UNIV. OF Toronto LIBRARY ; Py oa oe . , “ & . > . s 29 t j t . < ‘+ . ; p: = . . we, & “ ‘ : ; 7% »~ , - 7 ‘ ——— THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL EDITED BY MARY CYNTHIA DICKERSON VOLUME XV, 1915 en wal “\ Published from October to June, by THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY NEW YORK CITY — 1915 An illustrated magazine devoted to the advancement of Natural His- tory, the recording of scientific research, exploration and discovery, and the development of museum exhibition and museum influence in education. Contributors are men eminent in these fields, including the scientific staff, explorers and members of the American Museum FREE TO MEMBERS OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY PRINTED BY THE COSMOS PRESS CAMBRIDGE, MASS. 1915 CONTENTS OF VOLUME XV ee 4 JANUARY emeemrmmoorSantalsabel....................2 2... eee, ArtTuur A. ALLEN F =) Appreciation of Theodore Nicholas Gill................0.0.0.....0...... Freperic A. Lucas 4 wmeenene of @ Wur-Seal Census........-..................... Gerorce ARCHIBALD CLARK , Curiosities of a RRR IgG tn ai aa et aap AMO Nay See ie een L. P. Graracap + aie eae tots e te eee eee eee sees see......... WINTHROP PackaRp Me hn retire Mite a wae ica tS leis os clo cee gates Rosert H. Lowie Raymonp L. Dirmars ppnaiasts ROOsEVELT Dtnarh ca sie bai ale cuca ee ALO beste ek oe . E. MILier Ve ms "s Through the Brazilian Wilderness— A Review...................... - A. ALLEN east ‘Guarding I a set a ok ces Cb oe Bebe C.-E. A. Winstow menmumee Of the Towa Indians........................0.5.. ccc eeeee Hersert J. SprnpEN Memories of Professor Albert S. Bickmore......................2......002. L. P. Gratacap rat Marcu i rig is kk ce eck cea vissipuesdesedeisedccurtus IIIS NURSE oe PR odie ao ow ivieie cen sce csv cadtecces Rosert H. Low1e emer 1 C810 MOUtNWOESL. .. 25.2. .5 sc oe ccc cee Hersert J. SPINDEN ec omversation Of John Muir.................-...........0000. MELVILLE B. ANDERSON ee meerananon in. the Arctic. ..........................-... igen tent Burt M. McConnetu The Geographical Results of the Roosevelt-Rondon Expedition.............. W. L. G. Jozre Daniel Giraud Elliot — A Biographical Sketch............... 0.0 ccc cee cc ccc cece cece APRIL Portraits of John Burroughs, Naturalist and Author........................ ccc cece cence EIS TIES SES Die A 0 a a Cari E. AKELEY The ‘‘Toad Group” in the American Museum................... Mary Cynraia Dickerson Aquarelics of our Common Woodilands.............................-.. Warren H. MILiER i rn A POGMMGtD PMMUNO DS Sc osc tt eee ed eee et Ernest Haroutp Baynes or Picture kocords Of Indians... .... 2... ccc eee Puiny E. Gopparp August Weismann, Zodlogist: an Appreciation........................-. Frank R. Linus rt erereatn One Wer A MOVIOW..... .. oc bi ce cc eee teens E. G. Conxiin Note on the Crocker Land Expedition Ship........................... Georce H. SHERWwoopD May ee ce Se csr. ace oie cb a la pun Ss ene bietens Kee ocr agpb een Jae NE MN AUN Ee he tbl wae oe fee ce lecedeow es PercivaLt LowELu RE ccc ks ok see ic ke Sr eee ee eee wees E. C. SiipHEerR Louis Agassiz Fuertes — Painter of Bird Portraits....................... Frank M. CuapMan me rengains Of South Georgia....................------ eee eee Rosert CusHMAN MurRpHY European Caves and Early ER nee oe ee er eer a N. C. Netson ane EON or ee ee be ea ee eee L. Hussaxkor ume Of tho Lesser Antilles... >... eee ee eee Epmunp Otis Hovey Smc-siotn from & Cave in Patagonia.................-.---....5.54--% W. D. MartTrHew IN Tg (a F. S. DeLLtenBAUGH : OcTOBER Sena eee eee PE TROUIITD GRY OUNME 0... ss oie Se ee ee te ee ee eee eee cece ee eneces Tyrannosaurus, the Largest Flesh-eating Animal that Ever Lived............ Barnum Brown Ns BU cic eva eee cece tee ees eect James P. CHAPIN Reproductions in Duotone of African Photographs...........--------+---++-+++++-- opposite aL OE Wy Mer SIN EERE re ee ce es Davip STaRR JORDAN % EE OS ee a Rosert CusHMAN MurpHY Ancient Gold Art in the New World......- eee NED om emt Semen TE oe Herspert J. SPINDEN meogerc Ward Putnam, 1839-1915...........-...--- 2-26 eee ee eee eee ees CLarRK WISSLER NoOvEMBER Elephant Hunting on Mount Kenya..............----------++++++++:°> Cart E. AKELEY Reproductions in Duotone of Antarctic Photographs..........-.--.-----++-+ee+ee0+- opposite The Stefansson Expedition of 1913 to 1915...........------+---++++++++-+--4 A. W. GREELY In the Home of the Hopi Indian..............-------------++-+secrrrr tee Cuiark WISSLER Beginnings of Natural History.............-.-------+--+-+e-e eter CuarRtes R. EastTMan co Gants lo Ow er i ei ci BasHFORD DEAN Tsimshian Stories in Carved Wood...........--.-------------eeeeeee: Grorce T. Emmons ieuploring # Spur of the Andes.........-.:.-.2.------- eee ee ees Leo E. MiItiteR DECEMBER An Explorer’s View of the Congo Reproductions in Duotone of African Photographs Ancient Cities of New Mexico Explorations in the Southwest by the American Museum Herman O. MvuELLER Animals of Blown Glass...........2 se ce rece eee tees petteteeess eee The American Museum’s Reptile Groups in Relation to High School Biology. .Grorer W. Hunter Hunting Deer in the Adirondacks News from the Crocker Land Expedition Beginnings of American Natural History A Valuable New Bird Book: A Review Fragments of Spider Lore Corythosaurus, the New Duck-billed Dinosaur oe as 0 0 b 06 0s 6 0%e SEs Wels es mam tle ee 6 6 ein wo 86 0 0 oe Ole Ole ie oral tema iain Zlaogien Fie (eho iol Wide OG 8 alee ee ee a sag (ers 6 eS Hersert Lane opposite N. C. NE tson Roy CHapMAN ANDREWS ILLUSTRATIONS African, Natives, insert opp. 292, covers (Oct.), (Dec.), 381-388, Insert opp. 388; Scenes, insert opp. 292 Akeley, Mrs. Carl E., 337 Andes, 368, 369, 370, 371 Armies, Diet of, 66, 67, 69, 70, 71 Arms and Armor, 356, 359, 360, 362 Bad lands, Cretaceous, 275, 276, 277, 278 Baynes, Ernest Harold, 422 Bird, baths, 176, 178, 181, 182, 183, 184; Por- traits, 220, 223, 224, insert opp. 224, cover (May); Congo birds, 282-291 Buffalo, African, 152, 159, 160, 161 Burroughs, John, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150 Brazil, Animals of, 38-47, 65, back and front covers (Feb.) Brazil, Central, Map, 129 Caves, of Early Man, 236-247, back cover (May) Chapin, J. P., 204 Comet, a 1910, 215 Congo, birds, 282-291; Forest, 280, 283, 284; Grass country, 285; Natives of, 381-388, insert opp. 388, front cover (Dec.) Conservation, Dramatizing, 21 Deming, E. W., 91 Deer, Hunting, 409-414; Whitetailed, of Adiron- dacks, back cover (Dec.) : Doubt, River of, 35, 36, 37, 63 Duck, Labrador, 136 Elephant Hunting on Mount Kenya, 322, 323, 325,. 326, 327, 330, 333, 334, 335, 336, 338 Elliot, D. G., opp. 133, 134, 135 Fishes, Deep Sea, 248, 252, 253 Fuertes, Louis Agassiz, 205 Fur-seals, 12, 18, 15, 16, back and front covers (Jan.) Gemmology, Curiosities of, 18, opp. 20 Gill, Theodore Nicholas, 9 Glass, Blown, Animals of, 399-403 Goldwork, Ancient, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 429 Great Auk, back cover (Mar.) Groups, Museum, 266-270, 342-347, 405, 408, 430 Hornaday, W. T., 202 iv Hygiene, Military, 66-71 Indian, dance costumes, 94; Crow, Sun-Dance, 23, 24; Dances, 95, 101, insert opp. 102; 103-115; cover (Mar.) Indians, Apache, 185, 186, 187; Hopi, 341, 345, 346; Nhambiquara, 62; Parecis, 56, 57, 59, 61; Pueblo, opp. 78; Taos, 78, insert opp. 78; Tewa, 73, 76, 77 Katydid, 26 Lang, Herbert, 203, 378 Macedonia, 293, 295, 296, 297 Mawson, Antarctic expedition, insert opp. 338, cover (Dec.) Mawson, Sir Douglas, 93 Muir, John, 116, 121 Natural History, Early Illustrations, 348-355; 417-420 New Mexico, Ancient Cities of, 389-398 Paraguay River, Along the, 48, 51, 52, 58 Planets, 211, 212, 213, 214, 216, 217, 218 Peary, R. E., 92 : Penguins, 206, 225, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 233, 235; 301-305; Penguin group, 430 Portuguese Man-of-war, 199 Putnam, F. W., 314 Red Deer River, Alberta, 279 Rhinoceros, African, 157, 318. Rondon, Colonel, 34, 43 Roosevelt, Theodore, 34, 35, 36, 38, 41, 48, 45, 46, 49, cover (Jan.) Santa Isabel, Paramo of, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 Stuart, R. L., 137 Taos, Mountains, 72, insert opp. 78 Taylor, W. S., 90 Telescope, Lowell Observatory, 208, 210 Toad group, back and front cover (April), 162, 164, 165, 166, insert opp. 166; 168-174, 405 Tsimshian, carved wood, 364 Tyrannosaurus 270, 273, 274, 276, back cover (Oct,) Wandorobo, Family of, 156; Guide, 158 Weismann, August, 188 [ Tue American Museum Journat - Votume XV _—_ JANUARY, 1915 Noumser 1 CONTENTS Cover, Fur Seals at Pribilof Islands Photograph taken by Roy C. Andrews, St. Paul Island, 1913 Frontispiece, Paramo Valley, Santa Isabel. Photograph in the Central Andes by Arthur A. Allen meraramo of Santa Isabel............................/ ArTHUR A. ALLEN 3 Vivid word picture of the verdure and silence of the South American forest and the austere splendor of this paramo of the central Andes, 13,000 feet above sea Appreciation of Theodore Nicholas Gill...........:..... Freperic A. Lucas 9 Theodore Nicholas Gill, for many years in the Smithsonian Institution and Library of Congress and to be counted among noted American zoélogists, died in Washington September 25, 1914 The Making of a Fur-Seal Census.............. GEORGE ARCHIBALD CLARK 13 Accurate enumeration the really important practical problem in connection with the fur-seal herd of the Pribilof Islands jaue «curiosities of Gemmology...................0.00.0000: L.P.Gratacap 19 Review of a recent book by George Frederic Kunz, honorary curator of gems in the American Museum, on superstitions and meanings attached to precious stones. With color plate of three valuable gems in the Morgan Collection of the American Museum m-amramatize Conservation. ....................:.%-. Winturop Packarp 21 A suggestion as to the value of the drama in educational work me «row Indian Sum Dance...........:.............. Rospert H. Lowrie 23 Educational Motion Pictures in Natural History...... Raymonp L, Dirmars 27 hE SSI a a a 29 Mary Cyrnrara Dickerson, Editor Published monthly from October to May by the American Museum of Natural History. Terms: one dollar and a half per year, twenty cents per copy. Entered as second-class matter January 12, 1907, at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., Act of Congress, July 16, 1894. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Amertcan Museum Journal, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the Museum. VS ‘AATIVA OWVHd ‘Tue American Museum Journal ~ Voudun XV NuMBER 1 JANUARY, 1915 a THE PARAMO OF SANTA ISABEL ag ; By Arthur A. Allen iia Photographs by the Author and by L. E. Miller J OOKING through the perspective ; of a few years upon my experi- ence in the Andes of Colombia, the days spent on the paramos recur most vividly to my mind. The debili- tating weeks in the steaming coastal forests with their parasites and fevers, the long hours in the dugout canoes beneath the blazing vertical sun, the dust of the valley trails, and the lomas with their clouds of locusts pass from me. I forget the interminable silence of the Cloud Forest, its soaking moss and epi- phytes, but as often as memory recurs, - comes to me the austere splendor of those stretches of rock and sky, of ridge piled upon ridge, backed by a line of snow and gray cloud and bathed in an atmosphere cool and clean. It was a land of peculiar fascination tome. I recall how we toiled across the paramo of the Valle de Pappas and though at this time so lashed by wind and rain that the trail was visible hardly fifty paces ahead, it still had lost none of its charm. Peaceful as it is during its few months of summer, the Andean paramo is a land of sleet and storm during the rest of the year; indeed Note.— Dr. Arthur A. Allen, a member of the biological staff of Cornell University, was con- nected with the Museum’s expedition in Colombia, from August, 1911 to May, 1912. During this period, in codperation with Mr. Leo E. Miller, he made important collections in the vicinity of the Quindio Trail, and in the little-known region between Popayan and the Valle de Pappas, and San Agustin; also in the Cauca and Atrato val- leys. In the latter region he contracted a severe type of malarial fever which necessitated his re- turn to the United States. many of the trails even at the equator are closed, and man and beast that attempt to cross are frozen to death. The paramo of Santa Isabel lies about two days’ journey from Salento, the largest town on the Quindio trail which crosses the central Andes, and on clear days, especially toward dusk, can be seen at several points rising above the forest-capped ridges to an _ altitude between sixteen and seventeen thousand feet. Beyond it and a little to the east lies the paramo of Ruis, and most magni- ficent of all, Nevada del Tolima, with its crown of crystal snow gleaming in the rays of the setting sun. Many travelers pass over the trail without ever a glimpse of the snows to the north, seeing only the banks of clouds that obscure even the tops of the moss-forest and hide all but the near distance. The sight of the snows is so unusual even to the natives that with the first lifting of the clouds groups of travelers assemble at the open spots along the trail and discuss the coming of winter. So it was in the little town of Salento where we happened to be stopping. They manifested great concern over our proposed trip and told us that we must hasten if we would camp on the paramo before the storms set in, when life there would be impossible. So one morning in early September we slung our packs and started for the paramo of Santa Isabel. From Salento the trail to the paramo leads first down into the Boquia 3 Santa Isabel from the Quindio Trail— Cloud Forest in the foreground has more tropical luxuri- ance than the lowland jungles, the trees being burdened with giant vines and they in turn laden with moss and fern and orchid. Cloud Forest extends up the mountain side from 9000 feet to timber line at about 12,500 feet Valley and then follows the river’s meandering course through groves of splendid palms nearly to its source, when it turns abruptly and begins a steep ascent of the mountain side. The palm trees, in scattered groves, continue to nearly nine thousand feet, where the trail begins to zigzag through some _half- cleared country, where the trees have been felled and burned over, and where in be- tween the charred stumps, a few handfuls of wheat have been planted and now wave a golden brown against the black. And next the Cloud Forest! It is seldom that the traveler’s anticipation of any much heralded natural wonder is realized when he is brought face to face with it. Usually he feels a tinge of dis- appointment and follows it by a close scrutiny ‘of the object before him in search of the grandeur depicted, but not so with the Cloud Forest. It surpasses one’s dreams of tropical luxuriance. It is here rather than in the lowland jungles that nature outdoes herself and crowds every available inch with moss and fern and orchid. Here every twig is a garden 4 and the moss-laden branches so gigantic that they throw more shade than the leaves of the trees themselves. Giant vines hang to the ground from the hori- zontal branches of the larger trees and - in turn are so heavily laden with moss and epiphytes that they form an almost solid wall and present the appearance of a hollow tree trunk fifteen or twenty feet in diameter. One should pass through this forest during the rainy season to form a true conception of its richness, although even during the dryest months the variety and abundance of plant life covering every trunk and branch seem beyond belief. Quite as impressive as is its luxuriance, is its great silence. One walks for hours along its rank trails, sometimes sinking knee-deep. in the wet forest mold, and hears no sound. A slight tsip or a buzz of wings in the tree top may tell of the presence of a honey creeper or humming bird, or the weird call of a tinamou or an ant thrush from the dark recesses may startle one, only to leave him the more impressed by the great breathless silence. THE PARAMO OF The trail through this forest was new and while perhaps not quite as steep as the old Indian trail, was very difficult in places. Many and led our horses, where the soft mold times we dismounted of the trail seemed insecure and where even a slight floundering of the animals might have pitched us down the moun- tain side. Even with such of the mules floundered and before we care one SANTA ISABEL 5) The trees become dwarfed, their leaves small and _ thick, heavily chitinized or covered with thick change occurs. down, and remind one of the vegetation about our northern bogs with their Andromeda and Labrador tea. Here too the ground in places is covered with a dense mat of sphagnum, dotted with dwarfed blueberries and cranberries and similar plants which remind one of home. Looking back at timber line We had left the tropics of Cloud Forest and come into a tem- perate region, almost on the equator but more than 12,500 feet above the sea. shows clouds rolling in at the left could get to his assistance was rolling over and over down the Fortunately it was still in the forest and one of his packs became wedged in the roots of a tree, holding him until we could get to his release. This great forest occasionally inter- mountain. rupted by clearings, continues for many hours’ travel up the mountain from 9000 to about 12,500 feet, where a sudden The photograph A cool breeze greets the traveler, sky appears in place of the great dome of green, and suddenly he steps out upon the open paramo. He has been travel- ing through the densest of forests, seeing but a few hundred paces along the trail and only a few rods into the vegetation on either side; he has grown near-sighted, and even the smallest contours of the landscape have been concealed by the 6 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL dense forest cover. Suddenly there is thrown before his vision a whole world of mountains. As far as he can see in all directions save behind him, ridge piles upon ridge in never-ending series until they fuse in one mighty crest which pierces the clouds with its snow-capped On the paramo of Santa Isabel — The g the strange mullein-like frailejons grow e reaching a height of ten feet in sheltered places crown. This is the paramo of Santa Isabel. At this point we dismounted and led our horses along the narrow ridge, for they were not used to the mountains. We looked in vain for the jagged peaks that are so characteristic of our northern round is undermined with numerous small rivulets and verywhere even up to the edge of the snow, sometimes THE PARAMO OF SANTA ISABEL 7 frost-made mountains. Here even the vertical cliffs did not seem entirely with- out vegetation and_as far as we could see with binoculars the brown sedges and the gray frailejons covered the rocks even up to the very edge of the snow. Beneath our feet the soil was springy and as we afterwards found, undermined with in- numerable small rivulets making their way to the stream below, which we could hear even at this distance as it dashed over the boulders and occasionally gleamed in the sun- light. All about us the strange mullein- like frailejons, as the natives call them, (Espeletia grandi- flora UHumb. and Bonpl.), stood up on their pedestals, ten or even fifteen feet in height in sheltered spots; down among the sedges were many lesser plants similar to our North Ameri- can species: gen- tians, composites, a hoary lupine, a but- tercup, a yellow sor- rel, almost identical with those of the United States. Birds also, several of which proved to be new to science, were numerous, but all were of dull colors and reminded one in their habits of the open country birds of northern United States. A goldfinch hovered about the unicolor). frailejons, a gray flycatcher ren along the ground or mounted into the air much like our northern horned larks, an oven- bird flew up ahead of us resembling a meadowlark, a marsh wren scolded from the rank sedges, and almost from under our horses’ hoofs, one of the large Andean snipes sprang into the air with a charac- teristic bleat and went zigzaging away. On a small lake which we now had come to, barren except for a few alge, rode In the shadow of a frailejon— The nest is made entirely from the down of the frailejon leaves and belongs to a slate-colored finch (Phrygilus On the paramo the leaves of all plants are either small and horny or heavily covered with down on THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL an Andean teal, surprisingly like our northern gadwall. And so the story goes on. Here almost on the equator but 13,000 feet above the level of. the sea, we had left the strangeness of the tropics and come upon a land that was strikingly like our own. We decided to pitch camp at timber line where there would be wood for cook- ing and so made our way back down the valley to the edge of the trees where we had some difficulty in finding a dry level spot for the tent. Here we studied and collected for about a week, working up the ridges to 15,000 feet but finding greater abundance of bird life along the dashing stream that. flowed down the valley in which we were camped. There was not however, a great variety of birds and but few species were really common. Mammals too, were scarce, a few tracks of deer and tapir along the edge of the forest and numerous runways of the rabbits in the rank sedges, being almost the only visible signs. Even the smaller rats and mice were scarce, and few came to our traps. Each night the temperature dropped to freezing, each noon the -temperature rose to about 75 degrees Fahrenheit, and each afternoon great white clouds rolled up from the forests below and obscured the landscape. One dared not venture far from camp after three o’clock, for the great mass of anastomosing ridges would easily confuse even the traveler with a compass. In fact one day when return- ing from an exploring trip to the snow line, the clouds rolled up while we were still four or five miles from camp. Ridge after ridge disappeared from sight until soon we could see only the rocks close about us. There was no trail to follow and we were soon unable to recognize any of the features of the landscape that were still visible. For two hours we stumbled along trying to keep track of the number of ridges as we passed them and trying to recall the number passed during the morning, until finally we gave up hope of return that night. Looking about for a spot somewhat sheltered from the raw winds which had already begun to sweep down from the snows above us, a ray of light very far to the left attracted our at- tention and we looked just in time to see the rift in the clouds close again. We knew it must have been reflected from the small lake at the head of the valley in which we were camped and realized that we had been traveling at least an hour in exactly the wrong direction. It was not reluctantly therefore, that we abandoned the thought of beds of frailejons and made straight for our little lake. In terrible thirst and fatigue and after many collapses from the great altitude, we were able at last to perceive its dim silver outline, and we knew we were little more than a mile from camp. This was our first warning to leave the paramo. In a few weeks these ridges would be covered with snow and swept by gales. The clouds and fog would not part for days and life would be unendur- able — although even then one would feel the more deeply the grandeur of the elements, and with the mountain tops shut from view, would still know their awe-inspiring presence. With this warning then, we prepared to leave the paramo. AN APPRECIATION OF THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL By Frederic A. Lucas HERE died in Washington on September 25, 1914, the man who may well be termed the Nestor of American zodélogists, not per- haps so much from the fact that he chanced to be a year or so older than his compeers, as grasp of vari- ous branches of zodlogi- cal science. Theodore Nicholas Gill was born in from his extraordinary New York, March ‘21, 1837. He passed part of his early life in Brook- lyn, and we infer from his “Reminis- cences of the Apprentice’s Library’’ that this an- cestor of the Brooklyn In- stitute of Arts and Sciences had much to do with turn- ing his atten- tion from law toward natu- ral history. with the Institute that was to be, in 1854, when he was seventeen, and as long as he remained in Brooklyn, made use of its library and collections and was a regular attendant at the meetings of the Lyceum of Natural History, being for a part of the time its secretary. He first became familiar The fact that shells were the objects most readily obtained and preserved by amateurs, and the accessibility of the fine ichthyological library of Mr. J. Carson Breevoort, seem to have been the factors that directed his attention to conchology and ichthyology, although, as noted far- ther on, other factors came into play The influence of Baird and of the Smithso- nian Institu- tion led him to Washing- ton in 1863, where for a later. time he was librarian of the Smithso- nian Institu- and assist- tion later, ant librarian of the Library of Congress. For one who achieved such tant he did com- impor- results paratively little original work, from a natural indolence of body which led him to take life easily, to shun the dissecting table, to relegate the labor of preparation to others and to utilize their work, even if he might not accept their conclusions, for he possessed to an unusual extent the ability to make use of the work of others, not by claiming it 9 10 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL as his own, but by embodying it as one of many items in some important gen- eralization. If one may so put it, he took the bricks of information turned out by many workers and combined them into an edifice of knowledge. As might perhaps be expected from one of his temperament, he was a “ closet”’ rather than a “field” naturalist, al- though in his earlier days he visited the West Indies in the interests of Mr. D. Jackson Steward, whose shells! form part of the collections of the American Museum of Natural History. For many years his favorite morning haunt was the library of the United States National Museum, and later, the periodical room in the Smithsonian, where he read the standard scientific journals as soon as they were received, and noted the most recent discoveries in those lines in which he was especially interested. This extensive reading, coupled with a wonderfully retentive memory, made him an extraordinary source of information. He was a verita- ble storehouse of zodlogical facts, which were freely placed at the disposal of anyone who really wished them. As a matter of detail, he probably had at his tongue’s end more scientific names of animals than any other living man — more probably than anyone will ever know again. This wide knowledge ren- dered easy such work as the technical parts of the zodlogical portion of the Century and Standard dictionaries. In the first-named work he was associated with Dr. Coues, and more than once sorely tried the patience of his colleague by his procrastinating habits,? for while Coues was a fluent talker and ready writer, he was also a hard and syste- 1 Gill’s second published paper was on Cyprea notata, now considered a synonym of C. macula, from a specimen in the collection of D. W. Fergu- son, which is now in the collection of Columbia University. matic worker, as his many books and various papers bear witness. It is rather interesting to note that these two men, Coues and Gill, should have been so closely associated, for Coues probably did more than any other one man to. popularize the study of birds and mam- mals, and Gill, though largely indirectly, did much to systematize and stabilize the technical side. As an example of Gill’s ultra-technical style may be cited his definition of Giraffidee: A family of ruminant artiodactyl mam- mals, having the placenta polycotyledonary, the stomach quadripartite with developed psalterium, the cervical vertebre much elongated, the dorso-lumbars declivous back- wards and horns present only as frontal apophyses covered with integument. Coues read this and turning to Gill said, “That is n’t English, its Choctaw.” “No,” said Gill, “it is an exact defini- tion of the family.” For many years, more than twenty to the writer’s knowledge, Gill occupied a room on the west side of the big north tower of the Smithsonian, and for a long time Coues had an office on the opposite side, the two opening into a still larger intercommunicating room. Dr. Gill’s room like the girl’s workbasket, had a “nlace for everything and everything | in it,’’— desk, chairs, shelves, floor — especially floor — were covered, aside from dust, with a miscellaneous collec- tion of books, pamphlets, old letters, skulls, skeletons and odds and ends of wearing apparel. During the summer this deposit, like a lava stream, flowed 2The recent article in Science is in error in calling Dr. Gill the author of the zodlogical text of the Century Dictionary: Dr. Coues was the editor and wrote the major part of the definitions and chose the larger number of the illustrations; Dr. Gill was the scientific adviser, so to speak, and Coues relied largely upon him for accurate and technical information. Gill wrote a large share of the technical definitions, particularly those of the families and genera of mammals and fishes. — The Author. AN APPRECIATION OF THEODORE NICHOLAS GILL 11 slowly eastward until by fall all three rooms were filled and Dr. Gill was work- ing at Coues’s desk: Here and in the Museum library Dr. Gill’s papers were mainly prepared, for even in his later days he rarely made use of a stenog- rapher. Géill’s astonishing knowledge of names and his exactness in matters of nomenclature made him extremely help- ful in the bestowal of names upon new species, and it was customary for one about to christen some newly discovered beast, bird or fish to ask him if the proposed name had been previously used, a procedure that saved much time and many synonyms. He excelled in tracing the history of some much de- scribed species through the mazes of literature in which it had wandered, and delighted to show that what Aristotle is supposed to have called some animal was really quite a different creature. He was the first president of the Biological Society of Washington and hence a life member of the council; he was also an almost constant attendant -atits meetings. As the present special- ization of societies had not even begun, the members of this society represented many branches of science and the papers presented covered a remarkably wide range of subjects, varying from technical to popular, and from Protozoa to Pri- mates. It mattered not what paper was presented, it came to be expected that if Dr. Gill did not lead the discussion, he would participate in it, and when at the close of some paper the hearers turned expectantly toward Dr. Gill, they were rarely disappointed. He was a severe, one might almost say merciless critic, not from any particular personal animus, but because he expected an exact state- ment of fact. While the majority of Gill’s papers were systematic, yet on occasion he could write most entertainingly, and not only did he have a vast fund of informa- tion on which to draw, but the reader had the satisfaction of feeling that he could rely upon what he was being told. His contributions to zoégeography were numerous also and the subject was dealt with in at least two of his presidential addresses. Among the more important deductions that he made were the recognition of the claim of the Elasmobranchs to a position of the “highest” rank and of the purely artificial nature of the groups Carinatze and Ratitze in birds. He accurately defined and established on a _ sound structural basis seven orders of fishes, to say nothing of genera, and was prac- tically the first to suggest that the curious little fishes termed Leptocephalus were larval forms of eels. As an example of the estimation in which the work of Dr. Gill was held by fellow scientists, one cannot do better than to quote an extract from David Starr Jordan’s Guide to the Study of Fishes read by Dr. Smith at the Testi- monial Dinner to Dr. Gill: Theodore Nicholas Gill is the keenest interpreter of taxonomic facts yet known in the history of ichthyology. He is the author of a vast number of papers, the first bearing date of 1858, touching almost every group and almost every phase of relation among fishes. His numerous suggestions as_ to classification have been usually accepted in time by other authors, and no one has had a clearer perception than he of the necessity of orderly methods in nomenclature. And Dr. Jordan further wrote: In my scientific work I have owed more to the critical ability of Dr. Gill and his clear insight in matters of classification and ge- neric relations than to any other man whatso- ever. In all the long history of science there has been no one who has had this unique quality of being able to see through unim- portant things to the real heart in biological classification as has Dr. Gill. Sumunoos dnd 10j Apvod pue sjvos iNpe JO porvoyo AIayYOOI YOReq B SMOYS DVAOG®B ydeisoj0yd oq,L ONILNNOOD YOS AGVAY AYANOOY puvyst ined “38 ‘IH wosuTyoIn_ “poyUN0D osoMm sdnd ¢zZg‘OT YOM wodj wore AJOYOOI posseu B UMOYS st MOTOG Ydeasojoyd oy} UT AY¥3axOOY WAS-HNSsA THE MAKING OF A FUR-SEAL CENSUS —— By George Archibald Clark {Of Leland Stanford University] HE really important practical ae problem in connection with the fur-seal herd of the Pribilof Islands has always been that of enumera- tion. How many animals are there? Is the herd increasing or diminishing? What is the rate either way? What number of young males can safely be taken each year? What breeding __re- serve should | be set aside? a These ques- tions can be answered ef- fectively only by a more or less exact cen- sus of the herd. In making a fur-seal census you cannot, as in the case of human com- munities, go to the head of the household. The harem master is not an approacha- ble being and will not discuss family affairs with you. You go within his circle, if at all, at your peril. You can stand on the neighbor- ing cliffs and looking down upon his household observe many things of in- terest; but this will not tell you whether all his wives are at home or how many children he has. The children hide in Bull fur seal, Gorbatch Rookery, St. Paul Island the crevices of the rocks and most of the mothers are away at sea feeding. It is easy to count the harem masters. Each one is big and aggressive and is always at home. As you come into his range of vision he rises up to greet you like a bristling question mark. The fur-seal families can therefore be easily counted. Itis even possible to count the individual fe- males on many scattered breeding areas, and this fact has been uti- lized at times to gain an approximate enumeration, an average harem being thus obtained which could be applied to breeding areas where counts of individuals were impossi- ble. The fur-seal census how- ever, does not rest finally with the adult animals; it rests in the young of the season, or the fur-seal pups. Although destined to spend most of its life in the water and to brave all kinds of weather, the fur-seal pup in the beginning is timid of the water and keeps away from it dur- ing the first month or six weeks of its life. 13 14 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL There is a time therefore in each breed- ing season when all of the pups are absolutely within reach; and as there is a mother for each pup, a count of the pups is in effect an enumeration of the mothers — the breeding females — the all-important element in the herd. By the first of August each season, practically all of the fur-seal pups are born. About this time also the majority of the harem masters, who have fasted since their arrival in May, have with- drawn from the rookeries to feed at sea. The mother seal, while she will defend her pup of a few hours old with her life, pays no attention to it when it is a week or more old, betaking herself promptly to the sea when disturbed and leaving the pup to shift for itself. A very little urging therefore suffices to clear the rookeries of the older animals, leaving the young to be dealt with by themselves. The period is a limited one because when the fur-seal pups begin to take to the water the transition from a land animal to a water animal is very sudden and after the pups gain command of themselves in the water they take to it instantly when disturbed. There is however, a period of about ten days in early August when the pups can be con- trolled and counted. The fur-seal rookeries occupy about eight miles of shore front, generally in a narrow band twenty to fifty feet in width. At certain points there are massed areas. Each form of breeding ground has its own problems in the counting. The narrow beaches have holes and crevices among the rocks where the little animals hide. On the massed areas they can be more readily controlled, but there is ‘danger of crowding and smothering. The difficulties in neither case are seri- ous and call merely for care and experi- ence in dealing with them. On the narrow beach portions, the process of counting is carried out by two persons, one passing along the sea- ward side of the rookery, the other on the landward side. Coming together they cut off a small group of twenty-five to one hundred pups and force them to run back along the beach twenty to fifty yards. These pups represent vary- ing ages and degrees of strength since they are born at different dates between the twelfth of June and the first of August and they therefore naturally line out in order of capacity to travel and this line can be readily counted. The process is like that of the counting of sheep as they pass through a narrow gate. Group by group the pups of a given rookery are counted. Between the pas- sage of the separate pods, or groups, the openings in the rocks are searched for hidden animals. Careful search is also made for the dead, a necessary part of the enumeration. The services of na- tive helpers who, preliminary to the work of counting have driven off the adult animals, are utilized at all times to keep the pods of counted animals from mingling with those not counted. Where massed groups occur they are rounded up and held loosely on some flat surface, a native guard being posted about, except at one point from which the animals are allowed to run off. These departing pups again travel readily in lines which can be counted by two’s and three’s and four’s. If tendency to stampede develops, a guard is thrown across the front and a new opening at some other point is estab- lished. By the above process, repeated and varied as conditions demanded, in a period of four hours, approximately eleven thousand fur-seal pups. were handled and counted from the massed breeding ground under Hutchinson Hill on St. Paul Island in July, 1913. One of the accompanying photographs illus- A general rookery view from the cliffs, showing contrast between males and females by which harems can be counted. The young seals hide in the crevices of rocks and a large number of the mothers may be away at sea feeding, but it is easy to count the harem masters who are big and aggressive and are always at home. An approximate average of the females in a harem must often be applied to packed breeding areas where the bulls alone are conspicuous and individual enumeration impossible The process of counting fur-seal pups in the massed area on Hutchinson Hill, July, 1913. Note in the background of the photograph the long line of pups which are being counted as they file past. Fur-seal pups are easily counted only during a period of some ten days in early August. | after they are a week or so old and the mothers no longer defend their young but depart leaving them to shift for themselves, and before they have learned to take care of themselves — in which later condi- tion of course they take to the water as soon as approached This is 15 ONILNNOO NI G3SIGNVH ONIZE SdNd 4O GOd AASSVW V S16. ‘Ane ‘AJOYOOY Ulpedez, oy jo speos my WSYVH SIH DSNIGHYYNS THE MAKING OF A FUR-SEAL CENSUS 17 trates the operation of counting and the following is a record of the pods as run off: 152, 108, 146, 54, 128, 152, 116,-40, 152, 68, - 200, 78, 96, 150, , 44, 52, 56, 122, 144, 23, 83, 110, 66, 150, 232, 98, 10, 102, 120, 53, 119, 106, 118, 14, 56, 62, 58, 88, 91, 68, 21, 61, 42, 110, 67, 72, 68, 88, 90, 66, 48, 20, 61, 58, 88, 50, 80, 168, 14, 68, 37, 68, 116, 82, 68, 33, 128, 41, 44, 15, 25, 54, 134, 243, 54, 90, 42, 116, 75, 120, 100, 57, 36, 17, 116, 44, 36, 50, 79, 88, 68, 115, 69, 118, 153, 122, 56, 33, 55, 48, 70, 124, 174, 63, 180, 146, 14, 73, 146, 84, 173, 235, 129, 52, 25, 26, 63, 102..Total, 10,576. It was by this process of counting, applied day by day to the rookeries in 1912, that the first full count of fur-seal ‘pups was made, the number being 81,984. A repetition of the process in 1913 gave a total of 92,269. The differ- ence, approximately twelve and one- half per cent, marks the rate of increase in the herd between the two seasons, the first seasons for thirty-five years in which the fur-seal herd was free from the drain of pelagic sealing [suspended by treaty of July 7, 1911], with its destruc- tion of mother seals and their young. These, three elements—the adult males, the adult females, and the young of the season — constitute the important features of the fur-seal census. They were thus fixed by actual count. There remain certain other animals in the herd which cannot be counted. These are the two and one-year-old females and the young males of four years and under. They come and go irregularly, some of them spending very little time on land. The annual rate of increase in the herd, established by the counts of 1912 and 1913, enables us to estimate very closely the number of young three-year-old females on which it depends. The sexes are subject to like vicissitudes and from the approxi- mately equal birthrate of the sexes a like number of three-year-old males may be assumed to survive. The two- year animals can be closely judged from these, and the yearlings, from births of the preceding year, diminished by the losses which experience shows the ani- mals to suffer in the first migration. Putting these various estimates to- gether and uniting them with the counted animals we have the following total for the fur-seal herd in the season of 1913: Breeding males 1,403 Reserve males. P- 2:364 Breeding females 92,269 Young of the season 92,269 Three-year-old males 10,000 Two-year-olds . 30,000 Yearlings 40,000 Total . 268,305 This census affords to the government as accurate a knowledge of the status of its fur-seal herd as, for example, the average cattleman has of the animals on his range. The herd will now grow steadily in the future and in due time as many animals may be expected in the herd as it formerly showed, between two and three millions. With this growth, count- ing of all the pups cannot long be con-~- tinued. The task will become too great. It can however, be continued on certain limited areas and the balance of the herd judged by these. Certain valuable averages have been obtained — for the individual rookeries, for each of the islands, and for the herd as a whole. It will always be possible to get a rea- sonably accurate count of the breeding families. To this the known averages of harem sizes in 1912 and 1913 can be applied with a result sufficiently exact for all practical purposes. MOSS AGATE MOCHA STONES, HINDOOSTAN Specimens from the Morgan Collection of Precious Stones in the American Museum. Illustration from The Curious Lore of Precious Stones, by George Frederick Kunz, Ph.D., D.Sc. Copyrighted 1913, by J. B. Lippincott Company, Publishers, Philadelphia 18 THE CURIOSITIES OF GEMMOLOGY A REVIEW OF A RECENT BOOK BY GEORGE FREDERIC KUNZ ON SUPERSTI- TIONS AND MEANINGS ATTACHED TO PRECIOUS STONES These metaphysics of magicians, And necromantic books are heavenly. Lines, circles, scenes, letters, and characters: O what a world of profit and delight Of power, honour, and omnipotence, Is promised to the studious artizan. Tragical History of Doctor Faustus. HE pages of a recent book ! by Dr. George Frederick Kunz, hono- rary curator of gems at the American Museum, will be turned over - by the fascinated reader with, we ima- gine, the most interesting commixture of feelings, an interfusion of wonder, amuse- ment and half-credulous assent, of admiration and curiosity. He will feel admiration at the art and discernment, the resources and adequacy of the author, and curiosity as to the origin or real derivation of such strange pre- dispositions, hallucinations and _ ultra- romantic traditions and fancies, regard- ing these “mute insensate things.” Certainly the traditions and fancies are not unfamiliar. In any desultory read- ing they have been encountered by every- one — not forgetting indeed the Wilkie Collins story of boyhood, The Moon Stone, but here through almost four hundred pages of anecdote, quotation, description and allusion, reénforced by beautiful figures and plates, the effect is bewildering. Why these attributes of miraculous power? Why the association of precious stones with religious beliefs, why the mystic influences credited to birthstones, the extra-terrestrial stations assigned to gems in the zodiac, and their 1Txe Curious Lore or Precious STongs. By George Frederick Kunz. Philadelphia and London: J. B. Lippincott Company, 1913. L. P. Gratacap ascription to the planets — with the more contemporaneous touch of occultism when we read of the prophetic powers of crystal balls, their magical landscapes and portents? Such questions are surely not answered in Dr. Kunz’s work, and indeed a sowpcon of dissatisfaction arises when we think that we discover in the learned writer, a poetic acquiescence in these ascriptions, as perhaps becomes the antiquarian, the virtuoso, the con- noisseur, and above all the philosophic historian. But if reasons are not fully discussed, albeit many passages assume some seri- ousness in that respect, the display of facts, the careful analysis of reports, and the evidence of large research, the clearness and charm of narration, with the remarkable elegance of illustration, are all there. The frontispiece of the book is a su- perbly colored plate of cut and polished gem-stones, many from the Morgan- Tiffany collection in the Museum. This is followed by three other fine examples of color reproduction: Cardinal Farley’s ring, gems from the Morgan-Tiffany collection, and the dazzling cross, at- tached as pendant to the crown of the Gothic King Reccesvinthus. The remaining illustrations evince the quali- ties of the unusual, the rococo, the quaint, the delicate and the antique, as befits a book of a semiliterary and scientific scope; the touch of the virtuoso is plain and the guidance of expert taste as well. The chapters as they succeed each other are as follows: Superstitions 19 20 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL and their Sources; Talismans and Amu- lets; Talismanic Use of Special Stones; Engraved and Carved Gems; Ominous and Luminous Stones [with an excep- tionally valuable plate giving the auto- photographs of luminous diamonds]; Crystal Balls and Crystal Gazing; Reli- gious Uses of Precious Stones; The High-Priest’s Breastplate; Birth-Stones; Planetary and Astral Influences; On Therapeutic Uses of Stones. The book has an overwhelming wealth of detail and assembled references, avail- able literature and the most diverse elements of evidence having been care- fully sifted. We are not sure, but we believe that one field has not been har- vested, and that is the Church Fathers, interesting and possibly prolific of quota- tion, since the patristic writers were in- quisitive in many ways. Apart from the purely archaic strangeness of the fancies the book records — regarding the quali- ties of gems and precious stones, interest emphatically attaches to the accounts of crystal-gazing. It might be regretted that Dr. Kunz has not reviewed at greater length the work of Miss Good- rich-Freer and of Miss Gregor (Andrew Lang’s friend), and extracted more liber- ally from Crystal-Gazing by Northcote W. Thomas, as also from Andrew Lang’s Making of Religion, which has many cases, appreciatively recorded, of “sery- ing” (short for descrying). Tothose of us a little “ dematerialized,” as Oliver Lodge for instance, an agreeable mysteriousness is felt in Mr. Lang’s words, “If then the crystal gazer is right in a considerable percentage of cases, to my unmathematical mind it does look as if some unknown human faculty and fact in nature may be surmised.” Dr. Kunz does mention “hypnagogic illusions,” the illusive appearances in- troducing sleep, and he does contribute more space than perhaps he deemed the subject could claim in his work, to a few guesses as to the nature of the queer phenomena so frequently adduced in this connection. The Curious Lore of Precious Stones is a most entertaining book, and to the re- flective reader will afford a singular reti- nue of impressions as to the vast credu- lity and the imaginative exuberance of the human mind, so that perchance as he lays it down, he will exclaim with the “Duke” in Twelfth-Night: so full of shapes is fancy That it alone is high fantastical. Rubellite, from the Shan Mountains, China. Used as idol’s eye in India Star of India—Proba- bly the largest star sapphire in the world Engraved Emerald— East Indian Carving, 17th Century , Copyrighted 1913, by J, B. Lippincott Co. GEMS FROM THE MORGAN COLLECTION IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY : at ns as ; it ; ; * s : be . = i ‘ a i TO DRAMATIZE CONSERVATION STAGE AND MUSEUM TO JOIN HANDS IN A NEW OPPORTUNITY By Winthrop Packard The Journnat-publishes the present sketch by Mr. Packard concerning museum werk as viewed by poet and dramatist, for its suggestiveness. In respect to it relative to the American Museum, we would say that this institution holds the belief that an educational institution of the organization ofa museum should employ all the codperation possible and use all the methods feasible at any given period in the history of civilization, in order to make its service reach the minds and imaginations of the people who come to learn from it. The American Museum in New York is at present broadening its relations with the public schools of the city and employs moving pictures in much of its educational work. That it should at some time in the future use some form of the drama as one of its methods of education, does not seem an impossible step.— Eprror. HE poet’s vision hasdone much for together for the world’s welfare and now the world, and the dramatist vis- the poet comes forward with a new vision. ualizing the poet’s thought, has The stage is to visualize conservation and done much. Often the two have worked make its needs felt by the public. “Drama and conser- vation,” says Percy Mackaye to whom we owe the new. idea, “is a new coupling of the words, but the present age is restive of tradition and for the first time in history the naturalist and the artist of the theatre have come _ to- gether to consider how they can serve the public. The nature student never goes to the drama except For the child the museum must put more beauty and dramatic truth into its exhibits of animals. Arvia, the poet’s little daughter who, wandering in the woods and listening to the hermit thrush, sees and hears as in a dream the story of the play, Sanctuary. Through her vision we see the dancing of the dryad in the realm of fantasy, hear the pleading voice of the bird spirit — and come to feel the cruelty that it is to take the life of a wild bird for its plumage 21 22 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL as a diversion. There he expects to for- get his study of bird and beast and revel in a world of fantasy which has nothing in common with science. In the same way the worker of the theatre goes to nature merely for rest and relaxation. What does wild nature mean to him excepting a pageant of unnamable birds and ani- mals in whose presence he may forget the cares of his work? But that is the old-fashioned point of view for both. A new school arises and we are discover- ing that scientists and artists are one soul, seeking truth by two methods — the one objective, the other subjective. Science has fought its fight with super- stition and tradition and has won. Art is only beginning its fight with supersti- tion. Dramatic art is not yet delivered from its life scramble with quacks and commercialism. Yet in the hearts of the people, is the origin both of drama and of conservation and there the two will ultimately work together.” “The plea for conservation,’ says the naturalist Ernest Harold Baynes, “must reach the hearts of the people before it can achieve success. They must visualize the beauty and romance of wild life as well as its economic value. Then they will be willing to conserve it.” Out of these beliefs of naturalist and poet came the bird masque Sanctuary, by Percy Mackaye, under the tutelage, one suspects, of Mr. Baynes. The play is a dream of Mackaye’s little daughter, to whom through the voice of the hermit comes the great need of preserving our wild birds. is a story told in action, but I believe that a better definition is an idea visu- alized.” In Sanctuary we have the idea that bird life must be conserved, visu- alized and made very real. It is believed that the play gave im- petus to the fight for the clause in the new tariff bill, forbidding the importa- ¢ “The text-books,”’ says» Augustus Thomas, “tell us that drama~ tion of feathers. Thus already has the drama been a powerful agency in for- warding the movement for the preserva- tion of wild birds — but the opportunity has merely a beginning in this. It is easy to see that the needs of forestry, of the protection of our water supply, and in fact of all branches of conserva- tion may be put upon the stage with equal beauty and grace. “Let us dramatize our museums,” says Mackaye. “The natural history museum is established for a great social object, the conservation of wild nature knowledge in the hearts of people. Equipped by science only, it cannot fully obtain the interest of the people for whom: it was founded. It must go farther and reach their imaginations. As it stands now indeed, it is a public boon; the people spend their spare time on Sunday at the museum, gazing eagerly at the exhibits although they only in part understand them and do not, in any case, fully appreciate their meaning. They spend their spare time for the rest of the week at the “movies.” To them the museum is never ecstatic and vivid, but the moving pictures are. . Yet, it ought to be possible so to interpret the exhibits at a museum as to make them live for the general public as do the moving pictures. The naturalists and taxidermists have felt this need in creating the exhibits and have done their best to meet it. It is possible completely to fulfill this need. The drama can do it..... Pageantry pos- sesses the people. It must become a civic-drama in name and in technique and will develop the masque to fit the public needs.” The masque Sanctuary has thus marked the beginning of an epoch in the service which the stage of the future is to render humanity. It offers a new field to player and playwright — a new pleasure and a new incentive to the playgoer. THE CROW INDIAN SUN DANCE By Robert H. Lowie HILE I was investigating vari- ous phases of the old Crow eulture in 1910, I heard a good deal about the sacred dolls formerly used in the Sun Dance, but without any expectation of ever seeing one “in the flesh”’ since the last ceremony of this type had been celebrated thirty-five years previously. After a while I learned however, that not only a doll, but what my informants regarded as the most sacred of all dolls, was still in the possession of an elderly widow, named “Pretty-enemy,’’ whose husband had been the real owner. Pretty-enemy, being a woman, was not even permitted to unwrap her precious possession, which was occasionally taken out by old men visitors, who would address it in prayer and restore it to its envelope. The sense of unremunerative ownership evi- dently weighed on the woman’s mind, and when she heard that I had bought numerous articles of ethnographical in- terest she approached me through my interpreter with an offer to sell the doll. The price first demanded was so extra- vagant that I felt obliged to decline with regret, but after a lapse of negotiations Pretty-enemy again approached me with Then the purchase was consummated after I had pledged strict secrecy so far as the Reservation people were concerned, for the woman was very much afraid of a@ more reasonable offer. social ostracism as soon as her action should become known. Looking at the doll with a layman’s eye, one would hardly be disposed to set much store by it. It is a stuffed effigy of the human form, about six inches long, with crudely marked eyes and mouth, and a number of half-faded rectangular crosses front and back, to symbolize the One of the most highly venerated of the medicine bundles of the Crow Indians. a rawhide envelope in which was kept the sacred doll together with various smaller sacred objects used in the ceremony of the Sun Dance. It consists of 92 -? THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL morningstar; the head is topped with a profusion of plumes. The rawhide en- velope in which the doll was kept also contained a number of subsidiary articles, including skunkskin regalia worn by the pledger of the Sun Dance, rawhide effigies, beaded bags and bunches of feathers — none of them of ostensibly great intrinsic value. Why then was this medicine bundle so highly regarded by the natives? In order to understand this, we must understand the character of the Crow Sun Dance. By the several Plains tribes the Sun Dance was celebrated for a variety of reasons. Among the Western Algonkin, for example, it was performed mainly in order to ward off disease or other danger from the pledger and his family. But among the Crow the motive was quite different from that of their neighbors: a Crow promised to undergo the expense’ and hardship of the ceremony only when some near relative of his had been slain by the enemy and for the sole purpose of wreaking vengeance on the guilty tribe. Any military operation whatsoever was supposed to be the result of a super- _natural revelation that ensured success, and accordingly such a revelation was sought in the Sun Dance, but in this case the end could be secured only through the hypnotic action of a particular type of object, the sacred doll. By fixedly gazing at the doll during the dance, a man could make himself go “out of his head,” that is, go into a trance. When in this condition he would see an enemy lying bleeding on the ground, and this vision was taken as a promise by the supernatural powers that his quest for revenge would be crowned with success. Hence the mourner who undertook a Sun Dance was obliged to seek out some man This sacred doll (about six inches long) was thought to give a vision at the close of an elaborate ceremony called the ‘““Sun Dance,’’ which lasted several days and’ in which all members of the tribe took part. The last Crow Sun Dance was celebrated some’ thirty-five years ago THE CROW INDIAN SUN DANCE 25 owning one of the dolls and induce him to supply the needed effigy, and act as master of ceremonies, vested with dictatorial powers. The doll bought of Pretty-enemy had been successful, above all others of-its-kind, in effecting visions that led to victorious reprisals against the enemy, hence the high veneration in which it was held by the tribe. It would seem from the above that the entire Sun Dance pivoted about the doll and the vision it procured. In a certain sense this is true, for no sooner had the vision been experienced and announced than the ceremony came to an abrupt stop, and preparations were made to bring about the fulfillment of the promise embodied in the revelation. Neverthe- less this would be a very one-sided point of view. For the Crow Sun Dance, like the corresponding ceremony of all other Plains tribes, was a very elaborate per- formance, lasting several days, in which practically all the members of the tribe played a part. To the pledger and the doll-owner, to be sure, the essential thing was the vision to be obtained through the doll, but to the other tribesmen, whether actors or spectators, the per- formance meant something quite differ- ent. As in all great assemblies of the Crow tribe, there was abundant oppor- tunity for the recital of one’s heroic exploits; accordingly, to the great warriors the Sun Dance was a chance for self-aggrandizement before a large audience. Again, certain offices in the construction of the lodge devolved only on men and women of a perfectly pure mode of life, hence for these the cere- mony meant a public recognition of virtue. Then there were others who voluntarily underwent self-torture, not to enhance the vision of the pledger, but in order to secure one for their own benefit. As for the common herd, what appealed to them most was probably the dramatic aspect of the spectacle and the licensed frivolity that was customary throughout the duration of the ceremony. The great interest of the Crow Sun Dance lies precisely in this: that it brings out so clearly the great difference be- tween theory and reality, which coin- cides in this case with that between the esoteric and the exoteric aspects of the ceremony. ‘Theoretically, any part of the performance not directly contribut- ing to the production of the vision would seem superfluous. But in reality, to the great majority of the people, the “superfluous” portions of the perfor- mance are probably the main object of interest, filling the want of a free show. Moreover, these exoteric parts are the very ones that are most widely diffused over the Plains area and are thus pre- sumably of great antiquity. To say therefore, that the entire Sun Dance of the Crow is nothing but the quest of a vision to ensure vengeance, would be wide of the truth. It seems so only to the logic-chopping white observer, or to the native himself when he begins to theorize about the complex things he does. But apart from the pledger, the Indian performers or witnesses pass through. various psychological states during the ceremony, which are very remote from the notion embodied in the theory of the performance. This ten- dency to rationalize his actions, to inter- pret things to himself and mislead himself and the guileless ethnologist as to his real motives, is a very marked characteristic of primitive man that has invited and continues to engage the attention of ethnologists. THE COMMON ROUND-WINGED KATYDID Some recent ingenious and painstaking work in motion pictures has brought to our eyes the mysterious activities of insects in a way we should never have thought possible The katydid ‘‘sings’’ by rubbing together the overlapping glassy parts of the wings just back of the head 26 EDUCATIONAL MOTION PICTURES IN NATURAL HISTORY By Raymond L. Ditmars HE growth of the educational motion picture rather parallels that of its dra- matic ally. There was a time when a moving picture of a railroad train was con- sidered a novelty and from that time the product for the theatres has grown steadily in elaboration until superb dramatic produc- tions of five and six thousand foot lengths are in use in every civilized part of the world. When I first considered the practicability of showing the habits of mammals, reptiles, amphibians and insects by means of motion pictures, I was confronted with the immediate decision that an especially constructed labo- ratory would be necessary and this would probably involve much originally designed apparatus. The latter point proved to be of prime importance. It was fully a year after the construction of the studio that con- tinual experimental work demonstrated the best available apparatus. Experimentation had been difficult and so costly that I was called to a halt for five months in preparing “popular” educational films for theatrical use in order to cover expenses to purchase the necessary apparatus. The studio was finally lighted with a com- bination battery of mercury vapor lamps and are lights. It was necessarily arranged to do all the photographing by electric light owing to daytime duties at the Zodlogical Park. — Switchboards, light housings and supports, all stagework, backgrounds and general acces- sories were built at the studio. A projecting room was arranged for the immediate testing of all films, an automobile provided with ap- paratus for collecting and a number of tanks and cages provided for specimens. Actual work in preparing a systematic series of nat- ural history films was begun in August of 1913. With the reopening of the free lec- tures of the Board of Education of New York City in the fall of 1913, the first of these films was used for educational purposes. The work of photographing mammals, rep- tiles and insects demands much varied in- genuity. Some of the mammals large enough to be dangerous took many liberties in the studio and at times did considerable damage. In order to avoid any trace of cagework in the pictures, the subjects had the free run of the place and were enticed upon the stages with food or by rock shelters built for them. The promptings of a hungry stomach were found to be the most effective in the stage manage- ment of this theatre of nature and many of the pictures were made at the period .of feeding time. The prowling of a hungry ocelot or tiger cat is a good illustration of animal man- agement. For several days this creature’s food had been concealed in different locations of the stage — sometimes hidden among thé rocks or concealed in the branch of a tree. The picture was taken as the cat started to search for the food, crouching, scenting and alertly peering about, in characteristic actions of the wilds. With the scenes of poisonous snakes strik- ing, where there was the necessity of taking the photographs very close to the reptiles, the camera was run by an electric motor. This relieved the human operator of the grave danger of standing within a few feet of an infuriated fer-de-lance or cobra. In pho- tographing the ring-necked cobra or Spugh- schlange of South Africa, the camera was peppered with drops of poison, as this snake voluntarily sprays its venom a distance of six to eight feet, its object being.to blind the enemy. The snake was induced to face the camera by projecting a spot of light on a white semaphore directly under the lens. The development of the eggs of frogs and toads was obtained with a camera set before a Bohemian glass jar and from the same posi- tion recording a few feet of film each day. One of these cameras did such duty for a period of two months, thus placing this in- strument hors-de-combat for all other labora- tory work. The life history of several spiders was obtained in like fashion. The story of a large species. of. Lycosa, or wolf spider, was recorded throughout upon the same “‘field’”’— a gravelly hollow six inches square. After each photograph the enclosure was covered with a bell-glass and wet sponge to provide the proper moisture — for many spiders are particularly delicate as captives. The care of this spider was more laborious than that of a large animal. Soft-bodied grubs were hunted for her and she received drinking water by permitting miniature drops 27 28 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL to run to the end of a broom straw. These precautions were necessary in preserving the absolute cleanliness of her tiny yard, which on the projecting screen would be magnified thousands of areas. The spinning of her egg cocoon was successfully accomplished and we awaited with much anxiety the time when the young spiders would emerge and craw] upon the parent’s back — hundreds of them, pre- senting an indescribable spectacle. At last this chapter of the family history was recorded and there was a wait of eight days for the infants to swarm from the mother’s back and shift for themselves. This process may be spectacularly inaugurated by a sudden vibra- tion of the ground, causing the parent to jump — then a riot of the spiderlings swarms over the ground. An additional camera was trained into the field, for once the dispersal takes place all is over and the little spiders are gone. The critical time, when the youngsters appeared uneasy, arrived on a humid evening, when a heavy electrical storm was brewing. The rectifiers for the mercury vapor lamps were already giving some trouble as the cameras were adjusted. With the cameras running, we dropped a steel ball upon the metal stand containing the spider arena to cause it to vibrate, and the spider family departed to all points of the compass. This was an event we had anxiously awaited and luck appeared to be with the photographer. As the electrician prepared to throw out the main switch and extinguish the illuminating batteries, light- ning followed the feed wires into the studio and gave us a week’s work repairing burned- out parts. But the history of the spider family was completed minus a few feet of film showing the exit of the more laggard members. So many insects are tiny, almost micro- scopic creatures and such a large propor- tion of them perform their characteristic capers in inaccessible places that the value of greatly enlarged motion picture portrayals opens previously impossible opportunities for study and observation in the schoolroom. By these methods students are enabled to see habits that the greater number of them would never in any other way observe. Not one child in a million has seen the katydid sing, the praying mantis rear in frightful pose, grasp and devour a fly, a gaudy grass- hopper carefully brush pollen dust from its face. It is not so difficult to obtain motion pic- tures of insects eating because these creatures are always hungry and persist in satisfying their appetites even under greatly disturbed conditions, but to obtain scenes of nervous spiders caring for their young and to show insects singing — that is a different matter. To photograph the katydid singing was a difficult task. This insect sings by serap- ing the wings together and only at night. A light of any kind will stop it. Yet to photo- graph a singing specimen at night meant that a stream of powerful electric light must be turned upon the songster. The deed was done in a grove of young oaks close to the studio. Several dozen katydids were placed in the trees and the camera — on a high tripod — focused on the vegetation of a tree in the center of the grove. The instrument, with special long focus lens was to record the movement of a single insect that watched all proceedings, but remained silent owing to our close arrangements with the machines. The camera was then belted to a small motor so that no operator would stand by the instru- ment to disturb the insect. A searchlight, such as is used in the navy was then trained on the single tree in which reposed the actor, its powerful rays making photography possible. With the remainder of the grove in darkness the decoy katydids sang vigorously. In the intense beam of violet light the principal in this educational drama was seen turning slowly. Was it irritated by the light, and would it crawl from the lines of focus? This would mean much labor in moving the heavy apparatus in what seemed a fruitless and costly experiment. But its uneasiness was caused by the saucy taunts of the decoys. Its wings were elevated slightly. «It could not resist answering some of those rasping calls. The man behind the searchlight could be seen glistening with perspiration as he “fed” the carbons of the great are light. The writer’s fingers were upon the switch of the camera motor. Then the insect’s wings began to move rhythmically and another chant was added to the chorus of “katydid, katydid n’t,” and so it continued until the picture was taken. And this picture has been seen by thousands of school children who never knew how insects “sing.” MUSEUM NOTES Since the last issue of the JourNAL the following persons have become members of the Museum: Britton; Annual Members, Mrs. W. P. Harpen- BERGH, Mrs. CHARLES HirscHHORN, Mrs. W. W. Hopprrn, Jr., Mrs. ALBert L. Jupson, Mrs. 8. R. Kaurman, Mrs. Jacosp LANGE- coTH, Mrs. Jonn R. Livermore, Mrs. Morris Loes, Mrs. THeresa Mayer, Mrs. Georce L. Oris, Mrs. EvGEnE H. Pappock, Mrs. Jerome ReGENsBuRG, Miss Marie Lovtse Batpwin, Miss Mary Pincnor Eno, Miss Emma G. Sesprinc, Miss Mary SHoonmaAKer, Hon. Henry Roserts, Dr. Cartes E. Friecx, Dr. T. MritcHety PruppEN, and Messrs. H. H. Benepict, AurrepD PoLk Bercu, ALFRED Beyer, A. I. Esperc, B. Hampurcer, Martin F. Jacx- son, Ropert U. Jonnson, GEoRGE KENNAN, WarrREN Kinney, Henry M. Lester, Epmunp J. Levine, Cuartes N. Meap, Gerorce W. Merrinew, ALLAN PINKERTON, _ Myron T. Scupper. A NEW expedition, to cross South America by way of La Paz and Cochabamba, the Mamore, Madeira and Amazon rivers, and to be known as the “Collins-Day South American Expedition,” has been organized to sail December 26 for several months’ work in exploration and zodlogical collecting. Mr. George K. Cherrie will accompany the expedition as the naturalist representing the American Museum of New York and Mr. Robert H. Becker will represent the Field Museum of Chicago. The birds and the mammals collected by the expedition will be presented to the American and Field mu- seums respectively for permanent ownership of types and for scientific study and publica- tion, preliminary to a later equal division of all specimens except types between the two institutions. CoLtoneL THEODORE RoosEvELT on the evening of December 10 presented before the members of the Museum some of the zoological results of his recent expedition to South America. He was introduced by Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn and was accompanied on the platform by Mr. George K. Cherrie, one of the Museum’s representa- tives with him on the expedition. A full report of the expedition will be given in the February JouRNAL. Dr. Feirx von LuscHan, professor of anthropology at the University of Berlin and director of the Royal Ethnographical Mu- seum, visited the Museum several times during the month of December. Professor von Luschan, who delivered the Huxley lectures some years ago, had been one of the guests of honor at the Australian meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. He is primarily a specialist in physical anthropology, but has done notable work in ethnography, being especially in- terested in the Oceanic and African fields, and has also conducted archzological re- searches in Asia Minor. He found many specimens of great interest in the South Sea hall and pronounced the Jesup collection of tattooed Maori skulls to be unique. On December 17 Professor von Luschan lectured at the American Museum under the auspices _ of the American Ethnological Society; his subject was “Culture and Degeneration.’ He dwelt particularly upon inherited physical disabilities and the alarming decrease in the birth rate among the wealthier classes in the cities of Europe. A Memoria, MeeEtinG in honor of the late Professor Albert S. Bickmore will be held at some time during the latter half of January. Mr. Joseph H. Choate, and Mr. Cleveland H. Dodge, who were intimately associated with Professor Bickmore, will give brief addresses in which they will recount the steps that led to the founding of the museum and the story of the early days of the institu- tion. Mr. L. P. Gratacap, curator of miner- alogy of the Museum faculty, will present personal reminiscences of Professor Bickmore. Tue following note from Science for Decem- ber 18 is of interest to JouRNAL readers: At the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia on Tuesday evening, November 24, Dr. Henry Fairfield Osborn was pre- sented with a Hayden medal. In present- ing the medal Dr. Samuel G. Dixon called attention to the fact that Mrs. Emma W. Hayden, widow of the well-known scien- 29 30 tific man, Ferdinand Venderveer Hayden, had established a deed of trust arranging for a sum of money and a bronze medal to be given annually to the author of the best publication, exploration, discovery or re- search in geology or paleontology, or a similar subject. Professor James Hall, of Albany, received the award in the first instance and the other nine succeeding him were Edward D. Cope, 1891; Edward Suess, 1892; Thomas H. Huxley, 1893; Gabriel August Daubree, 1894; Carl H. von Littel, 1895; Giovanni Capellini, 1896; Alexander Petrovitz Kar- pinski, 1897; Otto Torell, 1898; Giles Joseph Gustav Dewalzue, 1899. In 1900 the deed of trust was modified so as to award a gold medal every three years. The first to receive the new medal was Sir Archibald Geikie; the second was Dr. Charles D. Walcott in 1908 and the third John Casper Branner in 1911. Tue Annual Meeting of the Board of Trustees of the American Museum of Nat- ural History will occur on the evening of February first, when the members of the Board will be guests of President Osborn at dinner at his residence, 850 Madison Avenue. Tue December meeting of the Section of Biology of the New York Academy of Sciences was devoted to a “Symposium on Porto Rico”’ in which the progress of the Academy’s natural. history survey of that island was described. Professor Charles P. Berkey outlined his geological reconnaisance of the island, in which he and Dr. Fenner had traveled more than two thousand miles. They had studied the rocks at so many points that they were enabled to construct a preliminary geological map which revealed the general geological history of the island. ; Professor N. L. Britton outlined the pro- gress of the botanical investigation of the island. The material collected by the Academy workers has been distributed to a number of specialists and from their labors, knowledge of the flora is rapidly being ex- tended. Dr. Marshal A. Howe by means of the stereopticon illustrated a series of marine alge which he collected recently. Espe- cially interesting were the reef-building coralline alge. Dr. N. Wille summarized the present knowledge of the fresh-water alge, in which much further collecting is THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL necessary. Mr. Roy W. Miner described his collecting of marine invertebrates. Mr. Frank E. Lutz in summarizing the present knowledge of the insects and spiders touched upon several interesting problems of distribu- tion in which Porto Rico offers an attractive field for further work. Mr. J. T. Nichols described the fish fauna of the island. Tue manuscript for a book, ‘Men of the Old Stone Age,’’ which covers the long Paleolithic history of Europe, was com- pleted by Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn during the month of November and it will appear from the Scribner press in February. The writing of this work was suggested by the author’s tour through the caverns of Italy, France and Spain, described in the December, 1912, number of the JouRNAL. The work differs from the volumes recently published by Professor Sollas, Lord Avebury and Professor James Geikie in presenting a fuller description of the various primitive races of men and in giving a connected story of the geology, geography, climate, and de- velopment of the flint industry and art. An attempt has been made to give a very clear and semipopular treatment of our present knowledge of the long prehistory of Europe, closing with the advent of the men of the New Stone Age, which is believed to have occurred between 7000 and 9000 years ago. Mr. N. C. Newtson has returned from several months’ archeological field work in New Mexico. His work this year was a continuation of that of previous years on the ancient villages of the Tanos, south of Santa Fé. He made partial excavations of three _ large ruins, digging out altogether about four hundred and fifty ruins from which he brought back approximately seven hundred specimens for the Museum. A large number of skele- tons were also secured, some from the ruins and some from refuse heaps belonging to the different villages. In his excavations Mr. Nelson discovered a stratified deposit in which four distinct types of pottery were found. Since the pueblos clustered all about the region belong to one or more of these pottery-making stages, the chronological position of most of the ruins can now be determined on the basis of this discovery. Str Dovcitas Mawson will lecture on “Racing with Death in Antarctic Blizzards,” under the auspices of the American Geo- MUSEUM NOTES graphical Society and the American Museum of Natural History at Aeolian Hall, January 17, 1915. The lecture will cover Dr. Maw- son’s experiences in the Antarctic from 1911 to 1914 and will be illustrated with still and motion pictures which are pronounced by Sir Ernest Shackleton, Mr. A. Radelyfie Dugmore and others who have seen them, to be the most marvelous pictures ever presented on polar subjects. Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn will preside and Dr. Mawson will be introduced by Mr. John Greenough, chair- man of the Council of the American Geo- graphical Society. Dr. Mawson has recently been knighted by George V in recognition of his scientific research in the Antarctic. He was well equipped for valuable work, having been lecturer in chemistry at Sydney Uni- versity and in geology at Adelaide University even before he obtained his doctorate in science in 1909. Later he was on the staff of Sir Ernest Shackleton’s expedition as physicist and mineralogist and was one of the party which reached the summit of Mount _ Erebus and also the South Magnetic Pole. In 1911 he organized the Australasian Ant- arctic expedition and led it into the great unknown region south of Australia. It is of _ the story of the accomplishment and the pri- vations and tragedies of this expedition that Dr. Mawson will speak in New York. Tue anthropological course of lectures for 1915 is to be devoted to the Aboriginal Art of North American Indians. The subject has been chosen in recognition of the increas- ing demands of students of art and design upon the ethnological collections in the Mu- seum. The opening and closing lectures are to be given by Dr. Clark Wissler; the first will deal with “Technique and Distribution of Textile Designs,” and the concluding lecture with “Design Names and Symbolism.” Dr. Herbert J. Spinden, who has devoted much time to the study of the art of the Southwest and Central America, will discuss in the second and third lectures of the series, “Form and Ornament in Ceramic Art” and “History and the Higher Arts.’ These lectures will be given in the West Assembly hall of the Museum on Thursday evenings in January at 8:15 o’clock. Tue Indian figures for the Hopi group under construction by Mr. Howard Mc- Cormick in an alcove off the hall of the Southwest Indians, have been modeled by 31 Mr. Mahonri Young and are at present in process of casting in the Museum’s prepara- tion shop. It is understood that Mr. Young has in charge also the pediments for the Utah State Capitol at Salt Lake City and that he has a group of bronzes ready for exhibition at the San Francisco Exposition. TurovucGH the kindness of Miss M. Eliza Audubon the Museum has recently come into possession of a painting by John James Audubon. This painting has been in the Museum on deposit for some time and its gift makes a very important addition to the Museum’s collection of Auduboniana. It is one of the largest of Audubon’s pictures and is especially pleasing in composition and color. THERE has recently been placed on exhi- bition in the Plains Indian hall a small model of a Hidatsa earth-lodge constructed by Mr. S. Ichikawa after drawings made by Mr. F. N. Wilson and plates from the early publica- tion, Travels in the Interior of North America by Maximilian, Prince of Wied, who visited the Hidatsa and Mandan in 1832-1834. It was in a village of houses of this type that Lewis and Clark spent their first winter (1804). Tue Museum has long been desirous of obtaining a specimen of the devilfish (Manta birostris), the largest of all rays. This species, owing to its great size, the difficulty of caring for specimens in the field and the danger attending its capture, is very poorly represented in museums. In fact no full- grown specimen, so far as known, is on exhi- bition anywhere. Last summer the Museum sent an expedition to the west coast of Florida for the purpose of capturing a devilfish. The expedition succeeded in getting two speci- mens. For the capture of these we are indebted to Mr. Russell J. Coles of Danville, Virginia, an amateur ichthyologist who has had considerable experience in the capture of large sharks. Mr. Coles was in charge of the capturing of the specimens and did most of the work of harpooning them. The expedition made its headquarters at Captive Island, about twenty-five miles south of Punta Gorda. The two devilfish caught were splendid specimens, the larger one eleven feet wide and the smaller one seven feet ten inches. Excellent casts of both specimens were made in the field by Mr. J. C. Bell, of the Museum’s department 32 of preparation. The scientific work of the expedition was in the hands of Dr. L. Hussa- kof, who obtained, in addition to the studies necessary for the correct mounting and color- ing of the specimens for exhibition, valuable data on the structure and natural history of this little-known ray. Two new leaflets by Dr. F. E. Lutz, assistant curator of invertebrate zodlogy, have recently been issued in the Museum’s educational series. The first deals with the thirty-four species of butterflies most common in the vicinity of New York City, each spe- cies being illustrated by a life-size figure. The second gives directions for collecting and preserving insects in the field. Tue Peruvian and Mexican collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art have been deposited with the American Museum for an indefinite time and may be used either for study or exhibition purposes. THREE new exhibits of the department of anatomy and physiology in the synoptic hall on the third floor include a series of mounted limb-bones, showing the adaptation of mammalian limbs to their various modes of living, and two series of wax models illustrat- ing respectively the evolution of the verte- brate chondrocranium and the brain. Mr. Ernest THompson SETON on the evening of November 27 gave a special lecture in the auditorium of the Museum on “Voices of the Night,’ in which he told the story of some of the wild animals of North America and gave imitations of their calls. A NEW edition of the General Guide to the exhibition halls of the museum has just been issued comprising 125 pages and 65 illustra- tions. Experience has shown that the changes in the Museum’s collections are so extensive that a guide must be issued at least once a year in order to keep pace with them. Important exhibits in the department of vertebrate paleontology have recently been opened to the public. The first of these is a skeleton of Scelidotherium, which is a part of the Cope Pampean collection secured through the generosity of the late Morris K. Jesup, former president of the Museum. This animal belongs to the sloth family and is interesting anatomically in its approach to the anteaters. Two nearly perfect skulls of THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL horned dinosaurs have been added to the reptile collection. These are a part of the collection made by the Museum expedition to the Red Deer River, Alberta, in 1913. The skeleton of the giant carnivorous dino- saur, Tyrannosaurus, is being mounted in the Pleistocene hall, and the new duck-billed dinosaur, Corythosaurus, in the dinosaur hall. AppitTions to the mineral collection com- prise an exchange with Professor W. Vernad- sky of the Imperial Academy of Sciences and a series of purchases made from the interest of the Bruce endowment. The former were interesting from locality, and among them powellite from the Urals merits mention. Noticeable among the purchases are native bismuth and the association of bismuth and molybdenite from North Queens- land, Australia; a remarkable native copper coated with solid malachite like a paint, from Michigan; small delicate crystalliza- tions of gold from Verespatak, Hungary; deep blue halite from Stassfurt, Germany; quartz (nodular) with inclusions of acicular bismuth from New South Wales; a handsome large crystallization of dioptase from South Africa; and the new mineral wilkeite from Riverside County, California. Some supe- rior specimens of species already represented were purchased, among which particular reference may be made to catapleiite, cryo- lithionite, eudialyte, narsarsukite, schizolite, steenstrupine and willemite from Greenland. Tue department of public health is at present engaged in the preparation of a special exhibit of military hygiene and sanita- tion, dealing with the health of armies, the hygiene of the individual soldier and the general problems of camp sanitation. A number of new exhibits illustrative of insect-borne diseases were added to the de- partment’s display during 1914, the most im- portant single exhibit being a model of the flea (carrier of bubonic plague) 1,728,000 times nat- ural size, prepared by Mr. Ignaz Matausch. The history of the bubonic plague in the past is shown by reproductions of a number of early paintings and by a series of maps illustrating the geographic spread of disease during its historic epidemics. A series of photographs of four American army surgeons who have discovered a mosquito transmis- sion of yellow fever, has been hung near the entrance of the hall. a a Se q 4 : ‘Tue American Museum JournaL. VoLumMEe XV FEBRUARY, 1915 NUMBER 2 CONTENTS Cover, Colonel Roosevelt in South America Photograph by Mr. L. E. Miller munmais of Central Brazil.....................:.... THEODORE ROOSEVELT 35 Together with mention of the geographical work of the Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific expedition in exploring the ‘‘River of Doubt”’ Illustrations from photographs by Kermit Roosevelt, George K. Cherrie and other mem- bers of the expedition The Roosevelt-Rondon Scientific Expedition. 2.4... <2 6.05....-. L. E. Minter 49 A story of the journey through South America’s traveled highways and unexplored jungles, with mention of many strange birds and beasts and descriptions of the country and the people. Illustrations from photographs by the Author Roosevelt’s Through the Brazilian Wilderness — A Review...... . J. A. ALLEN 64 Guarding the Health of Armies...................2..0--. C.-E. A. WinsLow 67 A discussion of the methods by which the armies in the field to-day are protected from dis- ease — A comparison of the daily rations of the armies of various nations With illustrations from models in the military hygiene exhibit at the American Museum Home Songs of the Tewa Indians.................... HERBERT J. SPINDEN 73 With an eight-page insert in sepia of photographs as follows: ge ga Ba st ge ee oi te a a rr Kart Moon The Sacred Lake of the Taos Mountains.................. H. J. SprnpEN ES DIE eS ey Ray ga a oH Sa a FrEDERIC MoNSsEN m=nue PFuebio-on the Valley Road... =... 0... ee ee et H. J. SprnpDEN Dennen A SUENOOIINS MONT lis fe i 8 ee ee en ee a Kart Moon At the Bridge — San Juan Pueblo.........................644. Kari Moon The Courtship — San Juan Pueblo...................... ....Kart Moon EE SR eS ns GE Pil ot ary a a rr .H. J. SPINDEN Memories of Professor Albert S. Bickmore ................ L. P. Graracap 79 I I lie cee tb Gace ves vedetwe’ 83 Mary Cynraia Dickerson, Editor Published monthly from October to May by the American Museum of Natural History, at the Cosmos Press, Cambridge, Mass. Terms: one dollar and a half per year, twenty cents per copy. Entered as second-class matter January 12, 1907, at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., Act of Congress July 16, 1894. Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMerRIcAN Museum JourNat, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the Museum. VG ; Ssaudap}t My UDIIeDLg 247? YOnoLYT S,{JOAOSOOY ‘TE ‘d Wory pojond —,,"SeINyvold PITA JO Sef1O4STY OJI] O49 YITA Sul[vop osoyy o1e popeoU 4SOU MOU SYOOG oy, ‘“WOI0070I1d eTqeUOsveI OATOO0I P[NoYsS sTeurUreul oy} puw :Mel Aq pozooj01d oq plNoYs oJI] Palq SsoTULIVY PU [NJAOPUOA OY} JO YSOPL “Popseou YSOUL MOU ST 4VYA ST Ploy oy Ul WOMRAIOSqO OATASNVYX ‘o194T @ ATUO 4nq ‘SuydeT]0D euUlOS Op OF oAVY PyNOM oF *** * YURI BV YONS UO syjUOUT xXIs puods oSequeApe ysOUTyN OY} YILAM Poo ysTTeangeu y,, ‘ssop jo youd [[euls & ‘youny BulploY SBvq o[Ppes YIIA 1009s pousoy-Suo] & uo AoG UMOIG B ‘sIvods BUC, YIIM SJOTIeIy IeNSel OMG ‘UOpuoY JoUoTOH ‘4IWJOy pu y[oADSOOY JOUOTOO INNH YvNOV? V WOY4s HONVY SHL OL MOVE SU0Y 8 LaUgilag sazivyy fo fisajunog dadapyy fiq 0J04Yq Pine ee ane oe Ria Rene ENR Tue American Museum Journat VoLuME XV FEBRUARY, 1915 NUMBER 2 Roosevelt's canoe disappearing down Rio Téodoro, the River of Doubt. Photo by Miller Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons ** Ahead of us the brown water street stretched in curves between endless walls of dense tropical forest.” ANIMALS OF CENTRAL BRAZIL’ TOGETHER WITH MENTION OF THE GEOGRAPHICAL WORK OF THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON SOUTH AMERICAN EXPEDITION IN EXPLORING THE “RIVER OF DOUBT” By Theodore Roosevelt HEN I contemplated going on this trip the first thing I did was to get in touch with Dr. Frank M. Chapman of the American Museum. I wanted to get from him information as to what we could do down there and whether it would be worth while for the Museum to send a couple of naturalists with me. On any trip of this kind — on any kind of a trip I have ever taken —the worth of the trip 1 A lecture delivered before the members of the American Museum of Natural History, Decem- ber 10, 1914. depends not upon one man but upon the work done by several men in coépera- tion. This journey to South America would have been not worth the taking, had it not been for the two naturalists? 2 As the reader pursues his fascinated way through Colonel Roosevelt's latest book, which recounts experiences on this South American expedition, he becomes impressed —if he is a naturalist, with the positive stand on certain definite points regarding natural history taken by the Author. For instance Colonel Roosevelt puts emphasis on the need for the protracted work in the field of the trained observer as contrasted with the big-game hunter or mere zodélogical col- lector. Weconcur so fully in the point made and in fact consider the matter of a complete scientific 35 36 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL from the American Museum who wete with me, and for the Brazilian officers skilled in joined the expedition. cartographical work who I thought of making the trip a zoélogi- cal one only, when I started from New headwaters of a river running north through the center of Brazil. To go down that river and put it on the map would be interesting, but he wanted to tell me that one cannot guarantee what may happen on unknown rivers — there In the canoe ready for the trip down the Unknown River. Brazil York, but when I reached Rio Janeiro the Minister of Foreign Affairs, Mr. Lauro Miiller, whom I had known before, told me that he thought there was a chance of our doing a piece of geographical work of importance. In the course of the work of the telegraph commission Brazilian under Colonel Rondon, a engineer, there had been discovered the record of such pressing importance before condi- tions be intruded upon in South America and races pushed to the wall by civilization, that various quotations from Colonel Roosevelt on this point have been inserted in the captions of the article and attention is hereby called to them (pages 34, 43 and 45).— Tue Epiror, Photo by Miller At camp Rio Téodoro, Matto Grosso, might be some surprises before we got through. Of course we jumped at the chance, and at once arranged to meet Colonel Rondon and his assistants at the head of the Paraguay, to go down from there with them. We touched at Bahia and Rio Janeiro and then came down by railway across southern Brazil and Uruguay to Buenos Aires and went through the Argentine We south through Chili and then crossed the Andes. That sounds a very elaborate thing to do, but as a matter of fact over to Chili. traveled LE L8NOd AO Y3SAIY SHL NI MOYYVN 3YSM SGIidVY 3SHL SHSHM 38 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL it was pure pleasure. It was a wonder- The hard work on the unknown river ful trip. The pass through which we came during the first six weeks. In. crossed was like the Yosemite, with snow- those forty-two days we made only an capped volcanic moun- tains all about. After- ward .we went across Patagonia by automobile and then started up the Paraguay. Our work did not begin until we were inside the Tropic of Cap- ricorn. We took mules at Tapirapoan and went up through the high central plateau of Brazil — nota fertilecountrybutIhave =” eT nr no question but that ‘‘T shall never forget the spectacle in certain places on the Un- great industrial commu- known River where great azure blue butterflies flew about up and ole g down through the sunshine of the glade or over the river’’ or settled nities will grow up there. in gleaming masses on the bank Photo by Kermit Roosevelt Courtesy of Charles Scribner’s Son We were little troubled by mosquitoes in the level marshy region of western Brazil. For the man who goes through the unexplored jungle however, the real dangers lie in a menace of insects — mos- quitoes, gnats, ticks and fire ants — and the fevers that insects cause, instead of in cayman, anaconda or fer-de-lance, or even in the jaguar as might be supposed ROOSEVELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION 39 average of about a mile and a half a day and toward the end we were not eating any more than was necessary and that was largely monkey and parrot. The parrots were pretty good when they were not tough but I can assure Mr. Horna- day that he could leave me alone in the monkey cage at the New York Zodlogical Gardens with perfect safety. Both of the naturalists who were with me and I myself were interested pri- marily in mammalogy and ornithology. We were not entomologists and studied only those insects that forced themselves upon our attention. There were two or three types that were welcome. The butterflies were really wonderful. I shall never forget the spectacle in certain places on the Unknown River where great azure blue but- Our trouble was chiefly These little flies were at times a serious nuisance. We had to wear gauntlets and helmets and we had to tie the bottom of our trouser legs. scarcely any. with gnats. When we stopped on one occasion to build canoes, two or three of our cam- aradas were so crippled with the bites of the gnats that they could hardly walk. The wasps and stinging bees were also very obnoxious and at times fairly dan- gerous. There were ants we called for- aging ants that moved in dense columns and killed every living thing that could not get out of the way. If an animal is picketed in the line of march of these foraging ants, they are likely to kill it in short time. There is also a peculiar ant called the terflies would fly about up and down through the glade or over the river. Some of the noises made by insects were ex- traordinary. One insect similar to a katydid made a noise that ended with a sound like a steamboat whis- tle. We found the mosquitoes bad in only two or three places. On the Paraguay marsh- es there were practically no mosquitoes. In that great marsh country where I should suppose mosquitoes would swarm, there were Man-eating fish, piranha. tively to Africa and India, of large man-eating carnivores by the extraordi- nary ferocity or bloodthirstiness of certain small creatures of which the kins- folk elsewhere are harmless. kill swimmers, and bats the size of the ordinary ‘ flittermice’ of the northern hemisphere drain the life-blood of big beasts and of man himself."’ Photo by Harper Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons “South America makes up for its lack, rela- It is only here that fish no bigger than trout 40 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL leaf ant which doesn’t eat a man but I met We had come down the Unknown River and devours his possessions instead. with a tragedy one night myself. had lost two or three canoes and had to portage whatever we had over the +e ae a : : j 4! i Photo by Miller The caymans, or jacarés, of the Paraguay region are not ordinarily dangerous to man, al- though they sometimes become man-eaters mountain. We had to throw away that not absolutely I reduced my own baggage everything was necessary. We got into camp late and Cherrie and I had our to one change of clothing. two cots close together and did not get the fly up until after dark. My helmet had an inside lining of green and I had red handkerchief around worn a my neck. At night I put my spectacles and the handkerchief in the hat. The next morning I looked out of bed pre- paring to get my spectacles. I saw a red and green line. It was moving. There was a procession of these leaf- bearing ants with sections of my hand- kerchief and hat. I had had one spare pair of socks and one spare set of under- clothing and I needed them both. By morning I had part of one sock and the leg and waistband of the underwear and that was all. It is amusing to look back at but it was not amusing at the time. The most interesting fish that we became acquainted with was called the “cannibal fish,” the “man-eating fish.” It is about the size of our shad with a heavily undershot jaw and very sharp teeth. So far as I know, it is the only fish in the world that attacks singly or in shoals animals much larger than itself. Cannibal fishes swarm in most of the rivers of the region we passed through, in most places not very dangerous, in others having the custom of attacking man or animals, so that it is dangerous Blood If a duck is shot, they for anyone to go into the water. maddens them. will pull it to pieces in a very few min- utes. This side of Corumba a boy who had been in swimming was attacked in mid- stream by these fishes and before relief could get to him, he had not only been killed but half eaten. our party suffered from them. Two members of Colonel Rondon after carefully examining a Photo by Maza Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons A non-poisonous snake, the mussurama, swallowing the deadly fer-de-lance after having killed it. The danger from poisonous snakes in South America is very slight, ‘much less than the danger of being ? run down by an automobile at home.’ certain spot in the river went into the water and one of these fishes bit off his little toe. Unknown River, Mr. Cherrie went into On another occasion on the the water thinking he could take his bath right near shore and one of the fish bit a piece out of his leg. One of the most extraordinary things we saw was this. On one occasion one of us shot a crocodile. It rushed back The fish attacked it at once and they drove that crocodile out into the water. of the water back to the men on the bank. It was less afraid of the men than of the fish. We certain big were interested one day in a catfish, like any other big atfish except that it had a monkey inside ofit.. I-had never heard ‘that a vatfish could catch monkeys but it proved to be a fact. The catfish lives at the bottom of the water. The monkeys come down on the ends of branches to drink and it seems to be no uncommon thing for the fish to come to the surface and attack the monkey as it stoops to drink. Our Brazilian friends told us that in the Amazon there is a The natives are more afraid of it than of the gigantic catfish nine feet long. crocodile because the crocodile can be seen but the catfish is never seen until too late. In the villages, poles are stacked in the water so that women can get their jars filled with water, these stockades of poles kee ping out the giant crocodile and catfish. I had never seen in any book any allusions to the fact 11 42 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL that there is a man-eating fish of this type in the Amazon. One day when we were going down the Unknown River Mr. Cherrie and I in the same canoe, we saw a flying fish. Of course everyone knows about the flying fish on the ocean but I had no idea there were flying fish on the South American streams. I very much wish that some ichthy- to develop enemies to the snakes them- selves. Such an enemy is this mus- surama which must be like our king snake — but larger. The king snake is a particularly pleasant snake; it is friendly toward mankind, not poisonous and can be handled freely. The scien- tists at the laboratory brought cut a big good-natured mussurama which I held between my arm ologist would go f= down to South . America and come back with not only a collection of the fishes but also full notes on their life histories. We did not see very many snakes, I \suppose only about twenty ven- omous ones. The most venomous are those somewhat akin to our rattle- snakes but with no rattles. One of the most common is the jararaca, and coat. Then they brought out a fairly large fer- de-lance about nine inches shorter than the mussurama and warning me to keep away, put it on the table. Then they told me to put my snake where it could get at the fer-de-lance. I put down my snake on the table and it glided up toward the coiled fer-de- lance. My snake was perfectly free from excitement known in Marti- nique as the fer-de- lance. One of the biggest is called the bushmaster and at- tains a length of about ten feet. These snakes are ee Ee Photo by Kermit Roosevelt Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons Boy with parakeet and young coati. Para- keets are attractive but noisy little birds flying to and fro in the tops of palms. Coatis in jungle trees look like reddish lanky raccoons and fight savagely with both teeth and claws and I did not sup- pose it meant to do anything, that it was not hungry. It put its “nose” against the body of the fer-de-lance and moved toward the very poisonous and very dangerous. The mussurama is another South American snake, and it lives on poisonous snakes. It habitually kills and eats these dangerous reptiles, its most common prey being the jararaca. I saw the feat performed at a laboratory where poisonous snakes are being studied to secure antidotes to the poisons and head. The fer-de- lance’s temper was aroused and it coiled and struck. The return blow was so quick that I could not see just what happened. The mussurama had the fer-de-lance by the lower jaw, the mouth wide open. The latter struck once again. After that it made no further effort to defend itself in any way. The poisonous snake is a oP SSIUdIPILM UDIYIeDLg 24) YOnoly] S,4JOAQSOOY ‘QTT “d wlo’y pojony — ,,“y10M OF YOR Ul ploy [NJ1opUOM B BoMouUry YINO, ut wey 07 vedo oAvY ‘speuTUTeUT SIq JO sopAOXSTY-ayIT oY JO juepngs 949 “4sTjeingeu euney ‘sicopyno oy} pue ody styg Jo JoyUNY oures BIq oy, *** ‘atOJOq aOAO uvy} UoTIsod jueqsodury e10Ul & YUOSaId 4¥ SoTdnvoO ‘4YsI[BINgeU Play poos wv ‘IQAJ98SqoO pood BS} OYM JoJUNY ouIVs-S1q oy} ‘puey JoyIO oy} UD ‘edAq & Sv IvOddesTp 0} Suypuoy st zoyorng OUIVS-31q OIOUL OYJ, ‘AOUSTOS JOJ ONTVA [BIdVd JO yom Op Us esoy, ‘edA4 svaryg pue sNOTOg ‘Sur[IYOS oy} JO ore OYA ‘udUSzI0ds JO ‘siozUNY OWeS-S1q JO NOTIAOdO1d BZuLMoIs B St o1044 SABPBMON,, ‘sojeooed pue pavdool ogyym ‘sarde9 YIM OduIeDH OJ10g 4e UOPUOY JOUOTOD pu 4JoAoSOOy [oUOTOD NOILIGAdX4 AHL AO SAZIYd AWOS “an fq 07047 Nine-banded armadillos in sandy pasture country. Photo by Miller They may cur! up for protection but also may bound off at a run as swift as a rabbit’s — as surprising to the observer as to see a turtle gallop away highly specialized creature and _ practi- cally helpless when once its peculiarly specialized traits are effectively nullified by an opponent. The mussurama killed the snake and devoured it by the simple process of crawling outside it. Many snakes will not eat if people interfere with them, but the mussurama had no prejudices in this respect. We wanted to take a photograph of it while eating, so I took both snakes up and had them photographed against a white cloth while the feast went on uninterruptedly. Birds and mammals interested me chiefly, however. Iam only an amateur ornithologist but I saw a great deal there that would be of interest to any of us who care for birds. For instance there are two hundred and thirteen families of birds very plentiful there, either wholly unknown to us, or at least very few of them known. The most conspicuous birds I saw were members of the family of tyrant fly- catchers, like our kingbird, great crested flycatcher and wood pewee. All are birds that perch and swoop for insects. One species, the bientevido, is a big bird like our kingbird, but fiercer and more powerful than any northern kingbird. One day I saw him catching fish and little tadpoles and also I found that he ‘would sometimes catch small mice. Another kind of tyrant, the-red-backed 44 tyrant, is a black bird with reddish on the middle of the back. We saw this species first out on the bare Patagonian plains. It runs fast over the ground exactly like our pippit or longspur. Curved-bill wood-hewers, birds the size and somewhat the coloration of veeries, but with long, slender sickle- bills were common about the gardens and houses. Most of the birds build large nests. The oven-birds build big, domed nests of mud. Telegraph poles offer splendid opportunities for building nests. Some- times for miles every telegraph pole would have an oven-bird’s nest upon it. These birds come around the houses. They look a little bit like wood thrushes and are very interesting in that they have all kinds of individual ways. The ex- ceedingly beautiful honey creepers are like little clusters of jet. They get so familiar that they come into the house and hop on the edge of the sugar bowl. The people living on many of the ranches in Brazil make us rather ashamed for our own people. ‘The ranchmen pro- tect the birds and it is possible to see great jabiru storks nesting not fifty yards from the houses, and not shy. Most of the birds in Brazil are not musical although some of them have very pretty whistles. The oven-bird has an.attractive call. The bell-bird of the — a a gray hue (contrasted with the white bell- bird) has a ringing whistle which sounds from the topmost branches of the trees. The mammals were a great contrast to’ what I had seen in Africa. Africa is the country for great game. ‘There is nothing like that in South America. The animals in South America are of interest to the naturalist more than to the person who is traveling through the country and takes the ordinary layman’s point of view. Only two of the animals found there are formidable. One of these is the jaguar, the king of South American game, ranking on an equality with the noblest beasts of the chase of North America, second only to the huge and fierce creatures which stand at the head of the big game of Africa and Asia. The great spotted creatures aré very beautiful. Like all cats they are easily killed with a pack of hounds, but they are very difficult to come upon other- wise. They will charge men and some- times become man-eaters. Another big mammal of the Brazilian forest is the white-lipped peccary. The white-lipped peccaries herd together in the dense jungles in packs of thirty or forty or sometimes as many as two or three hundred. They are formidable creatures. The young ones may be no larger than a setter dog but they have tremendous tusks. They surge and charge together and I think that they may legitimately be called dangerous. Re > tari Photo by Miller Colonel Roosevelt in his hunting clothes ready for the day's start. “I kept continually wishing that they (the naturalists of the expedition] had more time in which to study the absorbingly interesting life-histories of the beautiful and wonderful beasts and birds we were all the time seeing. Every first-rate museum must still employ competent collectors; but [I think that a museum could now confer most lasting benefit, and could do work of most permanent good, by sending out into the immense wilderness, where wild nature is at her best, trained observers with the gift of recording what they have observed. Such menshould be collectors .. .. , but they should.... primarily be able themselves to see, and to set vividly before the eyes of others, the full life-histories of the creatures that dwell in the waste spaces of the world.’’ — Quoted from p. 161, Roosevelt's Through the Brazilian Wilderness 15 Photo by Kermit Roosevelt Courtesy of Charles Scribner's Sons Colonel Roosevelt's first South American jaguar, brought down from a tree at seventy yards dis- tance. muscular build of the lion. pounce on and devour large anacondas On one occasion Cherrie was hunting pec- caries and the peccaries treed him. He was up He found those four hours a little monotonous, I judge. there four hours. I never had any adventure with them myself. They make queer moan- We spent a couple of days in getting the specimens that we brought back. We had four dogs with us. The ranchmen had loaned them to us al- though I doubt whether they really wished to let us have them, for the big peccary is a murderous foe of dogs. One of them frankly refused to let his dogs come, explaining that the fierce wild swine were “very badly brought up” ing grunts, and that respectable dogs and men We might just as well not have taken any dogs, however. ought not to go near them. Two of them as soon as they The smelled the peccaries went home. 46 The jaguar is heavier and more powerful than the African leopard, having the stout frame and It feeds on capybara and cayman, on peccary and deer, and will even third one made for a thicket about a hundred yards away and stayed there until he was sure which would come out ahead. The fourth advanced only when there was a man ahead of him. The dangerous little peccaries made fierce moaning grunts on their way through the jungle and rattled their tusks like vastanets whenever we came up. Armadillos were unexpectedly inter- esting because they ran so fast. Once on a jaguar hunt we came upon two of the big nine-banded armadillos, which are called the “big armadillos.”” The dogs raced at them. One of the arma- dillos got into the thick brush. The other ran for a hundred yards with the dogs close upon it, wheeled and came back like a bullet right through the pack. Its wedged-shaped snout and armored body made the dogs totally unable to THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON seize or stop it. It came back right toward us and got into the thick brush and so escaped. Other species of arma- dillo do not run at all. The anteaters, most extraordinary creatures of this latter-day world, are found only in South America. The anteater is about the size of a small black bear and has a long narrow tooth- less snout, a long bushy tail and very powerful claws on its fore feet. It walks on the sides of its fore feet with the claws curved in under the foot. These powerful claws make it a formida- ble enemy for the dogs. But it goes very slowly. Anteaters were continu- ally out in the big open marshes where we got the two specimens that we sent to the Museum. They were always on muddy ground, and in the papyrus swamp we found them in several inches of water. I do not see how they con- tinue to exist in a country with jaguars and pumas. They are too slow to run away and they are very conspicuous and SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION 47 make no effort to conceal themselves. The great value of our trip will be shown only when full studies have been made of the twenty-five hundred and more specimens of birds and mammals brought back. We will be able to give for the first time an outline of the mam- malogy and ornithology of central Brazil. Probably the most important feature of the trip was going down the Unknown River, because, of course, at this stage of geographical history it is a rare thing to be able to put on the map a new river, a river never explored, a river the length of the Rhine of which not a line is to be found on any map. It was a journey well worth taking, a rough trip of course, but I shall always be more grateful than I can say to Professor Osborn and Dr. Chapman of the American Museum for having sent Mr. Cherrie and Mr. Miller with me, thus enabling me to take part in a zo6- geographical reconnaissance of a part of the Brazilian wilderness. SSS nH ig 7 oe \ \y \\\ Why => Bowst S Wi \\ \ : Photo by Miller > < 2 1) <= oc = < 2 oc uJ = =< < - pa 1e) ” j ei i SNe A mal Colonel Roosevelt and Messrs. George K. Cherrie and L. E. Miller, the two representatives from the American Museum. [The photographs used in this article are by Mr. Miller] THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION A REVIEW OF ITS MOVEMENTS IN SOUTH AMERICA IN 1913-14 AND OF SOME OF ITS ZOOLOGICAL ACHIEVEMENTS By L. E. Miller Mammalogist of the Expedition HE plan of the expedition, fully de- cided upon after consultation with the Brazilian Government on arrival at Rio de Janeiro, took shape as follows: to ascend the Paraguay to the high- est navigable point, cross the vast breadth of Matto Grosso on mule-back and descend the unexplored Rio da Diivida. It was decided also that the main purpose of the expedition should be an exploration of the Rio da Diivida with zodlogical collecting as we moved along or as opportunity presented itself. The steamship ‘‘ Vandyck” remained at anchorage in the harbor of Rio de Janeiro two days, which gave us ample time to view the natural scenic wonders of the harbor, and the beautiful city. The greater part of one day was spent in the botanical gardens which with the avenues of stately royal palms and large collections of plants from all parts of the tropical world, doubtless surpass anything of a similar nature found in South America. Here Colonel Roosevelt left the party, accom- panied by his son Kermit and Doctor Zahm; the remainder of the expedition consisting of Mr. George K. Cherrie, Mr. Jacob Sigg, Mr. Anthony Fiala and myself, resumed the voyage and reached Buenos Aires six days later (Oc- tober 27), twenty-three days after leaving New York. Wehad stopped a day at Santos, Brazil’s great coffee center, and another at Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay. Although we had read and heard a great deal about the city of Buenos Aires, we were hardly prepared for the pleasant surprise that awaited us. The population of this metropolis of the south is in the neighborhood of two millions, and the city presents a clean, dignified appearance. There is no lack of modern edifices, including large hotels and splendid theatres; an electric subway was just being opened, and the zodlogical park 49 50 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL leaves few things to be desired. The climate also is cool and agreeable. One of the things which especially attracted our attention was the presence of great swarms of dragon- flies hovering above the streets, blown into the city by the violent winds or pamperos which sweep across the level plains country. Mr. Cherrie and the writer were eager to devote every available moment to the zoélog- ical work, so leaving Messrs. Fiala and Sigg, whose duty it was to look after the handling of the large amount of impedimenta, we se- cured passage on the Argentine Northeastern Railroad, which had just inaugurated through service to Asuncion, Paraguay. We took only the small amount of equipment necessary for a few weeks’ work, as the two others were to come up with the remainder of our luggage via the first available freight boat. Our train was the second to make the through trip, and was scheduled to run biweekly. It was composed of seven Pullmans, two baggage cars and a dining car, and the service was good. Leaving Buenos Aires on the after- noon of Sunday, November 2, we reached Rosario at about dark. Here the train was run on to a steel boat and carried up river for about four hours, after which it continued the journey on the east bank of the Parana. The next night we recrossed the river on a ferry boat and were landed at Encarnacion, Paraguay. Asuncion was reached late in the afternoon of Tuesday. The railway journey had been through level plains country, interspersed at long intervals with small clumps and strips of low woods; but it is essentially a grazing country, and we passed numerous herds of cattle con- tentedly grazing in the vast, fence-inclosed ranges. Stalking calmly among the herds were small bands of rheas, semi-domesticated, but they were not abundant. I doubt if we saw thirty during the entire trip. Caracaras,! glossy ibises, jacanas,’ rails and spur-winged plovers were numerous along the line, and frequently we saw the domed mud-nests of the oven-bird perched upon fence-posts or lower branches of trees. Villages are few and far between, and the natives, a motley crowd of dark-skinned individuals, usually left their shambling, grass-thatched huts and came down en masse to see the train. Asuncion is a quaint old town, plainly 1Caracara: a member of the hawk family. 2Jacana: a bird that combines certain charac- teristics of both plover and rail. showing the marks of violence that have been left by frequent revolutions. Mr. Ferris, the American Consul, who rendered us every courtesy possible during our stay in the city, had witnessed five revolutions during his five years’ residence in the capital; there had been seven presidents in the same period of time. The streets are narrow and paved with cobblestones; the buildings are of the usual adobe style, white-washed and with tile roofs. There are one or two banks, a college, several churches, a public market and a number of good hotels, as well as fair electric car and light service; there is also the inevitable lottery. There is practically no business activity. An air of depression hangs over the people like a pall, and this may readily be accounted for when one recalls the tragic history of their country. _ Many of the women were in deep mourning, and one authority estimated that the proportion of women to men in the country was eleven to one, but I cannot vouch for the accuracy of 7 statement. After spending a few days at Rene 4 we were invited to the home of Professor Fiebrig, who lives at Trinidad, a short dis- tance away. Professor Fiebrig is a scientist of more than local note, an instructor in the University of Paraguay and curator of the Museum. Our first zodlogical work was done on his estate. All about were tracts of low forest of considerable size, patches of brush country, grassy fields and cultivated plots. Birds were very abundant, and as practically everything was new to us, our work was doubly interesting. We here formed our first intimate acquaintance with the peculiar white ani! (Guira), large flocks of which were in the palm trees. The birds sat soberly on their perches, awkwardly jerked their tails from side to side and mewed dolefully. They seemed to be utterly out of place among the vivacious tanagers, creepers and finches, and to belong more properly to the fauna of . some remote and unrecorded past. Mam-. malian life was scarce, but considering the short time available, a comparatively repre- sentative collection was made, including a series of a small rare wolf (Canis). Wespent four days at Trinidad. Through the courtesy of the President of the Republic, a launch was placed at our disposal, and on November 11 we started on 1 Member of a subfamily of the cuckoos. THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION 51 a short voyage up the Rio Pilcomayo into the Grand Chaco of Paraguay. We reached a small settlement called Porto Galileo that night, where we were the guests of the ‘‘Que- bracho” Company. A large mill had been erected for the extraction of tannin from logs brought in from the surrounding country, and a narrow-gauge railway was being con- structed in the interior, a distance of sixty kilometers, fifteen kilometers of which was We proceeded to the already in operation. end of the line and pitched camp on the bank of a small stream, the Rio Negro, infested with piranhas. Our camp was merely a rough shed built of sheets of corrugated iron supported on poles driven into the ground. The river water was salt and unfit for use, so each morning several large jugs of drinking water were sent us from Porto Galileo, together with a supply of fresh provisions. All about lay marshes, swamps and large grass- The public market place in Asuncion, Paraguay.— Asuncion, which has been the scene of five revolutions in as many years, shows plainly the marks of violence which it has suffered. An air of de- pression hangs over the city, business activity is at a standstill and women are seen everywhere in deep mourning Fort Coimbra on the Paraguay River.— Built on the rocky hillside near the dividing line between Brazil and Bolivia, it has figured in many of the conflicts between these two countries 52 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL covered areas, the latter type of country pre- dominating. It is in the dark swamps that the precious quebracho trees grow. It was also from these same swamps that clouds of ravenous mos- quitoes issued with the first signs of failing daylight, and drove us to the refuge of our net-covered hammocks. There we sweltered through the long hours of the night, listening to the angry buzzing of our outwitted assail- ants, which was not unlike the sound pro- duced by a swarm of enraged bees. I could distinguish a number of different pitches and qualities in the music, blending harmoniously in one general chorus. The varying size of the insects, which ranged from individuals nearly an inch long to the small, infection- bearing Anopheles, doubtless accounts for the different tones produced by the vibrations of the wings. Small brockets! were plentiful in 1 Brocket: a small South American deer having unbranched horns. / Through the courtesy of the Brazilian government, the steamer ‘‘Nyoac’’ was turned over to the expedition for its exclusive use. traveled wherever they wished The men of the expedition lived on board for many weeks and A portion of the expedition’s camp at Utiarity, a village occupied by Parecis Indians. a mile away that the river dashes over a precipice two hundred and fifty feet high. This proved to be a profitable collecting place for small rodents, birds and a few larger mammals It is half % * ; i ; THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION 53 the swamp and came out into the fields to feed morning and night, and in the tall grass, eavies! abounded. Ocelots had worn well- defined paths through the fields in their nightly raids on the cavy community. In the trees we found—black howlers, night monkeys and tayras?; on the ground, opos- sums and various small rodents held sway. When time permitted us to take a few moments’ recreation, we fished for piranhas * in the stream, the ravenous creatures throw- ing each other clear of the water in their frantic struggles to get at the meat bait. After a profitable week’s work on the Pil- comayo we returned to Asuncion, where we were joined by the two commissaries who had just arrived with the equipment. Two days later we boarded the comfortable little steamer “Asuncion” and sailed for Corumba. The four and a half days’ trip on the Paraguay was most interesting, although the heat was intense and insects at times were trouble- some. We had entered the great pantanal country, and the vast marshes teemed with bird life. As the “ Asuncion’’ plowed her way through the water, countless thousands of cormorants and anhingas‘ took wing; lining the pools and dotting the marshes were hordes of wood and scarlet ibises, together with herons and a sprinkling of spoonbills; egrets covered the small clump of trees as with a mantle of snowy white, and long lines of jabirus patrolled both shores. Scarcely @ moment passed in which we did not see hundreds of birds. Many of the passengers were armed with rifles and revolvers, with which they kept up more or less of a fusillade on the feathered folk, but fortunately their aim was poor so that little injury was inflicted. The day before reaching Corumbd we passed an interesting old land-mark, the fort of Coimbra, built on a rocky hillside with a cluster of thatch-roofed huts nestling against the base. It is near the Bolivian border and in by-gone years figured prominently in several of the bloody controversies between the neighboring republics. Corumb4 is a very hot, dusty town built 1Cavy: a rodent of South America allied to _ the guinea pig and capybara. 2Tayra: a South American mammal resem- j bling the weasels and martins. ? Piranha: the most ferocious small fish in the world, a deadly enemy of man, known as the can- It is generally about twelve inches in length. 4 Anhinga: the American snake-bird. on a high rocky elevation on the west bank of the Paraguay. The city bears the unenvi- able reputation of being the rendezvous for fugitives from justice from many climes, but we saw nothing of the lawlessness and disorder which was said to prevail, and the treatment we received was all that could be desired. Having heard of a place called Uructim, but a short distance away, which seemed to offer unusual opportunities for collecting, Mr. Cherrie and the writer immediately moved to that place and established headquarters. Uructim proved to be a garden spot of clear, cold springs, shady groves, and plantations of tropical fruits and vegetables. Easy of access were fields, forested hillsides, marshes and lagoons in which dwelt an abundant and varied fauna. Swarms of bats of several spe- cies inhabited the mango trees as well as the culverts and manganese mines in the hillsides, and furnished an unfailing supply of mate- rial; squirrels, coatimondis,! monkeys and marmosets lived in the trees; on the forest floor ranged agoutis,? deer and peccaries. Traps left overnight, caught wooly opossums (Metachirus), small rodents and giant black lizards that fought viciously when we sought to release them. One of the mammals added to the collection at Uructim was of unusual interest; it was the formidable guaraguasi, a yellow wolf which equals or exceeds in size the great gray wolf of our own north woods; it is an animal of solitary habits and is so rare that it is seldom met with. It was not previously represented in the American Mu- seum’s collection. From the hosts of birds, we secured pigmy owls, tinamous, thrushes, grebes, rails and ant birds that were out of the ordinary. We spent nearly three weeks at Uructim, and each day we added a number of species that were new to us. In the mean- time, Colonel Roosevelt and his Brazilian escort had reached Curumbd4, and a hunting trip on the Rio Taquary had been planned to secure specimens of the large game that is found in that region. December 16 found the hunting party aboard the ‘‘Nyoac” steaming up the Taquary. This boat had been placed at the disposal of the expedition by the Brazilian 1 Coatimondi: also costimundi and more popu- larly known as coati. An American carnivorous quadruped, most nearly related to the racoon, called also tejou. 2 Agouti: arodent about the size of the rabbit. 54 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Government, and was our “home’’ during the weeks that followed, until we reached Porto Campo. Besides Colonel Roosevelt, there were on board, Colonel Candido Mari- ano da Silva Rondon, Mr. Kermit Roosevelt, Captain Amilcar de Magalhaies, Mr. Reis the photographer, a physician, a taxidermist and myself. Mr. Cherrie remained at Uru- ctim to finish the work in that locality, and the commissaries were detained in Corumbd. We reached the landing at the Estate Palmi- ras just at dusk and spent the night aboard, preparing the skin of a giant anteater which had been shot by Colonel Roosevelt near the river. Early next morning the party was in the saddle, galloping across the grassy marshes. Here and there small clumps of trees and thorny bushes dotted the marshes, and these were teeming with birds of many species: parrots, parrakeets and macaws flashed by with raucous shrieks, and fly- catchers calmly surveyed the cavalcade from the uppermost branches. Occasionally we flushed a small flock of teals and, in the distance we saw ibises and jabirus standing in the long grass, like white specks in a sea of green. In spots the marshes were drying, the ground covered with fish; in the small pools an almost solid mass of fishes wriggled in the shallow water which had been churned into thin mud, and at the borders, numbers con- stantly leapt out; the ground wasstrewn with the dead and dying myriads of many species. The ranch house or fazenda was reached at noon; it was an interesting place, the long, low rambling buildings forming a square with an open court in the center in which trees and flowers grew, and chickens and pigs roamed at will. All about lay marshes, papyrus swamps, fields and forests. Num- erous herds of half-wild cattle grazed on this vast range, and in the papyrus thickets, marsh deer were not uncommon. The main object of this excursion, was the lordly jaguar and a magnificent pair were taken by Colonel Roosevelt and his son after several all-day hunts. Another giant anteater, sev- eral deer and a capybara! were collected; also a splendid series of the rare and beautiful byacinthine macaw was added to our rapidly growing list of treasures. Returning to Curumbé on the evening of December 24, we were joined by the other members of the expedition and immediately 1Capybara: the largest existing rodent, re- sembling the guinea pig. proceeded on the up-river voyage toward Sao Luis de Caceres. A short side trip was made up the Rio Sao Lourengo, with brief stops at various points where there were evidences of game; and numbers of birds, including screamers, penelopes,' parrots and various species of water-fowl were collected, also numbers of small rodents, monkeys, deer and peccaries. The jabiru storks were nesting on the Sdio Lourengo, their great platform nests of sticks perched in the crotches of giant trees. The young storks, two in number and fully feathered, were continually exercising their limbs by running back and forth in the nest, flapping their wings all the while, preparatory to launching forth into the big world. Caymans were particularly plentiful in the Upper Paraguay. Scores of the evil-looking creatures lay on the sand banks, with wide- open mouths and staring glassy eyes. A fringe of trees flanked the water through which we could see the boundless wastes of pantanals beyond; troops of black howling monkeys ambled leisurely away as the boat drew near, and a species of curious gray- throated parrakeet was building tremendous nests in the branches; occasionally in the same tree there were two or three nests each several feet in diameter, which the birds were entering and leaving like bees at a hive. Sao Luis de CAceres was reached January 15, and at noon the next day the “‘Nyoac” ‘weighed anchor again and pointed her nose up-stream. That night we reached a small station known as Porto Campo, and as the river was too shallow to permit the steamer to ascend further, our effects were taken ashore and tents erected for a temporary camp. A few days’ hunt at this point re- sulted in an addition to the collection of tapirs and white-lipped peccaries shot by Colonel Roosevelt, besides a goodly amount of smaller material. The preservation of the larger specimens was somewhat of a problem as the time at our disposal was wholly inadequate, and there was practically no available native help. All the skinning and preparation was done by Kermit Roose- velt and the writer, although at times valu- able assistance was rendered by Mr. Sigg. - January 13 found the expedition aboard a launch (one boatload had preceded us) struggling against the swift current of the 1 Penelope: a small South and Central Ameri- can bird, a small curassow, related to the guan. THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION Sepotuba. A heavy houseboat-full of provi- sions and luggage was towed alongside and we made slow progress. There is an end to all things of earth however, and the end of our river journey came on January 16. We had reachedTapirapoan, the furthest out- post on the frontier, and immediately prepa- rations were begun for our long dash across the chapadéo of Matto Grosso. Tapirapoan presented a scene of festive gaiety upon the arrival of the expedition at that point. The large, open square around which clustered the low mud-walled huts was decorated with lines of pennants, while the American and Brazilian flags fluttered from tall poles. Flag-raising and lowering was always an impressive ceremony; everybody lined up and stood at attention while the ban- ners were solemnly raised or lowered, as the case might be, to the strains of martial music. A large number of horses, mules and oxen had been gathered from the surrounding country; the army of natives or camaradas who were to have charge of them and the impedimenta, had assembled, and the ware- rooms were filled with cases and bags of provisions and equipment. To organize properly a cavaleade of such large propor- tions required some little time, but within six days after our arrival order had been restored out of chaos and the first detachment of the expedition started. This included all of the Americans, and several Brazilians to whose number Lieutenants Joao Lyra and Joaquin de Mello Filho had been added. Captain Amilcar was to follow the next day with the remainder of the caravan. This division of the party was absolutely necessary as, on ac- count of the great quantity of men and ani- mals required, the expedition would have been unwieldly if it had attempted to move in one body. The first day’s ride was a short one. Early in the morning the men started to load the pack animals, many of which were apparently fresh from the ranch and had never been broken to work of any kind, so there was a good deal of confusion at first. But gradu- ally the men became more adept at their work, the mules and oxen quieted down and little squads left the corrals, wound up the trail and disappeared in a cloud of dust. We did not follow until noon. Our mounts were good strong animals; we had both horses and mules, and comfortable saddles were also provided by the Brazilian Commission. A ay) four hours’ canter through brush and forest- covered country brought us to the Sepotuba again, quite some distance above Tapira- poan, and we crossed the stream on a pontoon ferry made by laying a platform of boards across three dugout canoes. There were a number of new palm-leaf houses on the river- bank, so these were used for the night’s camp instead of erecting the tents. Next day we were in the saddle by nine, riding through tall virgin forest with occa- sional stretches of sandy soil in which only low bushes grew. It was evident as we pene- trated farther into the interior that the forest zone was fast disappearing, to be replaced by the vast chapadaéo.! The heat was intense; there was no rain, and troublesome insects were lacking. At three o’clock in the after- noon we entered an old clearing. Formerly rice, plantains, mandioca? and corn had been cultivated here, but now the place was de- serted and overgrown with weeds. Kilo- meter 52, as the spot was called, had been an important camp of the telegraph commission while work was being prosecuted in that region, but had long since been abandoned. On January 23, a 32-kilometer ride took us to the site of an old Indian village, known as Aldeia Queimada. We were adhering closely to the telegraph line, following the wide swathe that had been cleared to protect the wires from falling trees and branches, except when a short detour was desirable to find a better crossing for some small stream. The country was of a gently undulating char- acter, covered with wiry grass and a very sparse growth of stunted, gnarled trees. This vegetation is typical of the chapadéo. With the exception of a few small deer and a num- ber of birds (woodhewers and jays) there were no evidences of animal life. A clear, cold spring rippled over a pebbly bottom near our night’s camp. It was the last stream we should see which discharged its water (via the Sepotuba) into the Rio de la Plata system. Colonel Rondon had employed a number of motor trucks in constructing the telegraph line through this section of the country, sev- eral of which were still in serviceable condi- tion. It was therefore decided that a part of the luggage should be sent ahead on the cars as far as ‘the trail permitted, and as there 1 Chapadéo: high, nearly level upland covered with scanty scrubby forest. 