabar
was discovered by an Athenian named CaUias, 90
years before the archonship ^ of Praxibulus at lo» b.c.
Athens — this date works out at the 349th year of
our city, and that Callias was hoping that gold
could by firing be extracted from the red sand
found in silver mines ; and that this was the origin
of cinnabar, although cinnabar was being found
even at that time in Spain, but a hard and sandy
kind, and Hkewise in the country of the Colchi on a
certain inaccessible rock from which the natives
dislodged it by shooting javeHns, but that this is
cinnabar of an impure quality whereas the best is
found in the Cilbian territory beyond Ephesus, where
the sand is of the scarlet colour of the kermes-insect ;
and that this is ground up and then the powder is
washed and the sediment that sinks to the bottom
is washed again ; and that there is a difference of
skill, some people producing cinnabar at the first
washing while with others this is rather weak and
the product of the second washing is the best.

XXXVni. I am not surprised that the colour had
an important rank, for as far back as Trojan times n.u. 637.
red ochre was highly valued, as evidenced by Homer,
who speak? of it as a distinguished colour for ships,
although otherwise he rarely alludes to colours and
paintings. The Greek name for it is ' miltos,' and
they call minium ' cinnabar.' This gave rise to a
mistake owing to the name ' Indian cinnabar,' for
that is the name the Greeks give to the gore <^ of a
snake crushed by the weight of dying elephants,

87

PLINY: NATURAL IIISTOllY

permixto utriusque animalis sanguine, ut diximus,
neque est alius colos, qui in pictura proprie sangui-
nem reddat. illa cinnabaris antidotis medicamen-
tisque utilissima est. at, Hercules, medici, quia
cinna])arim vocant, utuntur hoc minio, quod ^
venenum esse paulo mox docebimus.

117 XXXIX. Cinnabari veteres quae etiam nunc
vocant monochromata pingebant. pinxerunt et
Ephesio minio, quod derehctum est, quia curatio
magni operis erat. praeterea utrumque nimis acre
existimabatur. ideo transiere ad rubricam et Sino-
pidem, de quibus suis locis dicam. cinnabaris
adulteratur sanguine caprina aut sorbis tritis. pre-
tium sincerae nummi l.

118 XL. luba minium nasci et in Carmania tradit,
Timagenes ^ et in Aethiopia, sed neutro ex loco
invehitur ad nos nec fere ahunde quam ex Hispania,
celeberrimo Sisaponensi regione in Baetica miniario
metallo vectigaHbus populi Romani, nullius rei dih-
gentiore custodia. non licet ibi perficere id exco-
quique^; Romam adfertur^ vena signata, ad bina
miha fere pondo annua, Romae autem lavatur, in
vendendo pretio statuta ^ lege, ne modum excederet
Hs Lxx in libras. sed adulteratur multis modis, unde

119 praeda societati. namque est alterum genus omni-

^ cinnabarim miniuni v., u.h. quod coni. Warmington.

* Timaeus coni. Pintianas.

^ excoquique cdd. (excoqui quae B : excoctique cd. Leid.
Voss.) : excoctaque coni. Mayhoff.

* V.ll. refertur, defertur, deferuntur: perferuntur edd. vetl.
^ V.l. statuto.

88

BOOK XXXIII. xxx^iii. 116-XL. 119

when the blood of each animal gets mixed together,

as \ve have said ; and there is no other colour that viii. 34.

properly represents blood in a picture. That kind

of cinnabar is extremely useful for antidotes and

medicaments. But our doctors, I swear, because

they give the name of cinnabar to minium also, employ

this miyiitim, which as we shall soon show is a poison. § 124.

XXXIX. In old times ' dragon's-blood ' cinnabar
was used for painting the pictures that are still
called monochromes, * in one colour.' Cinnabar
from Ephesus was also used for painting, but this
has been given up because pictures in that colour
were a great amount of trouble to preserve. More-
over both colours were thought excessively harsh ;
consequently painters have gone over to red-ochre
and Sinopic ochre, pigments about which I shall xxxv.
speak in the proper places. Cinnabar is adulterated "^'^ *^^'
with goat's blood or with crushed service-berries.
The price of genuine cinnabar is 50 sesterces a pound.

XL. Juba reports that cinnabar is also produced
in Carmania, and Timagenes says it is found in
Ethiopia as well, but from neither place is it exported
to us, and from hardly any other either except from
Spain, the most famous cinnabar mine for the
revenues of the Roman nation being that of Almaden
in the Baetic region, no item being more carefully
safeguarded : it is not allowed to smelt and refine
the ore upon the spot, but as much as about 2000
Ibs. per annum is dehvered to Rome in the crude
state under seal, and is purified at Rome, the price
in selhng it being fixed by law established at 70
sesterces a pound, to prevent its going beyond limit.
But it is adulterated in many ways, which is a source Redieadmd
of plunder for the company. For there is in fact '^™'^^-

89

VOL. IX. D

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

bus fere argentaHis itemque plumbariis metallis,
quod fit exusto lapide venis permixto, non ex illo,
cuius vomicam argentum vivum appellavimus — is
enim et ipse in argentum <(vivum)> ^ excoquitur — , sed
ex aliis simul repertis. steriles etiam plumbi de-
prehenduntur ^ solo colore nec nisi in fornacibus
rubescentes exustique tunduntur in farinam. hoc
est secundarium minium perquam paucis notum,

120 multum infra naturales illas harenas. hoc ergo
adulteratur minium in officinis sociorum, et vilius ^
Syrico. quonam modo Syricum fiat suo loco doce-
bimus ; sublini autem Syrico minium compendi ratio
demonstrat. et aHo modo pingentium furto oppor-
tunum est, plenos subinde abluentium penicillos.

121 sidit autem in aqua constatque furantibus. sincero
cocci nitor esse debet, secundarii autem splendor in
parietibus sentit * robiginem,^ quamquam hoc ro-
bigo quaedam metalli est. Sisaponensibus autem
miniariis sua vena harenae sine argento. excoquitur
auri modo; probatur auro candente, fucatum enim

^ vivum add. K. C. Bailey.

^ de micae prehenduntur B^ : micae. deprehenduntur JB* :
deprehenduntur.

^ et vilius Mayhoff: et ubivis lan: et vivis B: item rell.

* V.l. sentire.

^ Toh\(i,inem K.C. Bailey: plumbaginem Maijhoff: uliginem
Caesarius : imaginem.

" Probably the true red-lead (prepared from cerusite,
natural lead carbonate).

" Of sulphide of mercury. See § 111, note; § 118.
" This is not true.

90

BOOK XXXIII. XL. 119-121

another kind '^ of minium, found in almost all silver-
mines, and likewise lead-mines, which is made by
smelting a stone that has veins of metal running
through it, and not obtained from the stone the
round drops of which we have designated quick- § 09
siher — for that stone also if fired yields quicksilver —
but from other stones found at the same time.
These have no quicksilver and are detected only
by their leaden colour, and only when they turn red
in the furnaces, and after being thoroughly smelted
thev are puherized by hammering. This gives a
minium of second rate quality, which is known to
very few people, and is much inferior to the natural
sands we have mentioned. It is this then that is
used for adulterating real miiiium in the factories of
the company, but a cheaper kind is adulterated with
Syrian : the preparation of the latter will be des- xxxv. 40.
cribed in the proper place ; but the process of giving
cinnabar and red-lead a treatment of Syrian is
detected by calculation when the one is weighed
against the other. Cinnabar also, wath red-lead,
aifords an opportunity for pilfering by painters in
another way, if they wash out their brushes imme-
diately when full of paint ; the cinnabar or the
red-lead settles at the bottom of the water and stays
there for the pilferers. Pure cinnabar ought to
have the brilliant colour of the scarlet kermes-
insect, while the shine of that of the second quahty
when used on wall-paintings is affected by rust,
although this is itself a sort of metalHc rust. In
the cinnabar mines ^ of Almaden the vein of sand
is pure, without silver. It is melted like gold '^ ; it
is assayed by means of gokl made red hot, as if it
has been adulterated it turns black, but if genuine

91

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

nigrescit, sincerum retinet colorem. invenio et calce
adulterari, ac simili ratione ferri candentis lamna, si

122 non sit aurum, deprehendi. inlito solis atque lunae
contactus inimicus. remedium, ut pariete siccato
cera Punica cum oleo liquefacta candens saetis in-
ducatur iterumque admotis gallae carbonibus inura-
tur ad sudorem usque, postea candelis subigatur ac
deinde linteis puris, sicut et marmora nitescunt. qui
minium in officinis poliunt, faciem laxis vesicis inli-
gant, ne in respirando pernicialem pulverem trahant
et tamen super ^ illas spectent. minium in volu-
minum quoque scriptura usurpatur clarioresque
litteras vel in muro ^ vel in marmore, etiam in sepul-
chris, facit.

123 XLI. Ex secundario invenit vita et hydrargyrum
in vicem argenti vivi, paulo ante dilatum. fit autem
duobus modis : aereis mortariis pistillisque trito minio
ex aceto aut patinis fictilibus impositum ferrea con-
cha, caUce coopertum, argilla superinhta, dein sub
patinis accenso^ follibus continuis igni atque ita
calici ^ sudore deterso, qui fit argenti colore et aquae
hquore. idem guttis dividi facilis et lubrico umore

^ super Mayhoff coll. Diosc. V. 109 : ut per cdd.

2 muro Detlefsen : aere Hubner : auro cdd.

^ accenso qnidatn ap. Dalecamp : accensum.

* V.l. calicis.

" This seems to be the raeaning here ; secundario would
not refer to the minium of the second quality (see above,
§ 111, note; § 119), for hydrargyrum was made from the
sulphide of mercury of § 111.

92

BOOK XXXIII. XL. I2I-XLI. 123

it keeps its colour. I find that it is also adulterated
with lime, and this can be detected in a similar way
with a sheet of red-hot iron if there is no gold avail-
able. A surface painted with cinnabar is damaged
by the action of sunlight and moonlight. The way
to prevent this is to let the wall dry and then to coat
it with Punic wax melted with oHve oil and apphed
by means of brushes of bristles while it is still hot,
and then this wax coating must be again heated by
bringing near to it burning charcoal made of plant-
galls, till it exudes drops of perspiration, and after-
wards smoothed down with waxed rollers and then
with clean linen cloths, in the way in which marble
is given a shine. Persons poHshing cinnabar in
workshops tie on their face loose masks of bladder-
skin, to prevent their inhaHng the dust in breathing,
which is very pernicious, and nevertheless to allow
them to see over the bladders. Cinnabar is also used
in writing books, and it makes a brighter lettering
for inscriptions on a waH or on marble even in tombs.
XLI. Of secondary importance « is the fact that
experience has also discovered a way of getting
hydrargyrum or artiiicial quicksilver as a substitute
for real quicksilver ; we postponed the description
of this a Httle previously. It is made in two ways, §§ g4, 100.
by pounding red-lead in vinegar with a copper
pestle in a copper mortar, or it is put in an iron shell
in flat earthenware pans, and covered with a convex
Hd smeared on with clay, and then a fire is Ht under
the pans and kept constantly burning by means of
bellows, and so the surface moisture (with the colour
of silver and the fluidity of water) which forms on the
Hd is wiped off it. This moisture is also easily
divided into drops and rains down freely with sHppery

93

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

124 compluere.^ quod cum venenum esse conveniat,
omnia, quae de minio in medicinae usu traduntur,
temeraria arbitror, praeterquam fortassis inlito
capiti ventrive sanguinem sisti, dum ne qua penetret
in viscera ac volnus attingat. aliter utendum non
equidem censeam.

125 XLII. Hydrargyro argentum inauratur solum nunc
prope, cum et in aerea simili modo duci debeat.
sed eadem fraus, quae in omni parte vitae ingenio-
sissima est, viliorem excogitavit materiam, ut docui-
mus.

126 XLIII. Auri argentique mentionem comitatur
lapis, quem coticulam appellant, quondam non solitus
inveniri nisi in flumine Tmolo, ut auctor est Theo-
phrastus, nunc vero passim. ahi HeracHum, aUi
Lydium vocant. sunt autem modici, quaternas
uncias longitudinis binasque latitudinis non ex-
cedentes. quod a sole fuit in iis, mehus quam quod
a terra. his coticulis periti cum e vena ut Uma
rapuerunt experimento ramentum,^ protinus dicunt
quantum auri sit in ea, quantum argenti vel aeris,
scripulari differentia, mirabih ratione non fallente.

127 XLIV. Argenti duae differentiae. vatillis ferreis
candentibus ramento inposito, quod candidum per-

^ compluere B : confluere rell.

^ experimento ramentum L. C. Purser : experimentum.

" Both kinds of minium — the sulphide of mercury and the
lead carbonate — are poisonous.
* De Lap. 47, 46.

94

BOOK XXXIII. XLi. 123-XLIV. 127

fluidity. And as cinnabar and red-lead*^ are
admitted to be poisons, all the current instructions
on the subject of its employment for medicinal
purposes are in my opinion decidedly risky, except
perhaps that its apphcation to the head or stomach
arrests haemorrhage, provided that it does not find
access to the vital organs or come in contact with a
lesion. In any other way for my own part I would
not recommend its employment.

XLII. At the present time silver is almost the
only substance that is gilded with artificial quick-
sih'er, though really a similar method ought to be
used in coating copper. But the same fraudulence
which is so extremely ingenious in every department
of life has devised an inferior material, as we have § 100.
shown.

XLIII. With the mention of gold and sih'er rouchstotu
goes a description of the stone called the touch
stone, formerly according to Theophrastus ^ not
usually found anywhere but in the river Tmolus,
but now found in various places. Some people call
it HeracUan stone and others Lydian. The pieces
are of a moderate size, not exceeding four inches in
length and two in breadth. The part of these
pieces that has been exposed to the sun is better
than the part on the ground. When experts
using this touchstone, like a file, have taken with it
a scraping from an ore, they can say at once how
much gold it contains and how much siher or copper,
to a difference of a scruple, their marvellous calcula-
tion not leading them astray.

XLIV. There are two points in which siher
shows a variation. A shaving that remains perfectly
white when placed on white-hot iron shovels is passed

95

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

maneat, probatur. proxima bonitas rufo, nulla nigro.
sed experimento quoque fraus intervenit. servatis
in urina virorum vatillis inficitur ita ramentum obiter
dum uritur candoremque mentitur. est aliquod
experimentum politi et in halitu hominis, si sudet
protinus nubemque discutiat.

128 XLV. Lamnas duci,^ speciem ^ fieri^ non nisi ex
optimo posse creditum.'* fuerat id integrum, sed id
quoque iam fraude corrumpitur.

Est ^ natura mira imagines reddendi, quod reper-
cusso aere atque in oculos regesto fieri convenit.
eadem vi sic ® in specuU usu polita crassitudine pau-
hmique propulsa dilatatur in inmensum magnitudo
imaginum. tantum interest, repercussum illum ex-

129 cipiat an respuat. quin etiam pocula ita figurantur
expulsis^ intus crebris ceu specuUs, ut vel uno intuente
totidem populus imaginum fiat. excogitantur et
monstrifica, ut in templo Zymrnae dicata. id evenit
figura materiae. plurimum refert concava sint et
pocuU modo an parmae Threcidicae, media depressa
an elata, transversa an obUqua, supina an infesta,

' duci et cd. Par. Lat. G801 : duci rell. : duci in Mayhoff.
2 speciem B : specula rell.
2 fieri cdd. : vitri Mayhoff.
* credimus B.
'" est Mayhoff : sed.

^ vi sic Mayhoff : vis Sillig : visi B : m cd. Par. 6801 :
nisi rell.

' V.l. exscuJptis.

° When it is concave.
" \\'hen it is convex or plane.

" I.e. the raajor axis of an oval rairror, or of a convex or
concave oval centre of a special kind of mirror.

96

BOOK XXXIII. xLiv. 127-XLV. 129

as good, while if it turns red it is of the next quality,
and if black it has no value at all. But fraud has
found its way even into this test ; if the shovels are
kept in men's urine the silver shaving is stained by
it during the process of being burnt, and counter-
feits ^vhiteness. There is also one way of testing
polished silver in a man's breath — if it at once forms
surface moisture and dissipates the vapour.

XLV. It has been believed that only the best Rejieaing
silver is capable of beinof beaten out into plates ?"<^«'»f'» <^'"-'
and producmg an image. 1 nis was lormeriy a siiver.
sound test, but nowadays this too is spoiled by fraud. *""^*-

Still, the property of reflecting images is marvel-
lous ; it is generally agreed that it takes place owing
to the repercussion of the air which is thrown back
into the eyes. In a similar way, owing to the same
force, in employing a mirror if the thickness of the
metal has been poHshed and beaten out into a sHghtly
concave shape the size of the objects reflected is
enormously magnified : such a difference does it
make whether the surface welcomes ^ the air in
question or flings it back.^ Moreover bowls can be
made of such a shape, with a number of looking-
glasses so to speak beaten outward inside them,
that if only a single person is looking into them a
crowd of images is formed of the same number as the
facets in question. Ingenuity even devises vessels
that do conjuring tricks, for instance those deposited
as votive offerings in the temple at Smyrna : this is
brought about by the shape of the material, and it
makes a very great difference whether the vessels
are concave and shaped hke a bowl or convex like a
Thracian shield, whether their centre is recessed or
projecting, whether the oval ^ is horizontal or obhque,

97

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

qualitate excipientis figurae torquente venientes um-

130 bras ; neque enim est aliud illa imago quam digesta
claritate materiae accipientis umbra.^ atque ut
omnia de speculis peragantur in lioc loco, optima aput
maiores fuerant Brundisina, stagno et aere mixtis.
praelata sunt argentea ; primus fecit Pasiteles Magni
Pompei aetate. nuper credi coeptum certiorem
imaginem reddi auro opposito vitris.^

131 XLVL Tinguit Aegyptus argentum, ut in vasis
Anubim suum spectet, pingitque, non caelat, argen-
tum. unde transiit materia et ad triumphales
statuas ; mirumque, crescit pretium fulgoris excae-
cati. id autem fit hoc modo ; miscentur argento
tertiae aeris Cyprii tenuissimi, quod coronarium
vocant, et sulpuris vivi quantum argenti ; conflantur
ita in fictili circumlito argilla ; modus coquendi,
donec se ipsa opercula aperiant. nigrescit et ovi
indurati luteo, ut tamen aceto et creta deteratur.

132 Miscuit denario triumvir Antonius ferrum, miscent
aera falsae monetae,^ alii et * ponderi ^ subtrahunt,
cum sit iustum lxxxiiii e Ubris signari. igitur ars

^ umbra lan : umbram.

2 vitris K. C. Bailey : vitris aversis coni. D'Arcy Thompson :
aversis.

2 V.l. falsa moneta.

* alii et Mayhoff: alii e cd. Par. 6801 : alia aiit aliae ant
alii {om. et) rell.

^ ponderi Urlichs : pondere aut ponderae aut pondera.
alii de pondere coni. Mayhoff.

° Cf. § 94 and note.

^ vitris is K. C. Bailey'8 conjecture. The sentence cannot
refer to silver mirrors. Roman glass mirrors, backed usuall}'-
with lead, have been found, but seem to belong to a later time
than Pliny.

'^ Tliis was employed to make imitation gold crowns for use
on the stage.
98

BOOK XXXIII. XLV. 129-XLV1. 132

laid flat or placed upright, as the quaUty of the shape
receiving the shadows twists them as they come :
for in fact the image in a mirror is merely the shadow
arranged by the brilHance of the material receiving
it. And in order to complete the whole subject of
mirrors in this place, the best of those known in old
days were those made at Brindisi of a mixture of
stagnum " and copper. Silver mirrors have come to
be preferred ; they were first made by Pasiteles in
the period of Pompey the Great. But it has c 106-48.
recently come to be believed that a more reliable °*°*
reflection is given by applying a layer of gold to the
back of glass.^

XLVI. The people of Egypt stain their silver so
as to see portraits of their god Anubis in their
vessels ; and they do not engrave but paint their
silver. The use of that material thence passed
over even to our triumphal statues, and, wonderful
to relate, its price rises with the dimming of its
brilliance. The method adopted is as follows : with
the silver is mixed one third its amount of the very
fine Cyprus copper called chaplet-copper ^ and the
same amount of live sulphur as of silver, and then
they are melted in an earthenware vessel having its
lid stopped with potter's clay; the heating goes on
till the lids of the vessels open of their own accord.
Silver is also turned black by means of the yolk of a
hard-boiled egg, although the black can be rubbed
off with vinegar and chalk.

The triumvir Antony alloyed the silver denarius Dehasedand
with iron, and forgers put an alloy of copper in silver So^e! ^
coins, while others also reduce the weight, the
proper coinage being 84 denarii from a pound of
silver. Consequently a method was devised of

99

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

facta denarios probare, tam iucunda plebei lege, ut
Mario Gratidiano vicatini tota ^ statuas dicaverit.
niirumque, in hac artium sola vitia discuntur et falsi
denarii spectatur exemplar pluribusque veris denariis
adulterinus emitur.

133 XLVII. Non erat apud antiquos numerus ultra
centum milia ; itaque et hodie multiplicantur haec,
ut decies centena aut saepius dicantur. faenus hoc
fecit nummusque percussus, et sic quoque aes alienum
etiamnum appellatur. postea Divites cognominati,
dummodo notum sit eum, qui primus hoc cognomen

134 acceperit, decoxisse creditoribus suis. ex eadem
gente M. Crassus negabat locupletem esse nisi qui
reditu annuo legionem tueri posset. in agris hs
[mri] possedit Quiritium post Sullam divitissimus, nec
fuit satis nisi totum Parthorum usurpasset aurum ;
atque ut memoriam quidem opum occupaverit —
iuvat enim insectari inexplebilem istam habendi
cupidinem — : multos postea cognovimus servitute
hberatos opulentiores, pariterque tres Claudii prin-
cipatu paulo ante CaUistum, Pallantem, Narcissum.

135 atque ut hi omittantur, tamquam adhuc rerum

1 totas B, cd. Par. 6801.

" Crassus the so-called ' triumvir ' was defeated by the
Parthians at Carrhae (Haran) in 53 B.c, and assassinated
when treating for peace. His head was cut off and sent to
the Parthian king, who caused melted gold to be poured into
its mouth, saying ' Sate thyself now with the metal for which
when alive thou wert so greedy ' (Dio Cassius XL. 27).

lOO

BOOK XXXIII. xLvi. 132-XLV11. 135

assaying the denarius, under a law that was so
popular that the common people unanimously
district by district voted statues to Marius Before 82
Gratidianus. And it is a remarkable thing that in ^-^-
this alone among arts spurious methods are objects
of study, and a sample of a forged denarius is care-
fuUy examined and the adulterated coin is bought
for more than genuine ones.

XLVII. In old days there was no number standing Exampies of
for more than 100,000, and accordingly even to-day J^S^ ^'"^
we reckon by multiples of that number, using the weaith.
expression times ' ten times one hundred thousand '
or larger multiples. This was due to usury and to
the introduction of coined money, and also on the
same Hnes we still speak of money owed as * some-
body else's copper.' Afterwards ' Dives,' ' Rich,'
became a family surname, though it must be stated
that the man who first received this name ran
through his creditors' money and went bankrupt.
Afterwards Marcus Crassus, who was a member of the
Rich family, used to say that nobody w^as a wealthy
man except one who could maintain a legion of troops
on his yearly income. He owned landed property
worth two hundred million sesterces, being the
richest Roman citizen after Sulla. Nor was he satis-
fied without getting possession of the whole of the
Parthians' gold " as well ; and although it is true he
was the first to win lasting reputation for wealth — it is
a pleasant task to stigmatize insatiable covetousness
of that sort — we have known subsequently of many
hberated slaves who have been wealthier, and three
at the same time not long before our own days in the
period of the emperor Claudius, namely CalHstus, a.d. 41-64.
Pallas and Narcissus. And to omit these persons,

TOI

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

potiantur, C. Asinio Gallo C. Marcio Censorino cos.
a. d. VI Kal. Febr. C. Caecilius C. 1. Isidorus testa-
mento suo edixit, quamvis multa bello civili perdidis-
set, tamen relinquere servorum ^ Tm cxvi, iuga boum
Tn DC, reliqui pecoris cclvii, in numerato hs [dc|,

136 funerari se iussit hs \xT\.^ congerant excedentes
numerum opes, quota tamen portio erunt Ptolemaei,
quem Varro tradit Pompeio res gerente circa ludae-
am octona milia equitum sua pecunia toleravisse,
mille convivas totidem aureis potoriis, mutantem
ea vasa cum ferculis, saginasse ! quota vero ille ipse

137 — neque enim de regibus loquor — portio fuerit
Pythis Bithyni, qui platanum auream vitemque
nobiles illas Dario regi donavit, Xerxis copias, hoc est
|vii] Lxxxviii'^ hominum, excepit epulo, stipendium
quinque mensum frumentumque pollicitus, ut e
quinque liberis in dilectu senectuti suae unus saltem
concederetur ! hunc quoque ipsum aliquis comparet
Croeso regi! quae, malum, amentia est id in vita
cupere, quod aut et servis contigerit aut ne in regibus
quidem invenerit finem !

138 XLVIII. Populus R. stipem spargere coepit Sp.
Postumio Q. Marcio cos. ; tanta abundantia pecuniae
erat, ut eam conferret L. Scipioni, ex qua is ludos

1 se servorum coni. Mayhoff.

2 |xii| lan-, \S\ Detkfsen: xi milibus cd. Par. 6801: Xi
rell. (ixi B). ^

^ |vfi| lan : Lxxxviii Sillig : varia cdd.

" I.e. still alive and ruling tlie Empire, so that it would be
dangerous to speak of them.

^ Probably Auletes, King of Egypt 80-51 b.c.
"= See Herodotus VII. 27, 38.

I02

BOOK XXXIII. xLvii. 135-XLV111. 138

as if they were still in sovereign power,'^ there is
Gaius Caecilius Isidorus, the freedman of Gaius
Caecilius who in the consulship of Gaius Asinius g b.o.
Gallus and Gaius Marcius Censorinus executed a
will dated January 27 in which he declared that in
spite of heavy losses in the civil war he nevertheless
left 4116 slaves, 3600 pairs of oxen, 257,000 head of
other cattle, and 60 million sesterces in cash, and he
gave instructions for 1,100,000 to be spent on his
funeral. But let them amass uncountable riches,
yet what fraction will they be of the riches of the
Ptolemy ^ who is recorded by Varro, at the time
when Pompey was campaigning in the regions 63 b.o.
adjoining Judaea, to have maintained 8000 horse at
his own charges, to have given a lavish feast to a
thousand guests, with 1,000 gold goblets, which were
changed at every course ; and then what fraction
would his own estate have been (for I am not speaking
about kings) of that of the Bithynian Pythes,<^ who pre-
sented the famous gold plane tree and vine to King
Darius, and gave a banquet to the forces of Xerxes, iso b.c.
that is 788,000 men, with a promise of five months'
pay and corn on condition that one at least of his
five children when drawn for service should be left to
cheer his old age ? Also let anyone compare even
Pythes himself with King Croesus ! What madness
it is (damn it all !), to covet a thing in our Hfetime that
has either fallen to tlie lot even of slaves or has
reached no Hmit even in the desires of Kings !

XLVIII. The Roman nation begran lavishingr
donations in the consulship of Spurius Postumius 186 b.o.
and Quintus Marcius : so abundant was money at
that date that they contributed funds for Lucius
Scipio to defray the cost of games which he cele-

103

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

fecit. nam quod Agrippae Menenio sextantes aeris
in funus contulit, honoris id necessitatisque propter
paupertatem Agrippae, non largitionis esse duxerim.^

139 XLIX. Vasa ex argento mire inconstantia humani
ingenii variat nullum genus officinae diu probando.
nunc Furniana,^ nunc Clodiana, nunc Gratiana —
etenim tabernas mensis adoptamus — , nunc ana-
glypta asperitatemque exciso ^ circa Hniarum picturas

140 quaerimus, iam vero et mensas repositoriis inponi-
mus ad sustinenda opsonia, interradimus aHa, ut
quam plurimum Hma perdiderit. vasa cocinaria ex
argento fieri Calvus orator quiritat ; at nos carrucas
argento caelare invenimus, nostraque aetate Poppaea
coniunx Neronis principis soleas deHcatioribus iu-
mentis suis ex auro quoque induere iussit.

141 L. Triginta duo Hbras argenti Africanus sequens
heredi reliquit idemque, cum de Poenis triumpharet,
iiii cccLxx pondo transtuHt. hoc argenti tota Car-
thago habuit illa terrarum aemula, quot mensarum
postea apparatu victa! Numantia quidem deleta
idem Africanus in triumpho miHtibus X vii dedit. o

^ V.l. dixerim. ^ V.l. Firmiana.

^ V.l. excisa.

" In performance of a vow that he made in the war with
Antiochus III, King of Syria, victoriously concluded in
190 B.c.

* These various kinds of plate are named after the silver-
smiths who introduced them. For the last cf. Martial I V . 39 :
Argenti genus omne comparasti . . . Nec desunt tibi vera
Gratiana.

<= Scipio AemiHanus.

104

BOOK XXXIII. xLviii. 138-L. 141

hrated." As for the national contrihiition of one-
sixth of an as per head for the funeral of Menenius 491 b.c.
Agrippa, I should consider this as a mark of respect
and also a measure rendered necessary by Agrippa's
povertv, and not a matter of lavish generosity.

XLIX. Fashions in silver plate undergo marvel- siiver piate,
lous variations o\nng to the vagaries of human taste, ^^'
no kind of workmanship rcmaining long in favour.
At one time Furnian plate is in demand, at another
Clodian, at another Gratian ^ — for we make even
the factories feel at home at our tables — at
another time the demand is for embossed plate and
rough surfaces, where the metal has been cut out
along the painted lines of the designs, while now we
even fit removable shelves on our sideboards to carry
the ^'iands, and other pieces of plate we decorate
with filigree, so that the file may have wasted as
much silver as possible. The orator Calvus complain- 82-c. 47b.o.
ingly cries that cooking-pots are made of silver;
but it is we who invented decoratino; carriacres with
chased silver, and it was in our day that the emperor
Nero's wife Poppaea had the idea of even ha^dng her
favourite mules shod with gold.

L. The younger Africanus «^ left his heir thirty- 129 b.c.
two pounds weight of silver, and the same person
paraded 4370 pounds of silver in his triumphal
procession after the conquest of Carthage. This i46 b.c.
was the amount of silver owned by the whole of
Carthage, Rome's rival for the empire of the world,
yet subsequently beaten in the show of plate on how
many dinner-tables ! Indeed after totally destroying
Numantia the same Africanus at his triumph gave a 133-2 b.c.
largess of seven denarii a head to his troops — •
warriors not unworthy of such a general who were

105

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

viros illo imperatore dignos, quibiis hoc satis fuit !
frater eius Allobrogicus primus omnium pondo mille
Iiabuit, at Drusus Livius in tribunatu plebei x.^

142 nam propter x ^ pondo notatum a censoribus trium-
phalem senem fabulosum iam videtur, item Catum
Aelium, cum legati Aetolorum in consulatu pranden-
tem in fictilibus adissent, missa ab iis vasa argentea
non accepisse neque aliud habuisse argenti ad supre-
mum vitae diem quam duo pocula, quae L. Paulus
socer ei ob virtutem devicto Perseo rege donavisset.

143 invenimus legatos Carthaginiensium dixisse nullos
hominum inter sese benignius vivere quam Romanos.
eodem enim argento apud omnes cenitavisse ipsos.
at, Hercules, Pompeium Paulinum, Arelatensis
equitis Romani fiHum paternaque gente pellitum,
xfi pondo argenti habuisse apud exercitum ferocissi-

144 mis gentibus oppositum scimus ; (LI.) lectos vero iam
pridem mulierum totos operiri argento, pridem ^ et
triclinia. quibus argentum addidisse primus traditur
Carvihus Pollio eques Romanus, non ut operiret aut
DeHaca specie faceret, sed Punicana ; eadem et

1 X CG7ii. Mmihojf: XI mlHa cd. Par. 6801 : x rell. (X B).

2 x Freinshem coll. Liv. Ep. XIV, Val. Max. II. 9. 4, elc. :
quinque.

3 pridem coni. Mayhoff: quaedam cdd. (quidem cd. Par.
Lat. 6797).

" Q. Fabius Maximus AHobrogicus, consul in 121, and in
reaHty a nephew of AemiHanus.
* P. CorneHus Rufinus.
^ C. Fabrioius and Q. Aemilius. Cf. § l."53.

io6

BOOK XXXIII. L. 141-L1. 144

satisfied \nth that amount ! His brother
AUobrogicus " was the first person who ever owned 121 b.c.
1000 Ibs. weight of silver, whereas Livius Drusus
when tribune of the people had 10,000 Ibs. For 91 b.o.
that an old warrior,'' honoured with a triumphal
procession, incurred the notice of the censors '^ for 275 b.c,
possessingten poundsweight of silver — that nowadays
seems legendary, and the same as to Catus Aelius's
not accepting the silver plate presented to him by
the envoys from Aetolia who during his consulship 198 b.o.
had found him eating his lunch ofF earthenware, and
as to his never till the last day of his life having
owned any other silver but the two bowls given to
him by his mfe's father Lucius Paulus in recognition
of his valour at the time when King Perseus was I68 b.o.
conquered. We read that the Carthaginian ambas-
sadors declared that no race of mankind Hved on
more amicable terms with one another than the
Romans, inasmuch as in a round of banquets they had
found the same service of plate in use at every
house ! But, good heavens, Pompeius Pauhnus the
son of a Knight of Rome at Arles and descended on
his father's side from a tribe that went about clad
in skins, to our knowledge had 12,000 Ibs. weight of
silver plate with him when on service with an army
confronted by tribes of the greatest ferocity ; (LI.)
while we know that ladies' bedsteads have for a long
time now been entirely covered with silver plating,
and so for long have banqueting-couches also. It is
recorded that CarviUus PolHo, Knight of Rome, was
the first person who had silver put on these latter,
though not so as to plate them all over or make
them to the Delos pattern, but in the Carthaginian
style. In this latter style he also had bedsteads

107

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

aureos fecit, nec multo post argcntei Deliacos imitati
sunt. quae omnia expiavit bellum civile Sullanum.

145 LII. Paulo enim ante haec factae sunt lances e
centenis libris argenti, quas tunc cuper cl numero
fuisse Romae constat multosque ob eas proscriptos
dolo concupiscentium. erubescant annales, qui bel-
lum civile illud talibus vitiis inputavere ; nostra aetas
fortior fuit. Claudii principatu servus eius Drusilla-
nus ^ nomine Rotundus, dispensator Hispaniae citeri-
oris, quingenariam lancem habuit, cui fabricandae ^
officina prius exaedificata fuerat, et comites eius octo
ad ccL libras, quaeso, ut quam multi eas conservi eius

146 inferrent, aut quibus cenantibus ? Cornelius Nepos
tradit ante Sullae victoriam duo tantum triclinia
Romae fuisse argentea, repositoriis argentum addi
sua memoria coeptum. Fenestella, qui obiit novis-
simo Tiberii Caesaris principatu, ait et testudinea
tum in usum venisse, ante se autem paulo lignea,
rotunda, solida nec multo maiora quam mensas fuisse,
se quidem puero quadrata et conpacta aut acere
operta aut citro coepisse, mox additum argentum in

^ V.l. Drusilianus.

* V.l. cum fabricando : quam fabricando Detlefsen.

" By Sulla in 82 b.c.

^ Fenestella died in a.d. 21, Tiberius in a.d. 37.

io8

BOOK XXXIII. Li. 144-L11. 146

made of gold, and not long aftenvards silver bed-
steads were made, in imitation of those of Delos.
All this extravagance however was expiated by the 83.2 b.o.
civil war of Sulla.

LII. In fact it was shortly before this period that otfiersUie'
silver dishes were made weighing a hundred pounds, /"""^"''^-
and it is well-known that there were at that date over
150 of those at Rome, and that many people were
sentenced to outlawry ° because of them, by the
intrigues of people who coveted them. History
which has held vices such as these to be responsible
for that civil war may blush with shame, but our
generation has gone one better. Under the
Emperor Claudius his slave Drusillanus, who bore a.d. 41-54.
the name of Rotundus, the Emperor's steward of
Nearer Spain, possessed a silver dish Meighing 500
Ibs., for the manufacture of which a workshop had
first been specially built, and eight others of 250 Ibs.
went with it as side-dishes, so that how many of his
fellow-slaves, I ask, were to bring them in or who
Mere to dine off them ? Cornelius Nepos records
that before the victory won by Sulla there were 82 b.c.
only two silver dinner-couches at Rome, and that
silver began to be used for decorating sideboards
within his own recollection. And Fenestella who
died towards the end of the principate of Tiberius ^
says that tortoiseshell sideboards also came into
fashion at that time, but a Httle before his day they
had been solid round structures of wood, and not
much larger than tables ; but that even in his boy-
hood they began to be made square and of planks
morticed together and veneered either with maple
or citrus wood, while later silver was laid on at the
corners and along the Hnes marking the joins, and

109

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

angulos lineasque per commissuras, tympana vero
se iuvene appellata, tum a stateris et lances, quas
antiqui magides vocaverant.

147 LIII. Nec copia argenti tantum furit vita, sed
valdius paene manipretiis, idque iam pridem, ut
ignoscamus nobis. delphinos quinis milibus sester-
tium 1 in libras emptos C. Gracchus habuit, L. vero
Crassus orator duos scyphos Mentoris artificis manu
caelatos hs c,^ confessus tamen est numquam iis uti
propter verecundiam ausum. scimus ^ eundem hs

148 VI in singulas libras vasa empta habuisse. Asia
primum devicta luxuriam misit in Italiam, siquidem
L. Scipio in triumplio transtulit argenti caelati pondo
mille et * cccc ^ et vasorum aureorum pondo md anno
conditae urbis dlxv. at eadem Asia donata ® multo
etiam gravius adflixit mores, inutiliorque victoria illa

149 hereditas Attalo rege mortuo fuit. tum enim haec
emendi Romae in auctionibus regiis verecundia ex-
empta est urbis anno dcxxii, mediis lvii annis erudita
civitate amare etiam, non solum admirari, opulentiam
externam, inmenso et Achaicae victoriae momento ad
inpellendos mores, quae et ipsa in hoc intervallo annn

^ sestertium 7/arcZo»m : sestertiis.
^ C Urlichs: c.

^ scimus Mayhoff : scitum coni. lan: constat ed. Basil.:
sicut.
* mille et Mayhoff : milia aut m.
^ cccc B : cccL rell.
^ domita cd. Par. 6801 : domata Gelen.

° I.e. Asia Minor and Syria, peace having been concluded
vvith King Antiochus in 189 B.c.

^ Attalus 111, King of Pergamum 138-133 b.c, bequeathed
his klngdom to Rome. Part of it became the provmce Asia.

•^ I .e. tlic destruction of Corinth by L. Mumniius, 146 B.c.

IIO

BOOK XXXIII. ui. 146-LI11. T49

when he was a young man they were called * drums,'
and then also the dishes for which the old name had
been magides came to be called basins from their
resemblance to the scales of a balance.

LIII. Yet it is not only for quantities of silver
that there is such a rage among mankind but there
is an almost more violent passion for works of fine
handicraft ; and this goes back a long time, so that
Me of to-day may excuse ourselves from blame.
Gaius Gracchus had some figures of dolphins for 153-121 b.c
which he paid 5000 sesterces per pound, while the
orator Lucius Crassus had a pair of chased goblets, uo-yi b.c.
the work of the artist Mentor, that cost 100,000;
yet admittedly he was too ashamed ever to use them.
It is known to us that he HkeM'ise owned some vessels
that he bought for 6000 sesterces per pound. It
was the conquest of Asia " that first introduced
luxury into Italy, inasmuch as Lucius Scipio carried
in procession at his triumph 1400 Ibs. of chased
silverware and vessels of gold weighing 1500 Ibs. :
this was in the 565th year from the foundation of
the city of Rome. But receiving Asia also as a gift 1^9 n.o.
dealt a much more serious blow to our morals, and
the bequest of it that came to us on the death of
King Attalus ^ was more disadvantageous than the
victory of Scipio. For on that occasion all scruples
entirely disappeared in regard to buying these
articles at the auctions of the king's effects at Rome —
the date was the 622nd year of the city, and in the 132 b.c.
interval of 57 years our community had learnt not
merely to admire but also to covet foreign opulence ;
an impetus having also been given to manners by
the enormous shock of the conquest of Achaia,^
that victory itself also having during this interval

III

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

150 urbis Dcviii parta signa et tabulas pictas invexit. ne
quid deesset, pariter quoque ^ luxuria nata est et
Cathago sublata, ita congruentibus fatis, ut et
liberet amplecti vitia et liceret. petiere et digna-
tionem hinc aliqui veterum. C. Marius post victo-
riam Cimbricam cantharis potasse Liberi patris ex-
emplo traditur, ille arator Arpinas et manipularis
imperator.

151 LIV. Argenti usum in statuas primum divi Augusti
temporum adulatione transisse falso existimatur.
iam enim triumpho Magni Pompei reperimus trans-
latam Pharnacis, qui primus regnavit in Ponto,
argenteam statuam, item Mithridatis Eupatoris et

152 currus aureos argenteosque. argentum succedit
aliquando et auro luxu feminarum plebis compedes
sibi facientium, quas induere aureas mos tritior vetet.
vidimas et ipsi Arellium Fuscum motum equestri
ordine ob insignem calumniam, cum celebritatem ^
adsectarentur^ adulescentium scholae, argenteos anu-
los habentem. et quid haec attinet colligere, cum
capuU militum ebore etiam fastidito caelentur argen-
to, vaginae cateUis, baUea lamnis crepitent, iam vero

1 quoque Mayhoff: que.

2 celebritatem B: celebritate rell.

3 adsectarentur cdd.: expectarentur edd. vett.: assectati-
onem HerTTiolaus Barbarus: adsectaretur coni. Warmington.

" He became king c. 190 b.c.

^ Mithridates VI, King of Pontus, finaUy queUed in Pompey'8
campaigns.

112

BOOK XXXIII. Liii. 149-LIV. 152

of time introduced the statues and pictures won in
the 608th year of the city. That nothing might be uc b.c.
lacking, luxury came into being simultaneously,
wlth the downfall of Carthage, a fatal coincidence
that gave us at one and the same time a taste for the
vices and an opportunity for indulging in them.
Some of the older generation also sought to gain
esteem from these sources. It is recorded that
Gaius Marius after his victory over the Cimbrians 101 b.c.
drank from Bacchic tankards, in imitation of Father
Liber — he, the ploughman of Arpino who rose to
the position of general from the ranks !

LIV. The view is held that the extension of suver
the use of silver to statues was made in the case of ^•^^"/*;,^
statues of his late lamented Majesty Augustus,
owing to the sycophancy of the period, but this is
erroneous. We find that previously a silver statue
of Pharnaces the First,® King of Pontus, was carried
in the triumphal procession of Pompey the Great, 6I b.o.
as well as one of Mithridates Eupator,^ and also
chariots of gold and silver were used. Like^-ise
silver has at some periods even supplanted gold,
female luxury among the plebeians having its shoe
buckles made of silver, as wearing gold buckles
would be prohibited by the more common fashion.
We have ourselves seen ArelHus Fuscus, when he was
expelled from the Equestrian order on a singularly
false charge, wearing silver rings merely because
classes of students were attracted to him by his fame.
But what is the point of coUecting these instances,
when our soldiers' sword hilts are made of chased
silver, even ivory not being thought good enough;
and when their scabbards jingle with Httle silver chains
and their belts with silver tabs, nay now-a-days our

113

PLINY: NATUUAL HISTORY

paedagogia in transitu virilitatis custodiantur ar-
gento, feminae laventur et nisi argentea solia fasti-
diant, eademque materia et cibis et probris serviat ?

153 videret haec Fabricius et stratas argento mulierum
balineas ita, ut vestigio locus non sit, cum viris
lavantium ! Fabricius, qui bellicos imperatores plus
quam pateram et salinum habere ex argento vetabat,
videret hinc dona fortium fieri aut in haec frangi !
heu mores, Fabrici nos pudet !

154 LV. Mirum auro caelando neminem inclaruisse,
argento multos. maxime tamen laudatus est Men-
tor, de quo supra diximus. quattuor paria ab eo
omnino ^ facta sunt, ac iam nullum extare dicitur
Ephesiae Dianae templi ac ^ Capitolini incendiis.

155 Varro se et aereum signum ^ eius habuisse scribit.
proximi ab eo in admiratione Acragas et Boethus et
Mys fuere. exstant omnium opera hodie in insula
Rhodiorum, Boethi apud Lindiam Minervam, Acra-
gantis in templo Liberi patris in ipsa Rhodo Cen-
tauros Bacchasque caelati scyphi, Myos in eadem
aede Silenos et Cupidines. Acragantis et venatio in

156 scyphis magnam famam habuit. post hos celebratus
est Calamis, et Antipatro qui ^ Satyrum in phiala

^ vasorum Thiersch.

^ ac Warmington : aut (iacet cd. Par. 6801).
^ sinum Ilavet.

* Antipatro qui Mayhoff : Antipater quoque qui Urlichs :
Antipater quoq B : A. quinque rell. (quique cd. Par. 6801).

" C. Fabricius Luscinus, a man who held high offices c. 285-
275, but died a poor man.
^ See § 142.
" In 356 B.c.
<^ In 83 B.c.

114

BOOK XXXIII. Liv. 152-LV. T56

schools for pages just at the point of adolescence
wear silver badges as a safegiiard, and women use
silver to wash in and scorn sitting-baths not made of
silver, and the same substance does service both
for our viands and for our baser needs ? If only
Fabricius ^ could see these displays of luxury —
women's bathrooms with floors of silver, leaving
nowhere to set your feet — and the women bathing
in company with men — if only Fabricius, who forbade ^
gallant generals to possess more than a dish and a
saltcellar of silver, could see how nowadays the
rewards of valour are made from the utensils of
luxury, or else are broken up to make them ! Alas
for our present manners — Fabricius makes us blush !

LV. It is a remarkable fact that the art of chasing Famous
gold has not brought celebrity to anyone, whereas ^^/H"/-^^^ ^^
persons celebrated for chasing silver are numerous. i^ork in

silver

The most famous however is Mentor of whom we
spoke above. Four pairs of goblets were all that he § 147 and
ever made, but it is said that none of them now ^^^" ^'^''
survive, owing to the burning of the Temple of
Artemis of Ephesus ^ and of the Capitol.^ Varro
says in his writings that he also possessed a bronze
statue by this sculptor. Next to Mentor the artists
most admired were Acragas, Boethus and Mys.
Works by all of these exist at the present day in the
island of Rhodes — one by Boethus in the temple of
Athena at Lindus, some goblets engi*aved with
Centaurs and Bacchants by Acragas in the temple
of Father Liber or Dionysus in Rhodes itself, goblets
with Sileni and Cupids by Mys in the same temple.
Hunting scenes by Acragas on goblets also had
a great reputation. After these in celebrity is
Calamis, and Diodorus who was said to have placed

115

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

gravatum sornno conlocavisse verius quam caelasse
dictus est Diodorus,^ Stratonicus mox Cyzicenus,
Tauriscus, item Ariston et Eunicus Mitylenaei laud-
antur et Hecataeus et circa Pompei Magni aetatem
Pasiteles, Posidonius Ephesius, Hedys, Thracides,^
qui proelia armatosque caelavit, Zopyrus, qui Areo-
pagitas et iudicium Orestis in duobus scyphis hs xil^
aestimatis. fuit et Pytheas, cuius ii unciae X x
venierunt : UHxes et Diomedes erant in phialae em-

157 blemate Palladium subripientes. fecit idem et cocos
magiriscia appellatos parvolis potoriis et e quibus ne
exemplaria quidem liceret exprimere ; tam oppor-
tuna iniuriae subtilitas erat. habuit et Teucer
crustarius famam, subitoque ars haec ita exolevit, ut
sola iam vestustate censeatur usuque attritis cae-
laturis si nec * figura discerni possit auctoritas constet.

158 Argentum medicatis aquis inficitur atque adflatu
salso, sic et ^ in mediterraneis Hispaniae.

LVL In argenti et auri metallis nascuntur etiam-
num pigmenta sil et caeruleum. sil proprie limus
est. optimum ex eo quod Atticum vocatur, pretium
in pondo hbras X ii ; proximum marmorosum di-

^ lac. Mayhoff qui Diodorus suppl. : coni. et Antipatro
poetae Satyrum . . . caelasse dictus /Diodorus), Stratonicus.

2 Hedys, Thracides Furtwdngler : hedystrachides B : haedi-
stadices, iedisthracides aut alia rell, : Hedystratides Sillig :
Telesarchides coni. DiltJm/.

3 xli Gelen : |xn| B : xii rell.

* si nec Urlicks : ai ne B : ne rell.

^ sic et L. Poinsinet de Sivry : sicut.

" Who probably wrote an epigram {Anth. Plan. 248)
stating that Diodorus ' put to sleep ' the satyr. The MSS.
of Pliny make Antipater the engraver, while in the Anthology
the epigram is attributed to Plato the younger.

* At Athens for the murder of his mother, according to the
story.

Il6

BOOK XXXIII. Lv. 156-LV1. 158

in a condition of heavy sleep rather than engraved
on a bowl a Slumbering Satyr for Antipater.**
Next praise is awarded to Stratonicus of Cyzicus,
Tauriscus, also Ariston and Eunicus of Mitylene,
and Hecataeus, and, around the period of Pompey ^. 106 48
the Great, Pasiteles, Posidonius of Ephesus, Hedys, b.c
Thracides who engraved battle scenes and men in
armour, and Zopyrus who engraved the Athenian
Council of Areopagus and the Trial of Orestes ^ on
two goblets valued at 12,000 sesterces. There was
also Pytheas, one of whose works sold at the price of
10,000 denarii for two ounces : it consisted of an
embossed base of a bowl representing Odysseus
and Diomede in the act of steahng the Palladium.
The same artist also carved some very small drinking
cups in the shape of cooks known as ' The Chefs in
Miniature,' which it was not alloMed even to
reproduce by casts, so Hable to damage was the
fineness of the work. Also Teucer the artist in
embossed work attained celebrity, and all of a sudden
this art so declined that it is now only valued in old
specimens, and authority attaches to engravings
worn with use even if the very design is invisible.

Silver becomes tarnished by contact with water
from springs containing minerals and by the salt
breezes, as happens also even in the interior regions
of Spain.*^

LVL In gold and silver mines also are formed orides mtj
the pigments yellow ochre and blue. Yellow ochre ^ W°J"^*'
is strictly speaking a slime. The best kind comes
from Avhat is called Attic slime ; its price is tAvo
denarii a pound. The next best is marbled ochre.

" The sentence is probably misplaced.
•* Various oxides and hvdroxides of iron.

117

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

midio Attici pretio. tertium genus est pressum,

159 quod alii Scyricum vocant, ex insula Scyro, iam et ex
Achaia, quo utuntur ad picturae umbras, pretium in
libras hs bini ; dupondiis vero detractis quod lucidum
vocant, e Gallia veniens. hoc autem et Attico ad
lumina utuntur, ad abacos non nisi marmoroso,
quoniam marmor in eo resistit amaritudini calcis.
effoditur et ad xx ab urbe lapidem in montibus ;
postea uritur pressum appellantibus qui adulterant.
sed esse falsum exustumque, amaritudine apparet et
quoniam resolutum in pulverem est.

160 Sile pingere instituere primi Polygnotus et Micon,
Attico dumtaxat. secuta aetas hoc ad lumina usa
est, ad miibras autem Scyrico et Lydio. Lydium
Sardibus emebatur, quod nunc obmutuit.^

161 LVII. Caeruleum harena est, huius genera tria
fuere antiquitus : Aegyptium maxime ^ probatur,^
Scythicum mox * diluitur facile et, cmn teritur, in
quattuor colores mutatur, candidiorem nigrioremve
et crassiorem tenuioremve ; praefertur huic etiam-
num Cyprium. accessit his Puteolanum et Hispa-
niense, harena ibi confici coepta. tinguitur autem
omne et in sua coquitur herba bibitque sucum.
rehqua confectura eadem quae chrysocollae.

^ V.ll. ommutuit, omittunt.

^ V.l. quod maxime.

^ V.l. probatum.

* mox Mayhoff [coni. et umore) : hoc.

" Azurite, a basic copper carbonate.
ii8

BOOK XXXIII. Lvi. 158-LV11. 161

which costs half the price of Attic. The third kind
is dark ochre, Mhich other people call Scyric ochre,
as it comes from the island of Scyros, and nowadays
also from Achaia, which they use for the shadows of a
painting, price two sesterces a pound, while that
called clear ochre, coming from Gaul, costs two
asses less. This and the Attic kind they use for
painting different kinds of Hght, but only marbled
ochre for squared panel designs, because the marble
in it resists the acridity of the lime. This ochre is
also dug up in the mountains 20 miles from Rome.
It is afterwards burnt, and by some people it is
adulterated and passed off as dark ochre ; but the
fact that it is not genuine and has been burnt is
shown by its acridity and by its crumbhng into dust.

The custom of using yellow ochre for painting was
first introduced by Polygnotus and Micon, but they
only used the kind from Attica. The following
period employed this for representing Hghts but
ochre from Scyros and Lydia for shadows. Lydian
ochre used to be sold at Sardis, but now it has quite
gone out.

LVn. The blue pigment ^* is a sand. In old days Azuriie.
there were three varieties : the Egyptian is thought
most highly of ; next the Scythian mixes easily with
water, and changes into four colours when ground,
lighter or darker and coarser or finer ; to this blue
the Cyprian is now preferred. To these were added
the PozzuoU blue, and the Spanish blue, when bhie
sand-deposits began to be w'orked in those places.
Every kind however undergoes a dyeing process,
being boiled with a special plant and absorbing its
juice ; but the remainder of the process of manufac- §§ scaqq.
ture is the same as with o;old-sokler.

119

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

162 Ex caeruleo fit quod vocatur lomentum, perficitur
id lavando terendoque. hoc est caeruleo candidius.
pretia eius X x ^ in libras, caerulei X viii. usus in
creta; calcis inpatiens. nuper accessit et Vesto-
rianum, ab auctore appellatum. fit ex Aegyptii
levissima parte ; pretium eius in libras X xi. idem
et Puteolani usus, praeterque ad fenestras ; cyanon ^

163 vocant. non pridem adportari et Indicum coeptum
est, cuius pretium X vii. ratio in pictura ad incisuras,
hoc est umbras dividendas ab lumine. est et \dlissi-
mum ^ genus lomenti, quod ^ tritum vocant, quinis
assibus aestimatum.

Caerulei sinceri experimentum in carbone ut flagret ;
fraus viola arida decocta in aqua sucoque per linteum
expresso in cretam Eretriam. vis in medicina ut
purget ulcera; itaque et emplastris adiciunt, item

164 causticis. teritur autem difficillime. sil in medendo
leniter mordet adstringitque et explet ulcera.
uritur in fictilibus, ut prosit.

Pretia rerum, quae usquam posuimus, non ignora-
mus alia aliis locis esse et omnibus paene mutari annis,
prout navigatione constiterint aut ut quisque merca-
tus sit aut aliquis praevalens manceps annonam

^ §§ 162-163 numeri varie traduntur.

2 cyanon Brotier ex coni. Durandi: cylon B: V.ll. cyllon,
cylonon, cynolon.

3 V.ll. utilissimum, subtilissimum.

* V.l. quondam : quod dant edd. vett : quidara Hermolaus
Barharus.

I20

BOOK XXXIII. Lvii. 162-164

From blue is made the substance called blue wash,
which is produced by washing and grinding it.
Hhie wash is of a paler colour than blue, and it costs
10 denarii per pound, while blue costs 8 denarii.
Blue is used on a surface of clay, as it will not stand
lime. A recent addition has been Vestorian blue,
called after the man Vestorius who invented it ;
it is made from the finest part of Egyptian blue, and
costs 11 denarii per pound. Pozzuoli blue is
employed in the same way, and also near windows ** ;
it is called cyanos. Not long ago Indian blue or indigo.
indigo began to be imported, its price being 7
denarii ; painters use it for dividing-lines, that is,
for separating shadows from light. There is also a
blue wash of a very inferior kind, called ground blue,
valued at 5 asses.

The test of genuine Indian bhie is that when laid
on burning coal it should blaze ; it is adulterated by
boiling dried violets in water and straining the
Hquor through linen on to Eretrian earth.^ Its use
as a medicament is to clean out ulcers ; consequently
it is employed as an ingredient in plasters, and also
in cauteries, but it is extremely difficult to pound up.
Yellow ochre used as a drug has a gently mordant
and astringent effect, and fills up ulcers. To make
it beneficial it is burnt in earthenware vessels.

We are not unaware that the prices of articles
which we have stated at various points difFer in
different places and alter nearly every year, ac-
cording to the shipping costs or the terms on which
a particular merchant has bought them, or as some
dealer dominating the market may whip up the

" I.e. it does not lose its colour in the light.
* See p. 283, note k.

121

VOL. IX. E

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

flagellet, non obliti Demetrium a tota Seplasia
Neronis principatu accusatum apud consules ; poni
tamen necessarium fuit quae plerumque erant Romae,
ut exprimeretur auctoritas rerum.

« A district in the city of Capua occupied by druggists and
perfumers and sellers of pigments.

122

BOOK XXXIII. LVTT. T64

selling price ; \ve havc not forgotten that, undcr the
emperor Nero, Dcmetriiis was prosecuted before the a.d. 54-6H.
Consuls by the entire Seplasia.^ Neverthcless I
have found it necessary to state the prices usual
at Rome, in order to give an idea of a standard value
of commodities.

12^

BOOK XXXIV

LIBER XXXIV

I. Proxime dicantur aeris metalla, cui et in usu
proximum est pretium, immo vero ante argentum
ac paene etiam ante aurum Corinthio, stipis quoque
auctoritas, ut diximus. hinc aera militum, tribuni
aerarii et aerarium, obaerati, aere diruti. docuimus
quamdiu populus Romanus aere tantum signato usus
esset : et alia re ^ vetustas aequalem urbi auctorita-
tem eius declarat, a rege Numa coUegio tertio aerarium
fabrum instituto.

II. Vena quo dictum est modo foditur ignique
perficitur. fit et e lapide aeroso, quem vocant
cadmean, celebri trans maria et quondam in Campania,
nunc et in Bergomatium agro extrema parte ItaUae ;
ferunt nuper etiam in Germania provincia repertum.
fit et ex alio lapide, quem chalcitim appellant, in

^ alia re Mayhoff {qui ei alio coni.) : alta coni. lan : alia.

" The word aes usually means a prepared alloy of copper
and tin, that is, bronze; it also inchided brass (alloy of copper
and zinc). Much ancient aes contained lead. Pure copper
was properly called aes Cyprium. Note that native copper ore
or metallic copper is not common in the Old World, but the
ancients discovered that it could be produced artiiicially by
heating the much more plentiful oxides, sidphides, silicates,
and carbonates of copper.

^ The others were the CoUege of Priests and the College of
Augurs.

" Apparently mineral calamine and smithsonite = silicate
and carbonate of zinc ; cf. § 100.

126

BOOK XXXIV

I. Let oiir next subject be ores, etc., of copper Ba^e metah.
and bronze " the metals which in point of utility

have the next value ; in fact Corinthian bronze is Brome and

valued before silver and almost even before gold ; '^^pp^-

and bronze is also the standard of payments in

money as we have said : hence aes is embodied in the xxxiii.

terms denoting the pay of soldiers, the treasury *^' ^^^*

paymasters and the pubHc treasury, persons held

in debt, and soldiers whose pay is stopped. We

have pointed out for what a long time the Roman xxxiii.

nation used no coinage except bronze ; and by ^^ *^^'

another fact antiquity shows that the importance

of bronze is as old as the city — the fact that the

third corporation ^ established by King Numa was ^I^^^b r

the Guild of Coppersmiths.

II. The method followed in mining deposits of copper.
copper and purifying the ore by firing is that which

has been stated. The metal is also got from a xxxii.
coppery stone called by a Greek name cadmea,^ a ^*' ^^^"
kind in high repute coming from overseas and also
formerly found in Campania and at the present day
in the territory of Bergamo on the farthest confines
of Italy ; and it is also reported to have been
recently found in the province ^ of Germany. In
Cyprus, where copper was first discovered, it is also

** Only the region of the left bank of the Rhine is meant.

127

PLINY; NATURAL HISTORY

Cypro, ubi prima aeris inventio, mox vilitas praeci-
pua reperto in aliis terris praestantiore maximeque
aurichalco, quod praecipuam bonitatem admira-
tionemque diu optinuit nec reperitur longo iam

3 tempore effeta tellure. proximum bonitate fuit
Sallustianum in Ceutronum Alpino tractu, non longi
et ipsum aevi, successitque ei Livianum in Gallia.
utrumque a metallorum dominis appellatum, illud ab

4 amico divi Augusti, hoc a coniuge. velocis defectus
Livianum quoque ; certe admodum exiguum inveni-
tur. summa gloriae nunc in Marianum conversa,
quod et Cordubense dicitur. hoc a Liviano cad-
mean maxime sorbet et aurlchalci bonitatem imitatur
in sestertiis dupondiariisque, Cyprio suo assibus
contentis. et hactenus nobilitas in aere naturali ^ se
habet.

5 III. Reliqua genera cura constant, quae suis locis
reddentur, summa claritate ante omnia indicata.
quondam aes confusum auro argentoque miscebatur,
et tamen ars pretiosior erat; nunc incertum est,
peior haec sit an materia, mirumque, cum ad infinitum
operum pretia creverint, auctoritas artis extincta est.

^ naturali coni. Mayhoff: naturalis.

« See§ 117, note.

^ Aurichalcum, the right word being probably orichalcum =
6p€LX"^^Kos, ' mountain-copper,' that is yellow copper ore and
the brass made from it.

« Named after the great Marius (155-86 b.c).

128

BOOK XXXIV. II. 2-III. 5

obtained from another stone also, called chalcitis,'*
copper ore ; this was however afterwards of ex-
ceptionally low value when a better copper was
found in other countries, and especially gold-copper,^
which long maintained an outstanding quality and
popularity, but which for a long time now has not
been found, the ground being exhausted. The next
in quality was the Salhistius copper, occurring in the
Alpine region of Haute Savoie, though this also only
lasted a short time ; and after it came the Livia
copper in Gaul : each was named from the ov>ners
of the mines, the former from the friend of Augustus
and the latter from his vdfe. Livia copper also
quickly gave out : at all events it is found in very
small quantity. The highest reputation has now
gone to the ^Larius ^ copper, also called Cordova
copper; next to the Livia variety this kind most
readily absorbs cadmea and reproduces the excellence
of gold-copper in making sesterces and double-«5
pieces, the single as having to be content with its
proper Cyprus copper. That is the extent of the
high quality contained in natural bronze and copper.
IIL The remaining kinds are made artificially,
and wiW be described in their proper places, the
most distinguished sorts being indicated first of all.
Formerly copper used to be blended ^\nth a mixture
of gold and silver, and nevertheless artistry was
valued more highly than the metal; but nowadays
it is a doubtful point whether the workmanship or
the material is worse, and it is a surprising thing
that, though the prices paid for these works of art
have grown beyond all limit, the importance attached
to this craftsmanship of working in metals has
quite disappeared. For this, which formerly used

129

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

([uaestiis enim causa, ut omnia, exerceri coepta est
(juae gloriae solebat — ideo etiam deorum adscripta
operi, cum proceres gentium claritatem et hac via
quaererent — , adeoque exolevit fundendi aeris pre-
tiosi ratio, ut iam diu ne fortuna quidem in ea re ius
artis habeat.

6 Ex illa autem antiqua gloria Corinthium maxime
laudatur. hoc casus miscuit Corintho, cum caperetur,
incensa, mireque circa id multorum adfectatio
furuit,^ quippe cum tradatur non alia de causa
\^errem, quem M. Cicero damnaverat, proscriptum
cum eo ab Antonio, quoniam ^ Corinthiis cessurum
se ei negavisset. ac mihi maior pars eorum simulare
eam scientiam videtur ad segregandos sese a ceteris
magis quam intelk^ere aliquid ibi suptilius ; et

7 hoc paucis docebo. Corinthus capta est olympiadis
CLviii anno tertio, nostrae urbis dcviii, cum ante
haec saecula ^ fictores nobiles esse desissent, quorum
isti omnia signa hodie Corinthia appellant. qua-
propter ad coarguendos eos ponemus artificum
aetates ; nam urbis nostrae annos ex supra dicta
comparatione olympiadum colligere facile erit.

^ furuit Warmington : furit Sillig, lan : fuerit ahl. (fuit
cd. Par. 6801).

^ quoniam .
quam rell. (quam quod cd. Par. 6801).

^ saeculo quid. ap. Dalecamp.

* I.e. Hephaestus or Vulcan.
" Or ' has won praise normally due to art.'
" Corinth was destroyed by the Roman forces under
Mummius 146 b.c.

130

BOOK XXXIV. III. 5-7

to be practised for the sake of glory — consequently
it was even attributed to the workmanship of gods,**
and the leading men of all the nations used to seek
for reputation by this method also — has now, Hke
everything else, begun to be practised for the sake
of gain ; and the method of casting costly works of
art in bronze has so gone out that for a long time now
not even hick in this matter has had the privilege of
producing art.^

Of the bronze which was renowned in early days, CorintMm
the Corinthian is the most highly praised. This is a ^^'^-
compound that was produced by accident, when
Corinth was burned <^ at the time of its capture ;
and there has been a wonderful mania among many
people for possessing this metal — in fact it is recorded
that Verres, whose conviction Marcus Cicero had 7ob.c.
procured, was, together with Cicero, proscribed by
Antony for no other reason than because he had 43 b.o.
refused to give up to Antony some pieces of
Corinthian ware ; and to me the majority of these
collectors seem only to make a pretence of being
connoisseurs, so as to separate themselves from the
multitude, rather than to have any exceptionally
refined insight in this matter ; and this I will briefly
show. Corinth was taken in the third year of the
158th Olympiad, which was the 608th year of our i^g ^q^
city, when for ages there had no longer been any
famous artists iii metalwork ; yet these persons
designate all the specimens of their work as
Corinthian bronzes. In order therefore to refute
them we will state the periods to which these artists
belong ; of course it will be easy to turn the Olym-
piads into the years since the foundation of our city
by referring to the two corresponding dates given

131

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

sunt ergo vasa tantiim Corinthia, quae isti elegan-
tiores modo ad esculenta transferunt, modo in
lucernas aut trulleos nuUo munditiarum dispectu.^

8 eius aeris ^ tria genera : candidum argento nitore
quam proxime accedens, in quo illa mixtura prae-
valuit ; alterum, in quo auri fulva natura ; tertium,
in quo aequalis omnium temperies fuit. praeter
haec est cuius ratio non potest reddi, quamquam
hominis manu est,^ at fortuna temperatur * in
simulacris signisque illud suo colore pretiosum ad
iocineris imaginem vergens, quod ideo hepatizon
appellant, procul a Corinthio, longe tamen ante
Aegineticum atque DeHacum, quae diu optinuere
principatum.

9 IV. Antiquissima aeris gloria Deliaco fuit, mer-
catus in Delo celebrante toto orbe, et ideo cura
officinis. tricliniorum pedibus fulcrisque ibi prima
aeris nobilitas, pervenit deinde et ad deum simulacra
effigiemque hominum et aliorum animalium.

10 V. Proxima laus Aeginetico fuit, insula et ipsa
eo,^ nec quod ibi gigneretur,^ sed officinarum tem-
peratura, nobiUtata. bos aereus inde captus in foro
boario est Romae. hoc erit exemplar Aeginetici

^ V.l. despectu.

* eius aeris Warmington : aeris coni. Mayhoff : eius.

^ manus est Mayhoff : manu faeta edd. vett. : manus et B:
manu sed aut raanus sed rell.

* V.l. temperamentum : temperatum C. F. W. Miiller.
^ eo Mayhoff : est.

* gigneretur Sillig : signetur aut gignens aut gimens.

" Or ' for the neatness of the workmanship.'
132

BOOK XXXIV. III. 7-v. 10

above. The only genuine Corinthian vessels are
then those which yoiir connoisseurs sometimes
convert into dishes for food and sometimes into
lamps or even washing basins, without nice regard
for decency.'* There are three kinds of this sort of
bronze : a white variety, coming very near to silver
in brilliance, in which the alloy of silver predominates ;
a second kind, in which the yellow quality of gold
predominates, and a third kind in which all the metals
were blended in equal proportions. Besides these
there is another mixture the formula for which
cannot be given, although it is man's handiwork ;
but the bronze valued in portrait statues and others
for its peculiar colour, approaching the appearance
of liver and consequently called by a Greek name
' hepatizon ' meaning ' liverish,' is a blend produced
by luck ; it is far behind the Corinthian blend, yet
a long w^ay in front of the bronze of Aegina and that
of Delos which long held the first rank.

IV. The Dehan bronze was the earliest to become DeHan
famous, the whole world thronging the markets ^'"'^^-
in Delos ; and hence the attention paid to the
processes of making it. It was at Delos that bronze
first came into prominence as a material used for

the feet and framework of dining-couches, and later
it came to be employed also for images of the gods
and statues of men and other living things.

V. The next most famous bronze was the Aeginetm
Aeginetan ; and the island of Aegina itself became ^'"''^-
celebrated for it, though not because the metal
copper was mined there but because of the com-
pounding done in the workshops. A bronze ox
looted from Aegina stands in the cattle-market at
Rome, and will serve as a specimen of Aegina bronze,

^33

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

aeris, Deliaci aiitem luppiter in Capitolio in lovis
Tonantis aede. illo aere Myron usus est, hoc Poly-
cletus, aequales ate|ue condiscipuli ; sic ^ aemulatio
et in materia fuit.

VI. Privatim Aegina candelabrorum superficiem

1 1 dumtaxat elaboravit, sicut Tarentum scapos. in iis
ergo iuncta commendatio officinarum est. nec
pudet tribunorum militarium salariis emere, cum
ipsum nomen a candelarum lumine inpositum
appareat. accessio candelabri talis fuit Theonis
iussu praeconis Clesippus fuUo gibber et praeterea
et alio foedus aspectu, emente id Gegania hs l.
eadem ostentante in convivio empta ludibrii causa

12 nudatus atque inpudentia ^ libidinis receptus in
torum, mox in testamentum, praedives numinum
vice illud candelabrum coluit et hanc Corinthiis
fabulam adiecit, vindicatis tamen moribus nobili
sepulchro, per quod aeterna supra terras Geganiae
dedecoris memoria duraret. sed cum esse nulla

1 sic Mayhoff : sit B^ : sed.

2 impotentia Gelen.

« Built in 22 b.c.

" Myron fl. c. 475 B.c, Polyclitus c. 435. See pp. 168-171 .
«= I.e. the sockets holding the eandles, the other parts being
the stems and the {'eet.

BOOK XXXIV. V. lo-vi. 12

while that of Delos is seen in the Zeus or
Jupiter in the temple ** of Jupiter the Thunderer
on the Capitol. Aegina bronze was used hy
Myron and that from Delos by Polyclitus, who
were contemporaries ^ and fellow-pupils ; thus there
was rivalry between them even in their choice of
materials.

VI. Aegina specialized in producing only the rhandeiiers.
upper parts " of chandeliers, and similarly Taranto
made only the stems, and consequently credit
for manufacture is, in the matter of these articles,
shared between these two locaUties. Nor are people
ashamed to buy these at a price equal to the
pay of a military tribune, although they clearly
take even their name from the hghted candles they
carry. At the sale of a chandelier of this sort by the
instructions of the auctioneer (named Theon) selling it
there was thrown in as part of the bargain the fuller
Clesippus a humpback and also of a hideous appear-
ance in other respects besides, the lot being bought by
a woman named Gegania for 50,000 sesterces. This
woman gave a party to show off her purchases, and
for the mockery of the guests the man appeared
with no clothes on ; his mistress conceiving an
outrageous passion for him admitted him to her bed
and later gave him a place in her will. Thus be-
coming excessively rich he worshipped the lamp-
stand in question as a divinity and so caused this
story to be attached to Corinthian lampstands in
general, though the claims of morahty were
vindicated by his erecting a noble tombstone to
perpetuate throughout the living world for all time
the memory of Gegania's shame. But although it is
admitted that there are no lampstands made of

135

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Corinthia candelabra constet, nomen id praecipue in
his celebratur, quoniam Mummi victoria Corinthum
quidem diruit, sed e compluribus Achaiae oppidis
simul aera dispersit.

13 VII. Prisci limina etiam ac valvas in templis ex
aere factitavere. invenio et a Cn. Octavio, qui de
Perseo rege navalem triumphum egit, factam
porticum duplicem ad circum Flaminium, quae
Corinthia sit appellata a capituUs aereis columnarum,
Vestae quoque aedem ipsam Syracusana superficie
tegi placuisse. Syracusana sunt in Pantheo capita
columnarum a M. Agrippa posita. quin etiam
privata opulentia eo modo usurpata est. Camillo
inter crimina obiecit Spurius Carvilius quaestor,
ostia quod aerata haberet in domo.

14 VIII. Nam triclinia aerata abacosque et mono-
podia Cn. ManUum Asia devicta primum invexisse
triumpho suo, quem duxit anno urbis dlxvii, L. Piso
auctor est, Antias quidem heredes L. Crassi oratoris
multa etiam tricUnia aerata vendidisse. ex aere
factitavere et cortinas tripodum nomine [et] ^ Delphi-
cas, quoniam donis ^ maxime Apolhni Delphico
dicabantur. placuere et lychnuclii pensiles in delubris

1 et Mayhoff : ac 5 : a cd. Leid. Voss. vi. 1 : om. rell.

2 donis cdd. pler. : ludis cd. Poll. : erat B : aeratae
Urlichs : eae lan : dono coni. Warmington.

136

BOOK XXXIV. VI. I2-VII1. 14

Corinthian metal, yet this name specially is commonly
attached to them, because although Mummius's
victory destroyed Corinth, it caused the dispersal of
bronzes from a number of the towns of Achaia at the
same time.

\ II. In early times the lintels and folding doors Various
of temples as well were commonly made of bronze. ^bnmze.
I find that also Gnaeus Octavius, who was granted a 169 b.o.
triumph after a sea-fight against King Perseus,
constructed the double colonnade at the Flaminian i67 b.o.
circus which owing to the bronze capitals of its columns
has received the name of the Corinthian portico, and
that a resolution was passed that even the temple of
\^esta should have its roof covered with an outer
coating of Syracusan metal. The capitals of the
pillars in the Pantheon which were put up by Marcus 27 b.o.
Agrippa are of Syracusan metal. Moreover even
private opulence has been employed in similar
uses : one of the charges brought against Camilhis 391 b.o.
by the quaestor Spurius CarviHus was that in his
house he had doors covered \vith bronze.

VIII. Again, according to Lucius Piso dinner-
couches and panelled sideboards and one-leg tables
decorated with bronze were first introduced by
Gnaeus ManHus at the triumph which he celebrated 187 b.o.
in the 567th year of the city after the conquest of
Asia ; and as a matter of fact Antias states that the
heirs of Lucius Crassus the orator also sold a number
of dinner couches decorated with bronze. It was
even customary for bronze to be used for making
the cauldrons on tripods called Delphic cauldrons
because they used to be chiefiy dedicated as gifts
to Apollo of Delphi ; also lamp-holders were popular
suspended from the ceihng in temples or with their

137

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

aut arborum mala ferentium modo lucentes, quale
est in templo Apollinis Palatini quod Alexander
Magnus Thebarum expugnatione captum in Cyme
dicaverat eidem deo.

15 IX. Transiit deinde ars vulgo ubique ad effigies
deorum. Romae simulacrum ex aere factum Cereri
primum reperio ex peculio Sp. Cassi, quem regnum
adfectantem pater ipsius interemerit. transiit et a
diis ad hominum statuas atque imagines multis
modis. bitumine antiqui tinguebant eas, quo magis
mirum est placuisse auro integere. hoc nescio an
Romanum fuerit inventum ; certe etiam nomen non ^

16 habet vetustum.^ effigies hominum non solebant
exprimi nisi aliqua inlustri causa perpetuitatem
merentium, primo sacrorum certaminum victoria
maximeque Olympiae, ubi omnium, qui vicissent,
statuas dicari mos erat, eorum vero, qui ter ibi
superavissent, ex membris ipsorum simihtudine

17 expressa, quas iconicas vocant. Athenienses nescio
an primis omnium Harmodio et Aristogitoni tyran-
nicidis pubUce posuerint statuas. hoc actum est
eodem anno, quo et Romae reges pulsi. excepta
deinde res est a toto orbe terrarum humanissima

^ nomen non B : romae non rell. : Romae nomen Sillig.
2 vetustum B : vetustatem rell.

* Dedicated by Augustus in 27 B.c.

* Probably to provide a protective polish.
' From the Greek etVajv, etVojviKo?.

^ By Antenor. The conspiracv of Harmodius and Arisio-
geiton took place in 514-513 B.c. A marble copy of Critius' and
Nesiotes' later substitute still exists. See note on pp. 256-257.

138

BOOK XXXIV. VIII. 14-1X. 17

lights arranged to look like apples haiiginfy on trees.
like the specimen in the temple ° of Apollo of the
Palatine which had been part of the booty taken by
Alexander the Great at the storming of Thebes 335^ b.c.
and dedicated by him to the same deity at Cyme.

IX. But after a time this art in all places came to statues oj
be iisually devoted to statues of gods. I find that ^JTme!'*'
the first image of a god made of bronze at Rome
was that dedicated to Ceres and paid for out of the
propertv of Spurius Cassius who was put to death 485 b.c.
by his own father when trying to make himself king.
The practice passed over from the gods to statues
and representations of human beings also, in various
forms. In early days people used to stain statues
with bitumen,^ which makes it the more remarkable
that they afterwards became fond of covering them
with gold. This was perhaps a Roman invention,
but it certainly has a name of no long standing at
Rome. It was not customary to make effigies ofch-eekpor-
human beings unless they deserved lasting com- ""«''-*'<""*
memoration for some distinguished reason, in the
first case victory in the sacred contests and
particularly those at Olympia, where it was the
custom to dedicate statues of all who had won a
competition ; these statues, in the case of those who
had been victorious there three times, were modelled
as exact personal Hkenesses of the \dnners — what are
called iconicae,'^ portrait statues. I rather believe
that the first portrait statues^ officially erected at
Athens were those of the tyrannicides Harmodius
and Aristogeiton. This happened in the same year 510 b.c.
as that in which the Kings were also driven out
at Rome. The practice of erecting statues from
a most civilized sense of rivalry was afterwards

139

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ambitione, et in omnium municipiorum foris statuae
ornamentum esse coepere propagarique ^ memoria
hominum et honores legendi aevo basibus inscribi,
ne in sepulcris tantum legerentur. mox forum et in
domibus privatis factum atque in atriis : honos
clientium instituit sic colere patronos.

18 X. Togatae effigies antiquitus ita dicabantur.
placuere et nudae tenentes hastam ab epheborum e
gymnasiis exemplaribus ; quas Achilleas vocant.
Graeca res nihil velare, at contra Romana ac militaris
thoraces addere. Caesar quidem dictator loricatam
sibi dicari in foro suo passus est. nam Lupercorum
habitu tam noviciae sunt quam quae nuper prodiere
paenulis indutae. Mancinus eo habitu sibi statuit,

19 quo deditus fuerat. notatum ab auctoribus et
L. Accium poetam in Camenarum aede maxima
forma statuam sibi posuisse, cum brevis admodum
fuisset. equestres utique statuae Romanam cele-
brationem habent, orto sine dubio a Graecis exemplo.
sed illi celetas tantum dicabant in sacris victores,

^ propagarique B : prorogarique rell.

" Forum Caesaris or Forum Ivlhim was built by Julius
Caesar in the eighth region of the city, near the temple of
Janus and the old forura, which had become too small,

* Mancinus, consul 137 B.c, in a war with the Numantines
made a treaty which the senate refused to ratify, and he was
handed over to the enemy though they refused to receive
him, He seems to have regarded this as discreditable to the
senate but not to himself,

140

BOOK XXXIV. IX. 17-X. 19

taken up by the Avhole of the world, and the custom
proceeded to arise of having statues adorning the
pubHc places of all municipal towns and of per-
petuating the memory of human beings and of
inscribing lists of honours on the bases to be read
for all time, so that such records should not be
read on their tombs only. Soon after a pubhcity
centre was estabHshed even in private houses
and in our own halls : the respect felt by cHents
inaugurated this method of doing honour to their
patrons.

X. In old days the statues dedicated were simply ^^^^ «"«^
clad in the toga. Also naked figures holding spears, styies.
made from models of Greek young men from the
g}Tnnasiums — what are called figures of Achilles —
became popular. The Greek practice is to leave the
figure entirely nude, whereas Roman and miHtary
statuary adds a breastplate : indeed the dictator "^9-44 b.c.
Caesar gave permission for a statue wearing a cuirass
to be erected in his honour in his Forum." As for
the statues in the garb of the Luperci, they are
modern innovations, just as much as the portrait-
statues dressed in cloaks that have recently appeared.
Mancinus ^ set up a statue of himself in the dress
that he had wom when surrendered to the
enemy. It has been remarked by writers that the
poet Lucius Accius also set up a very tall statue of ^^'^' ^^
himself in the shrine of the Latin Muses, although
he was a very short man. Assuredly equestrian
statues are popular at Rome, the fashion for them
ha\ing no doubt been derived from Greece ; but
the Greeks used only to erect statues of winners
of races on horse-back at their sacred contests,
although subsequently they also erected statues of

141

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

postea vero et qui bigis vel quadrigis vicissent;
unde et nostri currus nati in iis, qui triumphavissent.
serum hoc, et in iis non nisi a divo Augusto seiuges,
sicut ^ elephanti.

20 XI. Non vetus et bigarum celebratio in iis, qui
praetura functi curru vecti essent per circum ;
antiquior cohimnarum, sicuti C. Maenio, qui devicerat
priscos Latinos, quibus ex foedere tertias praedae
populus Romanus praestabat, eodemque in consulatu
in suggestu rostra devictis Antiatibus fixerat anno
urbis ccccxvi, item C. DuilUo, qui primus navalem
triumphum egit de Poenis, quae est etiam nunc in

21 foro, item L. Minucio praefecto annonae extra
portam Trigeminam unciaria stipe conlata — nescio
an primo honore taU a populo, antea enim a senatu
erat, — praeclara res, ni frivoUs coepisset initiis.
namque et Atti Navi statua fuit ante curiam — basis
eius conflagravit curia incensa P. Clodii funere — ;

^ sicut et edd. vett. : aut Eugenie Sellers.

" For purposes wbich were not religious. For a dedication
of a six-horsed chariot in 189 b.c, cf. Livy, XXXMII. 35, 4.

^ For the surviving inscription of the Columna Rostrata see
Remains of Old Latin, IV, pp. 128-131.

" Famous augur under King Tarquinius Priscus (tradi-
tional dates 616-579 b.c).

X42

BOOK XXXIV. X. 19-X1. 21

winners with two-horse or four-horse chariots ;
and this is the origin of our chariot-groups in
honour of those who have celebrated a triumphal
procession. But this belongs to a late date, and
among those monuments it was not till the time
of his late lamented Majesty Augustus that
chariots with six horses occurred,^ and likewise
elephants.

XI. The custom of erecting memorial chariots Roman
with two horses in the case of those who held the •"'^^""-
office of praetor and had ridden round the Circus in a
chariot is not an old one ; that of statues on pillars
is of earlier date, for instance the statue of honour
of Gaius Maenius who had vanquished the Old 338 b.c.
Latins to whom the Roman nation gave by treaty
a third part of the booty won from them. It was in
the same consulship that the nation, after defeating
the people of Antium, had fixed on the platform the
beaked prows of ships taken in the victory over the
people of Antium, in the 416th year of the city of
Rome ; and similarly the statue to Gaius DuilHas,
who was the first to obtain a naval triumph over the 260 b.o.
Carthaginians — this statue still stands in the forum ^ —
and Hkewise that in honour of the praefect of markets
Lucius Minucius outside the Triplets Gate, defrayed 439 b.o.
by a tax of one-twelfth of an as per head. I rather
think this was the first time that an honour of this
nature came from the whole people ; previously it
had been bestowed by the senate : it would be a
very distinguished honour had it not originated on
such unimportant occasions. In fact also the statue
of Attus Navius ^ stood in front of the senate-house —
when the senate-house was set on fire at the funeral
of Publius Clodius the base of the statue was burnt 52 b.o.

143

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

fiiit ct Hcrmodori Kphesii in comitio, legum, quas
decemviri scribebant, interpretis, publice dicata.

22 alia causa, alia auctoritas M. Horati Coclitis statuae —
quae durat hodieque — , cum hostes a ponte sublicio
solus arcuisset. equidem et Sibyllae iuxta rostra
esse non miror, tres sint licet: una quam Sextus
Pacuius Taurus aed. pl. restituit ^ ; duae quas
M. Messalla. primas putarem has et Atti Navi,
positas aetate Tarquinii Prisci, ni regum anteceden-

23 tium essent in Capitolio, ex iis RomuH et Tatii sine
tunica, sicut et Camilli in rostris. et ante aedem
Castorum fuit Q. Marci Tremuli equestris togata,
qui Samnites bis devicerat captaque Anagnia popu-
lum stipendio Uberaverat. inter antiquissimas sunt
et Tulli Cloeli, L. Rosci, Sp. Nauti,^ C. Fulcini in
rostris, a Fidenatibus in legatione interfectorum.

24 hoc a re p. tribui solebat iniuria caesis, sicut aliis et

P. lunio, Ti. Coruncanio, qui ab Teuta IUyriorum

regina interfecti erant. non omittendum videtur,

quod annales adnotavere, tripedaneas iis statuas in

^ V.l. instituit.

2 naiitii B : Antii Caesarius coll. Liv. IV.17.

" I.e. Castor and Pollux : Suetonius records {Div. luL, 10)
that it was dedicated to both, but usually spoken of as the
Temple of Castor.

J44

BOOK XXXIV. XI. 21-24

with it ; and the statue of Hermodorus of Ephesus
the interpreter of the laws drafted by the decemvirs, 451-450 b.o
dedicated at the public cost, stood in the Assembly-
place of Rome. There was a different motive and
another reason — an important one — for the statue of
Marcus Horatius Cocles, which has survived even to 508 b.o.
the present day ; it was erected because he had
single-handed barred the enemy's passage of the
Bridge on Piles. Also, it does not at all surprise me
that statues of the Sibyl stand near the Beaked
Platforai though there are three of them — one
restored by Sextus Pacuvius Taurus, aedile of the
plebs, and two by Marcus Messalla. I should think
these statues and that of Attus Navius, all erected
in the period of Tarquinius Priscus, were the first, (6I6-579
if it were not for the statues on the Capitol of the ^-^'^
kings who reigned before him, among them the
figures of Romulus and Tatius without the tunic,
as also that of Camillus on the Beaked Platform.
Also there was in front of the temple of the Castors "
an equestrian statue of Quintus Marcius Tremulus,
wearing a toga ; he had t\\ice vanquished the
Samnites, and by taking Anagni delivered the nation c. 305 b.c.
from payment of war-tax. Among the very old
statues are also those at the Platform of Tullus
Cloelius, Lucius Roscius, Spurius Nautius, and Gaius
Fulcinius, all assassinated by the people of Fidenae 438 b.o.
when on an embassy to them. It was the custom
for the state to confer this honour on those who had
been wrongfully put to death, as among others
Publius Junius and Titus Coruncanius, who had
been killed by Teuta the Queen of the IUyrians. 230 b.o.
It would seem not to be proper to omit the fact
noted by the annals that the statues of these persons,

145

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

foro statutas ; haec videlicet mensura honorata
tunc erat. non praeteribo et Cn. Octavium ob
unum SC.i verbum. hic regem Antiochum daturum
se responsum dicentem virga, quam teiiebat forte,
circumscripsit priusque, quam egrederetur circulo illo,
responsum dare coegit. in qua legatione interfecto
senatus statuam poni iussit quam oculatissimo loco,
eaque est in rostris. invenitur statua decreta et
Taraciae Gaiae sive Fufetiae virgini Vestali, ut
poneretur ubi vellet, quod adiectum non minus
honoris habet quam feminae esse decretam. meri-
tum eius ipsis ponam annalium verbis : quod cam-
pum Tiberinum gratificata esset ea populo.

XII. Invenio et Pythagorae et Alcibiadi in
cornibus comitii positas, cum bello Samniti Apollo
Pythius iussisset fortissimo Graiae gentis et alteri
sapientissimo simulacra celebri loco dicari. eae
stetere, donec Sulla dictator ibi curiam faceret.
mirumque est, illos patres Socrati cunctis ab eodem
deo sapientia praelato Pythagoran praetulisse aut
tot aliis virtute Alcibiaden et quemquam utroque ^
Themistoch.

^ 8c B, cd. Leul. Voss. : scilicet rell.
^ utraque coni. Mayhoff.

" This is a mistake. This act was performed by C. Popillius
Laenas when Antiochus IV was on his 4th campaign against
Egypt.

^ In fact on an embassy to Syria connected with troubles
on the accession of Antiochus V (not IV).

" Oculalissimus is the • single word ' to which Pliny alludes
above, meaning ' most visible to the eye.'

^ It was in fact an enlargement of the original Senate-house.

* The Athenian chiefly responsible for Athens' sea-power
and the defeat of Xerxes by sea at Salamis in 480 B.c.

146

BOOK XXXIV. XI. 24 -XII. 26

crectcd in the forum, were three feet in height,
showing that this was the scale of these marks of
honour in those days. I will not pass over the case
of Gnaeus Octavius also, because of a single word
that occurs in a Decree of the Senate. When King
Antiochus IV said he intended to answer him,
Octavius "■ with the stick he happened to be holding
in his hand drew a line all round him and compelled
him to give his answer before he stepped out of the I68 b.c.
circle. And as Octavius was killed while on this 162 b.c.
embassy,^ the senate ordered a statue to be erected
to him * in the spot most eyed ' '^ and that statue
stands on the Platform. We also find that a decree
was passed to erect a statue to a Vestal Virgin named
Taracia Gaia or Fufetia ' to be placed where she
wished,' an addition that is as great a compliment as
the fact that a statue was decreed in honour of a woman.
For the N^estaFs services I will quote the actual words
of the Annals : ' because she had made a gratuitous
present to the nation of the field by the Tiber.'

XII. I also find that statues were erected to Greek
Pythagoras and to Alcibiades, in the corners of the
Place of Assembly, when during one of our Samnite
Wars Pythian Apollo had commanded the erection 343 b.c,
in some conspicuous position of an effigy of the
bravest man of the Greek race, and Hkewise, one
of the wisest man ; these remained until Sulla the
dictator made^ the Senate-house on the site. It so e.o.
is surprising that those illustrious senators of ours
rated Pythagoras above Socrates, whom the same
deity had put above all the rest of mankind in respect
of wisdom, or rated Alcibiades above so many other
men in manly virtue, or anybody above Themistocles «
for wisdom and manly virtue combined.

147

statues.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

27 Columnarum ratio erat attolli super ceteros mor-
tales, quod et arcus significant novicio invento.
primus tamen honos coepit a Graecis, nullique
arbitror plures statuas dicatas quam Phalerco
Demetrio Athenis, siquidem ccclx statuere, nondum
anno hunc numerum dierum excedente, quas mox
laceravere. statuerunt et Romae in omnibus vicis
tribus Mario Gratidiano, ut diximus, easdemque
subvertere Sullae introitu.

28 XIII. Pedestres sine dubio Romae fuere in
auctoritate longo tempore ; et equestrium tamen
origo perquam vetus est, cum feminis etiam honore
communicato Cloeliae statua equestri, ceu parum
esset toga eam cingi, cum Lucretiae ac Bruto, qui
expulerant reges, propter quos Cloelia inter obsides

29 fuerat, non decernerentur. hanc primam cum
Cochtis publice dicatam crediderim — Atto enim ac
Sibyllae Tarquinium, ac reges sibi ipsos posuisse
verisimile est — , nisi Cloeliae quoque Piso traderet
ab iis positam, qui una opsides fuissent, redditis a
Porsina ^ in honorem eius. e diverso Annius Fetialis

^ porsina B^ : porsena cd. Par. 6801 : porsenna rell.

" An Attic orator and statesman who lived c. 345-282 B.c,
and was exiled in 307 b.c. after a ten years' tyranny.

* The last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, was supported
against his republican enemies at Rome by Lars Porsena, the
Tuscan king of Clusium, who invaded Rome and seized the
Capitol, but withdrew after receiving twenty hostages.
Among them was a maiden Cloelia, who escaped, swam across
the Tiber and reached Rome, She was sent back to Porsena,
but he was so struck with her gallantry that he set her free
and allowed her to take back with her some of the other
hostages. The rape of Lucretia by Sextus Tarquinius led to

148

BOOK XXXIV. XII. 27-xiii. 29

The purport of placing statues of men on columns
was to elevate them above all other mortals ; which
is also the meaning conveyed by the new invention
of arches. Nevertheless the honour originally began
with the Greeks, and I do not think that any person
ever had more statues erected to him than Demetrius "
of Phalerum had at Athens, inasmuch as they set up
360, at a period when the year did not yet exceed
that number of days, statues however the Athenians
soon shattered in pieces. At Rome also the tribes „

n 1 T . X c • Koman

in all the districts set up statues to Marius statues.
Gratidianus, as we have stated, and Hkewise threw xxxiii.
them down again at the entrance of Sulla. 1^2.

XIII. Statues of persons on foot undoubtedly
held the field at Rome for a long time ; equestrian
statues also however are of considerable antiquity,
and this distinction was actually extended to women
with the equestrian statue of CloeUa, as if it were
not enough for her to be clad in a toga, although
statues were not voted to Lucretia and Brutus, who
had driven out the kings owing to whom Cloelia had 510-609
been handed over with others as a hostage.^ I ^"^"
should have held the view that her statue and that of
Cocles were the first erected at the pubHc expense — oos b.c.
for it is probable that the monuments to Attus and
the Sibyl were erected by Tarquin and those of the § 22.
kings by themselves — were it not for the statement
of Piso that the statue of CloeHa also was erected by
the persons who had been hostages with her, when
they were given back by Porsena, as a mark of
honour to her ; whereas on the other hand Annius
FetiaHs states that an equestrian figure which once

the expixlsion of the Tarquins by Brutus and his companions
and the estabUshment of the repubHcan government.

149

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

equestrem, quae fuerit contra lovis Statoris aedem
in vestibulo Superbi domus, Valeriae fuisse, Publi-
colae consulis filiae, eamque solam refugisse Tiberim-
que transnatavisse ceteris opsidibus, qui ^ Porsinae ^
mittebantur, interemptis Tarquinii insidiis.

M) XIV. L. Piso prodidit M. Aemilio C. Popilio
iterum cos. a censoribus P. Cornelio Scipione M.
Popilio statuas circa forum eorum, qui magistratum
gesserant, sublatas omnes praeter eas, quae populi
aut senatus sententia statutae essent, eam vero,
quam apud aedem Telluris statuisset sibi Sp. Cassius,
qui regnum adfectaverat, etiam conflatam a censori-
bus. nimirum in ea quoque re ambitionem provide-

81 bant illi viri. exstant Catonis in censura vocifera-
tiones mulieribus statuas Romanis ^ in provinciis
poni ; nec tamen potuit inhibere, quo minus Romae
quoque ponerentur, sicuti Corneliae Gracchorum
matri, quae fuit Africani prioris filia. sedens huic
posita soleisque sine ammento insignis in Metelli
publica porticu, quae statua nunc est in Octaviae
operibus.

32 XV. PubUce autem ab exteris posita est Romae
C. Aelio tr. pl. lege perlata in Sthennium Stallium

^ V.l. quae.

2 porsinae B^ : porsennae.

^ statuas romanis B : romanis statuas rell. (r. in p. statuas
cd. Par. 6801).

" Public buildings in Rome erected by Augustus on the
site of Metellus' colonnade built in 146 b.c. and named after
his sister Octavia. The basia of Cornelia's statue survives.

BOOK XXXIV. XIII. 29-xv. ^2

stood opposite the temple of Jupiter Stator in the
forecourt of Tarquinius Superbus's palace was the
statue of Valeria, daughter of Publicola, the consul,
and that she alone had escaped and had swum
across the Tiber, the other hostages who were being
sent to Porsena having been made away with by a
stratagem of Tarquin.

XIV. Lucius Piso has recorded that, in the
consulship of Marcus Aemihus and the second of 153 b.c.
Gaius Popilius, the censors Publius CorneUus Scipio

and Marcus PopiHus caused all the statues round the
forum of men Mho had held office as magistrates to be
removed excepting those that had been set up by a
resolution of the people or the Senate, while the
statue which Spurius Cassius, who had aspired to 485 b.c.
monarchy, had erected in his own honour before the
temple of the Earth was actually melted down by
censors : obviously the men of those days took
precautions against ambition in the matter of statues
also. Some declamatory utterances made by Cato
during his censorship are extant protesting against 134 e.c.
the erection in the Roman provinces of statues to
women ; yet all the same he was powerless to prevent
this being done at Rome also : for instance there is
the statue of CorneHa the mother of the Gracchi
and daughter of the elder Scipio Africanus. This
represents her in a sitting position and is remarkable
because there are no straps to the shoes ; it stood
in the public colonnade of Metellus, but is now in
Octavia's Buildings."

XV. The first statue publicly erected at Rome by
foreigners was that in honour of the tribune of the
people Gaius Aelius, for having introduced a law
against Sthennius Stallius the Lucanian who had

151

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Lucaniim, qui Thurinos bis infestaverat. ob id
Aelium Thurini statua et corona aurea donarunt.
iidem postea Fabricium donavere statua liberati
obsidione, passimque gentes ^ in clientelas ita ^
receptae, et adeo discrimen omne sublatum, ut
Hannibalis etiam statuae tribus locis visantur in ea
urbe, cuius intra muros solus hostium emisit hastam.

33 XVI. Fuisse autem statuariam artem familiarem
Italiae quoque et vetustam, indicant Hercules ab
Euandro sacratus, ut produnt, in foro boario, qui
triumphalis vocatur atque per triumphos vestitur
habitu triumphali, praeterea lanus geminus a Numa
rege dicatus, qui pacis bellique argumento colitur
digitis ita figuratis, ut ccclv ^ dierum nota * et aevi

34 esse deum indicent.^ signa quoque Tuscanica per
terras dispersa quin ^ in Etruria factitata sint,' non
est dubium. deorum tantum putarem ea fuisse, ni
Metrodorus Scepsius, cui cognomen a Romani
nominis odio inditum est, propter mm statuarum
Volsinios expugnatos obiceret. mirumque mihi

^ gentes cdd. : clientes Gelen : statuae edd. vett.
2 V.l. clientela sua : sunt edd. vett.
^ CCCLV edd, vett. : ccclxv.

* nota aut per significationem anni temporis cdd. : seclud.
aut . . . temporis Mayhoff.

* indicent B : indicet rell. : indicaret edd. vett.

* quin Detlefsen : quae quin Urlichs : quae.
' sint B : om. rell.

<» When he came up to the walls of Rome in 2n b.c. without
attacking the city.

* Presumably three fingers of one hand made III, the first
finger and thumb of that hand V, and the first finger and
second finger of the other band V, the thumb and the tbird
and Httle finger of that hand being bent and not counting.
The MSS. have 365 (which number was not vaUd until Caesar^s

152

BOOK XXXIV. XV. 32-x\'i. 34

twice made an attack upon Thurii ; for this the 289, 285 b.o
inhabitants of that place presented Aelius with a
statue and a crown of gold. The same people after-
wards presented Fabricius with a statue for having
rescucd thcm from a state of siege ; and various 283 b.o.
races successively in some such way placed them-
sehes under Roman patronage, and all discrimination
was so completely abrogated that even a statue of
Hannibal may be seen in three places in the city
within the walls of which he alone of its national
foes had hurled a spear."

XVI. That the art of statuary was famihar to itaiian
Italy also and of long standing there is indicated by "'«^'"^*-
the statue of Hercules in the Cattle Market said to
have been dedicated by Evander, which is called
* Hercules Triumphant,' and on the occasion of
triumphal processions is arrayed in triumphal vest-
ments ; and also by the two-faced Janus, dedicated
by King Numa, which is worshipped as indicating
war and peace, the fingers of the statue being so
arranged as to indicate the 355 ^ days of the year, and
to betoken that Janus is the god of the duration of
time. Also there is no doubt that the so-called
Tuscanic images scattered all over the world were
regularly made in Etruria. I should have supposed
these to have been statues of deities only, were it not
that Metrodorus of Scepsis, who received his sur-
name<^ from his hatred of the very name of Rome,
reproached us with having taken by storm the city
of Volsinii for the sake of the 2000 statues which it 264 b.o.
contained. And it seems to me surprising that

time). In such a case the VI could be represented by the
thumb and the first and second fingers of one hand.
" Misoromaeus, fiLaopojfialos, ' Roman-hater.'

VOL. IX. F

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

videtiir, cum statuarum origo tam vetus Italiae
sit, lignea potius aut fictilia deorum simulacra in
delubris dicata usque ad devictam Asiam, unde
luxuria.

3o Similitudines exprimendi quae prima fuerit origo,
in ea, quam plasticen Graeci vocant,dici convenientius
erit ; etenim prior quam statuaria fuit. sed haec ad
infinitum effloruit, multorum voluminum opere, si
quis plura persequi velit; omnia enim quis possit?

86 (XVII.) M. Scauri aedilitate signorum MMM in scaena
tantum fuere temporario theatro. Mummius Achaia
devicta replevit urbem, non relicturus filiae dotem;
cur enim non cum excusatione ponatur ? multa et
Luculli invexere. Rhodi etiamnum m ^ signorum
esse Mucianus ter cos. prodidit, nec pauciora Athenis,
Olympiae, Delphis superesse creduntur. quis ista

M mortalium persequi possit aut quis usus noscendi
intellegatur ? insignia maxime et aliqua de causa
notata voluptarium sit attigisse artificesque cele-
bratos nominavisse, singulonmi quoque inexplicabili
multitudine, cum Lysippus md opera fecisse prodatur,
tantae omnia artis, ut claritatem possent dare vel
singula : numerum apparuisse defuncto eo, cum

^ in Mayhojf : tria milia al. Par. 6801 : Lxxni aut Lxxiii

rell.

" See p. 110, notes.

* L. Licinius Lucullus, consul 74 b.c, and iiis brother M.,
consul 73 B.c.

^54

BOOK XXXIV. XVI. 34-xvii. 37

although the initiation of statuary in Italy dates
so far back, the images of the gods dedicated in the
shrines should have been more usually of wood or
terracotta right down to the conquest of Asia,*^ which
introduced luxury here.

What was the first origin of representing likenesses Popuianty
in the round will be more suitably discussed when %onze^^^ "''
we are deaHng with the art for which the Greek statuary.
term is * plastice ' plastic, as that was earlier than sqq.
the art of bronze statuary. But the latter has
flourished to an extent passing all limit and offers a
subject that would occupy many volumes if one
wanted to give a rather extensive account of it —
for as for a completely exhaustive account, who
could achieve that ? (XVII.) In the aedileship of 58 b.c.
Marcus Scaurus there w^ere 3000 statues on the stage
in what was only a temporary theatre. Mummius
after conquering Achaia filled the city with statues, i46 b.c.
though destined not to leave enough at his death to
provide a dowry for his daughter — for why not
mention this as well as the fact that excuses it ? A
great many were also imported by the LucuIIi.^
Yet it is stated by Mucianus who was three times a.d. 52, 70.
consul that there are still 3000 statues at Rhodes, ^^'
and no smaller number are believed still to exist at
Athens, Olympia and Delphi. What mortal man
could recapitulate them all, or what value can be
felt in such information ? Still it may give pleasure
just to allude to the most remarkable and to name
the artists of celebrity, though it would be impossible
to enumerate the total number of the works of each, Lysippus.
inasmuch as Lysippus is said to have executed 1500 ^f^r
works of art, all of them so skilful that each of them ■ithcentury
by itself might have made him famous ; the number ^"^*

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

thesaiirum effregisset heres ; solitum enim ex mani-
pretio cuiusque signi denarios seponere aureos
singulos.

38 Evecta supra humanam fidem ars est successu,
mox et audacia. in argumentum successus unum
exemplum adferam, nec deorum hominumve simili-
tudinis expressae. aetas nostra vidit in Capitolio,
priusquam id novissime conflagraret a Vitellianis
incensum, in cella lunonis canem ex aere volnus
suum lambentem, cuius eximium miraculum et

. indiscreta veri similitudo non eo solum intellegitur,
quod ibi dicata fuerat, verum et satisdatione ; nam
quoniam summa nuUa par videbatur, capite tutelarios

39 cavere pro ea institutum publice fuit. (XVIII.)
audaciae innumera sunt exempla. moles quippe
excogitatas videmus statuarum, quas colossaeas
vocant, turribus pares. talis est in Capitolio Apollo,
tralatus a M. Lucullo ex ApoUonia Ponti urbe, xxx

40 cubitorum, d ^ talentis factus ; talis in campo Martio
luppiter, a ^ Claudio Caesare dicatus, qui devoratur
Pompeiani theatri vicinitate ; talis et Tarenti
factus a Lysippo, xl cubitorum. mirum in eo quod
manu, ut ferunt, mobilis ea ratio libramenti est, ut
nullis convellatur procellis. id quidem providisse
et artifex dicitur modico intervallo. unde maxime

1 D cdd. : L Overbeck : CL e//</. vett. {recte ?).

^ a, B, cd. Par. G801 : aulo rell. : a divo Gronov.

" No doubt a araTrjp.

** This figure seems too large.

" Lit. ' is swallowed up by.'

IS6

BOOK XXX1\'. XVII. 37-xviii. 40

is said to have been discovered after his decease,
wheii his heir broke open his cofFers, it having been
his practice to put aside a coin'^ of the value of one
gold denarius out of what he got as reward for his
handicraft for each statue.

The art rose to incredible heights in success
and afterwards in boldness of design. To prove its
success I will adduce one instance, and that not of a
representation of either a god or a man : our own
generation saw on the Capitol, before it last went up a.d. 69.
in flames burnt at the hands of the adherents of
VitelUus, in the shrine of Juno, a bronze figure of a
hound hcking its wound, the miraculous excellence
and absolute truth to life of which is shown not only
by the fact of its dedication in that place but also
by the method taken for insuring it ; for as no sum
of money seemed to equal its value, the goverimient
enacted that its custodians should be answerable for
its safety with their hves. (XVHI.) Of boldness of
design the examples are innumerable. We see
enormously huge statues de\-ised, what are called Coiossai
Colossi, as large as towers. Such is the Apollo on
the Capitol, brought over by Marcus Lucullus from 73 b.o.
Apollonia, a city of Pontus, 45 ft. high, which cost
500 ^ talents to make ; or the Jupiter which the
Emperor Claudius dedicated in the Campus Martius,
which is dwarfed <^ by the proximity of the theatre
of Pompey ; or the 60 ft. high statue at Taranto
made by Lysippus. The remarkable thing in the
case of the last is that though it can be moved by
the hand, it is so nicely balanced, so it is said, that
it is not dislodged from its place by any storms.
This indeed, it is said. the artist himself provided
against by erecting a column a short distance from

157

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

riatum opus erat frangi, opposita columna. itaque
magnitudinem propter difficultatemque moliendi ^
non attigit eum Fabius Verrucosus, cum Herculem,

41 qui est in Capitolio, inde transferret. ante omnes
autem in admiratione fuit Solis colossus Rhodi,
quem fecerat Chares Lindius, Lysippi supra dicti
discipulus. Lxx cubitorum altitudinis fuit hoc simula-
crum, post lxvi ^ annum terrae motu prostratum,
sed iacens quoque miraculo est. pauci pollicem eius
amplectuntur, maiores sunt digiti quam pleraeque
statuae. vasti specus hiant defractis membris ;
spectantur intus magnae mohs saxa, quorum pondere
stabihverat eum constituens. duodecim annis tra-
dunt effectum ccc talentis, quae contigerant ex
apparatu regis Demetrii rehcto morae taedio

42 obsessa ^ Rhodo. sunt ahi centum numero in eadem
urbe colossi minores hoc, sed ubicumque singuh
fuissent, nobilitaturi locum, praeterque hos deorum
quinque, quos fecit Bryaxis.

43 Factitavit colossos et Itaha. videmus certe Tus-
canicum Apolhnem in bibhotheca temph Augusti
quinquaginta pedum a pohice, dubium aere mira-
bihorem an pulchritudine. fecit et Sp. Carvihus
lovem, qui est in Capitoho, victis Samnitibus sacrata

^ movendi B-.
* Lxvi B^ : LVi.

^ obsessa B : obesse a rell. (obsesso cd. Virul.) : obsessae
Sillig : del. edd. vett. (iletn rhodo).

« Demetriua Polioroetes. » Cf. § 34.

8

BOOK XXXIV. xviii. 40-43

it to shelter it on the side where it was most necessary
to break the force of the wind. Accordingly,
because of its size, and the difficulty of moving it
with great labour, Fabius Verrucosus left it alone
when he transferred the Heracles from that place 209 b.c.
to the Capitol where it now stands. But calling for
admiration before all others was the colossal Statue chares.
of the Sun at Rhodes made by Chares of Lindus, f^^^*'^
the pupil of Lysippus mentioned above. This Rhodes.
statue was 105 ft. high ; and, 66 years after its
erection, was overthrown by an earthquake, but c. 226 b.o.
even lying on the ground it is a marvel. Few
people can make their arms meet round the thumb
of the figure, and the fingers are larger than most
statues ; and where the limbs have been broken oft'
enormous cavities yawn, while inside are seen great
masses of rock with the weight of which the artist
steadied it when he erected it. It is recorded that
it took twelve years to complete and cost 300 talents,
money realized from the engines of war belonging to
King Demetrius'^ Mhich he had abandoned when he
got tired of the protracted siege of Rhodes. There 305-4 b.c.
are a hundred other colossal statues in the same city,
which though smaller than this one would have each
of them brought fame to any place where it might
have stood alone ; and besides these there were
five colossal statues of gods, made by Bryaxis.

Italy also was fond of making colossal statues. other
At all events we see the Tuscanic ^ ApoUo in the 7(Mues.
library of the Temple of Augustus, 50 ft. in height
measuring from the toe ; and it is a question whether
it is more remarkable for the quality of the bronze
or for the beauty of the work. Spurius CarviHus
also made the Jupiter that stands in the Capitol,

159

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

lege piignantibus e pectoralibiis eoriim ocreisque et
galeis. amplitudo tanta est, ut conspiciatur a
Latiari love. e reliquiis limae suam statuam

44 fecit, quae est ante pedes simulacri eius. habent in
eodem Capitolio admirationem et capita duo, quae
P. Lentulus cos. dicavit, alterum a Charete supra
dicto factum, alterum fecit . . . dicus ^ compara-
tione in tantum victus, ut artificum ^ minime pro-

45 babilis videatur. verum omnem amplitudinem sta-
tuarum eius generis vicit aetate nostra Zenodorus
Mercurio facto in civitate Galliae Arvernis per
annos decem, hs [cccc] ^ manipretii, postquam satis
artem ibi adprobaverat, Romam accitus a Nerone,
ubi destinatum illius principis simulacro* colossum
fecit cvis ^ pedum in ® longitudinem, qui dicatus
Soli "^ venerationi est damnatis sceleribus ilhus

46 principis. mirabamur in officina non modo ex
argilla similitudinem insignem, verum et de parvis
admodum surculis ^ quod primum operis instaurati
fuit. ea statua indicavit interisse fundendi aeris
scientiam, cum et Nero largiri aurum argentumque
paratus esset et Zenodorus scientia fingendi cae-

47 landique nulli veterum postponeretur. statuam Ar-

^ Prodicus coni. Sillig : Pythodicus Urlichs coll. § 85.
2 V .1. artificium.
^ ]cccc| lan : cccc.
'^ simulacro B : simulacrum rell.

^ cvis Detlefsen : cxix lan : cxixs Urlichs : cui
nouaginta (= cvixc) B : cui x aut alia rell.
^ in add. Mayhoff.
' soli B : solis rell.
" sublicis coni. Warmington.

" On the Alban Mount, ten miles from Rome.
* Only the last five letters of the name survive in MSS.
Another conjectured restoration is Pythodicus, cf. § 85-

l6o

BOOK XXXIV. xviii. 43-47

after defeating the Samnites in the war which they ^'jz b.o.

fought under a most solemn oath ; the metal was

obtained from their breastplates, greaves and

helmets, and the size of the figure is so great that it

can be seen from the temple of Jupiter Latiaris.^"

Out of the bronze filings left over CarviHus made

the statue of himself that stands at the feet of the

statue of Jupiter. The Capitol also contains two

much admired heads dedicated by the consul Publius 57 b.o.

Lentulus, one made by Chares above-mentioned

and the other by Prodicus,^ who is so outdone by

comparison as to seem the poorest of artists. But

all the gigantic statues of this class have been beaten

in our period by Zenodorus with the Hermes or zenodoms.

Mercury which he made in the community of the

Arverni in Gaul ; it took him ten years and the sum

paid for its maldng was 40,000,000 sesterces. Having

given sufficient proof of his artistic skill in Gaul he Mas

summoned to Rome by Nero, and there made the a.b. 54-68.

colossal statue, 106J ft. high, intended to represent

that emperor but now, dedicated to the sun after

the condemnation of that emperor's crimes, it is an

object of awe. In his studio we used not only to

admire the remarkable Ukeness of the clay model

but also to marvel at the frame of quite small tim-

bers ^ which constituted the first stage of the work

put in hand. This statue has shown that skill in

bronze-founding has perished, since Nero was quite

ready to provide gold and silver, and also Zenodorus

was counted inferior to none of the artists of old in

his knowledge of modelhng and chasing. When he

" A skeleton for the model; or, according to Eugenie
Sellers, slender wax tubes covering a wax model, wbich was
then cased in loam before bronze was poured in.

161

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

vernorum cum faceret provinciae Dubio ^ Avilo
praesidente, duo pocula Calamidis manu caelata,
quae Cassio Salano avunculo eius, praeceptori suo,
Germanicus Caesar adamata donaverat, aemulatus
est, ut vix ulla differentia esset artis. quanto maior
Zenodoro praestantia fuit, tanto magis deprehenditur
aeris obliteratio.

48 Signis, quae vocant Corinthia, plerique in tantum
capiuntur, ut secum circumferant, sicut Hortensius
orator sphingem Verri reo ablatam, propter quam
Cicero illo iudicio in altercatione neganti ei, aenig-
mata se intellegere, respondit debere, quoniam
sphingem domi haberet. circumtuHt et Nero prin-
ceps Amazonem, de qua dicemus, et paulo ante C.
Cestius consularis ^ signum,^ quod secum etiam in
proelio habuit. Alexandri quoque Magni taber-
naculum sustinere traduntur soUtae statuae, ex
quibus duae ante Martis Ultoris aedem dicatae sunt,
totidem ante regiam.

49 XIX. Minoribus simulacris signisque innumera
prope artificum multitudo nobilitata est, ante omnes
tamen Phidias Atheniensis love Olympio ^ facto ex
ebore quidem et auro, sed et ex aere signa fecit.

i Vibio cd. Par. 6801 : Duuio J. Klein.

2 consularis Laris Frohner.

3 syjhingera coni. Mayhoff: seclud. Urlichs.
* Olympio B : Olympiae rell.

" The reference is probably to statuettes, not medallions or
signet rings or brooches.

^ Apparently Pliny has made a mistake, because Alexander's
oK-qvT) was the canopy (supported by four golden statues of
Victory) of the chariot which carried AIexander'8 dead body
to Alexandria.

" Tn the forum of Augustus at Rome.

•* Near the temple of Vesta.

162

BOOK XXXIV. xviii. 47-xix. 49

was making the statue for the Arverni, vvhen the
governor of the province was Dubius Avitus, he
produced facsimiles of two chased cups, the handiwork
of Calamis, which Germanicus Caesar had prized
highly and had presented to his tutor Cassius Salanus,
Avitus's uncle ; the copies were so skilfully made that
there was scarcely any difference in artistry between
them and the originals. The greater was the emi-
nence of Zenodorus, the more we reaHze how the
art of working bronze has deteriorated.

Owners of the figurines " called Corinthian are Fiffurines.
usually so enamoured of them that they carry them
about with them ; for instance the orator Hortensius
was never parted from the sphinx which he had got
out of \erres when on trial ; this explains Cicero's tob.o.
retort when Hortensius in the course of an altercation
at the trial in question said he was not good at
riddles. * You ought to be,' said Cicero, * as you keep
a sphinx in your pocket.' The emperor Nero also ^i^- ^^^^-
used to carry about with him an Amazon which we
shall describe later, and a httle before Nero, the ^ ^2.
ex-consul Gaius Cestius used to go about with a
figurine, which he had with him even on the battle-
iield. It is also said that the tent ^ of Alexander
the Great was regularly erected with four statues
as tent-poles, two of which have now been dedicated
to stand in front of the temple ^ of Mars the Avenger '
and two in front of the Royal Palace.^

XIX. An almost innumerable multitude of artists Smaii
have been rendered famous by statues and figures ^aJjJ^^,
of smaller size ; but before them all stands the '^''"^^* .
Athenian Pheidias, celebrated for the statue of Bom c. 560
Olympian Zeus, which in fact was made of ivory and c.' 4508.0.
gold, although he also made figures of bronze. He

163

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

floruit autem olympiade lxxxiii, circiter ccc urbis
nostrae annum,^ quo eodem tempore aemuli eius
fuere Alcamenes, Critias, Nesiotes, Hegias, et deinde
olympiade lxxxvii Hagelades, Callon, Gorgias Lacon ;
rursus Lxxxx Polyclitus, Phradmon, Myron, Pytha-

50 goras, Scopas, Perellus.^ ex iis Polyclitus discipulos
habuit Argium, Asopodorum, Alexim, Aristidem,
Phrynonem, Dinonem,^ Athenodorum, Demean CH-
torium, Myron Lycium. lxxxxv olympiade floruere
Naucydes, Dinomenes, Canachus, Patroclus ; cii
Polycles, Cephisodotus, Leochares,* Hypatodorus ; ^
ciiii Praxiteles, Euphranor; cvii Aetion, Theri-

51 machus. cxiii Lysippus fuit, cum et Alexander
Magnus, item Lysistratus frater eius, Sthennis,^
Euphron, Sofocles,' Sostratus, lon, Silanion — in hoc
mirabile quod nullo doctore nobihs fuit ; ipse disci-
pulum habuit Zeuxiaden — ; cxxi Eutychides, Euthy-
crates, Laippus,^ Cephisodotus,^ Timarchus, Pyro-

52 machus.^*^ cessavit deinde ars ac rursus olympiade
CLVi revixit, cum fuere longe quidem infra praedictos,

1 V.L anno.

^ Perellus B : Perelius rell. : Perileus Tliiersch.

3 om. B.

•* Leochares Hermolaus Barharus (cf. § 79) : leuchares B :
leuihares aiit sim. rell.

^ Epatodorus Hermolaus Barharus.

^ Sthennis Herinolaus Barharus : thenis.

^ Euphron, Sofocles Loeivy : E., Eucles lan : euphron
fucles B : euphronicles aut -ides relL

* Dahippus Hardouin.

" Cephisodorus Gelen.
^" Phyromachus KeiL

° More exactly the 306th to the 309th year of the city of
Rome = 448-445 b.c.

^ In merit. For Critias the Marmor Parium has Critios.

164

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 49-52

flourished in the 83rd Olympiad, about ^ the 300th 448-145 b.c.

year of our city, at which same period his rivals ^ 454 b.c.

were Alcamenes, Critias, Nesiotes and Hegias ; and

hiter, in the 87th Olympiad there were Hagelades,*' 432-429 b.c.

Callon and the Spartan Gorgias, and again in the

90th Olympiad Polycleitus, Phradmon, Myron, 420-417 b.c.

Pythagoras,^ Scopas ^ and Perellus. Of these

Polycleitus had as pupils Argius, Asopodorus, Alexis,

Aristides, Phryno, Dino, Athenodorus, and Demeas

of Clitor; and Myron had Lycius. In the 95th 400-397 b.u

Olympiad flourished Naucydes, Dinomenes, Cana-

chus and Patroclus ; and in the 102nd Polycles, Cephi- 372-369 b.c

sodotus, Leochares and Hypatodorus ; in the 104-th 364-3G1 b.c.

Praxiteles and Euphranor ; in the lOTth Aetion 352-349 b.c.

and Therimachus. Lysippus / was in the 113th, the 327-324 b.c.

period of Alexander the Great, and hkewise his

brother Lysistratus, Sthennis, Euphron, Sophocles,

Sostratus, lon and Silanion — a remarkable fact in

the case of the last named being that he became

famous without having had any teacher ; he him-

self had Zeuxiades as his pupil — and in the 121st 295-292 b.c.

Eutychides, Euthycrates, Laippus,^ Cephisodotus,

Timarchus and Pyromachus. After that the art

languished, and it revived again in the 156th 156-153 b.o.

Olympiad, when there were the following, far

inferior it is true to those mentioned above, but

'^ The Greek form is Hagelaidas. He really flouxished
c. 515-485 B.c.

^ In fact MjTon^s best work was done before 450 b.c,
Pythagoras' before 475 B.c.

• In fact Scopas was stiU working in 350 b.c. unless we have
here an ekier Scopas.

f He was apparently working soon after 369 b.c.

9 Probably this should be Daippus as in § 87, cf. Paus. VI.
12, 6; 16, 35, AaiTTTTo?.

165

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

probati tamen, Antaeus,^ Callistratus, Polycles
Athenaeus, Callixenus, Pythocles, Pythias, Timocles.

53 Ita distinctis celeberrimorum aetatibus insignes
raptim transcurram, reliqua multitudine passim
dispersa. venere autem et in certamen laudatissimi,
quamquam diversis aetatibus geniti, quoniam fecerant
Amazonas, quae cum in templo Dianae Ephesiae
dicarentur, placuit eligi probatissimam ipsorum
artificum, qui praesentes erant, iudicio, cum ^
apparuit eam esse, quam omnes secundam a sua
quisque iudicassent. haec est Polycliti, proxima
ab ea Phidiae, tertia Cresilae,^ quarta Cydonis,
quinta Phradmonis.

54 Phidias praeter lovem Olympium, quem nemo
aemulatur, fecit ex ebore auroque * Minervam
Athenis, quae est in Parthenone stans, ex aere vero
praeter Amazonem supra dictam Minervam tam
eximiae pulchritudinis, ut formae cognomen acceperit.
fecit et cliduchum et aliam Minervam, quam Romae
Paulus AemiHus ad aedem Fortunae Huiusce Diei
dicavit, item duo signa, quae Catulus in eadem aede,
palhata et alterum colossicon nudum, primusque
artem toreuticen aperuisse atque demonstrasse
merito iudicatur.

1 Antheiis edd. vett.

2 tum 0. Jahn.

3 clesilae B : Ctesilae GeJen : Ctesilai Hardouin.
* auroque coni. 3Iayhoff: aeque.

" Some blunder has produced a new artist out of the name
Cydonia, Cresilas'8 birthplace.

* Perhaps Callimorphos, ' fair of form.'

' A priestess probably, but possibly Persephone.

i66

BOOK XXXIV. Mx. 52-54

nevertheless artists of repute : Antaeus, Callistratus,
Polycles of Athens, Calhxenus, Pythocles, Pythias
and Timocles.

After thus defining the periods of the most famous
artists, I will hastily run through those of out-
standing distinction, throwing in the rest of the
throng here and there under various heads. The
most celebrated have also come into competition
with each other, although born at different periods,
because they had made statues of Amazons ; when
these were dedicated in the Temple of Artemis of
Ephesus, it was agreed that the best one should be
selected by the vote of the artists themselves who
were present ; and it then became evident that the
best was the one which all the artists judged to be
the next best after their own : this is the Amazon
by Polycleitus, while next to it came that of Pheidias,
third Cresilas's, fourth Cydon's " and fifth Phradmon's.

Pheidias, besides the Olympian Zeus, which pheidias.
nobody has ever rivalled, executed in ivory and gold § ^^-
the statue of Athene that stands erect in the
Parthenon at Athens, and in bronze, besides the
Amazon mentioned above, an Athene of such ex-
quisite beauty that it has been surnamed the Fair.^
He also madc the Lady «^ with the Keys, and another
Athene which Aemilius Paulus dedicated in Romei67B.o,r
at the temple of Today's Fortune, and Ukewise a
work consisting of two stntues wearing cloaks which
Catulus erected in the same temple, and another 101 b.(
work, a colcssal statue undraped ; and Pheidias is
deservedly deemed to have first revealed the capa-
bilities and indicated the methods of statuary.<*

^ Here perhaps ali statuary as contrasted with painting ; or
else all metal-work only.

167

.0.

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

55 Polyclitus Sicyonius, Hageladae discipulus, dia-
dumenum fecit moUiter iuvenem, centum talentis
nobilitatum, idem et doryphorum viriliter puerum.
fecit et ^ quem canona artifices vocant liniamenta
artis ex eo petentes veluti a lege quadam, solusque
hominum artem ipsam fecisse artis opere iudicatur.
fecit et destringentem se et nudum telo ^ incessentem
duosque pueros item nudos, talis ludentes, qui
vocantur astragalizontes et sunt in Titi imperatoris
atrio — quo ^ opere nullum absolutius plerique iudi-
cant; — item Mercurium qui fuit Lysimacheae,

56 Herculem, qui Romae, hagetera * arma sumentem,
Artemona, qui periphoretos appellatus est. hic
consummasse hanc scientiam iudicatur et toreuticen
sic erudisse, ut Phidias aperuisse. proprium eius
est, uno crure ut insisterent signa, excogitaose,
quadrata tamen esse ea ait Varro et paene ad
exemplum.

57 Myronem Eleutheris natum, Hageladae et ipsum
discipulum, bucula maxime nobilitavit celebratis

^ del. et Urlichs functo post puerum sublato.

2 telo Benndorf : talo.

8 quo cd. Par. 6801 : hoc lan : duo. hoc B : om. rell.

* hagetera B : agetera rell. : alexetera Hardouin : Anteum
6 terra {om. arma) ed. vett.

" Of Argos, says Plato (Protag. 31 lc). But his family
moved to Sicyon. He cannot however have been a pupil of
Hagelades (§ 49). Copies of Polycleitus' Diadumenos and of
his Doryphoros are extant. Pliny confuses the great Poly-
cleitus with P. the younger, likewise of Argos, who Uved in
the 4th century b.c.

** We know however that this ' model statue ' or ' standard '
was the Doryphoros just mentioned.

* Or, ' in a single work embodied the principles of his art.'
P. wrote a treatise on art, called it Kav(xjv, then made his

i68

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 55-57

Polycleitus of Sicyon," pupil of Ha^elades, made a Pohjdenus
statue of the ' Diadumenos ' or Binding his Hair —
a youth, but soft-looking — famous for having cost
100 talents, and also the ' Doryphoros ' or Carry-
ing a Spear — a boy, but manly-looking. He also
made what artists call a ' Canon ' or Model Statue,^
as they draw their artistic outlines from it as
from a sort of standard ; and he alone of man-
kind is deemed by means of one work of art to have
created the art itself.^ He also made the statue of
the Man using a Body-scraper (' Apoxyomenos ')
and, in the nude, the Man Attacking with Spear,
and the Two Boys Playing Dice, Hkewise in the nude,
known by the Greek name of Asiragalizontes and now
standing in the fore-court of the Emperor Titus — a.d. 79-8I.
this is generally considered to be the most perfect
work of art in existence — and likewise the Hermes
that was once at Lysimachea ; Heracles ; the Leader
Donning his Armour, which is at Rome; and Artemon,*^
called the Man in the Litter. Polycleitus is deemed
to have perfected this science of statuary and to
have refined the art of carving sculpture, just as
Pheidias is considered to have revealed it. A dis-
coveiy that was entirely his own is the art of making
statues throwing their weight on one leg, although
Varro says these figures are of a square buikl and
almost all made on one model.

Myron, who was born at Eleutherae, was himself ^y/j^^
also a pupil of Hagelades ; he was specially famous
for his statue of a heifer, celebrated in some well-

Doryphoros on his own principles, and called the sculptured
work also Kavcjv.

^ A famous voluptuary (not the engineer of Pericles'
time).

169

c. 477

PLINV : NATURAI. HISTORY

versibus laudata, quando alicno plerique ingenio
magis quara suo commendantur. fecit et Ladam ^
et di^cobolon et Perseum et pristas ^ et Satyrum
admirantem tibias et Minervam, Delphicos penta-
thlos, pancratiastas, Herculem, qui est apud circum
maximum in aede Pompei Magni. fecisse et
cicadae monumentum ac locustae carminibus suis

58 Erinna significat, fecit et Apollinem, quem ab
triumviro Antonio sublatum restituit Ephesiis divus
Augustus admonitus in quiete. primus hic multi-
plicasse veritatem videtur, numerosior in arte quam
Polyclitus et in ^ symmetria dihgentior, et ipse tamen
corporum tenus curiosus animi sensus non expressisse,
capilhim quoque et pubem non emendatius fecisse,
quam rudis antiquitas instituisset.

59 Mcit eum Pythagoras lleginus ex Italia pancratiaste
Delphis posito ; eodem vicit et Leontiscum. fecit
et stadiodromon Astylon, qui Olympiae ostenditur,
et Libyn^ puerum tenentem tabellam^ eodem loco,
et mala ferentem nudum, Syracusis autem claudi-
cantem, cuius ulceris dolorem sentire etiam spectantes

^ Ladam Benndorf : canem. ^ pyctas Ldschke.

3 et in ald. : del. et Sillig.

* Libyn Ilermolaus Barharus: lybin B: lipin aut lympin
aut iolpum rell. ° tabellam B : tabellas rell.

" Ladas was a famoiis runner. But the !MSS. give canem,
'dog.' Copies of M^^ron^s Discoholos are extant.

^ It is possible that Pliny wrote ' the Boxers.'

''■ Probably a group of Marsyas and Athene, of which copies
exist.

<* Experts in both boxing and wrestling.

* This absurd statement is caused by a confusion of ^lvpwv
and a girl Mupci {Anth. Pal. VII. 190 — Myro makes a tomb
for her pet insect).

^ For another interpretation see E. Gardner, Classical Re-
vieu\ II. 69. " I>contisfns was an atliloto, not an artist.

170

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 57-59

known sets of verses — inasmuch as most men owe
their reputation more to someone else's talent than
to their own. His other works include Ladas "
and a * Discobolos ' or Man Thro^ving a Discus, and
Perseus, and The Sawyers,^ and The Satyr MarveUing
at the Flute and Athene,'' Competitors in the Five
Bouts at Delphi, the AU-round Fighters,*^ the
Heracles now in the house of Pompey the Great at
the Circus Maximus. Erinna ^ in her poems
indicates that he even made a memorial statue of a
tree-cricket and a locust. He also made an Apollo
which was taken from the people of Ephesus by
Antonius the Triumvir but restored to them by his
late lamented Majesty Augustus in obedience to a
warning given him in a dream. Myron is the first
sculptor who appears to have enlarged the scope
of reahsm, being more prolific in his art than
Polycleitus and being more careful in his propor-
tions./ Yet he himself so far as surface configura-
tion goes attained great finish, but he does not seem
to have given expression to the feeHngs of the mind,
and moreover he has not treated the hair and the
pubes vvith any more accuracy than had been
achieved by the rude work of olden days.

Myron was defeated by the Itahan Pythagoras pythagoras
of Reggio with his All-round Fighter which stands at <>/ ^f*^9'>^m.
Delphi, with which he also defeated Leontiscus^;
Pythagoras also did the runner Astylos which is on
show at Olympia ; and, in the same place, the
Libyan ^* as a hoy holding a tablet ; and the nude
Man Holding Apples, while at Syracuse there is his
Lame Man, which actually makes people looking
at it feel a pain from his ulcer in their own leg, and

* Mnascas of Cyrene. Paus. VI. 13, 7; 18, 1.

ryi

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

videntiir, item Apollinem serpentemque eius sagittis
configi/ citharoedum, qui Dicaeus appellatus est,
quod, cum Thebae ab Alexandro caperentur, aurum
a fugiente conditum sinu eius celatum esset. hic
primus nervos et venas expressit capillumque
dihgentius.

60 Fuit et aUus Pythagoras Samius, initio pictor, cuius
signa ad aedem Fortunae Huiusce Diei septem nuda
et senis unum laudata sunt. hic supra dicto facie
quoque indiscreta simiHs fuisse traditur, Regini
autem discipuhis et fiUus sororis fuisse Sostratus.

61 Lysippum Sicyonium Duris negat ulhus fuisse
discipulum, sed primo aerarium fabrum audendi
rationem cepisse pictoris Eupompi responso. eum
enim interrogatum, quem sequeretur antecedentium,
dixisse monstrata hominum multitudine, naturam

62 ipsam imitandam esse, non artificem. plurima ex
omnibus signa fecit, ut diximus, fecundissimae artis,
inter quae destringentem se, quem M. Agrippa ante
Thermas suas dicavit, mire gratum Tiberio principi.
non quivit temperare sibi in eo, quamquam imperiosus
sui inter initia principatus, transtuhtque in cubiculum
aUo signo substituto, cum quidem tanta pop. R.

^ configi lan : configit B : confici rell.

<» Named Cleon, a Theban poet. Athenae. I. 19b.

^ I.e. the statue afterwards restored the deposit entrusted
to it.

« It is now known that he was the same as P. of Reggio.
Paus. VI. 4, 3^ shows that P. of Reggio was the sculptor of
the statue of Euthynos ; but we have the basis of that statue,
whereon P. signs hiniself as ' Samian.' He must therefore
have migrated to Reggio.

<* ' Apoxyomenos.' The example in the Vatican is probably
by a .'ird century artist.

T72

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 59-62

ako Apollo shooting the Python with his Arrows,
a Man " playing the Harp, that has the Greek name
of The Honest Man ^ given it because when
Alexander took Thebes a fugitive successfully hid 335 b.c.
in its bosom a sum of gold. Pythagoras of Ileggio
was the first sculptor to show the sinews and veins,
and to represent the hair more carefully.

There was also another '^ Pythagoras, a Samian, Pyihagwxs
who began as a painter ; his seven nude statues now ^^ ^^^°^-
at the temple of To-day's Fortune and one of an old
man are highly spoken of. He is recorded to have
resembled the above mentioned Pythagoras so
closely that even their features were indistinguish-
able ; but we are told that Sostratus v>'as a pupil
of Pythagoras of Reggio and a son of this Pythagoras'
sister.

Lysippus of Sicyon is said by Duris not to have Lysippus.
been the pupil of anybody, but to have been origi-
nally a copper-smith and to have first got the idea of
venturing on sculpture from the reply given by the
painter Eupompus when asked which of his prede-
cessors he took for his model ; he pointed to a crowd
of people and said that it was Nature herself, not an
artist, whom one ought to imitate. Lysippus as we
have said was a most prolific artist and made more § 37
statues than any other sculptor, among them the Man
using a Body-scraper '^ which Marcus Agrippa gave
to be set up in front of his Warm Baths and of
which the emperor Tiberius was remarkably fond. a.d. 14-37.
Tiberius, although at the beginning of his principate
he kept some control of himself, in this case could
not resist the temptation, and had the statue re-
moved to his bedchamber, putting another one in
its place at the baths ; but the public were so

173

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

contuniacia fuit, ut theatri clamoribus reponi apoxyo-
menon flagitaverit princepsque, quamquam adama-

63 tum, reposuerit. nobilitatur Lysippus et temulenta
tibicina et canibus ac venatione, in primis vero
quadriga cum Sole Rhodiorum. fecit et Alexandrum
Magnum multis operibus, a pueritia eius orsus,
quam statuam inaurari iussit Nero princeps delectatus
admodum illa ; dein, cum pretio perisset gratia artis,
detractum est aurum, pretiosiorque talis existima-
batur ^ etiam cicatricibus operis atque concisuris,

64 in quibus aurum haeserat,^ remanentibus. idem
fecit Hephaestionem, Alexandri Magni amicum,
quem quidam Polyclito adscribant, cum is centum
prope annis ante fuerit; item Alexandri venationem,
quae Delphis sacrata est, Athenis Satyrum, turmam
Alexandri, in qua amicorum eius imagines summa
omnium similitudine expressit ; hanc Metellus
Macedonia subacta transtulit Romam. fecit et

65 quadrigas multorum generum. statuariae arti pluri-
mum traditur contulisse, capillum exprimendo,
capita minora faciendo quam antiqui, corpora
graciliora siccioraque, per quae proceritas signorum
maior videretur. non habet Latinum nomen sym-

^ V.l. existimatur.

2 fuerat B : haeserat rell.

" With the head encircled with rays.

^ This would be right, perhaps, if they meant the younger
P., unknown to Pliny.

*= Twenty-five officers who fell in the Battle of the Granicus.
Vellei. Paterc, I. 11, 3.

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 62-65

obstinately opposed to this that they raised an out-
cry at the theatre, shouting " Give us back the
' Apoccyovienos ' " — Man using a Body-scraper — and
the Emperor, although he had fallen quite in love
with the statue, had to restore it. Lysippus is also
famous for his Tipsy Girl playing the Fhite, and his
Hounds and Huntsmen in Pursuit of Game, but
most of all for his Chariot with the Sun belonging to
Rhodes.'' He also executed a series of statues of
Alexander the Great, beginning with one in 356-323 b.c.
Alexander's boyhood. The emperor Nero was so a.d. 54-68,
delighted by this statue of the young Alexander
that he ordered it to be gilt ; but this addition to its
money vakie so diminished its artistic attraction
that afterwards the gold was removed, and in that
condition the statue was considered yet more valu-
able, even though still retaining scars from the
work done on it and incisions in which the gold had
been fastened. The same sculptor did Alexander
the Great's friend Hephaestio, a statue which some
people ascribe to Polycleitus,^ although his date is
about a hundred years earlier ; and also Alexander's
Hunt, dedicated at Delphi, a Satyr now at Athens,
and Alexander's Squadron of Horse, in which the
sculptor introduced portraits of Alexander's friends <^
consummately lifelike in every case. After the con-
quest of Macedonia this was removed to Rome by 148 b.o.
Metellus ; he also executed Four-horse Chariots of
various kinds. Lysippus is said to have contributed
greatly to the art of bronze statuary by representing
the details of the hair and by making his heads
smaller than the old sculptors used to do, and his
bodies more slender and firm, to give his statues
the appearance of greater height. He scrupulously

175

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

metria, quam diligentissime custodiit ^ nova intacta-
que ratione quadratas veterum staturas permutando,
vulgoque dicebat ab illis factos quales essent homines,
a se quales viderentur esse. propriae huius videntur
esse argutiae operum custoditae in minimis quoque
rebus.

66 Filios et discipulos reliquit laudatos artifices
Laippum,^ Boedan, sed ante omnes Euthycraten,
quamquam is constantiam potius imitatus patris
quam elegantiam austero maluit genere quam
iucundo placere. itaque optume expressit Herculem
Delphis et Alexandrum Thespiis venatorem et
Thespiadas,^ proelium equestre, simulacrum ipsum
Trophoni ad oraculum, quadrigas complures, equum*

07 cum fiscinis,^ canes venantium. huius porro disci-
pulus fuit Tisicrates, et ipse Sicyonius, sed Lysippi
sectae propior, ut vix discernantur complura signa,
ceu senex Thebanus et Demetrius rex, Peucestes,
Alexandri Magni servator, dignus tanta gloria.

68 Artifices, qui compositis vohmiinibus condidere
haec, miris laudibus celebrant Telephanen Pho-

^ custodiit Mayhoff : custodit aut custodivit cdd.

2 Dahippum Hardouin.

3 et Thespiadas cd. Par. Lat. 6797 : om. thespiadas B :
om. et cd. Leid. Voss., cd. Flor. Ricc. : et thespiaduni al. Par.
6801.

* equitem coni. T. B. L. Webster. ^ fiscinis B : fuscinis rell.

<» See note on Laippus in § 51.

* Or ' his Heracles niade for Delphi, and his Alexander
Hunting, and his Thespiades (these two made for Thespiae).'
The Thespiades wero the Muscs.

'^ All MSS. except one give fuscinis, ' with Two-pronged
Spears.'

176

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 65-6S

preserved the quality of " symmetry (for which
there is no word in Latin) by the new and hitherto
untried method of modifying the squareness of the
figure of the old seulptors, and he used commonly to
say that whereas his predecessors had made men as
they really were, he made them as they appeared to
be. A pecuUariry of this sculptor's work seems to
be the minute finish maintained in even the smallest
details.

Lysippus left three sons who were his pupils, the Lynppus'
celebrated artists Laippus," Boedas and Euthycrates, ^'^^'
the last pre-eminent, although he copied the harmony
rather than the elegance of his father, prefemng to
\x\n favour in the severely correct more than in the
agreeable style. Accordingly his Heracles, at Delphi,
and his Alexander Hunting, at Thespiae, his group of
Thespiades,^ and his Cavalry in Action are works of
extreme finish, and so are his statue of Trophonius
at the oracular shrine of that deity, a number of
Four-horse Chariots, a Horse ^vith Baskets ^ and a
Pack of Hounds. Moreover Tisicrates, another Tisicrates.
native of Sicyon, was a pupil of Euthycrates, but
closer to the school of Lysippus — indeed many of his
statues cannot be distinguished from Lysippus's
vrork, for instance his Old Man of Thebes, his King
Demetrius (PoHorcetes), and his Peucestes, the man
who saved the life of Alexander the Great and so
deserved the honour of this commemoration.

Artists ^ who have composed treatises recording
these matters speak with marvellously high praise of
Telephanes of Phocis, who is othervvise unknown, TeUphanes.

^ Pliny means the writers Xenocrates of Sicyon and
Antigonus of Carystus, from whom, through Varro, much of
Pliny's material about art comes.

177

PLiNY: NATURAL HISTORY

caeiim, ignotum alias, quoniam ^ . . . Thessaliae^
habitaverit et ibi opera eius latuerint; alioqui
siifiragiis ipsorum aequatur PolycHto, Myroni, Pytha-
gorae. laudant cius Larisam et Spintharum penta-
thlum et Apollinem. ahi non hanc ignobilitatis
fuisse causam, sed quod se regum Xerxis atque
Darei officinis dediderit, existimant.

()9 Praxiteles quoque, qui ^ marmore fehcior, ideo et
clarior fuit, fecit tamen et ex aere pulcherrima opera :
Proserpinae raptum, item catagusam et Liberum
patrem, Ebrietatem nobilemque una Satyrum,
quem Graeci periboeton cognominant, et signa, quae
ante Felicitatis aedem fuere, Veneremque, quae ipsa
aedis incendio cremata est Claudii principatu,
marmoreae illi suae per terras inclutae parem,

70 item stephanusam,^ psehumenen,^ Oporan,® Harmo-
dium et Aristogitonem tyrannicidas, quos a Xerxe
Persarum rege captos victa Perside Atheniensibus
remisit Magnus Alexander. fecit et puberem
ApolUnem subrepenti lacertae comminus sagitta

1 lac. C. F. W. MuUer.

2 thessaliae B : in thessalia rell.
^ qui add. Mayhoff.

* Fortasse <se> stephanusam vel stephanusam <se>.

^ pseliumenen Urlichs, 0. Jahn : pselhimenen cd. Leid.
Voss. : varia rell.