2 Mandioca: also called ‘‘manioc"’, sava-plant. the cas- 56 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL would be a wait of several days while the re- mainder of the expedition caught up, Mr. Cherrie and I went along to devote to collect- ing the time thus gained. Doctor Zahm and Mr. Sigg accompanied us. We _ started two days beyond Aldeia Queimada, from a point called Rio Mandioca. There were three trucks, great well-built machines of German make [Saurer], laden to their fullest capacity with the heaviest and most cumbersome pieces of the baggage. It wasa strange sight to see them racing across the uninhabited chapadéo, at a speed of thirty miles an hour, and frequently through blinding rain and deep mud. One of the cars had a full-blooded Indian mechanician who seemed to be fully initiated into the mysteries of handling an automobile, from gathering up branches and Parecis Indians playing head-ball.— The men show wonderful dexterity in striking with their heads the hollow rubber sphere a foot in diameter which they manufacture for the game. this game is played by no other tribe of Indians So far as is known Native Parecis Indians returning from the field.— These semi-civilized Indians raise large crops of mandioca, corn and sweet potatoes and make clothing, hammocks and various articles for ornamentak purposes uopuoY [EUOTOH Aq pojuoseId uoSd GARY YOTTA oOsoTy O1V SPUOUTBUIO ATUO JJOY Puw Woy} 09 UMOUYUN ore soyOTO ‘quoulUOD UBOHIOUTY YINOG OY} UO WOPVZITTATD JO OdA4 4SOMO] OY YUOSoAdoI A[Quqoad o[dood « N3YOTIHS GNV N3WOM VHVNOISWVHN UOINBZITIAIO JO spRod -uy Aue juoAoid 0% suodvom ATprop Ws 4ysnoy savy Aoy ‘oouvavodde pounjgeu-poos ajoyy Jo oyds uy = “quoys aey oy9 AvOM Oqt4y oy) JO sJloquiotm ou) T1V “pesn souljouros oie sJoyyRoy JO sitmb o49 YysnoyyTe ooquirq Jo OpeUl AT[V1OUOS OLB WIOM SJOIQeT OL SLAYSVT ONIYVSAM NSW VYVNOISWVHN s¢ AIVUNOD UISITA ST} UT JOTOARI OY JO OAV OY} Syoour 4eVYyy ofORJOOdS [NJAOpUOM 9} OANQoId ATISsvo UBD OUO ‘YSIY JooJ AqjJy pue porpuny OM} Jnoqe oe STTeJ oSeyy 4VY} PodoquioWIod ST 4t UOYAA “poqliosep 10 poddeur useq JoAoU peY STA AITVIIN “FISLA S,WOrTpedxo oy} 09 SNOyAoIg VOINSWV HLNOS ‘STAY ALINVILA THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION 59 stones with which to fill up the roadway when the broad wheels mired deep in the loose sand, to repairing the engines on the rare occasions when such a procedure was necessary. We reached the Rio Saere, beyond which point the-trucks could not proceed, on the evening of the 28th. The river is here broken by a fall one hundred and fifty feet high. As elsewhere in South America, we were constantly reminded of the appalling lack of animal life. During the entire three days required to reach the Rio Sacre we saw only a few rheas, a seriema ! or two, and a num- ber of deer. On the morning of the 29th, we crossed the Sacre on a pon- toon ferry, and using a number of animals which had been held in readiness there, rode the two leagues to Utiarity, a village of the Parecis Indians; the Rio Papagaio, a clear, swift stream flows past the settlement, and half a mile away dashes over the brink of a precipice two hundred and fifty feet high. The Parecis are a small tribe of semi-civilized Indians who live in substantial huts and cul- tivate large fields of mandioca, corn and sweet potatoes. Some of them wore clothes while many wore only a breech-cloth of their own weaving. They also make hammocks and vari- ous articles for ornamental pur- poses. The youthsof the tribe engaged in a curious game of head-ball, using for the purpose a hollow rubber sphere a foot in diameter, which they them- selves manufacture. They chose sides and batted the ball back and forth across a line, with their heads. The hands were not used, and they dis- played remarkable dexterity and tireless energy at this form of amusement. One evening just before sundown, practi- cally all of the men joined in 1Seriema: a large, long-legged crested bird, probably related to the cranes. a sacred dance. For this occasion they were clothed in gaudy red head-bands from which protruded the brilliant feathers of the great blue and yellow macaw; bead neck-chains and belts, and anklets made of bunches of curious dry seeds which kept up a continuous rattling sound as the dancers stamped in rhythm with the low, wailing music of reed Type of Indian assistants or camaradas, who were employed by the expedition to take charge of the horses, mules and oxen and the impedimenta 60 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL flutes. They stopped frequently to drink chicha,! and at intervals they sang the names of their dead warriors and mighty hunters, and called upon them for guidance and assistance. Utiarity proved to be a profitable collecting place. Many small rodents and a few larger mammals, including a soft-shelled armadillo collected by Colonel Roosevelt, were taken, besides a number of birds. We spent five days in the village (Colonel Roosevelt ar- rived three days after we did) at the end of which time Doctor Zahm accompanied by Mr. Sigg left the party and started back home. A short time later Mr. Fiala began his homeward trip down the Papagaio and Tapajos. Utiarity had been the first telegraph station in operation along the new line; the second was on the banks of the Rio Juruena, approximately one hundred kilometers away, and it required five days to reach this point. We had been compelled to reduce the amount of our baggage very materially shortly after leaving the Parecis village, as many of the cargo animals had given out on the trail, and the others were weakening perceptibly. Most of the tents were abandoned, and all superfluous clothing was left behind. The equipment for collecting and preserving specimens, unfortunately had to be reduced also, on account of its weight, so that we retained only a few hundred cartridges and about a dozen traps with which to prosecute the natural history work. This reduction of the impedimenta was unavoidable and af- fected every member of the party either directly or indirectly. It was one of the sev- eral instances where individual interests had to be sacrificed for the good of the whole expedition. At Juruena we made the acquaintance of a primitive tribe of Indians who probably represent the lowest type of civilization to be found anywhere on the South American continent. They are known as the Nhambi- quara. As we drew up on the river bank they gathered about and stared at the party curiously, but betrayed no hostile feelings. Colonel Rondon had but recently succeeded in establishing amicable relations with them. On his first visits to the country, numbers of his men had been slain by their poisoned 1 Chicha: a fermented drink made from maize or cane sugar. arrows, and they had resented his every step into their stronghold; but having been persistently treated with kindness, they have learned to look upon him as a friend, and some of them even appeared to be heartily glad to see him. In stature the Nhambiquara is short, but well-built, and of a very dark brown color. Clothes are absolutely unknown to them, and practically the only ornaments in their possession are strings of beads which they had received from Colonel Rondon. Some of the men have the nose and upper lip pierced and wear pieces of slender bamboo in these perforations. Their huts or malo- cas are rude structures of grass or leaves, and they cultivate small areas of mandioca, but wild fruits, game and wild honey form the principal articles of their diet. Bows six feet tall and made of palm wood, and long bamboo arrows are used both in hunting and in warfare. Frequently hunting parties go on long tramps through the jungle, sub- sisting entirely on the fruits of their prowess. At night a rude lean-to is built of branches, the game is roasted in a roaring fire and eaten, and then they stretch themselves on the bare ground to sleep. __ We remained a day at Juruena to rest and to develop films. The pictures taken by the various members of the party form one of the important records of the expedition, and great care has to be exercised in developing all exposed films promptly or they would be spoiled because of the hot, damp climate. The country beyond the Juruena is some- what rolling, but there is no appreciable change in the vegetation. We rode twenty kilometers the first day, camping on the banks of the Rio do Fomiga (February 10). Next day we travelled but twelve kilometers, reaching the Jurina, a shallow though rapid stream six hundred feet wide; the crossing was slow and laborious as there was only a very small balsa or ferry. Camp was pitched a league beyond, on the banks of a small stream. Near by were several deserted thatched huts, and the comparatively new graves where three Brazilians, one an army officer, had been buried. They had been slain by the Nhambiquara and buried in an upright position with the head and shoulders protruding above the ground. The following night, on the Rio Primavera we saw two other graves. The two men who had been interred here were slain while asleep in their THE ROOSEV ELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION 61 hammocks. This was the most dangerous part of the whole Nhambiquara country. Campos Novos was reached February 16. Formerly the third telegraph station was located here, but it now stands on the Rio Nhambiquara, a league away. We were on the border of the great Cerro de Norte, a vast tract of country comprised of high, broken plateaus or mesas covered with luxuriant grass. Many small streams flowed through deep gorges, and near some of the water- courses, tall dense forest grew. The soil is fertile and would produce crops of corn and rice; cattle in great. numbers could be reared on the extensive mesas, and the climate is cooland healthful. There are few portions of South America so well suited for colonization by Euro- peans, but on account of the remote location and the lack of means of com- munication, it will be several decades before this vast and fruitful region will become inhabited. After leaving the Cerro de Norte, February 23, we again entered chapadéo country; but the wiry grass and stunted trees were gradually being su- perceded by forest. Occa- sionally all other vegeta- tion gave way to large areas of wild pineapples. There were many square miles of them, bearing fruit which was small but of delicious flavor. We added few speci- mens to the collections after leaving Utiarity. Animal life was not abundant, and the rapid pace at which the expedition was compelled to move left no time for collecting. At José Bonofacio, which was reached February 23, an interest- ing rodent, somewhat resembling a gopher, was taken. In order to secure the single example it required a half day’s time and the assistance of five Nhambiquara. A reward of bunches of coral beads had been offered the Indians if the animal was secured, so they immediately began work with sharpened sticks and with their hands. By noon they had excavated ten cubic yards of earth and won the prize. The expedition had gone on ahead but was overtaken in the evening. At a camp named Siete de Setembre the two divisions of the expedition were reunited. Captain Amilcar-and his party had arrived a Parecis babies at Utiarity day or two before, and a halt was made to di- vide the equipment and provisions between what were to be the Diivida and Gy Parana parties. The Rio da Divida was only ten kilo- meters away, and on February 27 we stood on the bridge that spans the river and watched Colonel Roosevelt and his party in seven canoes disappear down the stream. Colonel Roosevelt was accompanied by his son Ker- mit, Colonel Rondon, Lieutenant Lyra, Mr. 62 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Cherrie and Doctor Cajazeira, and fifteen native assistants. The Gy Parand party was composed of Captain Amilcar, Lieutenant Mello, a geol- ogist, a taxidermist and myself, besides a number of natives. We traveled three days longer to reach the Commemoracao. The spot was called Barao de Melgaco, and marked practically the end of the telegraph line. The trip from Tapirapoan to the Com- memoracao had required exactly forty days; the distance is approximately five hundred and forty-eight miles. Many of the pack animals were in such poor condition that they had to be shot. It is impossible to say how many had been lost on the way, but the num- ber was very large. Barao de Melgaco seemed to be the head- quarters of annoying insects and disease. Most of the handful of men at work on the telegraph line were ill with fever and beriberi, and there had been twelve deaths just before our. arrival. We had expected to find canoes await- ing us, but as there were none, the men cut down a tree of ample size and began making one. This work, we estimated, would require a month; but after a wait of two weeks a large canoe arrived from down river. The time at Barao de Melgago was profitably if not pleasantly spent. All about the little clear- ing rose the stately Amazonian forest, providing admirable collecting grounds. Many birds and mammals were ta- ken, all new to the collection. The lat- ter included an un- described spider mon- key and a saki! of a new genus. : We started down the Commemoracao 1 Saki: a South Amer- ican monkey with a bushy tail and a ruff of long hair around the face. Photo by Cherrie Nhambiquara women and children with baskets of vegetables from the field THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON SCIENTIFIC EXPEDITION 63 March 13, and traveling rapidly with the current reached the Pimiento Bueno, eighty kilometers below, that night. The junction of the two rivers forms the Gy Paranda. The Gy Parana at its very beginning is a mighty river, a—thousand yards wide, and day by day as we raced with its swirling tor- rent we watched its rapid growth until near the mouth it reached a breadth of at least two miles. The country on both banks is heavily forested, and along the upper course is inhabited by a tribe of Indians which had been absolutely unknown. We were the first white men to see them, and they had never seen white men before. In appearance they differed greatly from their neighbors, the Nhambiquara. We met seven, all men, and finally induced them to accept gifts of beads and knives, in return for which they gave us wonderfully decorated arrows six feet tall. The Gy Parand abounds in formidable rapids, like many South American rivers, and we had numerous overland portages, the long- est being about three miles, around the falls of Sado Vicente. Insects are abundant, and the whole region is a vast breeding ground for malaria. A number of rubber camps are sit- uated on the lower river, the forests being rich in hevea. We reached Manaos April 10, having stopped at Calama, a station on the Madeira, for a short period of collecting. As the Divida party had not arrived, I almost immediately left for the Rio Solimoes where several weeks were spent to advantage adding t6 the collections. Among the large number of specimens collected were agoutis, woolly monkeys, squirrel monkeys, sloths, many small rodents and squirrels, all new to us; and the complete material for a group of hoatzins or lizard-birds was also collected. The collections now numbered about fifteen hundred birds and about four hundred and fifteen mammals, practically all of species unknown to us, and some of which are no doubt new to science. Colonel Roosevelt’s party reached Manaos the last day of April, but the story of their experiences on the unexplored river is too well known to warrant review. Loading canoes for the start down the Rio da Divida ROOSEVELT’S ‘‘THROUGH THE BRAZILIAN WILDERNESS”! By J. A. Allen with numerous half-tone illustra- tions, Colonel Roosevelt has given a charming narrative of his eventful expedition through a little known part of the Brazilian hinterland. The main journey of exploration was up the Paraguay River to its source, across the low divide to the head of the Gy-Paran4, and down the unexplored “River of Doubt” (Rio da Divida), now the charted Rio Téodoro,? as since named by the Brazilian Government, in honor of the eminent American field naturalist, its first explorer. The trip had been for a considerable time in contemplation, but the initiative steps were only taken early in June, 1913, following a luncheon at the Ameri- can Museum at which both Father Zahm, one of Roosevelt’s companions on the expedition, and Colonel Roosevelt were guests. As told by the author in his first chapter, entitled “The Start,’’ Curator Chapman of the Museum sug- gested the codperation of the Museum, and brought the matter to the attention of President Osborn, who cordially ap- proved the plan. As a result, Colonel Roosevelt offered to take two natura- ‘8 a volume of four hundred pages, 1 THROUGH THE BRAZILIAN WILDERNESS. By Theodore Roosevelt. With illustrations from photographs by Kermit Roosevelt and other members of the Expedition. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1914. S8vo., pp. xiv + 383, 49 full-page half-tone plates and 2 maps. 2 Besides this general review and consideration from the zodélogical standpoint by Dr. Allen, the JOURNAL will print in the March issue a review by Dr. W. L. G. Joerg of the American Geographi- cal Society. Dr. Joerg will review Through the Brazilian Wilderness from the standpoint of the geographical work accomplished by the Roosevelt expedition. — Tus Epiror. 64 lists, to be selected by the Museum, as members of the expedition. Fortunately the Museum was able to secure George K. Cherrie, widely known as a field naturalist and explorer in the American tropics, as one of its representatives, and for the other Leo E. Miller, who was already in the employ of the Museum in South America, and had shown unusual efficiency as a collector and field natur- alist through several years of difficult service. The two men proved to be most congenial companions for the head of the expedition, resulting in har- monious and enthusiastic team work. _For some months in advance of the journey down the Diivida, Cherrie and Miller were making good use of their time, collecting birds and mammals for the Museum on the upper Paraguay River, while Colonel Roosevelt was engaged with his lecture tour to the principal cities of southern South Amer- ica. Later Cherrie accompanied him down the Rio Madeira, Miller again joining the main party at Manaos. The success of the natural history work is already a matter of record in the AMERICAN MusEuUM JOURNAL. The narrative, Through the Brazilian Wilderness, is a book of unusual interest for the lay reader and one of rare charm for the naturalist and explorer. The pages teem with information about the country, its natural history, its economic resources and its human inhabitants, whether wild unclad Indians or Euro- pean colonists, written with the inspira- tion that only the fresh impressions of daily events and experiences, jotted ROOSEVELT’S “ THROUGH THE BRAZILIAN WILDERNESS” 65 down in the field, can impart. Add to this the personality of the writer, his wide interests, exceptionally varied ex- periences and the knowledge of an expert in many lines of natural history research, and the elements are happily all present for the production of a book of just the kind the author has given us. The excellent illustrations swith which it abounds add greatly to its value, graphi- cally reproducing scenes and animals mentioned in the text. The journey down the River of Doubt tory collector, and no museum in Amer- ica possessed specimens of the birds and mammals of the country visited. The five hundred mammals and two thousand five hundred birds obtained, thus add enviable riches to the resources of the Museum. They prove not only to con- tain a considerable number of species new to science, particularly among the mammals, but also all are new to the American Museum as well as to the avail- able material for research in America. The species that are not new are of quite Capybaras of Brazil are pig-like rodents, as large as small sheep, which swim and dive with great facility, often hiding under the water lilies of the pond with only the nostrils at the surface. Perhaps their greatest enemy is the jaguar. If the expedition shot a capybara and it fell into the water, it was devoured in a very few moments by piranhas, the cannibal fishes proved one of great danger and much hardship, and only the fitness of the party for difficult undertakings saved the expedition from complete disaster. All this is simply told, such experiences being accepted as part of the day’s work in the exploration of unknown wilds. The physiographic and natural his- tory observations so well set forth in the narrative are immensely supplemented by the large collections secured and safely transported to New York. Only small portions of the country traversed had ever been visited by a natural his- as much importance as those that are so, since they throw new light upon the faunal characteristics of an almost un- known country, and upon the geographic ranges of species previously known only from elsewhere. The field notes of the collectors, Cherrie and Miller, are per- haps almost as valuable an asset to science as are the specimens to which they relate. We may therefore well congratulate Colonel Roosevelt on the outcome of his expedition from all points of view, and the American Museum for its modest share in the undertaking. wnesn]T UBdoury ay} JO YIeVoy ITGnd Jo [Tey oY} UL JIqrYxXe oUOTSAY AreqTTUI oY WOIT “ploy oy} UT AUIIY soqeIg PoITUQ oY Jo JoIpyos ev JOJ UOTeA o[duIeg AYVLEIG S.YSIGTIOS NVOINSANV SHL 99 GUARDING THE HEALTH OF ARMIES FOOD ALLOWED THE SOLDIER IN THE WORLD’S VARIOUS ARMIES — —..--~ PROTECTION OF THE SOLDIER FROM DISEASE By C.-E. A. Winslow pean war it is at least satisfactory to realize that the sufferings of the battle-field are not aggravated by the concomitant horrors of pestilence, to the extent which has been the case in earlier wars. In many ways the present European conflict presents sanitary problems of unusual difficulty. In permanent for- tresses health conditions may (except under conditions of prolonged siege) be guarded against pestilence with com- parative ease. On the other hand, field armies operating in the open and a the midst of the shock of the Euro- be = hae fighting only occasionally as in earlier campaigns enjoy many sanitary advan- tages. Almost incessant daily warfare between troops established in hastily constructed trenches where such funda- mentals of sanitation as good drainage are almost out of the question, makes the protection of the health of the sol- diers a task of stupendous difficulty. The seed which might bear fruit in devastating epidemics was not lacking last year. Just before war was declared cholera had been prevalent in certain provinces of southwestern Russia just in the path of the armies which invaded Comparative dietary allowance in various armies. From the military hygiene exhibit in the hall of public health soldier’s dietary of various nations. of the Museum Energy allowance in calories allowed in the 67 68 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Austrian Galicia, and this disease did spread to a considerable extent last fall both in the civil population of the war zone. among armies and No epidemic of large proportions resulted however, and although we do not know what the next year may bring forth, we have good ground to believe that the old-time wholesale pestilence will be effectively prevented by the BEFORE THE DAYS OF SANITATION CRIMEAN WAR 1853-1856 1,460,500 TROOPS (ALL ARMIES) 491,455 FROM SICKNESS application of the art of modern sanita- tion. In view of the wide public interest in all that concerns the World war a special exhibit has been installed in the hall of public health of the American Museum of Natural History to show by what methods the modern army in the field is protected against the ravages of disease. In the Crimean war of 1853, 23 per IN MODERN TIMES RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR 1904-1905 1,200,000 TROOPS (JAPANESE ARMY) hd 77 MMMM hdd Lhd GP T77 Y, 58,887 FROM BULLETS AND WOUNDS CY YY ULE PRE FROM DISEASE RELATIVE DEADLINESS_OF_BULLETS AND DISEASE A striking diagram from the military hygiene exhibit in the Museum’s hall of public health GUARDING THE HEALTH OF ARMIES 69 cent of the British soldiers died of disease, and in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71, 14 per cent of the French soldiers perished in the same way. The German forces in the Franco- Prussian war, the English army in the Boer war and the Japanese who fought Russia in 1906 lost in each case about 23 per cent of their men from disease, a splendid record compared to that of earlier wars, but still one that represents a fearful waste of human life. In the Boer war the English lost over 14,000 men from disease and less than 8,000 from wounds. In our own Spanish- American campaign, typhoid fever alone cost more than fourteen lives for every thousand soldiers, and bullets only two for every thousand. The chief diseases of the camp are those which, like typhoid fever, are caused by sewage pollution of water and food supplies. In the Spanish war the typhoid fever, which affected one out of every five of our volunteer soldiers, was mainly due to careless exposure of excreta and the spread of the germs to food by flies. In a modern military vamp the excreta are received in a trench away from the water supply, the kitchen and food stores, and are immediately covered with earth to prevent access of flies. The water supply of the army is safe- guarded with the greatest care. When the troops are in the field all water for their use is purified either by heat, filtration or chemical disinfectants, and the most stringent regulations forbid drinking from roadside wells and streams. The Japanese use a field filter in which the water is strained and at the same time disinfected by chemicals. In the French army the water supply of the troops is sterilized by the use of ultra- violet light. The most common procedure for purifying water in the field is perhaps sterilization by distillation. The Forbes sterilizer (on this principle) heat, or Model of the Forbes water sterilizer used in the United States Army for the purification of the water supply of troops in the field. From the military hygiene exhibit in the hall of public health 70 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL was officially adopted by the U. S. Army after competitive tests conducted by a special board in 1898. In this ingenious apparatus the water is distilled in a closed chamber so that it is not deprived of its natural gases and the outgoing water warms the incoming water and is cooled by it (on the regenerative prin- ciple) so that economy of fuel is ensured. Such an apparatus, including boiler, pumps, filter, and tanks, is mounted on an army wagon and sterilizer storage carried everywhere along with the troops. potatoes, 20 0z.; prunes or preserves, 1.28 oz.; coffee, 1.12 oz., sugar, 3.2 0o2z.; evaporated milk, 5 oz.; vinegar, .16 gills; salt, .64 0z.; pepper (black), .04 oz.; lard .64 0z.; butter, .5 0z. Of this ration, just a portion is carried individu- ally by the soldier, the rest, such as butter, lard, pepper and syrup are given in bulk to the companies and then dis- tributed to the men at meal time. When communicable diseases do break out, the medical officer is provided by the advances in bacteriology with Red Cross Field Hospital Model on exhibition in the military hygiene exhibit of the hall of public health, American Museum of Natural History The strength and efficiency of the sol- dier isconserved and his resistance against disease is built up by a carefully selected and scientific dietary designed to furnish the necessary energy in the most compact and convenient form. The energy allow- ance varies in different armies — the Rus- sian and the American receiving a larger and the Austrian a smaller allowance than the French, English or German soldier. The average daily field ration of the United States Army is made up as follows: 20 02z.; bacon, 12 oz., or fresh meat, bread, 18 oz.; beans, 2.4 oz.; prompt and effective means of diagnosis by which the infected individuals may be promptly picked out and _ isolated so as not to endanger their fellows. Against smallpox and typhoid fever the modern soldier may enjoy practically complete protection, thanks to smallpox and typhoid fever vaccination. The perfection of the vaccine for typhoid fever is the most recent and perhaps the most important of all advances in mili- tary hygiene, and the terrible typhoid death rate of the Boer war and the Spanish war will never again occur where this preventive has been used. GUARDING THE HEALTH OF ARMIES 71 The death rate from typhoid fever in the United States Army per 1000 mean strength was 3.20 in 1908 with no vac- cination, 3.58 in 1909, 2.43 in 1910, .85 in 1911 with voluntary vaccination, and those rates dropped to .31 in 1912 and .03 in 1913 when compulsory vacci- nation was introduced. The reservists in certain European armies were not protected against typhoid fever at the opening of the European war, but the difference in the incidence of disease among them and the vaccinated regu- lars soon taught the lesson that this precaution could not be neglected. In connection with the after effects of the wounds received in battle the resources of modern bacteriology have also been drawn upon extensively. Each soldier is of course provided with a first aid kit for the treatment of minor wounds; and the splendid organization of the International Red Cross is of course on hand to provide prompt and efficient hospital care; but there has been in the present European war a terrible loss of life from tetanus, or lockjaw. The tetanus bacillus is abun- dant in the soil of manured land, and wounds have become infected with this germ on a far larger scale than was the case in such wars as that in South Africa fought over virgin soil. Antitoxin, if administered early, will generally pre- vent fatal results from this disease and laboratories in the United States are working night and day to provide this specific for the European combatants. Modern sanitation has produced even more striking effects in military than in civil life, because its teachings have there been more consistently applied. The result has been that many diseases once very terrible have become of minor importance in armies; and as the table shows, measles and mumps are to-day more common causes of invalidism for the United States soldier than either ty- phoid fever, tuberculosis or diphtheria. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF CAUSES OF SICK- NESS IN THE UNITED States ArMy [IN RATES PER 1000 MEAN STRENGTH] 1904-1906 1907-1909 | 1910-1912 Venereal 193. 196. 166. Malaria 85.3 49.3 31.4 Diarrhea 80.0 45.4 33.0 Bronchitis 50.7 38.5 32.4 Influenza 29.6 32.5 17.0 Alcoholism 27.5 29.3 22.9 Mumps 19.3 9.5 11.7 Dysentery 17.9 9.8 4.5 Rheumatism 17.5 14.3 10.0 Dengue 14.8 19.9 17.3 Measles 8.7 11.4 9.9 Typhoid 4.8 3.9 oe Tuberculosis 4.7 4.5 3.7 Diphtheria 4 6 8 pie Models from the Museum’s hall of public health showing the relative effects of bullets [above] and typhoid [below]: one wounded and none dead of a company of soldiers in 1908; thirteen sick and one dead, victims of typhoid, from a company in 1898 GL SOVL YVSN SNIVId 3DVS 3HL WOYS SNIVLNNOW OLSIYD 30 3YONVS tuapuidg fq 004g _ the hunter. HOME SONGS OF THE TEWA INDIANS By Herbert J. Spinden HE songs of the Tewa Indians may be divided into two broad groups, the first religious, the second familiar. The songs that are primarily religious are the ones used in the great ceremonies and dances and those that refer to warfare and the chase. All songs which are supposed to be en- dowed with magical power are called “Pina” or “Magic Songs.’ Such songs in the ceremonies are supposed to induce the gods to bring rain and fruits or whatever else is required. War songs bring confusion to the enemy. Hunting songs, sung either by the hunter him- self or by a female relative who remains at home, are supposed by merely men- tioning the lion and the bear to transfer the hunting abilities of these animals to the hunter, while naming the deer is suffi- cient to deliver game into the hands of The songs that occur in the myths nearly always have a deep reli- gious significance. There are also witch songs which have power to do evil unless they are warded off. Familiar songs include lullabys, avo- cation songs, love songs and homesick songs — songs which are intimately con- nected with life and which reflect the everyday philosophy of the people. I will not discuss the question of their music, largely because this phase of Pueblo life has already been treated by persons much more competent to handle it than I. What I wish particularly to call attention to is the word content, the sentiment and the poetic construction of the songs. Here are two songs in the original text and in translation. The first is a little song which might be called the “Home Sweet Home” of the Tewa: Navi Awi naiwié, Awi niwi Navi Awi niwii ndi o” sha O’i® pi* ndo mu’iri k4é®” na nandi Na re siti 4 hi yo he’e wi A hi yo he’e wi, 4 hi yo he’e wi Navi Awi nawé ndi o” sha. My home over there, my home over there, My home over there, now I remember it! And when I see that mountain far away Why, then I weep. Alas! what can I do? What can Ido? Alas! what can I do? My home over there, now I remember it. 73 74 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Whether it is the result of accident or intent, this appealing lyric has an almost perfect poetical construction. The re- peated phrases which are used so skill- fully here, are found in almost all ex- amples of Pueblo songs. The sentiment is simple, direct and fundamentally human; yet as we all know, such simple emotions are often hardest to express. In translating this song and the others that follow, I have taken no liberties with the text. Tewa sentence construction is not unlike English in the general order of words and in no case have I found it necessary to shift the order of a phrase. The ordinary prose seems to have many more connectives than does the poetry, which is characterized by condensation and by more or less conventionalized phrasing. Aside from following the text accurately in the matter of the meanings of words, I have endeavored to give some- thing of the atmosphere of the language which is peculiarly rich in exclamations. Words with such emotional connotation as “How I wish it were otherwise!” or “What can I do, alas!” occur frequently. The second song is supposed to have been originally sung by a boy from Tesuque Pueblo, at the trysting place to which the girl no longer came. Su k’wa k’e we na povi tsha nde I" povi i® povi ndo mu iri Ka’! na na ndi né re sita I" povi i" povi ndo mu iri Ts’e oki t’agi na povi tsha At Su k’wa k’e there used to bloom a flower — That flower, that flower, whene’er I see it now Alas, so far away, why then I weep; That flower, that flower, whene’er I see it now, For yellow, fresh and full-blown once it bloomed. This little song is interesting as a sus- tained metaphor. It may be noted in passing that Tewa children are usually given a name in accordance with the time of the year they are born. Flower names are very frequently given to girls so the age-worn comparison of the girl and the flower fits in nicely with local usage. Certain phrases that recur in these two examples indicate that poetical forms are pretty well set. Like all home-loving people there is no phrase quite so sad as ka nyt na na ndi— “far, far away.” Even the men are not too brave to have recourse to tears when they think of the village in the green valley that holds their loved ones. Among the most charming of all songs are lullabys. The Tewa mother singing her little baby to sleep sometimes takes advantage of what we call sympathetic magic, to achieve her purpose. The song is addressed not to the child but a bird called “Puye.” This bird is very sleepy by nature and of course has power to teach the child to follow its example. My earlier informants seemed to think that the little puye birds are bats but an old woman of Santa Clara declares they are not bats but instead small drowsy birds that live in the high mountains. In former times these birds were tamed as household pets and their sleep-pro- ducing faculties were appealed to by the mothers of crying children. There are many sleepy little birds, Sleepy little birds, sleepy little birds, So go to sleep, my little girl, My little Frosted-Cockle-Burr, O, come you sleepy little birds And slumber on her hollow eyes That she may sleep the livelong day, That she may sleep the livelong night, You may have noticed that the name of the child is interpolated in the song. The little girl of my informant was born in the winter time and was named Frosted-Cockle-Burr. When children grow up so they can talk and run about they soon learn to fear the Siveyo Sendo or “Giant Canni- bal Old Men.” These bogies are im- personated at Christmas time by men who wear masks and carry whips. When they enter the pueblo the children run and hide in the inner rooms but the masked men go from house to house _ asking how the children have behaved during the year. In case one has been incorrigible he is severely whipped. As a rule the punishment is not severe and a promise to mend one’s ways is some- times sufficient to ward off the dreaded whips of wide-leaved yucca. A whole- some discipline is introduced by these men; the parents themselves seldom punish their children. Sometimes a child may have a dislike for his morning porridge for instance, and in such a case the Siiveyo Sendo call for a brimming bowl and stand over the child until every spoonful is gone. This song about the Siveyo Sendo is sung as a lullaby to children four or five years of age. As in the preceding ex- ample the child’s name may be inter- polated. Stop crying! Go to sleep, my little boy, Primrose. That Saveyo Sendo will take you if you cry. Over there he will chew you, if you do not stop crying; Right now he will chew you, if you do not stop crying. That Saveyo Sendo in his bag he will put you. Stop crying! Go to sleep, my little boy, Primrose. Over there he will take you, then I will be crying! Very thick now are the leaves of the cotton- wood; Very thick now are the leaves of the willow. There he will take you in under the willow. That Saiveyo Sendo, his teeth we all fear. Over there now, if you do not stop crying, Over there now, on the crest of the mountains, Those Saveyo walk and they hear every sound. And there in the mountains that one he will take you Where now they are taking the big boys and girls. HOME SONGS OF THE TEWA INDIANS 79 Other lullabys threaten the child with being carried off by a coyote and forced to live on juniper berries. They dilate on the stony paths for bare feet, the thorns that tear the little garments, the heat of day and the cold of night, and the mourn- ing of the playmates and of the parents for the little boy that will never find his way home again. When I asked whether it was consid- ered wise to frighten children in this way, my interpreter, who was the mother of six children, answered very properly that no child could be frightened seriously when in its mother’s arms. No doubt the Tewa child looks upon the Siiveyo Sendo with the same delicious trembling that we ourselves used to feel when hearing of the dangers of Jack in the giant’s house. Among the songs of labor are “ grind- ing songs” sung by the women and girls as they bend over the metate. Then there are the “shouting songs”’ which the men sing in the fields and about the vil- lage. The hunting songs are, as has been stated, primarily magical and do not come in for discussion. Certain dances are of a purely social nature and may be begun at any time. Most of the songs used in these dances do not have words. Concerts by the men are some- times arranged, usually at grinding “bees.” The grinding songs are various. Some relate to the Corn Girls, the Corn Youths, and other personages that enliven the myths, and some comment upon the sprouting leaves, the flowering meadows and other pleasing aspects of nature. Many are love songs pure and simple, while others are rather cynical reflec- tions on the instability of love and the hardness of life. Some are humorous songs. It is pretty clear that the Tewa formerly had definite sequences in girls’ grinding songs that covered all times of 76 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL the day and year. I was not fortunate enough to get one of these sequences. The grinding songs are sung to keep time with the grinding. If there is any peculiar rhythm in them as a result of this, it is brought out by an analysis of the music rather than of the words. Photo by Walton As an example of a grinding song, we have this simple song of good humor: There by the river runs a little rabbit Why did you not catch him? Why did you not kill him? We feel just like doing that. Bent over like a little old man Off he goes with a watermelon; Bent over like a little old man Off he goes with a muskmelon! A love song that has a universal appeal is the following oné which is a favorite with Tewa girls: It is sung by two or three who bring their corn to the same house so they ‘an grind together. That somebody, my own special one, Even his shadow and his voice are loved. His footfalk even! But what can I do? That other one, O how I hate his shadow! His shirt is fine and white, his hat is gray, His leggings and his shoes are beaded bright, His neckkerchief is gay and yellow — but For all his clothes, his face, his face is black! Many songs that are associated with individuals were doubtless extemporized to fit a special occasion. Many love songs have a little story connected with them telling the conditions under which they were originally sung. As an ex- ample of a song associated with an individual we may take this bit of cynical observation which is accredited to a man named “Thamu” or “Dawn” who lived in Santa Clara within the memory of the oldest people. When he found several girls grinding corn and singing about their lovers according to custom, he would tell them, “This is the way you should sing about your lovers”: Alas! this man of mine! His words were like truth When he talked to me. His words were like truth, But right away he proved To be an arrant liar! After this he would find safety in flight. One example has already been given of the homesick songs sung by the young people who are away from home. Here is another one relating to the Pueblo of San Juan: In San Juan I wonder how my home is, Surrounded by green cottonwoods my home is. Now I remember all and now I sing! Now I remember how I used to live And how I used to walk amid my corn And through my fields. Alas, what can I do! HOME SONGS OF THE TEWA INDIANS Sometimes in the songs of this simple people there is an artfulness that takes you by surprise. Who can doubt that the young girl who sang the following lyric about her lover had a secret thought to comfort her? Oh, somewhere yonder in the west You go away to gather wood. And now you shout and now you sing. Oh yes, Iremember! Abruptly you left me! Laughing was I, nevertheless, you left me! The gentle raillery of these verses might be contrasted with the unmistak- able sarcasm of another girl whose whilom swain returns from a far country and seeks to reéstablish the old relations. The song takes the form of a dialogue as do several others that I obtained. He speaks: Oh, Little Blue, at your door I wish to be, At your door that once was blue and open wide, But nowisclosed. At your door, I wish tobe Oh, my little breath! Oh, my little heart! She speaks: To Comanche girls you paid those words, those eyes! Your wish concerns me not and I can’t be killed For that! It was under guns that you dared to pay! It may be explained to those who do not catch the figure of speech that the girl’s name was really Povi tsa wii i, that is, Blue Flower, and that the blue about her door was the flower after which she was named. The last sen- tence in the girl’s high-spirited answer, “It was under guns that you dared to pay” open risk of losing her when he turned his attention to others. means, of course, that he took an Songs of disillusion, supposed to be sung by young persons soon after mar- The woman She tells how a few short weeks before she wore riage are a common type. is usually the complainant. ~ Photo by Walton her gayest dress and went along by the side of her “arm-holding mother” while the man in brand new clothes followed by the side of his “arm-holding father.” But the marriage ceremony over, gay the “ Now in dresses became a thing of past. She continues in this fashion: the morning you wrap yourself in a 78 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ragged blanket when you go down to wash your face in the brook and I cover my head with a tattered shawl when I go into the village. You promised to go to Texas and send me checks and money but you got no farther than Truchas when you grew homesick and turned But I don’t should find me crying around the corner back. care! If anyone of the house and should ask me what the matter is, I would answer: “Oh, it is nothing, I have only been kicked by ¢ goat.” This is another song of disillusion, less circumstantial but no less bitter. Long ago how nice was everything! Fat mutton was all I ate, Coffee and sugar were all I ate, But now all I eat is the whip! I have no compunction in saying that the violence was doubtless of the purely This final beautiful and vivid poem I give as the type of theoretical sort. true love song of the Tewa: My little breath, under the willows by the water side we used to sit And there the yellow cottonwood bird came and sang. That I remember and therefore I weep. Under the growing corn we used to sit, And there the little leaf bird came and sang. That I remember and therefore I weep. There on the meadow of yellow flowers we used to walk. Oh, my little breath! Oh, my little heart! There on the meadow of blue flowers we used to walk. Alas! how long ago that we two walked in that pleasant way. Then everything was happy, but, alas! how long ago. There on the meadow of crimson flowers we used to walk. Oh, my little breath, now I go there alone in sorrow. The sacred lake of the Taos Indians! 1 Nore BY THE AUTHOR: sedentary. The Indians of New Mexico and Arizona are of two kinds, nomadic and The latter are called Pueblo Indians after the Spanish name for village. Art, religion and everyday life vary little from one of the twenty-five or more villages to another, although four distinct language stocks are represented. The Tewa speak a dialect of the Tafioan language stock and inhabit five villages (San Juan, Santa Clara, San Ildefonso, Nambé and Tesuque) along the Rio Grande north of Santa Fé, and one, Hano, in northern Arizona. been only slightly affected by European contact. Taos is a finely preserved pueblo in northern New Mexico whose inhabitants speak a different Tafioan dialect. The Hopi villages adjoin Hano and have Photo by Karl Moon TAOS FLUTE BOY The flute is the Indian instrument of the serenade Photo by H. J. Spinden SACRED LAKE IN TAOS MOUNTAINS A small glacial lake 11,000 feet above the sea, where the Indians hold sacred ceremonies. All Pueblo Indian tribes have sacred lakes although not many are so beautiful as this HOPI BABY iy ‘ about on the flat roofs of the houses and adventurous « ay g pl climb the ladders leading thereto children when very youn Hopi QOUR}SIP 24} UT SUIeJUNOW aq BURG OY dGvOw AYTIVA AHL NO O1dHNd AHL uapurgs ‘[ “HH AQ 0704%q NYOO ONIGNIYD 'TUID uoopy JADY AQ 00Yq we ’ Cs) ®% Photo by Karl Moon AT THE BRIDGE — San Juan Pueblo vy Karl Moon INDIAN COURTSHIP — San Juan Pueblo LyQl JO 12M URITXOW OY} UI SEM DUTT} }SE] ey, *A10}SIY O[GQeNg Jo saved paapuNny 9a14}3 94} Jurinp sour} snories ye spaeruedg Aq poxoe}e usyM pep eavy SURIPUT 94} YOIYM 0} aSnjo1 e ST SUOULO YSTY 94} JO ou UT NIVLINQOW SOVL uapurds “[ *H 49 oj04q MEMORIES OF PROFESSOR BICKMORE —— By L. P. Gratacap HE death of Professor Albert S. Bickmore ! of the American Mu- seum seems to mark in the development of the institution the com- pletion of a period which encloses the earliest steps in establishment and a later era of unrivaled enlargement, while ushering in the present day of scientific ambitions and, it might so be called, of scenic animation. To-day research embraces continents and their zoological and ethnological relations, while the intensive study of the past contributes new revelations of evolution, yet with even foot, the skill of installa- tion, the recording power of the artist, preparator and naturalist advances, fill- ing the museum halls with exquisite pictures of life. The scenario has be- come the whole wide world, the drama all that lives and breathes in it, and the composer he or she who understands that life and reproduces it with tender- ness and skill. On one who has lived through simpler days, when however ardor was not less patient, accomplishment not less diffi- cult, days wherein a certain humility of hope accompanied effort, the present produces a really bewildering impression. It is all so different, so— as Dominie Sampson might have said—“‘prodigious.”’ The foundation of all this super- structure of activity and recreation was 14 memorial meeting in honor of Albert Smith Bickmore was held in the auditorium of the American Museum of Natural History on Friday, January 29. Addresses were made by President Henry Fairfield Osborn, Honorable Joseph H. Choate, Mr. Cleveland H. Dodge, Dr. J. H. Finley and Mr. L. P. Gratacap. Quotations from these addresses will be presented in a later issue of the JourNat. laid by one whose death the Museum mourns to-day. Compared with the ample provisions of room and light — not inconsiderably associated with bodily comforts and relaxations — enjoyed now in the Museum, that cramped, little, low- ceilinged attic room in the old Arsenal where Professor Bickmore worked, over half a century ago, seems paltry enough. There was charm in the outlook from this attic room’s windows over the or- namented stretches of the park below, but usually the windows were not quite clean enough to see through cr the clustering leaves of climbing ivy effaced them. Crowded along the walls were the Professor’s books and at a small desk in the center the Professor sat and wrote, not bulletins or erudite lucubra- tions, but appeals, summonses, plans, reports, his agile pen skimming over page after page of foolscap as he ex- horted a trustee, reminded the mayor, pleaded to a legislator, implored a pos- sible benefactor, or reproached a mem- ber for his unpaid dues. Professor Bickmore at that time exe- cuted a composite r6le — and those were not days of the obedient typewriter, the unfailing telephone, of superintendent, curator, secretary, trustee, designer, and although he had assistance, his vibrant energy vitalized and controlled every- thing. This paper written from a past dimly realized by the younger men of to-day, can neither consider the historical phases of the Museum’s inception and growth, nor can it assume a biographical char- acter in. regard to Professor Bickmore’s later years and conspicuous success in 79 80 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL educational fields. For the reason of emphasis, it must be limited to those initial moments of preparation within the walls of the Arsenal in Central Park, and must recall the first personal impres- sions of a man who imbedded, as it were, his life and talent in this institution; it will revive the memory of an intimacy as it first began, under circumstances half humorous and half serious, in an environment that gathers from a remi- niscent affection for it, a charm both whimsical and sad. The Arsenal is externally to-day the same picturesque structure as it was then — the confession of what then implies need not be too curiously asked— but it has, I understand, undergone extensive renovation and I trust that that antique atmosphere which once assailed the visitor, has been modernized or banished. In spite of their remote ele- vation the top rooms of the old Arsenal were the most cheerful parts of the an- cient building, almost the most interest- ing, for there was the library from Dr. John C. Jay (with which came to the Museum his celebrated and _ historic collection of shells); there was Dr. Draper and _ his whirling, rotating, auto- matic meteorological recorders, and there too, an amazing southern colonel, Dr. Draper’s assistant, whose smooth loqua- city always gained a fine dignity by a slight — O! very slight — admixture of -Vergilian phrases. As for instance, when he descended those abominably steep winding stairs that led up to the attic eyrie, he muttered, “Facilis descensus Averni” and when he painfully, under excruciating protest of rheumatism, climbed them he less contentedly ex- claimed, “ Hic labor, hoc opus est.’ There too, after you had crossed a dim room, piled with boxes and desolate with dust, you found in a tower apartment, almost cheerful in its half comfortable seclusion, the Professor; found him, as I found him, studying plans, drawing forecasts, calculating possibilities for the great new structure that was growing in Manhat- tan Square at Seventy-seventh Street and Eighth Avenue, itself a new fact in the steady civilizing process of the city northward. My very first impression of Professor Bickmore, studying him with a keen sensitiveness to outward signs, was of admiration for his verbal facility. Al- most instantly he plunged headlong into that incessant preoccupation of his mind, the new Museum building, its future, its uses, how it should develop, how it would feed school, college and university, how it must rise to the occasion of its new responsibilities illustrating to zodl- ogist, botanist, geologist and engineer the vital facts of their professions, how to the plain man it would be a page of revealing wonders, to the artist a new incentive for his creative or copying in- dustry, how it should become focal in relation to all the scientific activities of the city, how pride in it would gather to its support financial adequacy and how it would expand commensurately with the new continent’s metropolis, until it outrivaled — so it seemed to me — the collective shows of all the world. Of course it quite took my breath away, and hopelessly incompetent to stem the flow of this splendid prophecy [Is it not to-day being fulfilled?], I sug- gested that he look at my letters. They were reassuringly signed by Egleston, Chandler and Newberry; the Professor did look at them, read them attentively, and actually became contemplative and silent. An instant later, almost eagerly, he invited me to luncheon. I have always felt that, coming from the School of Mines at Columbia, my application struck him favorably as significant of the approaching capitulation of that 'momentously fashionable. is i al meni all ~ MEMORIES OF PROFESSOR BICKMORE 81 university to the monopolistic designs of the Museum. Well, that first impression grew inordi- nately. There was —an~ unmistakable Napoleonic strain in the Professor’s make-up, and more and more clearly I saw that his unflagging industry, his unshakable resolution was supported by an almost sublime optimism. Per- haps there he was not altogether Napo- leonic, for with the great consul the fata- listic shadow darkened many a sombre hour. The commentary of the poet on human hopes, “One moment seen then gone forever,”’ had no meaning to Bick- more, at least in his waking and working moments. Once seen, his designs were potentially realized; he never met him- self coming back. And then he tem- peramentally possessed wonderful resili- ency. Of course there were reverses, repulses even, but if a clumsy image may be permitted, expressed in terms congenial to modern scientific linguistics, after every differentiation Professor Bick- more integrated so rapidly that you never discovered he had been pulverized. There were proud moments too in the old Arsenal. Reception days were really The large upper hall with mammals and birds and skeletons, rather crowded, but luminous and interesting, the subterranean (as regards light) second floor, with more skeletons, snakes, alcoholics, building stones, corals and shells, both over- flowed with a gallant company of young and old, somehow evoked by the Pro- fessor’s own enthusiasm and by the social prestige of the trustees, amid whom the Professor with gaiety and confidence spread his roseate predictions. Music swelled from one of the tower alcoves, and an effective corps of reporters, assid- uously entertained also by the Professor, duly recorded the wonders of the place and the splendor of the company. These receptions were successes and they effi- ciently helped the lengthening list of members. They kept the Museum idea before the great public and Professor Bickmore intended to make and _ suc- ceeded in making that great public understand the meaning of the new design more and more as the event of its dedication drew nearer. The transference of the contents of the Arsenal to the new building on Manhat- tan Square was itself accomplished with amazing rapidity and here again the unequivocal impetus of the Professor was manifested. By a Fabian stroke of prudence he maintained his hold on the Arsenal by keeping there a much di- luted mixture—it must be confessed—of museum properties or exhibits, which however still further assisted his designs, as all visitors, always numerous be- cause of the proximity of the Park me- nagerie, met a repeated exhortation to cross the park to see the “real thing.” Already the Museum had taken on a quasi-national reference, for had not President Grant laid its cornerstone; and now President Hays, himself a storm center of political dispute, was to open its halls with the added intellectual deco- rations of President Elliot and Professor Marsh as speakers and promoters! The glory of that occasion need not divert these lines from their simple purpose, but I do recall its immense excitement wherein by an odd trick of association, the clearest visual memory is that of the President’s wife, a lady whose tact and charm had already captivated the nation, and that of Professor Marsh, vexed over the absence of a looking-glass for the regulation of his not over-abundant hair. In regard to the friends who have departed this life, it is all too easy to suc- cumb to the temptation of adulation, but, so far as the American Museum of 82 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Natural History is to-day a most im- pressive fact, the history of its origin, of its development, of the growth of its later vital educational influence, is indis- solubly part of the life of Professor Albert S. Bickmore. Inseparable factors in the institution’s astonishing success were his enduring hopefulness, the prescience that foresaw the boundless opportuni- ties for the Museum’s growth in this city of equally boundless prospects, the in- cessant watchfulness that nursed its first years into the self-sufficiency, at least of adolescence, his industry, his power of audacious importunity, the manipulative skill of the politician and the skillful ardor of the eulogist, and perhaps lastly the magnificence of his vision of possible ultimate attainments. Certainly there were other elements, other minds and personalities, other influences even, but —when there is fame enough for all —let no invidious suspicion be permitted to lessen by the smallest scruple the full measure of Professor Bickmore’s merit. Finally, Professor Bickmore from the beginning I think, fully appreciated the scientific role the Museum would assume. It was’ by his strenuous exertions that the great Hall collection of fossils was purchased which gave the Museum a unique distinction in invertebrate pale- ontology. Very shortly after the occu- pation of the new building, he secured the location in it of a section for the United States Geological Survey, represented by Arnold Hague, Charles D. Walcott, Joseph P. Iddings and the mining geol- ogist, T. B. Brooks. The Zirkel collee- tion of rocks from the 40th parallel survey was then deposited in the Mu- seum, probably the first extensive petro- graphic assemblage of slides and field specimens made in this country. These were subsequently at the Museum, studied by Mr. E. Wadsworth, and gave rise to a very pretty altercation, as many lithologists may recall. Professor Bick- more, I know, entertained, with Clar- ence King, the idea of building electrical furnaces in the basement of the new building, which might have anticipated some of the startling successes in modern electrolytic chemical processes. He con- ferred with Asa Gray on the project of re- moving to the Museum the Torrey Her- barium; I was present when he suggested to Professor Chamberlain that the Geo- logical Society of America make its headquarters at the American Museum, and again and again he spoke to me exult- ingly of a project to transform the first floor of the new building into an immense aquarium. Many of these plans were indeed premature and overstated, but they evinced the fertility of Professor Bickmore’s mind, and _ illustrated his resourceful propaganda in all directions in the interests of the Museum. Srnce the last issue of the JourNaAL the following persons have become members of the Museum: ease Life Members;Messrs. Lewis Sayre Kerr, Jr., Samuet Kissam Kerr and Seweitt Tappan Tyna; Annual Members, Mrs. ALFRED NOROTON Puiurs, Mrs. Jutia SELIGMAN, Mrs. Aurce E. SHoensperGeR, Mrs. Fircu W. Samira, Mrs. Jenny K. Srarrorp, Mrs. Daviy McNeeEty Staurrer, Mrs. S. M. Srroocx, Mrs. Gustavus A. WALKER, Mrs. Istpor Wormser, the Misszs E. J. BARNARD, Louise G. CrapsBe, CHRISTOBELLE CRAIN, Eva Hawkes, Emma FeLLowes TAyior and Evetyn M. Tuomson, Dr. Joun B. Knapp, and Messrs. Orro T. BANNARD, ARTHUR CLeveLAnp Bent, Joun W. A. Davis, Tueropore G. Ecer, Leorpotp F. Gorter, Georce A. Houpen, Epwarp M. Hovss, Fay Ineauts, Wini1am MicHaetis, FREDER- ick H. Sansorn, Donatp Scorr, ABRAHAM Saman, Winw1am Skinner, Rocuester B. SiauGcuTer, Freperic E. SonDERN, ARTHUR P. Srurces, Howarp Taytor, MyYLes Wausu, Evcene W. Watkins, and T. W. WILuiaMs. Mr. H. E. AntHony, accompanied by Mr. David S. Ball as assistant, left New York January 29 to join Mr. W. B. Richardson in southern Panama for a four month’s collecting trip. There is little known z0é- logically of the high mountainous region between Colombia and Panama, and the results of the expedition must prove of un- usual interest in showing a possible connect- ing link between the extinct fauna of North and South America. The party hopes to secure a representative collection of the birds _ and mammals of the region, which will serve to connect the Museum’s recent work in Colombia with the earlier work done in Central America. The expedition hopes also to round out the Museum’s accessions of mammals and birds so that they include a practically continuous collection from Mexico down into Peru. Tue Jesup Lectures will be given in the auditorium of the Museum on Friday even- ings during February and March, from Feb- ruary 5 to March 25 inclusive. In these lectures, Charles P. Berkey, associate pro- MUSEUM NOTES fessor of geology in Columbia University, will speak before the friends of the University and of the American Museum of Natural History on the “Origin and Meaning of Some Fundamental Earth Structures.” The sub- jects of the individual lectures follow one another as follows: February 5, “Concerning the Origin and Nature of the Earth”; Feb- ruary 12, “Earth Movements”; February 19, “The Place and Work of Volcanism’’; February 26, “‘Metamorphism’’; March 5, “Primary and Secondary Structures”; March 12, “Petrographic Cycles”; March 19, “Application to Local Studies’; March 26, “Relation of Structural Geology to Practical Undertakings.” Tue American Ethnological Society in conjunction with the Section of Anthropology and Psychology of the New York Academy of Sciences met on January 25, at the American Museum of Natural History. Rev. John W. Chapman presented a paper, “ The Medicine-Men of Anvik, Alaska,’ and an informal discussion followed. Some of the questions asked were referred to Mr. Thomas Reid of Anvik, Alaska, an educated half-breed who was visiting the Museum at the time to follow out certain studies in the anthropo- logical department. Apropos of the visit of Sir Douglas Mawson to the Museum, it may be noted that the map of the South Polar regions [at the foot of the stairway on the first floor] has been revised and brought down to date, so that it includes the discoveries of Sir Douglas and other recent Antarctic explorers. Tue loan collection of Dr. J. Leon Williams illustrating the skulls of the “Men of the Old Stone Age,” a series of restorations of ancient types of prehistoric man by Professor J. H. McGregor, and a selected series of flint imple- ments and works in ivory illustrating the art of the Old Stone Age, have been sent to the Panama-Pacific Exposition at San Francisco. Professor McGregor’s series of restorations includes skulls and busts of the following subjects: Pithecanthropus erectus, the Nean- derthal race and the Piltdown man, besides reconstructed brain casts of these stages. 83 84 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Tue evolution of the vertebrates is set forth in a general way in the exhibition halls of the Museum, but the subject covers such an extended field of detail that the casual visitor would hardly be likely to grasp the main outlines. Indeed it requires consider- able technical training to give an accurate account of the general stages in the evolution of the skull of vertebrates from the lowest fishes to man or to follow the transformation of the teeth and jaws as they are diversely modified for different functions from primitive or generalized types. Perhaps it is still a matter of general interest and it is deemed still worth while that a few specially equipped students should work out for themselves and in detail the steps by which the human back- bone and limbs have been evolved from lower types. Such topics are developed in the Columbia University graduate courses which are given at this Museum under Dr. W. K. Gregory. A study collection comprising over one thousand selected specimens of recent and fossil vertebrates has been brought together through the codperation of Museum curators and others. This collection has proved of constantly increasing value in the past few years not only to the graduate stu- dents in the courses mentioned but also to Museum curators and other investigators. A class from Hunter’s College also makes constant use of this collection. The resources of the Osborn Library and of the Museum library are likewise used in these courses. Dr. E. O. Hovey will sail February 5 for the West Indies to continue the studies on the volcanoes of the Lesser Antilles, which he began some years ago when the great erup- tions on the islands of Martinique and St. Vincent occurred. He will be absent about three months and will devote his time particu- larly to the Grande Soufriére of Guadeloupe, Mount Pelé of Martinique, the Soufriére of St. Vincent and the boiling lake of Domin- ica, collecting gases from the fumeroles and making temperature observations, and taking note of the changes which have occurred since his visit in 1908. The expedition is undertaken through the aid given to the Mu- seum by the Angelo Heilprin Exploration Fund established by Mr. and Mrs. Paul J. Sachs. An exhibition of photographs of North American Indians is to be held at the Museum from February 1 to 27. These photographs were made by Mr. Edward 8S. Curtis, under the patronage of the late J. Pierpont Morgan, and include some of the largest and most striking of his recent pictures taken on the North Pacific Coast. Many of them will appear in the coming volume (Volume X) of Mr. Curtis’s life work on the North Ameri- can Indians. : Tue autochrome plates, as exhibited by Mr. Frank M. Byerly in the Museum audi- torium, January 7, proved to be a decided evidence of the success of obtaining nature’s colorings by automatically absorbing the color directly from the object or the land- scape. The exhibition was particularly in- teresting to practical workers in photography as showing the progress that has been made in the rapidity of autochrome plates and in their adaptability to use by non-professionals. Two of the most pleasing pictures were com- panion pieces, the first showing the clouds of a gathering storm, the second the rainbow stretching over the valley after the cloud- burst. A series of flower pictures illustrated the extreme value of this art in that it loses no detail of the coloring of the original. Tue formal opening at the Metropolitan Museum of the Riggs Collection of Armor, installed under the supervision of Bashford Dean, curator of arms and armor, took place on the evening of January 25. This collection forms the most considerable gift that the Metropolitan Museum has ever received aside from the famous Rogers bequest. Combined with the collection of armor al- ready in the Museum’s possession and supple- mented by loans from Dr. Dean’s private col- lection, it makes a very full and instructive exhibit. Mr. Riggs is one of few collectors who wish their collections arranged chrono- logically as well as for artistic effect. It thus happens that from the present installation the student can get an excellent idea of the history of the development of armor and of its decadence and disappearance as gunpowder came in and firearms improved. Two reels of motion picture films showing Blackfoot Indian life were exhibited to the Museum staff January 22, by Mr. E. W. Deming, who during the past summer lived in a lodge near the Blackfoot Indian camps in Glacier National Park. The pictures in- clude various’ tribal dances’ and the’ ceremo- nies with which these dances are connected and are perhaps unusual in being authentic unposed records. Mr. Deming returns to Glacier Park in the summer of 1915 and hopes to continue this picture record of Blackfoot ceremonies and also to obtain phonograph records of Blackfoot songs. THERE were shown in the auditorium of the Museum on December 31, motion picture films telling the story of the rescue of the Stefansson survivors from Wrangell Island. In June, 1914, news of the sinking of the Stefansson exploration ship ‘“Karluk’’ the previous January, and the marooning of the survivors on Wrangell Island, had been brought to civilization by Captain Robert E. Bartlett, across the ice from Wrangell to Siberia. The rescue of the survivors from Wrangell was made on September 7 by Mr. Burt M. McConnell (who but recently had been of the supporting party with Stefansson on his ice trip north into Beaufort Sea) in the “King and Winge,’’— although he would give all credit for the rescue to Olaf Swenson, commander of the “King and Winge,” and to Captain Jochimsen, ice pilot. The pic- tures showed the ‘King and Winge”’ buck- ing the ice on its way to the island and the taking off of the twelve people from the flat ice-covered shores leaving only the frail tent, the flag at half-mast and the cross above the graves of the three dead, to mark what had been a camp for human beings for eight months. The pictures showed also Stefansson, commander of the expedition, removing supplies from the “‘ Belvedere” and later starting out on the ice trip from Martin Point; and included besides remarkable photographs of bear and walrus hunting from the decks of the “King and Winge.” Ar the recent session of the American Association for the Advancement of Science the following honors were conferred upon members of the anthropology staff of the Museum: Dr. Pliny E. Goddard was reélected president of the American Folk Lore Society and was elected editor of the American Anthropologist, the foremost anthropological publication of America; Dr. Robert H. Lowie, who performed the duties of acting secretary in the absence of Professor George Grant MacCurdy, was reélected associate editor of the American Anthropologist, and Mr. Alanson Skinner was elected assistant secre- tary of the American Folk Lore Society. MUSEUM NOTES 85 Tue lectures for the blind classes in the public schools of New York City, given under the direction of the department of public education of the American Museum of Natu- ral History, began November 12 and will con- tinue until June 15. Two schools from Brooklyn, one from the Bronx, and eight from Manhattan are regular visitors, each class receiving individual attention, and, during the year, having from four to seven meetings at the Museum. The schedule for 1914-1915 will include simple illustrated talks on “Fur Babies and Their Ways,” “‘Animal Life at the Seashore,” “ Bird Neighbors and Their Homes,” “ Flowers of the Springtime,’ “The Story of the Trees,” ‘How the Trees Protect Themselves in Winter,” ‘‘ Hiawatha’s People,’ “Inside the Indian’s Wigwam,” “Our Little Eskimo Cousin,” “‘ The Story of Cotton, Silk, and Wool,” “A Journey from Pole to Pole,” and ‘The Story of Animals and Vegetation of Different Climates.” A new work entitled The Indians of Greater New York by Mr. Alanson Skinner has been published by the Torch Press. This exhaustive study has been written to meet the constant demands of those inter- ested in the history of our local Indians. Mr. Skinner has had opportunity to examine many of the original sources of information which were rare and difficult to procure, and has not hesitated to quote freely their quaint phraseology. The book is written in popular style and deals with the history, archeology and ethnology of the Manhattan Indians and their neighbors. THE department of geology has been fortu- nate in securing for the meteorite collection fourteen falls and finds which are entirely new to the Museum’s series. The most inter- esting of these is an eight hundred and eleven gram slice of the Big Skookum siderite. This meteorite was found at a depth of sixty feet from the surface in the glacial gravels near the Yukon River, Alaska, and is there- fore supposed to be of glacial age. Tue exhibits in the Peruvian hall have been recased to make room for the collection of Nasca pottery purchased through the generosity of Mr. A. D. Juilliard, a trustee of the Museum. This collection has been installed in two large wall cases at the west end of the hall. 86 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Recent additions to the hall of fossil mammals include a skeleton and a series of skulls of the clawed ungulate Moropus. These are part of the series of skeletons ob- tained by recent Museum expeditions to the great fossil quarry at Agate, Nebraska. Skeletons of the sabre-tooth tiger and the great extinct wolf from the asphalt deposit near Los Angeles, as also skulls of the fossil horse and the great American lion from the same locality are likewise placed temporarily on exhibition, although not yet mounted. Attention may also be called to the fine series of skulls in the Oreodont alcove on the north side of the hall. Tue following papers were presented before the recent session at Philadelphia of the American Association for the Advancement of Science by members of the staff of the American Museum of Natural History. Geological Society of America CuesterR A. Reeps, ‘Geologic Deposits in Relation to Pleistocene Man,” and “Graphic Projection of Pleistocene Climatic Oscillations.” Grorce F. Kunz, “John Boyd Thacher Park — The Helderberg Escarpment as a Geological Park.” Paleontological Society of America Henry F. Osporn, “Migration and Suc- cession of Human Types of the Old Stone Age of Europe.”’ Presidential address before the Paleontological Society, ‘The Addition and Evolution of ‘Characters’ in Palzeonto- logic Phyla.”’ CARLOS DE LA TorRE and W. D. Mar- THEW, “‘ Megalocnus and other Cuban Ground Sloths.”’ W. D. Marruew “On the Affinities of Hyopsodus.”’ Barnum Brown, “The Ankylosauride; second contribution.” WALTER GRANGER, ‘New Evidences on the Affinities of the Multituberculata.” Wiiuiam K. Grecory, ‘American Eocene Primates’; and “On the Relationships of Anaptomorphus, Necrolemur and other ex- tinct ,Lemuroids.” W. D. Marruew, “Reconstruction of the Skeleton of Brachiosaurus.”’ L. Hussaxor and W. L. Bryant, “ The Fish Fauna of the Conodent Bed (Basal Genesee) at Eighteen Mile Creek, near Buffalo, New York.” The American Society of Naturalists Henry F. Osporn, “The Museum in the Public Service.”’ The American Folk-Lore Society Puiny E. Gopparp, Presidential address, “The Relation of Folk Loreto Anthropology.” American Anthropological Society Hersert J. SPINDEN, ‘‘ Nahua Influence in Salvador and Costa Rica.” Cuark WisstErR, “The Diffusion of Mod- ern Ceremonies in the Plains Area,’ and “Types of Clothing and their Distribution in the Plains Area.”’ Nets C. Nexson, “ Chronological Data on the Rio Grande Pueblos.”’ ALANSON SKINNER, ‘Ethnology of the Eastern Dakota.” Rospert H. Lowin, ‘“‘Exogamy and the Classificatory System of Relationship.” Social and Economic Science C.-E. A. Winstow, “Community Defense of National Vitality.” Physiology and Experimental Medicine C.-E. A. Winstow, ‘‘Standards of Ventila- tion — Hygienic and Aisthetic.” The Society_of American Bacteriologists IsRABL J. Kuicuer, ‘A Study of the Cor- relation of the Agglutination and Fermenta- tion Reactions among the Streptococci.” TuHrovuGH the generosity of Mr. Ogden Mills, the Museum has added to its collec- tions a beautiful specimen of bandolier or beaded bag, secured in Fort Leavensworth, Kansas, in 1854 from the Delaware Indians. Dr. FrANK E. Lutz, of the Museum’s de- partment of invertebrate zodlogy, has been appointed a member of the board of editors of the New York State List of Insects. Mr. Charles W. Leng, honorary curator of Coleop- tera is also a member. THERE have been so many calls for the moths mentioned in Gene Stratton Porter’s books, Girl of the Limberlost and Moths of the Limberlost that a special exhibit of these species has been installed in the gallery case, east wing, third floor. AMONG recent important accessions to the department of geology mention may be made of the Ysleta siderite, weighing 310 pounds, from Ysleta, Texas, and the Culbert- son aérolite, weighing 13 pounds, from MUSEUM NOTES | 87 Culbertson, Nebraska, the gift of Mr. Arthur Curtiss James. Neither of these meteorites has yet been described. Eight kilograms of additional material from the Holbrook stone shower of July, 1913, have been obtained for use with what _the~ Museum already possesses, to arrange a special case in the hall of geology to represent the mode of occurrence of such a meteoritic fall. There have been secured also a slice of the Mt. Edith siderite showing particularly excellent Widmanstitten lines, and representatives of the Rio Arriba, Wairarapa, Elm Creek, Aumiéres and St. Marks falls. An interest- ing slab and its counterpart of Triassic limestone showing footprints and ripple marks have been obtained from a quarry near West Orange, New Jersey; also a slab of orbicular granite from Vermont; a series of salt and other minerals from Great Salt Lake, Utah; and a specimen of native iron in basalt from Biihl, Germany. The Albert Manufacturing Company has presented to the department an interesting series of specimens illustrating the occurrence of gypsum at its famous quarries near Hills- borough, New Brunswick. Ow January 26, Mr. Roy W. Miner of the department of invertebrate zoédlogy lectured before the Linnzan Society on “The Fauna of Our Tide Pools.’ Mr. Miner described with the aid of colored lantern slides the environmental conditions determining the animal life of the tidal zone of our northern rocky coast from Nahant to New Brunswick. The tide pools of Nahant, Massachusetts, with their wonderful flora and fauna were then depicted. This is the locality from which Mr. Miner has drawn the theme for the new tide-pool group which is under course of construction for the Darwin hall. Over- arched by a natural bridge of rock below the high-tide mark at the bottom of a sixty-foot cliff, this tide pool with its gorgeous display of animal and plant life presents all the as- pects of a veritable fairy cavern. It is expected that the group will be finished within the current year and will form the most striking in the series of window exhibits in the Darwin hall illustrating the natural his- tory of the invertebrates of the North Atlan- tic coast. An introductory exhibition of drawings in color of “Our Common Home Birds” by Mr. H. C. Denslow was held at the Museum in the west assembly hall from January 15 to January 29 inclusive. A GrovpP of the California ground squirrel has been placed on exhibition in the hall of public health. The significance of this exhibit is realized when we know that the flea carrying the germ of the bubonic plague to man, is common to this rodent as well as to the rat — for some years recognized as a car- rier of the disease. This condition has been and still is a serious problem, as the trappers who come in contact with the animal become infected and in turn transmit the disease to other individuals. The plague has spread in the West to such an extent through this agency that the United States government has found it necessary to conduct a strenuous campaign to exterminate the ground squirrel. Up to September, 1913, nearly two thousand squirrels of this species had been found infected with the plague bacillus in California alone. Tue last shipment of South American birds and mammals sent north by the Roosevelt party, has just arrived in New York. About three hundred and fifty mammalian specimens and ninety Brazilian birdskins were enclosed. Among the specimens new to the Museum collections are three birds, the very small manikins, two male and one female, Tue groups in the Darwin hall are being provided with index labels some of which have already been installed. Those used in connection with the window exhibits which represent an extensive and complicated series of invertebrates in their natural environment, are particularly adapted to aid in identifying the forms shown. The label recently com- pleted for the Woods Hole group describes in a series of five panels the principal marine specimens represented and identifies them by water-color diagrams placed immediately below the portions of the exhibit to which they refer. AN eight-foot nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) was received from the New York Aquarium several weeks ago, and a plaster mold of it was made while it was still in good form. This is now being prepared in the taxidermist workrooms of the Museum, and will make a valuable addition to the series of large fishes mounted along the walls above the cases in the hall of recent fishes. 88 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL On the afternoons of. January 22 and 29, Mr. Alanson Skinner who is honorary curator of anthropology of the Staten Island Associa- tion of Arts and Sciences, delivered two lec- tures for children, ‘‘ Life Among the Indians’”’ and “Indian Fairy Tales,” at the Associa- tion’s Museum at St. George. THERE has been placed on exhibition in the hall of North American mammals a small group of pikas, a small rodent called by many names, such as little chief hare, rat hare, cony, and known also as the “starved rat”’ among hunters and miners. The pika be- longs to the only living genus Ochotona of its family (Ochotonide). Ochotona alpinus and Ochotona ogotena are found in Europea- Asiatic altitudes of from 11,000-14,000 feet among the northern mountains. They are found along the Volge and Ural rivers, through the steppes of Orenburg, in the Ural mountains, and in western Russia including districts along the Obi River, around Lake Aral, and through the steppes between the Obi and Volga rivers. Ochotona saxatilis is found in North America and it is a group of this species that the Museum owns. This particular pika comes from Estes Park, Colorado, but the American pika is also found in all the western mountains, is especially abundant on the Snowy Range in the vicinity of the Platte River (in southern Wyoming and northern and central Colorado), and in- habits regions even as far south as New Mexico and Arizona. The pika exhibited is a small gray-brown rodent resembling a guinea-pig except that it is never longer than seven inches and has large, short, rounded ears. It frequents dry rocky places almost destitute of vegetation, living upon sappy plants and the twigs of bushes in summer, and in winter upon the . grass which it has stored between the rocks of its home during the summer. It is found almost always at higher altitudes than any rabbit lives, from the timber line up to the line of perpetual snow. Maps have been placed at the entrances of the North Pacific Coast hall and the East- ern Woodland hall showing the location of the important tribes of Indians in North America north of Mexico. These tribes have been grouped into nine culture areas as recently plotted by Dr. Clark Wissler. An index accompanies the maps, not only for the purpose of indicating the location of the tribes on the map but also to serve as a guide to the collections on exhibition in the four halls de- voted to North American ethnology. AN instructive new exhibit to illustrate the relation of animals to environment has re- cently been placed in the synoptic hall of mammals. It consists of a map of the United States on which are fastened the actual mounted skins of various species of chip- munks to call attention to the fact that in arid regions these chipmunks are small and pale in color while in forested moist regions they are large and dark-colored — in accord- ance with the law formulated by Dr. J. A. Allen. A RECENT important acquisition in the department of geology is a slice of a meteor- itic iron known as “Sams Valley”. This meteorite was originally found in 1894 but was not brought to the attention of the Museum and scientific world until twenty years later. The entire mass was a small one, weighing only about fifteen pounds. The Museum however has been fortunate in securing an entire section weighing 1093 grams and measuring about 64 by 4} inches. The polished and etched surface of this meteorite is particularly beautiful through the abundance of the mineral schrei- bersite which is present in small masses and broad thin plates, the latter showing on the etched surface as slender rods and the thin lamellze of nickel-rich taenite. The latter are prominent in certain lights as brilliant lines. This meteorite receives its name from the post office of Sams Valley near the local- ity where it was found. Its nearest geo- graphical neighbors among the siderites are Willamette two hundred miles to the north in Oregon, and Oroville two hundred miles to the south in California, both of which are entirely different from Sams Valley in appear- ance of the etched surfaces. 9 THe American Museum Journa. Vorusr XV MARCH, 1915 NUMBER 3 Cover, Kwakiutl] Indian Dance Copyright photograph by Mr. E. S. Curtis Mr. Wit S. Taytor, Mural Artist Mr. E. W. Denia, Painter of the American Indian Rear-ApMIRAL Rosert E. Peary Str Doveitas Mawson IIR OPMNVOS 2 ee ee eee. Ropert H. Lowrie 95 With a four-page insert in sepia of photographs as follows: 3 nunc a8 & Cure for the Sick... .........6.65.. 5.050500. Witt S. Taytor From mural painting in American Museum Scene from Buffalo Dance, San Ildefonso, 1893....... ....-E. W. Demine Buffalo Dance of Mandan Indians, 1832 After painting by Bodmer Dancing to Restore an Eclipsed Moon.................... E. S. Curtis Indian Dances in the Southwest.................... HERBERT J. SPINDEN 103 This article and the preceding are illustrated by various remarkable photographs not hereto- fore published, including several taken by E. W. Deming in South Dakota twenty-six years ago — when Sitting Bull was alive The Conversation of John Muir.................. MELVILLE B. ANDERSON 117 With Stefansson in the Arctic..................... Burt M. McConnety 123 Illustrated with map showing extent of unexplored land in North Polar regions and various points of activity of the Canadian Arctic Expedition The Geographical Results of the Roosevelt-Rondon Expedition W. L. G. Joere 129 With sketch map of the south-central part of the Amazon drainage system showing the newly discovered Rio Theodoro Daniel Giraud Elliot — A Biographical Sketch........................5.4. 133 Dr. Elliot’s personal collection of birds in 1869 formed the nucleus of the Museum's later riches and his purchases and gifts laid the foundation of the great department of mammals and birds ee iba Sudan cw das esc wecwenrecceies 141 Mary Cyrntsra Dickerson, Editor Published monthly from October to May by the American Museum of Natural History, at the Cosmos Press, Cambridge, Mass. Terms: one dollar and a half per year, twenty cents per copy. Entered as second-class matter January 12, 1907. at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., Act of Congress, July 16, 1894. Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMerican Museum JourNAL, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the Museum. , Photo by DeWard, New York MR. WILL S. TAYLOR, MURAL ARTIST Mr. Taylor is at present engaged on the great mural canvases in the North Pacific hall of the American Museum. These decorations are painted to show the industries and ceremonies of the Indians of the North Pacific Coast. {See reproduction in sepia of a photograph of one of Mr. Taylor’s recent canvases opposite page 104] 90 Photo by DeWard, New York MR. E. W DEMING, THE MAN WHO HAS FOR MANY YEARS PAINTED THE AMERICAN INDIAN WITH GENIUS AND POWER Mr. Deming has recently been engaged to provide mural decorations for one of the Indian halls of the American Museum Photo by Harris and Ewing, Washington REAR-ADMIRAL ROBERT E. PEARY On February 20, a lecture on ‘‘Children of the Ice and Snow” was delivered’ by Rear-Admiral Peary before the children of the members of the American Museum. This was the opening lecture of the Museum's fifth series of ‘‘Science Stories’’ for children Photo by Thomson, London SIR DOUGLAS MAWSON Sir Douglas Mawson has returned from the Australasian Antarctic expedition, 1911-14, with a story of much accomplished for science, despite hardship and disaster His pictures, both still and moving, are some of the most remarkable ever taken in polar regions. He lectured recently in New York under the auspices of the American Geographical Society and the American Museum of Natural History 6 4S¥OD ISOMYQION OY} WOAJ SYSBVUI JO WOTDeT[OO os1v] @ SUMO UNESN|T Oy, ‘“WOl[-eos puv vos ‘1voq oY ‘sBo1J PU SUOARI SV STeUUTUR YONS JO SUOT]eIUOSAIdeI SULMOYS ‘SsdooURpP ]eTUOUIOIOD SNO|IVA Jo dnois y VISGWN1090 HSILINYG NI SHSONVG NVIGNI 4O SSAWNLSOO s1ing “Ss “gq fiq ojoyd qybishdes THe American Museum Journat Votume XV MARCH, 1915 NUMBER 3 AMERICAN INDIAN DANCES THE INDIAN DANCE OFTEN A PRAYER BY THE TRIBE TO THE GODS OF THE HARVEST, OF WAR OR THE CHASE — USUALLY IN CONTRAST WITH PLEASURE- SEEKING, SENSUAL DANCING AS KNOWN AMONG CIVILIZED RACES By Robert H. Lowie HE word “dance,” as applied by ad the Indians has a meaning very different from that which it car- ries in our own language. When we hear of dancing, we think, first of all, of music and steps. ‘These features are of course not lacking in aboriginal dancing, but they are completely overshadowed by other aspects of culture with which they are associated. To put it briefly, our dancing appears in the same context with restaurants, hotels, débutantes, attempts at a social rapprochement of the sexes. In Indian society, dancing is largely con- nected with war and agriculture and the chase, with processions, magical per- formances and religious observances, in short, with the serious affairs of life. Indian dances as far as the steps are concerned are often of remarkable sim- plicity. A widespread “squaw dance”’ found among the Shoshone, Crow and other northwestern tribes, consists sim- ply in the circle of dancers shuffling the feet alternately to the left, each man in the circle standing between two women, with his right arm around his partner’s shoulder or waist, or in some cases with arms encircling a partner on each With short intermissions and an occasional introduction of the side. war dance for variety’s sake, a squaw dance of this type is sometimes kept up all night, to the supreme gratification of the performers. The Tobacco Dance of the Crow In- dians, is, if possible, of even simpler character. The participants stand up several in a row, holding sacred objects in their hands, and alternately bend each knee and raise or lower each band with- out at all moving from their position. The highly popular Grass Dance of the Plains Indians is of a more strenuous character. Only men take part, and they move about briskly, sometimes in 95 96 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL pairs, sometimes separately, vigorously stamping the ground with their feet, and frequently mimicking martial exploits. The orchestral equipment of the Indians is not very comprehensive. The flute (or flageolet) is restricted to use in courting. For dancing, the drum and the rattle are by far the most important instruments, although other types were used over a relatively large area; this applies, for example, to notched sticks rasped with other sticks and bird-bone whistles, usually worn suspended from the neck. The drum varies consider- ably in form. On the Northwest Coast the natives merely beat a plank or box. The Plains Indians commonly use a skin stretched over a hoop, held by strings crossing underneath, but a large double- headed drum suspended from four sticks also occurs. Rattles are likewise of widely varying kind, such as gourds con- taining small pebbles and ring-shaped or globular rawhide bags — for which in the dance of to-day baking powder cans make favorite substitutes. Sometimes a certain instrument is considered dis- tinctive of a particular dance or of a society performing the dance, and vari- ous forms of costume are also considered badges. Thus dress comes to occupy in the Indian dance a place of significance to which there is no correspondence in the dancesof civilized races. Sometimes, to be sure, the apparel merely is designed _ to give an appearance of picturesqueness, while in other instances lack of clothing is sometimes compensated for by face and body paint or by a profusion of regalia held in the hand. Ina Northern Blackfoot Grass Dance which I witnessed in 1907, some performers were naked save for moccasins and a breechcloth, but many carried ornamental objects such as mirrors, swords, and feathered and hooked staffs. When dances are the property of special organizations, as is often the case, there is naturally a tend- ency to differentiate between these by some visible token of dress or regalia. Thus the members of one Arapaho danc- ing society are marked off from the rest by wearing a headdress of buffalo skin; in another society every one wears feath- ers at the back of the head; a third is characterized by the carrying of clubs. Similarly where a single organization has several officers there is again a natural attempt to distinguish them through some external means. Thus a leader in the dance may carry an otter-wrapped pole, while the privates of the rank and file have none. The Crow Grass Dance might be chosen as an example of the social type of Indian dance, the Pawnee Iruska and the Mandan Buffalo Women’s dances as representatives of shamanistic or reli- gious performances, while the Mandan Okipa illustrates well the great tribal festival type of dance. The Crow Grass Dance, or as the natives call it the “Hot Dance,” is re- garded as the joint property of four clubs, to some one of which nearly every man of the tribe belongs. In a sense these are mutual benefit organizations, for whenever a member is confronted with a difficulty his comrades are ex- pected to help him in every way. In each of the districts of the Crow Reserva- tion, these four societies share with one another a substantial dance house. When the time for dancing comes, a committee of men proceeds from lodge to lodge, planting a stick in front of each. This means that each household is to contribute to a feast to be held by the clubs after their dance. A crier rides through camp heralding the perform- -ance and calling on all members to present themselves at the dance house. On one occasion I have known four marshals to be appointed to punish the AMERICAN INDIAN DANCES 97 laggards; those who had disobeyed the summons either had to pay a fine or sub- mit to the indignity of being thrown into the creek. In the meantime, the people assemble until the dance house is charged Then the musi- to its utmost capacity. cians, seated in the center around a_ big drum, strike up a tune, later re- inforced by the voices of some of the women, and the mem- bers of some one of the four so- cieties rise to perform the vigorous turns and _ bendings characteristic of the dance. They give vent to pen- etrating cries in rapid _—succes- sion, they bran- dish weapons at an imaginary foe, and thus proceed around the lodge until the ceasing of music makes them come to a sudden stop. rider proceeds to go around the dance circle four times, whereupon a herald announces whom the donor desires to honor with the gift. It may be a Sioux visitor or some poor old man or woman from the clan of the donor’s father. In the the latter case receiver of the horse leads it away singing as he leaves the dance house, a song in praise of his benefactor. Meanwhile the music recom- mences and the members of a second of the four clubs begin to dance in ac- companiment. Any members who are loth to rise and perform this part are whipped into dancing by an officer armed with a quirt for this purpose. All sorts of minor incidents may enliven the scene. On one occasion when I While the See Mt go 3aa My Sipe linen Oe * was a spectator $ ee -) we 4 A “ : - dancers rest oan Re a SPR while the Hot from their ex- Photo by E. W. Deming Dance was be- ertions, some Two figures from a performance of the Grass Dance ing performed, Crow eager to enhance his social prestige may decide to give away a horse. in through the door (he has to bend low not to bump his head), the horse may balk or shy at the unexpected spectacle indoors and the noisy crowd, but the He comes riding twenty-six years ago when Sitting Bull was still alive a group of boys came dashing through camp, painted with mud and disguised in clowns’ cos- tumes. They dismounted in front of the dance house, entered and to the amusement of the onlookers, the extreme took part in dance. At another Photo by E. W. Grass Dance by Sioux Indians, just previous to the death of Sitting Bull, at Running Antelope’s camp on Grand River, South Dakota. Some of the participants in the dance are Sitting Bull, Rain- in-the-Face, Chief Gaul, Chief Grass, Running Antelope, Red Tomahawk and Charging Thunder Hot Dance which I witnessed, a man took off his clothing and gave it away to a guest. In former days this dance was made an occasion for men in a spirit of bravado to cast off their wives, often merely to show their strength of mind. The famous warriors of the tribe utilize the intermissions between dances to re- cite their great deeds, each exploit being greeted by a drumbeat, and each recital entailing on the narrator the obligation At a cer- tain time visitors are warned to be off, to give away some property. for the door of the house is to be shut. 98 Then the feast takes place — originally Thus ends the Grass or Hot Dance, a mixture of all sorts of of dog meat. merriment, self-advertisement, feasting and dancing. A very different phase of dancing is The members of the society practicing this presented by the Pawnee Iruska. dance were supposed to be masters of fire, and their attitude toward it was to be like a Pawnee’s attitude in facing the Spectators were invited to their gatherings, their songs were chanted and After enemy. the members began to dance. Demir the third set of songs had been sung, the attendants built a big fire and hung ¢ kettle of water and dog meat (or buffalo) over it. The leader advanced to the kettle when it was full of boiling soup, plunged his arm into it and took out a piece of meat. All the other members followed suit and unscathed pulled out meat, for they had secured medicine power that enabled them to overcome the force of the fire. An evidently re- lated ceremony occurs among other tribes. In the Hot Dance of the Man- dan and Hidatsa, the performers not only executed the trick practiced by the Pawnee, but also danced with bare feet until they had on glowing embers a This was likewise stamped out the fire. a usage of the Crazy Dancers of the Arapaho, who indulged in other queer antics, such as doing everything in re- verse fashion and expressing the opposite of their intended meaning, thus lending to an otherwise solemn performance an aspect of buffoonery. While the activities just seem to have had no object beyond described the exhibition of the performer’s super- natural power, the dance of the Mandan Buffalo women’s society was intimately When- ever the supply of buffalo had failed and connected with tribal welfare. the village was threatened with famine, the members of this organization were 99 Photo by Alden Deming Scene from a social dance largely participated in by women. Photograph taken among the Black- foot Indians, Montana, summer of 1914. The main properties necessary for the dance are the tall feather hats. The women in turn dance wearing these hats once around the camp ground until all have worn themin the dance. Usually a circle of wagons is formed when the dance takes place out of doors. A feast is always given in connection with the dance. The Museum collections are rich in dance costumes of the Blackfoot Indians Photo by P. E. Goddard Assiniboine Indians in a social dance near Battleford, Saskatchewan, 1912. The structure in which the dance takes place resembles that used for the Sun Dance, now discouraged if not forbidden by the Canadian government 100 UINnoesNyA, oy} JO Woyssossod oy} uy Zuyjuyed peuysp10 oy} WIOIy st oUOIJTeN STU. ‘SOOUVUIOJJOd OVUIVIP PUL SOOTVP SNOPIVA YITM O1N9107 OF UOFSsTUIqns AIe{UNIOA pure sooyTONS SHO|SOI pouyquios pue ‘AFojoy,AU UVIpUy Uy pepsooes sev oBnjop OUF JO COMOPISGNS OY POPWIOWIOMTOS 4] “SOqI1} JoYIO Suoure sowed, uNg oy} 07 Zuypuodsoasoo [BAMsoy [enuUe ,sfep [V10A0S J¥013 B SUM VdIYO UEpULPY oN, ANOWS3YS9 NVIGNI NVONVW WOHYS4 3N30S umn) fq Buryuiwd vo wosg 102 called upon to execute their dance in order to attract the herds. According to an early observer, they never failed for they simply never ceased dancing till buffalo had been sighted. Prince Maxi- milian of Wied-Neuwied gives a good first-hand account of a_ performance witnessed by him in the early thirties of the last century. There were two men acting as musicians, with rattles and drums, one of them holding a gun. The leader was an elderly woman wrapped in the skin of an albino buffalo cow. Inher right arm she held a bundle of twigs, tipped with plumes, with an eagle wing and a drinking-vessel secured to the grip. There were seventeen women, all told, who took part. Two of them wore skunk-skin head bands, the rest wore headdresses of white buffalo skin, decorated in front with owl or raven feathers. All the dancers had vermilion paint on the left cheek and eye, with two blue spots on the opposite temple. They formed a circle, the musi- cians began to sing and the women danced, taking up the tune at the same time. They waddled like ducks from side to side, raising each foot alternately higher than the other but never shifting their position. The Mandan Okipa represents again a wholly different type of dance. It was the great several days’ annual festi- val that corresponded to the Sun Dance of neighboring peoples. Ostensibly it was a commemoration of the subsidence of the deluge recorded in native mythol- ogy, and some of the important charac- ters of the myth were impersonated by performers. On the other hand, there was a great deal besides. A marked dramatic feature was supplied by numer- ous mummers representing animals and closely mimicking their peculiarities. Prominent among these were buffalo masqueraders who imitated the wallow- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ing of the animals represented and whose actions were expected to entice the game to the village. Many tribesmen volun- tarily submitted to torture: their breasts were pierced, skewers inserted, and they were then made to swing sus- pended from a pole as in the more fami- liar Sun Dance. Altogether the Okipa was evidently a composite ceremony. Religious sacrifices and prayers were mingled with dramatic performances, magical rites and activities of a purely social order; and there can be no doubt that to the average Mandan who had no special office in the performance, it served the purpose of a free spectacular show “on the grandest scale within tribal comprehension.” The wide scope of activities embraced by the dances of our native American population makes perhaps the main point of interest over and above all special features. For what must strike every observer of primitive cultures most for- cibly is that things which we consider quite distinct, men of a ruder civiliza- tion join. Thus the stars are to us a subject for purely scientific study, but even our ancestors invested them with all sorts of mystical properties, and the North American Indian personifies them and identifies them with the heroes of his folk-tales. Thus too, we have orna- mental designs and often do not give them anysymbolic interpretation. Prim- itive man is indeed less given to symbol- ism than perhaps has been supposed; nevertheless his tendency to invest a geometrical pattern with meaning re- mains greater than our own. So danc- ing, which to us is merely a form of amusement and exercise, becomes in primitive communities an important social function, an opportunity for sleight-of-hand performances, for reli- gious ritualism, and may become charged with an atmosphere of supreme holiness. From copyright painting by Will S. Taylor DANCING TO CURE THE SICK Ceremony of Tlingit Indians, North Pacific Coast. The dance of the shaman or medi- cine man is accompanied by chanting and the beating of drums. Scene, the interior of a house illuminated by firelight HSVHO AHL AO SGOD AHL OL YAAVUd V SI AONVAG OTVAANG AHL f6gr ‘osuofapyy ung ‘Suruaq *44 ‘“q Ag o70yT re ‘og. “SR a : am Pel MNON-petM JO SOUL ‘Uel[IUI xe, Jo WO}}994Ip 94} Jopun Furysom ‘s9urpog sayieyO ‘ys1j41e sstmg e Aq ¢E-ZERT Ul opeM os0M cegI “‘VLONVG HLYON ‘SNVIGNI NVGNVW Ad AONVG OTVAANG APMPOT A2f0 TUsavaTusy wos] ie las Sees ae a © Pn ik & eet iy! | or fee ; g e ur® MANAOS 9% caf ae, =e 7) wf ouajara-M XQ z 5d . =) % f : : ‘le PS : } 4 ryt at G = OL : ee '. = ‘ Oe tO, >CUYABA — ate. 2s ’ } \ ite | \ ceres } 2 , t Raa P. rapids pureng?” 4 a route of the : ARG. diy) Roosevelt-Rondon expedition miles 1 - CENTRAL BRAZIL AND THE NEW RIO THEODORO Sketch map of the south-central part of the Amazon drainage system, based on the surveys of the Brazilian Telegraphic Commission, showing the course of the Rio Theodoro and the route of the Roose- Scale, 175 miles to theinch. The inset shows the location of the main map Reproduced by permission, in revised form, from the Bulletin of the American Geographical Society for July, 1914 128 velt-Rondon expedition.. ; : THE GEOGRAPHICAL RESULTS OF THE ROOSEVELT- RONDON EXPEDITION By W. L. G. Joerg American Geographical Society to the excellent one of Africa published in the London Geographi- cal Journal in 1911 — showing the state of our knowledge, a year ago, of the topography of South America, we would find right in the heart of the continent a blank space as large and as long as Nevada. Across the whole length of this unknown territory lay the route of the Roosevelt-Rondon expedition. Its borders were long well known, although in some cases accurate surveys had not been made until recent years. To the northwest lies the Madeira River, one of the most important highways of the Amazon basin, the authoritative survey of which was carried out in 1878 by an American naval officer, Commander T. O. Selfridge; to the north lies a group of three rivers, the Canuméa, Abacaxis and Maué-assti, whose lower courses, which drain into a backwater connecting the Madeira and the Amazon, have been known since Chandless’ survey in 1868; to the east flows the Tapajoz, one of the main affluents of the Amazon, long known and in 1895-6 more accurately explored by the French traveler Coudreau; and, finally, to the southwest the unknown area is bounded by the Gy-Parand, which was properly mapped only in 1907 on one of Colonel Rondon’s previous expeditions. These expeditions were undertaken on behalf of the Brazilian government to construct a telegraph line to the rubber settle- ments on the Madeira and resulted in the exploration of the whole little-known highland region extending from the | we could consult a map — similar upper Paraguay to the upper Madeira, together with the drainage systems of both slopes. It was on the occasion of the second of these expeditions, in 1909, that Colonel Rondon came across the headwaters of a river flowing northward. To follow it to its mouth was the object of the 1914 expedition. It might have veered to the left and turned out to be nothing but a source-stream of the Gy- Parana; or it might have bent eastward and developed into @ tributary of the Juruena, one of the sources of the Tapa- joz. It did neither. It flowed almost due north and thereby crossed the unknown area from end toend. Therein lies the importance of the discovery. The new river thus turns out to be the longest known tributary of the Madeira; its length is about 900 miles and it extends over seven degrees of latitude. Its position permits various conjectures as to the hydrography of the region. To the west, between it and the Gy- Parana, the interval seems too small to allow a river system of any consider- able size to develop; this area is proba- bly drained in opposite directions by their tributaries. A remark in Colonel Roosevelt’s book! would seem to cor- roborate this assumption. He tells of hearing of one of the rubber-gatherers who lost his way while working on the Gy-Parand and, after wandering about for twenty-eight days, finally came out on the Maderainha River, which is a i TuHrRovuGH THE BRAZILIAN WILDERNESS. By Theodore Roosevelt. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1914. 129 130 small stream joining the new river from the left in about 83° S. latitude. On the other hand, to the east of the new river, between it and the Tapajoz, it is quite possible that larger rivers exist. Indeed, Colonel Roosevelt’s nar- rative makes this very likely. In lati- tude 7° 34’ the new river was joined from the right by a stream of equal size. That this stream extended up at least as far as 8° 48’ had been established shortly before by the Amazonas Bound- ary Commission, which ascended to this latitude. It did not even seem unlikely that it might be the lower course of a river, named the Anands, whose head- waters the expedition had crossed before reaching the new river; in which case it would practically have the same length. This problem, we are told, may be solved soon, as one of Colonel Rondon’s subordinates was to attempt the descent of the Anands this year. The existence of another large river in this area is made plausible by a further reference in Colonel Roosevelt’s book. The year previous, he was told, five Indian rubber-gatherers were work- ing on the Canumé in about 9° S. lati- tude, thus establishing that it extends at least as far south as this. Chandless’ survey did not go above 5° 17’, but the size of the river at this point —in contrast with the Abacaxis to the east, which, in 6° 12’, was a very small stream with the boughs of the trees on its banks joining overhead — made it probable that it rose far to the south. This supposition is expressed on various Brazilian maps, where the Canumé is made to drain the whole region between the Madeira and the Tapajoz and thus, indeed, to usurp the area which, it has developed, is tributary to the new river. The previous references to the activi- ties of the rubber-gatherers in this re- gion may have called up in the reader’s THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL mind the question how the expedition can be portrayed as having traversed unknown territory. It is true that the “unknown”’ river had been ascended for two-thirds of its length by these men on their search for rubber; the expedi- tion came across the first of them in 10° 24’. Indeed, they had a name for it, calling it the Castanha above the con- fluence with the river joining it in 7° 34’, and the lower Aripuanan below this point; the right affluent entering here they termed the upper Aripuanan, con- sidering it the main stream. On the upper Aripuanan they had ascended to above 9°. But, to use Colonel Roose- velt’s words, “the governmental and scientific authorities, native and foreign, remained in complete ignorance”; no map conveyed an inkling of these facts except the location of the confluence of the Aripuanan with the Madeira. The reason is obvious. Pioneers, although often the first in a new region, generally do not bring back information which can be utilized geographically. In our own West many a miner has been the first white man to go up a mountain, valley or to cross a snowy pass; but the world at large knew nothing of the region until the surveyor had been there. Whenever a region is newly explored, the geographer’s first wish is to see an authentic map of it. In the present case he is doomed to some disappointment. Two of the three maps in Colonel Roosevelt’s book represent the new river in some detail. One is a sketch map on the scale of 105 miles to an inch showing the river by itself. While based on the astronomical positions given in the text, a certain stiffness of line and the lack of relation to the surrounding regions betoken an ungeographical hand. The other is a general map of Brazil on the scale of 240 miles to the inch prepared by the Brazilian Telegraphic Commission et “— + " ~ ee st tl ai ll anit tile ak ee and forwarded by Lieutenant Lyra, who had charge of the survey of the river. This is far_more~satisfactory. On it the drainage of the whole region between the upper Paraguay and the Madeira is represented according to the surveys of Colonel Rondon’s expedition of 1909; on it, above all, is the first authentic representation of the newriver. Here it has the verisimilitude of nature, but it is unfortunately on too small a scale to show much more than a general outline. What the geographer would like is a map such as that published on the scale of sixteen miles to the inch, of an expedi- tion through similar country from the Xingi to the Tapajoz, by the German zoologist, Miss Snethlage, whom Colonel Roosevelt met in Belem. But this is almost an ideal case; and it would seem proper to expect the desired information rather from the Brazilian party of the expedition, whose aim was primarily geographical, than from the American party, whose aim was primarily zodlogi- eal. Doubtless a satisfactory map will be, or has been, published in Colonel Rondon’s official report, but if it is as inaccessible as are the surveys of his previous expeditions, the present mate- rial will long have to satisfy our wants.! In discussing Colonel Rondon’s previ- ous explorations, Colonel Roosevelt says that they “received no recognition by the geographical societies of Europe or the United States.” This is indeed true — although they did not escape the vigilance of the leading German geo- graphical periodical. Inaccessibility of the official reports, even to the special- 1 The authentic map of the river has just come to hand, since the above was written. It accom- panies the London Geographical Journal for February, 1915. It is on the relatively large scale of 6} miles to the inch and is reduced from @ manuscript map supplied by Colonel Roosevelt, which is based on the surveys made by Lieuten- ants J. S. Lyra and Pyrineos de Sousa under the direction of Colonel Rondon.— W. L."G. J. THE ROOSEVELT-RONDON EXPEDITION 131 ist, is the main reason. One of the great merits of Colonel Roosevelt’s book lies in the fact that he has made us familiar with the highly important work of the Brazilian Telegraphic Commission. The only original map showing the results of these explorations, which diligent search has revealed, appeared in a Rio de Janeiro newspaper, although it seems very prob- able that the ultimate source goes back to some official report. This delinea- tion, which was reproduced in the Ger- man periodical referred to, is incorporated on the accompanying map for the region between the upper Paraguay and the upper Madeira. To this have been added the new river as represented on the map of the Brazilian Telegraphic Commission accompanying Colonel Roosevelt’s book and the various features earlier referred to, in an endeavor to present as correct a picture of the region as possible. Ref- erence to any standard map or atlas will show how greatly it differs. The difficulties which further beset the conscientious interpreter of this important journey are well illustrated by the question of name. As soon as it developed on the expedition that the new river was a major stream and not simply one of the headwaters of the Gy-Parané or the Juruena, it was formally christened “Rio Roosevelt” by Colonel Rondon on orders received from the Brazilian government before his departure. Subsequently — because of the difficulty of pronunciation for Brazilians, it is understood — Colonel Roosevelt’s Christian name was sub- stituted. On two of the maps accom- panying his book this name is given as “Rio Téodoro.” This is the Spanish form; in Portuguese the name would be Theodoro. Although it is rather pre- sumptuous to question the accuracy of the name used by an explorer to desig- nate the object of his discovery, the 132 latter form is used on the accompanying map, as it seems the more plausible and the Portuguese names throughout the book are not always correctly rendered. Besides those relating to the discovery of the new river Colonel Roosevelt’s book permits various other deductions of geographical interest. The last rapids were encountered in about latitude 7° 30’ S., just below the mouth of the upper Aripuanan. ‘This point is worthy of note, as the last rapids on the south- ern tributaries of the Amazon indicate the boundary between two of the major physiographic provinces of South Amer- ica, the Brazilian Highlands and the Amazon Lowlands. This boundary — similar to the “fall line” between our own Atlantic coastal plain and _ the Appalachian piedmont region — lies in- creasingly farther upstream as one proceeds from east to west. Thus, on the Xing it lies in 3° S.; on the Tocan- tins, in 4°; on the Tapajoz, in 45°; on the Maué-assti, in 5°; on the Canumé, probably in 6°; and on the Madeira, in 83° S. Its location in 73° S. on the Rio Theodoro, between the Canumé and the Madeira, therefore indicates that the even outline of this natural boundary is not here interrupted. The last rapids are also of importance in marking the upper limit of steam navigation — a barrier which, in the case of the Ma- deira, has been overcome by the con- struction of a railroad (see map), opened in 1912, which connects with navi- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL gable waters on the Mamoré River above. The contrast between two other natural provinces was very noticeable to the members of the expedition. On the upland plateau of Matto Grosso, which separates the south- and south- west-flowing drainage of the upper Paraguay and the Guaporé from the north- and northeast-flowing drainage of the Madeira and Amazon tributaries, the prevailing type of vegetation is open grassland. To the north lies the jungle of the equatorial forest. The route of the expedition led from the one into the other north of Vilhena in about 123° S. The former is strikingly pictured in the illustration facing page 174, the latter in the illustrations facing pages 248 and 262 of Colonel Roosevelt’s book. Many other references throughout the book are of geographic interest, such as those on the economic possibilities of the Matto Grosso plateau, on the Parecis and Nhambiquara Indians, and, in the appendices, the pertinent classification of travelers in South America and the comment on the paleogeography of the continent. But above and beyond all this is the record of human achievement. Hardships and dangers there were, even the stern realities of murder and death; but what are these to spirits kindred to that gallant band in the frozen South, over whose grave is so fittingly inscribed, in the words of the grand old rover of the days when the world was young, the eternal longing of the race? DANIEL GIRAUD ELLIOT Mammalogist and Ornithologist Dr. Elliot’s personal collection of birds (1869) was the first material of any kind that the American Museum owned, and his purchases and gifts laid the foundation for the great department of mammalogy and ornithology DANIEL GIRAUD ELLIOT A BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ON THE OCCASION OF HIS EIGHTIETH BIRTHDAY TO EMPHASIZE HIS LONG DEVOTION TO SCIENTIFIC WORK AND HIS SERVICES TO THE MUSEUM the eightieth anniversary of the birth of Daniel Giraud Elliot, the man who with the late Professor Albert S. Bickmore shares the honor of being one of the two scientific founders of the American Museum of Natural History. The original collection of birds belonging to Dr. Elliot was the nucleus of the Museum’s later riches and his purchases and gifts laid the foundation of the great department of mammals and birds. Also from the standpoint of knowledge in natural history, he was authority in New York City at the time of the foundation of the Museum, the best-equipped, practi- cally the only man able to give advice in scientific matters relating to the institution. Thus to the trustees of the Museum, men of business who wished to promote science and build up a great educational and scientific institu- tion, Dr. Elliot was an efficient guide. Professor Bickmore conceived the idea of the Museum; he gave his effort to create interest in the plans and to raise funds to carry them out, but he came to Dr. Elliot for advice involving scien- tific knowledge. In the winter of 1868-69 when Pro- fessor Bickmore had just returned from the Malay Archipelago and the charter for the Museum had lately been given to the body of New York merchants, he especially depended upon Dr. Elliot for advice. He hoped also to obtain Elliot’s collection of birds to start the exhibits of the new Museum. The collection consisted of some one thousand speci- mens, a large number for that early ie month of March, 1915, brings time, covering most of the described species of North America. It had been accumulated during a period of ten to fifteen years, in fact ever since Elliot’s early boyhood. This collection at the moment was of considerable concern to Elliot because he was planning to go abroad for an indefinite period of study. No storage building at that time was fireproof and there was also the danger from moths. Therefore when Professor Bickmore suggested that he dispose of the collection to the new Museum, he accepted the plan. This particular col- lection was the first material of any kind the Museum obtained. It was turned over to J. G. Bell, then the leading taxi- dermist in New York, and as fast as mounted the birds were put on exhibition in the Arsenal in Central Park, where the Museum had its temporary quarters. Among the specimens in this collec- tion were five of the Labrador duck.' 1The following facts were gained from Dr. Elliot regarding the disappearance of the Labra- dor duck at the time he was a boy: The cause of the extinction of the Labrador duck is a mystery. The bird was a strong flier and a sea duck, having no special enemies that anyone knew of, and in the earliest part of the last century was a very common bird. Imperceptibly its numbers began to grow less, a fact that at first excited very little comment. When Elliot as a boy in continually adding to his bird collec- tion visited the New York markets, especially Washington and Fulton, he would find many Labrador ducks hanging up for sale, sometimes as many as would make a barrel of them. After a few years, he found however, that the full- plumaged males did not appear, that the birds the markets received were mostly females and young males. Then it began to dawn upon those interested that the bird was gradually becoming extinct, and it seemed from that time on to fade rapidly out of existence. The last bird that Dr. Elliot received, a splendidly full-plumaged male which is in,the Museum now, was killed on Long Island. 133 134 This bird is now wholly extinct with only forty specimens known in all the collections of the world. The American Museum is highly fortunate therefore. Dr. Elliot’s five specimens are exhibited in group form, one of the most valuable of the bird groups in the Museum. At the last sale of this bird one specimen brought five thousand dollars. At the time of the foundation of the American Muse- um, New York City was practi- cally destitute of any scientific in- | stitutions except the Lyceum of Natural History. This was holding its small meetings presided over by Major Delafield, in a room loaned through the cour- tesy of the Col- lege of Physicians and Surgeons at 1The second an- nual dinner of the Linnean Society of New York was held March 24, 1914. Dr. Daniel Giraud Elliot of the American Mu- seum of Natural His- tory, veteran orni- thologist and mam- malogist, was the principal guest, and there was a notable gath- ering of scientists from all over the East to do him honor. Many of those present either recounted what they owed him personally or testi- fied to his creative ability when ornithology as a science was still in its infancy in this country. Among those who spoke were Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, president of the American Mu- seum of Natural History, and Dr. F. A. Lucas, director; Dr. Witmer Stone of the Philadelphia Academy of Sciences; Drs. T. S. Palmer and A. J. Fisher of the Biological Survey at Washington; Messrs. Ernest Thompson Seton and Ernest Ingersoll, the well-known writers on animal life. Other prominent scientists present were Dr. Frank M. Chapman, Mr. W. DeW. Miller, Dr. John H. Sage, Dr.;Louis B. Bishop, Dr. William T. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Fourth Avenue and Fourteenth Street, then the northern boundary of the city. There were few natural history asso- ciates therefore with whom Elliot could compare notes. The conditions of the time were vividly stated by Dr. Elliot in his address before the Linnzean Society of New York! in March, 1914: I do not suppose my boyhood was different from that of any other lad interested in natural history. I began to make a collection of birds —why I began I have no idea, prob- ably could not help it—and when it verged toward com- pletion I did not know what to do with it, for there was no one of my age anywhere to be found who sympa- thized with me in my pursuit; I was practically alone. My cousin, Jacob Giraud, author of the Birds of Long Island, had just en- tered upon the close of his career, and wrote no more. Audubon had en- tered upon the last years of his life; DeKay had but re- cently died in Al- Daniel Giraud Elliot at thirty years of age Hornaday, director of the New York Zobdlogical Park, and Dr. C. H. Townsend, director of the New York Aquarium. At the close of the speech- making the Society presented Dr. Elliot with the Linnean medal of honor, as a testimony of its appreciation of his preéminent position in orni- thology and mammalogy. In reply Dr. Elliot spoke of the science of ornithology as it existed sixty years ago at the beginning of his career; touched upon experiences in the past with many members of the Museum staff who were present that evening, and closed with a few words of advice and encouragement to the younger gener- ation, given with that kindliness of spirit which has endeared him to the hearts of those who at- tempt to follow in his footsteps.— Secretary, LINN#%AN Society or NEw YoOrK. DANIEL GIRAUD ELLIOT — BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 30 bany; and in all the cities and within the boundaries of our great state, there was but one working ornithologist, George Newbold Lawrence, a man greatly older than my- self, whose-sons were my friends and com- panions, but who had not inherited their father’s scientific tastes. Lawrence’s collec- tions seemed larger and more wonderful to my youthful eyes than any I have since seen in all the museums of the world. The condition in New York was pretty much repeated in other parts of the country. In Massachusetts there were no ornitholo- gists. Neither Allen nor Brewster had ap- peared and their predecessor, Brewer, had hardly been heard from. In Wash- ington the work was represented by Baird, who had just come to the Smithsonian’ In- stitution. There was no other natu- ralist in Washing- ton. Gillasaboy had begun his work on fishes, but the young naturalists, Coues and Ridgway had not yet been heard from Philadelphia was much better off however. Its ornithology was represented by George Cassin, one of the most erudite and com- petent ornitholo- gists this country has ever produced and the only one at that time famil- iar with forms.' The city had its Academy and li- brary donated mainly by Dr. Thomas B. Wil- son. Also Leidy was at the height of his exotic career. I Dr. Elliot in 1897, used to work a good deal in the old building on the corner of Broad and Sansom streets, my companion often Cope, then starting on his career, his alcoholic snakes and lizards contesting table space with my birds. In all the length and breadth of the land there was not a periodical devoted to the ways of birds, and it was hard sledging for any young ornithologist. The vast majority of 1A few years later through the publication of his Monographs, Elliot was brought into rather intimate relationship with Cassin, owing to the fact that the latter was the head of the firm of Bowen and Company (who served Audubon for sO many years). when curator of zodlogy at Field Museum, Chicago sie]jop puesnoy) say jo 011d @ 44Zno01q pos uoUl -fpeds jse_] Oo, “pltom oy jo suinosnul 949 [JB Ul suoUr -peds umouy AjIOJ ATUO O18 e10y9 pue sivoA AQJY JOUTYXO useq sey sofoods oy, “6981 ul WinoesNn| 94} JO uoTssessod ey} OFUT OUTRO YOIYM JOTTTG ‘Iq jo wWoOMoo]joo yeulsiio 94} WIOJIJ SuUsTIOOdS JO SulqsSIs -u0d UMesNn|_ UBOLIoUry 94) ul dnoi3 8 WOdJ Spliq Noy Mona yYOOVYsVT LONILXa 7. RTE: an ee ae age oF WR is the books which are our daily companions now and which we keep always within the reach of our hand, had not even been conceived, much less printed. With the exception of that of Lawrence, there was no private collection of birds of any mo- ment in the whole country —of which the Mississippi was the western bound- ary. It was but the glimmering of the dawn of that glorious day that was to pro- duce the famous com- pany of some of the greatest naturalists the world has ever seen, most of whom had already crossed the river. In the summer of 1869 Dr. Elliot went abroad pri- marily for study but also with a commission from the trustees through Robert L. Stuart, president of the Museum (who had succeeded John David Wolfe, the first president), to purchase for the Museum any material that he thought advisable. material in Europe. Prince Maximilian of Neu- wied had lately died and the family de- sired to dispose of his collections which he had made on his different journeys through South America and the western part of the United States. Dr. Elliot therefore after arriving in Europe, taking a letter of introduction from the Princess Waldeck to the Prince of Wied.! He found the collections valuable because in a state visited Neuwied soon Robert L. Stuart — The trustees of the Museum, through Stuart, president, gave large commissions to Dr. Elliot for purchases of Robert L. It was in this way that the Museum gained such valuable possessions as the Verreaux and Maximilian collections i1The following interesting reminiscence is quoted from conversation with Dr. Elliot: ‘‘ I was very cordially received by the Prince, whom I found to be a young man of perhaps twenty-six or twenty-seven, unmarried, living at the time in the Palace in the wood a few miles from the town, with his mother, the Dowager Princess, and his sister Elizabeth. My stay in Neuwied, which lasted several days, was very pleasant. I met the Princess Elizabeth, then about eighteen years old, afterward so well known as Carmen Sylva. She showed me in the park the places where they went to hear the stags roar during the hunting season. At that time the present King of Rumania, who was Prince Charles of Hohenzollern, had arrived in Europe from Rumania, and it was generally understood that he was on search for a wife. One afternoon when the Princess was walking with me, she spoke of the matter and wondered whom he would take. A day or so afterward the Prince, a very pleasant, 137 138 of excellent preservation, and containing the principal types of both the mammals and birds which the Prince had de- scribed. He therefore made the pur- chase and had the collection sent to the Museum. Another purchase was selected from the Verreaux Collection in Paris. The Messrs. Verreaux in the Place Royale in Paris had for many years been recog- nized as the largest dealers in natural history objects then in Europe and their collection of mammals and birds, shells and other material represented speci- mens from all over the world. Dr. Elliot spent several months studying the collections and as rapidly as he selected birds or mammals, they were mounted by Verreaux and shipped to New York until several thousand speci- mens had been obtained. Still a third collection which though very much smaller than the Maxi- milian or Verreaux, yet afforded some very valuable specimens, was that of Mme. Verdray. From her he got many rare specimens, as the collection was not a general one but consisted more particu- larly of species which were rare and difficult to procure. He also obtained valuable specimens from Frank of Amsterdam, a dealer on a considerable scale who obtained material from the Eastern Archipelago, his Dutch connections giving him greater facilities for such enterprise than had any other person in the trade. It was in the Museum of Messrs. Verreaux in Paris that a group! com- frank personage, arrived in Neuwied, and I with the many others was a guest at the grand dinner given in his honor at the Palace in the wood. It was during that visit that he became engaged to Princess Elizabeth. 