* Oporan al. Flor. Ricc. : varia rell. (oporum cd. Par.
6801): oenophorum edd. vett.: canephoram Urlichs {imnio
canephorum).

" KaTayovGa, from KaTdyoj ' draw down,' ' spin.'

* The wreath would be one bestowed on an athlete by the

city (personified) when he won his victory; pseliumene is

from 0f AtcD, and 0eAtov means an armlet.

'^ Not the actual tyrant Hippias but his brother and assistant

Hipparchus, at Athens, 514-13 b.c.

178

BOOK XXXIV. xiv. 68 70

since he lived at . . . in Thessaly where his works
have remained in concealment, although these
writers' own testimony puts him on a level with
Polycleitus, Myron and Pythagoras. They praise
his Larisa, his Spintharus the Five-bout Champion,
and his Apollo. Others however are of opinion
that the cause of his lack of celebrity is not the
reason mentioned but his having devoted himself
entirely to the studios estabUshed by King Xerxes
and King Darius.

Praxiteles although more successful and therefore Praxiteies.
more celebrated in marble, nevertheless also made ' '^'
some very beautiful works in bronze : the Rape of
Persephone, also The Girl Spinning,'' and a Father
Liber or Dionysus, with a figure of Drunkenness and
also the famous Satyr, known by the Greek title
Periboetos meaning ' Celebrated,' and the statues
that used to be in front of the Temple of Happiness,
and the Aphrodite, which was destroyed by fire v/hen
the temple of that goddess was burnt down in the
reign of Claudius, and which rivalled the famous a.d- 41-54.
Aphrodite, in marble, that is known all over the
M-orld ; also A Woman Bestowing a Wreath, A
Woman Putting a Bracelet on her Arm,^ Autumn.
Harmodius and Aristogeiton who slew the tyrant ^ —
the last piece ^ carried oif by Xerxes King of the 4S0 .bc.
Persians but restored to the Athenians by Alexander 331 b.c.
the Great after his conquest of Persia. Praxiteles
also made a youthful Apollo called in Greek the
Lizard-Slayer ^ because he is waiting with an arrow

^ But the group carried off was by Antenor, and its
restoration is attributed also to Seleucus I, and to Antiochus I,
See note on pp. 256-257.

* Degenerate copies of this still exist.

179

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

insidiantem, quem sauroctonon vocant. spectantur
et duo signa eius diversos adfectus exprimentia.
flentis matronae et meretricis gaudentis. hanc
putant Phrynen fuisse deprehenduntque in ea
amorem artificis et mercedem in vultu meretricis.

71 habet simulacrum et benignitas eius ; Calamidis
enim quadrigae aurigam suum inposuit, ne melior
in equorum effigie defecisse in homine crederetur.
ipse Calamis et alias quadrigas bigasque fecit equis
semper ^ sine aemulo expressis ; sed, ne videatur
in hominum effigie inferior, Alcmena ^ nulHus est
nobiUor.

72 .Alcamenes, Phidiae discipulus, et marmorea fecit,
sed aereum pentathlum, qui vocatur encrinomenos ;
at Polychti discipuhis Aristides quadrigas bigasque.
Amphicrates ^ Leaena huidatur. scortum haec,
lyrae cantu famiharis Harmodio et Aristogitoni.
consiha eorum de tyrannicidio usque in mortem
excruciata a tyrannis non prodidit ; quam ob rem
Athenienses, et honorem habere ei volentes nec
tamen scortum celebrasse, animal nominis eius fecere
atque, ut intellegeretur causa honoris, in opere
Hnguam addi ab artifice vetuerunt.

^ equis semper cdd. (sem pari equis B) : se impari, equis
Trauhe.

2 alcumena cd, deperd. ap. Dalecamp : Achamene edd. vett. :
Alcman poeta Eugenie Sellers : alchimena aut alcm- cdd.
(alcamenet B^ : -me et B^).

^ iphicrates cd. Par. 6801 : Tisicratis Hardouin.

" Or, • received by her.' The exact meaning is not clear.

* Or perhaps : ' Undergoing the test ' for recognition as an
athlete.

' Hippias and Thessalus of Athens after the killing of their
brother, 514-13 b.c. ; c/. § 70 above, and note.

l8o

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 70-73

for a lizard creepin^ towards him. Also two of his
statues expressing opposite emotions are admired,
his Matron Weeping and his Merry Courtesan.
The latter is believed to have been Phryne and
connoisseurs detect in the figure the artist's love of
her and the reward promised him " by the expression
on the courtesan's face. The kindness also of
Praxiteles is represented in sculpture, as in the
Chariot and Four of Calamis he contributed the Caiamis.
charioteer, in order that the sculptor might not be
thought to have failed in the human figure although
more successful in representing horses. Calamis
himself also made other chariots, some with four
horses and some with two, and in executing the
horses he is invariably unrivalled : but — that it may
not be supposed that he was inferior in his human
figures — his Alcmena is as famous as that of any
other sculptor.

Alcamenes a pupil of Pheidias made marble figures, Aicamencs-
and also in bronze a Winner of the Five Bouts,
known by the Greek term meaning Highly Com-
mended,'' but Polycleitus's pupil Aristides made
four-horse and pair-horse chariots. Amphicrates is Amphicra/es.
praised for his Leaena ; she was a harlot, admitted
to the friendship of Harmodius and Aristogeiton
because of her skill as a harpist, who though put to
the torture by the tyrants ^ till she died refused to
betray their plot to assassinate them. Consequently
the Athenians wishing to do her honour and yet
unwilling to have made a harlot famous, had a statue
made of a lioness, as that was her name, and to
indicate the reason for the honour paid her instructed
the artist to represent the animal as having no

181

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

73 Brvc^^xis Aesculapium et Seleucum ^ fecit, Boedas
adorantem, Baton Apollinem et lunonem, qui sunt

74 Romae in Concordiae templo, Cresilas ^ volneratum
deficientem, in quo possit intellegi quantum restet
animae, et Olympium Periclen dignum cognomine,
mirumque in hac arte est quod nobiles viros nobiliores
fecit. Cephisodorus ^ Minervam mirabilem in portu
Atheniensium et aram ad templum lovis Servatoris
in eodem portu, cui pauca comparantur, Canachus

75 Apollinem nudum, qui Philesius cognominatur, in
Didymaeo Aeginetica aeris temperatura, cervumque
una ita vestigiis suspendit, ut linum ^ subter pedes
trahatur alterno morsu calce digitisque retinentibus
solum, ita vertebrato ungue ^ utrisque in partibus,
ut a repulsu per vices resiliat. idem et celetizontas
pueros, Chaereas Alexandrum Magnum et PhiHp-
pum patrem eius fecit, Ctesilaus doryphoron et

76 Amazonem vohieratam, Demetrius Lysimachen,
quae sacerdos Minervae fuit lxiiii annis, idem et
Minervam, quae mycetica ^ appellatur — dracones "^
in Gorgone eius ad ictus citharae tinnitu resonant ; —

^ Salutem Hardouin.

2 ctesilas cd. Leid. Voss. : Ctesilaus Hardouin.

^ Cephisodotus Hardouin.

* ut inlitum B.

^ ungue aut pede aut vertebrata ungula Warmington:
dente.

® mycetica Trauhe : myctica lan : mystica Frohner :
myetica B : musica rell.

' dracones B : quoniam dracones rell.

« Probably Seleucus I, King 312-280 b.c.

^ ' Olympian,' ' High and Mighty,' as Pericles himself was
callod during his lifctime. Copies of this, and the basis of the
original, still exist.

182

BOOK XXXIW XIX. 73-76

Bryaxis made statues of Asclepius and Seleucus,'* other
Boedas a Man Praying, Baton an ApoUo and a Hera, {cSw-*.
both now in the Temple of Concord at Rome.
Cresilas did a Man Fainting from Wounds, the
expression of which indicates how httle Hfe remains,
;ind the Olympian Pericles, a figure worthy of its
title ^ ; indeed it is a marvellous thing about the art
of sculpture that it has added celebrity to men
alreadv celebrated. Cephisodorus made the wonder-
ful Athene at the harbour of Athens and the
almost unrivalled altar at the temple of Zeus the
Deliverer at the same harbour, Canachus the naked
Apollo, surnamed Philesius, at Didyma, made of
bronze compounded at Aegina ^ ; and with it he
made a stag so Hghtly poised in its footprints as to
allow of a thread being passed underneath its feet,
the ' heel ' and the ' toes ' holding to the base \y\th.
alternate contacts, the whole hoof being so jointed in
either part that it springs back from the impact
alternately.^ He also made a Boys Riding on
Race-horses. Chaereas did Alexander the Great
and his father Phihp, Ctesilaus a Man with a Spear
and a Wounded Amazon, Demetrius Lysimache
who was a priestess of Athene for 64 years, and also
the Athene called the Murmuring Athene ^ —
the dragons on her Gorgon's head sound with a
tinkhng note when a harp is struck ; he Hkewise did

" Or, ' compounded on the Aeginetan formula.' Cf. § 10.

<* Pliny is not clear; the MSS. reading dente (' tooth ' not
' ivory ' ?) is altcred here to ungue by conjecture. Perhaps he
simply means that Avhen the figure was rocked to and fro, a
thread coukl be slipped under two feet. From coins we know
that the small stag was not on the ground but on the god'3
hand.

* The right reading is unknown.

183

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

idem equitem Simonem, qui primus de equitatu
scripsit. Daedalus, et ipse inter fictores laudatus,
pueros duos destringentes se fecit, Dinomenes

77 Protesilaum et Pythodemum luctatorem. Euphra-
noris Alexander Paris est, in quo laudatur quod
omnia simul intellegantur, iudex dearum, amator
Helenae et tamen AchiUis interfector. huius est
Minerva, Romae quae dicitur Catuliana,^ infra
Capitolium a Q. Lutatio dicata, et simulacrum Boni
Eventus, dextra pateram, sinistra spicam ac papa-
vera tenens, item Latona puerpera ApolHnem et
Dianam infantes sustinens in aede Concordiae.

78 fecit et quadrigas bigasque et cliduchon ^ eximia
forma et Virtutem et Graeciam, utrasque colossaeas,
mulierem admirantem et adorantem, item Alexan-
drum et Philippum in quadrigis ; Eutychides Euro-
tam, in quo artem ipso amne liquidiorem plurimi
dixere. Hegiae Minerva Pyrrhusque rex laudatur
et celetizontes pueri et Castor ac Pollux ante aedem
lovis Tonantis, Hagesiae in Pario colonia Hercules.

79 Isidoti 2 buthytes.* Lycius Myronis discipulus fuit,
qui fecit dignum praeceptore puerum sufflantem
languidos ignes et Argonautas ; Leochares aquilam
sentientem, quid rapiat in Ganymede et cui ferat,

^ Catulina Manutius.

2 clidnchon Hermolaus Barbarus : cliticon B : cliticum rell.

3 V.l. Isidori.

* Buthytes B : Buthyres rell. : Eleuthereus Hardouin.

" In Grcek 'Ayadrj Tvxrj. But it appears that the statue
was one of Triptolemus, re-named as a Roman rustic divinity.
* Cf. § 54.

" The river on which Sparta stood.

<* c. 318-272 B.c. But perhaps rez, king, should be deleted.
« Parium was made a Roman colony b}^ Augustus.

184

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 76-79

the moiinted statue of Simon who wrote the first
treatise on horsemanship. Daedalus (also famous
as a modeller in clay) made Two Boys using a
Body-Scraper, and Dinomenes did a Protesilaus and
the \\Testler Pythodemus. The statue of Alexander
Paris is by Euphranor; it is praised because it
conveys all the characteristics of Paris in combina-
tion — the judge of the goddesses, the lover of Helen
and yet the slayer of Achilles. The Athene, called
at Rome the CatuHana, which stands below the
Capitol and was dedicated by Quintus Lutatius 73 b.o.
Catulus, is Euphranor's, and so is the figure of
Success," holding a dish in the right hand and in the
left an ear of corn and some poppies, and also in the
temple of Concord a Leto as Nursing Mother, with
the infants Apollo and Artemis in her arms. He
also made four-horse and two-horse chariots, and an
exceptionally beautiful Lady with the Keys,^ and
two colossal statues, one of Virtue and one of Greece,
a V/oman Wondering and vVorshipping, and also an
Alexander and a PhiHp in four-horse chariots.
Eutychides did a Eurotas,*^ in v/hich it has frequently
been said that the work of the artist seems clearer
than the water of the real river. The Athene and
the King Pyrrhus ^ of Hegias are praised, and his
Boys Riding on Race-horses, and his Castor and
Pollux that stand before the temple of Jupiter the
Thunderer; and so are Hagesias's Heracles in our
colony ^' of Parium, and Isidotus's Man Sacrificing
an Ox. Lycius who was a pupil of Myron did a
Boy Blowing a Dying Fire that is worthy of his
instructor, also a group of the Argonauts ; Leochares
an Eagle carrying ofF Ganymede in which the bird
is aware of what his burden is and for whom he is

'85

VOL. IX. G

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

parcentenique ungiiibus etiam per vestem puero,^
Autolycum pancratii ^ victorem, propter quem
Xenophon symposium scripsit, lovemque illum
Tonantem in Capitolio ante cuncta laudabilem, item
Apollinem diadematum, Lyciscum,^ mangonem,^
puerum subdolae ac fucatae vernilitatis, Lycius

80 et ipse puerum suffitorem. Menaechmi vitulus
genu premitur repHcata cervice. ipse Menaechmus
scripsit de sua arte. Naucydes Mercurio et dis-
cobolo et immolante arietem censetur, Naucerus ^
kictatore anhelante,^ Niceratus Aesculapio et
Hygia,' qui sunt in Concordiae templo Romae.
Pyromachi quadriga ab Alcibiade regitur. Polycles
Ilermaphroditum nobilem fecit, Pyrrhus Hygiam

81 et Minervam, Phanis, Lysippi discipulus, epithyu-
san. Styppax Cyprius uno celebratur signo,
splanchnopte ; PericHs Olympii vernula hic fuit
exta torrens ignemque oris pleni spiritu accendens.
Silanion Apollodorum fudit, fictorem et ipsum, sed
inter cunctos dihgentissimum artis et iniquum
sui iudicem, crebro perfecta signa frangentem,
dum satiari cupiditate artis non quit, ideoque

82 insanum cognominatum — hoc in eo expressit, nec

^ puero B : puerum rell.

'^ pancrati B : pancratio rell.

^ lyciscum B : hiciscus rell. : Lyciscus Gelen.

* mangonem B : langonem vel lagonem rell.
^ Nauclerus coni. Hardouin.

" ]'./. luctatorem anhelantem (fecit add. edd. vett.).
' Aesculapio et Hygia coni. lan : aesculapium et hygiara
aut a.h. cdd. : Hygiam fecit Detlejsen.

° The bmiquet described in Xenophon's Symposium was
given by Callias in honour of AutoIycus's victory in the
pentathlum at the Great Panathenaea in 422 b.c.

* See § 74, note.

l86

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 79-82

carrying it, and is careful iiot to let his claws hurt
the boy even through his clothes, and Autolyciis
Winner of the All-roiind Bout, being also the athlete
in whose honour Xenophon wrote his Baiiquet^^ and
the famous Zeus the Thunderer now on the Capitol,
of quite unrivalled merit, also an Apollo crowned
with a Diadem ; also Lyciscus, the Slave-dealer,
and a Boy, with the crafty cringing look of a house-
hold slave. Lycius also did a Boy Burning Perfumes.
There is a Bull-calf by Menaechmus, on which a man
is pressing his knee as he bends its neck back ;
Menaechmus has written a treatise about his own
Mork. The reputation of Naucydes rests on his
Hermes and Man throwing a Disc and Man Sacri-
ficing a Ram, that of Naucerus on his Wrestler
Winded, that of Niceratus on his Asclepius and his
Goddess of Health, which are in the Temple of
Concord at Rome. Pyromachus has an Alcibiades
Driving a Chariot and Four ; Polycles made a famous
Hermaphrodite, Pyrrhus, a Goddess of Health and
an Athene, Phanis, who was a pupil of Lysippus, a
Woman Sacrificing. Styppax of Cyprus is known
for a single statue, his Man Cooking Tripe, which
represented a domestic slave of the Olympian ^
Pericles roasting inwards and puffing out his cheeks
as he kindles the fire with his breath ; Silanion cast
a metal figure of ApoUodorus, who was himself a
modeller, and indeed one of quite unrivalled devotion
to the art and a severe critic of his own work, who
often broke his statues in pieces after he had hnished
them, his intense passion for his art making him
unable to be satisfied, and consequently he was
given the surname of the Madman — this quahty he
brought out in his statue, the Madman, which

187

PTJNY: NATURAL HISTORY

hominen» t^\ aere fecit, sed iracundiani — et Achillem
nobilem, itcm epistaten exercentem athletas ; Stron-
^ylion Amazonem, quam ab excellentia crurum
eucnemon appellant, ob id in comitatu Neronis
principis circumlatam. idem fecit puerum, quem
amando Brutus Philippiensis cognomine suo inlus-

83 travit. Theodorus, qui labyrinthum fecit Sami,
ipse se ex aere fudit. praeter similitudinis mira-
bilem famam ^ magna suptilitate celebratur : ^ dextra
Hmam tenet, laeva tribus digitis quadrigulam
tenuit, tralatam Praeneste parvitatis ^ ut miraculum : ^
pictam ^ eam currumque et aurigam integeret alis
simul facta musca. Xenocrates, Tisicratis discipulus,
ut aUi, Euthycratis, vicit utrosque copia signorum.
et de sua arte composuit volumina.

84 Plures artifices fecere Attali et Eumenis adversus
Gallos proelia, Isigonus, Pyromachus, Stratonicus,
Antigonus, qui volumina condidit de sua arte.
Boethi, quamquam argento melioris, infans amplex-
ando ^ anserem strangulat. atque ex omnibus, quae
rettuH, clarissima quaeque in urbe iam sunt dicata a

^ similitudinis mirabilem famam B : similitudinem fama
rell. : s. nobilem f. edd. vett.

2 celebratur J. Muller : celebratus.

^ parvitatis B : tantae p. rell.

* miraculii il/aiyAoj5f: ut miraculo 5 (om. miraculo reZZ.): ut
mirum dictu Traiibe : del. ut Urlichs.

^ pictam B : totam rell. : fictam Stuart Jones : pictam ut
Urlichs.

' amplexando Traube : annosum (olim vi annisus)
Buecheler : vi annosum Meister : vi Kulh : vi aenum Boisacq :
ex aere II. Stein : sexennis 0. Jahn : ex animo lan : ulnis
Urlichs: eximiu. Mayhoff : sexanno^: sex annis ^^ . eximie
aut eximiae rell.

<» Tlie temple of Hera.

i88

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 82-84

represented in bronze not a hunian being but anger
personified. Silanion also made a famous Achilles,
and also a Superintendent Exercising Athletes ;
Strongylion made an Amazon, which from the
remarkable beauty of the legs is called the Eucnemon,
and which consequently the emperor Nero caused to
be carried in his retinue on his journeys. The same
sculptor made the figure rendered famous by Brutus
under the name of Brutus's Boy because it
represented a favourite of the hero of the battles at 42
Philippi. Theodorus, who constructed the Labyrinth "
at Samos, cast a statue of himself in bronze. Besides
its remarkable celebrity as a likeness, it is famous
for its very minute workmanship ; the right hand
holds a file, and three fingers of the left hand origin-
ally held a little model of a chariot and four, but this
has been taken away to Palestrina as a marvel of
smallness : if the team were reproduced in a picture
with the chariot and the charioteer, the model of a
fly, which was made by the artist at the same time,
would cover it with its wings. Xenocrates, who was
a pupil of Tisicrates, or by other accounts of
Euthycrates, surpassed both of the last mentioned
in the number of his statues ; and he also wrote
books about his art.

Several artists have represented the battles of
Attalus ^ and Eumenes against the Gauls, Isigonus,
Pyromachus, Stratonicus and Antigonus, who wrote
books about his art. Boethus did a Child «^ Strangling
a Goose by hugging it, although he is better in silver.
And among the Hst of works I have referred to all
the most celebrated have now been dedicated by the

^ Attalus I of Pergamum, who dealt with Gallic invaders of
Asia Minor between 240 and 232 b.c. " Copies exist.

189

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Vespasiano principe in templo Pacis aliisque eius
operibus, violentia Neronis in urbem convecta et in
sellariis domus aureae disposita.
80 Praeterea sunt aequalitate celebrati artifices, sed
nuUis operum suorum praecipui ; Ariston, qui et
argentum caelare solitus est, Callides,^ Ctesias,
Cantharus Sicyonius, Dionysius, Diodorus,^ Critiae
discipulus, Deliades, Euphorion, Eunicus et Heca-
taeus, argenti caelatores, Lesbocles, Prodorus,
Pythodicus, Polygnotus, idem pictor e nobilissimis,^
item e caelatoribus Stratonicus, Scymnus Critiae
discipulus.

86 Nunc percensebo eos, qui eiusdem generis opera fe-
cerunt, ut Apollodorus, Androbulus, Asclepiodorus,
Aleuas philosophos, Apellas et adornantes * se ^
feminas, Antignotus et [hictatores,]^ perixyomenum,
tyrannicidasque supra dictos, Antimachus, Atheno-
dorus feminas nobiles, Aristodemus et luctatores
bigasque cum auriga, philosophos, anus, Seleucum
regem. habet gratiam suam huius quoque dory-

87 phorus. Cephisodoti duo fuere : prioris est Mer-
curius Liberum patrem in infantia nutriens ; fecit et
contionantem manu elata — persona in incerto est ;
sequens philosophos fecit. Colotes, qui cum Phidia
lovem Olympium fecerat, philosophos, item Cleon

^ callases cd. Par. 6801 : Callicles Urlichs : Calliades
Hardouin.

^ Dionysius, Diodorus Detlefsen : diodorus B : dionysio-
dorus aut dionysodorus rell.

3 V.l. idem pictores nobilissimi. * V.l. adorantes.

^ se cd. Leid. Voss. : oin. rell.

* et luctatorcs cdd. : om. luctatores B, cd. Par. Lat. 6797.

190

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 84-87

emperor Vespasian in the Temple of Peace and his a.d. 76.
othor public buildings ; they had been looted by
Nero, who conveyed them all to Rome and arranged
them in the sitting-rooms of his Golden Mansion.

Besides these, artists on the same level of merit
but of no outstanding excellence in any of their
works are : Ariston, who often also practised
chasing silver, Callides, Ctesias, Cantharus of Sicyon,
Dionysius, Diodorus the pupil of Critias, Deliades,
Euphorion, Eunicus and Hecataeus the silver chasers,
Lesbocles, Prodorus, Pythodicus, Polygnotus, who
was also one of the most famous among painters,
similarly Stratonicus among chasers, and Critias's
pupil Scymnus.

I will now run through the artists who have
made works of the same class, such as Apollo-
dorus, Androbulus and Asclepiodorus, Aleuas, who
have done philosophers, and Apellas also women
donning their ornaments, and Antignotus also
Man using a Body-scraper and the Men " that
Slew the Tyrant, above-mentioned, Antimachus,
Athenodorus who made splendid figures of women,
Aristodemus who also did Wrestlers, and Chariot
and Pair with Driver, figures of philosophers, of old
women, and King Seleucus ; Aristodemus's Man
holding Spear is also popular. There were two
artists named Cephisodotus ; the Hermes Nursing
Eather Liber or Dionysos when an Infant belongs to
the elder, who also did a Man Haranguing \viih
Hand Uplifted — whom it represents is uncertain.
The later Cephisodotus did philosophers. Colotes
who had co-operated with Pheidias in the Olympian §§ 19, 54.
Zeus made statues of philosophers, as also did Cleon

" Harmodius and Aristogeiton. See §§ 70, 72.

191

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

et Cenchramis ^ et Callicles et Cepis, Chalcosthenes ^
et comoedos et athletas, Daippus perixyomenon,
Daiphron et Damocritus et Daemon philosophos.

88 Epigonus omnia fere praedicta imitatus praecessit
in tubicine et matri interfectae infante miserabihter
blandiente. Eubuli mulier admirans laudatur, Eu-
buhdis digitis computans. Micon athletis spectatur,
Menogenes quadrigis. Nec minus Niceratus omnia,
quae ceteri, adgressus repraesentavit Alcibiaden
lampadumque accensu matrem eius Demaraten

89 sacrificantem. Tisicratis bigae Piston mulierem
inposuit, idem fecit Martem et Mercurium, qui sunt
in Concordiae templo Romae. Perilkim nemo
laudet saeviorem Phalaride tyranno, cui taurum
fecit mugitus inclusi ^ hominis polHcitus igni subdito
et * primus expertus cruciatum eum iustiore saevitia.
huc a simulacris deorum hominumque devocaverat
humanissimam artem. ideo tot conditores eius
laboraverant, ut ex ea tormenta fierent! itaque una
de causa servantur opera eius, ut quisquis illa videat,

90 oderit manus. Sthennis Cererem, lovem, Minervam
fecit, qui sunt Romae in Concordiae templo, idem

^ Cenchramus Overbeck.

2 calcostenes 5 : Caecoaihenea {=Ka'CKoa6€vr)s) Overbeck.

^ inclusi add. Mayhoff.

* et B : v.ll. ex, est : exprimere Detlefsen.

* This should be Dinomache.

192

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 87-90

and Cenchramis and Callicles and Cepis ; Chalco-
sthenes also did actors in comedy and athletes ;
Daippus a Man using a Scraper ; Daiphron,
Damocritus and Daemon statues of philosophers.
Epigonus, who copied others in almost all the subjects
already mentioned, took the lead with his Trumpet-
player and his Weeping Infant pitifully caressing
its Murdered Mother. Praise is given to Eubulus's
Woman in Admiration and to EubuHdes's Person
Counting on the Fingers. Micon is noticed for his
athletes and Menogenes for his chariots and four.
Niceratus, who likewise attempted all the subjects
employed by any other sculptor, did a statue of
Alcibiades and one of his mother Demarate,« repre-
sented as performing a sacrifice by torch-light.
Tisicrates did a pair-horse chariot in which Piston
afterwards placed a woman ; the latter also made
an Ares and a Hermes now in the Temple of Concord
at Rome. No one should praise Perillus, who was o-. 570B.0.
more cruel than the tyrant Phalaris, for whom he
made a bull, guaranteeing that if a man were shut
up inside it and a fire lit underneath the man would
do the bellowing ; and he was himself the first to
experience this torture — a cruelty more just than
the one he proposed. Such were the depths to
which the sculptor had diverted this most humane
of arts from images of gods and men ! All the
founders of the art had only toiled so that it should
be employed for making implements of torture !
Consequently this sculptor's works are preserved
for one purpose only, so that whoever sees them
may hate the hands that made them. Sthennis did
a Demeter, a Zeus and an Athene that are in the
Temple of Concord at Rome, and also Weeping

193

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

flentes matronas et adorantes sacrificantcsque.
Simon canem et sagittarium fecit, Stratonicus

91 caelator ille philosophos, copas ^ uterque ;2 athletas
autem et armatos et venatores sacrificantesque Baton,
Euchir, Glaucides, HeHodorus, Hicanus, lophon,^
Lyson, Leon, Menodorus, Myagrus, Polycrates,
Polyidus,* Pythocritus, Protogenes, idem pictor e
clarissimis, ut dicemus, Patrocles,^ Pollis, Posidonius,
qui et argentum caelavit nobiliter, natione Ephesius,
Periclymenus, Philon, Symenus, Timotheus, Theom-
nestus, Timarchides, Timon, Tisias, Thrason.

92 Ex omnibus autem maxime cognomine insignis est
Calhmachus, semper calumniator sui nec finem
habentis dihgentiae, ob id catatexitechnus appel-
latus, memorabili ^ exemplo adhibendi et curae
modum. huius sunt saltantes Lacaenae, emendatum
opus, sed in quo gratiam omnem dihgentia abstulerit.
hunc quidem et pictorem fuisse tradunt. non aere
captus nec arte, unam tantum Zenonis statuam
Cypria expeditione non vendidit Cato, sed quia
philosophi erat, ut obiter hoc quoque noscatur tam
insigne ' exemphmi.

93 In mentione statuarum est et una non praeter-

^ copas Gerhard : scopas.

* uterque cdd. (utrosque B^, utraque B") : utrasque edd.
vett.

3 lophon Urlichs: Leophon Sillig : Herophon Loeivy :
olophon B : lophon rell.

* Polydorus Hermolaus Barharus.
^ Patroelus coni. SiUig coll. § 50.

« memorabili B, cd. Par. 6801 : memorabilis rell.
' insigne Pintianus : inane.

» The doubtful text may contain the name Scopas; see
critical notes.

* KaraTT]^ir€xvos, one who wastes his skill in dribl^^ts.

194

BOOK XXXIV. XIX. 90-93

Matrons and Matrons at Prayer and OfFering a Sacri-
fice. Simon made a Dog and an Archer, the famous
engraver Stratoiiicus some philosophers and each of
these artists made figures of hostesses of inns.« The
following have made figures of athletes, armed men,
hunters and men offering sacrifice : Baton, Euchir,
Glaucides, HeHodorus, Hicanus, lophon, Lyson,
Leon, Menodorus. Myagrus, Polycrates, Polyidus,
Pythocritus, Protogenes (who was also, as we shall xxxv. 101
say later, one of the most famous painters), Patrocles, *'^^*
Pollis and Posidonius (the last also a distinguished
silver chaser, native of Ephesus), Periclymenus,
Philo, Symenus, Timotheus, Theomnestus,
Timarchides, Timon, Tisias, Thraso.

But of all Callimachus is the most remarkable, ^<w. c. 400
because of the surname attached to him : he was
always unfairly critical of his own work, and was an
artist of never-ending assiduity, and consequently
he was called the Niggler,^ and is a notable warning
of the duty of observing moderation even in taking
pains. To him belongs the Laconian Women
Dancing, a very finished work but one in which
assiduity has destroyed all charm. Callimachus
is reported to have also been a painter. Cato in his
expedition to Cyprus sold all the statues found there 53-66 b.c.
except one of Zeno ; it was not the value of the
bronze nor the artistic merit that attracted him,
but its being the statue of a philosopher : I mention
this by the way, to introduce this distinguished <^
instance also.

In mentioning statues — there is also one we must

" The MSS. give ' this empty example,' explained as imply-
ing that Cato neglected the example set by his great grand-
father, Cato the Censor who disliked the Greeks.

195

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

eiinda, quamqiiam auctoris incerti, iuxta rostra,
Herculis tunicati, sola eo habitu Romae, torva facie
sentiensque ^ suprema tunicae.- in hac tres sunt
tituli : L. Luculli imperatoris de manubiis, alter :
pupillum Luculli filium ex S. C. dedicasse, tertius :
T. Septimium Sabinum aed. cur. ex privato in
publicum restituisse. tot certaminum tantaeque
dignationis simulacrum id fuit.

94 XX. Nunc praevertemur ^ ad difPerentias aeris et
mixturas. in Cyprio [coronarium et regulare est
utrumque ductilej * coronarium tenuatur in lamnas,
taurorumque felle tinctum speciem auri in coronis
histrionum praebet, idemque in uncias additis auri
scripulis senis praetenui pyropi brattea ignescit.
regulare et in aliis fit metallis, itemque caldarium.
differentia quod caldarium funditur tantum, malleis
fragile, quibus regulare obsequitur ab aliis ductile
appellatum, quale omne Cyprium est. sed et in
ceteris metallis cura distat a caldario; omne enim
diligentius purgatis igni vitiis excoctisque regulare

95 est. In reliquis generibus palma Campano perhi-

^ sentiensque B : sentientique rell. : sentienteque edd. vell.

2 tunicae B : tunica rell. : in tiinicd edd. vett.

^ V.l. revertemur.

* coronarium .... ductile cd. Vind. : om. rell.

" I.e. the poisoned garment that caused his death.
* In campaigns against Mithridates, 74-67 B.c.

196

BOOK XXXI \'. xi\. 93-xx. 95

not pass over in spite of the sculptor's not being
known — the figure, next to the Beaked Platform, of
Heracles in the Tunic,® the only one in Rome that
shows him in that dress ; the countenance is stern
and the statue expresses the feehng of the final
agonv of the tunic. On this statue there are three
inscriptions, one stating that it had been part of the
bootv taken ^ by the general Lucius LucuUus, and
another sapng that it was dedicated, in pursuance
of a decree of the Senate, by Lucullus's son while
still a ward, and the third, that Titus Septimius
Sabinus as curule aedile had caused it to be restored
to the public from private ownership. So many
were the rivalries connected \\ith this statue and so
highly was it valued.

XX. But we m111 now turn our attention particu- vario-as
larly to the various forms of copper, and its blends. {5^"/^
In the case of the copper of Cyprus ' chaplet copper ' copper ana
is made into thin leaves, and when dyed with ox-gall "''^'^-
gives the appearance of gilding on theatrical property
coronets ; and the same material mixed with gold
in the proportion of six scruples of gold to the ounce
makes a very thin plate called pyropus, ' fire-coloured '
and acquires the colour of fire. Bar copper also is
produced in other mines, and likewise fused copper.
The difference between them is that the latter can
only be fused, as it breaks under the hammer,
whereas bar copper, otherwise called ductile copper,
is malleable, which is the case with all Cyprus copper.
But also in the other mines, this difference of bar
copper from fused copper is produced by treatment ;
for all copper after impurities have been rather
carefully removed by fire and melted out of it
becomes bar copper. Among the remaining kinds

197

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

betur,^ utensilibus vasis ^ probatissimo. pluribus
fit hoc modis. namque Capuae liquatur non carbonis
ignibus, sed ligni, purgaturque roboreo cribro ^
profusum in * aquam frigidam ac saepius simili modo
coquitur, novissime additis plumbi argentarii Hispa-
niensis denis libris in centenas aeris. ita lentescit
coloremque iucundum traliit, qualem in aliis generibus

96 aeris adfectant oleo ac sale. fit Campano ^ simile in
multis partibus Italiae provinciisque, sed octonas
plumbi libras addunt et carbone recocunt propter
inopiam ligni. quantum ea res difFerentiae adferat,
iii Gallia maxime sentitur, ubi inter lapides cande-
factos funditur ; exurente enim coctura nigrum
atque fragile conficitur. praeterea semel recoquunt
quod saepius fecisse bonitati plurimum confert.
id quoque notasse non ab re est, aes omne frigore
magno melius fundi.

97 Sequens temperatura statuaria est eademque
tabularis hoc modo: massa proflatur in primis, mox
in proflatum additur tertia portio aeris coUectanei,
hoc est ex usu coempti. peculiare in eo condimen-
tum attritu domiti et consuetudine nitoris veluti
mansuefacti. miscentur et plumbi argentarii pondo

98 duodena ac selibrae centenis proflati. Appellatur

^ perhibetur . . . campano {§ 96 init.) B : om. rell.

* vasorum coni. WarmiTigton coll. XIII. 72.
^ ligno A'. C. Bailey.

* in add, K. C. Bailey : perfusum aqua frigida Sillig.

" Tin and lead mixed in equal parts.
" Posaibly mineral coal.
198

BOOK XXXIV. .vx. 95-98

of copper the palm goes to bronze of Campania.
vvhich is most esteemed for utensils. There are
several ways of preparing it. At Capua it is smelted
in a fire of wood, not of charcoal, and then poured
into cold water and cleaned in a sieve made of oak,
and this process of smelting is repeated several
times, at the last stage Spanish silver lead ^ being
added to it in the proportion of ten pounds to one
hundred pounds of copper : this treatment renders it
pliable and gives it an agreeable colour of a kind
imparted to other sorts of copper and bronze by
means of oil and salt. Bronze resembling the
Campanian is produced in many parts of Italy and
the provinces, but there they add only eight pounds
of lead, and do additional smelting with charcoal ^
because of their shortage of wood. The difference
produced by this is noticed specially in Gaul, where
the metal is smelted between stones heated red hot,
as this roasting scorches it and renders it black and
friable. Moreover they only smelt it again once
whereas to repeat this several times contributes a
great deal to the quality. It is also not out of place
to notice that all copper and bronze fuses better in
very cold weather.

The proper blend for making statues is as follows, Bieiidsfor
and the same for tablets : at the outset the ore is ^/SS"'^'^
melted, and then there is added to the melted metal
a third part of scrap copper, that is copper or bronze
that has been bought up after use. This contains a
peculiar seasoned quality of briUiance that has been
subdued by friction and so to speak tamed by habi-
tual use. Silver-lead is also mixed with it in the
proportion of twelve and a half pounds to every
hundred pounds of the fused metal. There is also

199

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

etiamnum et formalis temperatura aeris tenerrimi,
quoniam nigri plumbi decima portio additur et
argentarii vicesima, maximeque ita colorem bibit,
quem Graecanicum vocant. Novissima est quae
vocatur ollaria, vase nomen hoc dante, ternis aut
quaternis libris plumbi argentarii in centenas aeris
additis. Cyprio si addatur plumbum, colos purpurae
fit in statuarum praetextis.
99 XXI. Aera extersa robiginem celerius trahunt
quam neglecta, nisi oleo perunguantur. servari
ea optime in liquida pice tradunt. usus aeris ad
perpetuitatem monimentorum iam pridem tralatus
est tabulis aereis, in quibus publicae constitutiones
inciduntur.

100 XXII. Metalla aeris multis modis instruunt medi-
cinam, utpote cum ulcera omnia ibi ocissime sanen-
tur, maxime tamen prodest ^ cadmea. fit sine dubio
haec et in argenti fornacibus, candidior ac minus
ponderosa, sed nequaquam comparanda aerariae.
plura autem genera sunt. namque ut ipse lapis, ex
quo fit aes, cadmea vocatur, fusuris necessarius,
medicinae inutilis, sic rursus in fornacibus existit

101 aha, quae ^ originis suae nomen ^ recipit. fit autem

1 prodest al. Par. 6801, ccl. Flor. Ricc. ? prosunt rell.

2 alia quae aut aliamque cdd. : aliaque aliam J. Muller.

^ originis snae nomen Mayhoff : nominis sui originem ccUl.
item Isid. XVI. 20. 12.

» A blend for making moulds.

^ The colour is in fact green. One expects the word
aeruginem here.

' See the next two notes.

<* C/. § 2 of this book (p. 126); mineral calamine and smith-
sonite = sihcate and carbonate of zinc.

' Furnace calamine = oxide of zinc. Cf. K. C. Bailey, The
Elder Pliny's Chapters on Chemical Subjects ,11, pp. 166-7.

200

BOOK XXXI\'. XX. 98-xxii. loi

in additioii what is called the mould-blend ^ of
bronze of a very delicate consistency, because a
tenth part of black lead is added and a twentieth of
silver-lead ; and this is the best way to give it the
colour called Graecanic ' after the Greek.' The
last kind is that called pot-bronze, taking its name
from the vessels made of it ; it is a blend of three or
four pounds of silver-lead with every hundred pounds
of copper. The addition of lead to Cyprus copper
produces the purple colour seen in the bordered
robes of statues.

XXI. Thinjjs made of copper or bronze get Copper-rusi.
covered with copper-rust ^ more quickly when they

are kept rubbed clean than when they are neglected,
unless they are well greased with oil. It is said
that the best way of preserving them is to give them
a coating of Hquid vegetable pitch. The employment
of bronze was a long time ago apphed to securing the
perpetuity of monuments, by means of bronze
tablets on which records of official enactments are
made.

XXII. Copperores and mines supply medicaments
in a variety of ways : inasmuch as in their neighbour-
hood all kinds of ulcers are healed with the greatest
rapidity ; yet the most beneficial is cadmeaS This • cadmea:
is certainly also produced in furnaces where silver is
smelted, this kind being whiter and not so heavy,

but it is by no means to be compared with that from
copper. There are however several varieties ; for
while the mineral itself '^ from which the metal is made
is called cadniea, which is necessary for the fusing
process but is of no use for medicine, so again another
kind ^ is found in furnaces, which is given a name
indicating its origin. It is produced by the thinnest

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

egesta flammis atque flatu tenuissima parte materiae
et camaris lateribusque fornacium pro quantitate
levitatis adplicata. tenuissima est in ipso fornacium
ore quam flammae eructarunt,^ appellata capnitis,
exusta et nimia levitate similis favillae. interior
optuma, camaris dependens et ab eo argumento
botryitis nominata, ponderosior haec priore, levior

102 secuturis — duo eius colores, deterior cinereus, pumicis
melior — , friabilis oculorumque medicamentis utilis-
sima. tertia est in lateribus fornacium, quae propter
gravitatem ad camaras pervenire non potuit. haec
dicitur placitis, et ipsa ab argumento planitiei ^
crusta verius quam pumex, intus varia, ad psoras

103 utilior et cicatrices trahendas. fiunt ^ ex ea duo
alia genera ; onychitis extra paene caerulae, intus
onychis maculis similis, ostracitis tota nigra et e
ceteris sordidissima, volneribus maxime utilis.
omnis autem cadmea, in Cypri * fornacibus optima,
iterum a medicis coquitur carbone puro atque,
ubi in cinerem rediit, extinguitur vino Ammineo quae
ad emplastra praeparatur, quae vero ad psoras, aceto.

104 quidam in ollis fictilibus tusam urunt et lavant in

^ V.ll. quae ant que aut qua flamma eructatur aut eructantur
aut fluctuantur : eructarunt Mayhoff.
2 planitiei Salmasius : planitie.
^ fiunt B : fluunt rell.
* Cypriis coni. Mayhoff : cyprio aut cypria aut cypri.

BOOK X\X1\ . xxii. 101-104

part of the substance being separated out by the
flames and the blast and becoming attached in
proportion to its degree of Hghtness to the roof-
chambers and side-walls of the furnaces, the thinnest
being at the very mouth of the furnace, which the
flames have belched out ; it is called ' smoky cadmea '
from its burnt appearance and because it resembles
hot white ash in its extreme Hghtness. The part
inside is best, hanging from the vaults of the roof-
chamber, and this consequently is designated ' grape-
cluster cadmea ' : this is heavier than the preceding
kind but Hghter than those that foHow — it is of two
colours, the inferior kind being the colour of ash and
the better the colour of pumice — and it is friable,
and extremely useful for making medicaments for
the eyes. A third sort is deposited on the sides of
furnaces, not having been able to reach the vaults
because of its weight; this is caHed in Greek
' placitis,' ' caked residue,' in this case by reason
of its flatness, as it is more of a crust than pumice,
and is mottled inside ; it is more useful for itch-
scabs and for making wounds draw together into a
scar. Of this kind are formed two other varieties,
onychitis which is almost blue outside but inside Hke
the spots of an onyx or layered quartz, and ostracitis
' sheH-Hke residue ' which is aU black and the dirtiest
of any of the kinds ; this is extremely useful for
wounds. AH kinds of cadmea (the best coming from
the furnaces of Cyprus) for use in medicine are
heated again on a fire of pure charcoal and. when it
has been reduced to ash, if being prepared for plasters
it is quenched with Amminean wine, but if intended
for itch-scabs with vinegar. Some people pound it
and then burn it in earthenware pots, wash it in

203

PLINY : NATURAL riLSTORY

mortariis, postea siccant. Nymphodorus lapidem
ipsum quam gravissimum spississimumque urit pruna
et exustum Chio vino restinguit tunditque, mox
linteo cribrat atque in mortario terit, mox aqua
pluvia macerat iterumque terit quod subsedit, donec
cerussae simile fiat, nulla dentium ofFensa. eadem
lollae ratio, sed quam purissimum eligit lapidem.

105 XXIIL cadmeae effectus siccare, persanare, sistere
fluctiones, pterygia et sordes oculorum purgare,
scabritiam extenuare et quidquid in plumbi effectu
dicemus.

Et aes ipsum uritur ad omnia eadem, praeterque
albugines oculorum et cicatrices, ulcera quoque
oculorum cum lacte sanat; itaque Aegyptii collyrii

106 id modo terunt in coticulis. facit et vomitiones e
melle sumptum. uritur autem Cyprium in fictilibus
crudis cum sulpuris pari pondere, vasorum ^ circum-
lito spiramento, in caminis, donec vasa ipsa perco-
quantur. quidam et salem addunt, aliqui alumen
pro sulpure, alii nihil, sed aceto tantum aspergunt.
ustum teritur in ^ mortario Thebaico, aqua pluvia
lavatur iterumque adiecta largiore teritur et, dum
considat, relinquitur, hoc saepius, donec ad speciem

^ vasorum MayJioJf : vaso aut vase.
* in aild. MayhojJ.

" A medical maii of the thlrd oentury B.c.
204

BOOK XXXIV. XXII. 104-XX111. 106

mortars and aftenvarcls dry it. Nymphodorus's "
process is to burn on hot coals the most heavy dense
piece of cadmea that can be obtained, and when it is
thoroughly burnt to quench it with Chian %\ine, and
pound it, and then to sift it through a Hnen cloth and
grind it in a mortar, and then macerate it in rain-
water and again grind the sediment that sinks to the
bottom till it becomes like white lead and offers no
grittiness to the teeth. lollas' ^ method is the same,
but he selects the purest specimens of native cadmea.
XXIII. The effect of cadmea is to dry moisture, to
heal lesions, to stop discharges, to cleanse inflamed
swellings and foul sores in the eyes, to remove
eruptions, and to do ever}'thing that we shall specify
in dealing with the effect of lead.

Copper itself is roasted to use for all the same
purposes and for white-spots and scars in the eyes
besides, and mixed with milk it also heals ulcers in
the eyes ; and consequently people in Egypt make a
kind of eye-salve by grinding it in small mortars.
Taken ^vith honey it also acts as an emetic, but for
this Cyprian copper with an equal weight of sulphur
is roasted in pots of unbaked earthenware, the
mouth of the vessels being stopped with oil; and
then left in the furnace till the vessels themselves
are completely baked. Certain persons also add
salt, and some use alum instead of sulphur, while
others add nothing at all, but only sprinkle the
-copper with vinegar. WTien burnt it is pounded
in a mortar of Theban stone, washed with rainwater,
and then again pounded with the addition of a larger
quantity of water, and left till it settles, and this
process is repeated several times, till it is reduced

^ A Bithynian medical writer of unknown date.

205

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

minii redeat. tunc siccatum in sole in aerea pyxide
servatur.

107 XXIV. Et scoria aeris simili modo lavatur, minore ^
eifectu quam ipsum aes. sed et aeris flos medicinae
utilis est. fit aere fuso et in alias fornaces tralato ;
ibi flatu crebriore excutiuntur veluti milii squamae,
quas vocant florem ; cadunt autem, cum panes aeris
aqua refrigerantur, rubentque similiter squamae
aeris, quam vocant lepida, et sic adulteratur flos, ut
squama veneat pro eo. est autem squama aeris
decussa vi clavis, in quos panes aerei feruminantur,^
in Cypri maxime oflicinis. omnis ^ differentia haec
est, quod squama cxcutitur ictu isdem panibus, flos

108 cadit sponte. squamae est alterum genus suptilius,
ex summa scilicet lanugine decussum, quod vocant
stomoma.

XXV. Atque haec omnia medici — quod pace
eorum dixisse liceat — ignorant. parent^ nominibus:
in tantum^ a conficiendis medicaminibus absunt,
quod esse proprium medicinae solebat. nunc quo-
tiens incidere in libellos, componere ex iis volentes
aliqua, hoc est impendio miserorum experiri^ com-
mentaria,'^ credunt Seplasiae omnia fraudibus cor-

1 minor cdd. fere omnes.

2 formantur coni. Eichholz.

^ omnis Mayhojf {qui et siimma coni.): omnia,
* parent Urlichs: paret B: pars maior et reU.: p.m, paret
Deflefsen. *~^ parent nominibus hi: tantum coni. Mayhoff.
^ V.l. expediri.
' commentariaque 5: sujpra post WheWos, trans. Urlichs.

" The dross produced when the ore is fused.

^ Probably in the main red cuprous oxide (not black
cupric oxide) with some metallic copper in it.

'- Seplasia was the special quarter of Capua where perfumes
were sold.
2o6

BOOK XXXIV. XXIII. 106-XXV. 108

to the appearance of cinnabar ; then it is dried in the
sun and put to keep in a copper box.

XXIV. The slaff " of copper is also washed in the ^^9, «ca'«'

t 1. -j. • 1 m • J.1 -j. !/• and flower of

same vvay, but it is less emcacious tnan copper itseli. copper.
The flower ^ of copper also is useful as a medicine.
It is made by fusing copper and then transferring
it to other furnaces, where a faster use of the
bellows makes the metal give off layers Hke scales of
millet, which are called the flower. However when
the sheets of copper are cooled off in water they shed
off other scales of copper of a similar red hue — this
scale is called by the Greek word meaning * husk ' —
and by this process the flower is adulterated, so that
the scale is sold as a substitute for it. On the other
hand, scale of copper is forcibly knocked ofF
bolts into which are welded cakes of the metal,
specially in the factories of Cyprus. The whole
difference is that the scale is detached from the cakes
by successive hammerings, whereas the flower falls
off of its own accord. There is another finer kind
of scale, the one knocked off from the down-like sur-
face of the metal, the name for which is ' stomoma.'

XXV. But of all these facts the doctors, if they
will permit me to say so, are ignorant — they are
governed by names : so detached they are from
the process of making up drugs, which used to be
■the special business of the medical profession. Now-
adays whenever they come on books of prescriptions,
wanting to make up some medicines out of them,
which means to make trial of the ingredients in the
prescriptions at the expense of their unhappy
patients, they rely on the fashionable druggists'
shops «^ which spoil everything with fraudulent
adulterations, and for a long time they have been

207

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

riimpenti. iam pridem ^ facta emplastra et collyria
mercantur, tabesque mercium aut fraus Seplasiae sic
exhibetur ! ^

109 Et squama autem et flos uruntur in patinis fictili-
bus aut aereis, dein lavantur ut supra ad eosdem usus ;
squama ^ et amplius narium carnosa vitia, item sedis,
et gravitates aurium per fistulam in eas flatu inpulsa
et uvas oris farina admota tollit et tonsillas cum
melle. fit ex candido aere squama longe Cypria
inefficacior. nec non urina pueri prius macerant
clavos panesque quidam excussuri squamam, terunt-
que et aqua pluvia lavant. dant et hydropicis eam
drachmis ii in mulsi hemina et inlinunt cum polline.

110 XXVL Aeruginis quoque magnus usus est. pluri-
bus fit modis. namque et lapidi, ex quo coquitur
aes, deraditur, et aere candido perforato atque in
cadis suspenso super acetum acre opturatumque
operculo. multo probatior est, si hoc idem squamis
fiat. quidam visa ipsa candidi aeris fictihbus con-

111 dunt in acetum raduntque decumo die. alii vinaceis
contegunt totidemque post dies radunt, alii delima-
tam aeris scobem aceto spargunt versantque spathis
saepius die, donec absumatur. eandem scobem

1 pridem edd. vett. : quidem.

2 sic exhibetur Warmington : sic excitetur Mayhoff (qni et
excitatur coni.) : exsiccatur coni. Sillig : sicce taxetur lan :
alii alia : sic cexatetur B^ : sicce sane duret B^ : sic exteritur
rell. recte?

3 squama Mayhoff : que cd. Leid. Voss., cd. Flor. Ricc. :
om. rell.

" Or, if we read exteritur (is ground out), ' finds its way into
the mortar ' (thus K. C. Bailey).

* Brass. " Basic copper carbonate.

** Basic copper acetate or true verdigris, Avhich does not
occur in a natural state.

2o8

BOOK XXXIV. XXV. 108-X.XV1. III

buying plasters and eye-salves ready made ; and
thus is deteriorated rubbish of commodities and the
fraud of the druggists' trade put on show."

Both scale however and flower of copper are burnt
in earthemvare or copper pans and then washed, as
described above, to be applied to the same purposes ; § 106.
the scale also in addition removes fleshy troubles in
the nostrils and also in the anus and duhness of
hearing if forcibly blown into the ears through a tube,
and, when applied in the form of powder, removes
swellings of the uvula, and, mixed with honey,
swellings of the tonsils. There is a scale from white
copper ^ that is far less efficacious than the scale from
Cyprus ; and moreover some people steep the bolts
and cakes of copper beforehand in a boy's urine
when they are going to detach the scale, and pound
them and wash them \^dth rainwater. It is also
given to dropsical patients in doses of two drams in
half a sextarius of honey-w ine ; and mixed with
fine flour it is applied as a Hniment.

XXVI. Great use is also made of verdigris. verdigru.
There are several ways of making it ; it ^' is scraped
ofF the stone from which copper is smelted, or by '^
drilling holes in white copper ^ and hanging it up in
casks over strong vinegar which is stopped with a
Hd ; the verdigris is of much better quahty if the
same process is performed with scales of copper.
Some people put the actual vessels, made of white
copper, into vinegar in earthenware jars, and nine
days later scrape them. Others cover the vessels
Mith grape-skins and scrape them after the same
interval, others sprinkle copper fiHngs with vinegar
and several times a day turn them over with spattles
till the copper is completely dissolved. Others

209

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

alii terere in mortariis aereis ex aceto malunt.
ocissime vero contingit coronariorum recisamentis in

112 acetum id ^ additis. adulterant marmore trito
maxime Rhodiam aeruginem, alii pumice aut
cummi. praecipue autem fallit atramento sutorio
adulterata; cetera enim dente deprehenduntur
stridentia in frendendo. experimentum in vatillo
ferreo, nam quae sincera est, suum colorem retinet.
quae mixta atramento, rubescit. deprehenditur et
papyro galla prius macerato, nigrescit enim statim
aerugine inlita. deprehenditur et visu maligne

113 virens. sed sive sinceram sive adulteram ^ aptissi-
mum est elui siccatamque in patina nova uri ac
versari, donec favilla fiat ; postea teritur ac re-
conditur. aliqui in crudis fictilibus urunt, donec
figlinum percoquatur. nonnulli et tus masculum
admiscent. lavatur autem aerugo sicut cadmea.
vis eius collyriis oculorum aptissima et delacrima-
tionibus mordendo proficiens, sed ablui necessarium
penicillis calidis, donec rodere desinat.

114 XXVII. Hieracium vocatur collyrium, quod ea ^
maxime constat. temperatur autem id ham-

^ seclud. id K. C. Bailey.

2 V.L adulteratam.

' ea Mayhoff : illa quidam apud Dalecamp : ita.

* Used for colouring leather. The term probably includes
both green vitriol or ferrous sulphate, which is our copperas,
and blue vitriol, or cupric sulphate.

* This is not true.

* Or sponges.

•* As K. C. Bailey rightly says, not ml Hammoniacus (a

2IO

BOOK XXXIV. XXVI. iii-.xxvii. 114

prefer to grind copper filings mixed with vinegar
in copper mortnrs. But the quickest result is
obtained by adding to the vinegar shavings of
coronet copper. Rhodian verdigris is adulterated
chiefly with pounded marble, though others use
pumicestone or gum. But the adulteration of
verdigris that is the most difficult to detect is done
with shoemakers' black," the other adulterations
being detected by the teeth as they crackle when
chewed. Verdigris can be tested on a hot fire-
shovel, as a specimen that is pure keeps ^ its colour,
but what is mixed with shoemakers' black turns red.
It is also detected by means of papyrus previously
steeped in an infusion of plantgall, as this when
smeared with genuine verdigris at once turns black.
It can also be detected by the eye, as it has an evil
green colour. But w^hether pure or adulterated, the
best way is to wash it and when it is dry to burn it
on a new pan and keep turning it over till it becomes
glowing ashes ; and aftervvards it is crushed and
put away in store. Some people burn it in raw
earthenware vessels till the earthenware is baked
through ; some mix in also some male frankincense.
\^erdigris is washed in the same way as cadmea. § 106.
Its powerfulness is very well suited for eye-salves
and its mordant action makes it able to produce
watering at the eyes ; but it is essential to wash it
ofFwith swabs ^ and hot water till its bite ceases to be
felt.

XXVII. Hierax's Salve is the name given to an
eye-salve chiefly composed of verdigris. It is made
by mixing together four ounces of gum of Hammon,'^

variety of common salt, which itself is not sal ammoniac =
ammonium chloride).

211

PLINY ; NATURAL HISTORY

moniaci unciis iiii, aeruginis Cypriae ii, atramenti
sutorii, quod chalcanthum vocant, totidem, misyos
una, croci vi. haec omnia trita aceto Thasio
colliguntur ^ in pilulas, excellentis remedii contra
initia glaucomatum et sufFusionum, contra caligines
aut scabritias et albugines et genarum vitia. cruda

115 autem aerugo volnerariis emplastris miscetur. oris
etiam gingivarumque exulcerationes mirifice emen-
dat et labrorum ulcera cum oleo. quod si et cera
addatur, purgat et ad cicatricem perducit. aerugo
et callum fistularum erodit vitiorumque circa sedem
sive per se sive cum hammoniaco inlita vel collyrii
modo in fistulas adacta. eadem cum resinae tere-
binthinae tertia parte subacta lepras tollit.

116 XXVm. Est et alterum genus aeruginis, quam vo-
cant scoleca, in Cyprio (mortario Cyprio) ^ aere trito^
alumine et sale aut nitro pari pondere cum aceto albo
quam acerrimo. non fit hoc nisi aestuosissimis *
diebus circa canis ortum. teritur autem, donec viride
fiat contrahatque se vermiculorum specie, unde
et nomen. quod vitiatum ^ ut emendetur, ii partes
quam fuere aceti miscentur urinae pueri inpubis.
idem autem in medicamentis et santerna efficit,
qua diximus aurum feruminari. usus utriusque qui

^ collinuntur B.

^ <mortario Cyprio) coni. Mayhoff.

^ trito B : intrito cd. Flor. Ricc. : hic trito relL : hoc t.
edd. vett.

* aestivosissimis B.

^ Yit\a,tum Mayhoff : vitium.

* Copper pyrites.

" See pp. 210-1, note f

^ This sentence is probably defective.

212

BOOK XXXIV. XXVII. ii4-xx\'iii. n6

two of Cyprian verdiirris, two of the copperas called
flower of copper, one of misy ^ and six of safFron ; all
these ingredients are pounded in Thasian vinegar
and made up into pills, that are an outstanding
specitic against incipient glaucoma and cataract,
and also against films on the eyes or roughnesses
and white ulcerations in the eye and affections of
the eyelids. Verdigris in a crude state is used as an
ingredient in plasters for wounds also. In combina-
tion with oil it is a marvellous cure for ulcerations of
the mouth and gums and for sore lips, and if wax
is also added to the mixture it cleanses them and
makes them form a cicatrix. Verdigris also eats away
the callosity of fistulas and of sores round the anus,
either applied by itself or with gum of Hammon,^ or
inserted into the fistula in the manner of a salve.
Verdigris kneaded up with a third part of turpentine
also removes leprosy.

XX\'III. There is also another kind of verdigris
called from the Greek worm-like verdigris, made by
grinding up in a mortar of true cyprian copper w ith a
pestle of the same metal equal weights of alum and
salt or soda with the very strongest white vinegar.
This preparation is only made on the very hottest days
of the year, about the rising of the Dogstar. The
mixture is ground up until it becomes of a green
colour and shrivels into what looks like a cluster of
small worms, whence its name. To remedy any
that is blemished, the urine of a young boy to twice
the quantity of vinegar that was used is added to the
mixture.^ Used as a drug, worm-verdigris has the
same effect as santerna which we spoke of as used for xxxiii.
soldering gold ; both of them fiave the same ^^"
properties as verdigris Native worm-verdigris is

213

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

aeruginis. scolex fit et per se derasus aerario lapidi,
de quo nunc dicemus.

117 XXIX. Chalcitim vocant, ex quo et ipso aes
coquitur. distat a cadmea, quod illa super terram
ex subdialibus petris caeditur, haec ex obrutis, item
quod chalcitis friat se statim, molUs natura, ut
videatur lanugo concreta. est et alia distinctio,
quod chalcitis tria genera continet, aeris et misyos
et soreos, de quibus singulis dicemus suis locis.

118 habet autem aeris venas oblongas. probatur mellei
coloris, gracih venarum discursu, friabilis nec
lapidosa. putant et recentem utiliorem esse, quo-
niam inveterata sori fiat. vis ^ eius ad excrescentia
in ulceribus, sanguinem sistere, gingivas, uvam,
tonsillas farina compescere, volvae vitiis in vellere
imponi. cum suco vero porri verendorum additur

119 emplastris. maceratur autem in fictili ex aceto
circumlito fimo diebus xl, et colorem croci trahit.
tum admixto cadmeae pari pondere medicamentum
efficit psoricon dictum. quod si ii partes chalcitidis
tertia cadmeae temperentur, acrius hoc idem fiat ;
etiamnum vehementius, si aceto quam vino ^ tem-
peretur ; tosta vero efficacior fit ad eadem omnia.

120 XXX. Sori Aegyptium maxime laudatur, multum

^ U8US coni. MayhofJ. ^ <si> vino coni. Mayhoff.

* Copper pyrites in process of decomposition. For cadmea
see §§ 2 and 100 and notes.

** <Joj)per pyrites.

« Probably decomposing marcasite, or sometiraes black
porous limestone with decomposing pyrites in it (K. C. Bailey).

214

BOOK XXXIV. XXVIII. 116-XXX. 120

also obtained by scraping a copper ore of which we
shall now speak.

XXIX. Chalcitis, ' copper-stone,' is the name of chaicUis.
an ore," that from which copper also, besides cadmea,

is obtained by smelting. It differs from cadmea

because the latter is quarried above ground, from

rocks exposed to the air, whereas chalcitis is obtained

from underground beds, and also because chalcitis

becomes immediately friable, being of a soft nature,

80 as to have the appearance of congealed down.

There is also another ditference in that chalcitis

contains three kinds of mineral, copper, rnisy ^ and

sori,^ each of which we shall describe in its place ; §§ 120, 121.

and the veins of copper in it are of an oblong shape.

The approved variety of chalcitis is honey coloured,

and streaked with fine veins, and is friable and not

stony. It is also thought to be more useful when

fresh, as when old it turns into sori. It is used for

growths in ulcers, for arresting haemorrhage and,

in the form of a powder, for acting as an astringent

on the gums, uvula and tonsils, and, applied in wool,

as a pessary for affections of the uterus, while with

leek juice it is employed in plasters for the genitals.

It is steeped for forty days in vinegar in an earthen-

ware jar, covered with dung, and then assumes the

colour of saffron ; then an equal weight of cadmea is

mixed with it and this produces the drug called

psoricon or cure for itch. If two parts of chalcitis

are mixed with one of cadmea this makes a stronger

form of the same drug, and moreover it is more violent

if it is mixed in vinegar than if in wine ; and when

roasted it becomes more eflfective for all the same

purposes.

XXX. Egyptian sori is most highly commended, soru

215

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

superato Cyprio Hispaniensique et Africo, quamquam
oculoruni curationi quidam utilius putent Cyprium ;
sed in quacumque natione optimum cui maximum
virus olfactu, tritumque pinguiter nigrescens et
spongiosum. stomacho res contraria in tantum, ut
quibusdam olfactum modo vomitiones moveat. et
Aegyptium quidem tale,^ alterius nationis con-
tritum splendescit ut misy et est lapidosius. prodest
autem et dentium dolori, si contineatur atque
colluat, et ulceribus oris gravibus quaeque serpant.
uritur carbonibus ut chalcitis.

121 XXXI. Misy aliqui tradiderunt fieri exusto lapide
in scrobibus, flore eius luteo miscente se ligni pineae
favillae. re vera autem e supra dicto fit lapide,
concretum natura discretumque vi, optimum in
Cypriorum officinis, cuius notae sunt friati aureae
scintillae et, cum teratur, harenosa natura sine
terra,^ chalcitidi ^ dissimilis.* hoc admiscent qui
aurum purgant. utilitas eius infusi cum rosaceo
auribus purulentis et in lana inpositi capitis ulceribus.
extenuat et scabritias oculorum inveteratas, praecipue

122 utile tonsilUs contraque anginas et suppurata. ratio

^ tale est cd. deperd. Dalecamp.
^ terrae cd. Vind. : terrea ed. Lugd.
^ ehaleitidis cd. Flor. Ricc.

* dissimilis A'. C. Bailey : simis cd. Flor. Bicc. : sin B^ :
sive al. Par. G801 : similis rell.

" Probably produced in most cases by sulphuretted hydro-
gen.

* Of hollow teeth, as is clear from the context and from
Diosc. I, 141, V, 119.

<= Chalcitis,^ 117.

2l6

BOOK XXXIV. XXX. I20-XXXI. 122

being far superior to that of Cyprus and Spain and
Africa, although some people think that Cyprus
sori is more useful for treatment of the eyes ; but
whatever its provenance the best is that which has
the most pungent odour," and which when ground up
takes a greasy, black colour and becomes spongy.
It is a substance that goes against the stomach so
violently that with some people the mere smell of
it causes vomiting. This is a description of the sori
of Egypt. That from other sources when ground
up turns a bright colour Uke misy, and it is harder;
however, if it is held in the cavities ^ and used
plentifully as a mouth-wash it is good for toothache
and for serious and creeping ulcers of the mouth.
It is burnt on charcoal, like chalcitis.

XXXI. Some people have reported that misy ^«'/
is made by burning mineral in trenches, its fine
vellow powder mixing itself with the ash of the
pine wood burnt ; but as a matter of fact though got
from the mineral ^ above mentioned, it is part of its
substance and separated from it by force, the best
kind being obtained in the copper-factories of Cyprus,
its marks being that when broken it sparkles Hke
gold and when it is ground it has a sandy appear-
ance, without earth, unlike chalcitis. A mixture of
misy is emploved in the magical purification of gold.'^
Mixed with oil of roses it makes a useful infusion for
suppurating ears and applied on wool a serviceable
plaster for ulcers of the head. It also reduces
chronic roughness of the eyelids, and is especially
useful for the tonsils and against quinsy and suppura-

•* The process of counteracting the supposed evii influence
of goid when held over the head of children, etc. See XXXI TT
84.

217
VOL. IX. H

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

ut XVI drachmae in hemina aceti coquantur addito
melle, donec lentescat. sic ad supra dicta utile est.
quotiens opus sit molliri vim eius, mel adspergitur.
erodit et calhim fistularum ex aceto foventium et
collyriis additur, sistit et sanguinem ulceraque quae
serpant quaeve putrescant, absumit et excrescentes
carnes. pecuHariter viriHtatis vitiis utile et femina-
rum profluvium sistit.

123 XXXII. Graeci cognationem aeris nomine fecerunt
et atramento sutorio ; appehant enim chalcanthon.
nec ulHus aeque mira natura est. fit in Hispaniae
puteis stagnisve id genus aquae habentibus. deco-
quitur ea admixta dulci pari mensura et in piscinas
Hgneas funditur. immobiHbus ^ super has transtris
dependent restes lapilHs extentae, quibus adhaeres-
cens Hmus vitreis acinis imaginem quandam uvae
reddit. exemptum ita siccatur diebus xxx. color
est caeruleus perquam spectabiH nitore, vitrumque

124 esse creditur; diluendo fit atramentum tinguendis
coriis. fit et pluribus modis : genere terrae eo in
scrobes cavato, quorum e lateribus destillantes
hiberno gelu stirias stalagmian vocant, neque est
purius aHud. sed ex eo, candidum colorem sentiente

125 viola, lonchoton ^ appellant. fit et in saxorum

' immobiHbus edd. vett. : immobilis.

^ V.l. locoton : leucoion Hermolaus Barharus : leucanthon

"(/rf. VPtt.

" Seen. "on^ 112.

* I.e. water holding in solution the substance referred to.

" So Diosc. V, 114. But the descrii)tion suggests ' leu-
coion,' ' violet-white.' The ancient Hke the modern violas
were of various colours.

2l8

BOOK XXXIV. XXXI. I22-XXXII. 125

tions. The method is to boil 16 drams of it in a
twelfth of a pint of vinegar with honey added till it
becomes of a viscous consistency : this makes a
useful preparation for the purposes above mentioned.
When it is necessary to make it softer, honey is
sprinkled on it. It also removes the callosity of
fistulous ulcers when the patients use it with vinegar
as a fomentation ; and it is used as an ingredient in
eye-salves, arrests haemorrhage and creeping or
putrid ulcers, and reduces fleshy excrescences. It
is particularly useful for troubles in the sexual
organs in the male, and it checks menstruation.

XXXII. The Greeks by their name for shoe- shoemakers
makers'-black " have m.ade out an affinity between ^''^*'
it and copper : they call it chalcanthon, ' flower of
copper ' ; and there is no substance that has an
equally remarkable nature. It occurs in Spain in
wells or pools that contain that sort of water.*
This water is boiled with an equal quantity of pure
water and poured into wooden tanks. Over these
are firmly fixed cross-beams from which hang cords
held taut by stones, and the mud clinging to the
cords in a cluster of glassy drops has somewhat the
appearance of a bunch of grapes. It is taken off and
then left for thirty days to dry. Its colour is an
extremely brilliant bhie, and it is often taken for
glass ; when dissolved it makes a black dye used for
colouring leather. It is also made in several other
ways : earth of the kind indicated is hollowed into
trenches, droppings from the sides of which form
icicles in a winter frost which are called drop-flower
of copper, and this is the purest kind. But some of
it, violet with a touch of white, is called lonchoton,
' lance-headed.''^ It is also made in pans hollowed

219

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

catinis pliivia aqua conrivato limo gelante ; fit et
salis modo flagrantissimo sole admissas dulces aquas
cogente. ideo quidam duplici differentia fossile
aut facticium appellant, hoc pallidus et quantum

126 colore, tantum bonitate deterius. probant maxime
Cyprium in medicinae usu. sumitur ad pellenda
ventris animalia drachmae pondere cum melle.
purgat et caput dilutum ac naribus instillatum, item
stomachum cum melle aut aqua mulsa sumptum.
medetur et oculorum scabritiae dolorique et caligini
et oris ulceribus. sistit et sanguinem narium, item
haemorroidum. extrahit ossa fracta cum semine
hyoscyami. suspendit epiphoras penicillo fronti
inpositum, efficax et in emplastris ad purganda

127 volnera ^ et excrescentia ulcerum. tollit et uvas,
vel si decocto tangantur, cum lini quoque semine
superponitur emplastris ad dolores tollendos. quod
ex eo candicat, in uno usu praefertur violaceis, ut
gravitati aurium per fistulas inspiretur. volnera
per se inlitum sanat, sed tinguit ^ cicatrices. nuper
inventum ursorum in harena et leonum ora spargere
illo, tantaque est vis in adstringendo, ut non queant
mordere.

128 XXXIII. Etiamnum in aerariis reperiuntur quae

^ V.l. ulcerca.

' V.l. tingit : stringit Caesarius.

" Zinc oxide.

* Zinc oxide made impure by charcoal-dust and from other
causes (K. C. Bailey)

220

BOOK XXXIV . xx:

in the rocks, into which the slime is carried by rain-
water and freezes, and it also forms in the same way
as salt when very hot sunshine evaporates the fresh
water let in with it. Consequently some people
distinguish in twofold fashion between the mined
Hower of copper and the manufactured, the latter
paler than the former and as much inferior in quaUty
as in colour. That wliich comes from Cyprus is
most highly approved for medical employment. It
is taken to remove intestinal worms, the dose being
one dram mixed with honey. Dikited and injected
as drops into the nostrils it clears the head, and like-
wise taken with honey or honey-water it purges the
stomach. It is given as a medicine for roughness of
the eyes, pain and mistiness in the eyes, and ulcera-
tion of the mouth. It stops bleeding from the
nostrils, and also haemorrhoidal bleeding. Mixed
with henbane seed it draws out splinters of broken
bones ; applied to the forehead with a swab it arrests
running of the eyes ; also used in plasters it is
efficacious for cleansing wounds and gatherings of
ulcers. A mere touch of a decoction of it removes
swellings of the uvula, and it is laid with linseed on
plasters used for relieving pains. The whitish part
of it is preferred to the violet kinds for one purpose,
that of being blown through tubes into the ears to
reheve ear-trouble. AppUed by itself as a Hniment
it heals wounds, but it leaves a discoloration in the
scars. There has lately been discovered a plan of
sprinkling it on the mouths of bears and Hons in the
arena, and its astringent action is so powerful that
they are unable to bite.

XXXIII. The substances called by Greek names zinc oxide.
meaning ' bubble ' " and ' ash ' ^ are also found in

PLINY: NATURAL HISIORV

vocant pompholygem et spodon. differentia, quod
pompholyx lotura separatur, spodos inlota est.
ahqui quod sit candidum levissimumque pompholy-
gem dixere et esse aeris ac cadmeae favillam, spodon
nigriorem esse ponderosioremque, derasam parietibus
fornacium, mixtis scintillis,^ aliquando et carbonibus.

129 haec aceto accepto odorem aeris praestat et, si
tangatur lingua, saporem horridum. convenit ocu-
lorum medicamentis, quibuscumque vitiis occurrens,
et ad omnia quae spodos. hoc solum distat, quod
huius elutior vis est. additur et in emplastra, quibus
lenis refrigeratio quaeritur et siccatio. utilior ad
omnia quae vino lota est.

130 XXXIV. Spodos Cypria optima. fit autem liques-
centibus cadmea et aerario lapide. levissimum hoc
est flaturae totius evolatque e fornacibus et tectis
adhaerescit, a fuligine distans candore. quod minus
candidum ex ea, inmaturae fornacis argumentum est ;
hoc quidam pompholygem vocant. quod vero rubi-
cundius ex iis invenitur, acriorem vim habet et
exulcerat adeo, ut, cum lavatur, si attigit oculos,

131 excaecet. est et mellei coloris spodos, in qua pluri-

mum aeris intellegitur. sed quodcumque genus

lavando fit utilius ; purgatur ante panno,^ dein

^ lapillis {vel cinere, pilis) coni. Mayhoff.
2 linteo panno coni. K. C. Bailet/ : purgantur ramenta paiino
D'Arcy Thompson: ante pinna aut ante penna.

222

BOOK XXXIV. xxxiii. 128-XXXIV. 131

the furnaces ot copper works. The difference
between them is that bubble is disengaged by wash-
ing but ash is not washed out. Some people have
given the name of ' bubble ' to the substance that
is white and very light in weight, and have said that
it is the ashes of copper and cadmea, but that ' ash '
is darker and heavier. being scraped ofF the walls of
furnaces, mixed with sparks from the ore and some-
times also with charcoal. This material when
vinegar is applied to it gives ofF a smell of copper,
and if touched with the tongue has a horrible taste.
It is a suitable ingredient for eye medicines,
remedying all troubles whatever, and for all the
purposes for which ' ash ' is used ; its only difference
is that its action is less violent. It is also used as an
ingredient for plasters employed to produce a gentle
cooHng and drying effect. It is more efficacious for
all purposes when it is moistened with wlne.

XXXIV. Cyprus ash is the best. It is produced
when cadmea and copper ore are melted. The ash
in question is the lightest part of the whole sub-
stance produced by blasting, and it flies out of the
furnaces and adheres to the roof, being distinguished
from soot by its white colour. Such part of it as is
less white is an indication of inadequate firing ; it is
this that some people call ' bubble.' But the redder
part selected from it has a keener force, and is so
corrosive that if while it is being washed it touches
the eves it causes blindness. There is also an ash
of the colour of honey, which is understood to indicate
that it contains a large amount of copper. But any
kind is made more serviceable by washing ; it is
first purified with a strainer of cloth and then given
a more substantial washing, and the rough portions

223

PLIXY : XATURAL HISTORY

crassiore ^ lotura digitis scabritiae excernuntur.^
eximia ^ vis est eius, quae vino lavatur. est aliqua
et in genere vini differentia. leni enim lota collyriis
oculorum minus utilis putatur, eademque efficacior
ulceribus, quae manent, vel oris, quae madeant, et
omnibus medicamentis, quae parentur contra gan-

132 graenas. fit et in argenti fornacibus spodos, quam
vocant Lauriotim. utilissima autem oculis adfirma-
tur quae fiat in aurariis, nec in alia parte magis est
vitae ingenia mirari. quippe ne quaerenda essent
metalla, vilissimis rebus utilitates easdem excogitavit.

133 XXX\\ Antispodon vocant cinerem fici arboris
vel caprifici vel myrti foliorum cum tenerrimis ramo-
rum partibus vel oleastri vel oleae vel cotonei mali
vel lentisci, item ex moris immaturis, id est candidis,
in sole arefactis vel e buxi coma aut pseudocypiri
aut rubi aut terebinthi vel oenanthes. taurini
quoque glutinis aut Hnteorum cinerem simiUter
poUere inventum est. uruntur omnia ea crudo
fictili in fornacibus, donec figlina percoquantur.

134 XXX\T. In aerariis officinis et smegma fit iam
Hquato aere ac percocto additis etiamnum carbonibus
paulatimque accensis, ac repente vehementiore fiatu

^ crassiore atit crassior cdd. (crossiora al. Virul.): crassiora
D^Arcy Thomjjson : crebriore coni. Maijhoff.

^ scabritiae (scabritis scabritiae B) excernuntur cdd. : sca-
britiem exterunt edd. vett.: excernit Caesarius.

^ eximia Mayhoff et media B : om. et reU.

" So called from Laurium in Attica, where there are still
silver mines.

* This word a/i-^y/xa can, it secms, be uscd not only for a
detergent or cleansing agent, but also for the stuflF removed

224

BOOK XXXIW xxxiv. i3i-xxx\'i. 134

are picked out by the fingers. When it is washed
with wine it is particularly powerful. There is also
some difference in the kind of wine used, as when it
is M'ashed with weak wine it is thought to be less
serviceable for eye-salves, and at the same time more
efficacious for running ulcers or for ulcers of the
mouth that are always wet and more useful for all the
antidotes for gangrene. An ash called Lauriotis "
is also produced in furnaces in which silver is smelted ;
but the kind said to be most serviceable for the eyes
is that wliich is formed in smelting gold. Nor is there
any other department in which the ingenuities of life
are more to be admired, inasmuch as to avoid the
need of searching for metals experience has devised
the same utilities by means of the commonest things.

XXXV. The substance called in Greek ' anti-
spodos ' ' substitute ash ' is the ash of the leaves of the
figtree or wild fig or myrtle together with the tender-
est parts of the branches, or of the wild oUve or cul-
tivated olive or quince or mastic and also ash obtained
from unripe, that is still pale, mulberries, dried in the
sun, or from the foliage of the box or mock-gladiolus,
or bramble or turpentine-tree or cenanthe. The
same virtues have also been found in the ash of
bull-glue or of hnen fabrics. All of these are burnt
in a pot of raw earth heated in a furnace until the
earthenware is thoroughly baked.

XXXVI. Also ' smegma ' ^ is made in copper
forges by adding additional charcoal when the
copper has already been melted, and thoroughly
fused, and gradually kindhng it ; and suddenly
when a stronger blast is applied a sort of chaff of

by cleansing; so here it meana floating impurities containing
sorae copper (K. C. Bailey).

22;

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

exspuitur aeris palca (juaedam. solum, quo exci-
piatur, stratum esse debet marilla.^

135 XXX\^II. Ab ea discernitur quam in isdem officinis
diphrygem vocant Graeci ab eo, quod bis torreatur.
cuius origo triplex. fieri enim traditur ex lapide
pyrite cremato in caminis, donec excoquatur in
rubricam. fit et in Cypro ex luto cuiusdam specus
arefacto ^ prius, mox paulatim circumdatis sarmentis.^
tertio fit modo in fornacibus aeris faece subsidente.
dilferentia est, quod * aes ipsum in catinos defluit,
scoria extra fornaces, flos supernatat, diphryges

136 remanent. quidam tradunt in fornacibus globos
lapidis, qui coquatur, feruminari, circa hunc aes
fervere, ipsum vero non percoqui nisi tralatum in
alias fornaces, et esse nodum ^ quendam materiae ;
id, quod ex cocto supersit, diphryga vocari. ratio
eius in medicina similis praedictis : siccare et
excrescentia consumere ac repurgare. probatur
Hngua, ut eam siccet tactu statim saporemque aeris
reddat.

137 XXXVIIL Unum etiamnum aeris miraculum non
omittemus. Servilia familia inlustris in fastis trien-
tem aereum pascit auro, argento, consumentem
utrumque. origo atque natura eius incomperta mihi

^ marilla lan {olim marila) : marili B : maxili rell. :
maxilla edd. vett. : debet. Facile Hermolaus Barbarus.

^ <8ole> vel <aere> arefacto coni. K. C. Bailey.

^ sarmentis <accen8is> coni. K. C. Bailey s. <(ardentibus>
coni. Warmington.

* V.l. differentiae siquidem : differentia est quidem quod
edd. veit.

* V.l. nudum : nucleum coni. Mayhoff.

226

BOOK XXXIV. xxxvi. 134-XXXV111. 137

copper spirts out. The floor on which it is received
ought to be strewn with charcoal-dust.

XXXVII. Distinguished from ' smegma ' is ihe other impu-
substance in the same forges called by the Greeks "'***'
diphryx, from its being twice roasted. It comes

from three diiferent sources. It is said to be ob-
tained from a mineral pyrites which is heated in
furnaces till it is smelted into a red earth. It is also
made in Cyprus from mud obtained from a certain
cavern, which is first dried and then gradually has
burning brushwood put round it. A third way of
producing it is from the residue that falls to the
bottom in copper furnaces ; the ditference is that
the copper itself runs down into crucibles and the
slag forms outside the furnace and the flower floats on
the top, but the supphes of diphryx remain behind.
Some people say that certain globules of stone that
is being smelted in the furnaces become soldered
together and round this the copper gets red hot,
but the stone itself is not fused unless it is transferred
into other furnaces, and that it is a sort of kernel
of the substance, and that what is called diphryx
i>^ the residue left from the smelting. Its use in
medicine is similar to that of the substances already
described ; to dry up moisture and remove excrescent
growths and act as a detergent. It can be tested
by the tongue — contact with it ought immediately
to have a parching effect and impart a flavour of
copper.

XXXVIII. We will not omit one further remark-
able thing about copper. The Servilian family,
famous in our annals, possesses a bronze J as piece
which it feeds with gold and silver and which con-
sumes them both. Its origin and nature are un-

227

PLINY : NATURAL HLSTORY

est. verba ipsa de ea re Messallae senis ponam :
Serviliorum familia habet trientem sacrum, cui
summa cum cura magnificentiaque sacra quotannis
faciunt. quem ferunt alias crevisse, alias decrevisse
videri et ex eo aut honorem aut deminutionem
familiae significare.

138 XXXIX. Proxime indicari debent metalla ferri.
optumo pessimoque vitae instrumento est,^ siquidem
hoc tellurem scindimus, arbores serimus, arbusta
tondemus,^ vites squalore deciso annis omnibus
cogimus iuvenescere, hoc extruimus tecta, caedimus
saxa, omnesque ad alios usus ferro utimur, sed
eodem ad bella, caedes, latrocinia, non comminus
solum, sed etiam missili volucrique, nunc tormentis
excusso, nunc lacertis, nunc vero pinnato, quam
sceleratissimam humani ingenii fraudem arbitror,
siquidem, ut ocius mors perveniret ad hominem,
alitem illam fecimus pinnasque ferro dedimus.

139 quam ob rem culpa eius non naturae fiat accepta.
ahquot experimentis probatum est posse innocens
esse ferrum. in foedere, quod expulsis regibus
populo Romano dedit Porsina, nominatim compre-
hensum invenimus, ne ferro nisi in agri cultu uteretur.
et tum ^ stilo osseo ^ scribere institutum vetustissimi
auctores prodiderunt. Magni Pompei in tertio

^ est add. Mayhoff.

2 ]'.l. ])onemu8 (p. pomaria cd. Flor. Ricc. ut videtur :
ponimua p. edd. vett.).
^ V.l. cum.
* osseo add. Mayhoff coll. Isid. VI. 9. 2.

228

BOOK XXXIV. XXXVIII. 137-xxxix. 139

known to me, but I will put down the actua) words
of the clder Messala " on the subject. ' The family
of the Servihi has a holy coin to which every year
they perform sacrifices with the greatest devotion
and splendour ; and they say that this coin seems to
have on some occasions grown bigger and on other
occasions smaller, and that thereby it portends either
the advancement or the decadence of the family.'

XXXIX. Next an account must be given of the iron. itf,
mines and ores of iron. Iron serves as the best and ^fLl^f

Tntsuses.

the worst part of the apparatus of Hfe, inasmuch as
with it we plough the ground, plant trees, trim the
trees that prop our vines, force the vines to renew
their youth yearly by ridding them of decrepit growth ;
with it we build houses and quarry rocks, and we
employ it for all other useful purposes, but we
likewise use it for wars and slaughter and brigandage,
and not only in hand-to-hand encounters but as a
winged missile, now projected from catapults, now
hurled by the arm, and now actually equipped with
feathery wings, ^vhich I deem the most criminal
artifice of man's genius, inasmuch as to enable death
to reach human beings more quickly we have taught
iron how to fly and have given wings to it. Let us
therefore debit the blame not to Nature, but to man.
A number of attempts have been made to enable
iron to be innocent. We find it an express provision
included in the treaty granted by Porsena to the 508 b.c.
Roman nation after the expulsion of the kings that 510 b.c.
they should only use iron for purposes of agriculture ;
and our oldest authors have recorded that in those
days it was customary to write with a bone pen.
There is extent an edict of Pompey the Great dated

" Consul in 53 B.c.

229

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

consulatu extat edictum in tumultu necis Clodianae
prohibentis ullum telum esse in urbe.

140 XL. Et ars antiqua ^ ipsa non defuit honorem
mitiorem habere ferro quoque. Aristonidas artifex,
cum exprimere vellet Athamantis furorem Learcho
filio praecipitato residentem paenitentia, aes ferrum-
que miscuit, ut robigine eius per nitorem aeris
relucente exprimeretur verecundiae rubor. hoc

141 signum exstat hodie Rhodi.^ est in eadem urbe et
ferreus Hercules, quem fecit Alcon laborum dei
patientia inductus. videmus et Romae scyphos e
ferro dicatos in templo Martis Ultoris. obstitit
eadem naturae benignitas exigentis ab ferro ipso
poenas robigine eademque providentia nihil in
rebus mortalius ^ facientis * quam quod esset
infestissimum mortalitati.

142 XLI. Ferri metalla ubique propemodum reperiun-
tur, quippe et iam ^ insula Italiae Ilva gignente,
minimaque difficultate adgnoscuntur colore ipso
terrae manifesto. ratio eadem excoquendis venis ;
in Cappadocia tantum quaestio est, aquae an terrae
fiat acceptum, quoniam perfusa Ceraso ^ fluvio
terra neque aliter ferrum e fornacibus reddit.

143 differentia ferri numerosa. prima in genere terrae
caeHve : aliae molle tantum plumboque vicinum

* ars antiqua Mayhoff : tamen uiquea B (t. uique B^) :
tamen vita rell.

2 hodie rhodi B : hodierno die rell. : h.d. Thebis Hardonin ;
Thebis hodie Hermolaus Barbarus.
^ mortalius B : mortalibus rell.

* facientis cd. deperd. Dalecamp : faciente (facientem cd.
Par. 6801, cd. Leid. Voss.).

* et iam K. C. Bailey : etiam.
' Ceraso Urlichs : certo.

230

BOOK XXXIV. XXXIX. 139-xLi. 143

in his third consulship at the time of the disorders 52 b.o.
accompanying the death of Clodius, prohibiting the
possession of any weapon in the city.

XL. Further, the art of former days did not fail to
provide a more humane function even for iron.
When the artist Aristonidas desired to represent the
madness of Athamas subsiding in repentance after
he had hurled his son Learchus from the rock, he
made a blend of copper and iron, in order that the
blush of shame should be represented by rust of the
iron shining through the brilHant surface of the
copper ; this statue is still standing at Rhodes.
There is also in the same city an iron figure of
Heracles, which was made by Alcon, prompted by
the endurance displayed by the god in his labours.
We also see at Rome goblets of iron dedicated in
the temple of Mars the Avenger. The same benevo-
lence of nature has limited the power of iron itself
by inflicting on it the penalty of rust, and the same
foresight by making nothing in the world more
mortal than that which is most hostile to mortality.

XLL Deposits of iron are found almost every- iron ores
where, and they are formed even now in the Italian f,"^ ^"^Scei.
island of Elba, and there is verv Uttle difficulty in
recognizing them as they are indicated by the actual
colour of the earth. The method of melting out the
veins is the same as in the case of copper. In
Cappadocia alone it is merely a question whether the
presence of iron is to be credited to water or to earth,
as that region suppUes iron from the furnaces when
the earth has been flooded by the river Cerasus but
not otherwise, There are numerous varieties of
iron ; the first difference depending on the kind of
soil or of climate — some lands only yield a soft iron

231

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

siibministrant, aliae fragile et aerosum rotarumque
usibus et clavi^; maxime fugiendum, cui prior ratio
convenit ; aliud brevitate sola ^ placet clavisque
caligariis, aliud robiginem celerius sentit. stricturae
vocantur iiae omnes, quod non in aliis metallis, a

144 stringenda acie vocabulo inposito. et fornacium
magna differentia est, nucleusque quidam ferri
excoquitur in iis ad indurandam aciem, alioque modo
ad densandas incudes malleorumve rostra. summa
autem differentia in aqua, cui subinde candens
inmergitur. haec alibi atque alibi utilior nobilitavit
loca gloria ferri, sicuti Bilbilim in Hispania et Turias-
sonem, Comum in Italia, cum ferraria metalla in iis

145 locis non sint. ex omnibus autem generibus palma
Serico ferro est; Seres hoc cum vestibus suis pelli-
busque mittunt; secunda Parthico. neque alia
genera ferri ex mera ^ acie temperantur, ceteris
enim admiscetur mollior complexus. in nostro orbe
aliubi vena bonitatem hanc praestat, ut in Noricis,
aliubi factura, ut Sulmone, aqua aUubi ut ^ diximus,
quippe cum ^ exacuendo oleariae cotes aquariaeque

146 differant et oleo delicatior fiat acies. tenuiora ferra-

^ bonitate soleis K. C. Bailey.

2 ex mera B : ex mira rdl. (ex nimia cd. Vind. ccxxxrv)
eximia edd. vett.

3 aliubi ut Warminyton : uti edd. vett.: ubi.
* V.l. cum in.

" The Chinese; in fact intermediaries are meant.
* In the MSS. this sentence comes after the next one.

232

BOOK XXXIV. xLi. 143-146

closely allied to lead, others a brittle and coppery
kind that is specially to be avoided for the require-
ments of wheels and for nails, for which purpose the
former quaUty is suitable ; another variety of iron
finds favour in short lengths only and in nails for
soldiers' boots ; another variety experiences rust
more quickly. All of these are called ' stricturae.'
edging ores,' a term not used in the case of other
metals ; it is, as assigned to these ores, derived from
striiigere aciem, ' to draw out a sharp edge.' There is
also a great difference between smelting works, and
a certain knurr of iron is smelted in them to give
hardness to a blade, and by another process to giving
sohdity to anvils or the heads of hammers. But the
chief difference depends on the water in which at
intervals the red hot metal is plunged ; the water
in some districts is more serviceable than in others,
and has made places famous for the celebrity of their
iron, for instance Bambola and Tarragona in Spain
and Como in Italy, although there are no iron mines
in those places. But of all varieties of iron the
palm goes to the Seric, sent us by the Seres'^ with
their fabrics and skins. The second prize goes to
Parthian iron ; and indeed no other kinds of iron
are forged from pure metal, as all the rest have a
softer alloy welded with them. In our part of the
world, in some places the lode supplies this good
quality, as for instance in the country of the Norici,
in other places it is due to the method of working,
as at Sulmoiia, and in others, as we have said, it is due § 144.
to the water ; inasmuch as for giving an edge there
is a great difference between oil whetstones and
water whetstones, and a finer edge is produced by
oil. It ^ is the custom to quench smaller iron forgings

^33

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

menta oleo restingui mos est, ne aqua in fragilitatem
durentur.^ mirumque, cum excoquatur vena, aquae
modo liquari ferrum, postea in spongeas frangi.
a ferro sanguis humanus se ulciscitur, contactum
namque eo celerius robiginem trahit.

147 XLII. De magnete lapide suo loco dicemus
concordiaque, quam cum ferro habet. sola haec
materia virus ^ ab eo lapide accipit retinetque longo
tempore, aliud adprehendens ferrum, ut anulorum
catena spectetur interdum. quod volgus imperitum
appellat ferrum vivum, vulneraque talia asperiora

148 fiunt. hic lapis et in Cantabria nascitur, non ut
ille magnes verus caute continua, sed sparsa bulla-
tione ^ — ita appellant, — nescio an vitro * fundendo
perinde utilis, nondum enim expertus est quisquam ;
ferrum utique inficit eadem vi. Magnete lapide
architectus Timochares Alexandriae Arsinoes tem-
plum concamarare incohaverat, ut in eo simulacrum
e ferro pendere in aere videretur. intercessit ipsius
mors et Ptolemaei regis, qui id sorori suae iusserat

149 fieri. XLIII. Metallorum omnium vena ferri largis-
sima est. Cantabriae maritima parte, qua oceanus
adluit, mons praealtus — incredibile dictu — totus ex
ea materia est, ut in ambitu oceani diximus.

^ tcnuiora . . . durentur post acies transj. Rackham : posl
fraiigi habent cdd.

' V.l. vires (vira Isvl. XVL 21. 4).
^ bulbatione B : bullatione rell.
* vitro Hermolaus Barbarus : ultro.

" As well as in Magnesia.

" Wife of Ptolemy II, Philadelphus King of Egypt 286-
247 B.c.

'^ Pliny has not stated this anywhere else. But c/. IV. 112.

234

BOOK XXXI\'. xLi. i46-\Liii. 149

with oil, for fear that water might harden them and
make them brittle. And it is remarkable that when
a vein of ore is fused the iron becomes hquid Hke
water and afterwards acquires a spongy and brittle
texture. Human blood takes its revenge from iron,
as if iron has come into contact with it, it becomes
the more quickly Hable to rust.

XLII. \Ve will speak in the appropriate place Lode-stme.
about the lode-stone and the sympathy which it has f^ff^I.^'
with iron. Iron is the only substance that catches
the infection of that stone and retains it for a long
period, taking hold of other iron, so that we may
sometimes see a chain of rings ; the ignorant lower
classes call this ' Uve iron,' and wounds inflicted with
it are more severe. This sort of stone forms in
Biscaya also ** not in a continuous rocky stratum
like the genuine lodestone alluded to but in a scattered
pebbly formation or ' bubbhng ' — that is what they
call it. I do not know whether it is equally useful
for glass founding, as no one has hitherto tested it,
but it certainly imparts the same magnetic property
to iron. The architect Timochares had begun to use
lodestone for constructing the vaulting in the Temple
of Arsinoe ^ at Alexandria, so that the iron statue
contained in it might have the appearance of being
suspended in mid air ; but the project was interrupted
by his own death and that of King Ptolemy who had
ordered the work to be done in honour of his sister.
XLIII. Iron ore is found in the greatest abundance
of all metals. In the coastal part of Biscaya washed
by the Atlantic there is a very high mountain which,
marvellous to relate, consists entirely of that mineral,
as we stated ° in our account of the lands bordering
on the Ocean

235

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

Ferrum accensum igni, nisi duretur ictibus, cor-
rumpitur. rubens non est habile tundendo neque
antequam albescere incipiat. aceto aut alumine

150 inlitum fit aeri simile. a robigine vindicatur cerussa
et gypso et liquida pice. haec est ferro a Graecis
antipathia dicta. ferunt quidem et religione qua-
dam id fieri et exstare ferream catenam apud
Euphraten amnem in urbe, quae Zeugma appellatur,
qua Alexander Magnus ibi iunxerit pontem, cuius
anulos, qui refecti sint, robigine infestari, carentibus
ea prioribus.

151 XLIV. Medicina e ferro est et alia quam secandi.
namque et circumscribi circulo ^ terve circumlato
mucrone et adultis et infantibus prodest contra noxia
medicamenta, et praefixisse in limine evulsos sepul-
chris clavos adversus nocturnas lymphationes, pungi-
que leviter mucrone, quo percussus homo sit, contra
dolores laterum pectorumque subitos, qui punctionem
adferant. quaedam ustione sanantur, privatim vero
canis rabidi morsus, quippe etiam praevalente morbo
expaventesque potum usta plaga ilico liberantur.
calfit etiam ferro candente potus in multis vitiis,
privatim vero dysentericis.

152 XLV. Est et robigo ipsa in remediis, et sic proditur

circulo B : circulos rell.

See § 175.

Opposite the modern Birejik.

236

BOOK XXXIV. xLiii. 149-XLV. 152

Iron tliat has been heated by fire is spoiled unless
it is hardened by blows of the hammer. It is not
suitable for hammering while it is red hot, nor before
it begins to turn pale. If vinegar or akim is sprinkled
on it it assumes the appearance of copper. It can
be protected from rust by means of lead acetate/^
gypsum and vegetable pitch ; rust is called by the
Greeks ' antipathia,' ' natural opposite ' to iron. It
is indeed said that the same result may also be pro-
duced by a reHgious ceremony, and that in the city
called Zeugma * on the river Euphrates there is an
iron chain that was used by Alexander the Great in
making the bridge at that place, the Hnks of which 331 b.o.
that are new replacements are attacked by rust
althouffh the original Hnks are free from it.

XLIV. Iron suppHes another medicinal service Medidnai
besides its use in surgery. It is beneficial both for "^«^* '^/ ""''"
adults and infants against noxious drugs for a circle
to be drawn round them with iron or for a pointed
iron weapon to be carried round them ; and to have a
fence of nails that have been extracted from tombs
driven in in front of the threshold is a protection
against attacks of nightmare, and a Hght prick
made with the point of a weapon with which a man
has been wounded is beneficial against sudden pains
which bring a pricking sensation in the side and chest.
Some maladies are cured by cauterization, but
particularlv the bite of a mad dog, inasmuch as even
when the disease is getting the upper hand and when
the patients show symptoms of hydrophobia they are
reHeved at once if the wound is cauterized. In many
disorders, but especiaUy in dysenteric cases, drinking
water is heated with redhot iron.

XLW The Hst of remedies even includes rust

237

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

Telephuni sanasse Achilles, sive id aerea sive ferrea
cuspide fecit; ita certe pingitur ex ea decutiens
gladio suo.^ robigo ferri deraditur umido ferro

153 clavis veteribus. potentia eius ligare, siccare, sistere.
emendat alopecias inlita. utuntur et ad scabritias
genarum pusulasque totius corporis cum cera et
myrteo oleo, ad ignes vero sacros ex aceto, item
ad scabiem, paronychia digitorum et pterygia in
linteolis. sistit et feminarum profluvia inposita
in vellere, utilis ^ plagis quoque recentibus vino diluta
et cum murra subacta, condylomatis ex aceto. poda-
gras quoque inlita lenit.

L54 XLVI. Squama quoque ferri in usu est ex acie aut
mucronibus, maxime simili, sed acriore vi quam
robigo, quam ob rem et contra epiphoras oculorum
adsumitur. sanguinem sistit, cum volnera ferro
maxime fiant ! sistit et feminarum profluvia. in-
ponitur et contra lienium vitia, et haemorroidas
compescit ulcerumque serpentia. et genis prodest

155 farinae modo adspersa paullisper. praecipua tamen
commendatio eius in hygremplastro ad purganda
vulnera fistulasque et omnem callum erodendum et
rasis ossibus carnes recreandas. componitur hoc
modo : propolis ^ oboli vi, Cimoliae cretae drachmae
VI, aeris tusi drachmae ii, squamae ferri * totidem,

^ suo A'. C. Bailey : sed.

2 in vellere, utilis coni. Mayhoff: velleribus.

3 propolis Mayhoff [coll. XXII. 107, Scribon., 209) gni e/
galbani vel panacis coni. : pal. B : pari rell. : panis lan :
aluminis coni. Sillig : picis Hardouin.

* V.l. ferreae.

« Cf. XXXV, 195 ft".
238

BOOK XXXIV. xLv. T52-XLV1. 155

itself, and this is the way in which Achilles is stated
to have cured Telephus, whether he did it by means
of a copper javelin or an iron one ; at all events
Achilles is so represented in painting, knocking the
rust ofF a javelin with his sword. Rust of iron is
obtained by scraping it off old nails with an iron tool
dipped in water. The effect of rust is to unite
wounds and dry them and staunch them, and applied
as a liniment it relieves fox-mange. They also use
it with wax and oil of myrtle for scabbiness of the
eye-lids and pimples in all parts of the body, but
dipped in vinegar for erysipelas and also for scab,
and, applied on pieces of cloth, for hangnails on the
fingers and whitlows. Applied on wool it arrests
women's discharges and for recent wounds it is useful
diluted with wine and kneaded with myrrh, and for
swellings round the anus dipped in vinegar. Used
as a liniment it also relieves gout.

XLVI. Scale of iron, obtained from a sharp edge
or point, is also employed, and has an effect extremely
like that of rust only more active, for which reason
it is employed even for running at the eyes. It
arrests haemorrhage, though it is with iron that
wounds are chiefiy made ! And it also arrests female
discharges. It is also applied against troubles of the
spleen, and it checks haemorrhoidal swellings and
creeping ulcers. Applied for a brief period in the
form of a powder it is good for the eyelids. But
its chief recommendation is its use in a wet plaster
for cleaning wounds and fistulas and for eating out
every kind of callosity and making new flesh on
bones that have been denuded. The foUowing are
the ingredients : six obols of bee-glue, six drams of
Cimolo earth," two drams of pounded copper, tw^o of

239

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

cerae x,^ olei sextarius. his adicitur, cum sunt
repurjranda volnera aut replenda, ceratum.
150 XL\TI. Sequitur natura plumbi, cuius duo genera,
nigrum atque candidum. pretiosissimum in ^ hoc
candidum, Graecis appellatum cassiterum fabulo-
seque narratum in insulas Atlantici maris peti vitili-
busque navigiis et circumsutis corio advehi. nunc
certum est in Lusitania gigni et in Gallaecia summa

157 telUn-e, harenosa et coloris nigri. pondere tantum
ea deprehenditur ; interveniunt et minuti calculi,
maxime torrentibus siccatis. lavant eas harenas
metallici et, quod subsedit, cocunt in fornacibus.
invenitur et in aurariis metallis, quae alutias ^ vocant,
aqua immissa eluente calculos nigros paullum candore
variatos, quibus eadem gravitas quae auro, et ideo
in catillis * quibus aurum colligitur, cum eo remanent ;
postea caminis separantur conflatique in plumbum

158 album resolvuntur. non fit in Gallaecia nigrum, cum
vicina Cantabria nigro tantum abundet, nec ex albo
argentum, cum fiat ex nigro. iungi inter se phmi-
bum nigrum sine albo non potcst nec hoc ei sine oleo
ac ne album quidem secum sine nigro. album
habuit auctoritatem et lliacis temporibus teste

159 Homero, cassiterum ab illo dictum. plumbi nigri

1 X Mayhoff : XL B^ : xi B^ : ex aut sex relL
^ iii add. Mayhuff.
^ alutias B : alutia aut aluta rell.

* catillis Warmington : scutulis Urlichs : calathis cd. Par.
6801 recte ? : calatis aut colatis aut cloacis rell. (cutalis B).

" riiny's ' black lead ' is lead, and his ' white lead ' is tin,
Neithor must be confused with the ' black lead ' and ' white
lead ' of modern usage.

^ Or, if we read calathis, ' baskets.'

240

BOOK XXXI \. xLvi. 155-XLV11. 159

scale of iron, ten of wax and a pint of oil. When it
is desired to cleanse or fill up wounds, wax plaster is
added to these ingredients.

XLVII. The next topic is the nature of lead, of Leadand
which there are two kinds, black and white." White '*"•
lead (tin) is the most valuable ; the Greeks applied
to it the name cassiteros, and there was a legendary
storv of their e-oino; to islands of the Atlantic ocean to
fetch it and importing it in platted vessels made of
osiers and covered with stitched hides. It is now
known that it is a product of Lusitania and Gallaecia
found in the surface-strata of the ground which is
sandy and of a black colour. It is only detected by its
weight, and also tiny pebbles of it occasionally appear,
especially in dry beds of torrents. The miners wash
this sand and heat the deposit in furnaces. It is
also found in the goldmines called ' alutiae,' through
which a stream of water is passed that washes out
black pebbles of tin mottled with small white spots,
and of the same weight as gold, and consequently
they remain with the gold in the bowls ^ in which
it is coUected, and afterwards are separated in the
furnaces, and fused and melted into white lead.
BLack lead does not occur in Gallaecia, although the
neighbouring country of Biscaya has large quantities
of black lead only ; and white lead yields no silver,
although it is obtained from black lead. Black lead
cannot be soldered wath black without a layer of
white lead, nor can white be soldered to black with-
out oil, nor can even white lead be soldered with
white \\ithout some black lead. Homer testifies /z. xi, 25;
that white lead or tin had a high position even in the ^74^0^^^^
Trojan period, he giving it the name of cassiteros. xxiii, 5ci.
There are two different sources of black lead, as it is

241

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

origo duplex est; aut enim sua provenit vena nec
quicquam aliud ex sese parit aut cum argento
nascitur mixtisque venis conflatur. huius qui pri-
mus fuit in fornacibus liquor stagnum appellatur;
qui secundus, argentum ; quod remansit in fornacibus,
galena, quae fit tertia portio additae venae ; haec
rursus conflata dat nigrum plumbum deductis partibus
nonis ii.

160 XLVm. Stagnum inlitum aereis vasis saporem
facit gratiorem ac compescit virus aeruginis, mirum-
que. pondus non auget. specula etiam ex eo
laudatissima, ut diximus, Brundisi temperabantur,
donec argenteis uti coepere et ancillae. nunc
adulteratur stagnum addita aeris candidi tertia
portione in plumbum album. fit et alio modo mixtis
albi plumbi nigrique Hbris ; hoc nunc aliqui argen-
tarium appellant, iidem et tertiarium vocant, in
quo duae sunt nigri portiones et tertia albi. pre-
tium eius in libras X xx.^ hoc fistulae solidantur.

161 inprobiores ad tertiarium additis partibus aequis
albi argentarium vocant et eo quae volunt inco-
quunt. pretium ^ huius faciunt in p. X lxx.^ albo
per se sincero pretium ^ sunt X lxxx,-^ nigro X vii.^

Albi natura plus aridi habet, contraque nigri tota

1 ^xx B : XXX rell. (x.x al. Par. Lat. 0797).

2 V.l. pretia (pretio ccl. Leid. Voss.).

3 XLXX /// B^ : varia cdd. * V.l. pretia.
5 XLXXX B^ : varia cdd.

* x.vii cd. Chiffl. apud Dalecamp : xvii rell.

" The mixture is galena or snlphide of lead, the commonest
lead ore, for whieh, see XXXIII, 95.

*• Or stannum, alloy of silver and lead.

•= Galena is here crude or impure lead, not the modern
galena or sulphide of lead, for which see XXXIII, 95.

** Brass.

242

BOOK XXXIV xLvii. 159-XLV111. 161

either found in a vein of its own and produces no
other substance mixed with it, or it forms together
with silver, and is smelted with the two veins mixed
together." Of this substance the Hquid that melts
first in the furnaces is called stagnum ^ ; the second
liquid is argentiferous lead, and the residue left in
the furnaces is impure lead '^ which forms a third
part of the vein originally put in ; when this is
again fused it gives black lead, having lost two-
ninths in bulk.

XLVIII. When copper vessels are coated with
stagnum the contents have a more agreeable taste
and the formation of destructive verdigris is pre-
vented, and, what is remarkable, the weight is not
increased. Also, as we have said, it used to be xxxiil
employed at Brindisi as a material for making
mirrors which were very celebrated, until even
servant-maids began to use silver ones. At the
present day a counterfeit stagnnm is made by adding
one part of white copper ^ to two parts of white lead ;
and it is also made in another way by mixing together
equal weights of white and black lead : the latter
compound some people now call ' silver mixture.'
The same people also give the name of ' tertiary '
to a compound containing two portions of black lead
and one of Avhite ; its price is 20 denarii a pound.
It is used for soklering pipes. More dishonest
makers add to tertiary an equal amount of white
lead and call it ' silver mixture,' and use it melted
for plating by immersion any articles they wish.
They put the price of this last at 70 denarii for 1 Ib. :
the price of pure white lead without alloy is 80 denarii,
and of black lead 7 denarii.

The substance of white lead has more dryness,

243

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

umida est. ideo album nulli rei sine mixtura utile
est. neque argentum ex eo plumbatur, quoniam

162 prius liquescat argentum, confirmantque, si minus
albo nigri, quam satis sit, misceatur, erodi ab eo
argentum. album incoquitur aereis operibus Gal-
liarum invento ita, ut vix discerni possit ab argento,
eaque incoctilia appellant. deinde et argentum
incoquere simili modo coepere equorum maxime
ornamentis iumentorumque ac iugorum in Alesia

163 oppido ; reliqua gloria Biturigum fuit. coepere
deinde et esseda sua colisataque ac petorita exornare
simili modo, quae iam luxuria ad aurea quoque, non
modo argentea, staticula ^ pervenit, quaeque in
scyphis cerni prodigum ^ erat, haec in vehiculis adteri
cultus vocatur.

plumbi albi experimentum in charta est, ut lique-
factum pondere videatur, non calore, rupisse. India
neque aes neque plumbum habet gemmisque ac
margaritis suis haec permutat.

164 XLIX, Nigro phimbo ad fistulas lamnasque utimur,
laboriosius in Hispania eruto totasque per GalHas,
se din Brittannia summo terrae corio adeo large, ut
lex interdicat ut ^ ne phis certo modo fiat. nigri

^ vehicula al. Par. 6801, al. Par. Lat. 6797, in.2 in ras.

^ V.l. prodigium.

^ lex interdicat ut M. Hertz : lex ultro dicatur ald. : lex
cavere dicatur Urlichs : lex custodiatur Detlefsen : lege
interdicatur Brunn : nec interdicatur coni. Mayhoff.

" But silver does not melt sooner than ' white lead ' (tin).
Perhaps some alloy is meant here.
** At Mont Auxois near Ahse.

244

BOOK XXXIV. xLviii. 161-XLIX. 164

whereas that of black lead is entirely moist. Conse-
quently white lead cannot be iised for anything
without an admixture of another metal, nor can
it be employed for soldering silver, because the silver
melts before the white lead." And it is asserted
that if a smaller quantity of black lead than is
necessary is mixed with the white, it corrodes the
silver. A method discovered in the Gallic provinces
is to plate bronze articles with white lead so as to make
them almost indistinguishable from silver ; articles
thus treated are called ' incoctilia.' Later they also
proceeded in the town Alesia ^ to plate with silver in
a similar manner, particularly ornaments for horses
and pack animals and yokes of oxen ; the distinction
of developing this method belongs to Bordeaux.
Then they proceeded to decorate two-wheeled war-
chariots, chaises and four-wheeled carriages in a
similar manner, a kixurious practice that has now
got to using not only silver but even gold statuettes,
and it is now called good taste to subject to wear
and tear on carriages ornaments that it was once
thought extravagant to see on a goblet !

It is a test of white lead when melted and poured
on papyrus to seem to have burst the paper by its
weight and not by its heat. India possesses neither
copper nor lead, and procures them in exchange for
her precious stones and pearls.

XLIX. Black lead which we use to make pipes
and sheets is excavated with considerable labour
in Spain and through the whole of the Gallic
provinces, but in Britain it is found in the surface-
stratum of the earth in such abundance that there
is a law prohibiting the production of more than a
certain amount. The various kinds of black lead

245

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

generibus haec siint nomina : Ovetaniim/ Caprariense,
Oleastrense, nec diflferentia ulla scoria modo excocta
diligenter. mirum in his solis metallis, quod dere-

165 licta fertilius revivescunt. hoc videtur facere laxatis
spiramentis ad satietatem infusus aer, aeque ut
feminas quasdam fecundiores facere abortus. nuper
id conpertum in Baetica Salutariensi ^ metallo, quod
locari soHtum X cc ^ annuis, postquam obliteratum
erat, X cclv ^ locatum est. simili modo Antonianum
in eadem provincia pari locatione pervenit ad hs cccc
vectigalis. mirum et addita aqua non liquescere
vasa e plumbo, eadem, si in aquam ^ addantur calculus
vel aereus quadrans, peruri.

166 L. In medicina per se plumbi usus cicatrices
reprimere adalligatisque lumborum et renium parti
lamnis frigidiore natura inhibere inpetus veneris
visaque in quiete veneria sponte naturae erumpentia
usque in genus morbi. his lamnis Calvus orator
cohibuisse se traditur viresque corporis studiorum
labori custodisse. Nero, quoniam ita placuit diis,
princeps, lamna pectori inposita sub ea cantica
exclamans alendis vocibus demonstravit rationem.

167 coquitur ad medicinae usus patinis fictilibus sub-
strato sulpure minuto, lamnis impositis tenuibus

^ Ovetanum Hardouin : iovetanum B : iovetantum rell.

2 Salutariensi coni. Mayhoff : samariensi B : santarensi
aut samiarenci aut saremianensi rell.

^ cc lan : cc. M. cd. Leid. Voss., cd. Flor. Ricc^ (ccc
Ricc^) : cc rell.

*■ ^ ccLV Mayhoff : varia cdd. el edd.

* in aquam C. F. W . Milller: sine aqua K. C. Bailey: coni.
Mayhoff cum aqua.

" Not true. K. C. Bailey suggests si sine aqua and trans-
lates ' a hole is burnt in the same vessels if fiUed with pebbles
or copper coins instead of water.'
246

BOOK XXXTV. xLix. 164-L. 167

have the following names — Oviedo lead, Capraria
lead, Oleastrum lead, though there is no difference
between them provided the slag has been carefully
smelted away. It is a remarkable fact in the case
of these mines only that when they have been
abandoned they replenish themselves and become
more productive. This seems to be due to the air
infusing itself to saturation through the open
orifices, just as a miscarriage seems to make some
women more proHfic. This was recently observed
in the Salutariensian mine in Baetica, Mhich used to
be let at a rent of 200,000 denarii a year, but which
was then abandoned, and subsequently let for
255,000. Likewise the Antonian mine in the same
province from the same rent has reached a return
of 400,000 sesterces. It is also remarkable that
vessels made of lead will not melt if they have water
put in them, but if to the water a pebble or quarter-
as coin is added, the fire burns through " the vessel.

L. In medicine lead is used by itself to remove Medimi
scars, and leaden plates are applied to the region l'^^ °^
of the loins and kidneys for their comparative chilly
nature to check the attacks of venereal passions,
and the hbidinous dreams that cause spontaneous
emissions to the extent of constituting a kind of
disease. It is recorded that the pleader Calvus
used these plates to control himself and to preserve
his bodily strength for laborious study. Nero,
whom heaven was pleased to make emperor, used to
have a plate of lead on his chest when singing songs
fortissimo, thus shomng a method for preserving the
voice. For medical purposes lead is melted in
earthen vessels, a layer of finely powdered sulphur
being put underneath it ; on this thin plates are

247

PLINY : NATURAL IILSTORY

opertisque sulpure, veru ferreo ^ niixtis. cum co-
quatur.2 munienda in eo opere foramina spiritus
convenit ; alioqui plumbi fornacium halitus noxius
sentitur et pestilens ; nocet ^ canibus ocissime,
omnium vero metallorum muscis et culicibus, quam
ob rem non sunt ea taedia in metallis.

168 Quidam in coquendo scobem plumbi lima quaesitam
sulpuri miscent, alii cerussam potius quam sulpur.
fit et lotura plumbi usus in medicina. cum se ipso
teritur in mortariis plumbeis addita aqua caelesti,
donec crassescat ; postea supernatans aqua tollitur
spongeis ; quod crassissimum fuit, siccatum dividitur
in pastillos. quidam limatum plumbum sic terunt,
quidam et plumbaginem admiscent, alii vero acetum,

169 alii vinum, alii adipem, alii rosam. quidam in
lapideo mortario et maxime Thebaico plumbum
pistillo lapideo ^ terere mahmt, candidiusque ita
fit medicamentum. id autem quod ustum est
plumbum lavatur ut stibis et cadmea. potest
adstringere, sistere, contrahere cicatrices ; usu est ^
eodem et in oculorum medicamentis, maxime contra
procidentiam eorum et inanitates ulcerum excres-
centiave rimasque sedis aut haemorroidas et con-

170 dylomata. ad haec maxime lotura plumbi facit,

^ veru ferreo coni. Mayhoff: et ferro aut est et foro.

2 coquimtur coni. Mayhoff.

^ nocet Warmington: est Mayhoff : et.

* plumbum {Urlichs) pistillo (e cd. Par. Lat. 6797) lapideo
(coU. Diosc.) K. C. Bailey : plumbeum pistillum aut plumbeo
pistillum cdd. (pistillo al. Par. Lat. 6797).

^ usu est Mayhoff: usus et cdd. : usus enim ex ed. vett.:
usus ex Sillig.

« See XXXIII, 98. » See § 175.

' Not it seems the plant lead-wort. Cf. Dioscorides, V, 95,
100.
248

BOOK XXXIV. L. 167 ryo

laid and covered with sulphur and stirred up with
an iron spit. While it is being melted, tlie breathing
passages should be protected during the operation,
otherwise the noxious and deadly vapour of the lead
furnace is inhaled : it is hurtful to dogs with special
rapidity," but the vapour of all metals is so to flies
and gnats, owing to which those aimoyances are not
found in mines.

Some people during the process of smelting mix
lead-fihngs with the sulphur, and others use lead
acetate ^ in preference to sulphur. Another use of
lead is to make a wash — it is employed in medicine —
pieces of lead with rainwater added being ground
against themselves in leaden mortars till the whole
assumes a thick consistency, and then water floating
on the top is removed with sponges and the very thick
sediment left when dry is divided into tablets. Some
people grind up lead fiUngs in this way and some also
mix in some lead ore,'^ but others use vinegar, others
wine, others grease, others oil of roses. Some prefer
to grind the lead with a stone pestle in a stone mortar,
and especially one made of Thebes stone,^ and this
process produces a drug of a whiter colour. Calcined
lead is M-ashed Uke antimony and cadmea.^ It has
the property of acting as an astringent and arresting
haemorrhage and of promoting cicatrization. It is of
the same utility also in medicines for the eyes,
especially as preventing their procidence, and for
the cavities or excrescences left by ulcers and for
fissures of the anus or haemorrhoids and swelhngs of
the anus. For these purposes lead lotion is ex-

<" Cf. XXXIII, 68; XXXIV, 106; XXXVI, 63, 157.
• See XXXIII, 103 ; XXXIV, 100-104.

249
VOL. IX. I

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

cinis autem usti ad serpentia ulcera aut sordida,
eadenique quae chartis ^ ratio profectus. uritur
autem in patinis per lamnas minutas cum sulpure,
versatum rudibus ferreis aut ferulaceis, donec liquor
mutetur in cinerem ; dein refrigeratum teritur in
farinam. alii elimatam scobem in fictili crudo cocunt
in caminis, donec percoquatur figlinum. aliqui
cerussam admiscent pari mensura aut hordeum
teruntque ut in crudo ^ dictum est, et praeferunt
sic plumbum spodio Cyprio.

171 LI. Scoria quoque plumbi in usu est. optima quae
maxime ad hiteum colorem accedit, sine phimbi
rehquiis aut sulpuris, specie terrae ^ carens. lavatur
haec in mortariis minutim fracta, donec aqua luteum
colorem trahat, et transfunditur in vas purum,
idque saepius, usque dum subsidat quod utiHssimum
est. effectus habet eosdem quos phimbum, sed
acriores. mirarique succurrit experientiam * vitae,
ne faece quidem rerum excrementorumque foeditate
intemptata tot modis.

172 LII. Fit et spodium ex phimbo eodem modo quo
ex Cyprio aere ; lavatur in Hnteis raris aqua caelesti
separaturque terrenum transfusione ; cribratum
teritur. quidam pulverem eum pinnis digerere
malunt ac terere in vino odorato.

^ chalcitidis coni. Mayhoff.

" in crudo cdd. : supra coni. K. C. Bailey.

^ specie terrae B : et terra rell.

* experientia B.

* For the medicinal use of burnt papyrus see XXIV, 8S.

* See § 175.

•= Some kind of Htharge.

2S0

BOOK XXXIV. L. 170-L11. 172

tremely efficient, while for creeping or foul iilcers ash
of calcined lead is useful ; and the benefit they
produce is on the samc lines as in the case of sheets
of papyrus." The lead is burnt in small sheets
mixed with sulphur, in shallow vessels, being stirred
with iron rods or fennel stalks till the molten metal
is reduced to ashes ; then after being cooled ofF it is
ground into powder. Another process is to boil
lead filings in a vessel of raw earth in furnaces till the
earthenware is completely baked. Some mix with
it an equal amount of lead acetate ^ or of barley and
grind this mixture, in the way stated in the case of § I68.
raw lead, and prefer the lead treated in this way to
the Cyprus slag.

LI. The dross of lead is also utiUzed. The best
is that which approximates in colour most closely to
yellow, containing no remnants of lead or sulphur,
and does not look earthy. This is broken up into
small fragments and washed in mortars till the water
assumes a yellow colour, and poured ofF into a clean
vessel, and the process is repeated several times till
the most valuable part settles as a sediment at the
bottom. Lead dross has the same effects as lead,
but to a more active degree. This suggests a remark
on the marvellous efficacy of human experiment,
which has not left even the dregs of substances and
the foulest refuse untested in such numerous ways '

LII. Slag ^ is also made from lead in the same
way as from Cyprus copper ; it is washed with rain j 123 sqq.
water in linen sheets of fine texture and the earthy
particles are got rid of by rinsing, and the residue
is sifted and then ground. Some prefer to separate
the powder with a feather. and to grind it up with
aromatic wine.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

173 LIII. Kst et molybdaena, quam a!io loco galenam
apjiellavimus, vena argenti plumbique communis.
melior haec, quanto magis aurei coloris quantoque
minus plumbosa, friabilis et modice gravis. cocta
cum oleo iocineris colorem trahit. adhaerescit et
auri argentique fornacibus ; hanc metallicam vocant.
laudatissima quae in Zephyrio fiat ; probantur minime

174 terrenae minimeque lapidosae. coquuntur lavantur-
que scoriae modo. usus in lipara ad lenienda ac
refrigeranda ulcera et emplastris, quae non inligantur,
sed inlita ad cicatricem perducunt in teneris corpori-
bus mollissimisque partibus. compositio eius e
libris III et cerae libra, olei iii heminis, quod in senili
corpore cum fracibus additur. temperatur cum
spuma argenti et scoria plumbi ad dysenteriam et
tenesmum fovenda calida.

l7o 1A\. Psimithium quoque, hoc est cerussam, plum-
bariae dant officinae, laudatissimam in Rhodo. fit
autem ramentis phmibi tenuissimis super vas aceti
asperrimi inpositis atque ita destillantibus. quod ex
eo cecidit in ipsum acetum, arefactum molitur et
cribratur iterumque aceto admixto in pastillos
dividitur et in sole siccatur aestate. fit et alio modo,
addito in urceos aceti plumbo opturatos per dies x
derasoque ceu situ ac rursus reiecto, donec deficiat

<» In this word Piiny includes two things : (i) a mineral
which is lead sulphide (still ealled galena) or perhaps lead
oxide (massicot); (ii) an artificial product which is litharge.
Both Pliny and Dioscorides call the mineral yeliow, which is
true of litharge, not of lead sulphide. So the mineral may be
tlie yellow or yellowisli red massicot (K. C. Bailey).

* Sugar of lead, not the modern basic lead carbouate or
' white lead.'

2t;2

BOOK XXXIV. Liii. 173 Liv 175

LIII. There i.s also molybdaena " (which in another ^Moiybdama.
place we have called galeiia) ; it is a mineral com- xxxiii,
pound of silver and lead. It is better the more xxxW
golden its colour and the less leaden : it is friable io9-
and of moderate weight. \Vhen boiled with oil it
acquires the colour of Hver. It is also found adhering
to furnaces in which gold and silver are smelted ; in
this case it is called metallic sulphide of lead. The
kind most highly esteemed is produced at Zephyrium.
Varieties with the smallest admixture of earth and of
stone are approved of ; they are melted and washed
Hke dross. It is used in preparing a particular
emolhent plaster for soothing and cooling ulcers
and in plasters which are not applied with bandages
but which they use as a liniment to promote cicatriza-
tion on the bodies of delicate persons and on the
more tender parts. It is a composition of three
pounds of sulphide of lead and one of wax with half
a pint of oil, which is added with soHd lees of oHves
in the case of an elderly patient. Also combined
with scum of silver and dross of lead it is appHed
warm for fomenting dysentery and constipation.

LIW ' Psimithium ' also, that is cerussa or lead sugarof
acetate,* is produced at lead-works. The most ^^^'
highly spoken of is in Rhodes. It is made from
very fine shavings of lead placed over a vessel of
very sour vinegar and so made to drip down. What
falls from the lead into the actual vinegar is dried
and then ground and sifted, and then again mixed
with vinegar and divided into tablets and dried in
the sun, in summertime. There is also another way
of making it, by putting the lead into jars of vinegar
kept sealed up for ten days and then scraping off the
sort of decayed metal on it and putting it back in

253

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

176 materia. quod derasum est, teritur et cribratur et
coquitur in patinis misceturque rudiculis, donec
rufescat et simile sandaracae fiat. dein lavatur
dulci aqua, donec nubeculae omnes eluantur. sic-
catur postea similiter et in pastillos dividitur. vis
eius eadem quae supra dictis, lenissima tantum ex
omnibus, praeterque ad candorem feminarum. est
autem letalis potu sicut spuma argenti. postea
cerussa ipsa, si coquatur, rufescit.

177 LV. Sandaracae quoque propemodum dicta natura
est. invenitur autem et in aurariis et in argentariis
metallis, melior quo magis rufa quoque magis virus
sulpuris ^ redolens ac pura friabilisque. valet pur-
gare, sistere, excalfacere, erodere, summa eius
dote septica. explet alopecias ex aceto inlita;
additur oculorum medicamentis ; fauces purgat
cum melle sumpta vocemque limpidam et canoram
facit; suspiriosis et tussientibus iucunde medetur
cum resina terebinthina in cibo sumpta, suffita
quoque cum cedro ipso nidore isdem medetur.

178 LVL Et arrhenicum ex eadem est materia. quod
optimum, coloris etiam in auro excellentis ; quod
vero pallidius aut sandaracae simile est, deterius
iudicatur. est et tertium genus, quo miscetur
aureus color sandaracae. utraque haec squamosa,

' sulpuris add. Mayhoff.

" Red sulphide of arsenic.
* Yellow sulphide of arsenic.

254

BOOK XXXIV. LTv. 175-LV1. 178

the vinegar, till the whole ofit is iised up. The stufF
scraped ofF is ground up and sifted and heated in
shallow vessels and stirred with small rods till it
turns red and becomes Hke sajidarach. realgar.^
Then it is washed with fresh water till all the cloudy
impurities have been removed. Afterwards it is
dried in a similar way and divided into tablets. Its
properties are the same as those of the substances
mentioned above, only it is the mildest of them all,
and beside that, it is useful for giving women a fair
complexion ; but like scum of silver, it is a deadly
poison. The lead acetate itself if afterwards melted
becomes red.

LV. Of realgar aiso the properties have been Reaigar.
almost completely described. It is found both in
goldmines and silvermines ; the redder it is and the
more it gives off a poisonous scent of sulphur and the
purer and more friable it is, the better it is. It acts
as a cleanser, as a check to bleeding, as a calorific
and a caustic, being most remarkable for its corrosive
property ; used as a Hniment with vinegar it removes
fox-mange ; it forms an ingredient in eye-washes,
and taken with honey it cleans out the throat. It
also produces a clear and melodious voice, and mixed
with turpentine and taken in the food, is an agree-
able remedy for asthma and cough ; its vapour also
remedies the same complaints if merely used as a
fumigation with cedar wood.

LVI. Orpiment ^ also is obtained from the same Orpimem.
substance. The best is of a colour of even the
finest-coloured gold, but the paler sort or what
resembles sandarach is judged inferior. There is
also a third class which combines the colours of gold
and of sandarach. Both of the latter are scaly, but

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

illiid vero sicciim purumque, gracili venarum discursu
fissile. vis eadem quae supra, sed acrior. itaque
et causticis additur et psilotris. tollit et pterygia
digitorum carnesque narium et condylomata et
quidquid excrescit. torretur, ut valdius ^ prosit, in
nova testa, donec mutet colorem.

' valdius B : validius rell.

NOTE ON XXXIV. 17 AND 70.

The gronp of two figures (representing Harmodius and

Aristogeiton) made by Antenor in bronze, set up at Athens in
510-9 B.C., was oarried off by Xerxes in 480 ; and a new
bronze pair was made by Critius and Nesiotes and set up at
Athens in 477. Antenor's group was found by Alexander in
Persia, and on his orders, it seems, one of his successors
c. 293-2 restored it to Athens ; part of the original base of
Critius' and Nesiotes' group, it seems, has now been found;
the marble group now at Naples is thought to be a Roman
copy of the same group and made in the 2nd cent. a.d. The
bearded head of Aristogeiton can be restored from a head in
the Vatican. Copies of this group can be seen on four Attic
vases of the first half of the fifth century b.c. (Beazley,
Journ. of Hellen. Stnd. LXVIII (1948), 28), and one of about
400 B.c. (W. Hahland, Vasen um Meidias p. 6 and pl. 6a).

256

BOOK XXXIV. Lvi. 178

the othep is dry and pure. and divided in a delicate
tracery of veins. Its properties are the same as
mentioned above, but more active. Accordingly
it is used as an ingredient in cauteries and depilatories.
It also removes overgrowths of flcsh on to the nails,
and pimples in the nostrils and swellings of the anus
and all excrescences. To increase its efficacy it is
heated in a new earthenware pot till it changes its

co

lour.

also in the .sketch in low relief on a marble throne now at
Broomhall. Other copies of Critius' and Xesiotes' work such
as that on a coin of Cyzicus c. 420 b.c, those on Athena's
shield depicted on three Attic amphorae of c. 400 B.c. (or a
later date), and that on an Athenian tetradrachm of c. 400 b.c,
are probably imitations raade from memory. C. Seltman's
opinion that the Broomhall relief suggests a copy of Antenor's
group is doubtfu! (Seltman, Journ. of Hellen. Stiid., LXVII
(1947), 22-27). The group made by Praxiteles (PHny, XXXIV.
70) was no doubt a fresh creation of his own, unless there is
some blunder on Pliny's part.

2.57

BOOK XXXV

r>TBEB XXXV

I. Metallorum, qiiibus opes constant, adgnas-
centiumquc iis natura indicata propcmodum est,
ita conexis rebus, ut immensa medicinae silva
officinarumque tenebrae et morosa caelandi fingen-
dique ac tinguendi subtilitas simul dicerentur.
restant terrae ipsius genera lapidumque vel nu-
merosiore^ serie,^ plurimis singula a^ Graecis prae-
cipue voluminibus tractata. nos in iis brevitatem
sequemur utilem instituto, modo nihil necessarium

2 aut naturale omittentes, primumque dicemus quae
restant de pictura. arte quondam nobili — tunc cum
expeteretur regibus populisque — et alios nobilitante,
quos esset dignata posteris tradere, nunc vero in
totum marmoribus pulsa. iam quidem et auro, nec
tantum ut parietes toti operiantur, verum et interraso
marmore vermiculatisque ad effigies rerum et

i animalium crustis. non placent iam abaci nec spatia
montes in cubiculo dilatantia : * coepimus et lapidem ^
pingere. hoc Claudii principatu inventum, Neronis

^ numerosiore (Jelen -. numerosiores.

^ serie Gelen : seriae B : erie aut aeriae aut sim. rell

^ a. fortasse delendum [Mayhoff).

* dilatata coni. lan : dilatant iam Dethfsen.

'-> lapidem cd. Par. Lat. 6797, cd. Par. 6801 : lapide rell.

" This translates lapidem. If we read lapide ' with stone,'
Pliny would mean a kind of mosaic. But see §§ 116, 118.

260

BOOK XXXV

I. We have now practically indicated the nature
of metals, in which wealth consists, and of the sub-
stances related to them, connecting the facts in such
a way as to indicate at the same time the enormous
topic of medicine and the mysteries of the manufac-
tories and the fastidious subtlety of the processes of
carving and modelHng and dyeing. There remain
the various kinds of earth and of stones, forming an
even more extensive series, each of which has been
treated in many whole volumes, especially by Greeks.
For our part in these topics we shall adhere to the
brevity suitable to our plan, yet omitting nothing
that is necessary or follows a law of Nature. And ^a»"^»«^
iirst we shall say what remains to be said about
painting, an art that was formerly illustrious, at the
time when it was in high demand with kings and
nations and when it ennobled others whom it deigned
to transmit to posterity. But at the present time
it has been entirely ousted by marbles, and indeed
finally also by gold, and not only to the point that
whole party-walls are covered — we have also marble
engraved with designs and embossed marble slabs
carved in wriggHng Hnes to represent objects and
animals. We are no longer content with panels nor
with surfaces displaying broadly a range of moun-
tains in a bedchamber ; we have begun even to
paint on the masonry." This was invented in the

261

PLINY 1 NATURAL IIISTORY

vero niaciilas, quae non essent in crustis, inserendo
unitatem variare, ut ovatus esset Numidicus, ut
purpura distingueretur Synnadicus, qualiter illos
nasci optassent deliciae. montium haec subsidia
deficientium, nec cessat luxuria id agere, ut quam
plurimum incendiis perdat.

4 II. Imaginum quidem pictura, qua maxime similes
in aevum propaoabantur figurae, in totum exolevit.
aerei ponuntur clipei argentea facie,^ surdo figurarum
discrimine ; statuarum capita permutantur, volgatis
iam pridem salibus etiam carminum. adeo materiam
conspici malunt omnes quam se nosci, et inter haec
pinacothecas veteribus tabulis consuunt ^ alienasque
effigies colunt, ipsi honorem non nisi in pretio

5 ducentes, ut frangat heres forasque ^ detrahat laqueo.*
itaque nullius efiigie vivente imagines pecuniae, non
suas, relinquunt. iidem palaestrae^ athletarum imagi
nibus et ceromata sua exornant, Epicuri voltus per
cubicula gestant ac circumferunt secum. natali eius
sacrificant, feriasque omni mense vicesima luna ^

^ argentea facie Mayhoff : argenteae facies.

2 conferciunt quidam apud Dalecawp : complent coni.
Mayhoff.

^ forasque cd. Par. 6801 : furisque rell. : forisque Detlefsen:
furisve coni. Brotier.

* laqueo Detlefsen : laqueis Urlichs : laqueu aut laqueus.

^ palaestrae coni. Mayhoff : palaestras.

® vicesima luna hic Mayhoff : post custodiunt lan post
eius cdd.

" Of Synnada in Phrygia in Asia Minor.

" So that heads were put on bodies which did not belong
to them.

'^ Ceromata, Greek for wax ointments used by athletes, and
also denoting the rooms where these were applied before or
after a match.

** Greek «Va?, 20th day.
262

BOOK XXXV. I. 3-II. 5

principate of Claudius, while in tlie time of Nero a a.d. 4i-54;
plan was discovered to give variety to uniformity by ^^'^^'
inserting markings that were not present in the
embossed marble surface, so that Numidian stone
might show oval lines and Synnadic " marble be
picked out with purple, just as fastidious luxury
would have Uked them to be by nature. These are
our resources to supplement the mountains when
they fail us, and luxury is always busy in the effort
to secure that if a fire occurs it may lose as much as
possible.

II. The painting of portraits, used to transmit Portraits.
through the ages extremely correct Ukenesses of
persons, has entirely gone out. Bronze shields are
now set up as monuments with a design in silver, with
only a faint difference between the figures ; heads of
statues are exchanged for others,^ about which before
now actually sarcastic epigrams have been current :
so universally is a display of material preferred to a
recognizable Ukeness of one's o\vn self. And in the
midst of all this, people tapestry the walls of their
picture-galleries with old pictures, and they prize
likenesses of strangers, while as for themselves they
imagine that the honour only consists in the price,
for their heir to break up the statue and haul it out
of the house with a noose. Consequently nobody's
Ukeness Uves and they leave behind them portraits
that represent their money, not themselves. The
same people decorate even their own anointing-
rooms ^ witii portraits of athletes of the wrestUng-
ring, and display all round their bedrooms and carry
about with them likenesses of Epicurus ; they offer
sacrifices on his birthday, and keep his festival,
which they call the eikas ^ on the 20th day of every

263

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

custodiunt, quas icadas vocant, ii maxime, qui se ne
viventes quidem nosci volunt. ita est profecto :
artes desidia perdidit, et quoniam animorum imagines
H non sunt, negleguntur etiam corporum. aliter apud
maiores in atriis haec erant, quae spectarentur ; non
signa externorum artificum nec aera aut marmora :
expressi cera vultus singulis disponebantur ar-
mariis, ut essent imagines, quae comitarentur
gentilicia funera, semperque defuncto aliquo totus
aderat familiae eius qui umquam fuerat populus.
stemmata vero lineis ^ discurrebant ad imagines

7 pictas. tabulina codicibus implebantur et monimentis
rerum in magistratu gestarum. aliae foris et circa
limina animorum ingentium imagines erant adfixis
hostium spoliis, quae nec emptori refigere liceret,
triumphabantque etiam dominis mutatis aeternae ^
domus. erat haec stimulatio ^ ingens, exprobrantibus
tectis cotidie inbellem dominum intrare in alienum

8 triumphum. exstat Messalae oratoris indignatio,
quae prohibuit inseri genti suae Laevinorum alienam
imaginem. similis causa Messalae seni expressit
volumina illa quae de familiis condidit, cum Scipionis
Pomponiani transisset atrium vidissetque adoptione
testamentaria Salvittones — hoc enim fuerat cogno-

^ linteis Frohner coll. 51.

^ aeternae Mayhoff : ipsae Gelen : emptae lan, Urlichs :
tamen coni. Sillig : et me ccld. (etia B^).

3 stimulatio Gelen : stimmatio B^ : estimatio {delelo haec)
B'^ : stima ratio rell. (summa r. cd. Par. Lat. 6797).

" A maxim of Epicurus was A.ade jSicuaa? ' live unnoticed.'
^ In private houses.

" A branch of tbe Gens Valeria, to wbich the Messalae also
belonged.

264

BOOK XXXW II. 5-8

month — these of all people, whose desire it is not to
be known even when aHve " ! That is exactly how
things are : indolence has destroyed the arts, and
since our minds cannot be portrayed, our bodily
features are also neglected. In the halls of our
anccstors it was otherwise ; portraits were the objects
displayed to be looked at, not statues by foreign
artists, nor bronzes nor marbles, but wax models of
faces were set out each on a separate side-board, to
furnish Ukenesses to be carried in procession at a
funeral in the clan, and always when some member
of it passed away the entire company of his house
that had ever existed was present. The pedigrees
too were traced in a spread of Hnes running near the
several painted portraits. The archive-rooms ^ were
kept filled with books of records and with v/ritten
memorials of official careers. Outside the houses and
round the doorways there were other presentations of
those mighty spirits, \vith spoils taken from the
enemy fastened to them, which even one who bought
the house was not permitted to unfasten, and the
mansions eternally celebrated a triumph even though
they changed their masters. This acted as a mighty
incentive, when every day the very walls reproached
an unwarHke owner with intruding on the triumphs
of another ! There is extant an indignant speech by
the pleader Messala protesting against the insertion
among the Hkenesses of his family of a bust not
belonging to them but to the family of the Laevini.^
A similar reason extracted from old Messala the
volumes he composed ' On FamiHes,' because when
passing through the haU of Scipio Pomponianus he
had observed the Salvittones ^ — that was their

^ Probably, Hke the Scipios, a branch of the Gens CorneHa.

265

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

men — Africanorum dedecori inrepentes Scipionum
nomini. sed — pace Messalarum dixisse liceat —
etiam mentiri clarorum imagines erat aliquis vir-
tutum amor multoque honestius quam mereri, ne
quis suas expeteret.
9 Non est praetereundum et novicium inventum,
siquidem non ^ ex auro argentove, at ^ certe ex aere
in bibliothecis dicantur illis, quorum immortales
animae in locis iisdem loquuntur, quin immo etiam
quae non sunt finguntur, pariuntque desideria non

10 traditos vultus, sicut in Homero evenit.^ utique ^
maius, ut equidem arbitror, nullum est felicitatis
specimen quam semper omnes scire cupere, qualis
fuerit aliquis. Asini Pollionis hoc Romae inventum,
qui primus bibliothecam dicando ingenia hominum
rem publicam fecit. an priores coeperint Alex-
andreae et Pergami reges, qui bibliothecas magno

11 certamine instituere, non facile dixerim. imaginum
amorem ^ flagrasse quondam ® testes sunt Atticus
ille Ciceronis edito de iis volumine, M. Varro benig-
nissimo invento insertis voluminum suorum fecundi-

^ nunc lan, Urlichs: icones Detlefsen : non solum edd. vetl.

2 at Mai/hoff : aut.

^ devenit B : id evenit lan.

* utique coni. Mayhoff : quo.

* amorem B : aniore rell.

* (amore . . .) quosdam coni. Brotier.

" Scipio Africanus, victor over Hannibal in 202 b.c, and
Scipio Aemilianus Afrioanus, who destroyed Carthage in
146 B.c.

266

BOOK XXXV. II. 8-II

former siirname — in consequence of an act of adop-
tion by will creeping into others' preserves, to the
discredit of the Scipios called Africanus.'* But the
Messala family must excuse me if I say that even to
lay a false claim to the portraits of famous men
showed some love for their virtues, and was much
more honourable than to entail by one's conduct that
nobody should seek to obtain one's own portraits !

\Ve must not pass over a novelty that has also been portrau-
invented, in that Hkenesses made, if not of ffold or ff«'"«f »"

' ' o libranes.

silver, yet at ail events oi bronze are set up m the

libraries in honour of those whose immortal spirits

'^peak to us in the same places, nay more, even

imaginary likenesses are modelled and sense of loss

gives birth to countenances that have not been

handed down to us, as occurs in the case of Homer.

At any rate in my view at all events there is

no greater kind of happiness than that all people

for all time should desire to know what kind of a man

a person was. At Rome this practice originated

with Asinius PolHo, who first by founding a Hbrary After 39 b.c.

made works of genius the property of the pubHc.

Whether this practice began earlier, with the Kings

of Alexandria and of Pergamum,^ between whom

there had been such a keen competition in founding

Hbraries, I cannot readily say. The existence of a

strong passion for portraits in former days is

evidenced by Atticus the friend of Cicero in the

volume he pubHshed on the subject and by the most

benevolent invention of Marcus \ arro, who actually

by some means inserted in a proHfic output of

^ Ptolemy I of Egypt (died 283 b.c.) and Attalus I of
Pergamum (241-197 b.c.) both founded Hbraries. Two at
Alexandria became famous under Ptolemies II and III.