1The group was done fairly well and had re- ceived the gold medal at one of the great exposi- tions. The animals and the man’s face too were strikingly well done — for the time. This group stood in the hall of the Arsenal and afterward in less and less conspicuous positions in the new THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL posed of an Arab on a camel attacked by two lions was purchased — not by Dr. Elliot however who preferred to put the 20,000 francs to a purpose more valuable to technical science, but by one of the trustees from New York who was visiting him. Besides these larger collections Dr. Elliot was able to pick up valuable single specimens from time to time during his stay in Europe. He one day chanced to find in a_ taxidermist’s window in London a specimen of a great auk in winter plumage, which he purchased for one hundred and five pounds.’ It was on one of the rare visits that Dr. Elliot made to New York during his stay in Europe that he succeeded in obtaining still further valuable bird ma- terial for the Museum. This had be- longed to his friend, Dr. A. L. Heerman, had been collected in the western and southwestern portions of the United States, and kept in unusually perfect condition. The collection was bought by Dr. Elliot and presented by him to the Museum. Added to his own one thou- sand birds which the Museum had gained possession of several years before, it brought the American Museum’s col- lections as regards the birds of North America to a state unsurpassed in num- bers and importance by any other col- lection of the time, unless perhaps by that of the National Museum at Wash- ington. On his final return in the early eighties building in Manhattan Square but has consider- able value to-day from the historical standpoint. It is now in the possession of the Carnegie Mu- seum, Pittsburg. 2 This specimen has a prominent place to-day in the bird collection on the second floor of the Museum. The label announces that it is the gift of Robert L. Stuart, which reminds us of the fact that when the great auk shipped by Dr. Elliot arrived in New York, it was paid for by the per- sonal check of Mr. Stuart, then president of the Museum. after a sojourn abroad of nearly ten years, he brought with him a large col- lection of hummingbirds, made during his stay in Europe. At that time it was probably the most complete in the world. He had had the great good fortune to be present when large collections of hum- ing birds, like the Boucier, Mulsant and others, had been broken up and sold, and had therefore fortunately been able to make selections from them all, gain- ing many rare species and a number of types. In 1887 when moving from New Brighton, Staten Island, where he had made his home since his return from Europe, he gave this collection to the Museum in the case that he had had made forit. At about the same time the Museum gained Dr. Elliot’s books, a very full working library for ornitholo- gists, practically complete for the time with the exception of the serial publica- tions. Dr. Elliot has traveled in connection with his work more than have most naturalists. He visited the West In- dian Islands when scarcely out of boy- hood and also the southern portion of the United States, his curiosity and his desire to study and collect specimens greatly excited by the strange birds and mammals that he saw. In 1857 more than ten years before the founding of the American Museum, he went to Rio de Janeiro and did some study and collecting in Brazil. Immediately after, he went to Europe, of course with his interests as ornithologist and sportsman uppermost, passed from Malta to Sicily and on to Egypt, giving a few months to a trip up the Nile, shooting and preparing specimens. He returned to Cairo, formed a party and with camels crossed the long desert to Palestine. On reaching the eastern side of the Sinaitic Peninsula, he journeyed to the land DANIEL GIRAUD ELLIOT — BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 139 of Moab visiting the ancient city of Petra (capital of Esau’s kingdom), also going to Bethlehem and Jerusalem and on into Palestine as far as Damascus, crossing the Lebanon Mountains at an altitude of ten thousand feet, and re- turning to Europe from Beirut. Later in life he made two zodlogical trips to Alaska, once as a member of the Harriman Expedition, the researches of which in many volumes are still in the course of publication. In 1896 he was commissioned by the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago [he had gone there in 1894 as head of the department of zodlogy] to lead an expedition into Africa to get specimens for the institution. He spent a year in passing through Somaliland and Ogaden and was on his way to the Boran country when he was prevented by illness from carrying on the work. This expedition was highly successful in obtaining specimens of the African spe- cies of quadrupeds many of which are on exhibition in the Field Museum to-day. Also somewhat later he led an expedition for the Field Museum into the Olympic Mountains. He has spent eighteen months in an around-the-world journey since 1906 when he began the preparation of his re- cently published Review of the Primates. He had not progressed very far in the preparation for this work when he realized how impossible it was to do much on the subject in the United States since representatives of the Primates from either the Eastern or Western Hemispheres are very few in American museums. He therefore sailed for Eu- rope in April 1907 and did not return until 1909. During this time he visited place after place, studying the types of lemurs and monkeys both in museums and zoélogical gardens. After working in one after another of the large Euro- 140 pean museums, he went to Egypt, went up the Nile to the second cataract and then directed his course to India. He studied monkeys of various species there, still other species in Ceylon, and then went over from Calcutta to Rangoon and passed through Burma, going as far north as Mandalay, the old capital on the [ra- wadi River. Returning to Rangoon he passed over to the Straits Settlements and visited the museums and zodlogical gardens there. He went from Singa- pore to Java and stopped at Batavia for some time. Returning to Singapore he moved to Hong Kong, passed up the river to Canton, and then returning went to Shanghai. Then he journeyed eight hundred miles up the Yang-tse- kiang River to Hankow, and from there crossed through the heart of China, to Peking, to Tien-tsin, and back by sea to Shanghai. From China he went to Japan, passing through the Inland Sea and landing at Kobe; then to Kioto, where he remained a considerable time because exceedingly interested in the zoological gardens and in the wild mon- keys which inhabited the forests all around the city. He visited the places in Japan likely to further his researches, and then started for home. On his way to San Francisco he visited a number of the islands of the Honolulu group, among them the one on which is Mauna Loa, the smaller voleano at the foot of Mauna Loa being in action at the time of his visit. After reaching the United States, Dr. Elliot came at once to the American Museum to devote himself to the research in hand. Somewhat later he went again to Europe — to London, Paris Leiden, Berlin, Dresden, Vienna and Munich, to do certain comparative study still necessary.. Comparative data on Primates was difficult to obtain. For more than a century they have been THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL a subject for study by naturalists in many countries and thus the types are to be found in all corners of the earth — wherever scientific research has been done. Since the material is so greatly scattered, it could seldom be brought side by side for comparison of charac- teristics. Thus the monograph proved to be an immense labor — which was conscientiously accomplished. The work now finished is an elaborate treat- ment, in three quarto volumes, of the lemurs and monkeys of the Old and New Worlds, as well as of the anthropoid apes. It was published as a mono- graph! of the American Museum. Dr. Elliot is the author of many volumes? besides the recent Review of 1 The series of illustrations in Dr. Elliot’s mono- graph (from photographs by A. E. Anderson) both in fidelity to nature and artistic treat- ment of half tones, are of an excellence never before reached in works on osteology or craniol- ogy. As reviewers have said, ‘‘....by means of more than one hundred photographic plates of skulls, giving lateral, frontal, ventral and dorsal views, the close student of the monkeys has all the world’s types, as it were, brought to him. The value of these plates cannot be overesti- mated, and the work would be a notable one were it merely a portfolio of them.” 2 The following is a list of some of the important publications of Dr. Elliot: A Monograph of the Tetraonine, or Family of the Grouse. 27 pls. col., with descriptive letterpress. fol. New York, 1864-1865. A Monograph of the Pittide, or Family of the Ant Thrushes. 31 pls. col., with descriptive letterpress. fol. New York, 1867. (Second edition, pp. xxiii, 1 tab., 51 pls. col., with descriptive letterpress. London, 1893-95.) The New and Heretofore Unfigured Species of the Birds of North America. 2 vol. illust. col. fol. New York, 1869. A Monograph of the Phasianide, or Family of the Pheasants. 2 vols. illust. col. fol. New York, 1872. A Monograph of the Paradiseide, or Birds of Paradise. 37 pls. col., with descriptive letter- press. fol. London, 1873. A Monograph of the Bucerotidae, or Family of the Hornbills. 59 pls. col., with descriptive letterpress. fol. London, 1876-82. A Classification and Synopsis of the Trochi- lide. pp. xii, 277. text illust. (Smithson- ian Contributions to Knowledge) 4°. Wash- ington, 1879. A Monograph of the Felide, or Family of the Cats. 43 pls. col., with descriptive letter- press. fol. London, 1883. Primates and in addition to hundreds of papers published in scientific journals here and abroad. Some of his books such as North American Shore Birds and The Wild Fowl of the United States and British Possessions have had some educa- tional influence in bringing about the popular interest in birds that exists in this decade in America. These books are wholly untechnical in character, and were designed largely for sportsmen and bird lovers. Dr. Elliot stood as an expert adviser for the Museum in its early days. The American Museum would not forget that North American Shore Birds: A History of the Snipes, Sandpipers, Plovers and their Allies. pp. xvi, 268. 74 pls. text illust. 8°. New York, 1895. The Gallinaceous Game Birds of North Amer- ica. pp. 220. 46 pls. and color chart. 8°. London, 1897. The Wild Fowl of the United States and British Possessions, or the Swans, Geese, Ducks and Mergansers of North America. pp. xxii, 316. 63 pls. 8°. New York, 1898. Synopsis of the Mammals of North America and the Adjacent Seas. Field Col. Museum Publ. 1901. The Land and Sea Mammals of Middle America and the West Indies. 2 vols. Field Col. Museum Publ. 1904. A Check List of the Mammals of the North American Continent, the West Indies and the Neighboring Seas. Field Col. Museum Publ. 1905. A Catalogue of the Collection of Mammals in the Field Columbian Museum. 1907. A Review of the Primates. 3 vols. 11 color pls. 32 pls. American Museum of Natural His- tory, 1913. The Life and Habits of Wild Animals. [In collaboration with J. Wolf]. 4°. 1874. DANIEL GIRAUD ELLIOT — BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 141 time or that obligation. In giving him congratulations and heartfelt wishes at this anniversary, we would go back with him to the young days as he recalls the joy of his early collections, the joy of the travel and the work, the joy throughout the years of continued learning and dis- covery, the joy too of feeling himself a very palpable support to the Museum during the days of its greatest need, before it had even a home of its own. He said at the Linnean Society dinner two years ago: “As I look around upon this assembly and see so many naturalists gathered here, I am instinctively carried back into the long ago when New York and the Museum and I were young. There is no one here who remembers that time —for I am the sole survivor of those days.” The American Museum of to-day gives him greeting with grateful recog- nition and appreciation of those days. From all departments the institution extends to Daniel Giraud Elliot the welcome of fellowship in scientific en- deavor — whenever to-day he walks through her galleries and laboratories, viewing their present gigantic propor- tions, seeing also the promised growth of the next few years, and through the eyes of memory living again the insti- tution’s early days of which he was so intimately a factor and a guiding in- fluence. MUSEUM NOTES Since the last issue of the JourRNAL the following persons have become members of the Museum: Associate Founder, Mr. J. P. Moraan; Associate Benefactor, Mr. Tuomas Ds Wirt CuyLer; Patron, Mr. Grorce F. BAKER; Life Members, Mrs. JAMes M. Lawton, Miss Epirx W. TremMann, Master Henry 8. ReEpMoNpD, and Messrs. Epwarp W. C. ARNOLD, Max Wm. Sréur, JAMES STREAT and Freperic DELANO WEEKES; Sustaining Member, Mr. J. KENNEDY Top; Annual Members, Mrs. Fritz AcHELIS, Mrs. GrorGe Percrvat Cooiiper, Mrs. M. E. Dwieut, Mrs. M. C. Escuweas, Mrs. Cuirrorp Harmon, Mrs. CuHarites M. Mucunic, Mrs. Rotanp RepmMonp, Mrs. FRANKLYN B. Sanpers, Mrs. C. F. Swan, Mrs. Cuarites B. Towns, Misses E. H. Davison, NATHALIE F. Low, Dr. ADELAIDE Mitts, Dr. W. G. Ecxstern, Dr. BERNARD Sacus, Master WILuiAmM T. BiopGcett, 3d, Master Howarp G. CusHina, Jr., MASTER RaueuH STOWELL Rowunps, Jr., and Mgssrs. CuHARLES B. CoLesrook, C. B. Davison, W. H. Eis, Sou. Fuup, THomas Francis Fox, FREDERICK FRELINGHUYSEN, RicHarp H. GosMAN, ALEXANDER HamiutTon, F. J. Huntineton, Francis DreMittr JAcKson, Epaar A. Levy, AtpHons Lewis, Horace R. Moorweap, A. W. PARKER, FREDERICK H. Parrerson, Atrrep L. Simon, Leo L. Srmon, Epwin H. Stern, Mossgs J. Srroock and Maucotm Herrick TALLMAN. A ForRMAL word of greeting and apprecia- tion was extended by the trustees and mem- bers of the staff of the American Museum to Dr. Daniel Giraud Elliot on the occasion of the eightieth anniversary of his birth, March 7, 1835. Tue recent Indian disturbances in eastern Utah and adjoining territory are of interest to the Museum, since the department of anthropology is engaged in an extensive and intensive survey of all the Shoshonean Plateau tribes. In the newspaper accounts the Paiute are made to figure as the trouble- makers. §¥ From the geographical data at hand it appears that they are not identical with the tribe so designated by ethnologists, since both the Northern and Southern Paiute, using 142 accepted scientific terminology, live well to the west of the area in question, which does form the home of the Southern Ute. One band of this tribe is called Paiyutsi by the others, and this is apparently the one that has come into conflict with local authorities. Tue recent acquisition of a bust of John Burroughs together with a marble pedestal designed to harmonize with the bust was made possible to the Museum through the generosity of Mr. Henry Ford. This inter- esting piece of sculpture was shown at the last exhibit of the National Academy of Design. The sculptor is Mr. C. 8. Pietro. THE annual meeting of the board of trus- tees of the American Museum of Natural History was held at the residence of President Henry Fairfield Osborn, on Monday evening, February first. The trustees were the guests of President Osborn at dinner. At the annual meeting of the board of trustees the following trustees were reélected in the class.of 1919: George F. Baker, Henry Fairfield Osborn, Joseph H. Choate, James Douglas and George W. Wickersham. The following officers were also reélected: presi- dent, Henry Fairfield Osborn; first vice- president, Cleveland H. Dodge; second vice- president, J. P. Morgan; treasurer, Charles Lanier; secretary, Adrian Iselin. Tue department of education has arranged to extend its courses of lectures for school children by having certain of the lectures which are given at the Museum repeated in three local centers,— namely, the Washington Irving High School, Public School 64 on the lower East side and a school to be selected in the Bronx. This plan will benefit many pupils who cannot afford the necessary car- fare to the Museum. Ar the annual meeting of the board of trustees the following elections of members were made in recognition of generous contri- butions and genuine interest in the growth of the Museum: J. P. Morgan, associate founder; Thomas DeWitt Cuyler, associate benefactor; George F. Baker, patron. FINANCED by a committee of friends of the Museum interested in the paintings of Mr. E. W. Deming, the work on the series of murals for the Plains Indian hall will begin at once. The series will include eight panels. Added to his many years spent in study of the Indian and in recording Indian life, Mr. Deming made new studies for the work last ‘summer, especially among the Blackfoot Indians of Glacier National Park. [A por- trait of Mr. Deming is shown on page 91.] As a number of its Anthropological Series, the Museum will soon publish a paper by Mr. M. D. C. Crawford on prehistoric Peruvian fabrics. Mr. Crawford’s familiarity with all the materials, implements, machinery and processes of present day weaving has enabled him to analyze and describe the processes by which these cloths were made. The Museum’s collections from the ancient graves of Peru contain the cotton and wool in all stages from the raw state to the finished yarns, and contain also looms with cloth in process of manufacture. The fabrics be- sides being some of the most beautiful ever woven have always excited the wonder and admiration of those who know anything about weaving by their technical qualities. It is difficult to understand how a primitive people, with the simple tools at their command, could have produced cloth technically better than can be made by the wonderful looms of to-day. In some of the fabrics the cotton thread has three times as many turns to the inch as the best cotton thread commonly used in our mills, and the twist is remarkable for its evenness. Some have a warp of forty- two fine cotton threads to the inch, crossed by two hundred and eighty-two ply woolen threads to the inch. This weft had been beaten so compactly that the instrument used in mills to count the number of threads to the inch is useless, and the cloth has to be fastened down firmly and the threads drawn out, one at a time, with a hooked needle point, under a magnifying glass, the counting of an inch taking three and a half hours. Some twelve hundred specimens of archex- ological and ethnological material from vari- ous parts of the world have been deposited by the Museum at Barnard College, Columbia University, to be used as a study collection by its students of anthropology. ATTENTION may be called to the fur-seal group just opened to the public in the North American mammal hall, adjoining the re- MUSEUM NOTES 143 cently constructed beaver group. The back- ground, which is remarkable for its illusion of distance, was painted by Mr. Albert Operti. It shows a part of Kitovi rookery at the Pribilof Islands. From recent cable advices we learn that James Chapin with about one-fourth of the collections of the Congo expedition left Boma on the western coast of Africa January 31. He is expected to arrive in New York the latter part of March. Tue exhibits in the Jesup North Pacific Indian hall are being rearranged and the cases repainted to produce a more harmonious color scheme. THE opening lecture of the fifth series of the Museum’s “Science Stories” for the children of members was given on Saturday morning, February 20, by Admiral Robert E. Peary. His subject, “Children of Ice and Snow,”’ proved of great charm and he gra- ciously repeated the lecture and showed the Arctic pictures a second time, to the overflow audience of children who waited. Mrs. Wiu1am H. Buss of New York has enriched the Museum’s gem collection with a very beautiful blue aquamarine, weighing 144.51 carats. It is a Brazilian stone from Minas Geraes, cut in an oblong brilliant, and easily exceeds in color beauty and size any of the aquamarines previously brought from that locality. Tue photograph reproduced in sepia opposite page 102 of this JouRNAL, is a copy of one of two new mural canvases by Mr. Will S. Taylor. It represents Indians of the Tlingit tribe engaged in a shamanistic cere- mony for curing the sick, and was recently put in place on the east side of the North Pacific hall. Any reproduction of this pic- ture not in color is unfortunate, since in the color lies a considerable part of its power. The scene is an interior with steps leading down into a room like a pit. Weird figures in dim light sway to the chanting of voices and the beat of a drum, while in the circle of firelight, the shaman in ceremonial dress, his hair adorned with clipped eagle down, dances about the man to be cured. The second new canvas represents Haida Indians in a house-building ceremony. [A portrait of Mr. Taylor is given on page 90.] 144 THE spring members’ course of popular lectures at the Museum was opened on the evening of March 4 by Dr. Wilfred H. Osgood in a presentation of the subject, the ‘‘Fur Seals and Other Animals of the Pribilof Islands.” A THIRTY-PAGE pamphlet, the Report on the Street Trees of New York City published by the Tree Planting Association of New York City in coéperation with the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University may be secured without cost at the sales desk on the first floor of the Museum. This report by Mr. H. R. Francis gives the results of the survey of the trees of the sev- eral boroughs of New York City made by him during the summer of 1914, and offers suggestions for an organized system of scien- tific tree culture especially adapted to New York City. THERE has recently been installed in the Darwin hall an exhibit of the Galapagos finches of the genus Geospiza to illustrate geographical variation as a result of isolation. The Galapagos Islands, made classic through the observations and researches of Darwin, furnish many types of animal life which are not found in other parts of the world, al- though in most cases they bear resemblance to the corresponding fauna of the mainland of South America. Each island of the archipelago is the home of a species or variety not found elsewhere. While these forms are often distinct from those of neighboring is- lands, they differ widely from those of the mainland. A map of the islands is shown in the exhibit together with specimens of the various species mounted in such a way as to indicate their geographic distribution on the archipelago. As the degree in which they differ is doubtless correlated with the length of time during which the islands have been separated, a relief map of the archipelago showing the deepening of the channel of the surrounding waters is introduced to further emphasize this correlation. Tue latest addition to the exhibits in the hall of public health is a group showing the enemies of the fly. The setting is a section of a stable with its stable yard, a corn field and orchard showing in the distance. The most important enemies are shown in char- acteristic activities. A hen is busily engaged in picking up fly larve; a toad is waiting under burdock leaves for a fly to appear; THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL swallows are skimming over the yard, catch- ing flies on the wing; wasps are abroad on a similar quest; while in dusty corners of the stable and on the broken window are waiting spiders and centipedes, and waiting bats hang suspended from the beams. ANOTHER shipment of birdskins, including seven hundred and four specimens collected by Mr. W. B. Richardson in eastern Panama, has been received by the Museum. Mr. FraANK M. Byerty, who exhibited before the faculty of the Museum in January a long series of autochrome plates in stereop- ticon views of unusual beauty, will give a lecture to members of the Museum on the evening of March 25. Mr. H. E. Antuony has recently been appointed assistant in the department of mammalogy. Dr. Davin G. Streap, Commissioner of Fisheries of New South Wales, recently visited the Museum. He is returning to Australia from an investigation of the fisher- ies of England during the past few months, and expects to visit the United States govern- ment fish hatcheries at Woods Hole, Massa- chusetts, and several other points before sailing for home. A GENERAL meeting of the New York Acad- emy of Sciences and its Affiliated Societies is to be held at the Museum Monday, March 22. Professor Raymond Dodge of Columbia Uni- versity will lecture on the “Incidence of the Effect of Moderate Doses of Alcohol on the Nervous System.” TurovueH the courtesy of Dr. Emilie Snethlage the Museum is to receive from time to time collections of birds and mammals from the Museu Goeldi, Pard, Brazil. The first shipment contains six hundred and four birds and fifty mammals and includes several species new to our collections, one of them the wonderful opal-crowned manikin, Pipra opali- zans, pronounced by Count von Berlepsch to be the “ finest bird in the world”. Mr. Francis Harper has been working recently at the Museum, in the preparation of a paper on fish material which he collected on the expedition sent out in 1914 under the Canadian Geological Survey to Great Slave Lake. Tue American Museum Journac VoLuME ) aa sem APRIL, 1915 NuMBER 4 CONTENTS Cover, Voices from the Pond at the Time of Apple Blossoms Design from photograph of the Toad Group in the American Museum Portraits of John Burroughs, Naturalist and Author........................ 146 John Burroughs and Henry Ford John Burroughs with his grandchildren at Riverby At Woodchuck Lodge A Naturalist on the Pepacton River _ Posing for the sculptor, C. 8. Pietro Frontispiece, Marble Bust of John Burroughs by C.S. Pietro................. 150 Presented to the American Museum by Mr. Henry Ford Senne Airicah Dullalo....:............---....04. Cart E. AKELEy 151 One of the most dangerous big-game animals in British East Africa — A series obtained representing development from babyhood to old age The “Toad Group” in the American Museum. ..... Mary Cynruia Dickerson 163 The composite construction and interest of a group recently constructed, the fourth of the reptile and amphibian series under the supervision of M. C. Dickerson _ With a four-page insert in sepia from photographs of the Toad Group Aquarelles of our Common Woodlands...... SSCS Pine t WarrEN H. MILuer 167 Illustrations from photographs of the Toad Group by Mr. Julius Kirschner, Museum Bird Baths and Drinking Pools..................... Ernest Haroitp Baynes 176 Illustrations from photographs by the Author Motion Picture Records of Indians.....................Puiany E. Gopparp 185 Films that show the industries of the Apache Indians, for immediate comparative study of tribes and historical record for the future August Weismann, Zodlogist: an Appreciation........... Frank R. Litue 189 Morgan’s “Heredity and Sex”; a Review................. E. G. Conxkuin 194 Note on the Crocker Land Expedition Ship............ GrorGE H. SHerwoop 195 The ‘‘George B. Cluett’’ has been chartered to proceed northward to Etah July 1, to bring back to New York the members of the expedition who went north in 1913 on the ‘* Diana”’ Mary Oyrntsuia Dickerson, Editor Published monthly from October to May by the American Museum of Natural History, at the Cosmos Press, Cambridge, Mass. Terms: one dollar and a half per year, twenty cents per copy. Entered as second-class matter January 12, 1907, at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., Act of Congress, July 16, 1894. Subscriptions should be addressed to the American Museum JourNaL, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the Museum. a JOHN BURROUGHS AND HENRY FORD {In the first automobile designed and built by Mr. Ford.] The marble bust of Burroughs, recently shown at the exhibit by the National Academy of Design, has been presented to the Museum by Mr. Ford Photos by A. H. Pratt John Burroughs and his grandchildren by the well at Riverby. John Burroughs II has just been tossed to his shoulder John Burroughs and the woodchucks at Woodchuck Lodge. The woodchuck is the only form of wild life on which Mr. Burroughs tries his skill with the rifle 147 Photo by A. H. Pratt A NATURALIST AT HOME John Burroughs looking up the Grand Gorge of the upper Pepacton, a stream closely associated with his boyhood and youth 6FT qsnq WMosny O44 UT poedrnsea Ayyeuy 4eq4 sysnosmMe Jo soypn4s oy JO 4S8ay 949 Sem SIU 0990N9e4S B STopoUT ‘OaQoIg ‘Sf 'O ‘dOIdMOS OY OTTUM ‘WIOK MON ‘AINgxoy 4e OBpo'T YONYOPOOM Wiod, Pwo OY} SSOJ9v [BM 9UOIS OY UO YO1d1NOS AHL YOd ONISOd NVigd “HT *V fq 020Ug JOHN BURROUGHS, NATURALIST This bust of Burroughs by the sculptor C. S. Pietro together with a pedestal in marble to harmonize with the bust, has recently been presented to the Museum by Mr. Henry Ford —‘* Note on John Burroughs,”’ page 196 Tue American Museum Journa APRIL, 1915 NUMBER 4 . ane J HEN we first went to British Secre V East Africa in 1905, on inter- oy viewing the government offi- cials at Mombasa, we learned that our game license would not include buffalo. Buffalo were thought to be nearly ex- Ef terminated as a result of the rinderpest _ of the early nineties. There were known to be a few herds however, and finally in view of the fact that the buffalo _ killed were to be used for scientific pur- poses, the officials consented to let us have five on payment of a license fee of five pounds each. The arrangement allowed us to hunt at the edge of the reserve at Kijabi where a small herd lived in the bush and forest of the Rift Valley and the escarpment. We were warned that it was very dangerous hunting them there because of the rather dense cover; that they were pugnacious and generally disagreeable creatures to hunt under such conditions. We arrived at Kijabi and the first afternoon out one of our party came up of the buffalo group of Chicago. This was a good beginning and we fully 1 This story gives some idea of the danger and the hard work connected with shooting six African buffalo for the Field Museum, Chicago, in 1905. These specimens now form a group, recently mounted by Mr. Akeley in the elephant studio at the American Museum and shipped to Chicago for permanent installation there.— Tue Eprror. HUNTING THE AFRICAN BUFFALO’ ~S ONE OF THE MOST DANGEROUS OF BIG-GAME ANIMALS IN BRITISH EAST AFRICA By Carl E. Akeley Illustrations from photographs by the Author expected to have little difficulty in getting the complete series. Neverthe- less at the end of four weeks, having been on their trails nearly every day without securing another specimen, we gave up in despair. These particular buffalo had been much hunted and had become wary. More than once while carefully tracking a single animal through the bush, we were startled by the sudden stampede of our quarry. The animal having de- cided to rest perhaps, had turned back to one side of the trail where he had heard us or got our wind. More fre- quently no doubt, the explanation lay in the eddying currents of air caused by the high and forested escarpment overhang- ing the low hot valley. Later on during a month of collecting on the Mau Plateau at an altitude of from 7000 to 8000 feet, we spent some time hunting buffalo in the forests of that region but with no better success. We found only a couple of small herds and single animals, always in dense bush or forest. Some six months later, when we had met with no further success on the plateau, we gained permission from the government to go across the Tana River into Mount Kenya Province, which up to that time had been a closed district. We were in camp at Nairobi preparing 151 SST a5 plo 09 pooyAqeq Woda JUSTIdOJOAOP OY} SUVIYSNIII Solios B ‘onTVA OYMUOTOS 49vO13 AIM o[eynqd uezop -J[eY eB ore OSo, ‘“JOATY Vues, oy} UO poy OSV] V WOAJ USHey 77Nq puey Gunof pure fs7vo ‘1qe{ry 9e OAJOSOd OY) JO OSpo oy} 4" JOYS moo IOAN VURT, 949 UO AOTONW ‘sIT] Aq 90ys ‘2/7q 2640) SIDATY VQOY,L, OYI WO D/Uu27-ybu2 IO YSaew yvoi3,04} JO ospo oy} 9e AOTONV “APT Aq Joys ‘77nq GunoA :4Jo, oy WoOay SurureU ‘SMOT[OJ SV ore dnois oy} url opegng oy, = *A1OISTH [BANIVN JO WinesnY URd}JoUTY oY) 4B OFPNyas yURYdeTs OY} Ul OUOpP Suyoq YAoM oy ‘UMosNI Plo 10 oO “APY Aq po unour A]Que0e1 dnois W ODVOIHO ‘WNASNW GT13lsd NI O1V4SANE NVOIYNAV 23 om Sa : wy Th i <_>W. ay - ay : : ’ HUNTING THE AFRICAN BUFFALO for the journey when one morning a company of the King’s African Rifles passed on the Fort Hall road, and we soon learned that-trouble had broken out among the natives across the Tana and as a result our trip was postponed. Some eight weeks later after an ele- _ phant hunt on the Abadare Mountains, we arrived at Fort Hall just as the Gover- nor, Sir James Hayes-Saddler, with his suite was about to go across Mount Kenya Province for the purpose of locat- ing the site of the new “Boma” in the newly pacified region. Not only was our _ permit to hunt in the district renewed but we were invited to accompany the _ official party as far as our routes paral- leled. It had been the Governor’s in- tention to go on a buffalo hunt, when the official work was finished, and it was suggested that we go elephant-hunting _on Mount Kenya until the Governor had finished his shooting. To hunt elephant on Mount Kenya was an unexpected privilege; nothing could have pleased us more. After six weeks we returned from the elephant hunt to the Tana River where we made a base camp, stored the ele- phant and other skins and proceeded two marches about twenty-five miles down the river. Here we established our “buffalo camp.” Buffalo sign was abundant but for many days we came up with none except old outcast bulls, usually two or three together, no one of which seemed desirable specimens. We frequently saw indications of a herd but it was only after many days that we finally found them, and then just at the close of a day so that we were not able to pick out the individuals we wanted. Back to camp we went, ten miles in the dark, through a region that was literally rhino-infested, with the hope that on the following day we could make good with the buffalo. It turned out that we spent 153 a week looking for that herd and never again found it. One morning however, Cunningham having gone out with some boys to shoot meat for camp, came upon three old buffalo. He sent a runner back to camp with the news and Mrs. Akeley and I started out to join him. Halfway from camp we were obliged to make a wide detour to avoid an old rhino and calf, but soon caught up with Cunning- ham. He reported however, that the buffalo had passed on into some dense bush. We started to follow, but sud- denly came on to two rhinos. We quickly turned to the leeward not to disturb them by giving them our wind, thereby possibly bringing on a general stampede of the game in the neighbor- hood. This turn brought us to the wind- ward of the old cow and calf that we had first avoided, with the result that she came charging up, followed by the calf close at her heels, snorting like a loco- motive. Cunningham helped Mrs. Ake- ley up a convenient tree. He stood at the base of the tree and I at the foot of another where we poised with our guns ready, watching the old cow go tearing past within twenty feet of us. But the rhino had lost her scent and it was a typical “rhino charge” which means merely a general mad rush up and down in a stupid effort — perhaps to get away from the supposed danger. We continued on the buffalo trail, but the stampede of the rhino had resulted in alarming the buffalo so that instead of finding them nearby, we were forced to follow them for an hour or more before again coming in sight of them; and again twice more they were stampeded by rhinos that happened to get in our path. At last the buffalo evidently became tired of being chased from place to place, and came to rest on a sloping hillside which we could approach only by crawl- 154 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ing on our hands and knees in the grass for a considerable distance. In this manoeuvering it happened that Mrs. Akeley was able to stalk the best bull, and a few minutes later he had been finished off and we were busy photo- graphing, measuring and preparing the skin. Twice during the operation of skinning we had to send our boys to chase off curious rhinos who acted as though they wanted to come in and break up the party. This bull became the big bull of the Chicago group. Some. twenty-five miles to the north- west from the Tana, across the plain on the Theba River, is a marsh, the tinga-tinga of the natives, where a herd of nearly a hundred buffalo was known to live, but the Provincial Commissioner had definitely said that we were not to shoot these. We decided finally to ask for the privilege, which was granted but with a warning in the form of an explana- tion, that he had told us not to shoot there because of the danger involved. We found the tinga-tinga a reed marsh about one by two miles in extent with, at that time, a foot or two of water in the buffalo trails that crisscross in all direc- tions. On arrival, while making camp at one end of the marsh just at dusk, we saw the herd come out on dry land a half- mile away — but they returned to cover before we could approach them. In fact during nearly two weeks that we spent there, we saw them come outside the swamp only twice, each time to return immediately. We made several attempts to approach them in the marsh but found that while it was quite possible to get up to them, it was out of the question to choose our specimens. Also it would have been impossible to beat a retreat in case of a charge or stampede, so we adopted a campaign of watchful waiting. From the camp at daybreak we would scan the marsh for the snowy cow herons that were always with the buffalo during the daytime. These would fly about above the reeds from one part of the herd to another and at times where the reeds were low they could be seen riding along perched on the backs of the animals. Having thus located the herd and de- termined the general direction of its movements, we would go to a point at the edge of the marsh where it seemed likely that the animals would come out, or at least come near enough to be visi- ble in the shorter reeds. It was in this way that we secured the specimen that makes the young bull of the group — and two weeks spent at the tinga-tlinga resulted in securing no other specimen. On this one occasion the buffalo accom- panied by the white herons, had come to within about a hundred yards of our position on the shores of the swamp. They were in reeds that practically con- cealed them, but the young buffalo in question in the act of throwing up his head to dislodge a bird that had irritated him, disclosed a pair of horns that indi- cated a young bull of the type I wanted. At the same time a heron standing on his withers gave me the clue to his position and aiming some two feet below the bird, I succeeded in killing the bull with a heart shot. Feeling that it was practically impos- sible to choose and collect the desired series from this herd, we determined to go back to the bush and plains between the Theba and Tana rivers in an effort to locate a herd that we had seen earlier on the Tana. Knowing that this herd must go daily to water either at the Tana or the Theba, which bounded the two sides of the triangular territory through which we were working, we decided to go down the Theba to its junction with the Tana, then up the Tana to our original buffalo camp. From the swamp down Part of the expedition crossing the Tana River by the primitive government ferry (1906). At this point near Fort Hall, the government has since erected a pine bridge Mr. Akeley established his main ‘‘buffalo camp’’ on the Tana River and it was near this camp that the big bull of the Chicago group was shot by Mrs. Akeley. During a second march up the Tana River some months later, the herd of five hundred buffalo was encountered [see photograph on page 159} The King’s African Rifles leaving Nairobi for a scene of trouble in Kenya Province Family and home of the Wandorobo guide of the Mau Plateau the Theba to its junction with the Tana occupied three days during which time On the second march up the Tana, as I was we saw no fresh sign of buffalo. traveling ahead of the safari at about midday, looking out through an opening in a strip of thorn bush that bordered the river, I saw in the distance a great black mass on the open plain which on with the field further investigation 156 glasses I was reasonably certain was a herd of buffalo. Sending a note back to Cunningham, who was in charge of the safari, suggesting that he make ‘amp at a hill on the banks of the Tana some two miles ahead of my position and await me there, I started off over the Coming up out of a dry stream-bed that I had used to conceal my approach to the herd plain with my two gun-boys. HUNTING THE AFRICAN BUFFALO I came on to a large herd of eland, and my first fear was that I had mistaken eland for buffalo. Going farther on the-high land how- ever, we saw a herd of about five hundred buffalo lying up in a few scattered thorn trees, some four or five hundred yards away. At first it seemed an almost impossible situation. There was prac- tically no cover and no means of escape in case the herd detected us and saw fit to charge and at that time my respect for the buffalo led me to be extremely cautious. We worked around the herd trying to find some place where a safe approach might be made. Finally see- ing a little band of a dozen buffalo off at one side on the bank of a ravine which offered splendid protection, we stalked 157 them but unfortunately not one in the band was desirable as a_ specimen. Since this was so, I tried them out, giving them my wind, then going up where they could see me better. I found that they were quite indifferent either to the scent or the sight of man. They finally moved I then knew that this herd had had no experience of men or hunters, and that there was perhaps less to fear from them than from the traditional buffalo of the sportsman. So going back to the main herd, I crept up boldly to within a hundred yards of them. They saw me, faced about, closely inspecting me, but with no sign of alarm. It was approaching dusk and in this great black mass it was difficult to off quietly without alarm. pick out a good pair of horns except with Rhinos in buffalo country. Rhinos may be greatly in the way in buffalo-hunting Sometimes as many as twenty or thirty were encountered in a single day 158 the aid of the glasses. I carefully lo- cated a fine bull and then shot as I sup- posed at the one I had located. As I fired, the animals bolted, first away, then back toward me. They wheeled, ran halfway between the dead animal and \ One of our Wandorobo guides while hunting buffalo on The bow is protected by a sheath of This with a quiver of poisoned arrows, and a short sword are his weapons of offense and the Mau plateau. raw hide wound spirally. defense myself and passing on some hundred yards to the right, wheeled about again and stood watching me, the bulls in the front lined up like soldiers, the calves and cows in the background. On com- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ing up to the dead animal, I found much to my regret that I had shot a cow and not the bull I had picked out through the glasses. I returned to camp feeling that now at last from this herd living apparently in the open, we should have rel- atively little difficulty in com- pleting our series of specimens. On the following morning much to our disappointment, our first glimpse of the herd was just as it disappeared in the thorn bush along the banks of the river. We put in nearly a week of hard work to complete the series. During those seven days of continual hunting, that herd which had been indifferent and unsuspecting at the beginning became cautious, vigilant and aggressive. For instance, on one occasion near the close of the week, after having spent the day trying to locate the herd, I sud- denly came face to face with them just at the edge of the bush at night on my way back to camp. They were tearing along at a good pace, apparently hay- ing been alarmed. I stepped to one side and crouched in the low grass while they passed me at twenty-five or thirty yards in a cloud of dust. Even had I been able to pick out desirable speci- mens at this time I should have been afraid to shoot for fear of getting into difficulties when they had located my position. I turned and followed them rap- idly as they sped away over the hard ground until the noise of their stampede suddenly stopped. I then de- cided that it was best to get to some point of vantage and await further de- velopments. I climbed an acacia tree iP. t Photograph made in 1910, not far from the place on the Tana River where I found the herd of five hundred, four years earlier. Probably a part of the original herd that had been split off that enabled me to look over the top of the bush. About fifty yards ahead I could see some fifty buffalo lined up in a little open patch looking back on their trail. As I was perched in the tree en- deavoring to pick out a desirable animal, I suddenly discovered a lone old bull buffalo coming from the bush almost directly underneath me, sniffing and snuffing this way and that. Very slowly, very cautiously he passed around the tree, then back to the waiting herd, when they all resumed their stampede and made good their escape for the day. One morning I came in sight of the herd just as it was entering the thorn bush and followed hurriedly on the trail, until just at the edge of the jungle I hap- pened to catch sight of the two black hoofs of an old cow behind the low- hanging foliage. I stopped, expecting a charge. After a few moments I backed slowly away until I-reached a tree where I stopped to wait developments. Stoop- ing down I could see the buffalo’s nose and black beady eyes as she stood mo- tionless. The rest of the herd had gone on out of hearing and I think she was quite alone in her proposed attack. After a few moments, apparently realiz- ing that her plan had failed, she turned about and followed the herd, moving very quietly at first, then breaking into a gallop. On the following day we came up again with the herd toward evening in the same region. As we first saw them they were too far away for us to choose and shoot with certainty. We managed to crawl to a fair-sized tree midway between us and the herd, and from the deep branches picked out the young herd bull of the group. When we had shot and he had disappeared into the bush, a calf accom- panied by its mother gave us a fleeting glimpse of itself, with the result that we added the calf to our series. The herd disappeared into the bush and after a few minutes we descended from our perch and inspected the calf, then started off in the direction the wounded bull had taken, and found him lying dead just a few yards away. This completed the series much to our great joy, for by this time we were thor- oughly tired of buffalo-hunting. It had 159 160 been a long hard hunt and our safari as well as ourselves were considerably the worse for wear. To shoot a half-dozen buffalo is a very simple matter and ought to be accomplished almost any day in British East Africa or Uganda, but to select a series of a half-dozen that will have the greatest possible scientific value by illustrating the development from babyhood to old age is quite a different matter. To the average sports- 7 rs ro : “2 SO ep a A man the one would be sport, the other hard labor. These buffalo of the Tana country, that we found on the plains and in the bush, apparently rarely or never go into the swamps, a fact not only confirmed by observation but also indicated by the condition of the hoofs. These are horny, round and smooth as a result of traveling on the hard and more or less stony THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ground of the region. Whereas the tinga-tinga buffalo have lived in the swamp for years and spend practically no time on hard ground, hence the hoofs are long, sharp and unworn as a result of walking always in the soft mud and water. All this in spite of the fact that these two herds may actually come in contact at the edge of the swamp. Other herds living in forest country, which come out into the grasslands to feed at The young bull of the African buffalo group, with one of Mr. Akeley’s gun-boys. The photo- graph shows the character of the marsh vegetation night, always go back into the forest at daybreak. In Uganda where buffalo are recog- nized as a menace to life and are of no particular value except for food, they are officially treated as vermin and one may shoot as many as he will. Here the herds have increased to an enormous extent and because of the dense jungles and general inaccessibility of the coun- try, it is rather difficult to hunt them. While elephant-hunting in Uganda we found the buffalo a decided-nuisance, frequently coming on to them unexpectedly while hot on an elephant trail, sometimes having difficulty in getting rid of them, not wishing to shoot or stampede them be- - cause of the danger of frighten- ing away the elephants, to say nothing of the constant menace of running into a truculent old bull at very close quarters in dense jungle. The buffalo act- ually mingle with the elephants, each quite indifferent to the other, excepting that on one occasion we found’ .elephant calves charging into a herd of | buffalo, evidently only in play. They chased about squealing and stampeding the buffalo, who kept at a safe distance but did not actually take alarm. Occa- sionally an old cow whose calf was being hard-pressed by the young elephants would turn, apparently with the intention of having it out, but would always bolt before the elephant could actually reach her. In spite of the fact that the record head, fifty-four inches in spread, was shot by Mr. Knowles in Uganda, from our general observation, the heads in Uganda run smaller than those of British East Africa while the animals are perhaps heavier. While on our buffalo-hunting we have never had any actually serious encount- ers, we fully appreciate that the buffalo deserves his reputation as one of the Kikuyu porter with buffalo skull most dangerous of big-game animals. His eyesight is good, he has keen scent and is vigilant and vindictive. While the lion is usually satisfied with giving his victim a knock-out blow or bite, the buf- falo when once on the trail of man will not only persist in his efforts to find him but when he has once come up with him, will not leave while there is a vestige of life remaining in the victim. In some cases he will not leave while there is a fragment of the man remaining large enough to form a target for a buffalo’s stamping hoofs. 161 A QUIET CORNER Three Fowler’s toads in the new Museum of Natural History “Toad Group” at the American na ee « ‘ ; © 1 : THE “TOAD GROUP” IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM vas __A WORD AS TO ITS COMPOSITE CONSTRUCTION AND INTEREST Group designed and construction directed by M. C. Dickerson; panoramic canvas by Hobart = Nichols; detailed wax and color technique on the animals of the group by Frederick H. Stoll; group assembled by Ernest W. Smith and Frederick H. Stoll By Mary Cynthia Dickerson HE new group, fourth in the a4 reptile and amphibian series, has been made with three im- portant objects in view: first that it should set forth various facts in the ecology and general biology of amphibia; second that it should be more easily read than a book by those who wish to learn these facts; and third that it ‘should be as beautiful as is the original spot lying under the sunshine of May in Rehoboth Township, Massachusetts. There should not be left out however even momentarily, a fourth aim which has controlled the work from first to last. This is that the group, while made up of the most delicate and fragile of con- stituent parts, should be permanent in construction, capable of lasting un- changed for decades, in fact indefinitely, _ if not destroyed by fire or earthquake. In its scientific scope the group aims to set forth certain simple facts many of which are very well known to zodlogists and laymen alike who wander much afield. These include such items as the difference in appearance and in time of breeding (in southern New England) of nine species of common amphibians,' 1 The group includes specimens of two kinds of tree frogs, the tiny ‘‘spring peeper"’ (Hyla picker- ingii) whose voice in chorus carries over the countryside a half mile or more in early spring, and the common so-called ‘‘tree toad’’ and “weather prophet”’ (Hyla versicolor); two species of toads, the American (Bufo americanus), breed- ing in the middle of April, and the smaller, grayer, more agile Fowler's toad (Bufo fowler’) coming to the pond from its hibernation the first week of May; three frogs, the green frog (Rana clamitans) and the identification for the ponds of northeastern North America of the amphibian eggs commonly seen. These latter include the eggs of frogs, repre- sented in the group by the freshly laid eggs of the green frog and hatching eggs of the pickerel frog; those of sala- manders, in the whole range of which there is more variation than among frogs, but among which the eggs com- monly found are those shown in the group, the large gelatinous masses of the spotted salamander; and _ lastly those typical of toads, represented by eggs of Fowler’s toad in the group, the long gelatinous strings in which the eggs are imbedded at intervals. The eggs in the group are accurate reproductions in glass treated with color and wax spray, and are the first attempt by museums to represent them as far as known. Some of the unusual facts set forth, the results of original investigation in the field, concern such points as the dis- tinction between the two species of toads and difference in their adaptation to low temperature as shown in their different often confused with the larger bullfrog (Rana catesbiana) (See bullfrog group), the spotted pickerel frog (Rana palustris) confused with the leopard frog (Rana pipiens) (See casts in synoptic case), and the little brown wood frog (Rana sylvatica) inured to the same low temperatures as are the amblystoma of the region and the peeper, thus appearing in March from its winter sleep in the mud; and finally two salamanders, the big black and yellow spotted salamander (A mbdlys- toma punctatum) which is more often seen in damp places on land than in water, and the com- mon small brown newt never seen out of water after it is one year old. 163 ' the swimming of the breeding times, two-thirds grown tadpoles of the wood frog in definite schools as do fishes and the possible presence in the ooze at the bottom of the pond of a “nest” of adult amblystomas usually sought for on land only. In working out the educational value there was a considerable problem. It was necessary to arrange the some one hundred animals of the group, besides the eggs and tadpoles, in a space a few feet square, with clearness for study. The final arrangement evolved, aims to make a quick appeal to the eye as to a distinct separation of different species, relationship of different stages of devel- opment of a given species, truthful position of all in the environment, and this with no sacrifice of scientific ac- curacy or of the actual probabilities and without crowding or arranging in synop- tic form which would have killed the artistic effect. Artistic effect in reptile and amphibian groups seems of particular importance, a thing to be striven for, for here we must overcome a large measure of more 1The plan of construction of the group in- cludes a small pool of water at the left separate from the main pond and intended exclusively for the American toad with its tadpoles (while the specimens of Fowler’s toad with freshly laid eggs are in the large pond at the right), so that there can be no possible confusion in the comparison of the two. or less active dislike for the subject. The completed group therefore has been made an illustration of the fact, but recently used in museum installation although now recognized as fundamental in all work of an educational character, that beauty is not incompatible with scientific value in an exhibit. On the other hand, it may strengthen the appeal of science. The following quotation from a letter recently received from Mr. William Henry Fox, director of the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, touches the matter of art value in natural history exhibits: My recent visit to the American Museum impressed me greatly with the artistic beauty of the reptile and amphibian groups. There is no reason why artistic effect as well as scientific truth should not always be taught in this way. I hold that without this essen- tial, groups are of little educational value in a popular museum. The uninformed public must first be “taken into camp” as it were, with a visual impression which gives pleasure. I recognized at once in these groups conscious employment of the elements ‘that the painter uses in making a picture on a flat canvas, such as composition, color harmony, the chromatic gamut and aérial perspective. He employs one medium; here is used another means to the common end — namely, the interpretation of natural phenomena. One of the secrets of the effect is that with all the animal and plant species, introduced with fidelity to natural effect and ecological order, 164 nothing has been permitted to obtrude into the picture. As in nature the infinitely varied manifestations of inanimate life and the creatures that abound in the water, on land and in the air are only details in the one universal conception of beauty. From the artistic standpoint the con- struction of the toad group, it must be admitted, was also a problem: to create with artificial materials (wood and plaster, wax, glass, papier-mAché, cellu- loid and oil paints) an illusion so per- fect that the observer will be actually deceived as to the realness of the objects; then to arrange these objects in a pleasing composition. There had to be careful handling of the colors, and especially of the lights, and the concrete foreground had to be blended with the panoramic painted background with proper perspective, in order to give illusion as to the naturalness of the scene as a whole. The main difficulty lay in maintain- ing the balance, allowing nothing to take on ultra importance scientifically or pictorially, while still making the atti- tude or action of each of the animals the resultant of the demand of the location in the group (with consequent relations to neighboring animals) and the known habits of the species. It was at this point in the construction that decision was made to leave out or to subordinate in position various large enemies of The skunk for in- stance eats toads, first rolling them forcibly under his paws until the poison has been exuded from the skin glands. The muskrat varies his menu in spring by the addition of an occasional frog or toad, and hawks and owls as well as herons and even crows are known to include amphibia in their diet. I have seen a chipmunk hastening to his bur- row with a woodfrog in his mouth and the red squirrel is very fond of meat in the spring after his winter on nuts and seeds. The only “enemies” of any size which found their way finally into the group are a red squirrel watching from the stone wall back of the apple tree, a water snake in the act of capturing a Fowler’s toad but made inconspicuous by a projecting moss-covered root in the right front of the group, and a spotted turtle deep in the water at the rear and evidently the cause of the lively scurry- ing of the school of pollywogs. It will thus be realized that in pre- serving the balance in the scientific, educational and art values of the group, the position of any animal is truly “ stra- tegic,” and that its placing was not a simple matter and never a chance mat- toads and frogs. ter, but was determined by necessity in the fulfillment of the various demands. A piece of original, complex, construc- 165 166 tive work is always a delight in the doing and the designer will always hope that what has been put into it will be taken out by one or another who stands before it. To create the new group has come as an opportunity to give back in a small measure here in the heart of New York City what was received some years ago from an intimate acquaintance with the New England “wilderness.” Naturally no mere words can carry the news of the woods at any season with the vividness of the reality, even though that reality be set in a still picture. Words are weak indeed also to transmit the magne- tic attraction nature exerts over man. They fail utterly to convey what will produce the personal reaction of feeling such as is wrought into one who lives out-of-doors and sees continually the most commonplace scene take on mean- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ing and beauty — perhaps under the influence of the mist of dawn, the quiet- ness of dusk or the blackness of storm, perhaps when it is lashed by wind and rain, or afterward transfigured in a radiancy of sunshine. It is in this last mood that the recent group has been fashioned and in May, the season of new life, with the thought that perhaps this concrete picture would be able to do what words accomplish but inadequately. That in it there would be seen with unusual vividness and attractiveness the natural history facts involved, and that perhaps, in addition, there would be felt—by a child here, a lover of beauty there, the poet everywhere — some part of nature’s subtle personal invitation and some reflection of the spiritual response which the original scene might invoke. Redstart and parula warblers.