267

PLINY : NATURAL HLSTORY

tati etiam ^ septingentorum inlustrium aliquo modo
imaginibus, non passus intercidere figuras aut
vetustatem aevi contra homines valere, inventor
muneris etiam dis invidiosi, quando immortalitatem
non solum dedit, verum etiam in omnes terras misit,
ut praesentes esse ubique ceu ^ di possent. et hoc
quidem alienis ille praestitit.
12 JIL Verum clupeos in sacro vel publico dicare
privatim primus instituit, ut reperio, Appius Claudius
qui consul cum P. Servilio fuit anno urbis cclviiii.
posuit enim in Bellonae aede maiores suos, placuitque
in excelso spectari et ^ titulos honorum legi, decora
res, utique si libcrum turba parvulis imaginibus ceu
nidum aliquem subolis pariter ostendat, quales
clupeos nemo non gaudens favensque aspicit.
' IV. post eum M. Aemilius collega in consulatu
Quinti Lutatii non in basilica modo Aemilia, verum
et domi suae posuit, id quoque Martio exemplo.
scutis enim, qualibus apud Troiam pugnatum est,
continebantur imagines, unde et nomen habuere
clupeorum, non, ut perversa grammaticorum sup-
tihtas voluit, a cluendo. origo plena virtutis,

^ fecunditati etiam Mayhoff : f. hominum Detlefsen:
feeunditatium B^, cd. Leid. Voss., cd. Flor. Bicc. : fecunditati
B^ : fecunditantium non nominibus tantum cd. Par. Lai. 6797.

2 ceu di M. Ilertz, Urlichs : cludi.

' et coni. Warmington : in (recte?).

" E.g. the shield of Acliilles, lUad XVIII, 478 ff., and the
shield of Aeneas, Aeneid VIII, G25 ff.

268

BOOK XXXV. II. ii-iv. 13

volumes portraits ot seven hundred famous people,
not allowing their likenesses to disappear or the
lapse of ages to pre\ ail against immortality in men.
Herein Varro was the inventor of a benefit that even
the gods might env}\ since he not only bestowed
immortality but despatched it all over the world,
enabling his subjects to be ubiquitous, like the gods.
This was a service \'arro rendered to strangers.

III. But the first person to institute the custom
of privately dedicating the shields with portraits
in a temple or pul)lic place, 1 find, was Appius
Claudius, the consul with Publius Servilius in the
259th year of the city. He set up his ancestors in 495 b.o.
the shrine of the Goddess of War, and desired them
to be in full view on an elevated spot, and the inscrip-
tions stating their honours to be read. This is a
seemly device, especially if miniature likenesses of
a swarm of children at the sides display a sort of
brood of nestlings ; shields of this description every-
body views with pleasure and approval. IV. After
him Marcus Aemilius, Quintus Lutatius's colleague 78 b.o.
in the consulship, set up portrait-shields not only
in the Basilica Aemilia but also in his own home,
and in doing this he was following a truly warlike
example ; for the shields which contained the like-
iiesses resembled those " employed in the fighting
at Troy ; and this indeed gave them their name of
clupei,^ which is not derived from the word meaning ' to
be celebrated,' as the misguided ingenuity of scholars
has made out. It is a copious inspiration of valour
for there to be a representation on a shield of the

** Pliny means that clupeus is derived from yXvcjxo, to carve
or emboss, not from the old Latin cluo or clueo, to be reputed
famoiis.

269

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

faciem reddi in scuto eius ^ qui fuerit usus illo.

14 Poeni ex auro factitavere et clupeos et imagines
secumque vexere. in castris ^ certe captis talem
Hasdrubalis invenit Marcius, Scipionum in Hispania
ultor, isque clupeus supra fores Capitolinae aedis
usque ad incendium primum fuit. maiorum quidem
nostrorum tanta securitas in ea re adnotatur, ut
L. Manlio Q. Fulvio cos. anno urbis dlxxv M.
Aufidius tutelae Capitolii ^ redemptor docuerit
patres argenteos esse clupeos, qui pro aereis ^ per
aliquot iam lustra adsignabantur.

1.3 V. De picturae initiis incerta nec instituti operis
quaestio est. Aegyptii sex milibus annorum aput
ipsos inventam, priusquam in Graeciam transiret,
adfirmant, vana praedicatione, ut palam est ; Graeci
autem alii Sicyone, alii aput Corinthios repertam,
omnes umbra hominis lineis circumducta, itaque
primam talem, secundam singulis coloribus et
monochromaton ^ dictam, postquam operosior in-

16 venta erat, duratque talis etiam nunc. inventam
liniarem a Philocle Aegyptio vel Cleanthe Corinthio

^ eius Detlefsen : eiusque B'^ : cuiusque.
2 vexere. in castris Mayhoff : in castris vexere B : i.c.
inlere al. Par. 6801: i.c. venere rell.
^ Capitolio B : capitoli cd. Leid. Voss.
* aurei. Detlefsen.
' e monochromato B : et monochromaton rell.

" Publius and Gnaeus Scipio were destroyed in Spain by the
Carthaginians, 212-211 B.c. L. Maroius and T. Fonteius
preveRted further disasters.

" A conjectural alteration ^ives ' gold.'

270

BOOK XXXV. IV. 13-V. 16

rountenance of him who once used it. The Cartha-
ginians habitually made both shields and statues
of gold, and camed these with them : at all events
Marcius, who took vengeance for the Scipios in
Spain,<* found a shield of this kind that belonged to
Hasdrubal, in that generaVs camp when he captured
it, and this shield was hung above the portals of the
temple on the Capitol till the first fire. Indeed it is S3 b.o.
noticed that our ancestors felt so Httle anxiety
about this matter that in the 575th year of the city, 179 b.g.
when the consuls were Lucius Manhus and Quintus
Fulvius, the person who contracted for the safety
of the Capitol, Marcus Aufidius, informed the
Senate that the shields which for a good many
censorship periods past had been scheduled as made
of bronze ^ were really silver.

V. The question as to the origin of the art of origins oj
painting is uncertain ^' and it does not belong to the ^^'^'"''"^-
plan of this work. The Egyptians declare that it
was invented among themselves six thousand years
ago before it passed over into Greece — which is
clearly an idle assertion. As to the Greeks, some
of them say it was discovered at Sicyon, others in
Corinth, but all agree that it began with tracing an
outline round a man's shadow ^ and consequently
that pictures were originally done in this way,
but the second stage when a more elaborate method
had been invented was done in a single colour and
called monochrome,* a method still in use at the
present day. Line-drawing was invented by the
Egyptian Philocles or by the Corinthian Cleanthes,

^ Cf. VII, 205. A. Rumpf, Journ. oj FJellenic St. LXVII, 10 S.

^ But study of extant ancient art refutes this idea.
' See §§ 29, 56.

271

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

primi exercuere Aridices ^ Corinthius et Telephanes
Sicyonius, sine ullo etiamnum hi colore, iam tamen
spargentes linias intus. ideo et quos pinxere ^
adscribere institutum. primus inlevit ^ eas colore *
testae, ut ferunt, tritae ^ Ecphantus ^ Corinthius.
hunc eodem nomine alium '^ fuisse quam ® tradit
Cornelius Nepos secutum in Italiam Damaratum,
Tarquinii Prisci regis Romani patrem, fugientem a
Corintho tyranni iniurias Cypseli, mox docebimus.

17 VI. lam enim absoluta erat pictura etiam in
Italia. exstant certe hodieque antiquiores urbe
picturae Ardeae in aedibus sacris, quibus equidem
nullas aeque miror, tam longo aevo durantes ®
in orbitate tecti veluti recentes.^ similiter Lanuvi,
ubi Atalante et Helena comminus pictae sunt
nudae ab eodem artifice, utraque excellentissima
forma, sed altera ut virgo, ne ruinis quidem templi

18 concussae. Gaius princeps tollere eas conatus est
libidine accensus, si tectorii natura permisisset.
durant et Caere antiquiores et ipsae, fatebiturque
quisquis eas diligenter aestimaverit nullam artium
celerius consummatam, cum IHacis temporibus non
fuisse eam appareat.

^ Aridices Sillig, Keil : aradices B : ardices rell.
' pinxere Mayhoff : pingerent edd. vett.: pingere.
^ inlevit Urlichs : invenit.

* colore B : colores rell. : coiorare Gelen : colorare colore
lan.

^ tritae Sillig : triste B^ : triste B^ : ita aut it rell.

^ Ecphantus Sillig, 0. Jahn : ephantus B : elephantus rell.

^ eundem nomine alio Schultz.

* V.l. quem : quam quem Sillig, lan.

" V.l. durantis . . . recentis : durantibus . . . recentibus
coni. Sillig.

272

BOOK XXXV V. 16-vi. i8

but it was first practised by thc Corinthian Aridices
and the Sicyonian Telephanes — these were at that
stage not using any colour, yet already adding
lines here and there to the interior of the outhnes ;
hence it became their custom to write on the pictures
the names of the persons represented. Ecphantus
of Corinth is said to have been the first to daub these
drawings with a pigment made of powdered earthen-
ware. We shall show below that this was another § 152.
person, bearing the same name, not the one recorded
by CorneHus Xepos to have followed into Italy
Demaratus the father of the Roman king Tarquinius trad. 6I6-
Priscus when he fled from Corinth to escape the^'*^^*^-
violence of the tyrant Cypsehis.

VI. For the art of painting had already been Eariy
brought to perfection even in Italy. At all events pJj5^,So
there survive even to-day in the temples at Ardea
paintings that are older than the city of Rome,
which to me at all events are incomparably remark-
able, surviving for so long a period as though freshly
painted, although unprotected by a roof. Similarly
at Lanuvium, where there are an Atalanta and a
Helena close together, nude figures, painted by the
same artist, each of outstanding beauty (the former
shown as a virgin), and not damaged even by the
collapse of the temple. The Emperor Caligula from a.d. 37.
lustful motives attempted to remove them, but the
consistency of the plaster would not allow this to be
done. There are pictures surviving at Caere that
are even older. And whoever carefully judges
these works \\\\\ admit that none of the arts reached
full perfection more quickly, inasmuch as it is
clear that painting did not exist in the Trojan
period.

273

PLINY . NATURAL HISTORY

19 \ll. Apud Romanos quoque honos mature huic
arti contigit, siquidem cojcrnomina ex ea Pictorum
traxerunt Fabii clarissimae gentis, princepsque eius
cognominis ipse aedem Salutis pinxit anno urbis
conditae ccccl, quae pictura duravit ad nostram
memoriam aede ea Claudi principatu exusta,
proxime celebrata est in foro boario aede Herculis
Pacui poetae pictura. Enni sorore genitus hic fuit
clarioremque artem eam Romae fecit gloria scaenae.

20 postea non est spectata honestis manibus, nisi forte
quis Turpilium equitem Romanum e Venetia nostrae
aetatis velit referre, pulchris eius operibus hodieque
Veronae exstantibus. laeva is manu pinxit, quod
de nullo ante memoratur. parvis ^ gloriabatur
tabellis extinctus nuper in longa senecta Titedius ^
Labeo praetorius, etiam proconsulatu provinciae
Narbonensis functus, sed ea re inrisa ^ etiam con-

21 tumeliae erat. fuit et principum virorum non
omlttendum de pictura celebre consilium, cum
Q Pedius, nepos Q. Pedii consularis triumphalisque
et a Caesare dictatore coheredis Augusto dati,
natura mutus esset. in eo Messala orator, ex
cuius familia pueri avia fuerat. picturam docendum

' paruisse B : parvis ipse coni. MayhofJ.

* Titedius B : sit edius rell. : Titidius Sillig : Antistius
Hardouin : Aterius edd. vett.

3 inrisa Mayhoff : inlisa B : in risu rell. (irrisu cd. Par. Lat.
6797).

" Roman writer of tragedies, c. 220-c. 130 b.c.

*" Famous Roman epic and dramatic poet, 239-169 B.c.

274

BOOK XXXV. VII. 19-21

VII. In Rome also honour was fuUy attained by EaHy
this art at an early date, inasmuch as a very distin- ^'S^
guished clan of the Fabii derived from it their sur- a'"^ pai"
name of Pictor. ' Painter,' and the first holder of the '^^
name himself painted the Temple of Health in the
year 450 from the foundation of the City : the work :io4 b.u.
survived down to our own period, when the temple
was destroyed by fire in the principate of Claudius.
Next in celebrity was a painting by the poet
Pacuvius " in the temple of Hercules in the Cattle
Market. Pacuvius was the son of a sister of
Ennius,*' and he added distinction to the art of
painting at Rome by reason of his fame as a play-
wright. After Pacuvius, painting was not esteemed
as iiandiwork for persons of station, unless one
chooses to recall a knight of Rome named Turpilius,
from Venetia, in our own generation, because of his
beautiful works still surviving at Verona. Turpilius
painted with his left hand, a thing recorded of no
preceding artist. Titedius Labeo, a man of prae-
torian rank who had actually held the office of
Proconsul of the Province of Narbonne, and who
died lately in extreme old age, used to be proud of
his miniatures, but this was laughed at and actually
damaged his reputation. There was also a cele-
brated debate on the subject of painting held between
some meii of eminence v/hich must not be omitted.
when the former consul and winner of a triumph
Quintus Pedius, who was appointed by the Dictator ^.j.^^ b.c
Caesar as his joint heirwith Augustus, had a grand-
son Quintus Pedius who was born dumb ; in this
debate the orator Messala, of whose family the boy's
grandmother had been a member, gave the advice
that the boy should have lessons in painting, and

275

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

censuit, idque etiam divus Augustus comprohavit ;

22 puer magni profectus in ea arte obiit. dignatio
autem praecipua Romae increvit, ut existimo, a
M'. Valerio Maximo Messala, qui princeps tabulam
[picturam] ^ proelii, quo Carthaginienses et Hieronem
in SiciHa vicerat, proposuit in latere curiae Hostihae
anno ab urbe condita ccccxc. fecit hoc idem et
L. Scipio tabulamque victoriae suae Asiaticae in
Capitolio posuit, idque aegre tulisse fratrem Afri-
canum tradunt, haut inmerito, quando fihus eius

23 illo proelio captus fuerat. non dissimilem offensio-
nem et Aemiliani subiit L. Hostilius ^ Mancinus,
qui primus Carthaginem inruperat, situm eius
oppugnationesque depictas proponendo in foro et
ipse adsistens populo spectanti singula enarrando,
qua comitate proximis comitiis consulatum adeptus
est. habuit et scaena ludis Claudii Pulchri magnam
admirationem picturae, cum ad tegularum simil-
tudinem corvi decepti imagine ^ advolarent.

24 VIII. Tabulis autem externis auctoritatem
Romae publice fecit primus omnium L. Mummius,
cui cognomen Achiaci victoria dedit. namque cum
in praeda vendenda rex Attalus * XjvTj ^ emisset
tabulam Aristidis, Liberum patrem, pretium miratus

' Ma;/hoff : pictura B : pictara rell.

^ hostili'm. S. B : hostilius M.f. coni. lan.

* V.l. imaginem : imagini lan.

* rex attalus distraxisset et cd. Par. 6801.

5 XpvT] Detlefsen : x.vi Hardouin : xvi aut XIII cdd.

" Over Antiochus III in 190 b.c.

* Mancinus commanded the Roman fleet in the Tbird
Punic War when Carthage was taken and destroyed by
Scipio Aemilianus in 146 b.c.

" Over tbe Greeks in 146 B.c, when Mummius destroyed
Corintb.

276

BOOK XXXV. VII. 2I-VII1. 24

liis late lamented Majesty Augustus also approved
of the plan. The child made great progress in the
art, but died before he grew up. But painting
chiefly derived its rise to esteem at Rome, in my
judgement, from Manius Valerius Maximus Messala,
who in the year 490 after the foundation of the 264 b.o.
city first showed a picture in public on a side wall
of the Curia Hostilia : the subject being the battle
in Sicily in which he had defeated the Carthaginians
and Hiero. The same thing was also done by
Lucius Scipio, who put up in the Capitol a picture of
his Asiatic victory " : this is said to have annoyed
his brother Africanus, not without reason, as his son
had been taken prisoner in that battle. Also Lucius
Hostilius Mancinus ^ who had been the first to
force an entrance into Carthage incurred a very
similar offence with Aemilianus by displaying in the
forum a picture of the plan of the city and of the
attacks upon it and by himself standing by it and
describing to the pubHc looking on the details of the
siege, a piece of popularity-hunting which won him
the consulship at the next election. Also the stage
erected for the shows given by Claudius Pulcher 99 b.o
won great admiration for its painting, as crows were
seen trying to alight on the roof tiles represented
on the scenery, quite taken in by its realism.

VIIL The high esteem attached officially to Foretgn
foreign paintings at Rome originated from Lucius Eg"^^
Mummius who from his victory ^ received the
surname of Achaicus. At the sale of booty captured l. Mum
King Attalus «^ bought for 600,000 denarii a picture '"*"^-
of Father Liber or Dionysus by Aristides, but the

^ Attalus II of Pergamum, 159-138 b.c.

277

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

suspicatusque alitjuic) in ea virtutis, quod ipse
nesciret, revocavit tabulam, Attalo multum que-
rente, et in Cereris delubro posuit, quam primam
arbitror picturam externam Romae publicatam.

25 deinde video et in foro positas volgo. hinc enim
ille Crassi oratoris lepos agentis sub Veteribus ;
cum testis compellatus instaret : dic ergo, Crasse,
qualem me noris ? talem, inquit, ostendens in
tabula inficetissime Gallum exerentem linguam.
in foro fuit et illa pastoris senis cum baculo, de qua
Teutonorum legatus respondit interrogatus, quan-
tine^ eum aestimaret, donari sibi nolle talem vivum
verumque.

26 IX. Sed praecipuam auctoritatem publice tabulis
fecit Caesar dictator Aiace et Media ante Veneris
Genetricis aedem dicatis, post eum M. Agrippa, vir
rusticitati propior quam deliciis. exstat certe eius
oratio magnifica et maxirno civium digna de tabulis
omnibus signisque publicandis, quod fieri satius
fuisset quam in villarum exilia pelli. verum eadem
illa torvitas tabulas duas Aiacis et Veneris mercata
est a Cyzicenis hs ^ |xIT] ; ^ in thermarum quoque

^ quanti cd. Par. G801.

- usjCielen : h JJJJ B^ : his J5^ : om. rell.

" Ixiil lan : alii alia : xu B : xiii rell.

<• With regard to this story : (i) there was no auction of
pictures; Mummius took to Rome the most valuable and
handed over the rest to Philopoemen. (ii) Attahis was not
present at Corinth (where this scene oceurred). When the
Roman soldiers were using the pictures as dice-boards, Philo-
poemen ofFered M. 100 talents if he should assign Aristides'
picture to Attahis' share (Paus. VII, 16, 1; 8; Strabo VIII,
4.23 = 381).

278

ROOK XXXV. viii. 24-i\. 26

price surprised Munimius, who suspecting there
must be some merit in the picture of which he was
himself unawarc had the picture called back, in
spite of Attalus's strong protests, and placed it in
the Shrine of Ceres : the first instance, I beheve, of a
foreign picture becoming state-property at Rome."
After this I see that they were commonly placed
even in the forum : to this is due the famous witticism
of the pleader Crassus, when appearing in a case
Below The Old Shops ; a witness called kept asking
him : ' Now tell me, Crassus, what sort of a person
do you take me to be ? ' * That sort of a person,'
said Crassus, pointing to a picture of a Gaul putting
out his tongue ^ in a very unbecoming fashion, It
was also in the forum that there was the picture of
the Old Shepherd with his Staff, about which the
Teuton envoy when asked what he thought was the
value of it said that he would rather not have even
the living original as a gift !

IX. But it was the Dictator Caesar who gave Caesar.
outstanding public importance to pictures by dedica-
ting paintings of Ajax and Medea in front of the 46 b.o.
temple of Venus Genetrix ; and after him Marcus 63-12 b.c.
Agrippa, a man who stood nearer to rustic simplicity
than to refinements. At all events there is preserved
a speech of Agrippa, lofty in tone and worthy of the
greatest of the citizens, on the question of making
all pictures and statues national property, a procedure
which would have been preferable to banishing
them to country houses. However, that same
severe spirit paid the city of Cyzicus 1,200,000
sesterces for two pictures, an Ajax and an Aphrodite ;
he had also had small paintings let into the marble

" Not apparently as in insult but as an averting act.

279

PLINY : NATURAL HLSTOIIY

calidissima parte marmoribus incluserat parvas
tabellas, paulo ante, cum reficerentur, sublatas.

27 X. Super omnes divus Augustus in foro suo cele-
berrima in parte posuit tabulas duas, quae Belli
faciem pictam habent et Triumphum, item Castores
ac Victoriam. posuit et quas dicemus sub artificum
mentione in templo Caesaris patris. idem in curia
quoque, quam in comitio consecrabat, duas tabulas
inpressit parieti. Nemean sedentem supra leonem,
pahnigeram ipsam, adstante ^ cum baculo sene,
cuius supra caput tabella bigae dependet, Nicias
scripsit ^ se inussisse ; tah enim usus est verbo.

28 alterius tabulae admiratio est puberem fihum seni
patri similem esse aetatis saha differentia, super-
volante aquila draconem complexa ; Philochares hoc
suum opus esse testatus est, inmensa, vel unam si
tantum hanc tabulam ahquis aestimet, potentia
artis, cum propter Philocharen ignobihssimos ahoqui
Glaucionem fihumque eius Aristippum senatus
popuh Romani tot saecuhs spectet ! posuit et
Tiberius Caesar, minime comis imperator, in templo
ipsius Augusti quas mox indicabimus. hactenus
dictum sit de dignitate artis morientis.

29 XI. Quibus coloribus singuhs primi pinxissent
diximus, cum de iis pigmentis traderemus in metalhs,

^ adstante edd. vett. : adstantem.
* asscripsit coni. Mayhojf.

■ Castor and Pohux (Polydeuces).

" Julius Caesar who had adopted Augustus.

« The Nemean forest (personified) where Heracles killed the
Nemean hon.

<* See pp. 356-9.
280

BOOK XXXV. IX. 26-xi. 29

even in the warmest part of his Hot Baths ; which
were removed a short time ago when the Baths were
being repaired.

X. His late lamented Majesty Augustus went Augustm
beyond all others, in placing two pictures in the most ^''J^^j^
frequented part of his forum, one with alikeness of War

and Triumph, and one with the Castors'* and Victory.
He also erected in the Temple of his father Caesar *
pictures we shall specify in giving the names of artists. § 91.
He Hkewise let into a wall in the curia which he was
dedicating in the comitium : a Nemea ^ seated on a 29 b.c.
lion, holding a palm-branch in her hand, and standing
at her side an old man leaning on a stick and with a
picture of a two-horse chariot hung up over his head,
on which there was an inscription saying that it was
an * encaustic ' design — such is the term which he
employed — by Nicias.*^ The second picture is remark-
able for displaying the close family hkeness between
a son in the prime of life and an elderly father,
allowing for the difference of age : above them soars
an eagle with a snake in its claws ; Philochares has
stated this work to be by him showing the im-
measurable power exercised by art if one merely
considers this picture alone, inasmuch as thanks to
Philochares two otherwise quite obscure persons
Glaucio and his son Aristippus after all these
centuries have passed still stand in the view of the
senate of the Roman nation ! The most ungracious
emperor Tiberius also placed pictures in the temple a.d. 14-37
of Augustus himself which we shall soon mention. § I3i.
Thus much for the dignity of this now expiring art.

XI. We stated what were the various single Painters
colours used by the first painters when we were xxxiii
discussing while on the subject of metals the pig- ^i^.

281

VOL. IX. K

PLlxNY: NATURAL HISTORY

quae ^ monochromata a "^ genere ^ picturae vocan-
tur.^ qui deinde et quae invenerint et quibus
temporibus, dicemus in mentione artificum, quoniam
indicare naturas colorum prior causa operis instituti
est. tandem se ars ipsa distinxit et invenit lumen
atque umbras, differentia colorum alterna vice sese
excitante. postea deinde adiectus est splendor,
alius hic quam lumen. quod inter haec et umbras
esset, appellarunt tonon, commissuras vero colorum
et transitus harmogen.
30 XIL Sunt autem colores austeri aut floridi.
utrumque natura aut mixtura evenit. floridi sunt
— quos dominus pingenti ^ praestat — minium, Ar-
menium, cinnabaris, chrysocolla, Indicum, pur-
purissum ; ceteri austeri. ex omnibus alii nascun-
tur, alii fiunt. nascuntur Sinopis, rubrica, Parae-
tonium, Melinum, Eretria, auripigmentum ; ceteri
finguntur, primumque quos in metallis diximus,
praeterea e vilioribus ochra, cerussa usta, sandaraca,
sandyx, Syricum, atramentum.

1 quae Sillig : qui cdd. : del. Littre.

2 monochromata a Mayhojf: m, ea Littre : monochromatea
cd. Par. 6801 ut videtur : mox negrammatae a B : mox neo-
grammatea rell.

^ genere Mayhoff : genera.

* vocantur B : vocaverunt rell.
^ pingenti ed. Basil. : fingenti.

" Study of ancient art does not show that painting started
with the use of single colours.

* The Greek term apfxoyT] means adjustment of parts.
« Minium. See § 33 (note) and XXXIU, 111-123.

** A rich blue colour (from Armenia), the modern azurite.
See also § 47.

' Cinnabaris here in Pliny. See XXXIII, 115-116.

^ Our ' malachite.'

' Earth stained with Tyrian purple.

282

BOOK XXXV. XI. 29-xii. 30

nients called nionochromes from the class of painting

for which they are used. Subsequent ° inventions

and their authors and dates we shall specify in §§ 353 sq^/.

enumerating the artists, because a prior motive

for the work now in hand is to indicate the nature of

colours. Eventually art differentiated itself, and

discovered light and shade, contrast of colours

heightening their eftect reciprocally. Then came

the final adjunct of shine, quite a dift^erent thing from

iight. The opposition between shine and light on the

onc hand and shade on the other was called contrast,

while the juxtaposition of colours and their passage

one into another was termed attunement.^

XII. Some colours are sombre and some brilliant,
the diff^erence being due to the nature of the sub-
stances or to their mixture. The brilliant colours,
which the patron supplies at his own expense to the
painter, are cinnabar,^ Armenium,^ dragon's blood,*
gold-solder,/ indigo, bright purple^'; the rest are
sombre. Of the whole list some are natural colours
and some artificial. Natural colours are sinopis,^
ruddle, Paraetonium,^ Melinum,^ Eretrian earth^" and
orpiment ; all the rest are artificia], and first of all
those which we specified among minerals, and xxx, 111,
moreover among the commoner kinds yellow ochre, ^^' ^^^'
burnt lead acetate, realgar, sandyx,^ Syrian colour "*
and black."

* A brown-red ochre or red oxide of iron from Sinoi^e.

* From a white chalk or calcium carbonate, and perliaps
also steatite, of Paraetonium in N. Africa; see note " on § :}0.

^ A white marl from ^Melos.

* From Eretria in Euboea ; perhaps magnesite.
' Mixed oxide of lead and oxide of iron.

'" See § 40.

"See XXXIV, 112, 123.

283

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

31 XIII. Sinopis inventa primum in Ponto est ; inde
nomen a Sinope urbe. nascitur et in Aegypto,
Baliaribus, Africa, sed optima in Lemno et in Cappa-
docia, effossa e speluncis. pars, quae saxis adhaesit,
excellit. glaebis suus colos, extra maculosus. hac
usi sunt veteres ad splendorem. species Sinopidis
tres : rubra et minus rubens atque inter has media.
pretium optimae X ii, usus ad penicillum aut si

32 lignum colorare libeat ; eius, quae ex Africa venit,
octoni asses — cicerculum appellant ; magis ceteris
rubet, utilior abacis. idem pretium et eius, quae
pressior vocatur, et est maxime fusca. usus ad
bases abacorum, in medicina vero blandus <. . . pas-
tillis . . .> ^ emplastrisque et malagmatis, sive sicca
compositione sive liquida facilis, contra ulcera in
umore sita, velut oris, sedis. alvum sistit infusa,
feminarum profluvia pota denarii pondere. eadem
adusta siccat scabritias oculorum, e vino maxime.

33 XIV. Rubricae genus in ea voluere intellegi
quidam secundae auctoritatis, palmam enim Lemniae
dabant. minio proxima haec est, multum antiquis
celebrata cum insula, in qua nascitur. nec nisi
signata venumdabatur, unde et sphragidem appel-

1 Mayhoff.

« See note *, p. 283.

* Dark brownish.

' This generally is the proper meaning of viinium except
when it is called m. secundarium = red lead. See XXXIII,
111-123.

284

BOOK XXXW XIII. 31-XIV. :^s

XIII. Sinopis <* was first discovered in Pontw^, Ochre oj
and lience takes its name from the city of Sinope. -'""'p*-
It is also produced in Egypt, the Balearic Islands

and Africa, but the best is what is extracted from the
caverns of Lemnos and Cappadocia, the part found
adhering to the rock being rated highest. The
lumps of it are self-coloured, but speckled on the
outside. It was employed in old times to give a
glow. There are three kinds of Sinopis, the red,
the faintly red and the intermediate. The price of
the best is 2 denarii a pound : this is used for painting
with a brush or else for colouring wood ; the kind
imported from Africa costs 8 «^-pieces a pound, and is
called chickpea colour ^ ; it is of a deeper red than
the other kinds, and more useful for panels. The
same price is charged for the kind called ' low toned '
which is of a very dusky colour. It is employed for
the lower parts of panelling ; but used as a drug it
has a soothing effect in (lozenges and) plasters and
poultices, mixing easily either dry or moistened, as a
remedy for ulcers in the humid parts of the body
such as the mouth and the anus. Used in an enema
it arrests diarrhoea, and taken through the mouth
in doses of one denarius weight it checks menstrua-
tion. Applied in a burnt state, particularly with
wine, it dries roughnesses of the eyes.

XIV. Some persons have wished to make out
that Sinopis only consists in a kind of red-ochre of
inferior quality, as they gave the palm to the red ochreoj
ochre of Lemnos. This last approximates very ^^^^-
closely to cinnabar,^ and it was very famous in old
days, together with the island that produces it; it
used only to be sold in sealed packages, from which

it got the name of ' seal red-ochre.' It is used to

285

PLIXY : NATURAL HISTORY

34 lavere. hac minium subliiumt adulterantque. in
medicina praeclara res habetur. epiphoras enim
oculorum mitii]^at ac dolores circumlita et aegilopia
manare prohibet, sanguinem reicientibus ex aceto
datur bibenda. bibitur et contra lienum reniumque
vitia et purgationes feminarum, item et contra
venena et serpentium ictus terrestrium marinorum-
que, omnibus ideo antidotis familiaris.

35 XV. E reHquis rubricae generibus fabris utilis-
sima Aegyptia et Africana, quoniam maxime sor-
bentur tectoriis.^ rubrica^ autem nascitur et in
ferrariis metallis. XVI. Ea et fit ochra^ exusta in
ollis novis luto circumlitis. quo magis arsit in
caminis, hoc meHor. omnis autem rubrica siccat
ideoque ex ^ emplastris conveniet ^ igni etiam sacro.

36 X\TI. Sinopidis Ponticae seHbrae siHs lucidi Hbris x
et MeHni Graecensis ii mixtis tritisque una per dies
duodenos ^ leucophorum fit. hoc est glutinum auri,
cum inducitur Hgno.

XVIIL Paraetonium loci nomen habet ex Aegyp-
to. spumam maris esse dicunt soHdatam cum
Hmo, et ideo conchae minutae inveniuntur in eo.
fit et in Creta insula atque Cyrenis. adulteratur
Romae creta Cimolia decocta conspissataque. pre-
tium optimo in pondo vi X l. e candidis coloribus

^ tectoriis Mayhoff : picturis.

^ rubrica hic Mayhoff : infra post exusta.

3 ea et fit ochra Mayhoff: ex ea fit ochra aut ochra ex ea fit.

* ex aut et cdd. [om. B).

^ conveniet vel conveniat Mayhoff : convenit et.

* duodenos Mayhoff : duodenis B : xii rell.

*» Marsa Labeit in N. Africa, between Egypt and the Syrtes.
Cf. n. on § 30.

* Cf. XXXV, 195 S.

286

BOOK XXXV. XIV. 33-xviii. 36

supply an undercoating to cinnabar and also for
adulterating cinnabar. In medicine it is a substance
ranked very highly. Used as a lininient round the
eyes it relieves defluxions and pains, and checks the
discharge from eye-tumours ; it is given in vinegar
as a draught in cases of vomiting or spitting blood.
It is also taken as a draught for troubles of the spleen
and kidneys and for excessive menstruation ; and
likewise as a remedy for poisons and snake bites and
the sting of sea serpents ; hence it is in common use
for all antidotes.

XV. Among the remaining kinds of red ochre the other
most useful for builders are t.he Egyptian and Ihe ^*^ '^"'
African varieties, as they are most thoroughly
absorbed by plaster. Red ochre is also found in a
native state in iron mines. XVI. It is also manu-
factured by burning ochre in new earthen pots with
Hds stopped with clay. The more completely it is cal-
cined in the furnaces the better its quality. All kinds
of red ochre have a drying property, and consequently
will be found suitable in plasters even for erysipelas.

X\'II. Half a pound of sinopis from Pontus, ten
pounds of bright yellow ochre and two pounds of
Greek earth of Melos mixed together and pounded
up for twelve successive days make ' leucophorum,' cf. xxxiii,
a cement used in applying gold-leaf to wood. ^-^

XVIII. Paraetonium is called after the place ^* WMte ptg-
of that name in Egypt. It is said to be sea-foam '"''"^*"
hardened with mud, and this is why tiny shells are
found in it. It also occurs in the island of Crete and
in Cyrene. At Rome it is adulterated with Cimolian
clay ^ which has been boiled and thickened. The
price of the best quality is 50 denarii per 6 Ibs. It
is the most greasy of all the white colours and makes

287

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

pinguissimiim et tectoriis ^ tenacissimum propter
levorem.

37 XIX. Melinum candidum et ipsum est, optimum
in Melo insula, in Samo quoque ^ nascitur ; eo
non utuntur pictores propter nimiam pinguitudinem ;
accubantes eflfodiunt ibi inter saxa venam scrutantes.
in medicina eundem usum habet quem Eretria
creta ; praeterea linguam tactu siccat, pilos detrahit
smectica vi.^ pretium in libras sestertii singuli.

Tertius e candidis colos est cerussa, cuius rationem
in phmibi metallis diximus. fuit et terra per se in
Theodoti fundo invcnta Zmyrnae, qua veteres ad
navium picturas utebantur. nunc omnis ex phimbo
et aceto fit, ut diximus.

38 XX. Usta casu reperta est in incendio Piraeei ^
cerussa in urceis ^ cremata. hac primum usus est
Nicias supra dictus. optima nunc Asiatica habetur,
quae et purpurea appellatur. pretium eius in
libras X vi. fit et Romae cremato sile marmoroso
et restincto aceto. sine usta non fiunt umbrae.

XXI. Eretria terrae suae habet nomen. hac
Nicomachus et PaiThasius usi. refrigerat, emolHt,
explet volnera ; si coquatur, ad siccanda praecipitur,
utiUs ^ et capitis doloribus et ad deprehendenda

^ tectoriis edd. vett.: tectorii Mayhoff {rectet): tectori cdd.
' quod Mayhoff.

^ smectica vi Urlichs : metcica ut cd. Flor. Ricc. : meccica
ut cd. Leid. Voss.t cd. Par. Lat. 6797 : metica ut B.

* Piraeei Gelen: pyrae edd. vett: pira et.

^ urceis B'^ : urcis B^ : orcis rell. : hortis edd. vett.

* praecipitur, utiHs Mayhoff : praecoquitur utilis B : utilis
praecipua rell.

" See note ^ on § 30.

* i*erhaps lead carbonate, cerussite. From Vitruv. VTT,
7, 4 we learn that it was green, perhaps because tinted with
copper salts.
288

BOOK XXXV. xviii. 36-.XX1. 38

the most tenacious for plasters because of its smooth-
ness.

XIX. Melinum» also is a white colour, the best
occurring in the island of Melos. It is found in
Samos also, but the Samian is not used by painters,
because it is excessively greasy. It is dug up in
Samos by people lying on the ground and searching
for a vein among the rocks. It has the same use in
medicine as earth of Eretria ; it also dries the tongue
by contact, and acts as a depilatory, with an abrasive,
effect. It costs a sesterce a pound.

The third of the white pigments is ceruse or lead
acetate, the nature of which we have stated in xxxiv,
speaking of the ores of lead. There was also once a ^^'^*
native ceruse earth'' found on the estate of Theodotus
at Smyrna, which was employed in old days for
painting ships. At the present time all ceruse is
manufactured from lead and vinegar, as we said.

XX. Burnt ceruse was discovered by accident, ceruse, etc.
when some was burnt up in jars in a fire at Piraeus.

It was first employed by Nicias above mentioned.
Asiatic ceruse is now thought the best ; it is also
called purple ceruse and it costs 6 denarii per Ib. It § 327.
is also made at Rome by calcining yellow ochre
which is as hard as marble and quenching it M'ith
vinegar. Burnt ceruse is indispensable for repre-
senting shadows.

XXI. Eretrian earth^ is named from the country
that produces it. It was employed by Nicomachus
and Parrhasius. It has coohng and emollient effects
and fills up wounds ; if boiled it is prescribed as a
desiccative, and is useful for pains in the head and
for detecting internal suppurations, as these are

See note * on § 30.

289

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

pura ; subesse enim ea intellegunt, si ex aqua inlita
continuo ^ arescat.

39 XXII. Sandaracam et ochram luba tradidit in insula
Rubri maris Topazo nasci, sed inde non pervehuntur
ad nos. sandaraca quomodo fieret diximus. fit et
adulterina ex cerussa in fornace cocta. color esse
debet flammeus. pretium in libras asses quini.

40 XXIII. Haec si torreatur aequa parte rubrica
admixta, sandycem facit, quamquam animadverto
Vergilium existimasse herbam id esse illo versu :

Sponte sua sandyx pascentis vestiet ^ agnos.

pretium in hbras dimidium eius quod sandaracae.
nec sunt alii colores maioris ponderis.

XXIV. Inter facticios est et Syricum, quo minium
sublini diximus. fit autem Sinopide et sandyce
mixtis.

41 XX^'^. Atramentum quoque inter facticios erit,
quamquam est et terrae,^ geminae originis. aut
enim salsuginis modo emanat, aut terra ipsa sulpurei
coloris ad hoc probatur. inventi sunt pictores, qui
carbones infestatis * sepulchris effoderent.^ inpor-
tuna haec omnia ac novicia. fit enim e fuligine
pluribus modis, resina vel pice exustis, propter

^ inlita continuo Mayhoff : inlita non cdd. (inlinunt non B).
2 vestiet cd. Par. 6801, item Verg. : vestiat rell.
^ terrae aut terra cdd. : e terra Madvig.

* infestatis Mayhoff qui et infestantes sepulchra coni. :
infectant aut infectos cdd. : iniectos coni. Sillig : adfectarent
Detlejsen (sepulchris carbones infectos al. Par. 6801).

5 efFoderent al. Tolet., cd. Par. 6801 : efifodere B : infoderet
rell. (infoderent cd. Par. Lat. 6797).

" Zeboiget.

* Virg. Ecl. IV, 45 {vestiet Virg.). There is no proof that
Virgil did take sandyx to be a plant.

2QO

BOOK XXXV. XXI. 38-xxv. 41

shown to be present if when it is applied with water
it immediately dries up.

XXII. According to Juba sandarach or realgar
and ochre are products of the island of Topazus ° in
the Red Sea, but they are not imported from those
parts to us. We have stated the method of making xxxiv,
sandarach. An adulterated sandarach is also made ^^^*
from ceruse boiled in a furnace. It ought to be
fiame-coloured. Its price is 5 asses per Ib.

XXIII. If ceruse is mixed with red ochre in equal
quantities and burnt, it produces sandyx or ver-
mihon — though it is true that I observe Virgil held
the view that sandyx is a plant, from the Une :

Sandyx self-grown shall clothe the pasturing
lambs.^

Its cost per Ib. is half that of sandarach. No other
colours weigh heavier than these.

XXIV. Among the artificial colours is also Syrian
colour, which as we said is used as an undercoating
for cinnabar and red lead. It is made by mixing
sinopis and sandyx together.

XXV. Black pigment will also be classed among niack
the artificial colours, although it ^ is also derived vwnents.
from earth in two ways ; it either exudes from the
earth Hke the brine in salt pits, or actual earth of a
sulphur colour is approved for the purpose.
Painters have been known to dig up charred remains

from graves thus violated to supply it. All these
plans are troublesome and new-fangled ; for black
paint can be made in a variety of ways from the soot
produced by burning resin or pitch, owing to which

" For this mineral shoemaker'8 black, see XXXIV, 112, 123.
The other blacks which follow are mostly composed of carbon.

291

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

qiiod etiam officinas aedificavere fiimum eum non
emittentes. laudatissimum eodem modo fit e taedis.
adulteratur fornacium balinearumque fuligine quo

42 ad volumina scribenda utuntur. sunt qui et vinl
faecem siccatam excoquant adfirmentque, si ex
bono vino faex ea ^ fuerit, Indici speciem id atra-
mentum praebere. Polygnotus et Micon, cele-
berrimi pictor-es, Athenis e vinaceis fecere, tryginon
appellantes. Apelles commentus est ex ebore

43 combusto facere, quod elephantinum vocatur. ad-
portatur et Indicum ex India inexploratae adhuc
inventionis mihi. fit etiam aput infectores ex flore
nigro, qui adhaerescit aereis cortinis. fit et hgno e
taedis combusto tritisque in mortario carbonibus.
mira in hoc saepiarum natura, sed ex iis non fit.
omne autem atramentum sole perficitur, Hbrarium
cumme,2 tectorium glutino admixto. quod aceto
hquefactum est, aegre eluitur.

44 XXVI. E reUquis coloribus, quos a dominis dari
diximus propter magnitudinem pretii, ante omnes
est purpurissum. creta argentaria cum purpuris
pariter tinguitur bibitque eum colorem celerius
lanis. praecipuum est primum, fervente aheno

^ faex ea Mayhoff : facta B : faex rell. (fex cd. Leid. Voss.).
' cumme Sillig : gummi Gelen : comme cdd. (me B^ et B^).

" Probably the real indigo (§ 46) is meant here.

' Some unknown carbon pigment, not the indigo of § 46.

* Or : ' this latter variety is wonderfuUy like the pigment
of the cuttle-fish, but is never made from these creatures '
(K. C. Bailey).

^ Polishing-powder of pure ground white earth.

292

BOOK XXXV. XXV. 41-XXV1. 44

factories have actually been built with no exit for
the smoke produced by this process. The most
esteemed black paint is obtained in the same way
from the wood of the pitch-pine. It is adulterated
by mixing it with the soot of furnaces and baths,
which is used as a material for writing. Some people
calcine dried wine-lees, and declare that if the lees
from a good wine are used this ink has the appearance
of Indian ink." The very celebrated painters
Polygnotus and Micon at Athens made black paint
from the skins of grapes, and called it grape-lees ink.
Apelles invented the method of making black from
burnt ivory ; the Greek name for this is elephantinon.
There is also an Indian black,^ imported from India,
the composition of which I have not yet discovered.
A black is also produced with dyes from the black
florescence which adheres to bronze pans. One is
also made by buming logs of pitch-pine and pounding
the charcoal in a mortar. The cuttle-fish has a
remarkable property in forming a black secretion,
but no colour is made from this.'' The preparation
of all black is completed by exposure to the sun,
black for writing ink receiving an admixture of gum
and black for painting walls an admixture of glue.
Black pigment that has been dissolved in vinegar
is difficult to wash out.

XXVI. Among the remaining colours which be- Purpies.
cause of their high cost, as we said, are suppUed § so.
by patrons, dark purple holds the first place. It is
produced by dipping silversmiths' earth '^ along with
purple cloth and in like manner, the earth absorbing
the colour more quickly than the wool. The best
is that which being the first formed in the boiUng
cauklron becomes saturated ^ith the dyes in their

2Q^

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

rudibus medicamentis inebriatum, proximum egesto
eo addita creta in ius idem et, quotiens id factum
est, elevatur bonitas pro numero dilutiore sanie.

45 quare Puteolanum potius laudetur quam Tyrium aut
Gaetulicum vel Laconicum, unde pretiosissimae
purpurae, causa est quod hysgino ^ maxime inficitur
rubiaque, quae ^ cogitur sorbere. vilissimum a
Canusio. pretium a singulis denariis in libras
ad XXX. pingentes sandyce sublita, mox ex ^ ovo
inducentes purpurissum, fulgorem minii faciunt. si
purpurae ^ facere malunt, caeruleum sublinunt,
mox purpurissum ex ovo inducunt.

46 XXVII. Ab hoc maxima auctoritas Indico. ex
India venit harundinum spumae adhaerescente Hmo.
cum cernatur, nigrum, at in diluendo mixturam
purpurae caeruleique mirabilem reddit. alterum
genus eius est in purpurariis officinis innatans cor-
tinis, et est purpurae spuma. qui adulterant, vero
Indico tingunt stercora columbina aut cretam
SeHnusiam vel anulariam vitro inficiunt. probatur
carbone ; reddit enim quod sincerum est flammam
excellentis purpurae et, dum fumat, odorem maris.
ob id quidam e scopulis id colligi putant. pretium

^ hysgino Hermolaus Barharus : hygino B : yyg- aut yog-
cdd. : id genus cd. Par. G801 : iscino Isid.

2 rubiaque quae lan : rubia quae aut rubiaque.

^ ex add. Mayhoff.

* purpurae Mayhoff : purpura aut purpurara.

" A purplish red colour got from the unidentified plant
' hysge.'

^* From several species of Indigofera.

294

BOOK XXXV. XXVI. 44-xxvn. 46

primary state, and the next best produced vvhen
white earth is added to the same liquor after the
first has been removed ; and every time this is
done the quaHty deteriorates, the liquid becoming
more diluted at each stage. The reason why the
dark purple of Pozzuoh is more highly praised than
that of Tyre or Gaetulia or Laconia, places which
produce the most costly purples, is that it combines
most easily with hysginum " and madder which can-
not help absorbing it. The cheapest comes from
Canosa. The price is from one to thirty denarii per
Ib. Painters using it put a coat of sandyx underneath
and then add a coat of dark purple mixed with egg,
and so produce the brilliance of cinnabar ; if they
wish instead to produce the glow of purple, they
lay a coat of blue underneath, and then cover this
with dark purple mixed v\ith egg.

XXVII. Of next greatest importance after this is indigo.
indigo,^ a product of India, being a slime that adheres
to the scum upon reeds. When it is sifted out it is
black, but in dilution it yields a marvellous mixture
of purple and blue. There is another kind of it that
floats on the surface of the pans ^ in the purple dye-
shops, and this is the ' scum of purple.' People who
adulterate it stain pigeons' droppings with genuine
indigo, or else colour earth of SeHnus or ring-earth '^
with woad. It can be tested by means of a Hve coal,
as if genuine it gives off a briUiant purple flame and
a smell of the sea while it smokes ; on this account
some people think that it is collected from rocks
on the coast. The price of indigo is 20 denarii per

" Perhaps the vessels containing Tyrian purple.
^* See § 48. Some white earth; but it is not known
whether it came from SeHnus in CiHcia or Selinus in Sieily.

295

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Indico X XX ^ in libras. in medicina Indiciim rigores
et impetus sedat siccatque ulcera.

47 XXVIII. Armenia mittit quod eius nomine appel-
latur. lapis est, hic quoque chrysocollae modo
infectus, optimumque est quod maxime vicinum et
communicato colore cum caeruleo. solebant Hbrae
eius trecenis ^ nummis taxari. inventa per His-
panias harena est similem curam recipiens ; itaque
ad denarios senos vilitas rediit. distat a caeruleo
candore modico, qui teneriorem hunc efficit colorem.
usus in medicina ad pilos tantum alendos habet
maximeque in palpebris.

48 XXIX. Sunt etiamnum novicii duo colores e
vilissimis : viride est ^ quod Appianum * vocatur et
chrysocollam mentitur, ceu parum multa ficta ^ sint
mendacia eius ; fit e creta viridi, aestimatum ses-
tertiis in libras. XXX. Anulare quod vocant, can-
didum est, quo muliebres picturae inluminantur ;
fit et ipsum e creta admixtis vitreis gemmis e volgi
anulis, inde et anulare dictum.

49 XXXI. Ex omnibus coloribus cretulam amant
udoque inlini recusant purpurissum, Indicum, cae-
ruleum, Melinum, auripigmentum, Appianum, ce-
russa. cerae tinguntur isdem his coloribus ad eas

^ X XX -B : XXX aut xx rell.

2 trecenis B : tricenis rell.

3 viride est Mayhoff : virides,

* fortasse apianum vel apiacum [itevi § 49).
^ ficta coni. Mayhoff : dicta.

" Azurite.

* Probably azurite found mixed with green malachite.
" A conjectural emendation apiannm or apiacum gives
' parsley green.' It was a cla}' stained by ferrous substances.

296

BOOK XXXV. xxvii. 46-xxxi. 49

pound. Used medicinally it allays cramps and fits
and dries up sores.

XXVIII. Armenia sends us the substance '^ AznrUe, eic.
named after it Armenian. This also is a mineral

that is dyed like malachite, and the best is that ^
which most closely approximates to that substance,
the colour partaking also of dark blue. Its price
used to be rated at 300 sesterces per pound. A
sand has been found all over the Spanish provinces
that admits of similar preparation, and accordingly
the price has dropped to as low as six denarii. It
differs from dark blue by a light white glow which
renders this blue colour thinner in comparison. It
is only used in medicine to give nourishment to the
hair, and especially the eyelashes.

XXIX. There are also two colours of a very
cheap class that have been recently discovered:
one is the green called Appian,^ which counterfeits
malachite ; just as if there were too few spurious
varieties of it already ! It is made from a green
earth and is valued at a sesterce per pound. XXX.
The other colour is that called ' ring-white,' which
is used to give brilliance of complexion in paintings
of women.'^ This itself also is made from white
earth mixed with glass stones from the rings of the
lower classes, which accounts for the name * ring-
white.'

XXXI. Of all the colours those which love a dry
surface of white clay, and refuse to be applied to a
damp plaster, are purple, indigo, blue, Melian,
orpiment, Appian<^ and ceruse. Wax is stained
with these same colours for encaustic paintings, a

^ Or ' which shines on the painted faces of women ' (K.
C. Bailey). Cf. § 46 and note ^ on p. 295.

297

PLINY: NATURAL HLSTORY

picturas, quae inuruntur, alieno parietibus genere,
sed classibus familiari, iam vero et onerariis navibus,
quoniam et vehicula ^ expingimus, ne quis miretur
et rogos pingi, iuvatque pugnaturos ad mortem aut
certe caedem speciose vehi. Qua contemplatione
tot colorum tanta varietate subit antiquitatem
mirari.

50 XXXIL Quattuor coloribus solis immortalia illa
opera fecere — ex albis Melino, e silaciis Attico, ex
rubris Sinopide Pontica, ex nigris atramento —
Apelles, Aetion,2 Melanthius, Nicomachus, claris-
simi pictores, cum tabulae eorum singulae oppidorum
venirent opibus. nunc et purpuris in parietes
migrantibus et India conferente fluminum suorum
limum, dracorjum elephantorumque saniem nulla
nobiUs pictura est. omnia ergo meliora tunc fuere,
cum minor copia. ita est, quoniam, ut supra dixi-
mus, rerum, non animi pretiis excubatur.

61 XXXIII. Et nostrae aetatis insaniam in pictura
non omittam. Nero princeps iusserat colosseum se
pingi cxx pedum linteo, incognitum ad hoc tempus.
ea pictura, cum peracta esset in Maianis hortis,
accensa fulmine cum optima hortorum parte con-

52 flagravit. libertus eius, cum daret Anti munus gladia-
torium, publicas porticus occupavit pictura, ut constat,

^ vehicula coni. MayhojJ : ferioula Detlefsen : pericula.
^ Aetion lan : etion ccld. (echion cd. Par. 6801).

<• Cicero, Brutus, 70 saj^s it was Zeuxis, Polygnotus, Timan-
thes and others who used four colours only, while in Aetion,
Nicomachus, Protogenes, and Apelles everything had been
brought to perfection. But the Alexander mosaic reproduces
a four-colour original.

* Indigo (see § 46) and dragon's blood, which latter is really
a plant-product got chiefly from a species of Dracaena or
Pterocarpua in Socotra.

298

BOOK XXXV. XXXI. 49-xxxiii. 52

sort of process which cannot be applied to walls but
is common for ships of the navy, and indeed nowadays
also for cargo vessels, since we even decorate vehicles
with paintings, so that no one need be surprised
that even logs for funeral pyres are painted ; and we
Hke gladiators going into the fray to ride in splendour
to the scene of their death or at all events of carnage.
Thus to contemplate all these numbers and great
variety of colours prompts us to marvel at former
generations.

XXXII. Four colours '^ only were used by the
ilUistrious painters Apelles, Aetion, Melanthius and
Nicomachus to execute their immortal works — of
whites, MeUnum ; of yellow ochres, Attic ; of reds,
Pontic Sinopis ; of blacks, atramentum — although
their pictures each sold for the wealth of a whole
town. Nowadays when purple finds its way even
on to party-walls and when India contributes ^ the
mud of her rivers and the gore of her snakes and
elephants, there is no such thing as high-class
painting. Everything in fact was superior in the
days when resources were scantier. The reason
for this is that, as we said before, it is values of§4,
material and not of genius that people are now on the
look-out for.

XXXIII. One folly of our generation also in the coiossa'
matter of painting I will not leave out. The Emperor ^y^^y^^
Nero had ordered his portrait to be painted on a 54-68.
colossal scale, on linen 120 ft. high, a thing un-
known hitherto ; this picture when finished, in the
Gardens of Maius, was struck by Hghtning and
destroyed by fire, together with the best part of the
Gardens. When a freedman of Nero was giving at
Anzio a gladiatorial show, the pubUc porticoes were

299

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

gladiatorum ministrorumque omnium veris imaginibus
redditis. hic multis iam saeculis summus animus^
in pictura, pingi autem gladiatoria munera atque in
publico exponi coepta a C. Terentio Lucano. is avo
suo, a quo adoptatus fuerat, triginta paria in foro
per triduum dedit tabulamque pictam in nemore
Dianae posuit.

53 XXXIV. Nunc celebres in ea arte quam maxima
brevitate percurram, neque enim instituti operis est
talis 2 executio ; itaque quosdam vel ^ in transcursu
et in aliorum mentione obiter nominasse satis erit,
exceptis operum claritatibus quae et ipsa conveniet
attingi, sive exstant sive intercidere.

54 Non constat sibi in hac parte Graecorum diligentia
multas post olumpiadas celebrando pictores quam
statuarios ac toreutas, primumque olympiade lxxxx,
cum et Phidian ipsum initio pictorem fuisse tradatur
clipeumque Athenis ab eo pictum, praeterea in
confesso sit lxxx tertia fuisse fratrem eius Panaenum,
qui clipeum intus pinxit Elide Minervae, quam
fecerat Colotes, discipulus Phidiae et ei in faciendo

55 love Olympio adiutor. quid ? quod in confesso
perinde est Bularchi pictoris tabulam, in qua erat
Magnetum proelium, a Candaule, rege Lydiae

^ ambitus coni. Mayhojf.

* talis B, al. Par. Lat. 6797 : iatis rell. (ampla cd. Par.
6801) : artis coni. Mayhojf.
3 V.L velut.

" Probably not that of Athene Parthenos, which was, on
its inner side, carved in relief.

300

BOOK XXXV. XXXIII. 52-xxxiv. 55

covered with paintings, so we are told, containing
life-like portraits of all the gladiators and assistants.
This portraiture of gladiators has been the highest in-
terest in art for many generations no^v ; but it was
Gaius Terentius Lucanus who began the practice
of having pictures made of gladiatorial shows and
exhibited in public ; in honour of his grandfather who
had adopted him he provided thirty pairs of gladia-
tors in the forum for three consecutive days, and
exhibited a picture of their matches in the Grove of
Diana.

XXXI\\ I will now run through as briefly as Famous
possible the artists eminent in painting ; and it is not "Pa^^^tent
consistent with the plan of this work to go into such
detail ; and accordingly it will be enough just to give
the names of some of them even in passing and in
course of mentioning others, with the exception of
the famous works of art which whether still extant
or now lost it will be proper to particularize.

In this department the exactitude of the Greeks is Chronoioov.
inconsistent, in placing the painters many OhTnpiads
after the sculptors in bronze and chasers in metal,
and putting the first in the 90th Olympiad, although 420-417 b.c.
it is said that even Phidias himself was a painter to
begin with, and that there was a shield ^ at Athens
that had been painted by him ; and although more- panaenm
over it is universally admitted that his brother ""'^ '^^^^-
Panaenus came in the 83rd Olympiad, who painted 443-445 b.c.
the inner surface of a shield of Athene at EUs made
by Colotes, Phidias's pupil and assistant in making
the statue of Olympian Zeus. And then, is it not
equally admitted that Candaules, the last King of
Lydia of the HeracHd hne, who was also commonly
known by the name of Myrsilus, gave its weight in

301

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Heraclidarum novissimo, qui et Myrsilus vocitatus
est, repensam auro ? tanta iam dignatio picturae
erat. circa Romuli id aetatem acciderit necesse est,
etenim duodevicensima olympiade interiit Can-
daules aut, ut quidam tradunt, eodem anno quo
Romulus, nisi fallor, manifesta iam tunc claritate

£6 artis, adeo absolutione.^ quod si recipi necesse est,
simul apparet multo vetustiora principia eosque,
qui monochromatis pinxerint, quorum aetas non
traditur, aliquanto ante fuisse, Hygiaenontem,
Dinian, Charmadan et, qui primus in pictura marem
a femina discreverit, Eumarum Atheniensem, figuras
omnes imitari ausum, quique inventa eius exco-
luerit, Cimonem Cleonaeum. hic catagrapha in-
venit, hoc est obliquas imagines, et varie formare
voltus, respicientes suspicientesve vel despicientes ;
articulis membra distinxit, venas protulit, praeterque

57 in vestibus rugas ^ et sinus invenit. Panaenus
quidem frater Phidiae etiam proelium Atheniensium
adversus Persas apud Marathona factum pinxit.

^ V.ll. absolutioni (B) aut absolutiore : non absolutae
Brotier.

2 vestibus rugas Trauhe : veste et rugas Gelen : veste
brugas B^ : veste rugas B^, al. Tolet. : verrugas rell.

" An unknown event ; it might be the defeat of the Greeks
mentioned in VII, 126; or more likely the great defeat of the
Magnetes by the Treres in P51 B.c. (Strabo XIV, 647).

* Candaules was in fact put to death by Gyges about 685 b.c.

« See §§ 29, 15.

^ By yjaintirg women'8 skin paler or white. This is the
stage represented by vase-painting from the seventh century
when women were commonly coloured white, men red or black.

302

BOOK XXXV. xxxiv. 55-57

gold for a picture of the painter Bularchus repre-

senting a battle " with the Magnetes ? So high was

the value already set on the art of painting. This

must have occurred at about the time of UomuUis,

since Candaules ^ died in the 18th Olympiad, or, 708-705 b.c.

according to some accounts, in the same year as

Romulus, making it clear, if I am not mistaken, ?rad. 717 b.o.

that the art had already achieved celebrity, and in

fact a perfection. And if we are bound to accept

this conclusion, it becomes clear at the same time

that the first stages were at a much earlier date and

that the painters in monochrome," whose date is not

handed down to us, came considerably earher —

Hygiaenon, Dinias, Charmadas and Eumarus of

Athens, the last being the earliest artist to distin-

guish ^ the male from the female sex in painting,

and venturing to reproduce every sort of figure ; and

Cimon of Cleonae who improved on the inventions

of Eumarus. It was Cimon who first invented

' catagrapha,' that is, images in ' three-quarter,' ^ and

who varied the aspect of the features, representing

them as looking backward or upward or downward ;

he showed the attachments of the Umbs, displayed

the veins, and moreover introduced wrinkles and folds

in the drapery. Indeed the brother of Phidias

Panaenus even painted / the Battle at Marathon 490 b.c.

between the Athenians and Persians ; so widely

' The Greek word meant probably ' foreshortened images,'
but PUny or his Latin source rightly took it as expressing
'slanting {obliquiis) images not profile or fuU-face.' Cf. § 90.
The context may exclude from the word obliquus any portraits
where the eyes look back, up, or down.

^ On a wooden panel attached to a waU of the aroa iroLKLXr],
' Painted Portico,' at Athens. The painting was attributed
also to Polygnotus and to IMicon ; cf. § 59.

3^3

PLIXY: NATURAL HISTORY

adeo iani colorum usus increbruerat adeoque ars
perfecta erat, ut in eo proelio iconicos duces pinxisse
tradatur, Atheniensium Miltiadem, Callimachum,
Cynaegirum, barbarorum Datim, Artaphernen.

a8 XXXV. Quin immo certamen etiam picturae
florente eo institutum est Corinthi ac Delphis,
primusque omnium certavit cum Timagora Chal-
cidense, superatus ab eo Pythiis, quod et ipsius
Timagorae carmine vetusto apparet, chronicorum
errore non dubio.

AUi quoque post hos clari fuere ante lxxxx olym-
piadem, sicut Polygnotus Thasius, qui primus
muheres tralucida ^ veste pinxit, capita earum
mitris versicoloribus operuit phu-imumque picturae
primus contuht, siquidem instituit os adaperire,
dentes ostendere, voltum ab antiquo rigore variare.

.59 huius est tabula in porticu Pompei, quae ante
curiam eius fuerat, in qua dubitatur ascendentem
cum clupeo pinxerit an descendentem. hic Delphis
aedem pinxit, hic et Athenis porticum, quae Poecile
vocatur, gratuito, cum partem eius Micon mercede
pingeret. vel maior huic auctoritas, siquidem Am-
phictyones, quod est pubUcum Graeciae conciHum,

^ tralucida B : lucida rell.

" Not real portraits if the aroa was built at least thirty
years after 490 b.c.

" The Adax-q, a covered colonnade.

" Polygnotus' contribution was a ' Sack of Troy,' Micon's
a ' Battle of the Amazons ' (against Theseus). See also § 57.

BOOK XXXV. XXXIV. 57-xxxv. 59

established had the employment ot colour now
become and such perfection of art had been attained
that he is said to have introduced actual ^ portraits
of the generals who commanded in that battle,
Miltiades, Callimachus and Cynaegirus on the
Athenian side and Datis and Artaphernes on that
of the barbarians. XXXV. Nay more, during the
time that Panaenus flourished competitions in
painting were actually instituted at Corinth and at
Delphi, and on the first occasion of all Panaenus
competed against Timagoras of Chalcis, being
defeated by him, at the Pythian Games, a fact
clearly shown by an ancient poem of Timagoras
himself, the chronicles undoubtedly being in error.

After those and before the 90th Olympiad there 420-417 b.c.
were other celebrated painters also, such as
Polygnotus of Thasos who first represented women Poiygnouts,
in transparent draperies and showed their heads "'"^ ^*con.
covered with a parti-coloured headdress ; and he
first contributed many improvements to the art of
painting, as he introduced showing the mouth wide
open and displaying the teeth and giving expression
to the countenance in place of the primitive rigidity.
There is a picture by this artist in the Portico of
Pompeius which formerly hung in front of the Curia
which he built, in which it is doubtful whether the
figure of a man with a shield is painted as going up
or as coming down. Polygnotus painted the temple ^
at Delphi and the colonnade at Athens called the
Painted Portico, doing his work gratuitously,
although a part of the work was painted by Micon
who received a fee.^ Indeed Polygnotus was held
in higher esteem, as the Amphictyones, who are a
General Council of Greece, voted him entertainment

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

hospitia ei gratuita decrevere. Fuit et alius Micon,
qui minoris cognomine distinguitur, cuius filia
Timarete et ipsa pinxit.

60 XXX\T. Lxxxx autem olympiade fuere Aglaophon,
Cephisodorus, Erillus,^ Euenor, pater Parrhasii et
praeceptor maximi pictoris, de quo suis annis di-
cemus, omnes iam inlustres, non tamen in quibus
haerere expositio debeat festinans ad lumina artis,
in quibus primus refulsit Apollodorus Atheniensis
Lxxxxiii olympiade. hic primus species exprimere
instituit primusque gloriam penicillo iure contulit.
eius est sacerdos adorans et Aiax fulmine incensus,
(^uae Pergami spectatur hodie. neque ante eum
tabula ullius ostenditur, quae teneat oculos.

Gl Ab hoc artis fores apertas Zeuxis Heracleotes
intravit olympiadis lxxxxv anno quarto, audentemque
iam aliquid penicillum — de hoc enim adhuc loquamur
— ad magnam gloriam perduxit, a quibusdam falso
in Lxxxviiii olympiade positus, cum fuisse ^ necesse
est Demophilum Himeraeum et Nesea Thasium,
quoniam utrius eorum discipulus fuerit ambigitur.

62 in eum Apollodorus supra scriptus versum fecit,
artem ipsis ablatam Zeuxim ferre secum. opes
quoque tantas adquisivit, ut in ostentatione ^ earum

1 Erillus B : frilius rell. (frillus cd. Par. I.al. 6797) : Phryllus
Brotier : Phrylus edd. vett. : Herillus coni. Sillig.

2 cum quo f. Urlichs : confuisse Traiihe.
^ ostentationem Gronov.

" Inventor of shading, and therefore called aKiaypd(f>os.
306

BOOK XXXV. XXXV. qq-xxxvi. 62

at the public expense. There was also another
Micon, distinguished from the first by the surname
of ' the Younger,' whose daughter Timarete also
painted.

XXXVI. In the 90th Olympiad Hved Aglaophon, 420-417 b.c.
Cephisodorus, Erillus, and Evenor the father and ^KS"
teacher of Parrhasius, a very great painter (about
Parrhasius we shall have to speak when we come to
his period). All these are now artists of note, yet $ 67.
not figures over which our discourse should Hnger
in its haste to arrive at the luminaries of the art ;
first among whom shone out ApoUodorus « of Athens,
in the 93rd Olympiad. Apollodorus was the first 408-406 b.c.
artist to give realistic presentation of objects, and
the first to confer glory as of right upon the paint
brush. His are the Priest at Prayer and Ajax
struck by Lightning, the latter to be seen at
Pergamum at the present day. There is no painting
now on view by any artist before Apollodorus that
arrests the attention of the eyes.

The gates of art having been now thrown open by zeuxis.
Apollodorus they were entered by Zeuxis of Heraclea
in the Ith year of the 95th Olympiad, who led forward 400-397 e.c.
the already not unadventurous paintbrush — for this
is what we are still speaking of — to great glory.
Some ^VTiters erroneously place Zeuxis in the 89th 424-421 b.c.
Olympiad, when Demophilus of Himera and Neseus
of Thasos must have been his contemporaries, as of
one of them, it is uncertain which, he was a pupil.
Of Zeuxis, Apollodorus above recorded wrote an
epigram in a Hne of poetry to the eifect that ' Zeuxis
robbed his masters of their art and carried it off with
him.' Also he acquired such great wealth that he
advertised it at Olympia by displaying his own

307

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Olympiae aureis litteris in palliorum tesseris in-
textum nomen suum ostentaret. postea chmare
opera sua instituit, quod nuUo pretio satis digno
permutari ^ posse diceret, sicuti Alcmenam Agra-

63 gantinis, Pana Archelao. fecit et Penelopen, in
qua pinxisse mores videtur, et athletam ; adeoque
in illo sibi placuit, ut versum subscriberet celebrem
ex eo, invisurum aliquem facilius quam imitaturum.
magnificus est et luppiter eius in throno adstantibus
diis et Hercules infans dracones ii ^ strangulans
Alcmena matre coram pavente et Amphitryone.

64 reprehenditur tamen ceu grandior in capitibus
articulisque, alioqui tantus diligentia, ut Agra-
gantinis facturus tabulam, quam in templo lunonis
Laciniae publice dicarent, inspexerit virgines eorum
nudas et quinque elegerit, ut quod in quaque lauda-
tissimum esset pictura redderet. pinxit et mono-
chromata ex albo. aequales eius et aemuli fuere
Timanthes, Androcydes, Eupompus, Parrhasius.

65 descendisse hic in certamen cum Zeuxide traditur
et, cum ille detulisset uvas pictas tanto successu, ut
in scaenam aves advolarent, ipse detulisse Hnteum
pictum ita veritate repraesentata, ut Zeuxis alitum
iudicio tumens flagitaret tandem remoto Hnteo

^ permutari B ? : permutare rell.

2 dracones ii Mayhoff: draconem B : draconesoZ. Par. 6801 :
dracones in rell.

° King of Macedonia 413-399 B.c.

' MajjU7^CT€Tai Ti? /iaAAov rj fj.ifxrj(TeTai.

"^ Fiiigers and toes ?

<* Afjparently a ' Helen (cf. § 66),' painted in fact for the city
of Croton (Cic. De Invent. II, 1, 1 ; Dionys. Hal., De Vet. Script.
Cens. I).

* Apparently paintings in pale colours on a dark ground.

^ The pictures were hung on the front of the stage buildiiigs
in the theatre.
308

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 62-65

name embroidered in gold lettering on the checked
pattern of his robes. Afterwards he set about giving
away his works as presents, saying that it was im-
possible for them to be sold at any price adequate
to their value : for instance he presented his Alcmena
to the city of Girgenti and his Pan to Archelaus.*»
He also did a Penelope in which the picture seems to
portray morality, and an Athlete, in the latter case
being so pleased with his own work that he wrote
below it a line of verse ^ which has hence become
famous, to the effect that it would be easier for some-
one to carp at him than to copy him. His Zeus
seated on a throne Mith the gods standing by in
attendance is also a magnificent work, and so is the
Infant Heracles throttling two Snakes in the presence
of his mother Alcmena, looking on in alarm, and of
Amphitryon. Nevertheless Zeuxis is criticized for
making the heads and joints ^ of his figures too large
in proportion, albeit he was so scrupulously careful
that when he was going to produce a picture ^ for
the city of Girgenti to dedicate at the pubHc cost in
the temple of Lacinian Hera he held an inspection
of maidens of the place paraded naked and chose
five, for the purpose of reproducing in the picture
the most admirable points in the form of each. He
also painted monochromes in white.« His contem- zeuxisand
poraries and rivals were Timanthes, Androcydes, Parrhasiui.
Eupompus and Parrhasius. This last, it is recorded,
entered into a competition with Zeuxis, who pro-
duced a picture of grapes so successfully represented
that birds flew up to the stage-buildings /; where-
upon Parrhasius himself produced such a realistic
picture of a curtain that Zeuxis, proud of the verdict
of the birds, requested that the curtain should now

309

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ostendi picturam atqiie intellecto errore concederet
palmam ingenuo pudore, quoniam ipse volucres

66 fefellisset, Parrhasius autem se artificem. fertur
et postea Zeuxis pinxisse puerum uvas ferentem, ad
quas cum advolassent aves,^ eaden. ingenuitate
processit iratus operi et dixit : ' uvas melius pinxi
quam puerum, nam si et hoc consummassem, aves
timere debuerant.' fecit et figlina opera, quae sola
in Ambracia relicta sunt, cum inde Musas Fulvius
Nobilior Romam transferret. Zeuxidis manu Romae
Helena est in Philippi porticibus, et in Concordiae
dehibro Marsyas rehgatus.

67 Parrhasius Ephesi natus et ipse multa contulit.
primus symmetrian picturae dedit, primus argutias
voltus, elegantiam capilU, venustatem ^ oris, con-
fessione artificum in Hniis extremis palmam adeptus.
haec est picturae summa subtihtas.^ corpora enim
pingere et media rerum est quidem magni operis,
sed in quo multi gloriam tulerint; extrema cor-
porum facere et desinentis picturae modum includere

68 rarum in successu artis invenitur. ambire enim se
ipsa debet extremitas et sic desinere, ut promittat
alia et ^ post se ^ ostendatque etiam quae occultat.
hanc ei gloriam concessere Antigonus et Xenocrates,

^ V.l. advolarent aves aut advolasset avis aut advolaret avis.

* V.l. vetustatem.

' suptilitas B : subliinitas rell.

* alia et Mayhoff : aliae cd. Leid. Voss. m.l : alia rell.

^ posse edd. vett.: pone se coni. lan : alias post se Trauhe.

" The picture ' Helen ' mentioned (not named) in § 64. The
porticoes were built by L. Marcius Philippus in 29 b.c.

310

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 65-68

be drawn and the picture displayed ; and when he
realized his mistake, with a modesty that did him
honour he yielded up the prize, saying that whercas
he had deceived birds Parrhasius had deceived hini,
an artist, It is said that Zeuxis also subsequently
painted a Child Carrying Grapes, and when birds
flew to the fruit with the same frankness as before
he strode up to the picture in anger with it and said,
' I have painted the grapes better than the child, as
if I had made a success of that as well, the birds
would inevitably have been afraid of it.' He also
executed w'orks in clay, the only works of art that
were left at Ambracia when Fulvius Nobilior removed iso b.c.
the statues of the Muses from that place to Rome.
There is at Rome a Helena ^ by Zeuxis in the
Porticoes of Philippus, and a Marsyas Bound, in the
Shrine of Concord.

Parrhasius also, a native of Ephesus, contributed Parrha^iu.i
much to painting. He was the first to give proportions
to painting and the first to give vivacity to the
expression of the countenance, elegance of the hair
and beauty of the mouth ; indeed it is admitted by
artists that he won the palm in the drawing of
outHnes. This in painting is the high-water mark
of refinement ; to paint bulk and the surface within
the outlines, though no doubt a great achieve-
ment, is one in which many have won distinction,
but to give the contour of the figures, and make a
satisfactory boundary where the painting within
finishes, is rarely attained in successful artistry.
For the contour ought to round itself off and so
terminate as to suggest the presence of other parts
behind it also, and disclose even what it hides.
This is the distinction conceded to Parrhasius by

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

qui de pictura scripsere, praedicantes quoque, non
solum confitentes ; et alias multa graphidis vestigia
exstant in tabulis ac membranis eius, ex quibus pro-
ficere dicuntur artifices. minor tamen videtur sibi

69 comparatus in mediis corporibus exprimendis. pinxit
demon Atheniensium argumento quoque ingenioso.
ostendebat namque varium iracundum iniustum
inconstantem,^ eundem exorabilem clementem
misericordem ; gloriosum ... ,2 excelsum humilem,
ferocem fugacemque et omnia pariter. idem pinxit
et Thesea, quae Romae in Capitolio fuit, et nauar-
chum thoracatum, et in una tabula, quae est Rhodi,
Meleagrum, Herculem, Persea ; haec ibi ter fulmine
ambusta neque obliterata hoc ipso miraculum auget.

70 pinxit et archigallum, quam picturam amavit Ti-
berius princeps atque, ut auctor est Deculo,^ hs
ILxj * aestimatam cubiculo suo inclusit. pinxit
et Thressam ^ nutricem infantemque in manibus
eius et PhiUscum et Liberum patrem adstante
Virtute, et pueros duos, in quibus spectatur securitas
aetatis et simplicitas, item sacerdotem adstante

71 puero cum acerra et corona. sunt et duae picturae
eius nobilissimae, hoplites in certamine ita decur-
rens, ut sudare videatur, alter arma deponens, ut

^ incontinentera 0. Jahn.

2 lac. Mayhoff.

^ deculo B : depulo, de populo aut sim. rell. : Decius
Gelen : Decius Epulo edd. veti. : Decius Eculeo Hermolaus
Barbarus.

* "jEXf lan : EX £ : LX rell.

^ thressam B : cressam aut chressam rell.

" Or ' traces of his draughtsmanship.'
' Or ' them in various moods.'
Until it ])erislied in the fire of 70 B.c.

312

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 68-71

Antigonus and Xenocrates who have written on the
art of painting, and they do not merely admit it but
actually advertise it. And there are many other pen-
sketches " still extant among his panels and parch-
ments, from which it is said that artists derive profit.
Xevertheless he seems to fall below his own level in
gi\ ing expression to the surface of the body inside
the outHne. His picture of the People of Athens
also shows ingenuity in treating the subject, since
he displayed them as fickle,* choleric, unjust and
variable, but also placable and merciful and compas-
sionate. boastful <and ....), lofty and humble,
fierce and timid — and all these at the same time.
He also painted a Theseus which was once <^ in the
Capitol at Rome, and a Naval Commander in a
Cuirass, and in a single picture now at Rhodes figures
of Meleager, Heracles and Perseus. This last
picture has been three times struck by lightning at
Rhodes without being effaced, a circumstance which
in itself enhances the wonder felt for it. He also
painted a High Priest of Cybele, a picture for which
the Emperor Tiberius conceived an affection and kept a.d. 14-37.
it shut up in his bedchamber, the price at which
it was valued according to Deculo being 6,000,000
sesterces. He also painted a Thracian Nurse with
an Infant in her Arms, a PhiUscus, and a Father
Liber or Dionysus attended by Virtue, and Two
Children in which the carefree simplicity of childhood
is clearly displayed, and also a Priest attended by
Boy with Incense-box and Chaplet. There are also
two very famous pictures by him, a Runner in the
Race in Full Armour who aotually seems to sweat
with his efforts, and the other a Runner in FuU
Armour Taking ofF his Arms, so lifehke that he can

VOL. IX. • L

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

anhelare sentiatur. laudantur et Aeneas Castorque
ac PoUux in eadem tabula, item Telephus, Achilles,
Agamemnon, UHxes. fecundus artifex, sed quo
nemo insolentius usus sit gloria artis, namque et
cognomina usurpavit habrodiaetum se appellando
aUisque versibus principem artis et eam ab se con-
summatam, super omnia Apollinis se radice ortum et
Herculem, qui est Lindi, talem a se pictum, qualem

72 saepe in quiete vidisset ; et cum ^ magnis sufFragiis
superatus a Timanthe esset ^ Sami in Aiace armo-
rumque iudicio, herois nomine se moleste ferre
dicebat, quod iterum ab indigno victus esset —
Pinxit et minoribus tabelHs libidines, eo genere
petulantis ioci se reficiens.^

7;} Nam Timanthis vel plurimum adfuit ingenii.
eius enim est Iphigenia oratorum laudibus celebrata,
qua stante ad aras peritura cum maestos pinxisset
omnes praecipueque patruum et tristitiae omnem
imaginem consumpsisset, patris ipsius voltum velavit,

74 quem digne non poterat ostendere. sunt et aha
ingenii eius exempla, veluti Cyclops dormiens in
parvola tabella, cuius et sic magnitudinem exprimere
cupiens pinxit iuxta Satyros thyrso poUicem eius

^ et cu (= cum) Mayhoff: ergo.

2 Tiraanthe esset Mayhoff: timanthesest B^ : timanthe {aut
thimante) est cdd.

^ pinxit . . . reficiens post Ulixes 71 transp. Urlichs.

" Showing the healing of Telephus by rust from Achilles'
sword, with Agamemnon and Odvsseus looking on.

" When the arms of dead Achilles were awarded to Odysseus,
Ajax became mad and at night unknowingly killed sheep in
Ihe beHef that he was killing his enemies.

" E.g. Cicero, De Oratore 74.

^ A picture found at Pompeii may be a copy of this.

BOOK XXXV. xxxYi. 71-74

be perceived to be panting for breath, His Aeneas,
Castor and Pollux (Polydeuces), all in the same
picture, are also highly praised, and hkewise his
group" of Telephus with Achilles, Agamemnon and
Odysseus. Parrhasius was a proHfic artist, but one
who enjoyed the glory of his art with unparalleled
arrogance, for he actually adopted certain surnames,
calling himself the ' Bon Viveur,' and in some other
verses ' Prince of Painters,' who had brought the art
to perfection, and above all saying he was sprung from
the Hneage of Apollo and that his picture of Heracles
at Lindos presented the hero as he had often ap-
peared to him in his dreams. Consequently when Timanthes.
defeated by Timanthes at Samos by a large majority
of votes, the subject of the pictures being Ajax
and the Award of the Arms, he used to declare in
the name of his hero that he was indignant at having
been defeated a second time by an unworthy
opponent.^ He also painted some smaller pictures
of an immodest nature, taking his recreation in this
sort of wanton amusement.

To return to Timanthes — he had a very high degree
of genius. Orators ^ have sung the praises of his
Iphigenia,^ who stands at the altar awaiting her
doom ; the artist has shown all present full of sorrow,
and especially her uncle,^ and has exhausted all the
indications of grief, yet has veiled the countenance
of her father himself/ whom he was unable ade-
quately to portray. There are also other examples
of his genius, for instance a quite small panel of a
Sleeping Cyclops, whose gigantic stature he aimed
at representing even on that scale by painting at his
side some Satyrs measuring the size of his thumb

" Menelaus. ^ Agamemnon.

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

metientes. atque in unius huius operibus intelligitur
plus semper quam pingitur et, cum sit ars summa,
ingenium tamen ultra artem est. pinxit et heroa
absohitissimi operis, artem ipsam complexus viros
pingendi. quod opus nunc Romae in templo Pacis est.

75 Euxinidas hac aetate docuit Aristiden, prae-
clarum artificem, Eupompus Pamphilum, ApelHs
praeceptorem. est Eupompi victor certamine gym-
nico palmam tenens. ipsius auctoritas tanta fuit,
ut diviserit picturam ^ : genera, quae ante eum duo
fuere — Helladicum et Asiaticum ^ appellabant — ,
propter hunc, qui erat Sicyonius, diviso Helladico
tria facta sunt, lonicum, Sicyonium, Atticum.

76 Pamphili cognatio et proelium ad Phliuntem ac
victoria Atheniensium, item UHxes in rate. ipse
Macedo natione, sed . . .^ primus in pictura omnibus
litteris eruditus, praecipue arithmetica et geometria,
sine quibus negabat artem perfici posse, docuit
neminem talento minoris — annuis X d ^ — , quam
mercedem at Apelles et Melanthius dedere ei.

77 huius auctoritate effectum est Sicyone primum,
deinde in tota Graecia, ut pueri ingenui omissam

^ picturam Mayhoff : picturam in cdd. (-ras in cd. Par.
G801 : -a in cd. Leid. Voss.).

2 asiaticum B : asianum B^ ? : asiticum quod asiaticum
rell. : quod asiaticum Gelen.

' lac. Mayhojf.

^ '^ D B, cd. Leid. Voss. : d relL [om. cd. Flor. Ricc.).

« The elder; cf. §§ 108, 111 and note on pp. 410-411.
' Possibly the capture of Phlius by the Spartans in 379 b.c.
and the sea-victory of Athens over the Spartans at Naxos in

316

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 74-77

with a wand. Indeed Timanthes is the only artist
in whose works more is always implied than is
depicted, and whose execution, though consummate,
is ahvays surpassed by his genius. He painted a
hero w^hich is a work of supreme perfection, in which
he has included the whole art of painting male
tlgures ; this work is now in the Temple of Peace in
Rome.

It was at this period that Euxinidas had as his Eupompiu
pupil the famous artist Aristides,'^ that Eupompus ^amphUu.^
taught Pamphilus who was the instructor of Apelles.
A work of Eupompus is a Winner in a Gymnastic
Contest holding a Palm branch. Eupompus's own
influence was so powerful that he made a fresh division
of painting ; it had previously been divided into tw^o
schools, called the Helladic or Grecian and the
Asiatic, but because of Eupompus, who was a
Sicyonian, the Grecian school was sub-divided into
three groups, the lonic, Sicyonian and Attic. To
Pamphilus belong Family Group, and a Battle at
Phlius and a Victory of the Athenians,^ and also
Odysseus on his Raft. He was himself a Macedonian
by birth, but <w^as brought up at Sicyon, and) was
the first painter highly educated in all branches of
learning, especially arithmetic and geometry, with-
out the aid of which he maintained art could not
attain perfection. He took no pupils at a lower fee
than a talent, at the rate of 500 drachmae per annum,'^
and this was paid him by both Apelles and Melanthius.
It was brought about by his influence, first at Sicyon
and then in the whole of Greece as well, that children

376, or the defeat of Sicyonians by Phliasians and Athenians in
367 B.c. The painting may have represented the last event only.
"= So that the course of study could last 12 years.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

ante ^ graphicen [hoc est picturam ^] in buxo, do-
cerentur recipereturque ars ea in primum gradum
Hberalium. semper quidem honos ei fuit, ut ingenui
eam exercerent, mox ut honesti, perpetuo inter-
dicto ne servitia docerentur. ideo neque in hac
neque in toreutice ullius, qui servierit, opera
celebrantur.

78 Clari et centesima septima olympiade exstitere
Aetion ac Therimachus. Aetionis sunt nobiles
picturae Liber pater, item Tragoedia et Comoedia,
Semiramis ex ancilla regnum apiscens, anus lampadas
praeferens et nova nupta verecundia notabilis.

79 Verum omnes prius genitos futurosque postea
superavit Apelles Cous olympiade centesima duo-
decima. picturae plura solus prope quam ceteri
omnes contulit, voluminibus etiam editis, quae
doctrinam eam continent. praecipua eius in arte
venustas fuit, cum eadem aetate maximi pictores
essent; quorum opera cum admiraretur, omnibus
conlaudatis deesse illam suam venerem ^ dicebat,
quam Graeci ■)(apLTa vocant ; cetera omnia contigisse,

80 sed hac sola sibi neminem parem. et aliam gloriam
usurpavit, cum Protogenis opus inmensi laboris ac

^ omissa (= omissam) ante coni. Mayhoff : omnia ante B :
omnia anti rell. : ante omnia edd. vett. : omnes artem G. F.
flermann.

* seclud. Urlichs.

' venustatem Frohner [cp. gratiam Quintil. XII. 10. 6).

* The whole of statuary as contrasted with painting.
*" Sammuramat, princess of Assyria c. 800 b.c.

" Really of Ephesus, but some of his famous works were at
Cos.

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 77-80

of free birth were given lessons in drawing on box-
wood, which had not been inchided hitherto, and that
this art was accepted into the front rank of the
hberal sciences. And it has ahvays consistently
had the honour of being practised by people of free
birth, and later on by persons of station, it having
ahvays been forbidden that slaves should be
instructed in it. Hence it is that neither in painting
nor in the art of statuary " are there any famous
works that were executed by any person who was a
slave.

In the lOTth Olympiad Aetion and Therimachus 352-349 p.c.
also attained outstandino^ distinction. Famous if^^f* '^"*^

1 ' 1 T 1 T-v Ineri-

pamtings by Aetion are a rather Liber or Dionysus, machus.
Tragedy and Comedy and Semiramis ^ the Slave
Girl Rising to a Throne ; and the Old Woman carrying
Torches, with a Newly Married Bride, remarkable
for her air of modesty.

But it was Apelles of Cos *^ who surpassed all the A^peiUs.
painters that preceded and all who were to come
after him ; he dates in the lT2th Olympiad. He 332-329 b.c.
singly contributed almost more to painting than all
the other artists put together, also pubHshing
volumes containing the principles of painting. His
art was unrivalled for graceful charm, although other
very great painters were his contemporaries.
Although he admired their works and gave high
praise to all of them, he used to say that they lacked
the glamour that his work possessed, the quahty
denoted by the Greek word charis, and that although
they had every other merit, in that alone no one was
his rival. He also asserted another claim to distinc- Apeiies and
tion when he expressed his admiration for the ^'"'"^^*-
immensely laborious and infinitely meticulous work

319

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

curae supra modum anxiae miraretur ; dixit enim
omnia sibi cum illo paria esse aut illi meliora, sed
uno se praestare, quod manum de tabula sciret ^
tollere, memorabili praecepto nocere saepe nimiam
diligentiam. fuit autem non minoris simplicitatis
quam artis. Melanthio dispositione cedebat, Ascle-
piodoro de ^ mensuris, hoc est quanto quid a quoque
distare deberet.

81 Scitum inter Protogenen et eum quod accidit.
ille Rhodi vivebat, quo cum Apelles adnavigasset,
avidus cognoscendi opera eius fama tantum sibi
cogniti, continuo officinam petiit. aberat ipse, sed
tabulam amplae magnitudinis in machina aptatam
una 3 custodiebat anus. haec foris esse Protogenen
respondit interrogavitque, a quo quaesitum diceret.
' ab hoc,' inquit Apelles adreptoque penicillo Hneam

82 ex colore duxit summae tenuitatis per tabulam. et
reverso Protogeni quae gesta erant anus indicavit.
ferunt artificem protinus contemplatum subtiU-
tatem dixisse Apellen venisse, non cadere in alium
tam absolutum opus ; ipsumque alio colore tenui-
orem hneam in ipsa illa duxisse abeuntemque
praecepisse, si redisset ille, ostenderet adiceretque

^ sciret B : non sciret rell.

* de fortasse delendum {Mayhojf, qui et dimensuris coni.).

^ una B : picturae una rell.

" The expression ' manum de tahula,' ' hand from the picture,'
was a saying which expressed ' Thafs enoiigh.'

** Pliny does not say whether it was straight or wavy, or
an outline of some object.

320

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 80-82

of Protogenes ; for he said that in all respects his
achievements and those of Protogenes were on a
level, or those of Protogenes were superior, but that
in one respect he stood higher, that he knew when to
take his hand away from a picture " — a noteworthy
warning of the frequently evil effects of excessive
diligence, The candour of Apelles was however
equal to his artistic skill : he used to acknowledge
his inferiority to Melanthius in grouping, and to
Asclepiodorus in nicety of measurement, that is in
the proper space to be left between one object and
another.

A clever incident took place between Proto-
genes and Apelles. Protogenes lived at Rhodes,
and Apelles made the voyage there from a desire to
make himself acquainted with Protogenes's works,
as that artist was hitherto only known to him by
reputation. He went at once to his studio. The
artist was not there but there was a panel of consider-
able size on the easel prepared for painting, which
was in the charge of a single old woman. In answer
to his enquiry, she told him that Protogenes was not
at home, and asked who it was she should report as
having wished to see him. * Say it was this person,'
said Apelles, and taking up a brush he painted in
colour across the panel an extremely fine Hne ^ ;
and when Protogenes returned the old woman
showed him what had taken place. The story goes
that the artist, after looking closely at the finish of
this, said that the new arrival was Apelles, as so
perfect a piece of work talHed ^vith nobody else ;
and he himself, using another colour, drew a still
finer line exactly on the top of the first one, and
leaving the room told the attendant to show it to the

321

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

hunc esse quem quaereret. atque ita evenit.
revertit enim Apelles et vinci erubescens tertio
colore lineas secuit nullum relinquens amplius

83 subtilitati locum. at Protogenes victum se con-
Fessus in portum devolavit hospitem quaerens,
placuitque sic eam tabulam posteris tradi omnium
quidem, sed artiiicum praecipuo miraculo. con-
sumptam eam priore incendio Caesaris domus in
Palatio audio, spectatam nobis ^ ante, spatiose ^
nihil aliud continentem quam ^ lineas visum effu-
gientes, inter egregia multorum opera inani similem
et eo ipso allicientem omnique opere nobiliorem.

84 Apelli fuit alioqui perpetua consuetudo numquam
tam occupatum diem agendi, ut non lineam ducendo
exerceret artem, quod ab eo in proverbium venit.
idem perfecta opera proponebat in pergula tran-
seuntibus atque, ipse post tabulam latens, vitia
quae notarentur auscultabat, vulgum diligentiorem

85 iudicem quam se praeferens ; feruntque reprehensum
a sutore, quod in crepidis una pauciores intus fecisset
ansas, eodem postero die superbo emendatione
pristinae admonitionis cavillante circa crus, indig-

' nobis cdd. : Rhodi MayhofJ : olim Gronov.

2 V.l. spatiore (spatio sed B^) : spatio Pintianus.

^ V.l. quam in : quam iii Gronov.

" Pliny surely indicates tbat Apelles drew a yet finer
line on top of tbe otber two down tbeir length.
* Probably an outline of some object.
'^ Nulla dies sine linea, ' No day without a line.'

322

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 82-85

visitor if he returned and add that this was the
person he was in search of; and so it happened;
for Apelles came back, and, ashamed to be beaten,
cut " the hnes with another in a third colour, leaving
no room for any further display of minute work.
Hereupon Protogenes admitted he was defeated,
and flew down to the harbour to look for the
visitor; and he decided that the panel should be
handed on to posterity as it was, to be admired as a
marvel by everybody, but particularly by artists.
I am informed that it was burnt in the first fire which
occurred in Caesar's palace on the Palatine ; it had
been previously much admired by us, on its vast
surface containing nothing else than the almost
invisible Hnes, so that among the outstanding works
of many artists it looked like a blank space, and by
that very fact attracted attention and was more
esteemed than any masterpiece.

Moreover it was a regular custom with Apelles
never to let a day of business to be so fully occupied
that he did not practise his art by drawing a Hne,*
which has passed from him into a proverb.'' Another
habit of his was when he had finished his works to
place them in a gallery in the view of passers by,
and he himself stood out of sight behind the picture
and Hstened to hear what faults were noticed, rating
the pubHc as a more observant critic than himself.
And it is said that he was found fault with by a shoe-
maker because in drawing a subject's sandals he had
represented the loops in them as one too few, and the
next day the same critic was so proud of the artist's
correcting the fault indicated by his previous
objection that he found fault with the leg, but
Apelles indignantly looked out from behind the

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

natum prospexisse denuntiantem, ne supra crepidam
sutor iudicaret, quod et ipsum in proverbium abiit.
fuit enim et comitas illi, propter quam gratior
Alexandro Magno frequenter in officinam venti-
tanti — nam, ut diximus, ab alio se pingi vetuerat
edicto — , sed in officina imperite multa disserenti
silentium comiter suadebat, rideri eum dicens a

86 pueris, qui colores tererent. tantum erat auctori-
tati iuris in regem alioqui iracundum. quamquam
Alexander honorem ei clarissimo perhibuit exemplo.
namque cum dilectam sibi e pallacis suis praecipue,
nomine Pancaspen,^ nudam pingi ob admirationem
formae ab Apelle iussisset eumque, dum paret,
captum amore sensisset, dono dedit ei,^ magnus
animo, maior imperio sui nec minor hoc facto quam

87 victoria alia, quia ^ ipse se vicit, nec torum tantum
suum, sed etiam adfectum donavit artifici, ne
dilectae quidem respectu motus, cum modo regis ea
fuisset, modo pictoris esset. sunt qui Venerem
anadyomenen ab illo pictam exemplari putent.
Apelles et in aemulis benignus Protogeni digna-

^ pancaspen B : campaspen aut -em rell. : Pancasten Sillig.

2 ei lan : et.

^ alia quia M. Hertz : alia Urlichs : alia qua B : aliqua rell.

" Ne sutor ultra crepidam. "Let a shoemaker stick to his

last."

BOOK XXXV. xxx\'i. 85-87

picture and rebuked him, sayin^ that a shoemaker

in his criticism must not go beyond the sandal —

a remark that has also passed into a proverb.'* In Apeiies md

fact he also possessed great courtesy of manners, "^ ^^"" ^'

which made him more agreeable to Alexander the

Great, who frequently visited his studio — for, as we

have said, Alexander had published an edict for- vii, 125.

bidding any other artist to paint his portrait ; but

in the studio Alexander used to talk a great deal

about painting without any real knowledge of it,

and Apelles would poHtely advise him to drop the

subject, saying that the boys engaged in grinding

the colours were laughing at him : so much power

did his authority exercise over a King who was

otherwise of an irascible temper. And yet Alexander

conferred honour on him in a most conspicuous

instance ; he had such an admiration for the beauty

of his favourite mistress, named Pancaspe, that he

gave orders that she should be painted in the nude

by Apelles, and then discovering that the artist

while executing the commission had fallen in love

with the woman, he presented her to him, great-

minded as he was and still greater owing to his control

of himself, and of a greatness proved by this action

as much as by any other victory : because he

conquered himself, and presented not only his

bedmate but his affection also to the artist, and was

not even influenced by regard for the feelings of

his favourite in having been recently the mistress of a

monarch and now belonged to a painter. Some

persons believe that she was the model from which

the Aphrodite Anadyomene (Rising from the Sea)

was painted. It was Apelles also who, kindly among

his rivals, first established the reputation of

325

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

88 tionem primus Rhodi constituit. sordebat suis, ut
plerumque domestica, percontantique, quanti li-
ceret opera eifecta, parvum nescio quid dixerat,
at ille quinquagenis talentis poposcit famamque
dispersit, se emere, ut pro suis venderet. ea res
concitavit Rhodios ad intellegendum artificem, nec
nisi augentibus pretium cessit.

Imagines ^ adeo similitudinis indiscretae pinxit,
ut — incredibile dictu — Apio grammaticus scriptum
reliquerit, quendam ex facie hominum divinantem,
quos metoposcopos vocant, ex iis dixisse aut futurae

89 mortis annos aut praeteritae vitae.'- non fuerat ei
gratia in comitatu Alexandri cum Ptolemaeo, quo
regnante Alexandriam vi tempestatis expulsus,
subornato fraude aemulorum plano regio invitatus,
ad cenam venit indignantique Ptolemaeo et vocatores
suos ostendenti, ut diceret, a quo eorum invitatus
esset, arrepto carbone extincto e foculo imaginem
in pariete delineavit, adgnoscente voltum plani rege

90 inchoatum protinus. pinxit et Antigoni regis
imaginem altero lumine orbati ^ primus excogitata
ratione vitia condendi ; obHquam namque fecit, ut,

^ imagines Gelen : imaginem.

2 vitae add. Brunn.

' orbati Mayhoff : orbatam.

" The word ixeToiTToaKonos means one who gazes at (examines)
foreheads.

^ Ptolemy I, who died in 286 b.c.

<= 382-301 B.c. One of Alexander'8 generals, and King of
Macedonia 306-301.

326

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 87-90

Protogenes at Rhodes. Protogenes was held in low
esteem by his fellow-countrymen, as is usual with
home products, and, when Apelles asked him what
price he set on some works he had finished, he had
mentioned some small sum, but Apelles made him an
offer of fifty talents for them, and spread it about
that he was buying them with the intention of
selling them as works of his own. This device
aroused the people of Rhodes to appreciate the
artist, and Apelles only parted with the pictures to
them at an enhanced price.

He also painted portraits so absolutely Ufehke
that, incredible as it sounds, the grammarian Apio
has left it on record that one of those persons called
' physiognomists,' " who prophesy people's future
by their countenance, pronounced from their portraits
either the year of the subjects' deaths hereafter or
the number of years they had already lived. Apelles Apeiies anu
had been on bad terms with Ptolemy in Alexander's
retinue. When this Ptolemy ^ was King of Egypt,
Apelles on a voyage had been driven by a violent
storm into Alexandria. His rivals maliciously
suborned the King's jester to convey to him an
invitation to dinner, to which he came. Ptolemy
was very indignant, and paraded his hospitality-
stewards for Apelles to say which of them had given
him the invitation. Apelles picked up a piece of
extinguished charcoal from the hearth and drew a
likeness on the wall, the King recognizing the
features of the jester as soon as he began the sketch.
He also painted a portrait of King Antigonus ^ who Apeiiesand
was blind in one eye, and devised an original method of
concealing the defect, for he did the likeness in ' three-
quarter,' so that the feature that was lacking in the

327

Ptolerny 1.

Anligonus.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quod deerat corpori, picturae deesse ^ potius vide-
retur, tantumque eam partem e facie ostendit, quam
totam poterat ostendere. sunt inter opera eius et
exspirantium imagines. quae autem nobilissima

91 sint, non est facile dictu. Venerem exeuntem e
mari divus Augustus dicavit in delubro patris Cae-
saris, quae anadyomene vocatur, versibus Graecis
tali opere,2 dum ^ laudatur, victo ^ sed ^ inlustrato.^
cuius inferiorem partem corruptam qui reficeret
non potuit reperiri, verum ipsa iniuria cessit in
gloriam artificis. consenuit haec tabula carie,
aliamque pro ea substituit Nero in principatu suo

92 Dorothei manu. Apelles inchoaverat et aliam
Venerem Coi,' superaturus etiam ^ illam suam
priorem. invidit mors peracta parte, nec qui
succederet operi ad praescripta liniamenta inventus
est. pinxit et Alexandrum Magnum fulmen tenen-
tem in templo Ephesiae Dianae viginti talentis auri.
digiti eminere videntur et fulmen extra tabulam
esse — legentes meminerint omnia ea quattuor
coloribus facta ; manipretium eius tabulae in
nummo ^ aurep ^^ mensura ^^ accepit, non numero.

^ adesse coni. Mayhoff.
2 tantopere Frohner.
^ aevo dum J. Muller.

* vieta edd. vett. : invicto Schneidewin : vitio Frohner :
<aevis victa) Mayhoff.

^ est Frohner.

® illustrata edd. vett.: versibus Graecis dum laudatur, tah
opere <aevis> victo, sed inlustrato coni. Mayhoff.

' V.l. Cois.

8 V.l. famam : fama Urlichs.

* in numero cd. Par. 6801 : immane cd. Flor. Ricc.
*" auro olim Gelen {del. nummo) : aureos edd. vett.

'^ V.l. mensuram.

328

BOOK XXXV. x.wvi. 90-92

subject might be thought instead to be absent in the
picture, and he only showed the part of the face
which he was able to display as unmutilated. Among
his works there are also pictures of persons at the
point of death. But it is not easy to say which of his
productions are of the highest rank. His Aphrodite ^^^^Jl,
emerging from the Sea was dedicated by his late ApeiUs.
lamented Majesty Augustus in the Shrine of his
father Caesar ; it is known as the Anadyomene ;
this Hke other works is eclipsed ° yet made famous
by the Greek verses which sing its praises ; the
lower part of the picture having become damaged
nobody coukl be found to restore it, but the actual
injury contributed to the glory of the artist. This
picture however suffered from age and rot, and Nero
when emperor substituted another for it, a work by
Dorotheus. Apelles had also begun on another
Aphrodite at Cos, which was to surpass even his
famous eariier one ; but death grudged him the
work when only partly finished, nor could anybody
be found to carry on the task, in conformity with the
outlines of the sketches prepared. He also painted
Alexander the Great holding a Thunderbolt, in the
temple of Artemis at Ephesus, for a fee of twenty
talents in gold, The fingers have the appearance
of projecting from the surface and the thunderbolt
seems to stand out from the picture — readers must
remember ^ that all these effects were produced by
four colours ; the artist received the price of this
picture in gold coin measured by weight,^ not

" ' Overcome ' or ' surpassed ' by the poet, who can express
raore than the painter can ; for the painter can represent one
moment only. ** See § 50.

' It is suggested that this means that the price was the
equivalent (in gold coins) of the weight of the panel.

329

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

93 pinxit et megabyzi, sacerdotis Dianae Ephesiae,
pompam, Clitum cum equo ad bellum festinantem,
galeam poscenti armigerum porrigentem.^ Alex-
andrum et Philippum quotiens pinxerit, enumerare
supervacuum est. mirantur eius Habronem Sami ;
Menandrum, regem Cariae, Rhodi, item Antaeum ;
Alexandreae Gorgosthenen tragoedum ; Romae
Castorem et Pollucem cum Victoria et Alexandro
Magno, item Belli imaginem restrictis ad terga

94 manibus, Alexandro in curru triumphante. quas
utrasque tabulas divus Augustus in fori sui cele-
berrimis partibus dicaverat simpHcitate moderata;
divus Claudius pluris existimavit utrisque excisa
Alexandri facie divi Augusti imagines addere.
eiusdem arbitrantur manu ^ esse et in Dianae ^
templo Herculem aversum, ut, quod est difhcilHmum,
faciem eius ostendat verius pictura quam promittat.
pinxit et heroa nudum eaque pictura naturam ipsam

95 provocavit. est et equus eius, sive fuit, pictus in
certamine, quo iudicium ad mutas quadripedes
provocavit ab hominibus. namque am})itu praeva-
lere aemulos sentiens singulorum picturas inductis
equis ostendit : Apellis tantum equo adhinnivere.
idque et postea semper evenit, ut experimentum

96 artis illud ostentaretur. fecit et Neoptolemum ex *

^ armigero porrigente coni. Mayhoff.
^ manum B.

^ Dianae Preller : annae B : antoniae rell.
* <pugnantem> ex coni. Mayhoff: lac. post Persas
Urlichs.

Cf. § 27 and Serv. ad Aeyi. I, 29-1.

I.e. he did not appropriate them for himself.

330

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 92-96

counted. He also painted a Procession of the
Magabyzus, the priest of Artemis of Ephesus, a
Clitus with Horse hastening into battle ; and an
armour-bearer handing someone a helmet at his
command. How many times he painted Alexander
and Philip it would be superfluous to recount. His
Habron at Samos is much admired, as is his Menander,
King of Caria, at Pthodes, Hkewise his Antaeus, and
at Alexandria his Gorgosthenes the Tragic Actor,
and at Rome his Castor and Pollux with Victory
and Alexander the Great, and also his figure of
War° with the Hands Tied behind, with Alexander
riding in Triumph in his Chariot. Both of these
pictures his late lamented Majesty Augustus with
restrained good taste ^ had dedicated in the most
frequented parts of his forum ; the emperor Claudius
however thought it more advisable to cut out the
face of Alexander from both works and substitute
portraits of Augustus. The Heracles wdth Face
Averted in the temple of Diana is also beheved to be
by his hand — so drawn that the picture more truly
displays Heracles' face than merely suggests it to
the imagination — a very difficult achievement. He
also painted a Nude Hero, a picture with which he
challenged Nature herself. There is, or was, a
picture of a Horse by him, painted in a competition,
by which he carried his appeal for judgement from
mankind to the dumb quadrupeds ; for perceiving
that his rivals were getting the better of him by
intrio-ue, he had some horses brouoht and showed
them their pictures one by one ; and the horses only
began to neigh when they saw the horse painted by
Apelles ; and this always happened subsequently,
showing it to be a sound test of artistic skill. He

33^

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

equo adversus Persas, Archelaum cum uxore et
filia, Antigonum thoracatum cum equo incedentem.
peritiores artis praeferunt omnibus eius operibus
eundem regem sedentem in equo et Dianam sacri-
ficantium virginum choro mixtam, quibus vicisse
Homeri versus videtur id ipsum describentis. pinxit
et quae pingi non possunt, tonitrua, fulgetra ful-
guraque ; Bronten, Astrapen et Ceraunobolian
appellant.

97 Inventa eius et ceteris profuere in arte ; unum
imitari nemo potuit, quod absoluta opera atramento
inlinebat ita tenui, ut id ipsum, cum ^ repercussum ^
claritates ^ colorum ^ omnium ^ excitaret custo-
diretque a pulvere et sordibus, ad manum intuenti ^
demum appareret, sed et luminum "^ ratione magna,
ne claritas colorum aciem offenderet veluti per
lapidem specularem intuentibus et e longinquo
eadem res nimis floridis coloribus austeritatem
occulte daret.

98 Aequalis eius fuit Aristides Thebanus. is omnium
primus animum pinxit et sensus hominis expressit,

^ cum add. Mayhoff.

^ repercussum B^ : repercussu rell.

3 claritatis B, cd. Par. 6801 : claritates rell.

* colorem B : colorum rell. : oculorum edd. vett.

^ onium (= omnium) Mayhoff : aluum B^ : alium B^ :
cm. rell. : album Tratibe.

^ intuenti et B.

' et luminum Mayhoff : etium B^ : etiam B^ : et cum
rell. : et tum Ilermolaus Barharus.

" One of Alexander'8 generals.

^ Two aoldicrs with this name are recorded as serving under
Alexander.

<= The One-ejed. See § 90 and note.

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 96-98

also did a Neoptolemus " on Horseback fighting
against the Persians, an Archelaus ^ with his Wife
and Daughter, and an Antigonus ^ with a Breast-
plate marching with his horse at his side. Connois-
seurs put at the head of all his works the portrait of
the same king seated on horseback, and his Artemis
in the midst of a band of Maidens offering a Sacrifice,
a work by which he may be thought to have surpassed
Homer's verses ^ describing the same subject. He
even painted things that cannot be represented in
pictures — thunder, Hghtning and thunderbolts, the
pictures known respectively under the Greek titles
of Bronte, Astrape and Ceraunobolia.

His inventions in the art of painting have been
useful to all other painters as well, but there was one
which nobody was able to imitate : when his works
were finished he used to cover them over with a black
varnish of such thinness that its very presence, while
its reflexion threw up the briUiance of all the colours
and preserved them from dust and dirt, was only visible
to anyone who looked at it close up, but also employ-
ing great calculation of lights, so that the brilliance of
the colours should not offend the sight when people
looked at them as if through muscovy-glass and so
that the same device from a distance might invisibly
give sombreness to colours that were too brilliant.

Contemporary with Apelles was Aristides ^ of Aruiides.
Thebes. He was the first of all painters who depicted
the mind and expressed the feelings of a human

•* Odyssey VI, 102 fiF., which describe Artemis and maidens
wildly ranging amongst boars and deer, not sacrificing. The
mistake arises from the two verbs dvo}.

* The vounger, grandson of Aristides, of. § 75 and note on
pp. 410 and 411.

m

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

quae vocant Graeci TJdr), item perturbationes,
durior paulo in coloribus. huius opera ^ . . . oppido
capto ad matris morientis ex volnere mammam
adrepens infans, intellegiturque sentire mater et
timere, ne emortuo lacte ^ sanguinem lambat. quam
tabulam Alexander Magnus transtulerat Pellam in
99 patriam suam. idem pinxit proelium cum Persis,
centum homines tabula ea conplexus pactusque in
singulos mnas denas a tyranno Elatensium Mnasone.
pinxit et currentes quadrigas et supplicantem paene
cum voce et venatores cum captura et Leontion
Epicuri et anapauomenen propter fratris amorem,^
item Liberum et Ariadnen * spectatos Romae in
aede Cereris tragoedum et puerum in Apollinis,

100 cuius tabulae gratia interiit pictoris inscitia, cui
tergendam eam mandaverat M. lunius praetor sub
die ludorum Apollinarium. spectata est et in aede
Fidei in Capitolio senis cum lyra puerum docentis.
pinxit et aegrum sine fine laudatum tantumque arte
valuit, ut Attalus rex unam tabulam eius centum
talentis emisse tradatur.

101 Simul, ut dictum est, et Protogenes floruit.
patria ei Caunus, gentis Rhodiis subiectae. summa
paupertas initio artisque summa intentio et ideo

^ opera B : pictura rell. : lac. Mayhoff.

2 lactejB^: flacte5^: facta re/Z. : e isicte Mayhoff: emortuae
(aut emortua) pro lacte coni. Warmington.

^ propter fratris amorem supra post voce transp. Urlichs,
injra post Ariadnen Dilthey.

* artamenen B : arianen cd. Par. Lat. 6797 : Artomenen
Dilthey.

" There appears to be something lost here.

* After he had sacked Thebes iu 335 B.c.

" It would be one of Alexander'8 great battles with Darius.
** Byblis perhaps, who died of love for her brother Caunus.

334

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 98-101

being, what the Greeks term ethe, and also the
cmotions ; he was a little too hard in his colours.
His works inckide . . . « on the capture of a town,
showing an infant creeping to the breast of its mother
who is dying of a wound ; it is felt that the mother is
aware of the child and is afraid that as her milk is
exhausted by death it may suck blood ; this picture
had been removed by Alexander the Great * to his
native place, Pella. The same artist painted a
Battle ^ with the Persians, a panel that contains a
hundred human figures, which he parted with to
Mnason the Tyrant of Elatea on the terms of ten
minae per man. He also painted a Four-horse
Chariots Racing, a SuppHant, who almost appeared
to speak, Huntsmen with Quarry, Leontion
Epicurus's mistress, and Woman ^ At Rest through
Love of her Brother; and likewise the Dionysus
and the Ariadne once on view in the Temple of
Ceres at Rome, and the Tragic Actor and Boy in the
Temple of Apollo, a picture of which the beauty has
perished owing to the lack of skill of a painter com-
missioned by Marcus Junius as praetor to clean it in
readiness for the festival of the Games of Apollo.
There has also been on view in the Temple of Faith
in the Capitol his picture of an Old Man with a Lyre
giving lessons to a Boy. He also painted a Sick Man
which has received unlimited praise ; and he was so
able an artist that King Attalus is said to have
bought a single picture of his for a hundred talents.

Protogenes also flourished at the same time, as has Protogenes.
ibeen said. He was born at Caunus, in a community § 8I.
that was under the dominion of Rhodes. At the
outset he was extremely poor, and extremely devoted
to his art and consequently not very productive.

335

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

minor fertilitas. quis eiim docuerit, non putant
constare ; quidam et naves pinxisse usque ad quin-
quagensimum annum ; argumentum esse, quod cum
Athenis celeberrimo loco Minervae delubri propylon
pingeret, ubi fecit nobilem Paralum et Hammoniada,
quam quidam Nausicaan vocant, adiecerit parvolas
naves longas in iis, quae pictores parergia appellant,
ut appareret, a quibus initiis ad arcem ostentationis ^

102 opera sua pervenissent. palmam habet tabularum
eius lalysus, qui est Romae dicatus in templo Pacis.
cum pingeret eum, traditur madidis lupinis vixisse,
quoniam ^ sic ^ simul et famem sustineret ^ et sitim
nec sensus nimia dulcedine obstrueret.^ huic pic-
turae quater colorem induxit ceu tria subsidia iniuriae
et vetustatis, ut decedente ® superiore inferior
succederet. est in ea canis mire factus, ut quem
pariter ars et casus '^ pinxerit. non iudicabat se in
eo exprimere spumam anhelantis, cum in reliqua
parte omni, quod difficillimum erat, sibi ipse satis-

103 fecisset. displicebat autem ars ipsa : nec minui
poterat et videbatur nimia ac longius a veritate
discedere, spumaque pingi, non ex ore nasci. anxio
animi cruciatu, cum in pictura verum esse, non
verisimile vellet, absterserat saepius mutaveratque

^ artis ostentationem Rochette. ^ quo Trauhe.

^ sic add. MayhojJ. * sustinerent edd. veft.

^ obstrueret B, cd. Par. 6801 : obstruerent rell.
* decidente B recte ?

' ars et casus Weil : casus et ars edd. vett. : et casus B :
casus rell.

•» Patron-heroes of sacred Athenian triremes used in state-
services. The Hammonias replaced the older ship Salaminia.

* Incidental details of any sort.

" With reference perhaps to the Acropolis or stronghold
(arx) of Athens. ^ Mythical founder of lalysus iu Rhodos.

33^

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 101-103

Who his teacher was is believed to be unrecorded.
Some people say that until the age of fifty he was
also a ship-painter, and that this is proved by the
fact that when he was decorating with paintings, on
a very famous site at Athens, the gateway of the
Temple of Athene, where he depicted his famous
Paralus and Hammonias," which is by some people
called the Nausicaa, he added some small drawings
of battleships in what painters call the ' side-pieces,' ^
in order to show from what commencement his work
had arrived at the pinnacle '^ of glorious display.
Among his pictures the palm is held by his lalysus,''
which is consecrated in the Temple of Peace in Rome,
It is said that while painting this he lived on soaked
lupins, because he thus at the same time both
sustained his hunger and thirst and avoided blunting
his sensibilities by too luxurious a diet. For this
picture he used four coats of paint, to serve as three
protections against injury and old age, so that when
the upper coat disappeared the one below it would
take its place. In the picture there is a dog marvel-
lously executed, so as to appear to have been painted
by art and good fortune jointly: the artist's own
opinion was that he did not fully show in it the foam
of the panting dog, although in all the remaining
details he had satisfied himself, which was very
difficult. But the actual art displayed displeased
him, nor was he able to diminish it, and he thought
it was excessive and departed too far from reality —
the foam appeared to be painted, not to be the
natural product of the animars mouth ; vexed and
tormented, as he wanted his picture to contain the
truth and not merely a near-truth, he had
several times rubbed ofF the paint and used another

337

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

penicillum, nullo modo sibi adprobans. postremo
iratus arti, quod intellegeretur, spongeam inpegit
inviso loco tabulae. et illa reposuit ablatos colores
qualiter cura optaverat, fecitque in pictura fortuna
naturam.

104 Hoc exemplo eius similis et Nealcen successus
spumae equi similiter spongea inpacta secutus
dicitur, cum ^ pingeret ^ poppyzonta retinentem
eum.3 ita Protogenes monstravit et fortunam.*

Propter hunc lalysum, ne cremaret tabulam,
Demetrius rex, cum ab ea parte sola posset Rhodum
capere, non incendit, parcentemque picturae fugit

105 occasio victoriae. erat tunc Protogenes in suburbano

suo hortulo, hoc est Demetrii castris,^ neque inter-

pellatus proeliis incohata opera intermisit omnino

nisi accitus a rege, interrogatusque, qua fiducia

extra muros ageret, respondit scire se cum Rhodiis

illi bellum esse, non cum artibus. disposuit rex in

tutelam eius stationes, gaudens quod manus ser-

varet, quibus pepercerat, et, ne saepius avocaret,

ultro ad eum venit hostis relictisque victoriae suae

^ V.l. dicuntur cum (disceret B) : dum celetem Tranhe.
^ pingitur B^ : pingatur B^ : pingit ac Traube.
^ V.l. retinent pane cum : varia temptant edd.
^ ita . . . fortunam transp. vult Warmington supra posi
naturam § 103 : idem coni. ita <et iram.>.
^ hoc . . . castris delendum'! {Urlichs).

«• See § 102, p. 337.

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 103-105

brush, quite unable to satisfy himself. Finally he
fell into a rage with his art because it was percep-
tible, and dashed a sponge against the place in the
picture that oftended him, and the sponge restored
the colours he had removed, in the way that his
anxiety had wished them to appear, and chance
produced the effect of nature in the picture !

It is said that Nealces also following this example
of his achieved a similar success in representing a
horse's foam by dashing a sponge on the picture in a
similar manner, in a representation of a man clucking
in his cheek to soothe a horse he was holding. Thus
did Protogenes indicate the possibilities of a stroke
of luck also.

It was on account of this lalysus " that King Protogmes
Demetrius, in order to avoid burning a picture, 'oemetrim.
abstained from setting fire to Rhodes when the city 305-4 b.o.
could only be taken from the side where the picture
was stored, and through consideration for the safety
of a picture lost the chance of a victory ! Protogenes
at the time was in his little garden on the outskirts
of the city, that is in the middle of the ' Camp of
Demetrius,' and would not be interrupted by the
battles going on, or on any account suspend the
works he had begun, had he not been summoned by
the King, who asked him what gave him the assurance
to continue outside the walls. He replied that
he knew the King was waging war M-ith the Rhodians,
not with the arts. The King, delighted to be able to
safeguard the hands which he had spared, placed
guardposts to protect him, and, to avoid repeatedly
calling him from his work, actually though an enemy
came to pay him visits, and quitting his aspirations
for his own victory, in the thick of battles and the

339

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

votis inter arma et murorum ictus spectavit arti-
ficem; sequiturque tabulam illius temporis haec
fama, quod eam Protogenes sub gladio pinxerit :

106 Satyrus hic est, quem anapauomenon vocant, ne
quid desit temporis eius securitati, tenentem tibias.

Fecit et Cydippen et Tlepolemum, Philiscum
tragoediarum scriptorem meditantem, et athletam^
et Antigonum regem, matrem Aristotelis philosophi,
qui ei suadebat, ut Alexandri Magni opera pingeret
propter aeternitatem rerum ; impetus animi et quae-
dam artis Hbido in haec potius eum tulere ; novis-
sime pinxit Alexandrum ^ ac Pana. fecit et signa
ex aere, ut diximus.

107 Eadem aetate fuit Asclepiodorus, quem in
symmetria mirabatur Apelles. huic Mnaso tyrannus
pro duodecim diis dedit in singulos mnas tricenas,
idemque Theomnesto in singulos heroas vicenas.

108 His adnumerari debet et Nicomachus, Aristidis ^
filius ac discipulus. pinxit raptum Proserpinae, quae
tabula fuit in Capitolio in Minervae delubro supra
aediculam luventatis, et in eodem Capitolio, quara
Plancus imperator posuerat, Victoria quadrigam in
sublime rapiens. Ulixi primus addidit pilleum.

109 pinxit et Apollinem ac Dianam, deumque matrem
in leone sedentem, item nobiles Bacchas obrep-

^ Alcetam Gronov.

* Alexandream Frohner.

3 Aristidis Mayhoff coll. 111, 122: Aristidi Urlichs:
Aristidae illius Oemichen : Aristiaei Sillig : aristiaci B :
ari8te(-i-)cheimi rell.

" Phaestis or Phaestias.

* The elder; cf. § 75 and note on pp. 410 and 411.

* Before the fire of a.d, 64.

** Munatius, who triumphed in 43 b.c.
« Cybele.

340

BOOK XXXV. XXXVI. 105-109

hattering down of walls, looked on at the work of an
artist. And even to this day the story is attached to
a picture of that date that Protogenes painted it
with a sword hanging over him. The picture is the
one of a Satyr, called the Satyr Reposing, and to
give a final touch to the sense of security felt at the
time, the figure holds a pair of flutes.

Other works of Protoffenes were a Cydippe, a other works
Tlepolemus, a Philiscus the Tragic Poet in Medita- '^^"'^""'*-
tion, an Athlete, a portrait of King Antigonus, and
one of the Mother " of Aristotle the philosopher.
Aristotle used to advise the artist to paint the
achievements of Alexander the Great, as belonging
to history for all time. The impulse of his mind
however and a certain artistic capriciousness led him
rather to the subjects mentioned. His latest works
were pictures of Alexander and of Pan. He also
made bronze statues, as we have said. xxxrv, 91

In the same period there was also Asclepiodorus, Asciepeio-
who was admired by Apelles for his proportions. For '^"^-
a picture of the Twelve Gods the tyrant Mnaso paid
him three hundred minae per god. The same patron
paid Theomnestus twenty minae for each of the
heroes in a picture.

To the list of these artists must also be added Nicomachus
Nicomachus son and pupil of Aristides.^ He painted " ^' '^*'
a Rape of Persephone, a picture formerly ^ in the
Shrine of Minerva on the Capitol, just above the
Chapel of Youth ; and there was also in the Capitol,
where it was placed by General Plancus,*^ his Victory
hurrying her Chariot aloft. He was the first painter
who represented Odysseus wearing a felt skuU-cap.
He also painted an Apollo and Artemis, and the
Mother ^ of the Gods seated on a Lion, and Ukewise

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

tantibus Satyris, Scyllamqiie, quae nunc est Romae
in templo Pacis. nec fuit alius in ea arte velocior.
tradunt namque conduxisse pingendum ab Aristrato,
Sicyoniorum tyranno, quod is faciebat Telesti poetae
monimentum praefinito die, intra quem perageretur,
nec multo ante venisse, tyranno in poenam accenso,
paucisque diebus absolvisse et celeritate et arte

110 mira. Discipulos habuit Aristonem fratrem et
Aristiden ^ filium et Philoxenum Eretrium, cuius
tabula nullis postferenda, Cassandro regi picta,
continuit Alexandri proelium cum Dario. idem
pinxit et lasciviam, in qua tres Sileni comissantur.
hic celeritatem praeceptoris secutus breviores etiam-
num quasdam picturae conpendiarias invenit.

111 Adnumeratur his et Nicophanes, elegans ac con-
cinnus ita, ut venustate ei pauci conparentur ;
cothurnus et gravitas artis multum a Zeuxide et
Apelle abest. Apellis discipulus Perseus, ad quem
de hac arte scripsit, huius fuerat aetatis. Aristidis
Thebani discipuli fuerunt et filii Niceros et Ariston,
cuius est Satyrus cum scypho coronatus, discipuli
Antorides ^ et Euphranor, de quo mox dicemus.

112 XXXVII. Namque subtexi par est minoris picturae
celebres in penicillo, e quibus fuit Piraeicus ^

^ V.l. Aristoclem.
2 Antenorides Lelronne.

^ Piraeicus lan : pirasicus B : praeieus aut preicus rell.
(peritus cd. Par. 6801).

" The younger. Cf. §98 and note on pp. 410-411.

^ King of Macedonia 30G-297 b.c.

" The younger confused with the elder, §§ 75, 98, 108.

^* Really pupils of the elder Aristides.

' Keally pupils of the elder Aristides.

342

BOOK XXX\\ xxxvi. 109-XXXV11. 112

a fine picture of Bacchants with Satyrs prowling
towards them, and a Scyllf^ that is now in the Temple
of Peace in Rome. No other painter was ever a more
rapid worker. Indeed it is recorded that he accepted c 355 b.o.
a commission from the tyrant of Sicyon Aristratus
to paint by a given date a monument that he was
erecting to the poet Telestes, and that he only fl- c. 398 b.c.
arrived not long before the date ; the \vrathful
tyrant threatened to punish him, but in a few days
he finished the work Mith a speed and an artistic
skill that were both remarkable. Among his pupils
were his brother Ariston and his son Aristides,"
and Philoxenus of Eretria, M'ho painted for King
Cassander ^ a picture that holds the highest rank,
containing a battle between Alexander and Darius.
He also painted a picture with a wanton subject
sho^^ing three Sileni at their revels. Imitating the
rapidity of his master he introduced some shorthand
methods of painting, executed with still more
rapidity of technique.

With these artists is also reckoned Nicophanes,
an elegant and finished painter with whom few can be
compared for gracefulness, but who for tragic feeling
and weight of style is far from Zeuxis and Apelles.
Perseus, the pupil to whom Apelles dedicated his § 79.
volumes on the art of painting, had belonged to the
same period. Aristides '^ of Thebes also had as his
pupils his sons Niceros and Ariston,^ the latter the
painter of a Satyr Crowned with a Wreath and
Holding a Goblet ; and other pupils of Aristides were
Antorides and Euphranor ^ ; about the latter we
shallspeaklateron. 5128.

XXXVII. For it is proper to append the artists piraeirM
famous with the brush in a minor style of painting. ^"^ ^'^*

343

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

arte paucis postferendus : proposito nescio an dis-
tinxerit ^ se, quoniam humilia quidem secutus
humilitatis tamen summam adeptus est gloriam.
tonstrinas sutrinasque pinxit et asellos et obsonia
ac similia, ob haec cognominatus rhyparographos,
in iis consummatae voluptatis, quippe eae pluris

113 veniere quam maximae multorum. e diverso
Maeniana, inquit Varro, omnia operiebat Serapionis
tabula sub Veteribus. hic scaenas optime pinxit,
sed hominem pingere non potuit. contra Dionysius
nihil aliud quam homines pinxit, ob id anthropo-

lU graphos cognominatus. parva et Callicles fecit, item
Calates comicis tabelUs, utraque Antiphilus. namque
et Hesionam nobilem pinxit et Alexandrum ac
Philippum cum Minerva, qui sunt in schola in
Octaviae porticibus, et in PhiHppi Liberum patrem,
Alexandrum puerum, Hippolytum tauro emisso
expavescentem, in Pompeia vero Cadmum et
Europen. idem iocoso ^ nomine Gryllum deridiculi
habitus pinxit, unde id genus picturae grylli vo-
cantur. ipse in Aegypto natus didicit a Ctesidemo.

^ distinxerit Mayhoff : distrinxerit Frohner : distruxerit
aut destruxerit. ^ iocoso edd. vett. : iocosis aut locosis.

" Balconies on houses in Rome first built by one Maenius.
** Large and small pictures.

344

BOOK XXXV. xxwii. II 2-1 14

Among these was Piraeicus, to be ranked below few
painters in skill ; it is possible that he won distinction
by his choice of subjects, inasmuch as although
adopting a humble line he attained in that field
the height of glory. He painted barbers' shops and
cobblers' stalls, asses, viands and the like, conse-
quently receiving a Greek name meaning ' painter
of sordid subjects'; in these however he gives
exquisite pleasure, and indeed they fetched bigger
prices than the largest works of many masters. On
the other hand ' a picture by Serapio,' says Varro,
' covered the whole of the Maenian Balconies " at
the place Beneath the Old Shops,' Serapio was a
most successful scene-painter, but he could not
paint a human being. On the contrary, Dionysius
painted nothing else but people, and consequently
has a Greek name meaning ' Painter of Human
Beings.' Callicles also made small pictures, and so
did Calates of subjects taken from comedy ; both
classes ^ were painted by Antiphilus, who executed AntiphUm.
the famous picture of Hesione and an Alexander
and a Philip ^ with Athene which are now in the
school in Octavia's Porticoes, and in Philippus' '^
Portico a Father Liber or Dionysus, a Young
Alexander, a Hippolytus alarmed by the BuU
rushing upon him, and in Pompey's Portico a Cadmus
and Europa. He also painted a figure in an absurd
costume known by the joking name of Grylhis, the
name consequently applied to every picture of that
sort. He was himself born in Egypt and a pupil of
Ctesidemus.

'^ King of Macedon, father of Alexander.
^* Of L. Marcius Philippus ; built in 29 b.c. ; Octavia'8
were built after 27 b.c, Pompey's (see below) in 55 b.c.

.345

VOL. IX. M

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

115 Decet non sileri et Ardeatis tenipli pictorem.
praesertim civitate donatum ibi et carmine,^ qiiod
est in ipsa pictura his versibus :

Dignis dignu' ^ loco ^ picturis condecoravit
reginae lunonis supremi coniugis templum
Plautius Marcus * ; cluet Asia lata ^ esse oriundus,
quem nunc et post semper ob artem hanc Ardea
laudat,

116 eaque sunt scripta antiquis Utteris Latinis ; non
fraudando ^ et S. Tadio "^ divi Augusti aetate, qui
primus instituit amoenissimam parietum picturam,
villas et porticus ^ ac topiaria opera, lucos, nemora,
colles, piscinas, euripos, amnes, litora, qualia quis
optaret, varias ibi obambulantium species aut navi-
gantium terraque villas adeuntium asellis aut
vehiculis, iam piscantes, aucupantes aut venantes

117 aut etiam vindemiantes. sunt in eius excmplaribus
nobiles pahistri ^ accessu ^^ villae, succollatis ^^ spon-
sione ^^ muHeribus labantes trepidis quae ^^ feruntur,
plurimae praeterea tales argutiae facetissimi saUs.

^ carraen Schnekleioin.
2 dignu' Hermolans Barbarus : digna.

^ fortas.se Lyco : fortasse dignu' loco dignis picturis vel dignis
digna loco, picturis.

* plaucius marcus B : mareus plautis marcus rell.

^ cluet Asia lata Bergk : Cleoetas Alalia Sillig : cluetas
alata B : cloet (do et C(l. Flor. Ricc.) asia lata rell.

* fraudanda Ma>/hoff.

' S. Tadio Urlichs, lan : studio B : iudio rell.

^ porticus cd. Par. Lat. 6797, ut videtur : portus rell.

* palustri B : paulstri rell. : plaustri edd. vett.
^^ accessu B : ac censu rell.

^^ succollatis cdd. (suae collatis B) : subcollantium Hermo-
laiis Barbarus.
^2 specio Hermolaus Barharus.
^' trepidis quae B, cd. Leid. Voss. : trepidisque rell.

346

BOOK XXXV. XXXVII. 115-117

It is proper also not to pass over the painter of the rtaUan
templc at Ardea, especially as he was granted the /?a"^7i?s
citizenship of that place and honoured with an inscrip-
tion on the picture, consisting in the following verses :
One Marcus Plautius, a worthy man,
Adorned, with paintings worthy of this place,"
The shrine of Juno, Queen of Spouse supreme,
This Marcus Plautius, as men know, was born
In Asia wide. Now, and hereafter always,
Ardea applauds him for this work of art.

These lines are written in the antique Latin script.
Nor must Spurius Tadius ^ also, of the period of his TadiuA
late lamented Majesty Augustus, be cheated of his
due, who first introduced the most attractive fashion Befort
of painting walls with pictures of country houses and ^-^- ^^
porticoes and landscape gardens, groves, woods,
hills, fish-ponds, canals, rivers, coasts, and what-
ever anybody coukl desire, together with various
sketches of people going for a stroll or sailing in a
boat or on land going to country houses riding on
asses or in carriages, and also people fishing and
fowling or hunting or even gathering the vintage.
His works incUide splendid villas approached by
roads across marshes,<^ men tottering and staggering
along carrying women on their shoulders for a
bargain, and a number of humorous drawings of
that sort besides, extremely wittily designed. He

" But perhaps the right reading is Dignis digna. Lyco. . .
' To the worthy, worthy reward; Lycon adorned. . . .' I.e.
the artist was M. Plautius Lycon, keeping his Greek name
when he received a new one on becoming a citizen at Ardea.

* Or Studius or Ludius. The reading is uncertain.

* Or : ' well known among his works are men approaching
a country house across marshes. . . .' The Latin text of
much of this sentence is uncertain.

347

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

idem subdialibiis maritimas urbes pingere instituit,
blandissimo aspectu minimoque inpendio.

118 Sed nulla gloria artificum est nisi qui tabulas
pinxere. eo venerabilior antiquitatis prudentia
apparet. non enim parietes excolebant dominis
tantum nec domos uno in loco mansuras, quae ex
incendiis rapi non possent. casa Proto^enes con-
tentus erat in hortulo suo ; nulla in Apellis tectoriis
pictura erat. nondum libebat parietes totos tin-
guere ; omnium eorum ars urbibus excubabat,
pictorque res communis terrarum erat.

119 Fuit et Arellius Romae celeber paulo ante divum
Augustum, ni flagitio insigni corrupisset artem,
semper ei lenocinans feminae, cuius ^ amore flag-
raret, et ^ ob id deas pingens, sed dilectarum imagine.

120 itaque in pictura eius scorta numerabantur. fuit
et nuper gravis ac severus idemque floridis tumidus ^
pictor Famulus.'* huius erat Minerva spectantem
spectans, quacumque aspiceretur. paucis diei horis
pingebat, id quoque cum gravitate, quod semper
togatus, quamquam in machinis. carcer eius artis
domus aurea fuit, et ideo non extant exempla alia
magnopere. post eum fuere in auctoritate Cor-
nelius Pinus et Attius Priscus, qui Honoris

^ feminae cuius Mayhoff : cuius feminae.

2 flagraret et Urlichs : flagrans esset coni. Sillig : flagrans et.

^ floridis tumidus coni. lan : floridis (floridus B^) umidus
B : floridus humilis cd. Par. Lat. 6797 : f. h. rei cd. Par.
6801 : f. humidis cA. Flor. Ricc. : f. umidis rell. : floridus et
vividus Traube : floridus Sillig : floridissimus Urlichs : floridis
multus vel f. nitidus vel invietus coni. Mayhoff: S. Ummidius
Frohner.

* Famulus cdd. : famulus Frohner : Fabullus ed. princ.

" F.r. canvases or panols, not wall-paintings. * Nero'8 palace.

BOOK XXXV. XXXVII. 117-120

also introduced using pictures of seaside cities to
decorate uncovered terraces, giving a niost pleasing
effect and at a very small expense.

But among artists great fame has been confined to
painters of pictures only," a fact which shows the
wisdom of early times to be the more worthy of
respect, for they did not decorate walls, merely for
owners of property, or houses, which would remain
in one place and which could not be rescued from a
fire. Protogenes was content with a cottage in his
little garden ; Apelles had no wall-frescoes in his
house ; it was not yet the fashion to colour the whole
of the walls. With all these artists their art was on
the alert for the benefit of cities, and a painter was the
common property of the world.

A httle before the period of iiis late lamented AreiHus
Majesty Augustus, ArelHus also was in high esteem
at Rome, had he not prostituted his art by a notorious
outrage, by ahvays paying court to any woman he
happened to fall in love with, and consequently
painting goddesses, but in the Ukeness of his
mistresses ; and so his pictures inchided a number of
portraits of harlots. Another recent painter was Famuim
Famulus, a dignified and severe but also very florid
artist ; to him belonged a Minerva who faced the
spectator at whatever angle she was looked at.
Famulus used to spend only a few hours a day in
painting, and also took his work very seriously,
as he always wore a toga, even when in the midst
of his easels. The Golden House ^ was the prison
that contained his productions, and this is why
other examples of his work are not extant to
any considerable extent. After him in esteem were
CorneHus Pinus and Attius Priscus, who painted

349

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

V^irtutis aedes Imperatori Vespasiano Augusto
restituenti pinxerunt, Priscus antiquis siniilior.

121 XXXVIII. Non est omittenda in picturae men-
tione celebris circa Lepidum fabula, siquidem in
triumviratu quodam loco deductus a magistratibus
in nemorosum hospitium minaciter cum iis postero
die expostulavit somnum ademptum sibi volucrum
concentu; at illi draconem in longissima membrana
depictum circumdedere luco, eoque terrore aves
tunc siluisse narratur et postea posse compesci.

122 XXXIX. Ceris pingere ac picturam inurere quis
primus excogitaverit, non constat. quidam Aristidis
inventum putant, postea consummatum a Praxitele ;
sed aliquanto vetustiores encaustae picturae ex-
stitere, ut Polygnoti et Nicanoris, Mnesilai ^ Pa-
riorum. Elasippus ^ quoque Aeginae picturae suae
inscripsit eveKaev, quod profecto non fecisset nisi
encaustica inventa.

123 XL. Pamphilus quoque, Apellis praeceptor, non
pinxisse solum encausta, sed etiam docuisse
traditur Pausian Sicyonium, primum in hoc genere
nobilem. Bryetis filius hic fuit eiusdemque primo
discipulus. pinxit et ipse penicillo parietes Thespiis,
cum reficerentur quondam a Polygnoto picti,

^ Mnesilai Mayhoff : mens im. B : ae aut e manesilai rell.
ac Mnasilai Detlefsen : et Archesilai Hermolaus Barbarus (et
arcesilai al. Par. 6801 ut videtur).

2 Elasippus Schneidewin : eiasippus B : lassippus rell. :
Lysippus edd. vett.

" With Octavian and Antony, formed in 43 b.c.
^ Apparently the elder; cf. § 75.

350

BOOK XXXV. XXXVII. 120-xL. 123

the temples of Honour and Virtue for the Emperor
Vespasian's restoration of them ; Priscus was nearer
in style to the artists of old days.

XXXMII. In speaking of painting one must
not omit the famous story about Lepidus. During
his Triumvirate,'^ when entertained by the magis-
trates of a certain place, he was given lodging in a
house buried in trees ; and the next day he
complained to them in threatening language that
he had been robbed of sleep by the singing of the
birds ; however the authorities had a picture of a
large snake made on an extremely long strip of
parchment and fixed it up round the wood, and the
story goes that this at once frightened the birds
into silence, and that subsequently it was possible
to keep them in check.

XXXIX. It is not agreed who was the inventor Painting in
of painting in wax and of designs in encaustic. ^^Ji^'
Some people think it was a discovery of Aristides,^
subsequently brought to perfection by Praxiteles,
but there were encaustic paintings in existence at a
considerably earlier date, for instance those of
Polygnotus, and Nicanor and Mnasilaus of Paros.
Also Elasippus of Aegina has inscribed on a picture
enekaen (' burnt in '), which he would not have done
if the art of encaustic painting had not been invented.

XL. It is recorded also that Pamphilus, the Pausias.
teacher of Apelles, not only painted in encaustic but
also taught it to Pausias of Sicyon, the first artist
who became famous in this style. Pausias was the
son of Bryetes, and started as his father's pupil. He
himself also did some wall-painting with the brush
at Thespiae, when some okl paintings by Polygnotus
were being restored, and he was deemed to come

351

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

niiiltumquc comparatione superatus existimabatur,

124 quoniam non suo genere certasset. idem et lacu-
naria primus pingere instituit, nec camaras ante eum
taliter adornari mos fuit ; parvas pingebat tabellas
maximeque pueros, hoc aemuli interpretabantur
tacere eum, quoniam tarda picturae ratio esset illi.
quam ob rem daturus ei celeritatis famam absolvit
uno die tabellam quae vocata est hemeresios, puero

125 picto. amavit in iuventa Glyceram municipem suam,
inventricem coronarum, certandoque imitatione eius
ad numerosissimam florum varietatem perduxit
artem illam. postremo pinxit et ^ ipsam sedentem
cum corona, quae e nobilissimis tabula est, appellata
stephanoplocos, ab aliis stephanopolis, quoniam
Glycera venditando coronas sustentaverat pauper-
tatem. huius tabulae exemplar, quod apographon
vocant, L. LucuUus duobus talentis emit. . . .^

126 Dionysius ^ Athenis, Pausias autem fecit et grandes
tabulas, sicut spectatam in Pompei porticu boum
immolationem. eam primus invenit picturam, quam
postea imitati sunt multi, aequavit nemo. ante
omnia, cum longitudinem bovis ostendi vellet,
adversum eum pinxit, non traversum, et abunde

^ et B : om. rell. ^ lac. Mayhojf.

' Dionysiis Pintianus : a Dionysio edd. velt.

" Tliere is no proof that perspective is meant, but somehow
Pausias gave the figure due relief.

BOOK XXXV. XL. 123-126

ofF very second best in comparison with the original
artist, having entered into competition in what was
not really his line, Pausias also first introduced the
painting of panelled ceilings, and it was not
customary before him to decorate arched roofs in
this way. He used to paint miniatures, and
especiallv children. His rivals explained this prac-
tice as being due to the slow pace of his work in
paintino' ; and consequently to give his work also the
reputation of speed he finished a picture in a single
day, a picture of a boy which was called in Greek
Hemeresios, meaning One-day Boy. In his youth
he fell in love with a fellow-townswoman named
Glycera, who invented chaplets of flowers ; and by
imitating her in rivalry he advanced the art of
encaustic painting so as to reproduce an extremely
numerous variety of flowers. Finally he painted a
portrait of the woman herself, seated and wearing a
wreath, which is one of the very finest of pictures ;
it is called in Greek Stephanoplocos, Girl making
Wreaths, or by others StephanopSlis, Girl selling
Wreaths, because Glycera had supported her poverty
by that trade. A copy (in Greek apographoii) of
this picture was bought by Lucius Lucullus at
Athens for two talents ; <it had been made by) 8S-7 b.c.
Dionysius at Athens. But Pausias also did large
pictures, for instance the Sacrifice of Oxen which
formerly was to be seen in Pompey's Portico.
He first invented a method of painting which has
afterwards been copied by many people but equalled
by no one ; the chief point was that although he
wanted to show the long body of an ox he painted
the animal facing the spectator and not standing
sideways, and its great size is fully conveyed."

353

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

127 intellegitur amplitudo. dein, cum omnes, quae
volunt eminentia videri, candicanti faciant colore,
quae condunt, nigro, hic totum bovem atri coloris
fecit umbraeque corpus ex ipsa ^ dedit, magna prorsus
arte in aequo extantia ostendente et in confracto
solida omnia. Sicyone et hic vitam egit, diuque illa
fuit patria picturae. tabulas inde e publico omnes
propter aes alienum civitatis addictas Scauri aedihtas
Romam transtulit.

128 Post eum eminuit longe ante omnes Euphranor
Isthmius olympiade ciiii, idem qui inter fictores
dictus est nobis. fecit et colossos et marmorea et
typos 2 scalpsit, docilis ac laboriosus ante omnes et in
quocumque genere excellens ac sibi aequalis. hic
primus videtur expressisse dignitates heroum et
usurpasse symmetrian, sed fuit in universitate
corporum exilior et capitibus articulisque grandior.

129 volumina quoque composuit de symmetria et colo
ribus. opera eius sunt equestre proelium, xii dei,
Theseus, in quod dixit eundem apud Parrhasium
rosa pastum esse, suum vero carne. nobiHs eius
tabula Ephesi est, UUxes simulata insania bovem
cum equo iungens et palliati cogitantes, dux gladium
condens.

1 V.l. ipso. * scyphos cd. Par. 6801.

" Pliny perhaps means that in spite of varying (* broken ')
tones of black, all the black looks solid.

* I.e. hiter than P. But this is wrong. Pliny's mistake
has been traced to his confusion of the two artists named
Aristides. Cf. §§ 75, 108, 111 and note on pp. 410-11.

^" Fingers and toes ?