— May is the month of warblers and the gay-foliaged branches are filled with them, yet they are difficult to locate. (From the Toad Group) | a _ - Shy erie ws ye 7 < a \ yx DETAIL OF THE “TOAD GROUP” The group emphasizes in its fine detailed technique the expert work in wax and glass of the Museum’s artists . : Br ¥ a: } . ody , ’ ; “ine | Pi 4 , ig f 4 P | wv : - A , ret me “ty ot B o* \ + Ae rj \ 168 egg masses with tiny tadpoles pendant from the original matrix, and other tadpoles just detached are to be noted clinging to leaves and sticks. Over on the mossy-promontory under the jacks are wood frogs just coming out of the water, while in the pool near them are their young tadpoles in a school, proving their communal instinct as they swim hastily away from the approach of a spotted turtle. We not only see these hylas and toads and frogs as we stand before the case but in memory we hear them too, the blending of melodious trill and bawling call of one and another. They make the springtime vocal. How it is done is suggested for some of the species in the group — that little sac under the chin is blown up by Mr. Lovelorn until full of wind, like Shakespeare’s “lover, sighing like a furnace,” and, without opening the mouth, the penetrating notes issue forth, made by the vocal chords in the throat and reénforced by this vocal sac. I recall an experiment made by the Boy of Ten to settle a dis- pute as to whether the hyla or the toad made a certain bawling sound —a sound which comes to me faintly now as I remember and listen. It was on a still night, encamped by a mountain lake, when incessant amphibian calls of one kind or another made the principal night sounds. The boy crept far out onto a great rock, jutting into the lake. All about in the darkness had been the calls. Silence instantly ensued with his com- ing, but after a five minute’s wait, the alls began again. Softly lighting a -andle, no fewer than six toads were dis- covered within the distance of a few feet. Presently one of the toads dis- tended his throat pouch and issued his song. Followed him another, and an- other ~~ and the dispute was settled for good. 169 TOADS AT THE POND IN MAY Four Fowler’s toads (in the Toad Group at the American Museum), one swimming, a second just coming up from deep water, and two singing with throat resonating sacs expanded. toads resort to the pond about the first of May (in southern New England, some two weeks earlier in Fowler’s New York). The small black eggs enclosed in gelatinous strings are to be seen in the lower part of the photograph 170 OO =< -), ~~ - il i a eh te el pe ee eal * 1 eS rere ee a Some of the enemies of toad life are also shown in this group; two ribbon _ snakes on the left are ready to take toll of the small “spring peepers” which are whistling their high-pitched tones with throat bubbles well expanded, while a big water snake on the right has engulfed one of the toads. Finally the bird life of this time is not omitted for we note in trees and bush many of the warblers, the small flitting birds so typical of May: black and white creeper, Maryland yel- lowthroat, Blackburnian warbler, red- start and chestnut-sided and yellow warblers — these and others are here for the sharp eye to see. The scenic case of next appeal to me is the one I call the June case — I sup- pose it bears the more practical designa- tion of the “ bullfrog group” in museum parlance. But to me it is June, late June, no less! A deep, sunny pool in the hot sunshine of mid-day is this. We guessed that the time-o’-day of the May scene was morning, from the dew-drops twinkling on leaf and flower, but here all these have evaporated, and it is high noon in warm mid-summer. The scenic group shows the life of one of our most common frogs in our common lily-padded pools; a scene so familiar to all that its appeal stirs the heart of every one of us. Who has not stood contemplating such a pool; with these clumps of blue-spiked pickerel weed ranging away into the cool backwaters under the shade of giant forest trees, these small turtles scram- bling awkwardly up over the flat lily pads in the foreground, that bullfrog diving into the deep water and leaving on the surface a string of bubbles as he expels the air from his lungs; those newts pok- ing their way along the bottom! Every detail of the scene is familiar, and no detail precious to memory has been omitted. There is our old comrade, the water turtle, just diving off a stump AQUARELLES OF OUR COMMON WOODLANDS 171 (as we generally see him!) while the “bullies” are everywhere and all doing something that illustrates one or an- other of their life habits. Here is one that has just snatched up a mouthful of young water snakes, a whole squirming mass of them, which he is cramming into his mouth with a very human-like hand. Here is another, looking up expectantly at a wood mouse in a bush, for the bull- frog is omnivorous and will eat anything that he can catch and then swallow down his capacious throat. Here is another that has just snitched in a bumble-bee off a wild white azalea (in full blossom so that we know that it is late June or early July), and the way he does it with his ex- tensible tongue is well set forth. At this time of the year, too, frogs peel off the old skin, as shown by that fellow on the right who is just disrobing, and eating the old skin — frugal Frenchman — that nothing be lost! Bullfrog tadpoles are here, too. It takes about two years to get up to frogdom from tadpolehood, and the whole process, including losing one’s tail and living just above the water on a tiny snag, is shown here. Here also are some of the enemies of the “bullie.” A black snake lurks behind that azalea and his sinister intentions are only too evi- dent. One large bullfrog who has seen him is “playing stone,” knowing well that the snake’s eyesight for inanimate objects is not over-keen. He has gath- ered himself into a smooth round wuzzle of green, and the snake sees him not. The latter is so intent on a young bull- frog, which in his turn is so intent upon a chickadee just alighted on a birch branch above him, that a double tragedy seems imminent. To the left of this scene is the Septem- ber case, so-called the “ giant salamander group.” It is a big trout stream with yellow-leaved sycamore and ripening frost grapes hanging over, and blue asters syjosnyorssey ‘dimqysuMoy, Woqoyoxy QNOd GVOL 3HL GNOASE SGNVIGOOM 3H NI ee ane [Yes S AQUARELLES OF OUR COMMON WOODLANDS A kingfisher sits above, and the water flows toward bending low to the water. you over many a rocky riffle, streaming the long-fronds of brookweed in the cur- rent; flowing, flowing endlessly — right into your lap seemingly, a wonderful example of arrested motion by the artistry of the Museum preparators who will have Nature presented to us just as she appears in reality. Even the very stones of the brook bottom have that velvety look that comes of settled sediment, and that brown, peculiar — slippery covering that brings many a trout fisherman to grief! depicted Herein are the life history and habits of the giant sala- mander, familiar to those who wade the mountain streams. A greedy voracious beast and a canni- bal, with clumsy ways. Here is one that has seized a fish of the school which is swimming upstream, for in spite of his clumsy the mander’s body, sala- protec- tive coloration, blending exactly with the rocks of the brook bed, en- 173 him — when he is quick to strike, and his mouth opens the full extent of the width of his head. Here are two big fellows fighting over a string of eggs. The one on guard over the eggs was lying among them under the rock watch- ing, when along came a second salaman- der and started to bolt the eggs, whereat About a moss and violet covered root in the water (from the toad ables him to lie in group). The common ‘‘tree toad”’ or so-called ‘‘weather prophet ’ : ral j - ersicolor) is in the pond but a short time and then resorts to the orchard wait until a brook ver sic is @ pon the garden or edge of the woods pearl-like eggs on the water plants fish hovers over small clusters of this hyla’s Notice the 174 THE AMERICAN he has been seized amidships by the angry guard, although how well he is to be finally punished for his misdeed the scene does not tell us. Young salaman- ders are to be seen foraging along the bottom, and the red, land form of the newt is out on the bank of the river to serve asa standard of size for comparison with the giant species. Another group, which I have never had the good fortune to observe in the natural state, is that showing some of the rep- MUSEUM JOURNAL tilian life of the desert. Looking sea- ward on an island in the Gulf of Cali- fornia, appears to be this scene, the red voleanic rock, the cactus life, saguaro, ocotillo and palo-verde, being prominent in the stage setting. Under a volcanic fissure is the lair of a great rattler of the desert, he is just raising his head from his coils to look over the possibilities of prey outside. Small highly colored desert liz- ards are there for the catching, and an iguana is climbing up over the spines of a great cactus to sleep in the sun at the top. Various chuckwallas, as the largest lizards of the North American continent are called, sport among the rocks or dig in the sand, while two black chuck- wallas are fighting for the possession of a ‘actus blossom, suggesting that their food is vegetable. It is a wild, stern land, where water is not and men die of thirst, a land of the agony of black protruding tongue and alkali-scorched throat. tion for all of us, it is so strange, so differ- Nevertheless, it has a fascina- ent, one of those typical bits of American wilderness scenery with which all of us ought to be better acquainted. One is loath to close without some The pickerel frog (Rana palustris), with head above the surface of the pond (photograph from the Toad Group), and old egg mass and hatching tadpoles. The portion of decayed stump and sphagnum moss beside it (at the left) are real, the frog, tadpoles and marsh marigolds are wax, the egg mass is blown glass AQUARELLES OF OUR COMMON WOODLANDS word as to the inspiration these groups * give to go out and see for oneself these scenes put forth so powerfully. The appeal to children- is strong; they are the nature lovers of the future, in whom the love of wild life imparted by the great story of the Museum cases will bear fruit in better protection of what wild spots we still have left. We know nothing about immortality, but this we know, that in our children we do live, and in them there will be carried forward what character the world once knew as ourselves. The Boy of Ten stands in the flesh before me, myself, yet also so differ- ent, my own son, just turned ten years. _ How do these scenes strike him? Well— there is little that those bright blue eyes overlook; not a tiny detail that passes unnoticed. He is living in the midst of the thing, not viewing it from a distance as we older ones must. Every scrap of pond life refers at once to his own aquarium: here’s where you look for this particular kind of tadpole — he did n’t know that there were several varieties of tadpoles before; that back- water is the place where those newts grow; never knew before that those pe- culiar greenish warty bulbs were a frog’s egg mass, thought all eggs were in strings like toad’s eggs — Oh, these cases were a mine of practical information to him, and we look for a large increase in the population of the aquarium this spring! And, what of that other child, not so 1 Photographs of the reptile and amphibian groups of the American Museum, other than the Toad Group will be found in previous issues of the Journat as follows: Bullfrog Group, October, 1911; Giant Salamander Group, December, 1912; Lower California Lizard Group, February. 1914. 175 fortunate as to have his mind directed from infancy to the world of the great out-of-doors and with no large country- side to roam over, the city waif who comes in here to look—and wonder? Who can tell but that many such re- ceive their first call to go back to the land, here; to forsake the crowded slum where body nor soul has a chance, and to earn their bread in their future close to the green soil, with just such a pond right over the dip of the hill! And what of the older ones, we whose pathways in life are fixed, and may not be changed because here in the city we earn the bread that those dependent upon us must eat? What of the appeal to us? Here is Nature, spread before us; Nature in her most charming mood, with her silver filaments of still waters, her teeming abundance of humble (but not really familiar) pond life. And Na-. ture can be found within an hour’s train or trolley ride of the city. Shall we pre- sume that, to the thousands who look upon these scenes there comes no desire to look again at the forgotten brookside? To discover for themselves many things besides flowers and birds, things that were before passed over unheeded, not knowing what to look for, nor realizing what a wealth of interest lay here un- touched? Shall we not rather rest as- sured that thousands have here had reborn in them an inspiration to re- visit old scenes, and a resolve not yet to let the home country-side relapse into the limbo of forgotten memories, not yet to let one’s love of Nature be deep-buried in the dust of the city’s turmoil. 9LT OYyed OF YOGA UT 193VA MOTTVYS [OOO uRYyy M9} 0} 9A19}0B199R GIOT SUTYJOU SI O10} ‘YYSNOAp Jo ow} uy Ajye~edso puv TOYO JOY UT 4VY} JoqUIOMIE, YSNU OM ‘SN IVOU SPAIG P]LM OY} SUTIG OF YSTM OM JT HiVd GHId V Y¥Os YAGTNOS ALINVYSD V ONIINVH Sn a BIRD BATHS AND DRINKING POOLS’ ___By Ernest Harold Baynes —— N hot weather, especially in time of drought, there is nothing more attractive to birds than water. They need it to drink and to bathe in, and when the natural pools and streams are dried up, they will come from far and near to visit a properly constructed bird bath. At the very time this chap- ter is being written the weather is very hot and dry and birds are coming to the artificial baths in this village, Meriden, New Hampshire, not one at a time, but by scores. Only this morning they gathered at a little cement bath just outside my study window, and gave it the appearance of an avian Manhattan Beach. I saw two bluebirds, a che- wink, a white-throated sparrow, a song sparrow, a junco, a chipping sparrow and a myrtle warbler, all bathing at once and at least a score of other birds were hopping about in the grass or perched in the bushes nearby, awaiting their turn. There are similar scenes at nearly all the bird baths in Meriden. One example will suffice. In the Bird Sanctuary there is a bath made from a granite boulder, or rather half a boulder, for it was split in two, ages ago, proba- bly by the frost. It broke in such a way that one half had a gently-sloping concave surface and we took this half, turned the concave surface uppermost that when filled with water it might form a natural pool for the birds. It was set upon a well-made stone founda- tion, and a hole was drilled down through to admit a lead pipe which supplies running water. As I ap- proached this bath one evening after 1 This article is from Mr. Baynes's forthcoming book, Wild Bird Guests and How to Entertain Them. E. P. Dutton and Company, New York. sundown, I saw the whole surface of the water dancing as though a shoal of little fish were sporting in it, and spray was flying in every direction. It was simply a flock of birds taking their evening bath. Perhaps because night was com- ing on they were too impatient to wait their turn, for all seemed to be trying to get in at once, and most of them were successful. Juncos seemed to be most numerous, but there were several blue- birds and myrtle warblers and some sparrows which in their wet plumage and in the uncertain light I could not identify. A little apart a pheebe sat on a twig above the pool, watching for chances to dip down into the water for an instant, after which she would re- turn to the twig to preen her feathers. Birds come to our bird baths every day in summer and fall, in an almost con- tinuous procession, but usually just a few are present at the same moment. They come in large flocks only at exceptional times, usually during severe drought. Bird baths may be as simple or as elaborate as one likes. A rough earthen- ware saucer from six inches to twelve inches in diameter and with half an inch of fresh water in it, is a great deal better than nothing and may attract some of the most delightful birds. I have seen robins, catbirds, Baltimore orioles and rose-breasted grosbeaks and many others bathe in an earthenware saucer. But the supplying of water is so very impor- tant that most of us will wish to do rather more than put out a saucer. Even from a selfish standpoint it is well to give birds all the water they want. If we do, they will be much less likely to destroy our small fruits which they sometimes eat chiefly for the fluid contained. 177 178 In making any bird baths, the first thing to look out for is the depth of the water. Few of the birds which will come to bathe will use water of greater depth than two and a half inches, and even for blue jays and grackles five inches is about. the limit. But most birds will not jump off into any such depth, so if we had a pool with a uniform depth of two and a half inches, birds _-e oe THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL popular with the birds, is made on the principle of a flight of broad steps, each one of which is two feet long and seven inches wide. There are five of these steps, each one-half inch lower than the last, so that when the water is half an inch deep on the top step, it is two and a half inches deep on the bottom one. The birds invariably enter the water at the top step. Their favorite steps are . nore emer ta ge EE we . _— Birds will come from far and near to visit a properly constructed bird bath. Mr. Baynes has seen in a simple little cement pool like this of the photograph seven species of birds at one time: bluebirds, a chewink, a white-throated sparrow, a song sparrow, a junco, a chipping sparrow and a myrtle warbler — and at least a dozen other birds awaiting their turn nearby would come and drink, but few if any would bathe. So we must arrange for shallow places where the birds can enter the water; they will go in deeper presently, but they are very cautious. Half an inch is a good depth for the shal- lows and if the depth grades off to nothing at all, so much the better. A bath which the writer invented some time ago and which has proved very the second and third; they seldom go lower than that. The bottom is covered with clean sand and bright pebbles from a trout brook, and here and there among them are strewn beautifully tinted shells. Close beside the bath is a wooden tray of earth, on which are scattered every morning, birdseed of several kinds, bits of bread, a little suet, ripe raspberries BIRD BATHS AND DRINKING POOLS 179 and a piece of banana perhaps, as addi- tional attractions © for the feathered guests. The smallest visitors are the chipping sparrows, gentle, modest little fellows, that come to the food tray quietly as mice, crack a few seeds, and then take a bath on the top step where the water is shallow. Almost burly in comparison, are the purple finches, which come, often two or three at a time, make a full meal in the food tray, and then souse themselves thoroughly in the deeper water, regardless of theories concerning the dangers of bathing too soon after dinner. Perhaps the most amusing visitor is a catbird, which has a nest in the lilac bush, from whose top, in the early morn- ing, he sings his wonderful song so sur- prising to those who know him by his cat-call only. He comes boldly to the food tray, hops lightly about, jauntily flirting his long tail, swallows a ripe rasp- berry, takes a bite or two of banana, and then proceeds to inspect the bath as if he had never seen it before. He cocks his head first on one side and then on the other, hops into the shallow water and begins to peck at the shells and pebbles at the bottom. Perhaps he will take one in his bill and hold it for a moment before dropping it back. Then he goes out into deeper water, and with wings vibrating as though operated by an elec- tric current, takes a thorough bath “all over.” When he comes out, he is a sorry-looking object, dripping wet and with tail-feathers stuck together. But apparently he cares nothing for appear- ances, and proceeds with his toilet forth- with. He shakes himself vigorously, flips his tail from side to side to get rid of the bulk of the water, and then it is surprising how soon, with the aid of his deft bill and a warm sun, he makes himself into a clean fluffy catbird again. Sometimes, toward evening a blue- bird visits the bath, and after washing himself in a very business-like way, flies off to a dead tree to preen and dry his feathers. Occasionally a phoebe comes, but apparently takes a bath more from a sense of duty than from any love of bathing. He seems to dislike cold water about as much as does the average small boy, for instead of getting right into it as most birds do, he flits through it, barely getting his feet wet. Perhaps this habit has been acquired by re- peatedly darting after insects, and pos- sibly is common to all flycatchers; at any rate I have seen a kingbird bathe by dashing through the water of a stream time and again, returning after each dip to a snag, from which he made a fresh dive after stopping a moment to preen his feathers—and perhaps to catch his breath. The song sparrows are perhaps the most numerous visitors to this bird bath; they come earlier and stay later than any of the other birds. They act as if they owned this particular sheet of water, three feet by two, and if any other bird ventures too near while a song spar- row is bathing, the former is promptly driven away. These sparrows seem to love the water, and not only splash in it, but squat right down in it until practi- cally nothing but their heads are stick- ing out. Sometimes when it is almost dark, and the last red tinge of afterglow is reflected in the tiny pool, a couple of dark spots on the shining surface tell just where two little song sparrows are cooling off for the night. We have been altogether too busy to keep close watch on this bath but at different times we have observed the following birds using it: flicker, phcebe, Baltimore oriole, purple finch, white- winged crossbill, American goldfinch, vesper sparrow, white-throated spar- row, chipping sparrow, junco, song 180 sparrow, chewink, cedar waxwing, black- and-white warbler, Nashville warbler, myrtle warbler, chestnut-sided warbler, catbird, brown thrasher, hermit thrush, robin and bluebird. Probably there have been many more which we have not observed. The arrangement of steps, while interesting, is by no means necessary. A bath about three feet long, two feet wide and three inches deep, with a con- tinuously sloping and roughened bottom, starting at one end half an inch from the top and ending at the other at its lowest point, would probably answer the purpose just as well. Speaking of the roughened bottom, reminds me that almost if not quite as important as the depth of water, is the character of the footing on the bottom. This should never be slippery, for birds lose confi- dence when they find they cannot keep their feet. A layer of coarse sand or fine pebbles will usually give the de- sired “footing” in a bird bath, and a slippery pan or dish can be rendered safe by placing in it a freshly-cut sod, having about half an inch of the grass submerged. This makes a wet spot such as many of the small birds are very fond of. Concrete is very useful for the con- struction of pools for the comfort of birds; it may be used alone, as in the case of a bird bath in my own garden, or in connection with natural rock crop- ping out above the earth. The former was made as follows. I scooped out in the lawn an elliptical hollow, four feet by three feet six inches, the sides sloping down in all directions toward the center where the depth was four or five inches. I then took some Portland cement and some coarse sand and mixed the two, in the proportion of one of cement to four of sand, adding just enough water to give the consistency of common mortar. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Then with my hand, I plastered the surface of the hollow, putting in enough to make the depth at the center about two and a half inches. I was careful not to make the sides too smooth, although the concrete itself gives an excellent foothold for the birds. We have no running water in this; about once a week we sweep the water out with a stiff broom and put two pails of fresh water into it. It has been a complete success, and being within ten feet of the house we have had great pleasure in watch- ing the birds from the windows and from the piazzas. We have seen six blue- birds — the parents and four young — bathing in it at once, and at other times there have been whole flocks of song sparrows, white-throated sparrows and juncos, in addition to the many birds that come in smaller numbers. With a few shrubs and hardy flowers planted about it, such a bath can be made a beautiful little feature in any garden. And of course there is no reason in the world why it should not be made much larger if one has plenty of room and the time to make it. Dr. Ernest L. Huse, president of The Meriden Bird Club, has a somewhat similar bath in his garden, but he has carried the idea a little farther. In the center he has sunk a tub, and from the rim, which is perhaps two and a half inches below the surface of the ground, the concrete slants outward and upward in all directions, making shallows in which the birds will drink and bathe. In the tub, pond lilies are planted, and spread their leaves and blossoms over the surface. Round about, shrubs and tall grasses are planted, and here and there among them one catches a glimpse of little food trays, filled with hemp and millet which tend to keep the birds about the spot even when the bath is over. There is hardly a limit to what Two and a half inches is about the proper depth of water for a bird bath, with five inches the maximum for blue jays and grackles. A successful bath may be provided with an arrangement of steps under water, giving shallow spots for the bird’s cautious entrance and deeper places for his later delight the From a hearty meal at the food tray birds may fly directly to the bird bath, entering shallowest water first, then sousing themselves thoroughly in the deepest part — with no respect for theories regarding a bath too soon after dinner 181 shrubs or grass about it, for behind such things a cat will crouch. I have spoken of a bird bath made of a granite boulder; we have two like this in Meriden, New Hampshire, and they are among the most satisfactory baths we have. The one in the Meriden Bird Club’s sanctuary, es- timated to weigh five tons, was lying where the glacier Such a pool at dusk may emit a flying spray from the wet plumage of left it on a hillside bathing bluebirds and song sparrows, while an exclusive phoebe is waiting on a branch above for a chance to cool off for the night by a few dashes rather more than a through the water. A concrete pool with flowers planted about it, may mile awav. For the be made an attractive feature of any garden benefit of those who may be done with concrete in this way, may have similar baths in view, I will especially if it is used in connection with say that several teams of oxen were re- beautiful stones, pebbles, sand and shells. quired to move it, and that to haul it, Of course in the case of bird baths set it on a good foundation of stones, which are not raised well above the ground, great care must be taken that the little bathers are not pounced upon by cats, which would other- wise have the songsters at an unusual disadvantage. In the first place the birds are so engrossed with the joy of the bath that they are less wary than usual, and their feathers being wet they fly slowly and heavily, often close to the ground. If we -annot be sure about cats, we must either have the bath raised well above the ground on some object which a cat -annot climb, or else we must be content with a very plain bath out in the open, without 182 A bird bath in the Bird Sanctuary at Meriden, New Hamp- shire, is made in the natural hollow of a split granite boulder. The boulder has been placed upon a stone foundation and fitted with a pipe leading upward through a hole drilled in the boulder to give a continual supply of fresh water . + Soe : ex ; ee te Ma | SANCTUARY SEP ANY § VTE AGS FSS le wale ee WRU CS Aa SARS ty \ 2UNnE < WaNgs ATL \e VPs BRING Snr © BRONZE BIRD FOUNTAIN Exccuted by Mrs. Louis Saint Gaudens for the Bird Sanctuary at Meriden 184 and drill a hole through it for the water pipe, cost forty dollars. It is a beauti- ful object, very suitable for its purpose and will last forever. It was presented to the Club by a Boston lady who de- sired to establish a bird fountain in memory of her friend, Dr. Edward Everett Hale, himself a lover of birds. I often think how much more appro- priate as a memorial to a real man or woman is a beautiful thing like this, made by Nature, carved by her mighty forces, and dedicated to the use and enjoyment of the loveliest of her children, than is a shining, ugly and utterly useless polished shaft, whose chief recommen- dation is that it costs from a hundred to a thousand times as much. The lovely bronze fountain executed by Mrs. Louis Saint Gaudens, is another of the charming features of the Bird Sanctuary at Meriden, and makes one realize that with the sculptor as an assistant there is no end to the artistic bird baths which may be designed. This particular bath was made in com- memoration of the first presentation of Perey MacKaye’s Bird Masque, Sanc- tuary, and was presented to the Meri- den Bird Club by a New York lady who THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL witnessed the play. It will be seen by the shallowness of the basin at the top that my remarks about the depth of the water apply just as much to a formal work of art as to a granite boulder or an earthenware saucer. The rule about surface also applies, and the sculptoress purposely left the surface of the inside of the basin slightly rough that the feet of the little bathers might not slip. Below the shallow bowl and in bas-relief may be seen in procession the principal characters who took part in the masque. Below these are interesting inscriptions, some of them historical, others consist- ing of quotations from the masque itself. Of these the one that sends the reader away filled with determination to do something for the cause of bird conserva- tion is the compact proposed by the poet to the converted plume-hunter and the naturalist: — A compact, then, that when we go Forth from these gracious trees Into the world, we go as witnesses Before the men who make our country’s laws, And by our witness show In burning words The meaning of these sylvan mysteries: Freedom and sanctuary for the birds! In the country of the Apache Indian MOTION PICTURE RECORDS OF INDIANS FILMS THATSHOW THE COMMON INDUSTRIES OF THE APACHE By Pliny E. Goddard HE ethnologist is not primarily concerned with the actual ob- jects displayed in a museum. The true subject matter of ethnology is made up of the habitual movements and activities of a people. An Indian. on horseback does not differ in general appearance from a white man in that position, but the fact that an Indian mounts from one side and a white man from the other constitutes an important fact in ethnology. It is one of the small habits which in their combined effect make the difference between a white man and an Indian. Such habits are the most important means of mak- ing comparative and historical studies in ethnology, for they are generally learned from one’s neighbors or ances- tors. Through them, therefore, one may trace the distribution of habits and cus- toms geographically or historically. In the past, such habits have been studied by observing the daily life of a people and reducing such observations to writing, using drawings and photo- graphs as illustrations. It is tolerably difficult to observe and record every significant movement involved in the work of a single individual engaged in such a simple task as making a flint arrowhead. When several individuals are engaged in the same undertaking, it becomes impossible for a single observer to follow the movements of each worker. The moving-picture camera furnishes an excellent method of making a perma- nent record of the movements of one or, if properly localized, of several people. This record can be scrutinized in detail for as long a time as is desired and can be viewed repeatedly. It records many things which otherwise would not be made objective, such as the character- istic nervous coérdinations and move- ments of different people. To make such records of value, great pains must be taken not to arouse self-conscious- ness in the subjects being photographed. Such unavoidable self-consciousness as 185 186 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Spo TTT Pa oe 1— Posture assumed and position of the hands in dis- charging an arrow 2— From the film the movement of the hands in basket- making can be observed _ 3 — Liquid pitch is being applied to a basket to render it water- tight arises when one first faces a camera disappears as the persons become interested in the work or ceremony. It would require a very long time to secure a record of the various industries of a tribe if these were all taken as they are actually performed as a matter of yearly routine. In practice, it is necessary to have these duties undertaken for the special purpose of photo- graphing them. When this is done, however, it is usu- ally possible to allow the subjects to assume their own poses and positions even if the result is less attractive in arrangement. The photographer needs only to insist on a proper relation to the source of the light. To take the entire action of a piece of work lasting for several hours, such as the preparation of the pitch and its application to a water basket, involves too great an expense and more film than can be uti- lized. In such cases it is necessary to have the cam- era constantly in position, and to operate it only when movements of significance occur. It is seldom neces- sary to change its position for simple industrial acts. During a field trip to the San Carlos Apache this year a small daylight load- ing camera was employed. Films were made of such industries as basket-mak- ing, the boiling and applica- MOTION PICTURE RECORDS OF INDIANS tion of pitch to make a basket water- tight, the gathering of mesquite beans, the grinding of corn, the preparation and cooking of the century-plant stump. Men were photographed flaking arrow- heads, feathering arrows, and _put- ting sinew on a bow. The rather simple process of discharging an ar- row from a bow, taken on twenty- five feet of film, illustrates the posi- tion of holding the bow and the arrow release practised by the Apache, two points of con- siderable compara- tive interest. It was not possible to secure films of re- ligious ceremonies because of the su- perstitious attitude of the Indians. Films of a gam- bling game in pro- gress and of two old men taking a sweat bath were secured. Considering the results obtained, the method is not excessively expen- It ought to be applied system- sive. 187 atically and energetically in North America, while there are Indians still living who have habitually performed After the disappearance of primitive life, films of this sort will be invaluable. these native industrial acts. 1 — Apache women shelling acorns and grinding and shelling corn 2 — Gathering mesquite beans, the pods only of which are edible [Still pictures taken in connection with motion films] AUGUST WEISMANN, ZOOLOGIST, 1834-1914 A follower and supporter of Darwin, whose’ work played an important part in the development of the theory of heredity 188 AUGUST WEISMANN Born January 17, 1834, died November 5, 1914 By Frank R. Lillie Professor of Zoélogy at the University of Chicago HE life of Professor Weismann spanned the most interesting and important period in the history of biology. In his early child- hood Schleiden and Schwann established the cell theory (1838-1839); he was a young man of twenty-five at the time of publication of Darwin’s Origin of Species (1859). During his active life as zodlogist were discovered those great principles concerning cell-division, the fertilization of the egg and the history of the germ-cells, which he applied with such success to the theory of heredity. He participated in the grand struggle over the evolution theory and the factors of evolution during the latter half of the nineteenth century; he witnessed the rise of experimental zoédlogy and in his old age came the period of exact research in genetics, which his own studies had done much to prepare. The last weeks of his life were sad- dened by the great war. He had lived a long life full of loving and disinterested labor, crowned by many honors and the universal respect of the scientific world. An immense pathos inheres in his last public act —the relinquishment of the academic honors bestowed on him in England. Like so many of the zodlogists of his time Weismann studied medicine, but he found opportunity during the short period of its practice to carry out z06- logical investigations on the life history and especially the post-embryonic devel- opment and metamorphosis of flies. In 1863 he became attached to the Uni- versity of Freiburg, and spent the re- mainder of his life, fifty-one years, in this quiet provincial University, in spite of offers from larger universities. Here he found the leisure and the quiet beautiful surroundings in which he could devote himself heart and soul to investi- gation and reflection. His objective in- vestigations were limited by serious trouble with his eyes which began in the seventies, and later compelled him to relinquish the microscopical studies for which he had such unbounded enthu- siasm. His vision was thus turned more and more inward to constructive think- ing; it was no doubt in part due to this physical handicap that we owe his great theoretical generalizations. Weismann was a true naturalist, who viewed nature with a loving enthusiasm which appears clearly in the objective researches in zodlogy of the first fifty years of his life. His main contributions are classical in their mastery of detail, wealth of observation and broad outlook. His earliest studies were physiological and histological (1858-1862). Then fol- lowed a series of papers on the embryonic and post-embryonic development of flies (1862-1866). Studies on the seasonal dimorphism of butterflies next engaged his attention in which he raised questions that led to later fundamental researches by other investigators. In 1875 he began a long series of studies on the natural history and reproductions of Daphnids (continued to 1889) which constitute the foundation of all subse- quent study on this group and were especially important for the funda- mental problems of parthenogenesis, sex- 189 190 determination, and significance of the polar bodies. Between 1880 and 1883 he was engaged in his epoch-making researches on the germ-cells of hydroids which uncovered the fundamental facts on which his theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm was based. The special papers and memoirs deal- ing with these and other investigations constitute a great body of knowledge to which zoélogists will constantly refer as the foundation of many important lines of research. About 1884 he was forced to turn from such investigations, owing to increasing eye troubles. From this.time date those contributions to the theory of evolution and heredity for which he is best known to the general educated public, as one of the greatest of Darwin’s successors. These were however by no means his first publications on these subjects, for in 1868 he had published a “ Justifica- tion of the Darwinian Theory,” in 1873 a study of the influence of isolation in the origin of species, and a volume of studies on the theory of descent, later translated into English. His best-known contributions on these subjects began with a series of essays published between 1881 and 1891 on the “Duration of Life’ (1881), on “ Hered- ity’ (1883), “Life and Death” (1883), “The Continuity of the Germ-plasm as the Foundation. of a Theory of Hered- ity” (1885), “ The Significance of Sexual Reproduction in the Theory of Natural Selection ” (1886), ete., ete., all of which led up to and culminated in his volume on The Germ-plasm (1892). In 1896 his Germinal Selections appeared. In 1902 all of his theoretical considerations were brought together in two volumes on, The Evolution Theory, translated by Professor and Mrs. J. Arthur Thompson in 1904. It is impossible to discuss in any full- ness the theories of these publications. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL All centered around his conception of the continuity of the germ-plasm, and of heredity as developmental recapitula- tion; thus the denial of the prevalent belief in the inheritance of acquired characters was a necessary corollary of this conception of inheritance. Weis- mann maintained not only that the in- heritance of variations and mutilations of somatic origin was theoretically im- possible, but he labored to show that it was by no means a necessary support of the evolution theory, as had been gener- ally assumed. He met with greatest skill and keenest logic the many attacks which followed the statement of his position; his controversy with Herbert Spencer on this subject between 1893 and 1895 constituted the most notable of these debates. In the end he com- pletely won over the great majority of naturalists. to his way of thinking, and freed the theory of evolution and heredity from an enormous incubus. In his theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm, Weismann formulated a point of view on which all subsequent genetic research must be based. He recognized with Darwin that a theory of evolution must find its final analysis in the life history of the individual, which contains the key to heredity and variation. Darwin’s theory of pangene- sis, constructed as a formal hypothesis of heredity and variation, involved un- necessary and untenable conceptions; he had assumed that each cell of the body produced, at all stages of its life, living particles (gemmules) capable of reproducing the parent cells. These particles were cast off from the parent cells and accumulated in the germ-cells, each of which was supposed to contain a complete assortment arranged in a definite fashion. The development from the germ-cell depended on the successive liberation and development of these a ll a A Ma a ee ee gee aitiiad AUGUST WEISMANN 191 particles into cells like those from which they originally arose. The inheritance of acquired—characters could thus be explained on the assumption that modi- fied cells produced modified gemmules which reproduced the acquired modifica- tion in the succeeding generation. Weismann rejected the centripetal part of the Darwinian theory, while still retaining certain fundamental concep- tions of pangenesis. The theory of the continuity of the germ-plasm however offers a complete antithesis to Darwin’s theory in the sense that, whereas Darwin regarded the germ-cells as a secretion of the entire body, Weismann regarded them as genetically distinct from all the remainder of the body or soma — as producing the soma but not produced by it. In the production of the soma not all of the active protoplasm (germ-plasm) of the original germ-cell was used up; but a certain amount of it was retained unmodified and formed the germ-cells of the new generation. Thus the germ cells of any one generation were regarded as a direct unmodified product of the germ-cells of the parents, and so were handed down from generation to genera- tion, essentially uninfluenced by the soma, retaining their original attributes and developmental capacities unchanged. This conception constituted an immense simplification of the Darwinian scheme. However, Weismann accomplished much more. Darwin’s theory had been a purely imaginative construction and was frankly acknowledged by himself to be a formal hypothesis. Weismann’s theory on the other hand was based on the newly discovered facts concerning cell division, the fertilization of the egg and the processes involved in the origin of germ-cells. As a theory of heredity it has precisely the same relation to Dar- win’s theory of pangenesis that the latter’s theory of natural selection had borne to preceding evolution theories. It permitted test and verification and involved predictions which have been verified in certain cases, the most crucial test of any theory. The studies of cell-division carried out by Fleming, Hertwig and others had revealed a precise set of phenomena in nuclear division common to animals and plants, which suggested (Roux) a funda- mental réle of the nuclear elements or chromosomes in the cell life. Similarly the studies of Hertwig, Strasburger, Fol, and Van Beneden on fertilization had shown the predominantly significant part played in the process by the nucleus and its chromosomes; and the begin- nings of knowledge, destined soon to be carried very much farther, concerning the maturation phenomena of the germ- cells, had demonstrated a similar pre- dominance of significance of the chromo- somes in these processes. Weismann used all of these data first in the identi- fication of the chromosomes as the really significant part of the germ-cells (germ- plasm), and second in the construction of a detailed theory on this basis. He was thus able to predict as a logical necessity, the occurrence at some stage in the life history of a reduction division of the nuclei of the germ-cells which would halve the number of chromosomes instead of maintaining the whole number as in all of the other divisions. This prediction has been universally realized in plants and animals. The phenome- non was later found to parallel exactly the Mendelian laws of inheritance and to furnish their explanation to a consider- able extent. There are few instances in the history of science, outside of astronomy, in which prediction has been so adequately and significantly fulfilled. The fundamental assumption of the theory of continuity of the germ-plasm involved corollaries of the most signifi- 192 cant kind. If the germ-plasm is at all times distinct from the soma, then defi- nite characters acquired by the individ- ual in the course of its lifetime must perish with the individual. There was no known or conceivable mechanism by which such characters could be trans- ferred to the germ-cells and thus carried over to a succeeding generation. Weis- mann at once recognized this, and began that attack on the belief in the inheritance of acquired characters which furnished the sharpest post-Darwinian debate of the nineteenth century. Weis- mann argued in the following ways: (1) Such inheritance is theoretically in- conceivable; this argument was devel- oped in so thorough a fashion as to be regarded by many as conclusive in itself. (2) The data usually cited to support the case of the inheritance of acquired char- acters were shown to be so uncritical as not to bear examination, in some cases as to the facts themselves and in others as to their interpretation. Under the latter head the supposed inheritance of diseased conditions, as inferred at that time, was shown to be equally explicable on the assumption of inheritance of germinal weakness. (3) Weismann carried out detailed critical experiments to investi- gate the commonly accepted idea of inheritance of mytilations; for many generations he amputated the tails of white mice and found by measurement that the tails came as long at the end as at the beginning. (4) He argued suc- cessfully against the contention that inheritance of acquired characters is necessary to explain evolution. If heritable variations do not arise by use or disuse of parts or by action of incident external forces upon the organ- ism, it is necessary to explain how they come about. Weismann put forward three ideas which contain the germ of our modern working hypotheses, viz. (1) THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL the theory of germinal selection; (2) the results of amphimixis; and (3) direct action of environment on the germ. The theory of germinal selection in- volves the postulated architecture of the germ-plasm, which was conceived as composed of a great number of elemen- tary particles (determinants), each the representative of some unit-character of the organism. Weismann reasoned in general that conditions in the germ- plasm must be conceived as variable, and thus more or less favorable for the growth of these elements; favored ones would tend to increase, those in unfavor- able positions to decrease. The concep- tion of the struggle for existence was transferred to the germ-plasm and varia- tion-producing modifications of the germ- plasm were attributed thereto. This theory, by which Weismann himself laid great store, has been sterile; it was purely formal and has had no effect on research. The second hypothesis concerning the effects of amphimixis, or admixture of parental germ-plasms in fertilization, was by no means original with Weismann; but he was the first one adequately to prove its significance and to show how the admixture of different sets of paren- tal characteristics, their shuffling in the filial germ-plasm and redistribution in the half reduction divisions of the filial germ-cells is a constant, and perhaps the greatest, source of heritable varia- tions. However, he did not proceed quite to the extreme of the past presi- dent of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Professor Bate- son, and postulate the possibility that evolution has been productive of nothing essentially new from its inception. The third source of heritable varia- tions postulated by Weismann, viz. the action of incident external forces AUGUST WEISMANN upon the germ-plasm directly was never adequately analyzed by him. He al- ludes to it in his earlier essays, without following the matter farther. It has required the detailed investigations of Tower and MacDougal especially to give this real meaning, and such studies are still in their infancy. However, it is important to recognize Weismann’s fore- sight with reference to this. It is no part of this review to point out the weaknesses of Weismann’s theories, for this is not the place for an adequate critical review. However, we should be open to the charge at least of incom- pleteness if we failed to point out that Weismann’s theories were based on the data of a purely morphological period _ of genetic research. The experimental studies which followed close on the heels of his fundamental publications swept away, probably irrecoverably, some of the elements of his conceptions. Genetic conceptions are coming to be more and more physiological; and it is a logical necessity that analysis should continue to proceed in this direction. Biologists generally have discarded the Weisman- nian notion. of living independent en- tities (determiners) in the germ-plasm, representative of entire unit characters, and have replaced it by the conception 193 of differential (chemical) factors located in the germ-plasm and interacting with other factors (or chemical substances) in the cell. But when we effect such a change of conceptions, fundamental as it may be, we still deal to a considerable extent with those phenomena of the chromosomes whose significance Weis- mann did so much to make plain. Simi- larly we can no longer deal with the development of the individual in terms of qualitative nuclear analysis as Weis- mann did, for it has been proved that the cytoplasm has a predominant determin- ing influence in many of the phenomena at least, and it has not been proved that nuclei in general grow qualitatively dif- ferent. However, it must be realized that Weismann’s precise formulation of his theory of individual development furnished the stimulus for some of the fundamental investigations that have made real advances in this difficult field. I think it is fair to say that Weismann played as important a part in the devel- opment of a theory of heredity as Dar- win did in the theory of evolution in general; he must, therefore, be regarded as among the greatest of Darwin’s fol- lowers and supporters. The biological world must forever hold his memory in reverence. MORGAN’S “HEREDITY AND SEX”: A REVIEW By E. G. Conklin HIS book is the outgrowth of the Jesup Lectures for 1913 which were given by Professor Morgan at the American Museum of Natural His- tory. It is a very difficult thing to make a book interesting to the general public and at the same time valuable to scientific readers, but this difficult task Dr. Morgan has accomplished in an admirable manner. His book is a work of extraordinary interest to the intelligent layman and at the same time one of great value to professional biol- ogists, and its wide success is attested by the fact that the first edition was exhausted and a new one issued within a year. The book embodies the results of a large amount of research work by Dr. Morgan and his pupils as well as by many other investi- gators. The subjects dealt with in the eight chapters are: Evolution and Sex; The Mechanism of Sex Determination; The Mendelian Principles of Heredity and their Bearing on Sex; Secondary Sexual Characters and their Relation to Darwin’s Theory of Sexual Selection; The Effects of Castration and Transplantation on the Secondary Sexual Characters; Gynandromorphism, Hermaphroditism, Parthenogenesis and Sex; Fertility, and Special Cases of Sex Inherit- ance. Each of these general topics is dealt with in a manner which is not only instructive but also illuminating and interesting. As to the “Evolution of Sex’”’ it is shown that we know actually nothing about the manner in which sex has come to be. Sexual reproduc- tion brings about many new combinations of characters but such recombinations do not furnish the materials for evolution as Weis- mann assumed. However these new com- binations of ancestral characters produce a great amount of individual variation and this may be beneficial to a species in helping it to survive. Furthermore if a new character arises in a single individual it may be grafted on, as it were, to the species by sexual re- production. 1 HerRepDITtTy AND Sex, by Thomas Hunt Mor- gan, Ph.D. Professor of Experimental Zoédlogy in Columbia University, pp. ix + 292 with 121 illus- trations in the text. Columbia University Press: New York, 1913. Revised Edition, 1914. 194 There is an interesting discussion of the various types of accessory organs of repro- duction which serve to bring the spermatozoa and ova together and of the secondary sexual characters which distinguish males and females such as brilliant colors, instinets and behavior in courtship. ‘In man courtship may be an involved affair....Nowhere in the animal kingdom do we find such a mighty display; and clothes as ornaments excel the most elaborate developments of secondary sexual characters of creatures lower in the seale.”’ With remarkable clearness and brevity the author presents the facts of the complicated structure of the germ-cells, their origin, maturation, union in fertilization, the way in which sex is determined and the mechanism of hereditary transmission. He accepts un- reservedly the view that sex is determined at the time of fertilization; if the egg is fertilized by one type of spermatozo6n a male is produced, if by the other type a female results. He also holds that the evidence is “almost convincing in favor of the view that the chromosomes are the essential bearers of the hereditary qualities.’ In favor of the chromosomal theory of heredity he pre- sents evidences drawn from cytology, from experiment and from sex-linked inheritance. The latter is a type of inheritance, first clearly distinguished by Morgan, in which characters are transmitted to male or female offspring in exactly the way in which certain chromo- somes are transmitted. On the other hand in sex-limited inheritance “the secondary sexual characters appear in one sex only and are not transferable to the other sex without an operation.” After discussing the principles of inherit- ance discovered by Mendel the author presents the results of his own work on the inheritance of sex-linked characters in the fruit fly. This is perhaps the most important part of this book, as it is one of the most valuable contributions to the study of hered- ity which has been made in recent years. The author concludes “that when inheritance factors lie in different chromosomes they freely assort and give the Mendelian expecta- tion; but when they lie in the same chromo- some they may be said to be linked and they give departures from the Mendelian ratios.” Inasmuch as factors which usually lie in different chromosomes may sometimes come to lie in-the-same chromosome, Morgan has suggested that when the maternal and pater- nal chromosomes pair in the maturation _ stages of the egg or spermatozoo6n, the chro- mosomes of each pair may actually fuse at certain points where they cross each other and thus portions of the chromosomes with their factors exchange places. With this interesting hypothesis as a basis he has been able by means of his breeding experiments with fruit flies to plot the location of particu- lar inheritance factors in individual chro- mosomes. This work, although in many re- spects hypothetical, is well supported by evidence and it is probably the most impor- tant work ever done on the “architecture of the germ-plasm.”’ A large number of cases are presented in which the sexes differ in color, form or habit and the inadequacy of Darwin’s theory of sexual selection to account for these second- ary sexual characters is generally admitted. Similarly it is shown that the selection of continuous variations, or of what might better be called non-inherited variations, is of no evolutionary significance. Even in the case of discontinuous or hereditary variations the author shows that natural selection plays no part in the formation of these variations. The effects on secondary sexual characters CROCKER LAND EXPEDITION 195 of the removal and of the transplantation of ovaries or testes are described in the fifth chapter and the conclusion is reached that “the secondary sexual characters in four great groups, viz., mammals, birds, crustacea and insects are not on the same footing.”’ Those interesting cases in which both sexes are united in the same individual or in which eggs develop without being fertilized are treated at some length in the sixth chapter, and here as everywhere else Morgan draws to a large extent upon his own researches. In the chapter on fertility and sterility many scattered and diverse observations are summarized, though the facts cannot at present be satisfactorily generalized or ex- plained. The last chapter deals with special cases of sex-inheritance, such as sex in bees, peculiar forms of sex-linked inheritance in fruit flies, and the sex ratios in birds, frogs and man. This book was written on the firing lines, as it were, of biological science and it deals with many matters which are not finally settled. It is inevitable that such a book should encounter differences of opinion on the part of other investigators in this field, but the author is peculiarly happy in his manner of presentation. He writes as one who is convinced and yet tolerant and open- minded. His style is brief, keen, attractive, and best of all in a scientific work he shows a thorough, first-hand acquaintance with the phenomena described, and sound judgment and good imagination in dealing with them. _NOTE ON THE CROCKER LAND EXPEDITION SHIP By George H. Sherwood Acting Chairman of the Committee in Charge that it has chartered the ‘“‘George B. Cluett ” for the purpose of trans- porting to New York the members of the ex- pedition party which went north in 1913 on the chartered ship “Diana.” The ‘“Cluett” is a three masted auxiliary schooner owned by the Grenfell Association and used by it for carrying hospital and food supplies from St. Johns, Newfoundland, to the various mission stations along the coast of Labrador. The “Cluett” was launched on July 1, 1911, and HE Committee in Charge of the Crocker Land Expedition announces is one hundred and thirty-five feet over all. She is well built and heavily timbered and is to be “‘fortified’’ as a further protection against the ice before starting on her journey northward. The “Cluett” will leave Battle Harbor about the first week in July, go directly to Etah, there taking on board the members of the expedition party, their collections and equipment, and will return to New York some time during September. Captain George Comer of East Haddam, Connecticut, has been engaged by the Committee to serve as ice 196 pilot and as a Museum representative on the ship. Captain Comer has had many years’ experience in the ice fields of Hudson Bay and the Committee has the utmost confidence in his ability to guide the ship safely through the ice of Baffin Bay, land at Etah and start on the homeward journey before the winter ice begins to form. The Crocker Land Expedition, as will be remembered, was organized under the aus- pices of the American Museum of Natural History and the American Geographical Society with the codperation of the Univer- sity of Illinois. Its staff, consisting of Donald B. MacMillan, leader and ethnologist; Fitz- hugh Green, U. 8. N., engineer and physicist; W. Elmer Ekblaw, geologist and botanist; Maurice C. Tanquary, zoélogist; Harrison J. Hunt, surgeon; Jerome Lee Allen, wireless operator; and Jonathan Small, mechanic, has been in the Arctic for nearly two years. The party sailed from the Brooklyn Navy Yard on July 2, 1913, in the ‘‘Diana’”’ and stopped at Boston and Sydney, Nova Scotia, for addi- tional supplies. After leaving Sydney, how- ever, much ice was encountered in the Strait of Belle Isle and in a dense fog on the morn- ing of July 17, the ship went fast aground on Barge Point, Labrador. The ‘Diana’ was finally pulled off the rocks and returned to St. Johns where the equipment and supplies THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL were transferred to the ‘‘Erik” in which ves- sel the party safely continued its northward trip. It was found necessary to make the headquarters at Etah, North Greenland, in- stead of on Ellesmere Land as originally planned and it was there that the party spent the long Arctic nights of the winter of 1913- 14. In November of last year the Museum, through the kindness of Mr. Knud Ras- mussen, the Danish explorer, received word that Mr. MacMillan accompanied by Ensign Green had made the one hundred and twenty- five mile dash northwest from Cape Thomas Hubbard across the ice of the Polar Sea in search for Crocker Land but that they had found that Crocker Land did not exist, at least within the range originally ascribed to it. According to the original plans, the expedi- tion is exploring and mapping the Greenland ice cap this spring and will later return to headquarters at Etah to await the coming of the ship chartered for the return to New York. The Committee begs to call the attention of the friends of the expedition to the urgent need that exists for additional funds to help defray the cost of sending this relief ship northward. The unfortunate wrecking of the ‘‘Diana” with its incident expenses has been a heavy burden and additional subscrip- tions are earnestly desired. MUSEUM NOTES Tue frontispiece of this issue of the JOURNAL is a photograph of the marble bust of John Burroughs, naturalist and author, made by Mr. C. 8. Pietro and presented to the Museum by Mr. Henry Ford. The bust has been put on exhibition at an appropriate season — April, the month of reawakening nature and return of the birds — and in an appropriate part of the Museum, the local bird hall. April 3, the anniversary of the birth of John Burroughs, has been made a national “bird day” in Utah and was cele- brated as a bird day for 1915"in New York and various other states. A bird day bulletin to the New York public schools, decorated with a portrait of the great horned owl in color by Louis Agassiz Fuertes was sent out March 25 from the State Educa- tion Department of the University of the State of New York. The bulletin was prepared by the three authors of the State Museum memoir, Birds of New York, and is endorsed by Dr. John H. Finley in the fol- lowing words, ‘‘If these suggestions are gener- ally followed, the State will be made richer by many millions and a great source of human happiness will be kept at our doors.” Mr. James P. CxHapin of the Museum’s Congo Expedition, after a six years’ absence in Africa, arrived in New York March 30 by way of England. He brings the details of the wonderful success of the expedition, not only in the work of a scientific survey but also in having lived without mishap for the”ex- tended period of six years amidst the dangers of the equatorial forest and among the negro races of Central Africa— a success due in part to’ the cordial coéperation of the Belgian government. Mr. Chapin brings with him eR ee ee ae Ee 8 Ca ss ee : F i about one-fourth of the expedition’s collec- tions. The balance remains in the hands of Mr. Lang, leader of the expedition, who also will come out of the Congo immediately after the final work ing and shipment is The entire collection numbers some 16,000 specimens of vertebrates alone, 6000 of which are birds and 5000 mammals. The specimens are accompanied by some 4000 pages of descriptive matter and 6000 photo- graphs. It includes full material and careful studies for museum groups of the okapi, the giant eland and white rhinoceros, besides many specimens of lions, elephants, giraffes, _ buffaloes, bongos, situtungas, yellow-backed duikers, black forest pigs, giant manis and chimpanzees. The ethnological section of the collection is rich in specimens of native art of the Congo including several hundred objects of carved ivory, a revelation as to the capacities of the Congo uneducated negro. There are also ‘seventy plaster casts of native faces from the Logo, Azande, Avungura, Mangbetu, Bangba, Anadi, Abarambo, Mayoho, Ma- budu, Medje, Mobali and Pygmy tribes. Each cast is supplemented by a series of photographie studies of the individual. _ Mr. Chapin will take up again his zodlogi- cal studies at Columbia University and will retain his connection with the American Museum as assistant in ornithology. In this position he will work up for publication the 6000 Congo birds of the new collection which in point of preservation as well as size and number of specimens new to the Ameri- can Museum, surpasses any collection that has ever been secured by the institution. THERE is on exhibition in the west as- sembly hall for the month of April a series of photographic transparencies illustrating cer- tain noteworthy features of the work of Professor Percival Lowell and his staff at the Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona. The series shows, first, the Observatory, the great 24-inch telescope, and following, the spectra of the Moon, Jupiter and other planets. Of special interest are the photographs showing various aspects of Mars, including the much discussed “canal system.’’ These are sup- plemented by drawings by Professor Lowell which illustrate the vegetation on Mars and the condition of the snow-caps at the north and south poles. Perhaps the most striking of the series is the large photograph of MUSEUM NOTES 197 Halley’s Comet, which includes not only the comet itself, but the stars drawn into lines on account of following the comet with the camera, the planet Venus, and lastly a meteor which chanced to pass directly across the plate during the exposure. Photographs of the Moon show the craters and the shadows of the great crater walls which rise almost vertically 10,000 to 15,000 feet. As the transparencies are brilliantly illuminated in a darkened room, it gives the effect of looking at the sky itself. “Orictn and Meaning of some Funda- mental Earth Structures” was the subject recently discussed by Professor Charles P. Berkey of Columbia University in the Jesup lectures for 1915. The course consisted of eight lectures and opened with a discussion of the origin and nature of the earth. The nebular and meteoric hypotheses of the origin of the earth were contrasted with the later and now widely accepted view that the earth has been built up by the slow accretion of planetesimals, or fragments of a disrupted sun that was the parent of the whole solar system. Reasons for the existence of elevated areas and basin-like depressions, namely of the continents and oceans, were discussed; these elevations and depressions and the move- ments of the earth’s crust were all traced back to gravitational forces, which were manifested in earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain-forming uplifts, and submergences, all due eventually to the balancing of conti- nents and oceans against each other (isostasy). The place and work of volcanic activity and the agencies and forces involved in the metamorphosis of rocks were treated, with constant reference to rock structure and to the cycles of transformation from sedimentary to metamorphic and igneous structures and the reverse. All this was finally applied to the interpretation of local geology and to such practical matters as foundation work, tunneling work, water supply and the quali- ties of structural material. The Jesup lectures, which are Columbia University lectures given in codperation with the American Museum, form an important medium for the presentation in concise form of scientific progress. The first course of the series was given by Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn in 1907, his subject being the “Evolution of the Horse.” In the second series (1909) Professor Richard C. 198 Maclaurin presented ‘‘Newton’s Experi- ments and Contributions to Optical Theory.” In 1911 Professor Frederic 8. Lee lectured on “Scientific Features of Modern Medicine,” and in 1913, Professor T. H. Morgan sum- marized recent advances in the study of “Heredity and Sex.” The Jesup lectures are being published by the Columbia Univer- sity Press. Since the last issue of the JourNaL the following persons have become members of the Museum: Annual Members, Mrs. Frreprric N. Gop- DARD, Mrs. Evrrarp B. Hopwoop, Mrs. C. D. Jackson, Mrs. Samurt W. Wetss, the Misses Lemna S. Frissett, MArGArRET W. Watson, His Excrenttency, IRA NELSON Morris, Dr. HERMANN FISCHER AND Messrs. LarHror Brown, G. E. CHapin, J. WARREN CuTLER, ALBERT DE Roope, SAMUEL JAcKSON, Rospert E. NOLKER, Emit T. PALMENBERG, FRANK H. Parsons, WILLARD ScuDDER AND F. B. Wrsora. “Men of the Old Stone Age”’ was the topic at the April 12th meeting of the Academy of Sciences. Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn presented some of the chief results of his synthetic work on this subject and made special acknowledgments of the codperation of the following archzologists, anatomists and geologists: Messieurs l’Abbé Breuil, Cartailhac, Obermaier, MacCurdy, Nelson, MacGregor, Starr, Penck, Reeds. He exhib- ited a chart illustrating the successive ad- vances and retreats of the glacial ice in Europe and the corresponding succession of mammalian faunas and races of man. I[llus- trations of the skeletal remains of the palao- lithic races were then passed in review. Professor J. Howard MacGregor then exhibited his remarkably lifelike and accu- rate series of busts of prehistoric men. He explained the methods adopted in building up corrected models of the skulls, from casts of the imperfect original specimens, and in restoring the flesh, from data secured by dissection of recent types. Dr. A. Hrdliéka, formerly of this Museum and now of the National Museum, was‘ present and took part in the discussion. ADMIRAL Prary’s Arctic ship, the “ Roose- velt,”” has been sold and after it has been fitted with oil-burning machinery and other improvements, will be used by the Bureau of Fisheries in the Department of Commerce THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL and Labor in connection with the fisheries service in Alaskan waters. The ‘“ Roosevelt” was the ship used by Admiral Peary on the expeditions in which he reached the “farthest north’? record in 1906 and the North Pole in 1909, and was built expressly for the pur- pose in the spring of 1905. It is to be remem- bered that Apri] 6 marks the sixth anni- versary of the discovery of the North Pole. A LIFE-size model of the beautiful Portu- guese man-of-war (Physalia arethusa), a remarkable product of the glass-blower’s and colorist’s skill, has recently been installed in the Darwin hall. The Portuguese man-of- war is not a single animal as might be sup- posed from its appearance, but a colony of animals in which the phenomenon of division of labor is most strikingly exemplified. One of the individuals in the colony is specialized to act as a float. The other individuals are attached to it, pendant from the lower surface. Some of them have mouths and feed for the entire colony; others are sensory in function and have no mouths; still others are armed with rows of stinging cells and form the offensive and defensive members of the colony; and still others can neither feed nor fight but are the reproductive individuals. The colony as a whole, the “ Portuguese man-of-war,” floats on the surface of the sea, especially in warmer regions, but is often brought north upon the Gulf Stream and drifts in upon the New England coast. Cer- tain of the individuals making up the colony, those armed with the most powerful stinging cells, extend as long retractile streamers into the depths of the sea, at times to a length of forty feet. These also act as a drag anchor and keep the head of the float to wind- ward. The coloration of the animal is strik- ingly beautiful, varying from deep cerulean blue through deepest purple to brilliant car- mine. In the West Indies it is often seen floating in large squadrons on the sea. Apropos of the ever-widening scope of the lecture work which is being carried on by the Museum’s department of education, it is interesting to note that a course similar to the Museum’s Saturday morning stories for the children of members was inaugurated this year in Cleveland, Ohio. Mr. George H. Sherwood gave the introductory lecture of the series which included lectures by Mr. R. W. Miner, Mr. R. C. Andrews, Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes and Mr. Albert H. Pratt. MODEL OF THE PORTUGUESE MAN-OF-WAR An animal, or more exactly speaking, a colony of animals, that floats at the surface of warm seas. The transparent ‘‘float,’”’ blue, purple and crimson tinted, sails before the wind, trailing long retractile filaments. Preparation of model by Mr. H. Miiller, glass blower, and Mr. S. Shimotori, colorist, of the American Museum Model on exhibition in the Darwin hall 00 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Tue Hopi Indian group in the Southwest Indian hall has been completed and is now open to the public for inspection. This group aims to present a unified complete picture of pueblo life as illustrated in the home and industrial life of the Hopi Indians. The foreground is the roof of a Hopi dwelling, which is the center of daily life for the Hopi home. Here are shown life-size character- istic figures of Hopi men and women at their respective occupations: the men spinning and weaving, the women making baskets and pot- tery. In the background is the village of Walpi, on the end of the first Hopi mesa, with the village of Sichumovi in the distance. The group was designed and executed by Howard McCormick, an artist already dis- tinguished for his paintings of scenes of the Southwest, and the figures were modeled by Mahonri M. Young, who codperated with Mr. McCormick in the planning of the group. It is the first anthropological group con- structed by the Museum at all comparable to the bird groups for which the institution has become famous, and marks the turning point in the development of the anthropological exhibits. An opening view of the Hopi group was given to friends of the Museum on April 8 and was preceded by an exhibit of motion pictures taken by Mr. McCormick illustrat- ing many phases of Hopi life which are represented in the group. Worp has been received from Mr. H. E. Anthony, who is making a collection of birds and mammals for the Museum in Panama, that on February 21, he reached the base of Mount Tacarcuna in eastern Panama where he is favorably situated for the projected explorations to Mount Tacarcuna. Ear ty in the spring of 1914 Lord William Percy of Northumberland, England, under the auspices of the American Museum, joined the revenue cutter ‘‘Bear’’ on an expedition to the coasts of Alaska and Siberia for the purpose of securing water birds and especially Fisher’s eiderduck. While Lord Percy was still in Alaska the ‘ Bear” chanced to take by wireless a message which gave the news of the war. Lord Percy, who is a reserve member of the Grenadier Guards, left the ship immediately, made arrangements for transportation to Seattle and arrived in New York about a month afterward, and from there sailed immediately to join his regiment at the front. Since that time occasional letters with personal facts of the war have come to New York. He was in France for four months. At one time the English troops were stationed only one hundred yards from those of the Germans and as he ex- pressed it, ‘‘For us the war consists of shell- ing and shooting at the Germans all day and all night and of being shot at and shelled by them. It is not a very attractive\form of warfare.” A short time ago Lord Percy’s friends in the Museum learned that he had been wounded and had lain for several hours in a shell-hole before he received medical attention. We are glad to learn that his wound, although serious, will probably admit of an early recovery. MopeEts have recently been installed in the hall of public health illustrating how the mosquitoes which transmit diseases are con- trolled upon the Isthmus of Panama. One model is a street scene which shows a disin- fecting squad at work destroying yellow fever in the houses where the disease has occurred. A second model illustrates the burning of grass and the oiling of ditches to destroy malaria mosquitoes in open country. Mr. Leo E. Miter writes from South America that he has completed his work in Antioquia and on March 30 sailed from Barranquilla to Colon en route to Bolivia, where it is proposed to inaugurate a zodlogical survey similar to that which the Museum has conducted in Colombia for the past five years. . Mr. Miller’s collections amounting to two thousand birds and mammals have been re- ceived and make an exceedingly important addition to the Museum’s Colombian collec- tions. Tue Librarian would be glad to receive back numbers of the JouRNAL, even those of quite recent date, as they are frequently asked for by libraries and other institutions desiring to complete volumes. THE government of Porto Rico has made the second annual appropriation of five thousand dollars for the continuance of the scientific survey of the island under the auspices of the New York Academy of Sciences in coéperation with the American Museum and other institutions. Several members of the Museum staff will be engaged in this work during the coming months. 20] THe American Museum Journat VoLuME XV MAY, 1915 NuMBER 5 CONTENTS Cover, “The White Gyrfalcon” From a painting by Louis Agassiz Fuertes IS a IRS a ra ea eg eee 202 Witiiam T. Hornapay, Director of the Zodlogical Park of the New York Zoblogical Society and advocate of wild animal protection Heresert Lana, Leader of the Congo expedition of the American Museum James P. Cuapin, recently returned to America after six years field study in the Congo Louis Acassiz Furrres, portrait painter of birds. Frontispiece, Johnny Penguins Climbing to the Rookery.................... 206 Scene photographed in the Antarctic by Robert Cushman Murphy Seem oma Water on Mars...................5......5. Percival LowE.i 207 Observations, direct photographs and spectrograms made through a long period of years at the Flagstaff Observatory, tending to prove the presence on Mars of oxygen and water vapor, the two great requisites for life mumermonoerann in Astronomy.....................:...... E. C. SuipHer 211 Illustrated with a series of remarkable direct photographs and spectrograms of celestial bodies Louis Agassiz Fuertes — Painter of Bird Portraits. ..... FranK M. CHAPMAN 221 With an insert in duotone from photographs of eight of Fuertes’ bird portraits and decorative panels The Penguins of South Georgia.................. Rosert CusHMAN Murpuy 225 A close study of the life history and habits of the ‘‘Johnnies,’’ with many illustrations from photographs by Mr. Murphy — The article will be continued in the October Journat, in the story of a friendly acquaintance with the ‘‘kings"’ Muropean Caves and Early Man........................... N. C. NELSON 237 Description of a visit to the shelters and painted caves of Europe, with a view to reproduction in the American Museum of one of these antique haunts of man cece ctw tee tees L. Hussakor 249 Volcanoes of the Lesser Antilles..................... Epmunp Ortts Hovey 254 Ground-Sloth from a Cave in Patagonia.................... W. D. Marruew 256 Somaikoli Dance at Sichumovi......................... F. S. DELLENBAUGH 256 em a SG ites so uc epee Fbes'4 + gue boa eee 258 Mary Cyrnraia Dickerson, Editor Published monthly from October to May by the American Museum of Natural History, at the Cosmos Press, Cambridge, Mass. Terms: one dollar and a half per year, twenty cents per copy. Entered as second-class matter January 12, 1907, at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., Act of Congress, July 16, 1894, Subscriptions should be addressed to the AMericAN Museum Journal, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the Museum, WILLIAM T. HORNADAY The Director of the Zoélogical Park of the New York Zodlogical Society has no doubt inaugurated and carried to success more movements for the protection of wild animal life than has any other man in America. We owe to him the Wichita and Montana national bison herds, Elk River Game Preserve of British Columbia, and Snow Creek Game Preserve of Montana. He drafted the Bayne Law which since 1912 has prevented the sale of native wild game, as well as the law which since 1913 has prevented all impor- tation of wild birds’ plumage for milliners’ use. His name is connected also with saving the fur-seal industry. As to his effort to put such protective work on a permanent finan- cial basis for the future, see further mention on page 260 202 HERBERT LANG Mr. Lang, as leader for the past six years of the American Museum’s expedi- tion to the Belgian Congo, has traveled some three thousand miles under an equa- torial sun, and for the most part with heavily loaded caravans, to accomplish the remarkable success achieved in the collection of zodlogical specimens and study of Congo native tribes. Mr. Lang still remains in Africa to attend to the final pack- ing and shipment of specimens (This photograph of Mr. Lang was made before he sailed for Africa six years ago] 203 JAMES P. CHAPIN Mr. Chapin has returned to New York after six years of tramping through African jungles as a member of the Congo expedition of the American Museum, during which time he secured the largest and most valuable collection of Congo birds ever brought together {Mr. Chapin will contribute to the next number of the Journat an article on his experi- ences in collecting birds in Africa] ~~ ba ae OPS ES ERS LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES A portrait painter of wild birds who bases his work on an intimate sy mpathetie study of the subject in nature and succeeds in portraying the character of the bird in addition to its externa! appearance. He is an illustrator of technical and popular books as well as a painter of decorative canvases of considerable size 205 Sma : es Mook JOHNNY PENGUINS CLIMBING TO THE ROOKERY The Johnnies make their homes on the summits of the windy shelterless ridges and trudge gravely back and forth to the sea where they get their food. Broad beaten thoroughfares show the effect of the pattering of little leathery feet through many generations —‘‘ The Penguins of South Georgia,’ page 225 206 THe AmericAN Museum JourRNAL Votume XV ~— en MAY, 1915 NUMBER 5 OXYGEN AND WATER ON MARS By Percival Lowell Director of the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona canals of Mars, perhaps the most vitally interesting photograph in the recent work of the Lowell Observa- tory is a spectrogram of Mars by Dr. V. M. Slipher, disclosing to the average ob- server merely a darkening of one of the spectral lines (a) to the red end of this spectrum over the same line in the col- lateral spectrum of the moon. But to scientific insight this bit of glass is other- wise transparent. For the slight differ- ence in tone between these identically positioned lines in the two photographs means all the difference between life and death. It reveals the fact that water-vapor is present in the atmos- phere of Mars. The moon, an almost absolutely airless body, delivers us the sun’s rays unaffectedly and the absorp- tion line in question in its spectrum is caused by water-vapor in our own air. Indeed the spectrum of the moon is simply the spectrum of the sun plus that of the earth, the moon acting only the self-effacing part of a mirror. But in the Martian spectrum the sun’s rays have passed in addition through that planet’s air and in so doing reveal of what it stands composed. The empha- sis it lays upon this line indicates that water, without which all life, vegetal or animal, is impossible, exists upon our neighbor, even as it does here. Nor is this all that this spectrogram dis- N EXT to the photographs of the closes. In the able hands of Professor F. W. Very, measurements of the intensity of another line (B) have revealed the presence of oxygen too, in that other world. Here then we have demonstra- tion that both of the chief substances necessary to life are present on Mars. This evidence was obtained several years ago at a most propitious time, be- cause at the time and place when the earth’s air happened to be particularly dry, thus permitting of accentuated contrast. In addition to this however, spectrograms taken by Dr. Slipher more recently, have added to it in an unlooked- for way. Our air, on this latter occasion, was unavoidably more moisture-laden and little was hoped for from the spec- trograms beyond a faint corroboration of previous results. When behold, not only did measurement of intensities dis- close both water-vapor and oxygen on Mars as before, but these intensities were such as fitted the changed terrestrial conditions, thus adding to qualitative proof, quantitative proof as well. And both fitted in with the Martian meteor- ology which visual study of that planet has shown us must exist. Even this is not the limit of the infor- mation conveyed by these communi- cative lines. In Dr. Slipher’s latest results, four plates were taken so varied that in two the air above the equatorial regions of Mars was examined, in two 207 THE GREAT REFRACTINC TELESCOPE, LOWELL OBSERVATORY This is well known because of the perfection of its great lens and because of the important dis- coveries made through its use, concerning Mars, Saturn, Jupiter, Uranus and other planets, the stars, comets and nebule. Constructed by Alvan Clark and Sons, Cambridgeport, Massachusetts 208 OXYGEN AND WATER ON MARS others the polar atmosphere. The polar snow-cap was then in process of melting and the plates showed that the band in the Martian spectrum, denoting enty per cent in the planet’s polar regions and but sixteen per cent in the equa- torial over what the band showed in our own. Furthermore, Professor Very remarks about one of the polar plates “there is a brighter streak of continu- ous spectrum, corresponding to a region of melting snow or of clouds, which gives a larger intensification of a (the water- vapor band) than the associated dark streak, when these are measured sepa- rately. The diversity of intensification appertains to a exclusively —a_ has changed by nearly fifty per cent and this change is certainly Martian.” He con- cludes by saying with regard to oxygen that with the higher altitude of Mars in 209 the later results, the oxygen interposed by the earth’s atmosphere being less by one-half an atmosphere, he found the fifteen per cent due to Mars in his earlier measures increased to twenty-four per cent in his later ones, “proving again that this apparent intensification is also real, and is truly Martian, and indicat- ing that the actual amount of oxygen in the Martian atmosphere is about half as great as upon the earth.” Surprising as have been the disclosures due to spectroscopy, perhaps none is greater than that that instrument should inform us of the possibility of life upon another world, a_ possibility, which, combined with facts that visual observa- tion has revealed (size, mass, tempera- ture and lastly details of the canal-oasis system), amounts, viewed in the light of the doctrine of probabilities, to practical certainty of its existence there. Lge Ske Boe Sk F 5 Spectra of Mars and the moon. band of water-vapor. D C ee tee Photo by Dr. V. M-. Slipher The band marked a, well on the right of the spectra, is the In the case of the moon the light has traveled only through our own atmosphere, and in that of Mars through the Martian and our own. The difference in darkness shows that water- vapor exists in the atmosphere of Mars. This spectrogram shows also that oxygen exists on Mars, by comparing the line B, oxygen, with C, hydrogen, in the sun for relative intensities. Its presence was found by very careful measurements by Professor Very with his devised comparator, at the time he evaluated the amount of water-vapor in the Martian air O1Z ‘UOISUIYSeM “VIN JO doy oy ueyy J9q 3m ‘N $ ZT o€€ ‘Opngye, pue'M TTP oT TL opnqrsuoy Uy S[ ‘euoziIy ‘yeysseyq ‘A109eArasqC TIo Mc AdOOSATSL ONILOVYSSY HONI-b2 3HL 4O JWOG SHL SoHIOAOOSTP [RUOHdoox9 AUBUT oTqIssod eYeUI 04 pedjey sey UOMRI0] SIT, qeey PUBSNOY} oUO ‘Jo0J OSTZ JO OPNIN[e ue 4e poyRoOT St 47 ry Saturn, photographed by Dr. Lowell, March 12, 1915, showing the ring open to its widest extent THE PHOTOGRAPH IN ASTRONOMY By E. C. Slipher? Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona URING the last two decades the application of photography to researches in astronomy and ‘in other sciences as well, has been fraught with numerous important advances. Through its use in astronomy we have facts which have ‘learned new confirmed or refuted the old theories many and created new scientific belief; and furthermore photography furnishes per- manent pictorial record of the evidence, accurate and incontestable, that all may see and believe. No argument carries a conviction equal to that gained by seeing the thing oneself. Excellent photographs of the great planet Jupiter have been made through the 24-inch refracting telescope of the Lowell Observatory, Flagstaff, Arizona. They show at a glance the conspicuous belted appearance of the visible surface— probably the zoned formation of the vari- ous gases of a very dense atmosphere beneath which we seldom if ever see — and innumerable, finer, wisplike mark- 1 Mr. E. C. Slipher has been directly associated with Dr. Lowell in his work on Mars at the Flag- staff Observatory for many years. He has gone also on various expeditions, among them one to Alianza, Chile, in 1907, to observe Mars ings interlacing the belts. Photographs of the planet showing different longitudes present a varied aspect of these belts, and the photographs taken in different years indicate many evident chaotic changes there. Across the ball of the planet Saturn there will be noted in the photographs quite similar although less pronounced beltlike markings paralleling the equator; this indicates a like condition of the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn. The unique rings about Saturn are re- markably well shown in photographs, with Cassini’s division distinctly visible all the way around, separating the two brighter rings. The third and inner ring -the filmy crépe ring —is too faint to show except where it crosses the ball, without an overexposure, although much of the original definition is lost in the enlarged reproductions due to the separation of the silver grains of the emulsion. It will be seen that the ball of Saturn shines through the outer ring where it crosses the planet on the lower side; this tells how very thin the rings are and evinces their meteoric constitu- tion. The definition of these planetary 211 Jupiter, September 23, 1914. small round bright spot against the sky. just crossed the face of the planet. spot. solar eclipse. scale and definition, is, as far as known, unique photographs where exposures of as much as thirty seconds were required, attest to the exceptional atmospheric conditions existing at Flagstaff. Although less picturesque than the direct photographs, the spectrographic observations are just as replete with revelations. After the light from a celestial object has passed through the prism of a spectrograph, many important facts are disclosed concern- ing it which would be impossible to learn by other means. It is from spectrum analysis that we obtain much of our knowledge of the density and constitution of planetary atmos- pheres;. of the motions, constituents and the states of stars, comets and The the Saturnian system shows the lines in nebule. spectrogram of the ball spectrum and those of the rings to be oppositely inclined show- ing that the rate of revolution differs for 212 ach part of the rings, thus pre- To the left of the planet is seen a This is Satellite IIT. On the extreme right of this face (the left of the photograph) is its shadow just entering on the disk. It denotes an eclipse of the sun taking place for Jupiter at that point. Some distance to the right of the planet is shown another round bright This is Satellite I, soon to transit the disk and cause another This plate, securing both planet and satellites on such a senting a direct demon- stration of the fact first found mathematically, that the ring system is composed of disjoined particles. In the spec- trum of the planet Ve- nus the absence of in- of the shows its diurnal rota- clination lines tion to be exceedingly slow, which confirms the early observations of Schiaparelli and Dr. Lowell who found its day and year to be Ithas equal. This causes Ve- nus to present always the day of the same face to The Uranus was unknown, sun. due to the absence of any marked surface 1912. It is as seen in a tele- Saturn, December 23, scope magnifying about 1400 times, thus covering an area approximately 200 times that of the moon to the naked eye. Cassini’s division is the dark gap separat- ing the two bright rings. The inner or crépe-ring is visible where seen against the ball of the planet. Saturn’s belts are a counterpart of Jupiter’s; both planets are in a ‘‘youthful chaotic state, swathed in cloud’”’ THE PHOTOGRAPH IN detail from which it could be deduced, until photographs of its spectrum made at Flagstaff in 1910 and 1911 revealed for it a retrograde rotation which it accomplishes in a day of about ten and three-fourths hours. It is from a similar analysis of their light that the motions of stars and nebule are found. The incandescent condition of these bodies makes it possible to ascertain the identity of the substances of which they consist; and by a com- parison of their spectra with that of our sun, some knowledge is obtained of their state of evolution. Many startling dis- coveries result from these investigations, especially in case of some of the nebule whose velocities of approach or recession are so great as almost to defy belief, reaching in several instances, one thou- sand kilometers per second. ASTRONOMY bo —_ In one case at least, that of the nebula in Virgo, Dr. V. M. Slipher has detected the rotation of this great mass by the Another interesting and unique spectrographic inclined lines of its spectrum. discovery is that the wisplike nebula in the Pleiades in all probability shines by reflected light received from relatively near by stars. This is the only known example of a nebula that shines by any but its own light. Direct photographs of the great Hal- ley’s Comet and Comet a 1910 show details and the remarkable structural great length of their tails which stretch from thirty to fifty degrees or the sky. The the tails of these comets more across cloudlike streamers in indicate something of the the rapid flow away from head of the mingled meteoric and gaseous material, and In order to secure Jupiter, August 11, 1913 advisable, since our air is never at its best for long plate first laterally and then up and down. Wet more one photograph corroborates another 214 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL particularly in case of Comet a 1910 in the tail gives evidence of solar forces the curved, fanlike form of the matter repelling them. The dark-line nebula in the constellation Virgo. Photographed with the 40-inch reflector, April 18, 1911. An object of unusual interest on account of its rapid motion — 600 miles per second in the line of sight — and also because it is the first nebula for which rotation about an axis and proper-motion have been observed The ‘‘dumb-bell’’ nebula in the constellation Vulpecula. Photo- graphed with the 40-inch reflector of the Lowell Observatory Both slit and slit- less prismatic photo- graphs of Halley’s, Gale’s, Brook’s and other comets of recent years, segregate and make known the va- rious constituents. In this analysis the prism differentiates the con- stitution of the head and tail, and even the substances composing different streamers in the tail can be iden- tified. In general, comet spectra are quite similar; they show the _ existence, usually, of cyanogen, sodium and_ hydro- carbons in the head while carbon mon- oxide and solid sun- lit particles produce mainly comet tails. The spectrograph serves also as a ba- rometer which enables one to read many of the existing conditions of planetary atmos- pheres. It tells us that Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are surrounded by very dense atmos- pheres and that the densities of these in- crease with the dis- tances of the planets from thesun. It was by this means that evidence has_ been secured at the Lowell Photo by C. O. Lampland COMET a 1910 One of a series of direct photographs taken at Lowell Observatory 215 Globe of Mars, longitude 270°, 1909. Dr. wane, have what appears to be a ‘‘live’’ and a ‘‘dead’’ season. From drawing by Percival Lowell Lowell has discovered that the canals of Mars wax and They are thought to be strips and oases of vegetation sustained by the waters of melting solar snow-caps, distributed through canals constructed by intelligent beings Observatory, that not only does Mars have an atmosphere, although less dense than the earth’s, but that it contains the essential life-supporting substances, oxygen and water-vapor. Photographs by Mr. C. O. Lampland taken with the great reflecting telescope of forty inches aperture, at the Lowell Observatory, show star clusters contain- ing almost countless suns similar to our that their light travels hundreds of years to reach us; own, but so distant as well as examples of the different classes of nebule 216 presenting unique and interesting forms. Also, photo- graphs of our moon show clearly the great craters many times larger than any on the earth, and mountains which rise to a height of ten thousand feet or more. What has created most interest, how- ever, are the non-pareil photographs of the Martian canals — the possible in- genious handiwork of intelligent beings. These peculiar markings characteristic of Mars only, were first detected in 1877, by the eminent Italian astronomer, Schiaparelli. Because of similarity of Mars, longitude 90°, 1909. 0G . valli nore j Arad a | From drawing by Percival Lo vell These drawings agree with the photographs taken of the planet. al- though made independently without any knowledge of what the photographs would show, some of the latter having been taken indeed at a station in Chile seven thousand miles away color and of their connection with the large dark green regions, which were then generally supposed to be lakes and , Schiaparelli was led to believe them to be rivers or channels dividing the continents, and thus they received from the 1892 the same linear markings were found to of Mars, and it him name canale. In invade also the “seas”’ that these canals remained permanent. the positions of This disproved the existence of the supposed was found too seas. Then it was soon discovered by Dr. Lowell that the canals waxed and waned, that they had a “live” and “dead” season and thus he announced, in 1894, the theory that the canals and lakes of Mars were not water but strips and oases of vegetation sustained by the waters of the melting polar snow-caps, and distributed over the arid planet by an artificial canal system constructed by intelligent beings. As time passes and our knowledge of Mars increases, this theory becomes more and more probable. It satisfies all the facts brought out by observation and changes accounts for the remarkable STG pourunojop AjoyBmooe oq Ud AVP S,doqIdn¢ JO YYSUT OY} Sout] oY} JO FURS SIA ‘ioyidne JO uomejor prdea oy} JO oouUoNbesuOd ut ‘aspo do} oy} 9% 4Jo] OY} 09 UVe, WMAQOedS JoyIdNE 949 UT SouT] YAVp ay, “Whajzoods uosyredu0d ey} Jo ere wN.Q0eds 1091dN LF 9} JO SeSpo AVMOT pue Joddn oy} 9% soul) ISG oy, ‘o1oydsouye osuep AJOA B svy youRTd sty} 4eYQ UTee] OM ‘toZIdNE JO WURAZOIQOOdSs OY} WOLY ‘sjoulo0d pue wynqou ‘s1ejs JO syuENyYsUOD pue sUOWOU 9y} pu ‘sjyouRTd Jo soroyd ‘SBM JOYIO OU UL PaUIROT SUONR[OADI SOAIS Ydeasoujoeds w Jo wistad oY YSnosy) Sujssed Apo [eysofoo B WOIJ FYST SuLmsevour Ag -soulye of} JO UONNIMSUOD 94} UBUD OST], YALIdN’ JO WVHSOYLOAdS daydug Ww °A fq ojoyd THE PHOTOGRAPH IN ASTRONOMY occurring in the peculiar network of markings which geometrically thread - the planet’s surface. Critical and serial observations embracing years of study of the planet by the keen eye of Dr. Lowell have revealed a close connection between the melting of the polar snows and the intensification of the canal sys- tem. This development of the marks of vegetation follows the passing of the sun from one hemisphere of the planet over the other and is most intense during the Martian spring and summer seasons. Mars is in a more advanced stage of planetary evolution than the earth and it has but a meager supply remaining of either air or water. Dr. Lowell believes that the numerous linelike markings seen there are those of vegetation growing by an enforcedly constructed irrigation system. Two significant facts found by observation support his theory: first, . the marked geometric directness of the lines — no natural causes can account for them; second, the characteristic manner in which they develop with the seasons and the melting of the snow-caps. That the canals and oases do change markedly in intensity from time to time, is evidenced, directly and indirectly, by the observations of a number of astron- omers. The photographs of the planet also prove this. As far back as 1877 Schiaparelli observed their disappear- ance and subsequent reappearance which he attributed to the presence of Martian clouds but it is now known that clouds never occur on Mars sufficient to obscure such surface details. In fact clouds are very rarely indeed observed there and when they do appear, they are seen only as dust storms along the planet’s termi- nator. It is clear therefore that the changes he saw in the intensity of the canals were not apparent and due to clouds as he thought, but real and due to seasonal variations in the vegetation. ‘to end as a superstition. 219 Ever since Schiaparelli discovered the canals a spirit of skepticism, although not general, has existed regarding their reality and the observations of those who have seen them have met with consider- able criticism. Various theories have been advanced to explain them as illu- sions, but these theories suffered sure and sudden destruction when in 1905 Mr. Lampland with camera and methods of his own design first succeeded in photographing them. Subsequent im- provements of the method brought better results and during the succeeding oppo- sitions of the planet a majority of the canals and oases have left their imprint on the photographic plate. However it is to be remembered that seeing with the eye is almost instantaneous, while with the photographic emulsion frequently a time exposure is required. Because of this, and the fact that even in the most tranquil air the telescopic image remains quiet but for a very short period of time, the photographic image stands at a great disadvantage, being a poor average picture of the planet at that moment. The importance of these Martian discoveries has been indicated and em- phasized by the denunciation they have called forth. It is the old story over again of the reception of an advanced idea, the same intellectual inquisition which scouted the discovery by Roemer of the velocity of light, and refused publication to Mayer’s and then Helm- holtz’s detection of the law of the con- servation of energy. Every new idea in science, Huxley said, starts as a myth The very same cast of mind that rejected the conserva- tion of energy for publication in the best physical magazine of Berlin because of its supposed absurdity, when it was young, is proclaiming it, now that it is old, the greatest scientific advance of the nineteenth century. hs ale te 4 ; hs & FP. f Courtesy of D. Appleton and Company SOME OWL PORTRAITS Fuertes’ bird portraits, like those of a great-painter of men,.depict character.and.individuality.... 220 LOUIS AGASSIZ FUERTES— PAINTER OF BIRD PORTRAITS By Frank M. Chapman — _— a NT re OVE of birds as “ the most eloquent L expression of nature’s beauty, joy and freedom” is the rightful heri- tage of everyone who in one way or another hears the call of the outdoor world. But that inexplicable fascination for birds which awakens an instinctive uncontrollable response to the sight of their forms or the sound of their voices, which arouses a passionate desire to become familiar with them in their haunts and obtain an intimate insight into their ways, and which overcomes every obstacle until, at least in a meas- ure, this desire is gratified, is the gift of the gods which marks the true orni- thologist. In him the universal, if not always developed, love of birds is sup- plemented by the naturalist’s longing to discover the secrets of nature. Your true bird student, therefore, is a curious, and sometimes contradictory combina- tion of poet and scientist. Men in whom this taste and ambition combine to make birds the most signifi- cant forms of the animal world, are not numerous; but a great painter of birds must be primarily a man of this type. When therefore one considers how small is the chance that the essential attributes which make on the one hand an orni- thologist, on the other an artist, will be found in one individual, it is small won- der that the world has known so few real bird portrait painters. Artists who introduce into their can- vases birds as impossibly feathered as conventional angels, artists who paint birds with more or less accuracy of color and form and, more rarely, pose, have not been few in number; but the artists who paint bird portraits based on an intimate, sympathetic, loving study of their subject in nature, and who have the ability to express what they see and feel, can be counted on one’s fingers, and the name of Louis Agassiz Fuertes would be included before the second hand was reached. Fuertes in possession of a freshly captured specimen of some bird which was before unknown to him is, for the time, wholly beyond the reach of all sensations other than those occasioned by the specimen before him. His con- centration annihilates his surroundings. Color, pattern, form, contour, minute details of structure, all are absorbed and assimilated so completely that they be- come part of himself, and they can be reproduced at any future time with amazing accuracy. Less consciously, but no less thoroughly and effectively, does he store impressions of the bird’s appearance in life, its pose, mannerisms, characteristic gestures of wings, tail or crest, its facial expression — all are re- corded with surprising fidelity. This indeed is the keynote of Fuertes’ genius —for genius it is. His mind appears to be a delicately sensitized plate designed especially to catch and fix images of bird life; and of such images he has filed, and has at his finger tips for use, a countless number; for his oppor- tunities for field study have been greater than those of any other painter of birds. It has been my good fortune to be with Fuertes on many occasions when for the first time we met with some particularly interesting bicd in nature. At such times there was perhaps no very marked difference in the extent of our enthusiasm or the manner in which it was expressed ; 221 222 but all the time, subconsciously, Fuertes’ mental photographic processes were mak- ing record after record. At the moment not a line would be drawn or a note written, but so indelibly and distinctly was what he had seen, etched on his memory that it could later be visualized as clearly and faithfully as though the original were before him. Fuertes’ bird portraits, like those of a great portrait painter of men, depict not only those externals which can be seen by any observant person, but they reveal character. Examine, for instance, the drawings of owls’ faces, or the sketches of toucans which are reproduced in this connection, and note how much in- dividuality is expressed in each drawing. These pictures are instinct with life and differ from the work of the inexperienced or unsympathetic artist as a living bird differs from a stuffed one. Fuertes was born at Ithaca, where he now lives, in 1874. In 1897 he was graduated from Cornell, of which his father was director of the College of Civil Engineering. Drawing birds was with him as natural an outward evidence of an inward condition, as with most children spinning tops is an expression of an inherent love of play. Before his graduation he had made the illustrations for Florence Merriam Bailey’s Birding on a Bronco, and Mabel Osgood Wright’s and Elliot Coues’ Citizen Bird. It-was the encouragement he received from Coues that led him definitely to decide to become a painter of birds, and the immediate recognition his work re- ceived permitted him to give rein to the naturalist’s longing to see the birds of other lands. In 1898 therefore he went with Abbott H. Thayer, under whom he was studying, Gerald Thayer and Charles R. Knight, to Florida. The following year, as a member of the Harriman Expedition to THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Bering Sea, he had exceptional oppor- tunities to meet in life many boreal birds which had been studied by few, if any, bird artists. The reports of this ex- pedition contain some of the studies made on this trip. In 1901 he accom- panied a party of the Biological Survey into western Texas. In 1903 he studied in California and Nevada; in 1904 in Jamaica; and in 1909 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1902, 1907, 1908-11 and 1913, Fuertes acted as artist to the American Museum’s expeditions, which during these years made field studies and gathered material for habitat groups in the Museum from the Bahamas, Florida, Saskatchewan and Alberta, Yucatan, Mexico and Colombia. On these expeditions he has collected — about thirty-five hundred specimens which are beautifully prepared and fully labeled with data of special value to the artist, when necessary. These data are in the shape of color sketches of bill, feet, eyes, or other unfeathered areas, the colors of which disappear after death. Such studies can be obtained only from the living or freshly captured bird, and Fuertes’ collection of them is unique. As the artist of Museum expeditions, Fuertes has not only made sketches of the birds secured, but oil studies of the landscape selected as the panoramic background for the habitat group in which the birds were later to appear. In each instance these are accompanied by detailed color sketches of leaves and blossoms for the guidance of the pre- parator of the vegetation modeled for the group. Where birds appear in the background of the completed group, _ they are painted there by Fuertes him- self; and the landscapist who realizes his limitations gladly avails himself of this expert codperation. Thus we have in these groups (notably the flamingo ted | Qren Tove vw - (Avlatorharnphus) Reem Gyo, Yar iti, STUDIES OF SOUTH AMERICAN TOUCANS Fuertes’ opportunities for field study have been greater than those of any other his work on the bird groups in the American Museum he has studied in the Bahamas, Florida and Alberta, Yucatan, Mexico and Colombia GAatar. “Tedeae v. Pin losses J 224 group), paintings by this artist which to bird lovers of later generations will have all the interest a panoramic painting by Audubon of, for example, a flight of wild pigeons would have for us to-day. Because of the accuracy of his work, Fuertes is ever in demand as the illus- trator of technical and popular books and articles on ornithology. His con- tributions to publications of this nature amount to thousands of drawings; many of them have been adequately produced in color and through their wide circula- tion, they have exercised an educational influence of the highest importance. Such for example are the illustrations in Eaton’s great work on the Birds of New York, published by the State; those in the National Geographic Magazine, and the series appearing in Bird-Lore. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL In all of these illustrations everything is made subservient to the bird itself, which usually claims as large a share of the picture as it does of Fuertes’ atten- tion. But in a series of twenty-four large panels in oils, done for the library of Mr. Frederick F. Brewster of New Haven, the birds, chiefly water-fowl and shore birds, take their proper place in a series of strongly handled landscapes which reveal Fuertes’ art in a new aspect. With no sacrifice of his skill and insight as a painter of bird portraits, he has here placed his subjects in a setting which adds immeasurably to their beauty and to the appeal they make to the imagi- nation. These pictures, in the writer’s opinion, are Fuertes’ greatest achieve- ment and point the way for the develop- ment of his exceptional gifts. Peregrine falcon with bufflehead. Property of F. F. Brewster From painting by Fuertes. Property of the Artist BARRED OWL The ‘hoot owl” is still a fairly common bird in all of the wooded parts of eastern North America. Like most birds of prey, it is misunderstood and is persecuted on sight, although its food consists almost exclusively of small destructive mammals, birds forming no regular part of its fare PTS RE ”igs ad e he A mee . eta ‘S, t us tie " aN ay Property of Truman E. Fassett GOLDEN EAGLE AND PTARMIGAN IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS Ks Property of F. F. Brewster WILD TURKEY Formerly inhabiting the entire forested parts of North America from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico and west to the Great Basin, the turkey is now extinct north of Pennsylvania and common only in a few greatly restricted regions. It is America’s finest contribution to domesticated poultry thes Courtesy of ‘‘Bird-Lore ‘ TROGONS FROM COLOMBIA The trogons are tropical birds of superlative beauty, being of the richest iridescent greens, violets and blues above, with underparts of blood red or purest yellow. The most gorgeous of all, the sacred Quetzal of the Aztecs, is related to the larger bird figured UDAVPT MON JO JaIsMoig “yy YoMopesay ‘apy Aq paumo [fo ul sfoued sanvsooap sN0j-A]UDA} JO SATIaS B JO 9UO SI}] ‘aye"] VANAKD UO Sutsajurm syonp yoeqsevauvo jo dnois ve smoys Sunured siyy SYMOVESVANVOD “a> aasmaag 7 ‘of fo Maadorg] = ‘nes eR Property of F. F. Brewster OLD SQUAWS Old squaws breed closer to the pole than any other bird except the knot sandpiper. They are wonderful divers and are frequently caught in the Great Lakes in whitefish nets set in fifty fathoms i ek, ay sep + Tid ¥y ari i rs Property of F. F. Brewster SNOWY OWL Nesting mainly within the Arctic circle, this owl comes well within the United States in winter, being always more abundant along the sea-coast. Its food is largely fish, caught from the edge of the ice or gleaned from the beaches at low tide : a : : At # eo Dre costa F MOCK Lag Owned by the Artist ARGUS PHEASANT, DISPLAYING Little is known of the habits of the argus pheasant of Malay Peninsula, Java and Borneo, as it is nocturnal and dwells in humid forests Deserted by his fellows, this young Johnny has his ‘‘heart in his throat”’ THE PENGUINS OF SOUTH GEORGIA “ JOHNNIES” AND “KINGS” ON A DESOLATE SUBANTARCTIC ISLAND? By Robert Cushman Murphy Illustrations from photographs by the Author HE territory of the “Little People of the Antarctic” has lately been subjected to so many friendly invasions that we are beginning to feel fairly well acquainted with a number of their tribes. First in entertaining word pictures, then in photographs, and finally in the beauty and realism of the cinematograph film, we have been shown something of the life histories of the jolly little Adélie penguin, the stately emperor and several others. Owing to the recent interest in ex- ploration and discovery upon the south polar continent itself, the penguins? 1 Article and photographs copyrighted, Feb- ruary, 1915, by Robert Cushman Murphy. 2A study of the habits of penguins is partic- ularly valuable at this time when public interest has recently been given to Sir Douglas Mawson’s wonderful moving pictures of penguins, taken on the Australasian Antarctic Expedition and inhabiting those uttermost shores have been studied somewhat to the exclusion of species equally intc esting, and longer known to man, which dwell outside the Antarctic Circle and make their homes upon the chain of desolate Subantarctic islands. During the American Mu- seum’s recent expedition to South Georgia, which lies within the ice-fields of the South Atlantic, two species of penguins were intimately encountered — exhibited daily at Weber's Theatre in New York City during one of the spring months. It is to be noted that none of the species pictured by Sir Douglas Mawson (the Adélie, emperor, gentoo, Victoria, king and royal) nor those de- scribed by Mr. Murphy have ever been kept in zodlogical gardens, although a few unsuccessful attempts have been made with the king penguin in Europe. One can study in the New York Zodé- logical Park at the present time several speci- mens of the blackfooted penguin (Speniscus demersus) from South Africa [purchased through German dealers}].— Tue Eprror. 225 226 the magnificent king penguin (A pteno- dytes patachonica) and the companion- able little Johnny penguin (Pygoscelis papua). The former are dignified, im- posing birds, standing a yard high, contented with their own society, and indifferent toward other creatures. As a badge of aristocracy they wear around their necks gleaming gold collars. The Johnny penguins, on the other hand, are roly-poly and plebeian, in- terested in everybody, and quite re- mind one of small boys. The two species live on the same territory and follow the same vocation of deep-sea fishers, yet their society is inviolably distinct. We first met the Johnny penguins on the southward voyage in latitude 43° S., on November 15, 1912. Cold westerly winds had raised a heavy swell on this day, and just before nightfall penguins began to pass the ship in couples or small groups. They remained below the water most of the time, but their braying calls frequently attracted at- tention to sleek heads and upright tails, the only visible parts of birds at the surface. Some of the Johnny penguin rookeries at South Georgia were on low ground near the sea, but the largest rookery that we discovered, comprising between four and five thousand birds, was dis- tributed over knolls and ridges behind a great moraine-beach at the Bay of Isles. The site is bounded by two glaciers so that it can be reached only from the bay. In 1912-13 the penguin settlements, beginning half a mile from the water front, extended inland and up the hills to a height of about six hundred feet. As long as young penguins were on this nesting ground, processions of adults might at all times be seen coming and going between the high land and the sea. The birds met and passed THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL each other without a visible sign of recognition, each trundling gravely along on its own business. A _ broad _thor- oughfare had been stamped across the moraine, worn down doubtless through generations of the pattering of little leathery feet, while deeply grooved, sinuous avenues extended up the long snowbank to the highest portions of the colony. This type of rookery is common at South Georgia wherever high land is at all accessible. No matter how much available territory there may be near the water, no matter how wearisome the scramble up the hillsides, a certain proportion of the members of each colony selects as home the summits of the windy, shelterless ridges. Why should marine birds which lack altogether the power of flight, and which are at best indifferent walkers, prefer to make the period of propagation difficult for themselves by retreating as far as possible from their only source of food? A consideration of the history of South Georgia may help in an interpretation of the strange instinct which drives the Johnny penguins to nest among the hills. The island is small, but its glaciers are as mighty as those of Spitzbergen, and there is ample evidence that it was formerly completely buried by an ice- cap. The interior, which rises to an altitude of more than six thousand feet, is no longer ice-clad, excepting on the peaks, but is covered with an everlasting névé of the Alpine type. This con- solidates at the sources of all the valleys to form tongues of ice, most of which extend into the sea, ending in abrupt walls. Since most of the fiords have been carved out by former extensions of the valley glaciers, the coast is almost beachless, the few areas of low, flat land being terminal moraines or beds of moribund or extinct glaciers. Even THE PENGUINS OF SOUTH GEORGIA now, with the fluctuating seasons, the glaciers sometimes advance their fronts and flanks over considerable ground once abandoned, but-in general glacia- tion ison the wane, and an appreciable decline has taken place even within a century. From such a condition it may be assumed that for a long period follow- ing the last ice-cap very little territory suitable for breeding purposes was ex- posed. Whatever bare earth existed must have been found along the ridges which separated the ice-filled valleys. During such a period these small pen- guins may have developed the trait which still leads them to seek lofty places for their nests. The fact that South Georgia was formerly the home of a far more abundant fauna than at present would have tended to fix the “moun- taineering” instinct, for animals ob- taining their sustenance only in the sea would have a tendency to increase more rapidly than the proportionate area of the beaches, and through sheer overflow of population many birds would be forced to content themselves with the less accessible ground, leaving the shores Hae pie! 227 to great herds of summering seals, and the adjacent nesting-sites to powerful rivals such as the king penguins. The faith which the Johnny penguins hold in the protectiveness of bigh land is strangely shown by their habit of running away from the water whenever danger threatens. Their terrible ma- rine enemy, the sea-leopard, a large carnivorous seal, has fixed within the Johnnies an instinct which urges them to seek safety only on terra firma. Con- sequently they do not govern their acts according to their perceptions. Time and again I have seen a group of them standing at the water’s edge when a fox terrier, brought ashore from the vessel, started toward them at a run. If the penguins deigned to show any fear at the approach of the barking dog they invariably responded not by taking to the water, where they would have been rid immediately of the tormentor, but by deliberately running up the beach, heading for the nearest bank or hillside. Even after the dog had seized a penguin by its bristly tail and had swung it round and round merely for the fun of (i PP 4 ren AG A At a rookery of Johnnies 228 teasing, the poor dazed victim would still persist in scampering away from the water. I often found that the surest way to keep penguins ashore was to try to drive them into the sea. The antiquity of the hill-climbing instinct among the Johnny penguins is finally attested by a strange and roman- tic phenomenon, namely that the pen- guins go back to the seclusion of the heights to die. In at the summit of the coast range south of the a hollow Bay of Isles lies a clear lake on a bed of ice-cracked This pool, formed entirely of snow-water, stones. transparent with a maximum depth of twelve or fifteen feet, is a penguin graveyard. In January, 1913, I found its bottom thickly strewn with the bodies of pen- guins which had outlived the perils of the sea and had apparently accomplished the rare feat among wild animals of dying a natural death. They lay by THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL scores all over the stony bed of the pool, mostly on their backs, with pinions out- stretched, their breasts reflecting gleams of white from the deeper water. Safe from their two enemies, the sea-leopard in the ocean and the skua gull ashore, they took their last rest. For months, perhaps years, they would undergo no bodily change in their frigid graves. Nesting Johnnies are generally timid, scampering off at the approach of a man, but never retreating more than a few paces. A small proportion of them stand their ground on the nests and show fight, employing as weapons both bill and wings. With the latter they can strike rapid and forceful blows. On one occasion a bird which I had roused from sleep attacked me and beat such a furious tattoo upon my leather leggings that its own pinions were soon bleeding. When a brooding penguin is driven away from young nestlings it lingers near by, An adult Johnny with the first chick. Three or four days usually intervene between the hatching of the two eggs. the head Note the penguin’s long tail pointing stiffly upward, and the white fillet which crosses THE PENGUINS OF SOUTH GEORGIA trumpeting loudly until the disturbance is over; then it examines its offspring very minutely, stooping down near- sightedly, and-serutinizing one and the other over and over again. When satisfied that all is well it settles down contentedly. The incubating birds turn about in their nests so as to keep their bills pointed toward the skua gulls, which walk about the rookeries with evil purpose and wait patiently hour after hour for a chance to steal an egg. Eternal vigilance is the price of safety for the penguins. The sharply whenever a skua draws near, and the free penguins make angry but vain rushes at the common enemy. Besides the hiss of wrath the Johnny penguins have a variety of louder calls. The ordinary trumpeting note sounds like the noise of a tin horn or the braying sitters hiss 229 of an ass; the sound is double, being produced by both expiration and inspira- tion, and is accompanied by a rising The voice is pitched in a much lower key and falling of the lower throat. than that of the king penguin. Usually the head is pointed upward while the penguin trumpets. The mouth is held wide open, with the spiny tongue show- ing, and the expelled breath condenses into clouds of vapor. The trumpetings are often repeated many times without interruption, and under excitement the bird’s whole bodily energy seems to be put into the call. Another note is a ‘ short, single “caw,’’ which the penguins are apt to utter as soon as they emerge This hail from one man to another, and the from the sea. call sounds like a human suggestion is enhanced by the ~ A penguins’ habit of waving their flippers A proud parent with two healthy, pot-bellied youngsters. The near young one is trumpeting 230 as if beckoning. ‘The weak trumpetings of nestling Johnnies have a_peevish, quality, hysterical at The soft, peeping note also, indicative of well-fed scolding even times. youngsters have a contentment. By the middle of January the young penguins were mostly two-thirds grown, and their incessant chattering could be heard a long way from the rookeries. The older youngsters walked about in an uncertain, wobbly fashion, tagging THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ing small tastes of food, with promises of more, but in hysterical fashion they would soon forget to wait for their feeble babies, and would have to be valled back repeatedly. By the.end of January all but a very few of the young penguins, still clad in the softest of gray and white “fur,” had permanently deserted the nests and had congregated by themselves, but always under the guard of adult nurses. In fine weather they might be seen The Johnny on the left has fallen and soiled his clothes. youngsters is the signal of the approaching molt after their fathers and mothers and trumpeting nervously when left too far When I walked the nests, all but the youngest chicks left behind. among them and herded together. The brood- ing adults too, rushed away, but a few squeaks from the abandoned little ones usually brought them back, scampering hither and thither and swinging their If the youngsters happened to be old enough to walk, wings frantically. the parents coaxed them along by giv- The white spot on the heads of these sunning themselves on the snowbanks, and at other times crouching from the wind Some of them were as large as the adults, but they were still dependent for their food, and they had not yet been to the sea- shore. I often saw them pleading to be fed when the old birds evidently did not wish to gratify them. in sheltered hollows. Such begging youngsters ran about after the adults, following every dodge and turn, con- tinually bumping into them and stepping THE PENGUINS OF SOUTH GEORGIA 231 - on their tails until the harassed adults gave up in despair. The young ones would then press closely against the provider, open their little bills expect- antly, and lose nothing of the regurgi- tated meal. . About the first of February most of the young Johnnies begin molting their down, thus exposing the adult plumage feathers which have developed under- neath the down. The down is shed in sheets and patches; the process re- sembles the peeling of the velvet from a deer’shorn. By the middle of February, or toward the close of the molting period, clinging tufts, collars, or top-knots of down give the otherwise smooth young _ penguins the appearance of clowns and pierrots. _. The molt of the nestling Johnny penguins is succeeded closely by the -apnual molt of the adults. Toward the end of February the feathers of the latter, already much faded and frayed, begin to drop out, still further to litter _ the ground of the rookeries. The molt- _ ing season of the adults seems to endure all through the Antarctic summer. On _ March 12 I observed that a few of the adults had not yet begun to doff their old coats, which were brown, rough and threadbare. Many more, the majority of the birds in fact, were in the throes of the process and were exceedingly ragged, the new plumage showing in spots. Still others had completed the molt of the old body feathers, but still retained their long tails, while the most advanced birds had lost all their feathers including the tail, a temporary loss which gave them a more dumpy outline than ever; for appearance sake a Johnny can ill afford to be without its luxuriant caudal bristles. The Johnny penguin has not in any degree the fearless and courageous dis- position of its Antarctic cousin, the Adélie penguin. Bands of Johnnies along the beaches are prone to take alarm if a man appears suddenly among them. The most successful course of action is to approach them slowly, halting at a discreet distance and so in- viting the penguins to take the initiative. They have a large bump of curiosity and will presently push the acquaint- ance, their familiarity increasing in direct proportion to the quietness and seeming indifference of the observer. A description taken from my notes of December 23, 1912, is characteristic. On the afternoon of this day I walked to a glacial pond on the far side of which stood a group of Johnny penguins. As soon as they saw me one of their num- ber swam across under water and walked toward me. I remained motion- less until it came up quite to my feet and stood there. When I moved quietly, it followed, and when I stopped, it did likewise. Then, one by one, it was joined by the other penguins from across the pond. It was whimsical to see this troop of mimicking small brothers with no other wish than to keep me company. I finally broke the spell by stooping to pat one on the head, when they all wiggled their tails, hurried back into the pond, and swam across like porpoises. On March 12 I rowed ashore during a brisk snowstorm and found a whole army of penguins near the rookery at Possession Bay. They were standing by hundreds in a long double row along the beach. These rows marched for- ward to meet and surround me, and their numbers were continually aug- mented by new arrivals which kept popping out of the surf, and came running up the shingle as if much astonished to find me there. The Johnnies walk in a deliberate manner, raising their feet high at each step, carrying their tails well above the Off to sea! ground, thrusting their wings behind them as balances, and poking the head the sighted attitude. forward into accustomed near- Their nearsightedness is probably no less real than apparent, because of the specialization of their eyes for vision through a water. In crossing the stony or hummocky ;" beaches that separate various arms of the bays, or that lead from the sea to the snow-water ponds in which the penguins delight to play, they follow When bent on a definite journey across the regular, well-tramped avenues. land they trudge .along very steadily and unconcernedly, and for the time seem to take no notice of their fellows. When in great haste they fall upon the By this well-known mode of progression, called belly and run on all fours. “tobogganing,” they can lead a mana very creditable chase. Their most curi- ous attitude is assumed when they walk down an incline, such as a snowbank or a steep beach. The head is then thrust so far forward that the straight neck and the spine form a right angle; the 232 medium of Relieved sitters setting their balancers and starting on the long walk to the water wings are held stiffly back as far as possible, and the round belly projects "as the bird proceeds with gingerly steps. Their fat bodies seem to be made to _ stand hard knocks, for not only do they tumble over frequently wherever the walking is rough on shore, but they also — suffer fearful batterings on the shingle when they come out of the surf, some- A group of Johnnies — downy young ‘‘nurses,”* nd molters. times being bowled over by four or five successive breakers before they can scramble out of the undertow. When wading into the water the Johnny penguins invariably round their shoulders, bend down their heads almost to their feet, and scoop beneath the surface as soon as there is depth enough to float them. Once under way, all their terrestrial awkwardness vanishes. They swim with well-nigh incredible speed, remaining below the surface ex- cept when they leap out porpoise-like, giv- ing an audible gasp for air — to be gone again within the twinkling of an eye. One evening I stood knee-deep in the water of the Bay of Isles and watched at close quarters four Johnny penguins swimming. The sea was fairly calm, the water clear and brilliant in the sun- set light. The quartet of penguins darted hither and thither all about me, now and again almost brushing my legs. Frequently they rolled their backs above the surface, and more rarely they leapt out. I distinctly observed that the strokes of their flippers were sometimes sometimes in made alternately and unison. Probably they were feeding, although I could not see their prey. Whether for sport or a more serious purpose they occasionally swam in the ridge of an advancing swell, going so far up the beach that they were left stranded fora moment. Presently three of them walked out of the sea, shook the water from their tails and became so One is in the ecStatic attitude of trumpeting 233 234 immensely interested in watching me, that they pursued me for a while when I left the spot. On another occasion I witnessed an extraordinary diversion of the penguins in the graveyard pool already mentioned. This pond, lying in a hollow of the hills, was bordered on three sides with a perpendicular bank of hard snow, the remaining shore being a stony slope. On the afternoon of my visit penguins were swimming in it, for pure enjoyment of course, for there was no food, no living thing, not even a visible alga, in the transparent snow water. How alert and reptilian the penguins seemed in their own element! How unlike the inelegant, ridiculous creatures they are ashore! They dashed straightaway un- der water the length of the pool and back again, with a velocity which I had then an opportunity to compute as about thirty feet a second. They chased each other round and round, flashing into the air twice or thrice during their bursts of speed, every action plainly revealed through the clear, quiet water, with the white dead birds down below them. When the swimmers rested at the sur- face, only the white-filleted head and up-pointed, ridged tail showed, as a rule, but sometimes they would float higher, like grebes. Several of them tried to leap out onto the bank of frozen snow which rose a yard above the water. Strangely enough they misjudged their distance repeatedly; they jumped too soon, and were on the downward seg- ment of their arc before they had cleared the edge. I saw one individual try a dozen times and fail; it always leapt a few lengths too soon and whacked its shiny breast against the wall of ice. A group of birds, which had been sunning on a snow bank, entered the water as if by mutual agreement. Some of them walked to the rocky slope and waded, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL arching their necks and tucking their heads under water before they made the plunge. Others flopped off the edge of the ice. I say flopped because they did not make graceful standing dives, such as I had expected; on the contrary they entered with flagrant, splashing “ belly- whoppers.”” The great discrepancy be- tween the Johnny penguin and the Adélie penguin in jumping and diving ability is at first sight rather surprising. Through the medium of the films taken during the Australasian Antarctic Ex- pedition I have seen the prodigious, salmon-like leaps of the plucky little Adélies, while the photographs of Scott’s Expedition well illustrate the graceful dives of these denizens of polar shores. It must be borne in mind, however, that the Johnny, with a Subantarctic range, breeds on no land which has an ice-shelved coast. The ability to gain the land by a catapultic spring has doubtless vanished with the disappear- ance of the necessity for such a method. The Johnny penguins often feed far at sea, but during the long breeding season they apparently all return to the land for the night. In late afternoon we usually saw long troops of them “porpoising”’ into the fiords from sea. This habit is so well known that sealers, overtaken in their boats by an impene- trable South Georgian fog, rely upon the home-coming penguins for the direction of the flat beaches. Considering the fact that most marine birds swim as soon as they emerge from the shell, the tardiness of young penguins in taking to the water has been pointed out as a remarkable phenomenon. The explanation of this, however, is doubtless that the speed and stamina required in capturing living pelagic food, in escaping from the dreaded sea-leopard, and in swimming through breaking surf, cannot be developed early in life by birds which THE PENGUINS OF SOUTH GEORGIA use the wings instead of the feet as propelling organs. Certainly the pin- ions of nestling penguins seem extraordi- narily underdeveloped. The little birds begin to exercise them soon after birth by flapping them, weakly at first but vigorously later on —a trait that sug- gests ancestral aspirations for flight. On many occasions I put nestlings of various ages, as well as fully grown, molting young, into the fresh water ponds, where they proved themselves almost as helpless as human _ beings unfamiliar with swimming. They in- stinctively put their heads under water and tried to swim below the surface in the approved fashion, but it was a feat quite impossible for them. They beat the wings simultaneously, and bobbed up and down without making much progress. Such a scene always attracts a band of skua gulls to the spot, as if 235 these ogres realized the helpless misery of a young penguin in the water. The skuas do not strike while their prospec- tive victim is swimming, but pace along the shore waiting to intercept its land- ing. Once a half-grown youngster, with which I had been experimenting, crawled out of the graveyard pool into the very jaws of seven skuas which attacked it en masse. The little penguin struck with its feeble wings and cried out piteously. Insignificant as it was, not one of the skuas dared seize it outright, but they made quick rushes from all sides, striking the penguin on the head with closed bills, and then retreating. I hurried to the rescue and restored the little bird to its nest where I afterward saw it resting characteristically with its head hidden between its mother’s warm feathered thighs. [Story of King Penguins in next issue of JouRNAL] A group of king penguins. of the American Museum of Natural History Above is Lucas Glacier named by Mr. Murphy in honor of the director 9&G UOIVAJOSOId JO 94¥4S JOoJAOd UT o1e SoINSYy oy ‘TING oy} Jo SULOY 94} PUB MOD 9Y4 JO [1e9 UAyoIq oY4 ‘Avpo oyy JO SulArp 04 onp syovsd oy9 J0J ydoox| ‘sour om TORTed wos SuNep Surjepow -Avjo jo sojduexo umouy ATUO OY} ote PUR BUOT Joos OMA JnOGe Yove adv sanSy oy, ‘sour ‘(oBQVy) suOITD-JUIeg avoT ‘uonos0q JUNO JO 97BIS9 OY} UO ‘BARD JloqnopNny,p ony, 949 JO AJTUIEI9xXO JOUUL OY} 9B PUNO; ‘uosTq o[eVUIEJ PUB OTVUI JO ARTO UT SUOTZRIUESAIdOx SAVO LYAGNOGNV .d