■^ Which preceded the battle of Mantinea, 362 b.c. This

354

BOOK XXXV. xL. 126-I2Q

Next, whereas all painters ordinarily execute in
light colour the parts they wish to appear prominent
and in dark those they wish to keep less obvious,
this artist has made the whole ox of a black colour
and has given substance to the shadow from the
shadow itself, with quite remarkable skill that shows
the shapes standing out on a level surface and a
uniform solidity on a broken ground." Pausias also
passed his life at Sicyon, which was for a long period
a native place of painting. But all the pictures
there had to be sokl to meet a debt of the com-
munity, and were removed from the ownership of
the state to Rome by Scaurus as aedile. 56 b.c.

After Pausias,^ Euphranor the Isthmian distin- Euphranor.
guished himself far before all others, in the 104th 3G4-361 b.c.
Olympiad ; he has also appeared in our account of xxxiv, 50.
statuaries. His works included colossal statues,
works in marble, and reliefs, as he was exceptionally
studious and diligent, excelling in every field and
never falling below his own level. This artist
seems to have been the first fully to represent the
lofty qualities of heroes, and to have achieved good
proportions, but he was too slight in his structure of
the whole body and too large in his heads and joints.<^
He also wrote books about proportions and about
colours. Works of his are a Cavah-y Battle, ^ the
Twelve Gods, and a Theseus, in respect of which
he said that Parrhasius's Theseus had lived on a diet
of roses, but his was a beef-eater. There is a cele-
brated picture by him at Ephesus, Odysseus Feigning
Madness and yoking an ox with a horse, with men in
cloaks reflecting, and the leader sheathing his sword.

and the next two pictures were both in the Stoa of Zeu3
Eleutherios at Athens. Paus. I, 3, 3-4.

355

PLIOT: NATURAL HISTORY

130 Eodem tempore fuere Cydias,^ cuius tabulam
Argonautas hs cxxxxiiii Hortensius orator mercatus
est eique aedem fecit in Tusculano suo. Euphranoris
autem discipulus Antidotus. huius est cHpeo di-
micans Athenis et luctator tubicenque inter pauca
laudatus. ipse diligentior quam numerosior et
in coloribus severus ^ maxime inclaruit discipulo
Nicia Athcniense, qui diligentissime mulieres pinxit.

131 lumen et umbras custodiit atque ut eminerent e
tabulis picturae ^ maxime curavit. operum ^ eius
Nemea advecta ex Asia Romam a Silano, quam in
curia diximus positam, item Liber pater in aede
Concordiae, Hyacinthus, quem Caesar Augustus
delectatus eo secum deportavit Alexandrea capta,
et ob id Tiberius Caesar in templo eius dicavit hanc
tabulam, et Danae,^ Ephesi vero est megabvzi,

132 sacerdotis Ephesiae Dianae, sepulchrum, Athenis
necyomantea Homeri. hanc vendere Attalo regi
noluit talentis lx potiusque patriae suae donavit
abundans opibus. fecit et grandes picturas, in
quibus sunt Calypso et lo et Andromeda ; Alexander
quoque in Pompei porticibus praecellens et Calypso
sedens huic eidem ^ adscribuntur.

^ Cydias Detlejsen : et Cydias Cythnius Urlichs, Bergk :
cydi {aal cidi) et cydias {atit eidias).

2 V.ll. severior. ^ figurae coni. Mayhoff.

* operu (= operum) Mayhoff: opera.

^ danae // cd. Leid. Voss. : v.ll. danaen, danen, diana.
' eidem Sillig, Schultz : quidem edd. vett.: fidem.

" In the forum at Rome ; built by Tiberius, a.d. 14.

* ' Place of prophecy of the dead,' Odyssey Bk. XI.

•= Attalus I of Pergamum, 241-197 B.c. But Plutarch is
probablv right in giving the king's name as Ptolemy I Soter,
rulor of Egypt 323-284 b.c.

BOOK XXXV. xL. 130-132

Contemporaries of Euphranor were Cydias, for Cydias.
whose picture of the Argonauts the orator Hortensius 114-50 b.o.
paid 144,000 sesterces, and made a shrine for its
reception at his vllla at Tusculum. Euphranor's
pupil was Antidotus. Works by the latter are a Antidoius
Combatant "with a Shield at Athens and a Wrestler
and a Trumpeter which has been exceptionally
praised. Antidotus himself was more careful in his
work than prolific, and severe in his use of colours ;
his chief distinction was being the teacher of the
Athenian Nicias, who was an extremely careful ^'icias
painter of female portraits. Nicias kept a strict ^ 'J^^"^^^'-
watch on Hght and shade, and took the greatest pains
to make his paintings stand out from the panels.
Works of his are : a Nemea, brought to Rome from 75 b.c.
Asia by Silanus and deposited in the Senate-house as
we have said, and also the Father Liber or Dionysus § 27.
in the Shrine of Concord, a Hyacinthus with which
Caesar Augustus was so delighted that when he took 30 b.c.
Alexandria he brought it back with him — and
consequently Tiberius Caesar dedicated this picture
in the Temple ° of Augustus — and a Danae ; while at
Ephesus there is the tomb of a megabyzus or priest
of Diana of Ephesus, and at Athens there is a
Necyomantea ^ of Homer. The last the artist
refused to sell to King Attalus ^ for 60 talents, and
preferred to present it to his native place, as he
was a wealthy man. He also executed some large
pictures, among them a Calypso, an lo^ and an
Andromeda ; and also the very fine Alexander in
Pompey's Porticoes and a Seated Calypso are as-
signed to him.

"^ One or two extant later paintings mav be copies of this.
A. Rumpf, Journ. Hellen. St., LXVII, 21 /

357

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

133 Quadripedum ^ prosperrime canes expressit. hic
est Nicias, de quo dicebat Praxiteles interro-
gatus, quae maxime opera sua probaret in mar-
moribus : quibus Nicias manum admovisset ; tantum
circumlitioni eius tribuebat. non satis discernitur,
alium eodem nomine an hunc eundem quidam
faciant olympiade cxii.

13-4 Niciae comparatur et aliquando praefertur Athenion
Maronites, Glaucionis Corinthii discipulus, austerior
colore et in austeritate iucundior, ut in ipsa pictura
eruditio eluceat. pinxit in templo Eleusine phy-
larchum et Athenis frequentiam, quam vocavere
syngenicon, item Achillem virginis habitu occul-
tatum UUxe deprendente et in una tabula vi signa,^
quaque maxime inclaruit, agasonem cum equo.
quod nisi in iuventa obiiset, nemo compararetur.

135 Est nomen et Heraclidi Macedoni. initio naves
pinxit captoque Perseo rege Athenas commigravit.
ubi eodem tempore erat Metrodorus, pictor idemque
philosophus, in utraque scientia magnae auctoritatis.
itaque cum L. Paulus devicto Perseo petiisset ab
Atheniensibus, ut ii sibi quam probatissimum
philosophum mitterent ad erudiendos liberos, item
pictorem ad triumphum excolendum, Athenienses
Metrodorum elegerunt, professi eundem in utroque
desiderio praestantissimum, quod ita Paulus quoque

^ quadripedum Madvig : quadripede (quadripedes B).
2 VI signa Gronov : insigni Duran ' : ut signa.

" It must be remembered that Greek marbles were painted.

"358

BOOK XXXV. XL. 133-135

In drawings of animals he was most successful with
dogs. It is this Nicias of whom Praxiteles used to yidastfu
say, when asked which of his own works in marble ^ "
he placed highest, ' The ones to which Nicias has set
his hand ' — so much value did he assign to his colour-
ing of surfaces." It is not quite clear whether it
is another artist of the same name or this Nicias
whom some people put in the 112th Olympiad. .",32-329 b.c.

With Nicias is compared Athenion of Maronea, Athenion.
and sometimes to the disadvantage of the former.
Athenion was a pupil of Glaucion of Corinth ; he is
more sombre in his colour than Nicias and yet
therewithal more pleasing, so that his extensive
knowledge shines out in his actual painting. He
painted a Cavalry Captain in the temple at Eleusis
and at Athens the group of figures which has been
called the Family Group, and also an Achilles Dis-
guised in Female Dress detected by Odysseus, a
group of six figures in a single picture, and a Groom
with a Horse, which has specially contributed to his
fame. If he had not died in youth, there would
have been nobody to compare with him.

Heraclides of Macedon is also a painter of note. HeracUdes.
He began by painting ships, and after the capture of ^^^^
King Perseus he migrated to Athens, where at the
same period was the painter Metrodorus, who was
also a philosopher and a great authority in both
fields. Accordingly when Lucius Paulus after con-
quering Perseus requested the Athenians to send
him their most esteemed philosopher to educate his
children, and also a painter to embellish his triumphal
procession, the Athenians selected Metrodorus,
stating that he was most distinguished in both of
these requirements alike, as to which Paulus also

359

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

136 iudicavit. Timomachus Byzantius Caesaris dictatoris
aetate Aiacem et Mediam pinxit, ab eo in ^^eneris
Genetricis aede positas, lxxx talentis venundatas.
talentum Atticum X vi^ taxat M. Varro. Timomachi
aeque laudantur Orestes, Iphigenia in Tauris et
Lecythion, agilitatis exercitator, cognatio nobilium,
palHati, quos dicturos pinxit, alterum stantem,
alterum sedentem. praecipue tamen ars ei favisse
in Gorgone visa est.

137 Pausiae filius et discipulus Aristolaus e severissimis
pictoribus fuit, cuius sunt Epaminondas, Pericles,
Media, Virtus, Theseus, imago Atticae plebis,
boum immolatio. sunt quibus et Nicophanes,
eiusdem Pausiae discipulus, placeat diligentia,
quam intellegant soli artifices, alias durus in
coloribus et sile multus. nam Socrates iure
omnibus placet ; tales sunt eius cum Aesculapio fihae
Hygia, Aegle,^ Panacea, laso,^ et piger, qui appel-
latur Ocnos, spartum torquens, quod asellus adrodit.

138 Hactenus indicatis proceribus in utroque genere
non silebuntur et primis proximi : Aristoclides, qui *
pinxit aedem Apollinis Delphis. Antiphihis puero
ignem conflante laudatur ac pulchra ahas domo ^

^ VI Hardouin : vi.M. B : xvi rell.
2 Hygia, Aegle edd. vett.: thygiaegle B : hj^giagle reU.
^ Panacea, laso Hermolaus Barbarus : panaca iasus B :
p. hxcus cd. Par. Lat. 6797 : penaca lacus aut locus rell.
* qui delendum coni. Maijhoff.
' laudatur e pictura atra foculo coni. Mayhoff.

" Copies of this picture exist.
^ Probabl)'^ a mask of Medusa.

'^ Hence a Latin proverb: ocnus spartum torquens, ' sloth
twisting a rope.' I.e. ' Labour in vain.'
^ Both large and small pictures.

360

BOOK XXXV. XL. 135-T38

held the same view. Timomachus of Byzantium Timoma-
in the period of Caesar's dictatorship " painted an ^^"bo
Ajax and a Medea, placed by Caesar in the temple
of Venus Genetrix, having been bought at the price
of 80 talents (Marcus Varro rates the Attic talent
at 6000 denarii). Equal praise is given to
Timomachus's Orestes, his Iphigenia among the
Tauri and his Gymnastic-Master Lecythion ; also his
Noble Family and his Two Men wearing the Pallium,
whom he has represented as about to converse ; one
is a standing figure and the other seated. It is in
his painting of a Gorgon ^ however that his art seems
to have given him most success.

Pausias's son and pupil Aristolaus was one of the Aristoiam.
painters of the very severe style ; to him belong an
Epaminondas, a Pericles, a Medea, a Virtue, a
Theseus, a figure representing the Athenian People,
and a Sacrifice of Oxen. Some persons also admire
Nicophanes, who was Hkewise a pupil of Pausias, Mcophanes.
for his careful accuracv which only artists can ap-
preciate, though apart from that he is hard in his
colouring and lavish in his use of ochre. As for
Socrates he is justly a universal favourite ; popular socra^es.
pictures by him are his group of Asclepius with his
daughters Health, Brightness, All-Heal and Remedy,
and his Sluggard, bearing the Greek name of Ocnos,
Laziness, and represented as twisting a rope of
broom which an ass is nibbling.*^

Having so far pointed out the chief painters in both
branches,<^ we will also mention those of the rank
next to the first : Aristoclides who decorated the AnstocUdes
Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Antiphilus who is «"-^ ^'^^^-
praised for his Boy Blowing a Fire, and for the
apartment, beautiful in itself, lit by the reflection

361

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

splendescente ipsiusque pueri ore, item lanificio,
in quo properant omnium mulierum pensa, Ptole-
maeo venante, sed nobilissimo Satyro cum pelle
pantherina, quem aposcopeuonta appellant, Aristo-
phon Ancaeo ^ vulnerato ^ ab apro cum socia doloris
Astypale ^ numerosaque tabula, in qua sunt Priamus,
Helena, Credulitas, UHxes, Deiphobus, Dolus."*

139 Androbius pinxit Scyllum ancoras praecidentem
Persicae classis, Artemon Danaen mirantibus eam
praedonibus, reginam Stratonicen, Herculem et
Deianiram, nobilissimas autem, quae sunt in Oc-
taviae operibus, Herculem ab Oeta monte Doridos
exusta mortaUtate consensu deorum in caelum
euntem, Laomedontis circa Herculem et Nep-
tunum historiam ; Alcimachus Dioxippum, qui
pancratio Olympiae citra puheris ^ iactum, quod
vocant aKovLTL, vicit ; Coenus stemmata.

140 Ctesilochus, ApeUis discipulus, petulanti pictura
innotuit, love Liberum parturiente depicto mitrato
et muHebriter ingemescente inter obstetricia dearum,
Cleon Cadmo, Ctesidemus Oechaliae expugnatione,
Laodamia, Ctesicles ^ reginae Stratonices iniuria.
nullo enim honore exceptus ab ea pinxit volu-

^ Ancaeo Gelen Ancaeum Detlejsen : ancaiu B^ : angaiu
B^ : anchalii rell.

2 vulnerato edd. vett. : muineratumo B : vnlneratu rell.

^ Astj^palaea Brunn. * Dolon Caesarius.

^ pulveris erJd. vett.: pueris.

® Ctesicles lan : etesides B : clesides rell.

" W.-noaKOTT€voiv, shading his eyes with his hand ( Athenaeus,
XIV, 629 f.). The gesture is a common one in satyrs on vases.

^ At Artemisium, 480 b.c.

'^ Probablv S. who was wife of Seleucus I Nicator, King of
Nearer Asia*3 12-281 b.c.

•^ Heracles save^l Hesione from a monster sent by Posldon

362

BOOK XXXV. XL. 138-140

from the fire and the light thrown on the boy's face ;
and likewise for his Spinning-room, in which all the
women are busily plying their tasks, and his Ptolemy
Hmiting, but, most famous of all, his Satyr with
Leopard's Skin, called in Greek the Man Shading
his Eyes." Aristophon did an Ancaeus Wounded
by the Boar, with Astypale sharing his grief, and a
picture crowded with figures, among them Priam,
Helen, Creduhty, Odysseus, Deiphobus, Craft.
Androbius painted a Scyllus Cutting the Anchor-
ropes of the Persian Fleet,'' Artemon a Danae admired
by the Robbers, a Queen Stratonice,*^ and a Heracles
and Deianira ; but the finest of all his works, now
in Octavia's Buildings, are his Heracles Ascending to
Heaven with the consent of the Gods after his mortal
remains were burnt on Mount Oeta in Doris, and
the story of Laomedon in the matter of Heracles
and Posidon.'' Alcimachus painted Dioxippus, who
won the All-round Bout at Olympia ' without raising
any dust,'^ akoniti as the Greek word is. Coenus
painted pedigrees.

Ctesilochus a pupil of Apelles became famous for a
saucy burlesque painting which showed Zeus in
labour/ with Dionysus, wearing a woman's nightcap
and crying Hke a woman, while goddesses act as
midwives ; Cleon for his Cadmus, Ctesidemus for his
Storming of Oechalia 9 and his Laodamia. Ctesicles
won notoriety by the insult he ofFered to Queen
Stratonice,^ because as she did not give him an
honourable reception he painted a picture of her

to ravage the land of Troy after Hesione's father King Lao-
medon broke a promise.

f I.e. without any difficulty.

/ Dionysus was born from Zeus' thigh.

" B3' Heracles. * See note c.

363

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

tantem cum piscatore, quem reginam amare sermo
erat, eamque tabulam in portu Ephesi proposuit,
ipse velis raptus. regina tolli vetuit, utriusque
similitudine mire expressa. Cratinus comoedos ^
Athenis in pompeo ^ pinxit ; Eutychides ^ bigam :

141 regit * Victoria. Eudorus scaena spectatur — idem
et ex aere signa fecit — , Hippys ^ Neptuno et
Victoria. Habron Amicitiam ® et Concordiam pinxit
et deorum simulacra, Leontiscus Aratum victorem
cum tropaeo, psaltriam, Leon Sappho, Nearchus
Venerem inter Gratias et Cupidines, Herculem
tristem insaniae paenitentia, Nealces \ enerem,

142 ingeniosus et soUers, . . .^ ime siquidem, cum proe-
lium navale Persarum et Aegyptiorum pinxisset,
quod in Nilo cuius est aqua maris similis ^ factum
volebat intellegi, argumento declaravit quod arte
non poterat : aselhim enim bibentem in Htore

143 pinxit et crocodilum insidiantem ei ; Oenias
syngenicon, PhiHscus officinam pictoris ignem con-
flante puero, Phalerion Scyllam, Simonides Agathar-
chum et Mnemosynen, Simus iuvenem requiescen-

1 comoedos Caemrius : comoedus.

2 pompeo Clelen : pompeio.

3 Eutychides Hermolmis Barharus : eutychidis cd. Flor. Ricc.
ut videlur : euthycides B : euclides cd. Par. 6801.

* rogis cd. Par. 6801 : regis cum Gelen : quam regit quid.
apud Dalecamp : Eutychides biga quam regit Victoria,
Eudorus scaena spectatur coni. Mayhoff.

^ Hippysive?7: Hippias //ar(?ot<m : Iphis erfrf. ucW. : hyppis
cd. Par. Lat. 6797 : hyppus B : hypis rell.

* Amicitiam edd. vett. : amicam.
' lac. Mayhoff.

8 cuius . . . similis delenda esse putant Urlichs, Mayhoff.

" At the city gates; from it solemn processions started.

* I.e. apparently the river is so extensive that in the
picture it might be mistaken for the sea.

364

BOOK XXXV. xL. 140-143

romping with a fisherman with whom gossip said she
was in love, and put it on exhibition at Ephesus
Harbour, himself makiiig a hurried escape on ship-
board. The Queen would not allow the picture to be
removed, the likeness of the two figures being
admirably expressed. Cratinus painted the Comic
Actors in the Processional Building « at Athens,
Eutychides a Chariot and Pair driven by Victory.
Eudorus is famous for a- scene-painting — he also
made bronze statues — and Hippys for his Posidon
and his Victory. I^abron painted a Friendship and
a Harmony and figures of gods, Leontiscus an Aratus
with the Trophies of \ ictory, and a Harpist Girl,
Leon a Sappho, Nearchus Aphrodite among the
Graces and the Cupids, and a Heracles in Sorrow
Repenting his Madness, Nealces an Aphrodite.
This Nealces was a talented and clever artist, inas-
much as when he painted a picture of a naval battle
between the Persians and the Egyptians, which he
desired to be understood as taking place on the river
Nile, the water of which resembles * the sea, he
suggested by inference what could not be shown
by art : he painted an ass standing on the shore
drinking, and a crocodile lying in wait for it.'' Oenias
has done a Family Group, PhiUscus a Painter's
Studio with a boy blowing the fire, Phalerion a
Scylla, Simonides an Agatharchus and a Mnemosyne,
Simus a Young Man Reposing, a Fuller's Shop

'^ But it is certain that the picture referred to a battle in
the Persian Artaxerxes III Ochus' conquest of Egypt in 350
B.c. The Egyptians called him ' Ass ' (with allusion to the
ass-shaped Seth Typhon who represented the wicked foe);
and the Ukeness of ovos (ass) to ^0^0? (Ochus) became a joke
amongst Greeks who fought on both sides.

365

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

tem, officinam fullonis quinqiiatrus celebrantem,

144 idemque Nemesim egregiam, Theorus ^ se inung-
entem,2 idem ab Oreste matrem et Aegisthum
interfici, bellumque Iliacum pluribus tabulis, quod
est Romae in Philippi porticibus, et Cassandram,
quae est in Concordiae delubro, Leontium Epicuri
cogitantem, Demetrium regem, Theon Orestis
insaniam, Thamyram citharoedum, Tauriscus disco-
bolum, Clytaemestram, Paniscon, Polynicen regnum
repetentem et Capanea.

145 Non omittetur inter hos insigne exemplum.
namque Erigonus, tritor colorum Nealcae pictoris,
in tantum ipse profecit, ut celebrem etiam dis-
cipulum reliquerit Pasiam, fratrem Aeginetae pic-
toris.^ illud vero perquam rarum ac memoria
dignum est, suprema opera artificum inperfectasque
tabulas, sicut Irim Aristidis, Tyndaridas Nicomachi,
Mediam Timomachi et quam diximus Venerem
ApelHs, in maiore admiratione esse quam perfecta,
quippe in iis Hniamenta reUqua ipsaeque cogitationes
artificum spectantur, atque in lenocinio commen-
dationis dolor est manus, cum id ageret, exstinctae.

146 Sunt etiamnum non ignobiles quidem in trans-
cursu tamen dicendi Aristocydes, Anaxander, Aristo-
bulus Syrus, Arcesilas * Tisicratis fiHus, Coroebus ^

^ V.l. Theodorus.

2 se inungentem Sillig, lan : emungentem B : et inungen-
tem aut et mungentem rell.

^ pictoris Detlejsen : pictores B : fictoris aut fictores rell.

* Arcesilaus cd. Par. 6801 : arcesillas B.

^ Coroebus Keil : Corybas edd. vett. : corbios aut corbius
aut cordius.

" Celebrated for five days, March 19th-23rd, by persons
whose tradcs were under Minerva'8 patronage. The original
doubtless depicted some festival of Athene.
366

BOOK XXXV. xL. 143-146

Celebrating the Quinquatrus,« and also a Nemesis of
great merit ; Theorus a Man Anointing Himself,
and also Orestes killing his Mother and Aegisthus,
and the Trojan War in a series of pictures novv in
Philippus' Porticoes at Rome and a Cassandra, in
the Shrine of Concord, a Leontion Epicurus's mis-
tress in Contemplation, a King Demetrius ; Theon
a Madness of Orestes, a Thamyras the Harper ;
Tauriscus a Man throwing a Quoit, a Clytaemnestra,
a Young Pan, a Polynices Claiming the Sovereignty,^
and a Capaneus.

Among these artists the following remarkable
case is not to be left out ; the man who ground the
colours for the painter Nealces, Erigonus, attained
such proficiency on his own account that he actually
left behind him a famous pupil, Pasias, the brother
of the painter Aeginetas. It is also a very unusual
and memorable fact that the last works of artists
and their unfinished pictures such as the Iris of
Aristides,^^ the Tyndarus' Children ^ of Nicomachus,
the Medea of Timomachus and the Aphrodite of
Apelles which we have mentioned, are more admired § 92.
than those which they finished, because in them are
seen the preliminary drawings left visible and the
artists' actual thoughts, and in the midst of approvaVs
beguilement we feel regret that the artist's hand
while engaged in the work was removed by death.

There are still some artists who are not undistin-
guished but vvho only need be mentioned in passing —
Aristocydes, Anaxander, Aristobulus of Syria,
Arcesilas son of Tisicrates, Coroebus the pupil of

^ Of Thebes, against his brother Eteocles.
" See§§ 75, 98, 108, 111.

"* These were Castor, Polydeuces (Pollux), Helen, and
Clytaemnestra.

367

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Nicomachi discipulus, Charmantides ^ Euphranoris,
Dionysodorus ^ Colophonius, Dicaeogenes,^ qui cum
Demetrio rege vixit, Euthymides,'* Herachdes Ma-
cedo, Milon Soleus,^ Pyromachi ^ statuarii discipuli,
Mnasitheus ^ Sicyonius, Mnasitimus Aristonidae
fiHus et discipukis, Nessus Habronis fiUus, Po-
lemon Alexandrinus, Tlieodorus Samius et Stadius ^
Nicosthenis discipuh, Xenon, NeocHs discipulus,
Sicyonius.
47 Pinxere et mulieres : Timarete, Miconis fiha,
Dianam, quae in tabula Ephesi est antiquissimae ^
picturae ; Irene, Cratini pictoris fiha et discipula,
puellam, quae est Eleusine, Calypso, senem et
aestisriatorem Theodorum, Alcisthenen saltatorem ;

pr

Aristarete, Nearchi fiha et discipula, Aesculapium.
laia ^o Cyzicena, perpetua virgo, M. Varronis iuventa ^^
Romae et penicillo pinxit et cestro in ebore imagines
muherum maxime et Neapoh anum in grandi tabuh\,
148 suam quoque imaginem ad speculum. nec ulHus
velocior in pictura manus fuit, artis vero tantum, ut
multum manipretiis antecederet celeberrimos eadem
aetate imaginum pictores SopoHm et Dionysium,
quorum tabulae pinacothecas inplent. pinxit et

^ Charmantides Keil : charmanides B : carmanides rell.

2 Dionysodorus Keil : dionysiodorus.

^ Dicaeogenes Keil : dicaogenes (diogenes al. Par. 6801).

* euthymides cd. Par. Lat. 6797, ut videtur : euthymedes
cd. Par. 6801 : eutymides B.

^ Soleus Gelen : solaeuus B : solus rell.

« Pliilomachi edd. vett. ' Mnesitheus Ilardouin.

8 stadius cd. Flor. Ricc. : statius cd. Leid. Voss. : stadios
relL : Tadius edd. vett.

' antiquissimae B : in antiquissimis reU.
^" iaia B : lala reU. : Laia Schneidewin : Maia Frohner.
^^ inventa Rochette.

» Of Macedon 249-287 b.c.
368

antsts.

BOOK XXXV. XL. [46-148

Nicomachus, Charmantides, the pupil of Euphranor,
Dionysodorus of Colophon, Dicaeogenes resident
at the court of King Demetrius,'^ Euthymides, tlie
Macedonian Heraclides and Milon of Soli, pupils of
Pyromachus, the sculptor of the human figure,
Alnasitheus of Sicyon, Mnasitimus the son and pupil
of Aristonides, Nessus son of Habron, Polemo of
Alexandria, Theodorus of Samos and Stadius, both
pupils of Nicosthenes. Xenon of Sicyon. pupil of
Neocles.

There have also been women artists — Timarete the Women
daughter of Micon Vvho painted the extremely
archaic panel picture of Artemis at Ephesus, Irene
daughter and pupil of the painter Cratinus who
did the Maiden at Eleusis, a Calypso,'' an Old
Man and Theodorus the Juggler, and painted also
Alcisthenes the Dancer ; Aristarete the daughter
and pupil of Nearchus, who painted an Asclepius.
When Marcus Varro was a young man, laia ofii6-26B.c.
Cyzicus, who never married, painted pictures with
the brush at Rome (and also drew with the cestrum
or graver ^ on ivory), chiefly portraits of women, as
well as a large picture on wood of an Old Woman at
Naples, and also a portrait of herself, done with a
looking-glass. No one else had a quicker hand
in painting, while her artistic skill was such that in
the prices she obtained she far outdid the most
celebrated portrait painters of the same period,
Sopolis and Dionysius, whose pictures fill the
galleries. A certain Olympias also painted ; the

^ Or, if Calypso is the name of a •svoman artist, . . .
'Eleusis, Calypso, who painted an Old Man . . .'.

'^ The ce^tiram was, it seems, a graver, spoon-shaped at one
end (for holding coloiirs over heat), and with the handle-end
thickened or flattened out for levelling the colours.

369

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quaedam Olympias, de qua hoc solum memoratur,
discipulum eius fuisse Autobulum.
141) XLI. Encausto pingendi duo fuere antiquitus
genera, cera et in ebore cestro, id est vericulo,^
donec classes pingi coepere. hoc tertium accessit
resolutis igni ceris penicillo utendi, quae pictura
navibus nec sole nec sale ventisve corrumpitur.

150 XLII. Pingunt et vestes in Aegypto, inter pauca
mirabili genere, candida vela, postquam attrivere,
inlinentes non coloribus, sed colorem sorbentibus
medicamentis. hoc cum fecere, non apparet in
velis, sed in cortinam pigmenti ferventis mersa post
momentum extrahuntur picta. mirumque, cum sit
unus in cortina colos, ex illo alius atque alius fit in
veste accipientis medicamenti qualitate mutatus,
nec postea ablui potest. ita cortina, non dubie
confusura colores, si pictos acciperet, digerit ex
uno pingitque, dum coquit, et adustae eae vestes
firmiores usibus fiunt quam si non urerentur.

151 XLIII. De pictura satis superque. contexuisse
his et plasticen conveniat. eiusdem opere ^ terrae
fingere ex argilla simihtudines Butades Sicyonius

^ vericulo Sillig : viricuio. Verba id est ycricnlo fortasse
(lehnda.

^ operae 5, cd. Leid. Voss. m.2 : opere rell. : operis coni.
Mayhoff.

" These words look like a gloss. Pliny lias already mentioned
the cestrum in § 147. The two kinds of encaustic painting
here mentioned are with wax and graver on wood, and with
wax and graver on ivory.

** Far back though it is, Pliny seems to refer to § 1 of this
book. But the right reading is not certain.

370

BOOK XXXV. xL. 148-xLni. 151

only fact recorded about her is that Autobulus was
her pupil.

XLI. In early days there were two kinds of Encaustic.
encaustic painting, with wax and on ivory with a
graver or cestrum (that is a small pointed graver '^) ;
but later the practice came in of decorating battle-
ships. This added a third method, that of employing
a brush, when wax has been melted by fire ; this
process of painting ships is not spoilt by the action
of the sun nor by salt water or winds.

XLII. In Egypt they also colour cloth by an Egyptim
exceptionally remarkable kind of process. They ''^^*"^-
first thoroughly rub white fabrics and then smear
them not with colours but with chemicals that
absorb colour. When this has been done, the
fabrics show no sign of the treatment, but after
being plunged into a cauldron of boiling dye they
are drawn out a moment later dyed. And the
remarkable thing is that although the cauldron
contains only one colour, it produces a series of
different colours in the f\ibric, the hue changing with
the quality of the chemical employed, and it cannot
afterwards be washed out. Thus the cauklron
which, if dyed fabrics were put into it, would un-
doubtedly blend the colours together, produces
several colours out of one, and dyes the material in
the process of being boiled ; and the dress fabrics
when submitted to heat become stronger for wear
than they would be if not so heated.

XLIII. Enough and more than enough has now piastican.
been said about painting. It may be suitable to ^"^'^^.
append to these remarks something about the Butades anj
plastic art. It was through the service of that '^
same earth ^ that modelling portraits from clay was

371

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

figulus primus invenit Corinthi filiae opera, quae
capta amore iuvenis, abeunte illo peregre, umbram
ex facie eius ad lucernam in pariete lineis circum-
scripsit, quibus pater eius inpressa argilla typum
fecit et cum ceteris fictilibus induratum igni pro-
posuit, eumque servatum in Nymphaeo, donec

152 Mummius Corinthum everterit, tradunt. sunt qui
in Samo primos omnium plasticen invenisse llhoecum
et Theodorum tradant multo ante Bacchiadas
Corintho pulsos, Damaratum vero ex eadem urbe
profugum, qui in Etruria Tarquinium regem populi
Romani genuit, comitatos fictores Euchira, Diopum,
Eugrammum; ab iis ItaHae traditam plasticen.
Butadis inventum est rubricam addere aut ex rubra
creta fingere, primusque personas tegularum ex-
tremis imbricibus inposuit, quae inter initia prostypa
vocavit ; postea idem ectypa fecit. hinc et fastigia
templorum orta. propter hunc plastae appellati.

153 XLIV. Hominis autem imaginem gypso e facie
ipsa primus omnium expressit ceraque in eam
formam gypsi infusa emendare instituit Lysistratus
Sicyonius, frater Lysippi, de quo diximus. hic et
similitudines ^ reddere instituit ; ante eum quam

^ similitudines Sillig : similitudini coni. Mayhoff : simili-
tudinis B : similitudinem rell.

" Traditionally they invented the art of easting bronze,
not of making casts in clay.

* Of these fictitious names Eucheir means ' skilful-lianded,'
and Engravimus ' skilled drawer.' Diopua would be eonnected
with hloTTrpa, an instruraent for taking levels.

'^ In iow relief.

■^ In high relief.

BOOK XXXV. xLiii. 151-XLIV. 153

tirst invented by Butades, a potter of Sicyon, at

Corinth. He did this owing to his daughter, who

was in love with a young man ; and she, when he was

goinij abroad. drew in outHne on the wall the shadow

of his face thrown by a lamp. Her father pressed

clay on this and made a relief, which he hardened by

exposure to fire with the rest of his pottery ; and it

is said that this Hkeness w\as preserved in the Shrine

of the Nymphs until the destruction of Corinth by i46 b.c.

Mummius. Some authorities state that the plastic

art was first invented by Rhoecus and Theodorus *

at Samos, long before the expulsion of the Bacchiadae 58i-5S0 b.c.

from Corinth, but that when Damaratus, who in

Etruria became the father of Tarquin king of the trad. 6I6-

Roman people, was banished from the same city, ^^^ ^*' '

he was accompanied by the modellers Euchir,

Diopus and Eugrammus,'' and they introduced

modelling to Italy. The method of adding red earth

to the material or else modelHng out of red chalk,

was an invention of Butades, and he first placed

masks as fronts to the outer gutter-tiles on roofs ;

these at the first stage he called prostypa,'^ but

afterwards he Hkewise made ech/pa.'^ It was from

these that the ornaments on the pediments of temples

originated. Because of Butades modellers get

their Greek name of plastae.

XLIV. The first person who modeHed a likeness
in plaster of a human being from the living face
itself, and established the method of pouring wax
into this plaster mould and then making final correc-
tions on the wax cast, was Lysistratus of Sicyon, Lysistratus.
the brother of Lysippus of whom we have spoken. ^^^^^
Indeed he introduced the practice of giving Hke-
nesses, the object aimed at previously having been to

373

XXXIV, 61,

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

pulcherrimas facere studebant. idem et de signis
effigies exprimere invenit, crevitque res in tantum,
ut nulla signa statuaeve sine argilla fierent. quo
apparet antiquiorem hanc fuisse scientiam quam
fundendi aeris.

154 XLV. Plastae laudatissimi fuere Damophilus et
Gorgasus, iidem pictores, qui Cereris aedem Romae
ad circum maximum utroque genere artis suae
excokierant, versibus inscriptis Graece, quibus sig-
nificarent ab dextra opera Damophili esse, ab laeva ^
Gorgasi. ante hanc aedem Tuscanica omnia in
aedibus fuisse auctor est Varro, et ex hac, cum
reficeretur, crustas parietum excisas tabulis mar-
ginatis inckisas esse, item signa ex fastigiis dispersa.

155 fecit et Chalcosthenes cruda opera Athenis, qui
locus ab officina eius Ceramicos appellatur. M.
Varro tradit sibi cognitum Romae Possim no-
mine, a quo facta poma et uvas ut non posses ^
aspectu discernere a veris.^ idem magnificat Arcesi-
laum, L. LuculU famiUarem, cuius proplasmata *
pluris venire soUta artificibus ipsis quam aUorum

156 opera; ab hoc factam Venerem Genetricem in foro
Caesaris et, priusquam absolveretur, festinatione

^ ab laeva Gronov : a parte laeva cd. Par. 6801 : ab imia
B : aplane aut aplone rell.

2 ut non posses Hardouin (u. n. possis Gronov) : nemo
posset Mayhoff : non possis lan : ita ut non sit Gelen :
alitem nescisse Traube : item pisces B : item piscis rell. (poscif
cd. Par. Lat. 6797) : item pisces quos cd. Poll.

' veris vix posses cd. Poll.

* proplasmata Gelen : propriasmata B : proplasticen edd.
vett. : plastica Cfl. Par. 6801 : pleurosamta rell.

« Dedicated in 493 b.c. «> See XXXIV, 34.

" It was restored (after the fire of 31 b.c.) by Augustus in
27 B.c. ** Or Caecosthenes (= KaiKoadevris) ? cf. XXXIV. 87.

374

BOOK XXXW xLiv. 153-XLV. 156

make as liandsome a face as possible. The same
artist also invented taking casts from statues, and
this method advanced to such an extent that no
figures or statues were made without a clay model.
This shows that the knowledge of modelHng in clay
was older than that of casting bronze.

XLY. Most higlily praised modellers were DamnphUm
Damophilus and Gorgasus, who were also painters ; ^andTihen
thev had decorated the Shrine "■ of Ceres in the
Circus Maximus at Ilome with both kinds of their
art, and there is an inscription on the building in
Greek verse in which they indicated that the decora-
tions on the right hand side were the work of
Damophilus and those on the left were by Gorgasus.
\'arro states that before this shrine was built every-
thing in the temples was Tuscanic work * ; and that
when this shrine was undergoingrestoration,*^ the em-
bossed work of the walls was cut out and enclosed in
framed panels ; and that the figures also were taken
from the pediment and dispersed. Chalcosthenes «^
also executed at Athens some works in unbaked clay,
at the place named the Ceramicus, Potters Quarter,
after his workshop. Marcus Varro records that
he knew at Rome an artist named Possis who made
fruit and grapes in such a way that nobody could
tell by sight from the real things. Varro also speaks
very highly of Arcesilaus, who was on terms of ArcesUam.
intimacy with Lucius Lucullus, and says that his '^- ^^'^^
sketch-models of clay used to sell for more,
among artists themselves, than the finished works
of others ; and that this artist made the statue of
Venus Genetrix in Caesar's Forum and that it was 46 b.o.
erected before it was finished as there was a great
haste to dedicate it ; and that the same artist had

375

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

dedicandi positam ; eidem a Lucullo hs [x| ^ signum
Felicitatisf locatum, cui mors utriusque inviderit ;
Octavio equiti Romano cratera facere volenti ex-
emplar e gypso factum talento. laudat et Pasitelen,
qui plasticen matrem caelaturae et statuariae
scalpturaeque ^ dixit et, cum esset in omnibus iis
suinmus, nihil umquam fecit ante quam finxit.

157 praeterea elaboratam hanc artem Italiae et maxime
Etruriae ; Vulcam ^ Veis accitum, cui locaret Tar-
quinius Priscus lovis effigiem in Capitolio dicandam ;
fictilem eum fuisse et ideo miniari soHtum ; fictiles
in fastigio templi eius quadrigas, de quibus supra ^
diximus; ab hoc eodem factum Herculem, qui
hodieque materiae nomen in urbe retinet. hae
enim tum effigies deorum erant lautissimae, nec
paenitet nos illorum, qui tales eos coluere ; aurum
enim et argentum ne diis quidem conficiebant.

158 XLVI. durant etiam nunc plerisque in locis talia
simulacra; fastigia quidem templorum etiam in
urbe crebra et municipiis, mira caelatura et arte
suique firmitate, sanctiora auro, certe innocentiora.
in sacris quidem etiam inter has opes hodie non

^ |x| Deflefsen : LX Sillig : ixi J5 : LX rell.
' scalpturae B^ : sculpturae B^ : scalturae rell.
^ uulcam B^ : uulcani B^ : uulgam rell. (turianum cd. Par.
6801) : Volcaniam coni. lan.

* supra coni. lan : saepe.

" Since Arcesilaus was still doing work for Caesar in 46 b.c,
it may wcll be that the Lucullus here mentioned is the one
who was killed at Pliilippi in 42 B.c.

* The Hercules Fictilis, ' Hercules in Clay.'

BOOK XXXV. xLv. 156-.XLV1. 158

contracted with Lucullus to make a statue of Happi-
ness for 1,000,000 sesterces, which was prevented by
the death of both parties " ; and that when a Knight
of Rome Octavius desired him to make a wine-bowl
he made him a model in plaster for the price of a
talent. He also praises Pasiteles, who said that PasUeies.
modelling was the mother of chasing and of bronze
statuary and sculpture, and who, although he was
eminent in all these arts, never made anything
before he had made a clay model. He also states
that this art had already been brought to perfection
by Italy and especially by Etruria ; that Vulca was
summoned from Veii to receive the contract from
Tarquinius Priscus for a statue of Jupiter to be trad. 6I6-
consecrated in the Capitol, and that this Jupiter ^'^"^-^-
was made of clay and consequently was regularly
painted with cinnabar ; and that the four-horse viii, I6I,
chariots about which we spoke above on the pedi- ^^"^^^' ^^-
ment of the temple were modelled in clay ; and that
the figure of Hercules, which even to-day retains in
the city the name ^ of the material it is made of, was
the work of the same artist. For these were the
most splendid images of gods at that time ; and we
are not ashamed of those ancestors of ours for
worshipping them in that material. For they used
not formerly to work up silver and gold even for
gods. XL\ I. Statues of this kind are still to be
found at various places. In fact even at Rome and
in the Municipal Towns there are many pediments
of temples, remarkable for their carving and artistic
merit and intrinsic durabihty, more deserving of
respect than gold, and certainly less baneful. At
the present day indeed, even in the midst of our
present rich resources the preliminary libation is

377
VOL. IX. N

PLINY : NATURAI. HISTORY

murrinis crystallinisve, sed fictilibus prolibatur
simpulis,^ inenarrabili Terrae benignitate, si quis
singula aestimet, etiam ut omittantur in frugum,

159 vini, pomorum, herbarum et fruticum, medicamen-
torum, metallorum generibus beneficia eius, quae -
adhuc diximus. neque ^ adsiduitate satiant figli-
narum opera, doliis ad vina excogitatis, ad aquas
tubulis,^ ad balineas mammatis,^ ad tecta imbri-
cibus,^ coctilibus laterculis ad parietes fundamen-
taque,'^ aut quae ^ rota fiunt, propter quae ^ Numa

160 rex septimum collegium figulorum instituit. quin
et defunctos sese multi fictilibus soliis condi malucre,
sicut M. ^^arro, Pythagorio modo in myrti et oleae
atque populi nigrae foliis. maior pars hominum
terrenis utitur vasis. Samia etiam nunc in escu-
lentis laudantur. retinent hanc nobilitatem et
Arretium in Italia et cahcum tantum Surrentum,
Hasta, Pollentia, in Hispania Saguntum, in Asia

161 Pergamum. habent et TralHs ibi opera sua et in
Italia Mutina, quoniam et sic gentes nobilitantur
et haec quoque per maria, terras ultro citro por-
tantur, insignibus rotae officinis.^^ Erythris in templo
hodieque ostenduntur amphorae duae propter tenui-
tatem consecratae discipuli magistrique certamine,

^ simpulis edd. vett. : sin puls B^ : sinpulsa B^ : simpuuiis
rd. Par. 6801 : simpuis rell.

2 V.ll. quaeque, que quae : quaequae Detlefsen.
^ neque Mayhoff : vel quae B : vel rell.

* V.l. tabulis.

^ haraatis Hermolaus Barharus.

* imbricibus hic Mayhoff : supra post opera.

' ad parietes fundamentaque coni. 31 ayhoff {a,d fundamenta
Detlefsen) : fundamentisque.

* ob quae Hardouin : quae aut Detlefsen.

® rota fiunt propter quae B: om. rell. In § 159 alia
teviptant edd. ^° officiis coni. Rackham,

BOOK XXXV. xLvi. 158-161

made at sacrifices not from fluor-spar or crystal
vessels but with small ladles of earthenware, thanks
to the ineffable kindness of Mother Earth, if one
considers her gifts in^ detail, even though we omit
her blessings in the various kinds of corn, wine,
fruit, herbs and shrubs, drugs and metals, all the
things that we have so far mentioned. Nor do our Poiiery.
products even in pottery satisfy our needs with their
unfailing supply, with jars invented for our wine,
and pipes for water, conduits for baths, tiles for our
roofs, baked bricks for our house-walls and founda-
tions, or things that are made on a wheel, because of
which King Numa established a seventh Guild, the 'rad.
Potters.^^ Indeed moreover many people have
preferred to ])c buried in earthenware cofRns, for
instance Marcus Varro who was interred in the
Pythagorean style, in leaves of myrtle, oHve and 26 b.c,
black poplar; the majority of mankind employs
earthenware receptacles for this purpose. Among
table services Samian pottery is still spoken highly
of; this reputation is also retained by Arezzo in
Italy, and, merely for cups, by Sorrento, Asti, and
Pollenza, and by Saguntum in Spain and Pergamum
in Asia Minor. Also Tralles in Asia Minor and
Modena in Italy have their respective products,
since even this brings nations fame, and their pro-
ducts also, so distinguished are the w^orkshops of the
potter's wheel, are carried to and fro across land
and sea. In a temple at Erythrae even to-day are on
view tAvo wine-jars which were dedicated on account
of their fine material, owing to a competition be-
tween a master potter and his apprentice as to which

" The text of part of § 159 is very uncertain.

379

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

uter tenuiorem humum duceret. Cois ea laus ^
maxima, Hadrianis firmitas, nonnullis circa hoc

162 severitatis quoque exemplis. Q. Coponium in-
venimus ambitus damnatum, quia vini amphoram
dedisset dono ei, cui sufFragi latio erat. atque ut
e hixu 2 quoque ahqua contingat auctoritas fighnis :
tripatinium, inquit Fenestella, appellabatur summa
cenarum lautitia; una erat murenarum, altera
luporum, tertia mixti piscis, incHnatis iam sciHcet
moribus, ut tamen eos praeferre Graeciae etiam
philosophis possimus, siquidem in Aristotehs here-
dum auctione septuaginta patinas venisse traditur.

163 nos cum unam Aesopi tragoediarum histrionis in
natura avium diceremus hs c ^ stetisse, non dubito
indignatos legentes. at, Hercules, ViteUius in
principatu suo \x\ * hs condidit patinam, cui faciendae
fornax in campis exaedificata erat, quoniam eo
pervenit luxuria, ut etiam fictilia pluris constent

164 quam murrina. propter hanc Mucianus altero con-
sulatu suo in conquestione exprobravit patinarum
paludes Vitelli memoriae, non illa foediore, cuius
veneno Asprenati reo Cassius Severus accusator

165 obiciebat interisse convivas cxxx. nobilitantur his
quoque oppida, ut Regium et Cumae. Samia testa

^ ea laus Mayhoff : illa laus Urlichs : levitas Frohner : laus.
^ e luxu coni. lan : fruxu aut frucu aut fruxo cdd. (fluxu
cd. Poll).

^ C cd. Leid. Voss. [c] B : c' aut centum aut dc rell.
* |x| B : X anl x rell.

380

BOOK XXXV. vLvi. 161-165

would make thinner earthemvare. The pottery
of Cos is most famous for this, but that of Adria is
mo^^t substantial ; while there are also some instances
of severity also in relation to pottery. We find
that Quintus Coponius was found guilty of bribery
because he made a present of a jar of wine to a
person who had the right to a vote. And so that
luxury also may contribute some importance to
earthenware, the name of a service of three dishes,
we are told by Fenestella, used to denote the most
luxurious possible banquet : one dish was of lamprey,
a second of pike and a third of a mixture of fish.
Clearly manners were already on the decline, though
nevertheless we can still prefer them even to those
of the philosophers of Greece, inasmuch as it is
recorded that at the auction held by the heirs of 322 b.o.
Aristotle seventy earthenware dishes were sold.
We have already stated when on the subject of birds x. 141.
that a single dish cost the tragic actor Aesop 100,000
sesterces, and I have no doubt that readers felt
indignant ; but, good heavens, VitelHus when
emperor had a dish made that cost 1,000,000 sesterces, a.d. 69
and to make which a special furnace was constructed
out in open countrj^ as luxury has reached a point
when even earthenware costs more than vessels
of fluor-spar. It was o^^ing to this dish that
Mucianus in his second consulship, in a protest ^-^- ^o.
which he delivered, reproached the memory of
Vitelhus for dishes as broad as marshes, although
this particular dish was not more disgraceful than
the poisoned one by which Cassius Severus when
prosecuting Asprenas charged him with ha\ing caused
the death of 130 guests. Artistic pottery also con-
fers fame on to^^iis, for instance Reggio and Cumae.

381

N2

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

Matris deum sacerdotes, qui Galli vocantur, viri-
litatem amputare nec aliter citra perniciem, M.
Caelio credamus, qui linguam sic amputandam
obiecit gravi probro, tamquam et ipse iam tunc
eidem Vitellio malediceret. quid non excogitat
vita ^ fractis etiam testis utendo, sic ut firmius
durent, tunsis calce addita, quae vocant Signina !
quo genere etiam pavimenta excogitavit.

166 XLVII. Verum et ipsius terrae sunt alia com-
menta. quis enim satis miretur pessumam eius
partem ideoque pulverem appellatam in Puteolanis
collibus opponi maris fluctibus, mersumque protinus
fieri lapidem unum inexpugnabilem undis et for-
tiorem cotidie, utique si Cumano misceatur cae-

167 mento? eadem est terrae natura et in Cyzicena
regione, sed ibi non pulvis, verum ipsa terra qua
libeat magnitudine excisa et demersa in mare
lapidea extrahitur. hoc idem circa Cassandream
produnt fieri, et in fonte Cnidio dulci intra octo
menses terram lapidescere. ab Oropo quidem
Aulida usque quidquid attingitur mari terrae mu-
tatur in saxa. non multum a pulvere Puteolano

^ excogitat vita B : excogitavit vita lan : excogitavit ars
cd. Par. 6801 : excogitavit a rell.

" Cybele.

^ Volcanic ash or earth, now called pozzolana.

* The ancient Potidaea in the Chalcidic peninsula.

" Of Boeotia.

382

BOOK XXXV. xLvi. 165-XLV11. 167

The priests of" the Mother « of the Gods called Galli
castrate themselves, if we accept the account of
Marcus Caeh'us, ^^ith a piece of Samian pottery,
the only way of avoiding dangerous results ; and
Caelius proposed as a penalty for an abominable
offence that the guilty person should have his tongue
cut out in the same way, just as if he were already
himself inveighing against the same Vitellius in
anticipation. What is there that experience cannot
devise ? For it employs even broken crockery,
making it more solid and durable by pounding it up
and adding what is called Segni Hme, a kind of
material used in a method which experience has also
invented for making pavements.

XL\TI. But there are other inventions also that ^^^^"
belong to Earth herself. For who could sufficiently eanhs.
marvel at the fact that the most inferior portion of
the earth's substance, which is in consequence
designated dust,^ on the hills of Pozzuoli, encounters
the waves of the sea and as soon as it is submerged
turns into a single mass of stone that withstands the
attacks of the waves and becomes stronger every
day, especially if it mixed with broken quarry-stone
from Cumae ? In the Cyzicus district also the nature
of the earth is the same, but there not dust but the
earth itself is cut out in blocks of any size wanted
and plunged into the sea ; and when drawn out, it is
of the consistency of stone. The same is said to take
place in the neighbourhood of Cassandrea,<^ and it is
stated that in a fresh water spring at Cnidus earth
becomes petrified in less than eight months. Or
the coast <^ from Oropus to Aulis all the earth that
the sea touches is turned into rocks. The finest
portion of the sand from the Nile is not very different

383

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

distat e Nilo harena tenuissima sui parte, non ad
sustinenda maria fluctusque frangendos, sed ad

168 debellanda corpora palaestrae studiis. inde certe
Patrobio, Neronis principis liberto, advehebatur.
quin et Cratero et Leonnato ac Meleagro, Alexandri
Magni ducibus, sabuhim ^ hoc portari ^ cum rehquis
mihtaribus commerciis reperio, plura de hac parte
non dicturus, non, Hercules, magis quam de terrae
usu in ceromatis, quibus exercendo iuventus nostra

169 corporis vires perdit animorum. XLVHL quid?
non in Africa Hispaniaque e terra parietes, quos
appellant formaceos, quoniam in forma circumdatis
II utrimque tabulis inferciuntur verius quam struun-
tur, aevis durant, incorrupti imbribus, ventis, ignibus
omnique caemento firmiores ? spectat etiam nunc
speculas Hannibalis Hispania terrenasque turres
iugis montium inpositas. hinc et caespitum natura
castrorum vallis accommodata contraque fluminum
impetus aggeribus. inlini quidem crates parietum
hito et ut ^ lateribus crudis exstrui quis ignorat ?

170 XLIX. Lateres non sunt ex sabuloso neque
harenoso multoque minus calculoso ducendi solo, sed
e cretoso et albicante aut ex rubrica vel etiam e

1 sabulum cd. Par. 6801, cd. Par. Lat. 6797 sabium B :
sabhim rell. : solitum Mayhojf.

2 V.l. portare : portavere J. Milller.
^ et ut Warmington : et.

" Who was in Spain 221-219 b.c. preparing war against;
Rome.

384

BOOK XXXV. xLvii. 167-XLIX. 170

from the dust of Pozzuoli, not to be used for an
embankment against the sea and to act as a break-
water against waves, but for the purpose of sub-
duing men's bodies for the exercises of the wrestling
school. At all events it used to be imported from
there for Patrobius, a freedman of the emperor
Nero, and moreover I also find that this sand
was carried with other mihtary commodities for
Alexander the Great's generals Craterus, Leonnatus
and Meleager, though I shall not say more about
this part of the subject any more than, by heaven,
I shall mention the use of earth in making oint-
ments, employed by our young men while ruining
their vigour of mind by exercising their muscles.
XLVIII. Moreover, are there not in Africa and
Spain walls made of earth that are called framed
walls, because they are made by packing in a frame
enclosed between two boards, one on each side, and
so are stuffed in rather than built, and do they not
last for ages, undamaged by rain, wind and fire,
and stronger than any quarry-stone ? Spain still
sees the watchtowers of Hannibal « and turrets of
earth placed on the mountain ridges. From the
same source is also obtained the substantial sods of
earth suitable for the fortifications of our camps
and for embankments against the violent flooding
of rivers. At all events everybody knows that
party-walls can be made by coating hurdles with
clay, and are thus built up as if with raw^ bricks.

XLIX. Bricks should not be made from a sandy Brkks.
or gravelly soil and far less from a stony one, but
from a marly and white soil or else from a red earth ;
or even with the aid of sand, at all events if coarse
male sand is used. The best time for making bricks

385

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

sabulo, masculo certe. finguntur optime vere, nam
solstitio rimosi fiunt. aedificiis non nisi bimos
probant ; quin ^ et intritam ipsam eorum, priusquam
fingantur, macerari oportet.

171 Genera eorum fiunt ^ tria : didoron,^ quo nos ^
utimur, longum sesquipedem, latum pedem, alterum
tetradoron, tertium pentadoron. Graeci enim anti-
qui dojpov palmum vocabant et ideo dcopa munera,
quia manu darentur ; ergo a quattuor et quinque
])almis, prout sunt, nominantur. eadem est et lati-
tudo. minore privatis operibus, maiore in publicis
utuntur in Graecia. Pitanae in Asia et in ulteriore
Hispania civitatibus Maxilua et Callet '^ fiunt lateres,
qui siccati non merguntur in aqua. sunt enim e
terra pumicosa, cum subigi potest, utilissima.

172 Graeci, praeterquam ubi e silice fieri poterat struc-
tura, latericios parietes praetulere. sunt enim
aeterni, si ad perpendiculum fiant. ideo et publica
opera et regias domos sic struxere : murum Athenis,
qui ad montem Hymettum spectat, Patris aedes
lovis et Herculis, quamvis lapideas columnas et
epistylia circumdarent, domum Trallibus regiam
Attali, item Sardibus Croesi, quam gerusian fecere,

^ quia Mayhoff.

2 fiunt Mayhoff coU. Vitruv. II. 3 : qui B : que rell.

3 didoron Hermolaus Barbarus : lydion (lidron ai. Par.
6801).

* nos add. Mayhoff coll. Vitruv. : volgo J. Muller.
5 Callet Urlichs, Detlefsen coll. III. 12 : callent B : canlent
aut canJento ant calento rell.

<» As a measure this could be 4 inches or 9, but here it is 9.

^ Silex is in particular the strong concrete made by the
Romans from a lava mixed with lime and pozzolana (for which
see § 160, note); but in Greece silex would be limestone.

<= Attalus I of Pergamum, 241-197 B.c.
386

BOOK XXXV. xLix. 170-172

is in spring, as at midsummer they tend to crack.
For buildings, only bricks two years okl are recom-
mended ; moreo\ er the material for them when it
has been pounded should be well soaked before they
are moulded.

Three kinds of bricks are made : the ' didoron,'
the one employed by us, eighteen inches long and
a foot wide, second the ' tetradoron ' and third the
' pentadoron,' doro?i being an okl Greek word meaning
the palm of the hand ° — from which comes doron,
meaning a gift, because a gift was given by the
hand. Consequently the bricks get their names
from four or five palms' length as the case may be.
Their breadth is in all cases the same. In Greece
the smaller kind is used for private structures and
the larger in public buildings. At Pitana in Asia
Minor as also in the city states of Maxilua and
Callet in Further Spain bricks are made which when
dried will not sink in water, being made of pumice-
Hke earth, which is an extremely useful material
when it is capable of being worked. The Greeks
preferred brick walls except in places permitting
of a limestone ^ structure, as brick walls last for ever
if built exactly perpendicular. Consequently that
was how they built both pubHc works and kings'
palaces — the wall at Athens that faces towards
Mount Hymettus, at Patrae the Shrines of Zeus
and of Heracles (although the columns and archi-
traves with which they surrounded these were of
stone), and the royal palace of Attalus '^ at Tralles
and likewise the palace of Croesus at Sardis, which 5Go-5-i6 b.c
they converted into a house of elders,<^ and that of

" Pliny's source Vitruvius II. 8. 10 takes yepovaia here as a
home for the aged, but it must mean couneil-house.

387

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

Halicarnasi Mausoli, quae etiam nunc durant.

173 Lacedaemone quidem latericiis parietibus excisum
opus tectorium propter excellentiam picturae ligneis
formis inclusum Romam deportavere in aedilitate
ad comitium exornandum Murena et Varro. cum
opus per se mirum esset, tralatum tamen magis
mirabantur. in Italia quoque latericius murus
Arreti et Mevaniae est. Romae non fiunt talia
aedificia, quia sesquipedalis paries non plus quam
unam contignationem tolerat, cautumque est, ne
communis crassior fiat, nec intergerivorum ratio
patitur.

174 L. Haec sint dicta de lateribus. in terrae autem
reliquis generibus vel maxime mira natura est
sulpuris, quo plurima domantur. nascitur in insulis
Aeoliis inter Siciliam et Italiam, quas ardere diximus,
sed nobilissimum in Melo insula. in Italia quoque
invenitur in Neapolitano Campanoque agro collibus,
qui vocantur Leucogaei. ibi e cuniculis efFossum

175 perficitur igni. genera iiii : vivum, quod Graeci
apyron vocant, nascitur solidum ^ solum ^ — cetera ^
enim liquore constant et conficiuntur oleo incocta — ;
vivum eflPoditur tralucetque et viret. solo ex
omnibus generibus medici utuntur.* alterum genus
appellant glaebam, fullonum tantum officinis fa-

^ solidum hoc est glaeba cdd. : del. h.e.g. Urlichs, Detlefsen.

^ solum del. Urlichs, Detlefsen.

^ cetera c<L Leid. Voss. m.2 : ex omnibus generibus (om.
B) medici utuntur. alterum genus cetera B, cd. Leid. Voss.
vi.l, cd. Flor. Ricc. : vide infra : ex omnibus . . . utuntur
cetera rell.

* solo . . . utuntur om. cd. Par. J.at. 6797, cd. Par. 0801,
cd. Tolet.
388

BOOK XXXV. xLix. 172-L. 175

Mausolus " at Halicarnassus, buildings still standing. 377-353 b.c.
Murena and Varro in their aedileship had some
plaster work on brick walls at Sparta cut away,
and because of the excellence of its painting had
it enclosed in wooden frames and brought to Rome
to decorate the Assembly-place. It was in itself a
wonderful piece of work, yet its transfer caused even
more admiration. In Italy also there is a brick wall
at Arezzo and at Mevania. Structures of this sort
are not erected in Rome, because an eighteen-inch
wall will only carry a single storey, and there is a
regulation forbidding any partition exceeding that
thickness : nor does the system used for party-walls
permit of it.

L. Let this be what we say about bricks. Among suiphur.
the other kinds of earth the one with the most remark-
able properties is sulphur, which exercises a great
power over a great many other substances. Sulphur
occurs in the Aeolian Islands between Sicily and
Italy, which we have said are volcanic, but the most m, 92 &.
famous is on the island of Melos. It is also found in
Italy, in the territory of Naples and Campania, on
the hills called the Leucogaei. It is there dug out of
mine-shafts and dressed with fire. There are four
kinds : live sulphur, the Greek name for which
means * untouched by fire,' which alone forms as a
solid mass — for all the other sorts consist of Hquid
and are prepared by boiling in oil ; live sulphur is
dug up, and it is translucent and of a green colour ;
it is the only one of all the kinds that is employed
by doctors. The second kind is called ' clod-
sulphur,' and is commonly found only in fullers'

" The remains of his monuraeiit the Mausoleum were brought
to England in 1859.

389

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

miliare. tertio quoque generi unus tantum est
usus ad lanas suffiendas,^ quoniam candorem molli-
tiamque confert. egula vocatur hoc genus, quartum
autem ^ ad ellychnia maxime conficienda ; cetero
tantum ^ vis est ut morbos comitiales deprehendat
nidore inpositum igni. lusit et Anaxilaus eo, addens
in calicem vini prunaque subdita circumferens,
exardescentis repercussu * pallorem dirum velut

176 defunctorum effundente in ^ conviviis.^ natura eius
excalfacit, concoquit, sed et discutit collectiones
corporum, ob hoc talibus "^ emplastris malagmatisque
miscetur. renibus quoque et lumbis in dolore cum
adipe mire prodest inpositum. aufert et Hchenas
faciei cum terebinthi resina et lepras ; harpax ita
vocatur a celeritate praebendi,® avelli enim subinde

177 debet. prodest et suspiriosis linctu,^ purulenta
quoque extussientibus et contra scorpionum ictus.
vitiligines vivum nitro mixtum atque ex aceto tritum
et inlitum tollit, item lendes, et in palpebris aceto
sandaracato admixtum. habet et in religionibus
locum ad expiandas suffitu domos. sentitur vis eius
et in aquis ferventibus, neque alia res facilius accen-

^ suffiendas coll. Isid. Gelen : sufficiendas.

2 autem cd. Par. 6801 : caute rell. (cate cd. Leid. Voss.:
aptum Isid.) : coni. Kamrjp MayhoJJ.

^ tanta al. Far. 6801 ex Isid. : tamen vel vis tantum
coni. MajihoJJ.

■* rejjercussu efld. velt. ex Isid. : percussu B : supercussu
aitt se percussu rell.

^ efFundente in MayhoJJ : effundentem B : effundente rell.

' convivis B.

' albis Frohner.

8 praebendi B : uellendi cd. Par. 6801 : praeuelli rell.
avellendi edd. vett. : prendendi lan.

" linctu Sillig : linctum aut linctus ant lictus cdd. (unctu B).

3QO

BOOK XXXV. L. 175-177

vvorkshops. The third kiiid also is only employed
for one purpose, for smoking wooUens from beneath,
as it bestows whiteness and softness ; this sort is
called egula. The fourth kind is specially used for
making lamp-wicks. For the rest, sulphur is so
potent that Mhen put on the fire it detects epilepsy
by its smelL Anaxilaus even made a sport with it
by putting some in a cup of wine and placing a hot
coal underneath and handing it round at dinner-
parties, when by its reflection as it flared up it threw
on their faces a dreadful pallor as if they were dead.
Its property is calorific and concoctive,'* but it also
disperses abscesses on the body, and consequently
is used as an ingredient in plasters and poultices
for such cases. It is also remarkably beneficial
for the kidneys and loins if in cases of pain it is
applied to them with grease. In combination with
turpentine it also removes lichenous growths on the
face and leprosy ; so it is called harpax,^ owing to the
speed with which it has to be apphed, which is
caused bv the need for immediate removal. Used
as an electuarv it is good for cases of asthma, and also
purulent expectoration after coughing and as a
remedy for the sting of scorpions. Live sulphur
mixed with soda and pounded in vinegar and used
as a Hniment removes cutaneous eruptions, and also
eggs of lice, and in combination with vinegar mixed
with realgar it is useful on the eyelids. Sulphur
also has a place in rehgious ceremonies, for the
purpose of purifying houses by fumigation. Its
potency is also perceptible in hot springs of water,
and no other substance is more easily ignited,

<» I.e. brings boils, etc, to a head.

^ doira^ ' raparions.' from dpTra^oj, ' seize,' ' snatch.'

PLINY : NATURAL HLSTORY

ditur, quo apparet ignium vim magnam ei inesse.
fulmina, fulgura quoque sulpuris odorem habent,
ac lux ipsa eorum sulpurea est.

178 LL Et bituminis vicina natura est. aliubi limus,
aliubi terra est, limus e ludaeae lacu, ut diximus,
emergens, terra in Syria circa Sidonem oppidum
maritimum. spissantur haec utraque et in densi-
tatem coeunt. est vero Hquidum bitumen, sicut
Zacynthium et quod a Babylone invehitur; ibi
quidem et candidum gignitur. hquidum est et
Apolloniaticum, quae omnia Graeci pissasphalton

179 appellant ex argumento picis ac bituminis. gignitur
et pingue oleique liquoris in Sicilia Agragantino
fonte, inficiens rivum. incolae id harundinum pani-
culis coUigunt, citissime sic adhaerescens, utunturque
eo ad lucernarum lumina olei vice, item ad scabiem
iumentorum. sunt qui et naphtham, de qua in
secundo diximus voiume, bituminis generibus ad-
scribant, verum eius ardens natura et ignium cognata

180 procul ab omni usu abest. bituminis probatio ut
quam maxime splendeat sitque ponderosum, graveo-
lens ; ^ atrum ^ modice, quoniam adulteratur pice.
vis quae sulpuri : sistit, discutit, contrahit, glutinat.
serpentes accensum nidore fugat. ad suffusiones

^ graveolens Mayhoff coU. Diosc. : grave leve (lene c(l. Par.
G801) : graveolens, leve KiXlb.

^ atrum Mayhoff coll. Diosc. : autem.

" This occurs as a liquid (petroleum), as a liquid solid
(mineral pitcb and tar) and as a solid (asphalt).
* The Dead Sea.

392

BOOK XXXV. L. 177-L1. 180

showing that it contains a powerful abundance of
fire. Thunderbolts and lightning also have a smell
of sulphur, and their actual light has a sulphurous
quahty.

LI. Near to the nature of sulphur is also that oi BUumf
bitumen," In some places it is a slime and others
an earth, the slime being emitted, as we have said, v, 72.
from the lake ^ of Judaea and the earth being found
in the neighbourhood of the seaside town of Sidon in
Syria, Both of these varieties get thickened and
solidify into a dense consistency. But there is also
a liquid sort of bitumen, for instance that of
Zacynthus and the kind imported from Babylon ;
at the latter place indeed it also occurs with a white
colour. The bitumen from Apollonia also is liquid,
and all of these varieties are called by the Greeks
pissasphalf, from its likeness to vegetable-pitch
and bitumen, There is also an unctuous bitumen,
of the consistency of oil, found in Sicily, in a spring
at Girgenti, the stream from which is tainted by it.
The inhabitants collect it on tufts of reeds, as it very
quickly adheres to them, and they use it instead of
oil for burning in lamps, and also as a cure for scab in
beasts of burden. Some authorities also include
among the varieties of bitumen naphtha about
which we spoke in Book II, but its burning property 11,235,
and liabiUty to ignition is far removed from any
practical use. The test of bitumen is that it should
be extremely brilliant, and that it should be massive,
with an oppressive smell ; when quite black, its
brilliance is moderate, as it is commonly adulterated
with vegetable pitch. Its medical effect is that of
sulphur, as it is astringent, dispersive, contractive,
and agglutinating. Ignited it drives away snakes

39.3

PLINY : NATURAL UISTORY

oculorum et albiigines Babylonium efficax traditur,
item ad lepras, lichenas pruritusque corporum.
inlinitur et podagris. omnia autem eius genera
incommodos oculorum pilos replicant, dentium

181 doloribus medentur simul nitro intrito. lenit ^
tussim veterem et anhelitus cum vino potum ; dysin-
tericis etiam datur codem modo sistitque alvum.
cum aceto vero potum discutit concretum sanguinem
ac detrahit. mitigat lumborum dolores, item articu-
lorum, cum farina hordeacia inpositum emplastrum
pecuhare facit suo nomine. sanguinem sistit, vol-
nera colligit, gkitinat nervos. utuntur etiam ad
quartanas bituminis drachma et hedyosmi pari

182 pondere cum murrae obolo subacti. comitiales
morbos ustum deprendit. volvarum strangulationes
olfactu discutit cum vino et castoreo, procidentes
suffitu reprimit, purgationes feminarum in vino
potum elicit. in rehquo usu aeramentis inhnitur
firmatque ea contra ignes. diximus et tingui sohtum
aes eo statuasque inhni. calcis quoque usum prae-
buit ita feruminatis Babylonis muris. placet in
ferrariis fabrorum officinis tinguendo ferro clavorum
capitibus et multis ahis usibus.

183 LII. Nec minor est aut adeo dissimihs aluminis
opera, quod intellegitur salsugo terrae. plura et

^ intrito. lenit Mayhoff coU. DiofiC. : inlitum (Sillig) lenit
Detlefsen : inlitus B : illitum aut illini aut inhni rdl.

" Several astringent substances were included in the word
alumen, especially, it seems, aluminium sulphates, sulphate of
iron, and common potash-ahim; also kalinite, and perhaps
also certain halotrichites (K. C. Bailcy, The Elder Pliny's
CJutpters on Chemical Siibjects, II, p. 233).

394

BOOK XXXV. Li. 180-L11. 183

by its smell. Babylonian bitumen is said to be

serviceable for cataract and film in the eye, and also

for leprosy lichen and itch. It is also used as a

liniment for gout ; while all varieties of it are used

to fold back eyelashes that get in the way of sight,

and also to cure toothache, when smeared on with

soda. Taken as a draught with wine it alleviates

an inveterate cough and shortness of breath ; and it

is also given in the same way in cases of dysentery,

nnd arrests diarrhoea. Drunk however with vinegar

it dissolves and brings away coagulated blood.

It reduces pains in the loins and also in the joints,

and applied with barley-meal it makes a special

kind of plaster that bears its name. It stops a flow of

blood, closes up wounds, and unites severed muscles.

It is employed also for quartan fevers, the dose

being a dram of bitumen and an equal weight of

wild mint pounded up with a sixth of a dram of

myrrh. Burnt bitumen detects cases of epilepsy,

and mixed with wine and beaver-oil its scent dissi-

pates sufFocations of the womb ; its smoke when

applied from beneath reHeves prolapsus of the

womb ; and drunk in wine it hastens menstruation.

Among other uses of it, it is appHed as a coating to

copper and bronze vessels to make them fireproof.

We have stated that it also used to be the practice xxxiv, 15.

to employ it for staining copper and bronze and

coating statues. It has also been used as a substitute

for hme, the walls of Babylon being cemented with it.

In smithies also it is in favour for varnishing iron and

the heads of nails and many other uses.

LII. Not less important or very different is the Aium.
use made of alum," by which is meant a salt exuda-
tion from the earth. There are several varieties of

395

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

eius genera. in Cypro candidum et nigrius, exigua
coloris ^ difFerentia, cum sit usus magna,^ quoniam
inficiendis claro colore lanis candidum liquidumque
utilissimum est contraque fuscis aut obscuris nigrum.
184 et aurum nigro purgatur. fit autem omne ex aqua
limoque, hoc est terrae exudantis natura. con-
rivatum hieme aestivis solibus maturatur. quod
fuit ex eo praecox, candidius fit. gignitur autem in
Hispania, Aegypto, Armenia, Macedonia, Ponto,
Africa, insulis Sardinia, Melo, Lipara, Strongyle,
laudatissimum in Aegypto, proximum in Melo.
huius quoque duae species, Hquidum spissumque.
liquidi probatio ut sit limpidum lacteumque, sine
offensis fricandi, cum quodam igniculo coloris.^ hoc
phorimon * vocant. an sit adulteratum, deprehen-
ditur suco Punici mali ; sincerum enim mixtura ea
non nigrescit.^ alterum genus est pallidi et scabri
et quod inficiatur et ® galla, ideoque hoc vocant

^ coloribusque B : coloris visusque coni. Mayhoff.

^ magna Gehn : magni.

^ caloris edd. vett.

* phorimon edd. velt. coll. Galen., Kara ronovs, vi. 3: porth-
mon aut portmon (B) aut pontinon aut posthonon.

•^ mixtura ea non nigrescit K. C. Bailey : mixtura ea
nigrescit cd. Flor. Ricc. ut videtur : mixturam fugit cd. Par.
6801 : mixtura rell. : mixtura inficitur coni. Mayhoff.

' et Mayhoff : a 5 : ovi. rell.

" Sulphate of aluminium would be useful for dyeing;
potash-ahim and alunogen could provide the bright colour,
and ahims containing metals the sombre colours (K. C. Bailey).

^ Cf. XXXIII, 65 ; also for removing baleful influences of
gold held above the head, cf. XXXIIT, 84.

" Where potash-alum is found.

BOOK XXXV. Lii. 183-184

it. In Cyprus there is a white alum and another
sort of a darker colour, though the difference of
colour is only slight ; nevertheless the use made
of them is very different, as the white and hquid
kind is most useful for dying woollens a bright
colour whereas the black kind is best for dark or
sombre hues." Black alum is also used in cleaning *
gold. All alum is produced from water and shme,
that is, a substance exuded by the earth ; this
collects naturally in a hollow in winter and its
maturity by crystallisation is completed by the
sunshine of summer ; the part of it that separates
earhest is whiter in colour, It occurs in Spain,
Egypt, Armenia, Macedonia, Pontus, Africa, and the
islands Sardinia, Melos, Lipari '^ and StromboH ; the
most highly valued is in Egypt and the next best
in Melos. The alum of Meios also is of two kinds,
fluid '^ and dense. The test of the fluid kind is that
it should be of a hmpid, milky consistency, free from
grit when rubbed between the fingers, and giving
a sHght glow of colour ^ ; this kind is called in
Greek ' phorimon ' in the sense of ' abundant.' Its
adulteration can be detected/ by means of the juice
of a pomegranate, as this mixed with it does not
turn it black if it is pure. The other kind 9 is the
pale rough alum which may be stained with oak-
gall also, and consequently this is called ' paraphoron,'

** Apparently the solid kind (potash-alum especially) in
solution.

^ So MSS.; caloris (' heat ') is a change based on what is
probably a corruption in the text of Dioscorides.

■^ That is, an alum supposedly free frora iron would, if it
contained iron, turn juice of pomegranate blaek.

" Probably light yellow halotrichite (hydrated iron sulphate
with aluminium) and green vitriol (ferrous sulphate).

397

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

185 paraphoron. liquidi aliiminis vis adstringcre, in-
durare, rodere. melle^ admixto sanat oris ulcera,
papulas pruritusque. haec curatio fit in balneis ii
mellis partibus, tertia aluminis. virus alarum su-
dorisque sedat. sumitur pilulis contra lienis vitia
pellendumque per urinam sanguinem. emendat et
scabiem nitro ac melanthio admixtis.

180 Concreti aluminis unum genus or;^tCTTov appellant
Graeci, in capillamenta quaedam canescentia de-
liiscens, unde quidam trichitim potius appellavere.
hoc fit e lapide, ex quo et aes — chalcitim vocant — ,
ut " sudor quidam eius lapidis in spumam coagulatus.
hoc genus ahiminis minus siccat minusque sistit
umorem inutilem corporum, et auribus magnopere
prodest infusum, vel inlitum et oris ulceribus denti-
])usque et si ^ sahva cum eo contineatur. et ocu-
lorum medicamentis inseritur apte verendisque
utriusque sexus. coquitur in catinis,* donec Hquari

187 desinat. inertioris est alteruni generis, quod stron-
gylen vocant. duae et eius species, fungosum atque
omni umore dihii facile, quod in totum damnatur.
mehus pumicosum et forarninum fistuhs spongeae
simile rotundumque natura, candido propius, cum
quadam pinguitudine, sine harenis, friabile, nec
inficiens nigritia, hoc coquitur per se carbonibus

^ meni B : melli admixtum coni. Ilai/hojf.

2 vocant — , ut Mayhoff -. vocant ut sit edd. vett.: vocamus
B : vocatus d. Leid. Lips. : vocatur rell.

3 et si Mayhoff: et is B^ : et his B^ : si al. Par. 6801 : et rell.

* catinis B : patinis rell.

° The following medical uses are hke the modern uses of
potash-alum.

* Including potash-alum, halotrichite, etc.

" Both potash-ahim and ahiminium sulphate, if heated,
melt, swell, and solidif}^ into ' burnt alum.'

BOOK XXXV. Lii. 184-187

' perverted ' or adulterated alum. Liquid alum "^
iias an astringent, hardening and corrosive property.
Mixed with honey it cures ulcers in the mouth,
pimples and eruptions ; this treatment is carried
out in baths containing two parts of honey to one
of alum. It reduces odour from the armpits and
perspiration. It is taken in pills against disorders
of the spleen and discharge of blood in the urine.
Mixed with soda and chamomile it is also a remedy
for scabies.

One kind ^ of solid alum which is called in Greek
schiston, ' sphttable,' spHts into a sort of filament of a
whitish colour, owing to which some people have pre-
ferred to give it in Greek the name of trichitis, ' hairy
ahim.' This is produced from the same ore as
copper, known as copperstone, a sort of sweat from
that mineral, coagulated into foam. This kind of
alum has less drying effect and serves less to arrest
the detrimental humours of the body, but it is
extremely beneficial as an ear-wash, or as a Hniment
also for ulcers of the mouth and for the teeth, and if
it is retained in the mouth with sahva ; or it forms a
suitable ingredient in medicines for the eyes and
for the genital organs of either sex. It is roasted in
crucibles until it has quite lost its hquidity.<^ There
is another alum of a less active kind, called in Greek
strongyle, ' round alum.' Of this also there are two
varieties, the fungous which dissolves easily in any
hquid and which is rejected as entirely worthless,
and a better kind which is porous and pierced with
small holes Hke a sponge and of a round formation,
nearer white in colour, possessing a certain quaHty
of unctuousness, free from grit, friable, and not apt
to cause a black stain. This is roasted by itself on

399

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

188 puris, donec cinis fiat. Optimum ex omnibus quod
Melinum vocant ab insula, ut diximus. nuUi vis
maior neque adstringendi neque denigrandi neque
indurandi, nuUum spissius. oculorum scabritias
extenuat, combustum utilius epiphoris inhibendis,
sic et ad pruritus corporis. sanguinem quoque
sistit intus potum,^ foris inlitum. evulsis pilis ex
aceto inlinitur renascentesque mollit in languinem.

189 summa ^ omnium generum vis in adstringendo, unde
nomen Graecis. ob id oculorum vitiis aptissima
sunt, sanguinis fluctiones inhibent. cum adipe
putrescentia ulcenim compescit ^ — sic et infantium
ulcera * et hydropicorum eruptiones siccat — et
aurium vitia cum suco Punici mali et unguium sca-
britias cicatricumque duritias et pterygia ac per-
niones, phagedaenas ulcerum ex aceto aut cum galla
pari pondere cremata, lepras cum suco olerum, cum
salis vero ii partibus vitia, quae serpunt, lendes et

190 alia capillorum animalia aquae ^ permixtum. sic et
ambustis prodest et furfuribus corporum cum sero
picis. infunditur et dysintericis uvamque in ore
comprimit ac tonsillas. ad omnia, quae in ceteris

^ potum Sillig, lan : totum aut tutum.
^ V.l. summam.

^ Post compescit del. cum adipe K. C. Bailey.
* sic . . . ulcera stipra ante putrescentia cd. Par. 6801.
•^ aquae coni. lan, Sillig : aque B^ : atque B^ : quae cd.
Leid. Lips. : que rell.

" In § 184 Pliny implies that the best is the Etryptian.
* "LTirrrrrjpia.

400

BOOK XXXV. Lii. 187-190

clean hot coals till it is reduced to ash. The hesf^
of all kinds is that called Melos alum, after the
island of that name, as \ve said ; no other kind has a § 184.
greater power of acting as an astringent, giving a
black stain and hardening, and none other has a closer
consistency. It removes granulations of the eyes,
and is still more efficacious in arresting defluxions
when calcined, and in that state also it is applied to
itchings on the body. Taken as a draft or applied
externally it also arrests haemorrhage. It is applied
in vinegar to parts from which the hair has been
removed and changes into soft down the hair that
grows in its place. The chief property of ali kinds
of alum is their astringent effect, which gives it its
name ^ in Greek. This makes them extremely
suitable for eye troubles, and effective in arresting
haemorrhage. Mixed with lard it checks the spread
of putrid ulcers — so applied it also dries ulcers in
infants and eruptions in cases of dropsy — and, mixed
with pomegranate juice, it checks ear troubles and
malformations of the nails and hardening of scars,
and flesh growing over the nails, and chilblains.
Calcined with vinegar or gallnuts to an equal weight
it heals gangrenous ulcers, and, if mixed with cabbage
juice, pruritus, or if with twice the quantity of salt,
serpiginous eruptions, and if thoroughly mixed with
water, it kills eggs of lice and other insects that
infest the hair. Used in the same way it is also
good for burns, and mixed with watery fluid from
vegetable pitch for scurf on the body. It is also
used as an injection for dysentery, and taken in the
mouth it reduces sweUings of the uvula and tonsils.
It must be understood that for all the purposes
which we have mentioned in the case of the other

401
VOL. IX. O

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

generibus diximus, efRcacius intellegatur ex Melo
advectum. Ad ^ reliquos usus vitae in coriis lanisque
perficiendis quanti sit momenti, significatum est.

191 LIII. Ab his per se ad medicinam pertinentia
terrae genera tractabimus. Samiae ii sunt, quae
collyrium et quae aster appellantur. prioris laus
ut recens sit ac lenissima ^ linguaeque glutinosa,
altera glaebosior ^ ; candida utraque. uritur, lavatur.
sunt qui praeferant priorem. prosunt sanguinem
expuentibus ; emplastrisque, quae siccandi causa
componuntur, oculorum quoque medicamentis
miscentur.

192 LIV. Eretria totidem differentias habet, namque
est alba et cinerea, quae praefertur in medicina.
probatur mollitia et quod, si aere perducatur,
violacium reddit colorem. vis et ratio eius in
medendo dicta est inter pigmenta.

193 LV. Lavatur omnis terra — in hoc enim loco dicemus
— perfusa aqua siccataque solibus, iterum ex aqua
trita ac reposita, donec considat et digeri possit in
pastillos. coquitur in calicibus crebro concussis.

194 LVI. Est in medicaminibus et Chia terra candicans.
effectus eius idem ^ qui Samiae ; usus ad mulierum
maxime cutem. idem et Selinusiae. lactei coloris

^ advectum. Ad K, C. Bailey : advectum nam ad cdd.
pro nam coni. iam Bailey.

2 lenissima cdd. (lenis cd. Par. 6801) : levissima Detlefsen,
Urlichs : levis Hermolaus Barbarus.

^ glaebosior Sillig : glebosior aut globosior.

* eius idem Mayhoff : eiusdem.

* Kaolinite or china-clay, which is sometimes found in
fan-shaped (star-like) arrangements of plates, but generally
in white, greyish, or yellowish masses (K. C. Bailey). The
latter would be those used for eye-salves.

402

BOOK XXXV. Lii. 190-LVT. 194

kinds the alum imported trom Melos is more
efficacious. It has been indicated how important § 183.
it is for the other requirements of life in giving a
finish to hides and woollens.

LIII. Next to these we will deal with the various usesoi
kinds of earth which are connected with medicine. g^^^l^"
There are two sorts of Samos earth," called coUyrium, ^^^^^^
' eve-salve,' and star-earth. The recommendation
of the former is that it must be fresh and very soft
and sticky to the tongue ; the second is more lumpy ;
both are white in colour. The process is to calcine
them and then to wash them. Some people prefer
the former kind. They are beneficial for people
spitting blood, and for plasters made up for drying
purposes, and they are also used as an ingredient in
medicines for the eyes.

LIV. Earth of Eretria ^ has the same number of Eretrian.
varieties, as one is white and one ash-coloured, the
latter preferred in medicine. It is tested by its
softness and by its leaving a violet tint if rubbed on
copper. Its efficacy and the method of using it as a
medicine have been spoken of among the pigments. § 38.

LV. All these earths — we will mention it in this
place — are washed by having water poured over
them and dried in the sun, and then after being put
in water again ground up and left to stand, till they
settle down and can be divided into tablets. They
are boiled in cups that are repeatedly well shaken.

LVI. White earth ^ of Chios is also among chian ana
medicaments ; its effect is the same as that of Samos ^*
earth. It is specially used as a cosmetic for the skin
of women, and Selinunte earth is used in the same
way. The latter is of the colour of milk, and it

" Cf. §§ 30, 38. ^ Some kind of china-day.

403

PLINY : NATURAL HLSTORY

haec et aqua dilui celerrima ^ ; eadem lacte diluta
tectoriorum albaria interpolantur. pnigitis ^ Kre-
triae simillima est, grandioribus tantum glaebis
glutinosaque. effectus eius idem qui Cimoliae,
infirmior tantum. bitumini simillima est ampelitis.*^
experimentum eius, si cerae modo accepto oleo
liquescat et si nigricans colos maneat tostae. usus
ad molliendum discutiendumque, et ad haec medica-
mentis additur, praecipue in calHblepharis et
inficiendis capillis.

195 LVIL Cretae plura genera. ex iis Cimoliae duo
ad medicos pertinentia, candidum et ad purpurissum
inclinans. vis utrique ad discutiendos tumores,
sistendas fluctiones aceto adsumpto. panos quoque
et parotidas cohibet et lienem inlita pusulasque, si
vero aphronitrum et cyprum ^ adiciatur et acetum,
pedum tumores ita, ut in sole curatio haec fiat et

196 post VI horas aqua salsa abluatur. testium tu-
moribus cypro et cera addita prodest. et refri-
gerandi quoque natura cretae est, sudoresque
immodicos sistit inlita atque ita papulas cohibet
ex vino adsumpta in bahneis. laudatur maxime
ThessaHca. nascitur et in Lycia circa Bubonem,
Est et alius Cimoliae usus in vestibus. nam Sarda

^ celerrima edd. vett. : ceterrima aut ceterum (teterrima
cd. Par. Lat. 6797).

2 pnigitis Herviolans Barharus : phinicis aut pnitis aut sim.

^ ampelitis Herviolaus Barharus : appellitis.

■* cyprium cd. Par. 6801 : cyprus Brotier : nitrum Gelen.

« The word means any fullers' earths, here particularly
calcium montmorillonite from the island Argentiera or Ciiflolo
in the Aegean,

* d<f>p6vLTpov, more properly d^pos virpov, ' foam of soda ' ;
probably pure soda or possibly partly causticised soda, whereas
ordinary nitrum was carbonate of soda.

" Obtained from the flowers of Lawsonia alba.
404

BOOK XXX\ . Lvi. 194-LV11. 19

dissolves very quickly in vvater, and likevvise dissolved
in milk it is used for touching up the whitewash on
plastered walls. Pnigitis, or ' suifocating ' earth
closely resembles that of Eretria, only it is in larger
lumps and is sticky. It produces the same effect
as Cimolian earth, although it is less powerful.
Ampehtis or ' vine ' earth is very like bitumen.
The test for it is whether it dissolves when oil is put
in it, like wax, and whether when roasted it retains
a blackish colour. It is used for an emollient and
dissipant, and is added to drugs for these purposes,
especially in the case of eye-lash beautifiers and for
hairdyes.

LVil. There are several sorts of white earth.
Among them there are two sorts of Cimolian earth"
that concern doctors, one bright white and one
incHning to purple. Either is effective for dispelling
tumours, and, with vinegar added, for stopping
fluxes. They also check swellings and inflammation
of the parotid glands, and applied as a Hniment,
troubles of the spleen and pimples ; while if foam-
soda ^ and oil of cypros '^ and vinegar are added,
they cure swollen feet, provided the treatment is
applied in the sun, and the uppHcation is washed oif
again with salt water six hours later. A mixture
of this earth with oil of cypros and wax is good for
swellings of the testicles. Cretaceous earth also
possesses cooHng properties, and appHed in a Hni-
ment it stops immoderate sweating, and Hkewise
taken in wine while in a bath it removes pimples.
The kind from Thessaly is most esteemed, but it is
also found in the neighbourhood of Bubo in Lycia.
Another use also made of Cimolus earth is in regard
to cloth. The kind called Sarda. which is brought

405

Asphaltit
deposit.

Cimolian
earths.

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

quae adfertur e Sardinia, candidis tantum adsumitur,
inutilis versicoloribus, et ^ est vilissima omnium
Cimoliae generum ; pretiosior Umbrica et quam

197 vocant saxum. proprietas saxi quod crescit in
macerando ; itaque - pondere emitur, illa mensura.
Umbrica non nisi poliendis vestibus adsumitur.
neque enim pigebit hanc quoque partem adtingere,
cum lex Metilia extet fullonibus dicta, quam C.
Flaminius L. Aemilius censores dedere ad populum

198 ferendam. adeo omnia maioribus curae fuere.
ergo ordo hic est : primum abkiitur vestis Sarda,
dein sulpure suffitur, mox desquamatur Cimolia
quae est coloris veri. fucatus enim deprehenditur
nigrescitque et funditur sulpure, veros autem et
pretiosos colores emollit Cimolia et quodam nitore
exhilarat contristatos sulpure. candidis vestibus
saxum utilius a sulpure, inimicum coloribus. Graecia
pro Cimolia Tymphaico ^ utitur gypso.

199 LVm. Alia creta argentaria appellatur nitorem
argento reddens, set vilissima qua circum praeducere
ad victoriae notam pedesque venalium trans maria
advectorum denotare instituerunt maiores ; talemque

^ ea coni. Mayhoff. ?itaque Mayhoff : atque.

' Tymphaico Hermolaus Barbarus coll. Theophr. : tympaigo
B : tympauco rell.

" Sarda would be strong calcium montmorillonite ; Umbrian
earth, some kaolinite; and saxiim, bentonite. Cf. R. H. S.
Robertson, Class. Rev., LXIII, 51-3. K. C. Bailey thinks
saxum is quicklime. * Cf. § 4t.

406

BOOK XXXV. Lvn. i^^-lviii. 199

from Sardinia, is only used for white fabrics, and is of
no use for cloths of various colours ; it is the cheap-
est of all the Cimolus kinds ; more valuable are
the Umbrian and the one called ' rock.' ° The
peculiarity of the latter is that it increases in size
when it is steeped in Hquid ; consequently it is sold
by weight, whereas Umbrian is sold by measure.
Umbrian earth is only employed for giving lustre to
cloths. It will not be out of place to touch on
this part of the subject also, as a Metilian law refer-
ring to fullers still stands. the law which Gaius
Flaminius and Lucius Aemilius as censors put forward 220 b.c.
to be carried in parliament : so careful about every-
thing were our ancestors. The process then is this :
the cloth is first washed with earth of Sardinia, and
then it is fumigated with sulphur, and afterwards
scoured with Cimolian earth provided that the
dye is fast ; if it is coloured with bad dye it is
detected and turns black and its colour is spread by
the action of the sulphur; whereas genuine and
valuable colours are softened and brightened up
with a sort of brilliancc by Cimolian earth when
they have been made sombre by the sulphur, The
' rock ' kind is more serviceable for white garments,
after the application of sulphur, but it is very detri-
mental to colour. In Greece they use Tymphaea
gypsum instead of Cimolian earth.

LVIII. There is another cretaceous earth ^ called sihersmiths'
silversmiths' powder as used for polishing silver ; ^"'"'^'
but the most inferior kind is the one which our
ancestors made it the practice to use for tracing
the hne indicating victory in circus-races and for
marking the feet of slaves on sale that had been
imported from over-seas ; instances of these being

407

PLINY: NATURAL HISTORY

Publilium Antiochium,^ mimicae scaenae condi-
torem, et astrologiae consobrinum eius Manilium
Antiochum, item grammaticae Staberium Erotem

200 eadem nave advectos videre proavi. sed quid hos
referat aliquis, litterarum honore commendatos ?
talem in catasta videre Chrysogonum Sullae, Am-
phionem Q. Catuli, Hectorem ^ L. Luculli, Deme-
trium Pompei, Augenque Demetri, quamquam et
ipsa Pompei credita est, Hipparchum M. Antoni,
Menam et Menecraten Sexti Pompei aliosque
deinceps, quos enumerare iam non est, sanguine

201 Quiritium et proscriptionum licentia ditatos. hoc
est insigne venaliciis gregibus obprobriumque inso-
lentis fortunae. quos et nos adeo potiri rerum
vidimus, ut praetoria quoque ornamenta decerni a
senatu iubente Agrippina Claudi Caesaris videremus
tantumque non cum laureatis fascibus remitti illo,
unde cretatis pedibus advenissent.

^ Antiochium 0. Jahn : luciUum cd. Par. 6801 : lochium
rell.

^ Hectorem Urlichs, Detlefsen : interfectorem cd. Par.
Lat. 6797, cd. Tolet. : rectorem rell. : interfectorem, Heronem
edd. vett. : Heronem ed. Basil.

** This would be PubHlius Syrus, fl. c. 45 b.c.

^ Probably father or grandfather of Manilius who wrote the
extant Astrononiica.

« Teacher of Brutus and Cassius.

^ From the period 80-30 b.c.

' Demetrius of Gadara whose native city, destroyed by the
Jews, was rebuilt by Pompey at Demetrius' request.

408

BOOK XXXV. Lviii. 199-20T

Publilius of Antioch" the founder of our mimic
stage and his cousin Manilius * Antiochus the
originator of our astronomy, and Hkewise Staberius
Eros '^ our first grammarian, all of whom our ancestors
saw brought over in the same ship. But why need
anybody mention these men, recommended to
notice as they are by their literary honours ? Other
instances ^ that have been seen on the stand in the
slave market are Chrysogonus freedman of Sulla.
Amphion freedman of Quintus Catulus, Hector
freedman of Lucius Lucullus, Demetrius " freedman
of Pompey, and Auge freedwoman of Demetrius,
although she herself also was beheved to have
belonged to Pompey ; Hipparchus freedman of
Mark Antony, Menas ' and Menecrates freedmen
of Sextus Pompeius, and a list of others whom this
is not the occasion to enumerate, who ^ have enriched
themselves by the bloodshed of Roman citizens and
by the licence of the proscriptions.^ Such is the
mark set on these herds of slaves for sale, and the
disgrace attached to us by capricious fortune I —
persons whom even we have seen risen to such power
that we actually beheld the honour of the praetor-
ship awarded to them by decree of the Senate at the
bidding of Claudius Caesar's wife Agrippina,^ and all
but sent back ^dth the rods of office wreathed in
laurels to the places from which they came to Rome
with their feet whitened with white earth ! ^

^Admiral of Sextus Pompeius c. 40 b.c. He deserted
twice to Octavian. Hipparchus likewise deserted to Octavian.
Menecrates killed himself after ill success under Menas against
Octavian'8 fleet, 38 b.c.

" Especially Chrysogonus and perhaps Hipparchus.

* By Sulla in 82 and by Antony, Octavian, Lepidus in 43 b.c.

^ She married Claudius iu a.d, 49. ^ See § 199.

409

PLINY : NATURAL HISTORY

202 LIX. Praeterea sunt genera terrae proprietatis
suae, de quibus iam diximus, sed et hoc loco
reddenda natura : ex Galata insula et circa Clupeam
Africae scorpiones necat, Baliaris et Ebusitana
serpentes.

NOTE ON THE PaINTERS NaMED ArISTIDES.

It would appear that an elder Aristides (XXXV. 75, 108,
111, and 122?— the statuary of XXXIV. 50 and 72 may be
the same) had as pupils his sons Nicoraachus (XXXV. 108,
109), Niceros (111) and Ariston (110, 111), and two others (not
sons), namely Euphranor (111, 128) and Antorides (111).

4IQ

BOOK XXXV. Lix. 202

LIX. Moreover there are other kinds of earth
with a special property of their own about which
we have spoken already, but the nature of whichni,?»
must again be stated here : soil taken from the '
island of Galata and in the neighbourhood of Clupea
in Africa kills scorpions, and that of the Balearic
Islands and Iviza is fatal to snakes.

Note however that the reading Aristidis in XXXV. 108 is
uncertain and that Nicomachus is not mentioned in 111.
Nicomachus had a son and pupil the younger Aristides (A. of
Thebes 98-100, 110) who was thus grandson of A. the elder.
The younger is named also in XXXV. 24, and VII. 126.
Pliny shows some confusion of the two.

4T1

INDEX OF ARTISTS

Acragas, XXXIII 155

Aeginetas, XXXV 145

Aetion, XXXV 50, 78

Aetion, XXXIV 50

Aglaophon, XXXV 60

Alcamenes, XXXIV 49, 72; cf.

XXXVI 16, 17
Akimachus, XXXV 139
Alcon, XXXIV 141
Aleuas, XXXIV 86
Alexis, XXXIV 50
Amphicrates, XXXIV 72
Anaxander, XXXV 146
Androbius, XXXV 139
Androbulus, XXXIV 86
Androcydes, XXXV 64
Antaeus, XXXIV 52
(Antenorides ?, XXXV 111 n.)
(Antheus?, XXXIV 52 n.)
Antidotus, XXXV 130
Antignotus, XXXIV 86
Antimachus, XXXIV 86
Antipater, XXXIII 156
Antiphilus, XXXV 114, 138
(Antistius, XXXV 20 n.)
Antogonus, XXXIV 84
Antorides, XXXV 111.
Apellas, XXXIV 86
Apelles, XXXV 50, 75, 76, 79-97, 107,

111, 118, 123, 140, 145; cf. VII 125
Apollodorus, XXXIV 86
Apollodorus, XXXV 60, 61
Arcesilas, XXXV 146
Arcesilaus, XXXV 155, 156; cf.

XXXVI 33, 41
(Archesilaus ?, XXXV 122 n.)
Arellius, XXXV 119
Argeius, XXXIV 50
Aridices, XXXV 16
Aristarete, XXXV 147
(Aristiaeus?, XXXV 108 n.)
Aristides, XXXIV 50, 72; XXXV

75, 108, 111, 122, and pp. 410-411
Aristides, XXXV 24, 98-100, 110, and

pp. 410-411

Aristobulus, XXXV 146
(Aristocles?, XXXV 110 n.)
Aristoclides, XXXV 138
Aristocvdes, XXXV 146
Aristodemus, XXXIV 86
Aristolaus, XXXV 137
Ariston, XXXIII 156 ; XXXIV 85
Ariston, XXXV 110, 111
Aristonidas, XXXIV 140; XXXV

146
Aristophon, XXXV 138
Artemon, XXXV 139
Asclepiodorus, XXXV 80, 107
Asclepiodorus, XXXIV 86
Asopodorus, XXXIV 50
(Aterius, XXXV 20 n.)
Athenion, XXXV 134
Athenodorus, XXXIV 86; cf.

XXXVI 37
Athenodorus, XXXIV 50
Attius Priscus, XXXV 120
Autobulus, XXXV 148

Baton, XXXIV 73, 91

Boedas, XXXIV 66, 73

Boethus, XXXm 155; XXXIV 84

Bryaxis, XXXIV 42, 73 ; cf. XXXVI

22, 30, 31
Brvetes, XXXV 123
Bularchus, XXXV 55; cf. VII 126
Butades, XXXV 151, 152

(Caecosthenes ?Caicosthenes ?,XXXIV

87 n.; XXXV 155 n.)
Calamis, XXXIH 156; XXXIV 47,

71 ; cf. XXXVI 36
Calates. XXXV 114
(Calliades?, XXXIV 85 n.)
Callicles, XXXV 114
Callicles, XXXIV 87
Callides, XXXIV 85
Callimachus, XXXIV 92
CaUistratus, XXXIV 52
CaUixenus, XXXIV 52
CaUon, XXXIV 49

INDEX OF ARTISTS

Calypso, XXXV 147 n.

Canachus, XXXIV 50, 75; cf.

XXXVI 41
Cantharus, XXXIV 85
Cenchramis (Cenchramus?), XXXIV

87
C^phisodorus, XXXV 60
Cephisodorus XXXIV 74; 51 n.
Cephisodotus, XXXIV 50, 87 ; 74 n.
Cephisodotus, XXXIV 51, 87; cf.

XXXVI 24
Cepis, XXXIV 87
Chaereas, XXXIV 75
Chalcosthenes (Caicosthenes ?),

XXXIV 87; XXXV 155
Chares, XXXIV 41, 44
Charmadas, XXXV 56
Charmantides, XXXV 146
Cimon, XXXV 56
Cleanthes, XXXV 16
Cleon, XXXV 140
Cleon, XXXIV 87
Coenus, XXXV 139
Colotes, XXXIV 87; XXXV 55
Cornelius Pinus, XXXV 120
Coroebus, XXXV 146
(Corybas?, XXXV 146 n.)
Cratinus, XXXV 140, 147
Cresilas, XXXIV 53, 74
Critias (Critius ?), XXXIV 49, 85, and

pp. 256-257
Ctesias, XXXIV 85
Ctesicles, XXXV 140
Ctesidemus, XXXV 114, 140
Ctesilaus, XXXIV 76; 53 n., 74 n.
Ctesilochus, XXXV 150
Cydias, XXXV 130
Cydon, XXXIV 53

Daedalus, XXXIV 76
Daemon, XXXIV 87
Daiphron, XXXIV 87
Daippus, XXXIV 87; 51 n., 66 n.
Damocritus, XXXIV 87
Damophilus, XXXV 154
Deliades, XXXIV 85
Demeas, XXXIV 50
Demetrius, XXXIV 76
Demophilus, XXXV 61
Dicaeogenes, XXXV 146
Dinias, XXXV 56
Dinomenes, XXXIV 50, 76
Dinon, XXXIV 50

Diodorus?, XXXIII 156; XXXIV
85?

414

Dionysius, XXXV 113, 125, 148
Dionysius, XXXIV 85
(Dionvsodorus ?, XXXIV 85 n.)
Dionysodonis, XXXV 146
Diopus, XXXV 152
Dorotheus, XXXV 91

Ecphantus, XXXV 16

Elasippus, XXXV 122

(Epatodorus ?, XXXIV 50 n.)

Epigonus, XXXIV 88

Erigonus, XXXV 145

Erillus, XXXV 60

Eubulides, XXXIV 88

Eubulus, XXXIV 88

Euchir, XXXIV 91

Euchir, XXXV 152

(Eucles?, XXXIV 51 n.)

(Euclides?, XXXV 140 n.)

Eudorus, XXXV 141

Euenor, XXXV 60

Eugrammus, XXXV 152

Eumarus, XXXV 56

Eunicus, XXXIII 156; XXXIV 85

Euphorion, XXXIV 85

Euphranor, XXXIV 50, 77; XXXV

111, 128-130, 146
Euphron, XXXIV 51
Eupompus, XXXIV 61; XXXV 64,

75
Euthycrates, XXXIV 51, 66, 83
Euthymides, XXXV 146
Eutychides, XXXIV 51, 78; XXXV

141 ; cf. XXXVI 34
Euxinidas, XXXV 75

Fabius Pictor, XXXV 19
(Fabullus?, XXXV 120 n.)
Famulus, XXXV 120

Glaucides, XXXIV 91
Glaucion, XXXV 134
Gorgasus, XXXV 154
Gorgias, XXXIV 49

Habron, XXXV 141, 146

Hagelades (Hagelaidas), XXXIV 49,

55, 57
Hecataeus, XXXIII 156 ; XXXIV 85
Hedys?, XXXIII 156
(Hedystratides ?, XXXIII 156 n.)
Hegesias, XXXIV 78
Hegias, XXXIV 49, 78
Heliodorus, XXXIV 91; cf. XXXVl

35

INDEX OF ARTISTS

Heraclides, XXXV 135, 146
(Herillus?, XXXIV 60 n.)
(Herophon?, XXXIV 91 n.)
Hicanus, XXXIV 91
(Hippias?, XXXV 141 n.)
Hippys, XXXV 141
Hygiaenon, XXXV 56
Hypatodorus, XXXIV 50

laia, XXXV 147, 148
lon, XXXIV 51
lophon, XXXIV 91
(Iphis?, XXXV 141 n.)
Irene, XXXV 147
(Isidorus?, XXXIV 78 n.)
Isidotus, XXXIV 78
Isogonus, XXXIV 84

(Laia?, XXXV 147 n.)

Laippus, XXXIV 51, 66

Leochares, XXXIV 50, 79; cf.

XXXVI .30, 31
Leon, XXXV 141
Leon, XXXIV 91
Leontiscus, XXXV 141
(Leophon?, XXXIV 91 n.)
Lesbocles, XXXIV 85
(Ludius?, XXXIV IIC n.)
(Lyciscus?, XXXIV 79 n.)
Lycius, XXXIV 50, 79
(Lvco?, XXXV 115 n.)
Lysippus, XXXIV 37, 40, 41, 51, 61-

67, 80; XXXV 153; cf. VII 125
(Lvsippus?, XXXV 122 n.)
Lvsistratus, XXXIV 51 ; XXXV 153
Lyson, XXXIV 91

(Maia?, XXXV 147 n.)

Melanthius, XXXV 50, 76, 80

Menaechmus, XXXIV 80

Menodorus, XXXIV 91

Menogeues, XXXIV 88

Mentor, XXXIII 154; cf. VII 127

Metrodorus, XXXV 135

Micon, XXXIV 88 ; XXXV 42, 59

Milon, XXXV 146

Mnasilaus (Mnesilaus?), XXXV 122

Mnasitheus(Mnesitheus?), XXXV 146

Mnositimus, XXXV 146

Mvagrus, XXXIV 91

Myron, XXXIV 10, 49, 50, 57 59,

68, 79 ; cf. XXXVI 32
Mys, XXXIII 155

Naucerus, XXXIV 80

(Nauclerus ?, XXXIV 80 n.)

Naucydes, XXXIV 50, 80

Nealces, XXXV 104, 142, 145, 146

Nearchus, XXXV 141, 147

Neocles, XXXV 146

Neseus, XXXV 61

Nesiotes, XXXIV 49, and pp. 256-257

Nessus, XXXV 146

Nicanor, XXXV 122

Niceratus, XXXIV 80, 88

Niceros, XXXV 111

Nicias, XXXV 133

Nicias, XXXV 27, 130-134

Nicomachus, XXXV 50, 108-109, 145,

146
Nicophanes, XXXV 111, 137
Nicosthenes, XXXV 146

Oenias, XXXV 143
Olympias, XXXV 148

(Pacuius?), Pacuvius, XXXV 19
Pamphilus, XXXV 75-77, 122
Panaenus, XXXV 54-58, 177; cf.

XXXVI 177
Parrhasius, XXXV 60, 64, 65, 67-72,

129
Pasias, XXXV 145
Pasiteles, XXXIII 156 ; XXXV 156 ;

cf. XXXVI 35, 39, 40
Patrocles, XXXIV 50, 91
Patroclus, XXXIV 50
Pausias, XXXV 123-127, 128, 137;

cf. XXI 4
Pedius (Quintus), XXXV 21
PereUus, XXXIV 49
Periclvmenus, XXXIV 91
(Perileus ?, XXXIV 49 n.)
Perillus, XXXIV 89
Perseus, XXXV 111
Phalerion, XXXV 143
Phanis, XXXIV 80
Phidias, XXXIV 49, 53, 54, 56, 72, 87 ;

XXXV 54, 55, 57; cf. XXXVI

15-19
Philiscus, XXXV 143
Philochares, XXXV 28
Philocles, XXXV 16
(Philomachus ?, XXXV 146 n.)
Philon, XXXIV 91
Philoxenus, XXXV 110
Phradmon, XXXIV 49, 53
(PhrvUus?, XXXIV 60 n.)
Phrynon, XXXI V 50
(Phyromachus ?, XXXIV 51 n.)

INDEX OF ARTISTS

Piraeicus, XXXV 112

Piston, XXXIV 89

Plautius, :Marous Lvcon, XXXV 115

Polemon, XXXV 146

Pollis. XXXIV 91

Polyoles, XXXJV 50

PolVcles, XXXIV 52, 80; cf.

XXXVI 35
Polyclitus, XXXIV 64
Polvclitus, XXXIV 10, 49, 50, 53,

55, 56, 58, 68, 72
Polycrates, XXXIV 91
PolVdorus, XXXIV 85; XXXV 58,

59, 122, 123; cf. VII 205; XXXIV

91 n.
Polvgnotus, XXXIV 85; XXXV 42,

58, 59, 122, 123
Polyidus, XXXIV 91
Posidonius, XXXIII 156; XXXIV

91
Possis, XXXV 155
Praxiteles, XXXIV 50, 69-71;

XXXV 122, 123; cf. XXXVI 20-

23, 24, 28, 34
(Prodicus ?, XXXIV 44)
Prodorus, XXXIV 85
Protogenes, XXXIV 91; XXXV 80,

81-83, 88, 101-106, 118; cf. VII

126.
Pyromachus, XXXIV 51, 80, 84;

XXXV 146
Pvrrhus, XXXTV 80
PVthagoras, XXXIV 49, 59, 60, 68
Pytheas, XXXIII 156
Pythias, XXXIV 52
Pythocles, XXXIV 52
Pythocritus, XXXIV 91
Pythodicus, XXXIV 85; 44 n.

Khoecus, XXXV 152 ; cf. XXXVI 90

Scopas, XXXIV 49, 90; cf. XXXVI

22, 25, 26, 28, 30, 31, 95
Scymnus, XXXIV 85
Serapion, XXXV 113
Silanion, XXXIV 51, 81, 82
Simon, XXXIV 90
Simonides, XXXV 143
Simus, XXXV 143

Socrates, XXXV 137 ; cf. XXXVI 32
Sofocles, Sophocles, XXXIV 51
Sopolis, XXXV 148
Sostratus, XXXIV 51, 60
Stadius, XXXV 146
Sthennis, XXXIV 51, 90

Stratonicus, XXXIII 156; X.XXIV

84, 85, 90
Strongylion, XXXIV 82
(Studius?, XXXV 116 n.)
Styppax, XXXIV 81
Symenus, XXXIV 91

(Tadius?, XXXV 146 n.)

Tadius, XXXV 116

Tauriscus, XXXIII 156; XXXV 144;

cf. XXXVI 33, 34
Telephunes, XXXV 16
Telephanes, XXXIV 68
(Telesarchides ?, XXXIII 156 n.)
Teucer, XXXIII 157
Theodorus, XXXIV 83; XXXV 146,

152
(Theodorus?, XXXV 144 n.)
Theomnestus, XXXV 107
Theomnestus, XXXIV 91
Theon, XXXV 144
Theorus, XXXV 144
Therimachus, XXXIV 50 ; XXXV 78
Thracides, XXXIII 156
Thrason, XXXIV 91
Timagoras, XXXV 58
Timanthes, XXXV 64, 72-74
Timarchides, XXXIV 91 ; cf. XXXVI

35
Timarchus, XXXIV 51
Timarete, XXXV 59, 147
Timocles, XXXIV 51
Timomachus, XXXV 136, 145; cf.

VII 126
Timon, XXXIV 91
Timotheus, XXXIV 91 ; cf. XXXVI

30-32
Tisias, XXXIV 91
Tisicrates, XXXIV 67, 83, 89;

XXXV 146
(Tisicrates ?, XXXIV 72 n.)
Titedius (Titidius?) Labeo, XXXV 20
TurpiUus, XXXV 20

(Ummidius?, XXXV 120 n.)

Vulca (Volcania?), XXXV 157

Xenocrates, XXXIV 83
Xenon, XXXV 146

Zenodorus, XXXIV 45-47
Zeuxiades, XXXIV 51
Zeuxis, XXXV 61-66, 111
Zopyrus, XXXIII 156

4i6

MUSEOGRAPHIC INDEX

Agragentum, XXXV 62, 64

Alexandria, XXXV 89, 93

Ambracia, XXXV 66

Antium, XXXV 52

Ardea, XXXV 17, 115

Athens, XXXIV 17, 27, 36, 54, 64,
72; XXXV 54, 101, 125, 129, 130,
132, 134, 140, 155: cf. XXXVI
16, 17, 32

Caere, XXXV 18

Corinth, XXXV 51

Cyprus, XXXrV 92; cf. XXXVI 20

Cyzicus, XXXV 26

Delphi, XXXrV 36, 59,

XXXV 59, 138
Didvma, XXXIV 75

64, 66:

Eleusis, XXXV 134, 147
Elis, XXXV 54

Ephesus, XXXIII 154; XXXIV, 53,
58 ; XXXV 92, 129, 132, 140, 147
Etruria, XXXIV 34

Gaul, XXXIV 45, 47

Lanuvium, XXXV 17
Lebadea, XXXIV 66
Lindos, XXXIII 155; XXXV 71
Lysimachea, XXXLV 56

Naples, XXXV 147

Olympia, XXXIV 16, 36, 49,59

Parium, XXXIV 78
Piraeus, XXXIV 74
Pella, XXXV 98
Pergamum, XXXV 60
Praeneste, XXXTV 83

Ilhodes, XXXIIl, 155; XXXIV 36,

41, 42, 03, 140, 141; XXXV

69, 93, 106
Rome, XXXIV 15, 17, 18, 20, 22, 23.

25, 28, 29, 32, 33, 36, 45, 48, 56,

64; XXXV 23, 127, 155, 157
Baths of Aorippa, XXXIV 62;

XXXV 26
CampusMartius, XXXIV 40
Vapitol, XXXIV 22, 29, 39, 40, 43,
44,77; XXXV 22

Temples on, ofFaith, Juno, Jupiter
Capitolinus, Jupiter the Thun-
derer, Minerra, see Temples
Cattle Market, XXXIV 10, 33
Comitium, XXXIV 21, 26
Curia Hostilia, XXXIV 21, 22, 29;

XXXV 2
Curia lulia, XXXV 27, 28, 131
Fonim, XXXIV 24, 30; XXXV 23,

25
Forum of Augustus, XXXV 27,

93
Forum of Caesar, XXXIV 18
Galleries of Octavia, XXXPV 31;

XXXV 114, 139; cf. XXXVI 15,

22,28
Gardens of Maius, XXXV 51
Golden Eouse of Nero, XXXLV 84;

XXXV 120
Old shops, XXXV 113
Palatine, House of the Cacsars,

XXXV 83
Pantheon, XXXIV 13
Portico of Metellus, XXXIV 31;

cf. XXXVI 39.
Poriico of Octavius, XXXIV 13
Porticoes of Philip, XXXV 66, 114,

144
Porticoes of Pompeius, XXXV 59,

114, 126, 132
Regia, XXXFV 48
Rostra, XXXIV 22, 23, 24, 29, 93
Tarquin, House of, XXXIV 29
Trigemina porta, XXXIV 21

417

MUSEOGRAPHIC INDEX

Rome:
Temples
Apollo in Circus of Flaminius,

XXXV 99: cf. XXXVI 28,

34
Apollo of the Palatine, XXXIV

14; cL XXXVI 23, 24, 25,

32
Augustus, XXXV 28, 131

in Library of, XXXIV 43
Castor and Pollux, XXXIV 23
Ceres, XXXV 24, 99, 154
Concord, XXXIV 73, 77, 80, 89,

90; XXXV 66, 131, 144
Diana, in Circus of Flaminius,

XXXV 94
Felicitas, XXXIV 69
Fides, on Capitol, XXXV 100
Portuna huiusce diei, XXXIV 54,

60
Uercules, in Caltle Market, XXXV

19
Hercules Mvsarum, XXXV 66
llonour and Virtue (twin Tem-

ples), XXXV 120
Janus, XXXIV 33
Julius Caesar, XXXV 27, 91
Juno, on Capitol, XXXIV 38
Jupiter of the Capitol, XXXIII

154; XXXV 69, 108, 157

Rome :
Temples — contd.

Jupiter the Thunderer on Capitol,

XXXIV 10, 78, 79
Mars the Avenger, XXXIV 48
Minerva on Capitol, XXXV 108
Muses, XXXIV 19
Pax, XXXIV, 84 ; XXXV 74, 102,

109
Salus, in Quirinali, XXXV 19
Tellus, XXXIV 30
Venus Genetrix, XXXV 26, 138.
156
Tiberius, apartments of, XXXV 70
Titus, House of, XXXIV 55: cf.
XXXVT 37

Samos, XXXV 72, 93

Slcyon, XXXV 109, 127; cf. XXXVI

10
Syracuse, XXXIV 59

Tarentum, XXXIV 40
Thebes, XXXIV 59, 67
Thespiae, XXXIV 66; XXXV 11>.X
Thessalv, XXXIV 68
Tusculum, XXXV 52, 13('

Verona, XXXV 20
Volsinii, XXXIV 34

di8

INDEX OF MINERALS

aerugo, XXXIIl G2, a3 ; XXXIV
110-116, 160

aes, XXXIII 1, 00, 64, 65, 82, 94,
98,100,125,126,130-132; XXXIV
1-10, 94-100, 105, 106, 109, 110, 117,
128, 131, 134-137, 140, 149, 155, ICO,

162, 163, 172 ; XXXV 182, 186, 192
alabastram, XXXIII 101

alumen, XXXIII 65, 88, 94, 98;

XXXIV 106, 116, 149: XXXV
183-190

alutiae, XXXIV 157

ampelitis, XXXV 194

antispodos, XXXIV 133

anularia creta, XXXV 46; cp. 48

aphronitram, XXXV 195

Appianum, XXXV 48-49

argentaria creta, XXXV 44, 199

argenturium plumbum, XXXIV 95,
97, 98

argentum, XXXIII 1, 4, 16, 37, 49,
51, 52, 53, 55, 56, 58, 60, 80, 81, 86,
93-98, 101, 105, 111, 121, 125-128,
130-132, 139-148, 151-153, 157-
158; XXXIV 5, 100, 132, 137,
158-163, 173, 177; XXXV 199

argentum vivum, XXXIII 64, 05, 99,
"100, 119, 123

argyritis, XXXIII 106, 108

(Armeniacum), XXXV 47

Armonium, XXXV 30

Armenius lapis, XXXV 47

arrbenicum, XXXIV 178

arranientum, XXXIII 90, 91;

XXXV 30, 41-43, 50
atramentum sutorium, XXXIV 112,

114, 123-127
aurichalcum, XXXIV 2, 4
auripigmentum, XXXIII 79 ; XXXV

30, 49
auram, XXXIII 1, 4-6, 9, 12-16, 21,

37-39, 42, 47, 48-86, 93, 94, 98,

99, 121, 122, 126, 130, 140, 144, 158;

XXXIV 5, 116, 121, 132, 137, 157,

163, 173, 177; XXXV 36

bitumen, XXXV 178-182, 194

cadmea, XXXIII 94; XXXIV 2, 4,
100, 101-106, 113, 117, 119, 128,
130, 169
caeruleum, XXXIII 91, 158, 161-
163; XXXV 45-47, 49; see also
Indicum
calx, XXXIII 94, 121, 159, 162;

XXXV 182
candidum aes, XXXIV 109, 110, 160
capnitis, XXXIV 101
carbo, XXXIII 94 ; XXXIV 96
cas3it«rum, XXXIV 156, 158
cerussa, XXXIII 102 ; XXXIV 104,
150, 168, 170, 175, 176; XXXV 30,
37-39, 49
chalcanthum, XXXIV 114, 123-127
chalcitis, XXXIV 2, 117-121 ; XXXV

186
Chia terra, XXXV 194
chrysocolla, XXXIII 4, 86-93, 161;

XXXV 30, 47, 48
Cimolia creta, XXXIV 155; XXXV

36, 194-196, 198
cinnabaris, XXXIII 115-117; XXXV

30
coticula, XXXIII 126; XXXIV 105
creta, anularia, XXXV 46 ; cp. 48
argentaria, XXXV 44, 199
Cimolia, XXXI\M55; XXXV

36, 194-190, 198
Eretria, XXXIII 163; XXXV

37
Sarda, XXXV 196, 198
Selinusia, XXXV 46
viridis, XXXV 48
Cyprium aes, XXXIV 4, 94, 106, 109,

172
cypram, XXXV 195, 196

diphryges, XXXIV 135, 136

electram, XXXIII 1, 80, 81

Eretria creta, XXXIII 163

Eretria terra, XXXV 30, 38, 192, 194

419

INDEX OF MINERALS

lerrum, XXX III 1, 7, 94, 121, 132;

XXXIV 138-155, 167; XXXV 35,

182
flos aeris, XXXIV 107, 109, 135

galena, XXXIII 95; XXXIV 159,

173
grpsum, XXXIV 150, 198

Hammoniacum, XXXIV 114, 116
hvdrargyrum, XXXIII 64, 100, 123-
*126

Indicum, XXXIII 163; XXXV 30,
42, 46, 49 ; cp. XXXV 43

lapis, Armenius, XXXV 47
pyrites, XXXIV 136
specularis, XXXIII 79
Thracius, XXXIII 94

larbasis, XXXIII 101

Leninia rubrica, XXXV 33

leucophorum, XXXIII 64 ; XXXV 30

librarium atramentum, XXXV 43

lonchoton, XXXIV 124

magnes, XXXIV 147, 148

marilla?, XXXIV 134

marmor, XXXIII 64, 68, 94, 122;

XXXIV 112
Mclinum, XXXV 30, 36, 37, 49, 50
Melinum alumen, XXXV 184, 188,

190
minium, XXXIII 4, 111-124;

XXXIV 106; XXXV 30, 33, 40, 45
misy, XXXIII 84; XXXIV 114,

117, 121, 122
molvbdaena, XXXIII 105, lOS;

XXXIV 173, 174
molybditis, XXXIII 106
murrina, XXXIII 5

naphtha, XXXV 179

nitrum, XXXIIl 93, 103, 109;

XXXIV 116; XXXV 177, 181, 185

ochra, XXXV 30, 35, 39
onychitis, XXXIV 103
onyx, XXXIV 103

palacurnae, XXXIII 77
Paraetoniuni, XXXIII 90, 91;

XXXV 30, 36
pissasphalton, XXXV 178
plumbago, XXXIV 168

420

plumbum, XXXIII 59, 60, 65, 86

94, 95, 104-106, 119; XXXIV 95

96-98, 143, 156-173; XXXV 37
plumbum album, XXXIII 94

XXXIV 156, 157, 158, 160-163
plumbum argentinum, XXXIV 95

97, 98
plumbum nigrum, XXXIV 96, 98

156, 158-162, 164-171, 175
pompholvx, XXXIV 128-130
psimithium, XXXIV 175, 176
pulvis, XXXV 166
purpura, XXXIU 70; XXXV 44,

45, 46, 50
purpurissum, XXXV 30, 44, 45, 49, 195
Puteolanum caeruleum, XXXIII 161,

162
pyrites lapis, XXXIV 135
pyropus, XXXIV 94

robigo, XXXIII 62, 121; XXXIV
99, 140, 141, 143, 146, 150, 152, 153

rubrica, XXXIII 115, 117; XXXIV
135; XXXV 30, 33, 34, 35

sal, XXXIII 63, 65, 84, 109, 157;

XXXIV 106, 116, 126
Samia terra, XXXV 191, 194
sandaraca, XXXIV 176, 177, 178;

XXXV 30, 39, 40, 177
sandvx, XXXV 30, 40, 45
santerna, XXXIII 93; XXXIV 116
sapphirus, XXXIII 68
Sardacreta, XXXV 196, 198
scoria, XXXIII 69

scoria aeris, XXXIV 107, 136

scoria plumbi, XXXIV 171, 174

scudes, XXXIII 69

scytanum, XXXIII 88

Scythicum caenileum, XXXIII 161

Seiinusia creta, XXXV 46

SeUnusia terra, XXXV 194

sil, XXXIII 158-160, 164; XXXV

36, 38, 50
sinopis, XXXIII 117; XXXV 30,

31, 32, 36, 4U, 50
smegma, XXXIV 134
sori, XXXrV 117, 118, 120
specularis lapis, XXXIII 79
spodium, XXXIV 170, 172
spodos, XXXIV 128-132
spuma argenti, XXXIII 102, 106-

110; XXXIV 174, 176
squama aeris, XXXIV 107, 108-110
squama ferri, XXXIV 166

INDEX OF MINERALS

stagnum, XXXIII 94, 130; XXXIV

159, 160
staniium, r. stagnum
stibi, stibia, XXXIII 101; XXXIV

169
8tim(m)i, XXXIII 101, 102-104
stomoma, XXXIV 108
stricturae, XXXIV 143
Budor, XXXIII 69
sulphur, XXXin 131; XXXIV 106,

167, 168, 170, 171, 177; XXXV

174-177, 180, 198

Syricum, XXXHI 120; XXXV 30,
40

t;usconium, XXXIII 69

terra, Chia, XXXV 194

Eretria, XXXV 192, 194
Samia, XXXV 191, 194
Selinusia, XXXV 194

thracius lapis, XXXIII 94

trichitis, XXXV 186

turbistum, XXXHI 88

421

Pklnted in Great BRITAIN bt

RlCHARD CLAT AND COMPANT, LTD.,
BUNGAT, SUJTOLK.

THE LOEB CLASSICAL
LIBRARY

VOLUMES ALREADY PUBLISHED

Latin Authors

Ammianus Mabcellinus. Translated by J. C. Rolfe. 3 Vols.
Apuleius: The Golden Ass (Metamorphoses). W. Adling-

ton(1566). Revised by S. Gaselee.
St. Augustine: City of God. 7 Vols. Vol. I. G. H.

McCracken. Vol. VI. W. C. Greene.
St. Augustine, Confessions of. W. Watts (1631). 2 Vols.
St. Augustine, Select Letters. J. H. Baxter.
AusoNius. H. G. EveljTi White. 2 Vols.
Bede. J. E. King. 2 Vols.
Boethius: Tracts and De Consolatione Philosophiae.

Rev. H. F. Stewart and E. K. Rand.
Caesah: Alexandbian, Afkican and Spanish Wars. A. G.

Way.
Caesar: Civil Wars. A. G. Peskett.
Caesar: Gallic War. H. J. Edwards.
Cato: De Re Rustica; Varro: De Re Rustica. H. B. Ash

and W. D. Hooper.
Catullus. F. W. Comish; Tibullus. J. B. Postgate; Per-

VIGILIUM Veneris. J. W. Mackail.
Celsus: De Medicina. AV. G. Spencer. 3 Vols.
Cicero: Brutus, and Orator. G. L. Hendrickson and H. M.

Hubbell.
[CicERO]: Ad Herennium. H. Caplan.
Cicero: De Oratore, etc. 2 Vols. Vol. I. De Oratore,

Books I. and II. E. W. Sutton and H. Rackham. Vol. II.

De Oratobe, Book III. De Fato; Paradoxa Stoicorum;

De Partitione Oratoria. H. Rackham.
CicERO: De Finibus. H. Rackham.
CicERO: De Inventione, etc. H. M. Hubbell.
CiCERO: De Natura Deorum and AcADEMiCA. H. Rackham.
CiCERO: De Officiis. Walter Miller.
CicERO: De Republica and De Legibus; Somnium Scipionis,

Clinton W. Keyes.

l

ClCERO: De SENECTtJTE, De AmICITIA, Ds DiATNATIONE.

W. A. Falconer.
CicERO : In Catilixam, Pro Flacco, Pro Murena, Pro Sulla.

Louis E. Lord.
CicERO: Letters to Atticus. E. O. Winstedt. 3 Vols.
CiCERO: Letters to His Friends. W. Glynn Williams. 3

Vols.
CicERO: PHTT.rppics. W. C. A. Ker.
Cicero: Pro Abchia Post Reditum, De Domo, De Harus-

picuM Responsis, Pro Plancio. N. H. Watts.
CicERO: Pro Caecina, Pro Lege Manilia, Pro Cluentio,

Pro Rabirio. H. Grose Hodge.
CicERO: Pro Caelio, De Provinciis Consularibus, Pro

Balbo. R. Gardner.
CiCERO : Pro Melone, In Pisonem, Pro Scauro, Pbo Fonteio,

Pro Rabirio Postumo, Pro Marcello, Pbo Ligabio, Pbo

Rege Deiotaro. N. H. Watts.
CicERO: Pro Quinctio, Pro Roscio Amerino, Pbo Roscio

CoMOEDO, CoNTRA RuLLUM. J. H. Freese.
CiCERO: Pbo Sestio, In Vatinium. R. Gardner.

ClCERO: TUSCULAN DlSPUTATIONS. J. E. King.

CiCERO: Verrine Orations. L. H. G. Greenwood. 2 Vols.

Claudian. M. Platnauer. 2 Vols.

Columella: De Re Rustica. De Abboribus. H. B. Ash,
E. S. Forster and E. Heffner. 3 Vols.

CuRTius, Q.: HisTORY OF Alexander. J. C. Rolfe. 2 Vols.

Florus. E. S. Forster; and Cornelius Nepos. J. C. Rolfe.

Frontinus : Stratagems and Aqueducts. C. E. Bennett and
M. B. McElwain.

Fbonto: Cobbespondence. C. R. Haines. 2 Vols.

Gellius, J. C. Rolfe. 3 Vols.

Hobace: Odes and Epodes. C. E. Bennett.

HoBACE: Satibes, Epistles, Abs PoETiCA. H. R. Fairclough.

Jebome: Selected Lettebs. F. A. Wright.

JuvENAL and Persius. G. G. Ramsay.

LiVY. B. O. Foster, F. G. Moore, Evan T. Sage, and A. C.
Schlesinger and R. M. Geer (General Index). 14 Vols.

LucAN. J. D. Duff.

Lucbetius. W. H. D. Rouse.

Mabtial. W. C. A. Ker. 2 Vols.

MiNOB Latin Poets: from Publilius Sybus to Rutilius
Namatianus, including Grattius, Calpurnius Siculus,
Nemesianus, Avianus, and others with " Aetna " and the
" Phoenix." J. Wight Duff and Arnold M. Duff.

Ovid: The Aet of Love and Other Poems. J. H. Mozley.

Ovin: Fastt. Sir James G. F^razor.

OviD : Heroides and Amores. Graut Showerman.

OviD : Metamorphoses. F. J. Miller. 2 Vols.

OvTD : Tristia and Ex Ponto. A. L. Wheeler.

Persius. Cf. Juvenal.

Petronius. M. Hesoltine; Seneca; Apocolocyntosis.

W. H. D. Rouse.
Plautus. Paul Xixon. 5 Vols.
Pliny: Lettebs. Melmoth's Translation revised by W. M. L.

Hutchinson. 2 Vols.
Pliny: Xatubal History. H. Rackham and W. H. S. Jones.

10 Vols. Vols. I.-V. and IX. H. Rackham. Vols. VI. and

VII. W. H. S. Jones.
Propertius. H. E. Butler.
Prudentius. H. J. Thomson. 2 Vols.
QuTNTiLiAN. H. E. Butler. 4 Vols.
Remains of Old Latln. E. H. Warmington. 4 Vols. Vol. I.

(Ennius and Caecilius.) Vol. II. (Livius, X^^aevius,

Pacuvius, Accius.) Vol. III. (Luciltus and Laws of XII

Tables.) (Archaic Inscriptions.)
Sallust. J. C. Rolfe.

ScBiPTOREs HiSTOBiAJE AuGUSTAE. D. Magie. 3 Vols.
Seneca: Apocolocyntosis. Cf. Petbonius.
Seneca: Epistulae Mobales. R. M. Gummere. 3 Vols.
Seneca: Mobax Essays. J. W. Basore. 3 Vols.
Seneca: Tbagedies. F. J. Miller. 2 Vois.
SiDONius: PoEMS and Letters. W. B. Andebson. 2 Vols.
SiLius Italicus. J. D. Duf5. 2 Vols.
Statius. J. H. Mozley. 2 Vols.
Suetonius. J. C. Rolfe. 2 Vols.
Tacitus: Dialogues. Sir Wm. Peterson. Agbicola and

Gebmajstia. Maurice Hutton.
Tacitus : Histobies ajnd Annals. C. H. Moore and J. Jackson.

4 Vols.
Tebence. John Sargeaunt. 2 Vols.
Tebtullian: Apologia and De Spectaculis. T. R. Glover.

MiNUCius Felix. G. H. RendalL
Valerius Flaccus. J. H. Mozley.
Vabbo: De Lingua Latina. R. G. Kent. 2 Vols.
Velletus Patebculus and Res Gestae Divi Augusti. F. W.

Shipley.
ViBGiL. H. R. Fairclough. 2 Vols.
ViTBUVius: De Abchitectuba. F. Granger. 2 Vols.

Greek Authors

AcHiiXEs TAxnJS. S. Gaselee.

Aelian: On the Nature of Animals. A. F. Scholfield. 3

Vols.
Aeneas Tacticus, Asclepiodotus and Onasandeb. The

Illinois Greek Club.
Aeschines. C. D. Adams.
Aeschylus. H. Weir Smyth. 2 Vols.
Alciphron, Aelian, Philostbatus : Lettebs. A. R. Bonner

and F. H. Fobes.
Andocides, Antiphon, Cf. MiNOR Attic Orators.
Apollodorus. Sir James G. Frazer. 2 "Vols.
Apollonius Rhodius. R. C. Seaton.
The Apostolic Fathers. Kirsopp Lake. 2 Vols.
Appian: Roman History. Horace White. 4 Vols.
Aratus. Cf. Callimachus.
Aristophanes. Benjamin Bickley Rogers. 3 Vols. Verse

trans,
Aristotle: Art of Rhetoric. J. H. Freese.
Abistotle: Athenian Constitution, Eudemian Ethics,

VicES AND ViRTUES. H. Rackham.
Aristotle: Generation of Aniaials. A. L. Peck.
Abistotle: Metaphysics. H. Tredennick. 2 Vols.
Abistotle: Metebologica. H. D. P. Lee.
Abistotle: Minob Works. W. S. Hett. On Colours, On

Things Heard, On Physiognomies, On Plants, On Marvellous

Things Heard, Mechanical Problems, On Indivisible Lines,

On Situations and Xames of Winds, On MeHssus, Xenophanes,

and Gorgias.
Aiustotle: Nicomachean Ethics. H. Rackham.
Aristotle: Oeconomica and Magna Moralia. G. C. Arra-

strong; (with Metaphysics, Vol. II.).
Aristotle: On the Heavens. W. K. C. Guthrie.
Abistotle: On the Soul. Pabva Natubalia. On Beeath.

W. S. Hett.
Aristotle: Categobies, On Interpbetation, Pbior

Analytics. H. P. Cooke and H. Tredennick.
Abistotle: Postebiob Analytics, Topics. H. Tredennick

and E. S. Forster.
Abistotle: On Sophistical Refutations.

On Coming to be and Passing Away, On the Cosmos. E. S.

Forster and D. J. Furley.
Aristotle: Pabts of Animals. A. L. Peck; Motion and

Pbogression of Aximals. E. S. Forster.
4

Abistotle: Physics. Rev. P. Wicksteed and F. M. Cornford.

2 Vols.
Aristotle: Poetics and Loxgixtjs. W. Hamilton Fyfe;

Demetrius on Style. W. Rhys Roberts.
Aristotle: Politics. H. Rackliam.
Aristotle: Problems. W. S. Hett. 2 Vols.
Abistotle: Rhetorica Ad Alexakdrum (with Problems.

Vol. II.) H. Rackham.
Arriak: History of Alexaxder and Indica, Rev. E. Iliffe

Robson. 2 Vols.
Athenaeus: Deipnosophistae. C. B. Gulick. 7 Vols.
St. Basil: Letters. R. J. Deferrari. 4 Vols.
Caxlimachus : Fragments. C. A. Trj^panis.
Callimachus, Hymns and Epigrams, and Lycophrox. A. W.

Mair; Abatus. G. R. Mair.
Clemext of Alexaxdria. Rev. G. W. Butterworth.

CoiXUTHrS. Cf. QPPIAN.

Daphnis axd Chloe. Thomley's Translation revised by

J. M. Edmonds; and Parthenixjs. S. Gaselee.
Demosthenes I.: Olynthtacs, Philippics and Minor Oba-

Tioxs. I.-XVII. AND XX. J. H. Vince.
Demosthenes II.: De Corona and De Falsa Legatione.

C. A. Vince and J. H. Vince.
Demosthexes III.: Meidias, Androtiox, Aristocrates,

Timocbates and Aristogeiton, I. and II. J. H. Vince.
Demosthenes IV.-VI.: Pbivate Obations and In Xeaebam.

A. T. Murray.
Demosthenes VII. : Funebal Speech, Ebotic Essay, Exokdia

and Lettebs. N. W. and X. J. DeWitt.
Dio Cassfus: Roman History. E. Cary. 9 Vols.
Dio Chrysostom. J. W. Cohoon and H. Lamar Crosby. 5 Vols.
DiODOBUS SicuLUS. 12 Vols. Vols. I.-VI. C. H. Oldfather.

Vol. VII. C. L. Sherman. Vols. IX. and X. R. M. Geer.

Vol. XI. F. Walton.
Diogenes Laebitius. R. D. Hicks. 2 Vols.
DiONYsrus OF Halicarnassus : RoMAN Antiquities. Spel-

man's translation revised by E. Cary. 7 Vols.
Epictetus. W. A. Oldfather. 2 Vols.
EuRiPiDEs. A. S. Way. 4 Vols. Verse trans.
EusEBLUs: EccLEsiAsncAX HisTOBY. Kirsopp Lake and

J. E. L. Oulton. 2 Vols.
Galen: On the Xatubal Faculties. A. J. Brock.
The Gbeek Anthology. W. R. Paton. 5 Vols.
Gbeek Elegy and Iambus with the Anacbeontea. J. M.

Edmonds. 2 Vols.

5

TiiE (Jreek Bucolic Poets (Theocritus, Biox, Moschus).

J. M, Edmonds.
Greek Mathematical Works. Ivor Thomas. 2 Vols.
Herodes. Cf. Theophrastus: Characters.
Herodotus. A. D. Godley. 4 Vols.

Hesiod and The Homeric Hymns. H. G. Evelyn White.
Hippocrates and tho Fragments of Heracleitus. W. H. S.

Jones and E. T. Witliington. 4 Vols.
Homer: Iliad. A. T. Mvirray. 2 Vols.
Homer: Odyssey. A. T. Murray. 2 Vols.
IsAEUS. E. W. Forster.

Isocbates. George Norlin and LaRne Van Hook. 3 Vols.
St. John Damascene: Barlaam and Ioasaph. Rev. G. R.

Woodward and Harold Mattingly.
Josephus. H. St. J. Thackeray and Ralph Marcus. 9 Vols.

Vols. I.-VII.
Julian. Wilmer Cave Wright. 3 Vols.
LuciAN. 8 Vols. Vols. I.-V. A. M. Harmon. Vol. VI. K.

Kilburn.
Lycophron. Cf. Callimachus.
Lyra Graeca. J. M. Edmonds. 3 Vols.
Lysias. W. R. M. Lamb.
Manetho. W. G. Waddell: Ptolemy : Tetrabiblos. F. E.

Robbins.
?Jarcus AuRELius. C. R. Haines.
Menander. F. G. Allinson.
MiNOB Attic Orators (Antiphon, Andocides, Lycurgus,

Demades, Dinarchus, Hypereides). K. J. Maidment and

J. O. Burrt. 2 Vols.
NoNNOs : DiONVsiACA. W. H. D. Rouse. 3 Vols.
Oppian, Colluthus, Tryphiodobus. A. W. Mair.
Papyri. Non-Literaby Selections. A. S. Hunt and C. C.

Edgar. 2 Vols. Litebary Selections (Poetry). D. L.

Page.
Parthenius. Cf. Daphnis and Chloe.
Pausanias: Description of Greece. W. H. S. Jones. 4

Vols. and Companion Vol. arranged by R. E. Wycherley.
Philo. 10 Vols. Vols. I.-V.; F. H. Colson and Rev. G. H.

Whitaker. Vols. VI.-IX.; F. H. Colson.
Philo: two supplementary Vols. {Translation only.) Ralph

Marcus.
Philostratus : The Life of Apollonius of Tyana. F. C.

Conybeare. 2 Vols.
Philostratus : Imagines; Callistbatus : Descbiptions. A.

Fairbanks.

PHiLOSTRATUsand EuNAPius: LivEs oftheSophists. Wilmer

Cave Wright.
PiNDAR. Sir J. E. Sandys.
1'lato: Charmides, Alcibiades, Hipparchus, The Lovers,

Theages, Minos and Epinomis. W. R. M. Lanib.
Plato: Cratylus, Parmenides, Greater Hippias, Lesser

Hippias. H. X. Fowler.
Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Phaedo, Phaedrus.

H. X. Fowler.
Plato: Laches, Protagoras, Meno, Euthydemus. W. R. ^L

Lamb.
Plato: Laws. Rev. R, G. Bury. 2 Vols.
Plato: Lvsis, Symposium, Gorgias. W. R. M. Lamb.
Plato: Republic. Paul Shorey. 2 Vols.
Plato : Statesman, Philebus. H. X. Fowler; lox. \V. R. M.

Lamb.
Plato: Theaetetus and Sophist. H. X. Fowler.
Plato: Timaeus, Critias, Clitopho, Menexenus, Epistulae.

Rev. R. G. Bury.
Plutarch: Moralia. 15 Vols. Vols. I.-V. F. C. Babbitt.

Vol. VI. W. C. Helmbold. Vol. VII. P. H. De Lacv and

B. Einarson. Vol. IX. E. L. Minar, Jr., F. H. Sandbach,
W. C. Helmbold. VoL X. H. X. Fowler. VoL XII. H.
Cherniss and W. C. Helmbold.

Plutarch: The Parallel Lives. B. Perrin. 11 Vols.

PoLYBius. W. R. Paton. 6 Vols.

Procopius: History of the Wars. H. B. Dewing. 7 Vols.

Ptolemy : Tetrabiblos. Cf . Manetho.

QuiNTUS Smyrnaeus. A. S. Way. Verse trans.

Sextus Empiricus. Rev. R, G. Bury. 4 Vols.

Sophocles. F. Storr. 2 Vols, Verse trans.

Strabo : Geography. Horace L. Jones. 8 Vols.

Theophrastus : Characters. J, M. Edmonds. Herodes,

etc. A. D. Knox,
Theophrastus : Enquiry into Plants. Sir Arthur Hort,

Bart. 2 Vols,
Thucydides. C. F. Smith. 4 Vols.
Tryphiodorus. Cf. Oppian.

Xenophon: Cyropaedia. Walter Miller. 2 Vols.
Xenophon: Hellenica, Anabasis, Apology, and Symposium.

C. L. Brownson and O. J. Todd. 3 Vols.

Xenophon : Memorabilia and Oeconomicus. E, C, Marchant.
Xenophon: Scripta Minora. E. C. Marchant.

IN PREPARATION

Greek Authors

Aristotle: History of Animals. A. L. Peck.
Plotinus: A. H. Armstrong.

Latin Authors

Babrius and Phaedrus. Ben E. Perry.

DESCRIPTIVE PROSPECTUS ON APPLICATION

London WILLIAM HEINEMANN LTD

Cambrldge, Mass. HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

878P728NV.9C.1

Pliny # Natural history.

3 0005 02002760 6

S7B

V. 9

riinius Secundus

l^atural history

S7^

P728N

V. 9

Plinius Secundus
Natural history