ONL ‘AV1O NI NOSIG , ojodo.yqUY JT. ut uanobag xo saify EUROPEAN CAVES AND EARLY MAN By N. C. Nelson IntTRopuctory Note: The American Museum is one of several institutions in the New World to maintain an active interest in palxolithic archeology as developed in Europe. At the present time, for example, a comprehensive display indicative of this earliest of art and industry is open to the public. With the addition of a much-needed somatological series the exhibit would give the visitor a surprisingly complete ocular demonstration of man’s origin and of the various steps in his physical and mental history. In order to make clearer to the general public the binding nature of modern conclusions regarding early human developments it was decided some time ago to construct a model of a palzolithic cave station. The station selected as most instructive for this purpose was the Castillo grotto, in northern Spain, there being preserved here in forty-five feet of distinctly stratified deposits the whole industrial history of man almost from the earliest beginnings down to the introduction of metal. In connection with this project, which was inspired largely by the interest of Henry Fairfield Osborn, president of the Museum, the writer had opportunity a little over a year ago to examine a large number of the palolithic stations in western Europe and the following general remarks are based on observations then made.! — N.C. N. HERE are recorded at the present time for the southern two-thirds of Europe, including Mediter- ranean Asia and Africa, no less than four hundred paleolithic stations, that is, places where remains of one kind or another have been left behind by early man. This man was primarily a hunter and his chief center of activity appears to have been what is now southwestern France and northeastern Spain although Germany, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Eng- land, and to a lesser degree other coun- tries, came within his range. This apparent distribution may be deceptive however. Many of the stations are out 1The geographical distribution of important caves and shelters, the cave art and the pal«o- lithic industrial remains were considered in the JOURNAL issues of December, 1912 and October, 1914. in the open, as for example on the valley terraces of the Thames and the Somme; but the majority of the sites, especially those of later times, are sheltered in some way. The shelter may consist merely of an overhanging cliff, it may be a grotto yawning on the mountain side and it may be the far interior of a This latter type of site it is relatively easy to find by making a deliberate search while camp or cave. the location of an ancient workshop in the open country is the result only of chance. It is conceivable of course, that these roaming migratory hunters returned seasonally to the nat- ural shelters, but on the other hand, it is possible that many of them built huts — some of the geometric cave paintings suggest that they did — and unless these huts stood in very close proximity to 237 some sheltering cliff, all traces of the spot and its relics would be lost. Hence, we may properly take for granted that hundreds of archeological stations will remain undiscovered, in of which our notion of the actual strength of the population at any given place during these early millenniums of human consequence existence must continue imperfect, if not inadequate. As need hardly be stated the presence of natural habitations depends ordinarily on a high relief or a more or less moun- tainous topography. Caves most abundant in volcanic regions as in the western United States or in limestone areas such as Kentucky and adjacent commonwealths. Shelters are notable features of steep-walled valleys or box- cafions and our own cliff-dweller region affords the best example of them and their utilization. In Europe the most famous cave groups are located in the lower French Pyrenees and their Canta- are THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL brian extension in northern Spain, while the equally famous shelter region in- cludes short sections of the Vézére and Beune Valleys at Les Eyzies, in the French department of Dordogne. Both regions are wonderfully picturesque and impressive and barring some alterations in the flora they have not changed much in general appearance since the arrival of paleolithic man. These caves and shelters are all in limestone formations and are the results chiefly of mechanical erosion. Some of the caves, especially those of the lower altitudes, are still in process of making, while others, well up on the mountain sides, are very ancient — in fact, were in their old age when man first entered them. Roughly speaking, the shelters proper, that is the overhanging cliffs and the wide open grottos, were the homes of palzolithic man and therefore naturally furnish us with important data concern- ing his physical make-up, his practical The Vézére River, its floodplain and cliff wall as seen from the entrance to the Gorge d’Enfer, above Les Eyzies, France. The station of La Micoque is on the extreme right, Laugerie Haute at the foot of the distant cliff and Laugerie Basse nearer by off the first bend in the stream EUROPEAN CAVES AND EARLY MAN 239 ability, and the general nature of his everyday life. hand, served him mainly as galleries for The caves, on the other a remarkable series of paintings, engrav- ings and carvings, which in a measure reveal to us his mental attitude toward life. were exceedingly dark and damp, ordi- The caves, it must be understood, narily unfit for habitation, except pos- sibly as temporary retreats during the Entrance to the cavern of Tuc d’Audoubert near Saint-Girons, France. from this cave, which is the most beautiful and in a way the most Cavern near Montréjeau, France, and likewise the Altamira Cave, near Sant- ander, Spain, appear to have been occu- pied for protracted periods although in both cases only very close to the en- trance. On the other hand, some of the shelters such as Cap Blanc, near Les Eyzies, France, have preserved, mainly through accident, a fine series of high relief sculptures. But as a_ general A stream still issues interesting of all the known Pyrenean haunts of the ancient artist who has left here not only mural engravings but also models in clay and even his footprints the shelter walls, having been exposed for hard winters, and _ contrariwise, thousands of years to the weathering elements, could not have preserved for us either paintings or delicate engravings that may have been made upon them. There are several somewhat qualifying exceptions to these sweeping statements instance, the Gargas however. For thing the camp-sites are in large half- open shelters, usually facing the sun, while the entrances to the painted caves face in any direction and for the most part are very small and inconspicuous. At Castillo only there is the perfect com- bination —a large sunny grotto which was occupied periodically throughout most of paleolithic times and which 240 served besides as the vestibule to a con- siderable cave, famous for its mural art. An examination of the various Dor- dogne shelters coupled with a study of the changing types of objects found in Nearly all of the stations here are at the base of the them is most instructive. high cliffs that hedge the narrow valleys on one or both sides; but in a few in- stances the relic-bearing débris lies on an eroded ledge some distance up the THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL defy the English in 1410; still another ledge marked by ruins of what looks like some old baronial chateau; and end up finally with the more or less well-kept These houses often stand on several meters of houses of the modern peasant. ancient relic-bearing débris and seem to cling in an infantile sort of way to the overhanging cliff in spite of its cold damp nature. Some distance up the Vézére, at the Rock of St. Cristopher, Anniversary occasion (July 20) of the discovery of the Tuc d’Audoubert cavern. thusiastic sons who made the discovery of the famous modeled bison. The amia- ble Count Begouen is seated in the center while behind him and on the extreme left are his three en- Professor Emile Cartailhac is seen to the left of the Count and on the right are two French zoélogists, students of the cave fauna Almost within earshot of Les Eyzies are a series face of the protecting wall. of stations which taken together furnish data on human history practically from Acheulian times to the present day. These stations begin with the old ob- scured shelter of La Micoque, include the partially-ruined shelters of Upper and Lower Laugerie; another ledge- shelter that served old-time brigands as a rendezvous and also as a fortress to where the last houses have been removed, there are over four meters of débris dating from neolithic to present time and the adjacent cliff is marked by sev- eral series of parallel holes, cut for the insertion of ceiling beams, precisely as we find them in our own Southwest. Some of these holes are high up the cliff but others are below the surface of the accumulated débris which is itself below the high-water mark of the river. Laugerie Haute, showing present-day dwellings built against the cliff. Beyond the houses a tremendous overhang which once sheltered Aurignacian and Solutréan people has dropped down, | burying possibly some of the ancient inhabitants The ideal shelter, Grotte d'Enfer, was probably not occupied as long as might be supposed as it was subject to floods 241 242 With all this evidence suggestive of con- tinuous occupation, it is not to be won- dered at that some students profess to see among the local inhabitants a num- ber of individuals that resemble the physical type of paleeolithic man. A visit to the painted caves is the experience of a lifetime; but while it is an adventure bound to excite more en- thusiasm than the examination of the shelters, it is less instructive and cer- tainly less convincing. It is also an undertaking fraught with some diffi- culty and disappointment, except per- haps in such cases as Altamira, Niaux and Font-de-Gaume. The painted and incised representations on the cave walls are seldom so plain and striking as one might infer from the superb reproduc- tions in the published reports, and to make them out the visitor must take time. In this effort to decipher, he is most ably assisted by Professor Emile ‘Cartailhac of Toulouse, who has given THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL a good part of his life to the study of paleolithic art and who at present guards nearly all the Pyrenean caverns. In Spain and in the Dordogne country, however, local guides must be taken and as these are not always competent, the student who would profit by his oppor- tunity must prepare himself beforehand in regard to what is to be seen and then insist on being shown, or he may not see much. The last cave to be discovered and also the most beautiful is the Tue d’Audou- bert, located on the estate of Count Begouen near Saint-Girons, France. This is perhaps the most difficult cavern to explore. But to risk passage in the improvised boat that the visitor must sail in order to reach the interior, and to crawl on his stomach along muddy pas- sages that are really too small for a full- grown man, and finally to receive in- numerable bumps on his head from pending stalactites is not too much to Valley of the Rio Pas at Puente Viesgo, Spain. nent peak on the left is the cave of La Pasiega and a little lower down on the side facing the river (within view) is the famous Castillo cave and Grotto where man lived periodically almost from the earliest stone age down close to historic times Over half way up the farther side of the promi- Outlook from the Hornos de la Pefia cave. Not a human habitation is in sight and the rug- ged semi-forested country is still the home of the wolf, the bear and the wild boar Upper entrance to the Mas d’Azil cavern, near Foix, France. ‘The Arize River has here tun- neled a high rock formation about one-fourth of a mile thick and which now accommodates the public road. Within the 200 foot-square entrance, on the left bank, is the ledge which was occupied in Magdalenian and Azilian times. In theinterior are immense galleries also rich in archmwological material, but now the home only of thousands of screaming bats Entrance to the Pindal cave, north coast of Spain not far from Colombres. The people are stand- ing on the fallen roof of a long sea passage in the rock which when the entrance was choked permit- ted the cave behind it to silt up and become an art gallery of considerable note. Professor Henri Breuil is on the left and the second from him is his colleague, Professor Hugo Obermaier. The upper photograph shows the view seen from the entrance of the cave. Stratified limestone stands nearly on end and the waves have cut out long passages in the softer strata 244 EUROPEAN CAVES AND EARLY MAN pay for the privilege — which, as it happened, was accorded the Museum’s representative as the first American — to see the wonders inside. Ordinarily, the natural wonders of the caverns are more or less discolored with mud, but here is gallery after gallery of be- wildering forests of pillars and pendants and posts —all a pure white and glit- tering as if studded with myriads of diamonds. Here and there the stalac- tites hang in large sheets like folded draperies and by placing a light behind them the translucent substance flashes up into colors of green and rose too beautiful to be described. No fairy palace Was ever more adorned! You are led along de- vious passages, stepping again and again in lakelets of in- visibly clear water and when on dry footing you are warned to move cir- cumspectly for fear of obliter- ating some an- cient human footprints that are faintly visible under the thin coat of stalagmite which covers the clay floor. Bones and skulls of the giant cave bear and other animals lie all about, cemented in place. Finally, near the extreme inner end of the cavern comes the real object of the laborious journey, viz., the representa- tions of two bison (male and female) modeled in clay. The figures which are about two'feet in length, are propped against the sloping side of a rock which rises from the floor, and in front of the approximately west — people lived in Magdalenian times. who gave three years to the investigation of the site, stands on the right 245 animals on the floor there are some trac- ings as if the artist had here sketched and improvised before beginning his real work. About twenty-five feet away in a low side chamber is to be seen the place where the modeler scraped to- gether the clay off the floor and kneaded it. Two or three worked rolls of his material still lie there. The whole thing looks as if done a week ago and yet the bison has been absent from the locality probably for thousands of years. The last suggestion of skepticism is in keeping with the general impression that The Schweizersbild station near Schaffhausen, Switzerland. This limestone excrescence rises abruptly from a meadow-like spot, and in its shelter — facing Dr. Jakob Nuesch, the visitor retains from the painted caves. It is a most baffling experience. When the investigation is confined to the stra- tified deposits everything is beautifully simple. Art objects have a definitely ascertainable place in the series and go back to Aurignacian times. The cave art proper is of the same general style as that of the stratified refuse and must of course be of the same date; moreover, the animals represented are in nearly all cases either extinct or absent from the region. And yet almost all the mural 246 figures in the caves are within reach of the hand. In other words, the caves have undergone no particular changes since the artist did his work. Not a few of the paintings, and especially the finer THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL in these caves? It is unsafe to move ten steps in them without a light. It is true that a very few stone basins have been found that may have served pur- poses similar to the Eskimo lamp, or the A weathered indentation in the limestone cliff such as served to shelter early man. down the Vézére Valley from the point of its junction with the Beune Valley, at Les Eyzies, France. Several caves are to be found in the distant cliff and on one of its high sheltered terraces there is the interesting ruin of a church dating from the early Christian era engravings seem as fresh as if done yester- day. In the Pindal cave is the repre- sentation of a fish incised on the wall and the visitor who examines it closely would swear that he could make a line exactly like it with a lead pencil, but with Pro- fessors Breuil and Obermaier standing And how did paleolithic man manage to get about behind him he says nothing. Looking artist’s right-hand man may have car- ried a torch; but there are no signs of such torches or of carbonization on the walls in the vicinity of the paintings, although smoke spots made by modern lamps and candles held too close are abundant enough. The conviction that this cave art is not so old as some would have us believe seems irresistible. EUROPEAN CAVES AND EARLY MAN There are other difficult problems relating to paleolithic culture though none so seemingly baffling as those pertaining to the eave art, but these cannot be dealt with at present. Mean- 247 while the skeptic take some consolation in the fact that Professor Cartailhac may and his French colleagues were themselves doubters for over twenty years. Section of relic-bearing débris recently exposed at Le Moustier shelter France. In the face of the natural matrix may be counted hundreds of worked and unworked reject flint flakes near Les Eyzies, SS joyessny "T ‘Iq jo uonooirp 94} Jopun ‘AULIoprxey Jo JuoWIedop s,umMosnpT ey} JO 10.109 “WT “a “AW Aq poredoad o10M soysy oy, “oZIS [vangeU 9} SoUITy [BIOAOS poSuepUs A[JSOUI ‘sfepour ore SuoTATVEdS OL, sue3s1i0 JudoDso10ydsoyd uMo Jey} Aq AjUO dn 41] ‘Bes oY} UT avodde 07 posoddns o1e AY} SB SsoUyIVp UT Oy) puUe ‘44ST [NJ UL spuodes Moj @ IOJ gsIy Uses o1® Ssysy oy} 9eq9 peysn{pe os st dnous 949 JO UOMVUIWIN]TI OU, ‘“Whnoesnyl UeoLIouTy oY} ULSeysy JO [[VYy 94) UI poTfeysuT A[JUGO0I Anois ® wody poydeasoj.oyd ‘adejans 944 UOJ OO JO O[TW & sTRY ‘Bas OY) JO SYIdop punojoad oY} at puNoj soysy JO sodA) OMSTIOJOBIeYO OUIOg SSHSIS VaS-d350 AWOS FISHES OF THE DEEP-SEA By L. Hussakof PTO the time of the “ Challenger” LJ expedition, very little was known regarding the fish life of the abyssal depths of the sea. Only about thirty species were known. But the wonderful collections brought back by the “Challenger” from her four- year cruise (1873-1876) made known the vast diversity, the strangeness and even weirdness of this fish fauna. Sev- eral hundred kinds of deep-sea fishes had been collected—some of them dredged from a depth of more than a mile — and it required a huge quarto! to describe and picture them. From this volume dates our real knowledge of the fishes of the abyssal deep. The “Challenger”’ expedition was, indeed, a “Columbus voyage” in ichthyology; it opened a new chapter in the history of the science. Since that time many deep-sea ex- ploring expeditions have been sent out by the various nations, and hosts of other fishes have been brought up from the oceans in all parts of the world. More than a thousand species are now known, and we can appreciate at its full value the richness and strangeness of this fauna. Moreover, not only do we know the fishes themselves, but as a result of the scientific investigations carried on by the various expeditions, we now know a good deal of the physical conditions under which they live, so that we can, in a measure at least, ex- plain the why and wherefore of their ex- traordinary characteristics. When we think of life in the deep-sea, there comes to mind, first of all, the enormous pressure which these creatures must withstand. This pressure becomes 1 Challenger Reports, Vol. XXII, 1887. the greater the deeper we go down, and in the profoundest depths it equals thou- sands of pounds to the square inch. The result of this pressure is that the tissues of these fishes. are tender and loosely knitted together. When they are brought up out of the dark depths, and the great pressure under which they live is removed, the explosion of the gases within them bulges out the eyes, and often blows out the viscera through the mouth, while the muscles collapse, leaving them soft and flabby like moist rags. Most deep-sea fishes are very small also, usually only a few inches in length, and it is probable that this re- duction in size has come about to some extent at least, from the great pressure under which they live. Another important condition is the dimness of light, or even darkness in the profound depths of the sea. If we im- agine ourselves descending into the deep ocean, we see the light grow dimmer and dimmer as we go down, until finally a level is reached beyond which no light penetrates at all. The entire vast depth below it, is in eternal darkness. Now the fishes living in this dim light, or in total darkness, have been profoundly modified by it. In some forms the eyes have become very small, and in some cases have entirely disappeared. There are even fishes in which the skin and scales of the body have grown over the place where the eyes should be, so that these fishes are, as has been aptly said, “blind beyond redemption.” Other forms, on the other hand, have been affected in an entirely different way. The eyes, instead of growing smaller, have grown larger, as if in an attempt to eatch every fleeting ray of light. In 249 250 some fishes this has been carried so far that the eyes have become like enormous goggles. Most deep-sea fishes have luminous organs of one kind or another, so that they carry their own light about with them. In some the entire body glim- mers, the coating of slime which exudes from the pores and lateral canals, emitting a soft silvery glow. In others, rows of minute, luminous organs run along the sides of the body, or there are flashing light-spots on the head or face. What a wonderful sight would be to us a small black fish flitting through the silence and darkness of the deep with its headlights and row of pores gleaming through the darkness like some small ship passing through the night with its port- holes all aglow! Some deep-sea fishes have a luminous organ at the end of a feeler on the head. This is waved to and fro to act as a lure to attract the prey. A pertinent question may be asked: How do we know these fishes glow and glimmer, since no human eye has ever beheld them in their abyssal home? We know this partly from analogy and partly from actual observation. When one is in a boat in the tropics, on one of those sultry nights when everything is a dead calm, and the black clouds hang so low that sky and sea form one con- tinuous blackness, then one may see the glimmering fishes darting out of the path of the boat, their forms, silvery and ghostlike, outlined for one moment against the blackness of the sea. This effect is chiefly due to the oxidizing of the slimy secretion covering their bodies. Why shall we not believe, then, that in deep-sea fishes a similar phenomenon takes place, particularly as in many of them, the slime pores and canals are greatly developed and must exude large quantities of slime? Then too, on deep- sea expeditions, on favorable occasions, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL as for instance, a dark calm night, fishes that have been brought to the surface and placed in water were seen to flash light from the ends of the tentacles or the phosphorescent pores, precisely as we should have expected from a study of these organs. Major Alcock, in his interesting volume, A Naturalist in Indian Seas, mentions a_ specimen brought up from a profound depth which “glimmered like a ghost as it lay dead at the bottom of the pail of turbid sea- water.” So that by inference, as well as by actual observation, we must be- lieve that what we call luminous organs in deep-sea fishes, emit light into the darkness about them. In the case of fishes totally blind, the absence of light is compensated for by the development of enormous antennz-like feelers, modi- fied from fin rays, so that these fishes can feel their way, as it were, through the darkness. The absence of light however entails another important consequence. As is well known, no plant life can exist in darkness. There is, therefore, no vege- tation of any kind in the profound depths of the sea. The deep-sea fishes are, in consequence, all carnivorous, the more powerful ones seizing and devour- ing the weaker ones. It is a cold black world where might reigns supreme. Many have enormous mouths, and formidable teeth to insure holding the prey. In some forms the teeth are so large that the mouth cannot be shut! Moreover, since meals are perforce far between, they must be as large as pos- sible; hence many forms have extraor- dinarily capacious stomachs. Specimens have been dredged from the deep which were enormously distended through having swallowed fishes larger than themselves. The temperature of the water in the profound depths of the sea, is always low FISHES OF THE DEEP-SEA and near the freezing point. This is true everywhere, even at the equator. Undoubtedly this has an effect upon the fishes, although it isnot yet known what itis. The amount of oxygen dissolved in the water also, is much less than in water nearer the surface. The breathing apparatus of the deep-sea fishes is modified to suit these peculiar conditions. The gill filaments have become much reduced in size, and in a number of instances some of the gill- arches bear no gill filaments at all. The fishes are apparently adapted to a much smaller oxygen supply than those living in rivers or in the shallow sea. When we think of the vast diversity among these fishes, the question arises: Are they all representatives of a single family, or group that has become spe- cially adapted to life in the deep sea; or do they belong to different families or groups? One need hardly be an ichthyologist to answer this question. Even a cursory examination of the plates in a work on deep-sea fishes will show that different types are represented. In fact, a great many families are included in the deep-sea fauna. There are sharks and rays; salmonoids, herrings, perches, eels, and representatives of many other families. We can explain this hetero- geneity among them in this way. We may imagine that fishes of many differ- ent kinds in their search, so to speak, for the unoccupied corners of the sea, found a haven in these deeper waters where they were free from pursuit by their enemies. In the course of time they migrated farther and farther into the deep, a change in habits taking place pari passu with the changes in structure. Having started out with different organi- zations, and possessing different degrees of variability, they became differen- tiated in diverse directions, so that while some developed enormous mouths, pow- 251 erful teeth, or phosphorescent organs, others became bottom-living and partly or completely lost their eyes. Still others developed long feelers for groping their way through the darkness. Now and again however, fishes of separate groups developed similar structures, so that there are many striking cases among deep-sea fishes of what the biologist calls “convergence,” or paral- lelism. The Museum has recently prepared for exhibition a number of typical deep- sea fishes arranged in the form of a group. The preparation of this exhibit involved many technical difficulties, such as the modeling of the fishes in transparent or translucent media, to represent them as glimmering or shining with lit-up “portholes.” Considerable experimenting was necessary to accom- plish this group, but all the difficulties were overcome, thanks to the ingenuity and perseverance of Mr. F. F. Horter of the Museum’s taxidermist staff. The group, as it is now installed, represents ten types of deep-sea fishes. It is not, of course, a group in the sense of the habitat groups displayed in the Museum; it is not a section, so to speak, taken from nature and transplanted to the Museum. In nature so many deep-sea fishes are not to be found in so small a space. What the group represents is a number of fishes which are in nature scattered over a vast area and through a great height of water, here brought together for museum purposes into a few square feet of space. Each fish is re- produced accurately with its phosphor- escent pores and tentacles as these are known to exist. With one or two ex- ceptions they are enlarged several times, as the fishes themselves are very small. And since it is known that the phos- phorescent organs do not glow with a steady light, the illumination of the A small, silvery, eel-like fish which has been found in all the oceans at depths ranging from a little less than a mile to two and one-half miles. It has a row of luminous pores running the length of the body; and in the blackness of the profound depths it must appear like a miniature long dark boat with gleaming portholes. Its greenish, glittering eyes are perched on the ends of slender, hornlike tentacles — a feature which has suggested its scientific name, Stylophthalmus paradozus group has been arranged so as to have these luminous organs flash intermit- tently. arranged so that one may view the fishes for a few seconds in full light, as if in a synoptic exhibit, and then see them, Furthermore, the installation is when the light goes out, as they are supposed to appear in the darkness of the profound depths, lit up only by their own phosphorescent organs. Near the top of the group is seen a fish which lives on the border line be- tween the region of dimness and total darkness. Many of the fishes living in this region are not of a uniform sombre hue, but are brilliantly colored. Neo- scopelus is one of these. The body is “one dazzling sheen of purple and silver and burnished gold, amid which is a sparkling constellation of luminous or- gans”’ (Alcock). The glowing fish in the center is Barathronus diaphanus, a small fish known from a single specimen, which In this deep-sea fish the head glows with a soft pale light, while the body is quite dark, being covered with large opaque scales. The species (Opisthoproctus soleatus), is known by only two examples dredged from a depth of two and a half miles; one off the northern, and the other off the western coast of Africa [This specimen is not shown in the general photograph of the group, having been cut out for con- venience in reproduction. 252 It is situated in the group below the bottom fish on the right hand side] FISHES OF THE DEEP-SEA was dredged in the Indian Ocean at a depth of a little over four-fifths of a mile. The model of it is one and one-half times the natural size. The phosphorescent fish withthe Curious long tail (at the right) is Gigantura chuni. It, also, is known by only a single specimen. This was brought up from a depth of four- fifths of a mile in the Gulf of Guinea, on the west coast of Africa. is twice the natural size. The two dark fishes with enormous The model 253 Near the bottom of the group at the left-hand side, is seen an eel-like fish with a line of lit-up pores. This is an enlarged model of Stylophthalmus para- doxus, a small silvery fish widely dis- tributed in all the oceans, whose young also are known. The generic name it bears was given it in allusion to the fact that the eyes are perched on long slender tentacles. The species ranges from a depth of a little less than a mile to two and one-half miles. Another form with This strange deep-sea fish (Gigantura chuni) is known by only a single specimen dredged from a depth of four-fifths of a mile, in the Gulf of Guinea on the west coast of Africa. The body of the fish is a shimmering glow of iridescence, while the protruding eyes shine like automobile headlights. The formidable teeth mark it as a ferocious carnivore gaping mouths (near the top, at the right) are Gastrostomus bairdi. This species is commoner than some of the others, a number of specimens being in several museums. The models of it in the group are copied life-size from aspecimen inthe Museum. The species occurs in the Atlantic Ocean, near the American coast, in the path of ocean liners. Specimens have been dredged from a depth of nearly three miles. tentacles is Gigantactis vanheffeni, a species typical of many deep-sea fishes which have a tentacle, terminating in a luminous organ, attached to the head. This tentacle serves as a lure for attract- ing prey. The present species is known by only two specimens which were found in the Indian Ocean at a mile and a mile and a half from the surface. The creature is a very small fish, the model being enlarged six times. VOLCANOES OF THE LESSER ANTILLES OBSERVATIONS ON THE PRESENT CONDITION OF THE ACTIVE VOLCANOES OF MARTINIQUE, ST. VINCENT AND GUADELOUPE! By Edmund Otis Hovey T. PELE and the ruined city of St. Pierre at its base hold chief in- terest on the island of Martinique. The old summit plateau of the voleano is 4050 feet above the sea. This formerly bore the pool of fresh water known as ‘‘Lac des Palmistes,”’ but there is no trace now of the old lake basin under the coating of ten to fifty feet of new ash that covers the plateau. The new cone, which stands as the enduring monument of the great eruption of 1902-3, nearly fills the old crater adjoining the plateau and rises some five hundred feet above it. The famous spine, or obelisk, which rose more than six hundred feet farther into the air, disappeared nearly ten years ago through disintegration, and the cone as viewed from the sea, presents a flat top, whose apparent smoothness does not prepare a visitor for the actual ruggedness 1 Dr. Edmund Otis Hovey, curator of geology and invertebrate paleontology in the American Museum, has returned from the first expedition undertaken with the assistance of the Heilprin Exploration Fund. This fund was established in 1914 by relatives of the noted explorer and geog- rapher, the late Angelo Heilprin, for the purpose of aiding geographical work under the auspices of the American Museum. On account of Pro- fessor Heilprin’s well-known work on the 1902- 1903 eruptions of Mt. Pelé, Martinique, it was considered particularly appropriate that the first work under the fund should concern the active voleanoes of the Lesser Antilles in continuation of the work already done by the American Museum in 1902, 1903 and 1908. The object of the visit was to-make a comparison of conditions past and present, in connection with assembling for publi- cation all previous observations on the eruptions. The first stop was made at Guadeloupe where sixteen days were spent, three of which were passed on the summit of the Soufriére. On Martinique eleven days were spent in camp on the old summit plateau of Mt. Pelé, while on St. Vincent more than three weeks were given to the study, twelve days of the time being spent in camp on the volcano. Many specimens were brought back to New York to illustrate the changes that have taken place in the rocks during the past seven years, and scores of photographs were taken to add to the extensive collections already in the possession of the Museum as a result of former expeditions. 254 of surface which he finds on climbing the mountain. In 1908 when I last visited Martinique the new cone was seamed with fissures which dis- charged great volumes of steam and gave temperatures as high as 500 degrees C. (932 degrees F.). Considerable steam is still issuing from these vents, but there are no temperatures exceeding 100 degrees C. (212 degrees F.). The fumarole area and the plateau on the west side of the mountain, between the rivers Blanche and Claire mid- way between sea and summit, which com- prised vents giving temperatures of nearly 500 degrees C. in 1908 have likewise greatly diminished in activity, although vents were found which even now give a temperature of 128.5 degrees C. (265 degrees F.). On the whole however it is evident that the activity of the volcano has greatly and continually diminished since the outbursts of 1902-1903, and apparently there is no present danger of recrudescence. On the east or windward side of the vol- cano, the vegetation has reéstablished itself to the summit of the mountain, and even the forest is beginning to reassert itself. The whole aspect of this side of the volcano is verdant and peaceful, and gives no indication of the devastation of thirteen years ago; even the rocks of the new cone are more or less thickly coated with moss, while the side ~ and top of the old cone are covered with grass, ferns and bushes, in addition to moss and lichens. On the summit plateau we found an abundance of red raspberry bushes bearing flowers and green and ripe fruit. Sugar plantations on the west side of Mt. Pelé have been reinstated as far as the Roxelane River, within the border of the original zone of annihilation, while the ruined city of St. Pierre now contains about thirty new buildings of durable construction and a resident population of possibly two hundred people. The southwest side of the volcano lying between the Seche and Blanche rivers, which VOLCANOES OF THE LESSER ANTILLES 255 was the route traversed by hundreds or perhaps thousands of destructive eruption clouds, still lies drear and desolate, because the soil was completely swept away by the blasts, and the material left behind as well as that added by the eruption is too porous for the retention of the water necessary to restore it to fertility. Furthermore, the rainfall of the west side of the island is much less than on the east side, and the region is dried by the rays of the afternoon sun. The vicinity of the Soufriére on the island of St. Vincent also shows evidences of re- covery from the previous activity. Here as in Martinique, the vegetation has reéstab- lished itself more thoroughly on the windward than on the leeward side of the mountain. Considerable portions of the Soufriére re- ceived immense deposits of gravelly ash from the recent eruptions, and these are largely barren at the present time. Other areas received a finely comminuted ash which retains water better than the coarse material, and suffers more rapid decomposition. This fine ash is now coated more or less thickly with moss and lichens, and often bears, in addition, bushes, trees and tree ferns. The outer limits of the original zone of annihila- tion show merely a destruction of the vegeta- tion then coating the mountain slopes, and did not suffer destruction or deep burying of the soil. Palms and tree ferns have regained their pristine development and beauty in this region, and forest trees are growing. On the east side of the mountain the sugar-cane plantations which flourished before the eruptions are now largely restored to culti- vation and present a heavier growth of cane than before, while on the west side peasant proprietors are already taking up “provision ground” on the slopes of the volcano itself. The great crater of the Soufriére is beautiful enough to repay the lover of scenery for mak- ing a special trip to the island. It is about nine-tenths of a mile across from east to west, and three-quarters of a mile from north to south, and a lake approximately half a mile in diameter now occupies its lower portions, as its predecessor did in the days before the eruptions which changed the whole appear- ance of the mountain. In 1902-3 there was a little pool of muddy water in the bottom of the bowl through which disturbing columns or puffs of steam were continually rising. In 1908 the pool was much larger, was yellow- ish green in color and was not disturbed by any eruptive discharges, but it did not fill the bottom of the crater. In 1915 the lake is apparently some hundreds of feet deeper than it was in 1908 and occupies the entire bottom of the crater, rising well up on the vertical walls in most places. Careful measurements with the theodolite established the surface of the lake as being 760 feet below the point where the trail from the western side of the island reaches the rim of the crater, or approximately 2140 feet above the level of the sea. The interior walls of the crater are coated with moss and tufts of grass wherever there are slopes of volcanic ash, and tree ferns and bushes are reéstablishing themselves in the ravines cut by the rains, while the vertical faces of the old lava beds making up a large part of the mountain add tones of reddish and yellowish gray to the color effect. The volcano on Guadeloupe, unlike those of Martinique and St. Vincent, shows no de- crease of temperature over the past. The summit of the Soufriére gives opportunity for temperature observations on the fumaroles and the study of the escaping gases. These fumaroles have been active, with varying degrees of strength, during all the historic period of the voleano. A marked increase of discharge of sulphureted steam took place at the time of the eruptions of Martinique and St. Vincent, and an area several acres in extent was then added to the active region. The vents maintain to-day the force of their discharge, but the temperature does not in any case exceed 100 degrees C. (212 degrees F.). The eastern member of the twin islands forming Guadeloupe is sedimentary in origin, and presents geological facts of value in their bearing on the general history of the Antilles. GROUND-SLOTH FROM A CAVE IN PATAGONIA By W. D. Matthew placed on deposit with the Museum three fossil specimens of remarkable interest. These are a fragment of the skin and hair, a piece of the bone and a mass of dung of an extinct ground-sloth from the cave at Last Hope Inlet in Patagonia, presented to him by Sefior Moreno, director of the La Plata Museum, near Buenos Aires. The great ground-sloths of South America are among the most remarkable and inter- esting of the giant quadrupeds which formerly inhabited that country. Many skeletons have been found, especially in the Pampean formation of Argentina, and a fine series of them is shown in the Quaternary mammal hall. They were supposed however to have been extinct for many thousands of years, and it was a disputed point whether or no they were contemporaries of primitive man in that continent. The exploration of this cave about fifteen years ago furnished abun- dant proof that one species at least of these strange animals survived to within a few centuries of the present day, and was not only contemporary with primitive man but was in some sense of the word domesticated by him. Numerous bones and pieces of skin were disinterred from a layer composed of dust and ground-sloth droppings beneath the floor in a dry protected corner of the cave, in company with tools or weapons of stone and bone and bearing unmistakable marks of being cut and fashioned artificially. Bundles of grass spread as though intended for fodder, and other indications showed that the animals had been stabled or imprisoned within the cave and fed by their captors. The dry floor protected against damp and weather has preserved skin and bones with ‘ehgeerens ROOSEVELT has recently bits of tendon and dried flesh clinging to them, and the hair is often in perfect condi- tion. Making all reasonable allowance for these favorable conditions, one can hardly suppose that these remains are more than a few centuries old. There is reason to believe that they are not much less than that, and that they antedated the arrival of white settlers in this region. The skin is covered with a thick coat of golden brown hair, of the same peculiar coarse brittle texture as that of the modern tree- sloth, the nearest living relative of the great ground-sloths. In the under side of the skin are imbedded numerous rounded nodules of bone studded thickly enough to make it a fairly effective defense against the attacks of carnivora. Quantities of similar nodules have been found associated with petrified skeletons of ground-sloths and it had been supposed but never before proved that they were imbedded in the skin during life. The bone fragment has remnants of the dried flesh and tendons still adherent, and shows clearly the marks of the tools used in cutting it up. The mass of dried dung, utterly unlike that of any living animal of that region completes the illusion. It is difficult indeed to believe that these are relics of animals extinct for some hundreds of years. But the rumors that the Grypotherium still survives in the wilds of Patagonia, based probably on the extraordinary freshness of these remains, have been repeatedly investi- gated by subsequent explorers and found to be baseless. Miss Dora Keen of Philadelphia, who visited the locality a few years ago, has also presented to the Museum a sample of hair of the ground- sloth taken from this cave. THE SOMAIKOLI DANCE AT SICHUMOVI By F. S. Dellenbaugh JOURNAL on dances of American In- dians recalled to me that I have seen several Indian dances in years past. In 1884 I spent some weeks on the East Mesa 256 \ RTICLES in the March number of the of what we then called the Moquis Villages, now the Hopi, at that time a somewhat remote region. There were no white men in that country except three or four at Keam’s trading post, fourteen miles from the East ; Mesa, until one reached Hubbell’s Pueblo, Colorado, forty-six miles from Keam’s, and then thirty-five miles farther east at Fort Defiance. To the south it-was eighty miles to the new-town of Holbrook on the just completed Atlantic and Pacific Railway, now the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, and to the west and north there was no camp or set- tlement until the great cafion of the Colorado was crossed and then it was about one hun- dred miles to Kanab. The only other white man in the Hopi Province at the time I was there, was Dr. Jeremiah Sullivan, who lived in Sichumovi with the chief, Anawita, and had been to some extent initiated into that tribe. I had rented from Tom Polacka, a Hano (Tewa) native, the top story of Tewa, a single large room with a fireplace in one corner, and with a porch in front of the door, formed by the roof of the house below, where I could smoke my pipe and easily imagine myself, as I looked along the entire mesa toward Walpi, much farther away from the toiling world than actually I was. On Saturday, November 8, I recorded in my diary: To-day the Moquis have been making great preparations for to-morrow which is a great dance day. To-night they cleaned up the rubbish and threw it over the cliff. To-night is T6-t0-ki-d, To6-td-ki-pit or Tok- fight-d, the “night of dancing.” My diary for Sunday, November 9, further records: To-day was a great one on this mesa. About sunrise I heard the drum going at Sichumovi and a great yelling, and getting up I saw a crowd in the plaza, but the princi- pal actors soon returned to their kiva. The dancing did not begin again until about eleven o’clock and then it did not stop until sunset — dancing with singing and hammer- ing on the drum. The drummer, with his big drum, sat in the center of the plaza with six or seven singers, around whom was a cirele of about forty men, boys, women and girls, all togged out in their best. “‘Mose”’ was there dressed all in black (cambric) and did not look half so well as in his ordinary clothes. It is strange what a fancy these Indians and the Navajo have for black. One man had on calico trousers, one leg one pat- tern, the other another. The women wore white blankets with red borders and they had their hair done up in quite a different fashion from the ordinary. It was brought down smoothly and fastened THE SOMAIKOLI DANCE AT SICHUMOVI 257 behind in a sort of long knot wrapped with red yarn. Over the forehead from ear to ear was a kind of thick fringe of black hair about four inches long, sewed to a string and tied about the head in such a manner that the eyes were almost obscured. Their feet were moccasined, which they are not on ordinary occasions, and the buckskin of the top of the moccasin swathed their legs, as when they ride. The members of the circle sang together as the circle slowly moved from left to right. Each man or boy chose a partner and joined the circle with her. It was absurd to see a tall Indian enter with a girl of only seven or eight years. [I learned later that the older girls were not permitted to take part]. Presently there was a shouting in the direction of the kiva, ‘‘ Yah-hai— yah-hai,” very loud, and looking that way I perceived a man coming, nude excepting for a kilt, and painted yellow. On his head were feathers. His hair was “banged” in front above the eyes, cut short on the sides, and hung down long behind. From his waist at the back trailed afoxskin. In hisright hand he carried a gourd rattle painted green and white and filled with small pebbles, judging from the sound. In the left hand he carried a sort of baton with a cloud symbol in the middle and a free swinging pendant at either end. Imme- diately behind him was one of the most grotesque figures I have ever seen. It was one of those innumerable Hopi ghosts, saints or minor gods known as a “‘katcina,’”’ covered with all sorts of trappings, and heavy wrap- ings about the head with the semblance of a mask in front (the mask fantastically deco- rated with green and other colors), a strong bow in his right hand which he used as a staff (the quiver being hung to his left side), and in his left hand an ear of corn and a small bent stick. He came prancing and dancing and jumping after his leader in the most extraordinary way. The deer hoofs hung around his waist rattled loudly. He was supposed to be blind. His leader rattled as hard as he could rattle and advanced a few steps toward the group shouting an incanta- tion, then suddenly turned and faced the katcina and yelled “Yah-hai — yab-hai” at the top of his lungs. Then he walked on shouting, the drummer thumped away on the drum, the singers and dancers sang, and the katcina capered about in frantic spasms of tramps and jumps, never stopping for an 258 instant. They neared the circle, which broke on one side, and as it became a semi- circle, the dance ceased. The leader and katcina then circled around the drum. The leader shouted in the ear of the katcina at frequent intervals his ‘‘ Yah-hai — yah-hai”’ and yelled his incantation, waving the balance-looking arrangement. This, by the way, is the charm that attracts the katcina and yet holds him off [Sullivan]. After several rounds of this yelling, singing, shouting and jumping, the leader returned to the kiva, slowly followed by the skipping katcina. The circle continued the dance, closing its ranks, and so on until another leader and katcina made their appearance. Sometimes there were three or four at the same time and then the noise was deafening. All day long this continued, and all day I stood my ground with camera and sketch book, notwithstanding certain disapproving looks from the dancers. At one time I THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL thought they meant to tell me to stop using the camera but they did not do so; probably as they had never seen a hand camera before, they did not understand its nature. With the plates manufactured then, and the slow shutter, it was very difficult to get the swiftly darting figures; and that day I was as much of an object of interest to the visiting Navajo, and the Hopi from the other towns, as were the katcinas and the dancers. Nobody molested me however and at sunset when the long procession of katcinas and leaders had passed through the village and received the contributions of sacred meal and prayer feathers from the populace, all weird enough in the gloaming, I returned to my housetop and slept without a break until Hoski, my native boy, after his usual fashion, threw the door open in the morning and set down the olla of water which he always brought up fresh from the spring near the foot of the mesa, some seven hundred feet below. MUSEUM NOTES A sornt anthropological expedition will be undertaken with the University of Colorado of which the distinguished anthropologist, Dr. Livingston Farrand, is now president. The field party will be under the direction of Mr. N.C. Nelson, assistant curator of anthro- pology in this Museum, and Mr. E. H. Morris, curator of the University Museum, and will explore the little-known cliff-dwelling regions of Colorado. Tue New York Academy of Sciences has published an essay on “Climate and Evo- lution” by Dr. W. D. Matthew. This is an attempt to find in the slow cyclic climatic changes of geologic time a fundamental cause controlling the course of evolution and geo- graphical dispersal of animals and plants. The author accepts the view that the deep ocean basins have been substantially perma- nent during the later ages of geologic time, the continents alternately emerged and more or less completely united to the northward, or submerged and extensively overflowed and isolated by shallow seas. The continen- tal shelf at or near the one hundred fathom line marks the extreme limit of emergence. The epochs of elevation have been associated ‘with arid climates and polar cold; :the epochs of submergence with warm moist uniform climates. The record of the evolution and dispersal of the various races of mammals is interpreted in accord with this theory, that of the lower vertebrates briefly outlined. Tue New York Aquarium gave its second annual reception to the members of the New York Zodlogical Society on the evening of May fifth. About five hundred guests were present and were entertained with motion pictures of marine life. The Aquarium had just come into possession of a new collection of tropical fishes from Key West, which were on exhibition, and two more porpoises had been secured for the porpoise pool. Some years ago Mr. G. Frederick Norton began a special study of the so-called blue or “glacier”? bear (which had been named Ursus emmonsi). These bears are confined to the vicinity of Saint Elias range of mountains in Alaska and have a very limited distribution. Mr. Norton secured a number of skins and skulls which have satisfactorily demonstrated that the blue bear is only a color phase of the black bear (Ursus americanus). The black bear apparently is a polychromatic animal and has several well-marked color MUSEUM NOTES 259 phases which in some instances are very local. A few years ago the Museum secured two beautiful skins and skulls of the white bear from Gribbell Island, British Columbia, (which-had been named Ursus kermodei), through Mr. Kermode, curator of the Pro- vincial Museum, Victoria, British Columbia. There seems to be little doubt that instead of being a new species, the white bear is also a color phase of the black bear. The so-called cinnamon bear is a well-known color phase of this same species. Very often in a single litter black and cinnamon bears are found together. The Museum has in mind the preparation of a group showing all of these color phases of the black bear. Through a gift to the Museum by Mr. Norton of a mag- nificent specimen of a glacier bear taken in Disenchantment Bay, Yakutat, Alaska, there remains only the lack of a cinnamon bear to allow the construction of such a group. Tue department of invertebrate zodlogy will actively participate in the Porto Rico Survey during the coming summer. Dr. F. E. Lutz and Mr. A. J. Mutchler will prose- cute entomological investigations in various parts of the island; Mr. Roy W. Miner and Mr. H. Mueller will establish headquarters at Guanica Harbor for studies upon marine invertebrates; while Professor Raymond C. Osburn will carry on dredging operations mainly along the southwest shores, codper- ating with Mr. Miner. For several weeks Dr. A. G. Mayer of the Carnegie Institution and a group of zoélogists will also be carrying on special investigations about Guanica. Suvce the last issue of the Journat the fol- lowing persons have become members of the Museum: Patron, Mrs. Basurorp Dean; Fellow, Mr. Henry Forp; Life Members, Dr. Emitie SNETHLAGE, and Messrs. Freperic AuMy CAMMANN, JAMES P. CHapin, ANDRE bE Coppet, FRANK LeGranp Giiuiss, Herspert Lana, P. W. Livermore, HerMAN Srurzer and James B. Wiievr; Annual Members, Mrs. Georce Conrap Coox, Mrs. Racnet Lenox Porter, Miss Autce L. Ciarx, Miss Evizasetu Dova tas, Dr. P. Maxwett Fosuay, Dr. Harry Justin Roppy, Dr. Cuartes H. Youna, ‘and Messrs. I. pe Bruyn, Georce H. Cuiapp, HerBert STANLEY CONNELL, HENRY Doscuer, Frepertc HuntINGTon DovG.as, Hotianp 8. Duet, Jonn M. Guenn, F. HERRMANN, AuGcust Kuun, Jutius Kuan, Lee Lavurig, Ivy L. Les, E. A. McILHEenny, WiuraM C. Murpay, D. E. Pomeroy, Rocer M. Poor, Ropert W. Sayies, H. JeERMAIN Stocum, Jr., FRANK B. Smipt, Jacos Srern- HARDT, CARLL TucKEeR, WituiamM YounG WESTERVELT and FREDERICK N. WILLsoN. Mr. Hersert Lana has been appointed assistant in mammalogy and Mr. James P. Chapin assistant in ornithology. Mr. Lang and Mr. Chapin have also been elected life members of the Museum in recognition of their efficient services in conducting the Congo expedition. Mrs. BasHrorp Dean has recently been elected patron of the Museum in acknowledg- ment of her recent contributions toward the preparation of the bibliography of fishes; Mr. Henry Ford has been made fellow, in appreciation of his generosity in presenting to the institution the bust of John Burroughs; and Dr. Emilie Snethlage, life member, in recognition of her practical interest in the development of the Museum’s South Ameri- can collections. Dr. Cuester A. REEDs and Mr. Prentice B. Hill of the department of geology and invertebrate paleontology will leave on May 29 to carry on stratigraphic and paleontologic investigations in Porto Rico in connection with the Porto Rico Survey. Messrs. H. E. Anroony and D. 8. Batu have returned from an expedition to the mountains of the Isthmus of Darien in eastern Panama, bringing with them a collection of 1100 birds and 250 mammals, many of which are new to the Museum’s tollections and some undoubtedly new to science. These col- lectors left for the field the latter part of January, but owing to the inaccessibility of the country to be explored, they had only about two months in which to accomplish their work before the rainy season set in. It took them nearly a month to reach the ground where they were to do their collecting and almost as long to return from there. At the City of Panama they were joined by Mr. W. B. Richardson, who had been doing some preliminary work in Darien. The party left the City of Panama on February 8 and going 260 down the coast in a gasolene launch to El Real, began to ascend the Tuyra River, a river several miles across at the mouth. In the lower part of the river they were obliged to leave the launch and take to canoes, travel- ing in this way as far as the foothills of the mountain. There they got natives for pack- ers and carried their outfit for three days’ journey to the foot of Mount Tacarcuna, from which point most of the work was done. Later camp was made at the very highest point on the mountain where there was any water. From this site on the mountain range that forms the boundary between Panama and Colombia, the Atlantic could be seen in the distance. The region, probably because of its inaccessibility, has never before been explored biologically. Indeed the Indians there had never seen a Northern white man before. Its fauna presents an important scientific problem because it seems to indicate that the mountain range which forms the Isthmus of Darien was at one time connected with the western Andes of northern Colombia. In 1913 Dr. William T. Hornaday, advo- cate of wild life protection, decided that the cause could not be adequately supported through annual subscriptions. He deter- mined upon the creation of what is now known as the “‘Permanent Wild Life Protec- tion Fund,” for nation-wide campaign work during the next one hundred years, the “ in- come only for use on the firing-line.” The wild life protective principles are formulated as follows: Stop the sale of wild game; promote laws to prevent unnaturalized aliens from owning or using rifles and shot-guns; stop all spring and late-winter shooting; stop all killing of insectivorous birds for food, and of all birds for millinery purposes; increase the number of game preserves; oppose the use of all extra deadly automatic, auto-loading and “pump” guns in hunting, and secure the pas- sage of laws against them; secure perpetual close seasons for all species of wild life that are threatened with extinction from our fauna. The plan has already received a remarkable series of indorsements. The minimum fixed upon was $100,000, and up to date $73,050 has been subscribed. This is the second largest endowment fund in existence for the benefit of wild life. The Banking Trustees of the Fund are Messrs. Clark Williams and A. Barton Hepburn. Dr. Hornaday, as the ampaigning trustee, expends the annual THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL income of the Fund in accordance with the principles originally formulated. A rather novel feature of the plan provides that the names of all persons who make large sacrifices for the formation of the Fund shall be known as Founders, and that their names shall be permanently associated with the Fund and its results. The most important work to be undertaken in the immediate future under the auspices of this Fund, is the promotion of a very comprehensive plan for the creation of game sanctuaries in national forests. This campaign will begin on September first and will be prosecuted with much vigor until complete success is achieved. THROUGH interest created by the Roosevelt South American expedition, the Museum has received six hundred birds and fifty mammals, presented by the Goeldi Museum of Para, through its director of zodlogy, Dr. Emilie Snethlage. The members of the North American expedition when passing through Pard in May, 1914, called on Dr. Snethlage to examine the rich collections of Amazonian fauna which she, and her predecessor Doctor Goeldi, have amassed. Dr. Snethlage writes that shortly after the Roosevelt party passed through Pard she herself embarked on an expedition into the unexplored portions of the Upper Xing, on which she was absent seven months. Unfortunately, within a month after her departure from Parad, the middle finger of her right hand was bitten off to the base by a piranha, the small man-eating fish of South America. An exhibit to illustrate the principles of Mendelian heredity has recently been in- stalled in the Darwin hall and is temporarily labeled. As at present exhibited, there are five panels showing as many instances of inheritance in plants and animals: first the classical case of the seed color of the common pea, based on Mendel’s original experiments; second, complex inheritance as illustrated by the colors of the sweet pea, based on the experiments of Bateson; and third, three panels to illustrate the inheritance of coat color in the common rat, namely, the effect on the third generation of crossing one, two and three varieties of unit characters respec- tively. A more detailed account of this exhibit will be given in a future issue of the © JOURNAL. _ '‘Tue exhibit in the Darwin hall showing variation under domestication has been rearranged and forms one of the items in a series illustrating Darwinian principles. In this case the chief_variations of the dog, the -- pigeon ‘and the common barnyard fowl are shown. Mr. N. C. Netson of the department of anthropology is engaged in excavating the prehistoric and early historic ruined villages in the neighborhood of Santa Fé. “ Tue Evolution of the Jaw Muscles of Ver- tebrates” was the subject of a recent presenta- tion before the New York Academy of Sciences by Prof. L. A. Adams, who has been investigat- ing this subject in the Museum laboratory of vertebrate evolution. By means of the stere- opticon he exhibited a series of very clear drawings of the skull and jaw muscles of a score or more of representative vertebrates of all classes, and showed by what comparatively slight successive changes the arrangement of the jaw muscles of primitive fishes has given rise to the various modifications that are characteristic of the higher types. _ Tue civic exhibition at the National Arts Club is one of the most instructive yet brought together on the problems touching artistic betterment of New York City. Maps, photographs, architectural designs and sculptural models bring out many proposed plans for beautifying Riverside Drive and its docks, besides various bridges, streets and parks. Among suggested features for deco- ration of buildings may be noted mural de- signs by E. W. Deming and WillS. Taylor and sculptural animal designs by Carl E. Akeley, all of the American Museum’s staff and at present engaged in work for the artistic im- provement of the Museum buildings. SUBSTANTIAL progress has been made in installing the new storage system for dino- saurs and other fossil reptiles. Most of these large and heavy specimens have hitherto been laid out on mats on wooden tables ranked three deep, filling up the large dino- saur storeroom at the top of the southwest tower wing; the remainder stored in wooden trays piled up in every available corner of the storerooms and laboratories. The ar- rangement was originally intended as a temporary one, but for lack of a better equip- ment has lasted fifteen years. It was some- MUSEUM NOTES 261 what cumbersome, the larger fossils were exposed to dust and risk of breakage, the smaller ones difficult of access, and the danger of serious fire damage became continually greater as constant additions crowded the collections more and more. The new system will provide ultimately three double stacks of steel racks twelve feet high with strong but light steel framed trays three by four feet, and wall racks for the smaller wooden trays. The specimens are laid out on mats in the large trays and lifted up by a small movable elevator. The sys- tem is adjustable and compact, and en- ables the large heavy and often fragile bones to be moved with safety and convenience. The great saving in space is shown by the fact that the one double stack now installed accommodates most of the contents of the storeroom, so full under the old system as to be unmanageably crowded. Other collec- tions which for lack of room were temporarily placed elsewhere will find ample storage space and security in the second stack now under construction and in the wall racks. The third stack is planned for accommodation of future collections but will not be installed at present. The trays will be protected from dust by fireproofed covers and curtains. The risk of fire is now slight as there is practically noth- ing to burn except the old wooden trays which must be retained for the present to contain the smaller specimens, and the adequate space around these will make it easy to con- trol any fire that might get started. The room now available to lay out dinosaur skeletons for study and comparison has been urgently needed for research work on these collections. The lighting of the storeroom has also been greatly improved. Tue Southwestern Anthropological Society for promotion of research work in the history and ethnology of the Southwest has recently been organized at Santa Fé. Dr. Livingston Farrand, president of the University of Colo- rado and formerly curator in the American Museum, was elected president and Dr. Paul Radin, secretary. Dr. P. E. Goddard and Mr. N. C. Nelson of this Museum have been invited to become members of the committee on research. Mr. Cuartes W. Meap, assistant curator of anthropology, in charge of the South 262 American collections, has just completed an exhaustive investigation of the native copper and bronze industry of the New World. The primary part of the investigation was the chemical analysis of one hundred and sixty museum specimens, so selected as to give typical series for each important locality. The laboratory tests were made by Mr. W. A. Wissler, A. M. Mr. Mead finds by corre- lating the chemical determinations with the distribution and types of implements, that the prehistoric Peruvians thoroughly under- stood the art of making bronze from copper and tin. In addition, he has brought to- gether the early fragmentary accounts of Spanish explorers as to how these metals were worked, which became more intelligible in the light of the chemical studies. Among the obscure and little-known sources is the Arte De Los Metales by Alvaro Alonso Barba, published early in the seventeenth century, a copy of which was kindly placed at Mr. Mead’s disposal by Mr. E. P. Mathewson of the Anaconda Copper Mining Company. The full report of this study will soon appear in the Anthropological Papers of the Museum. Dr. Ropert H. Lowrie and Mr. ALANSON SKINNER of the department of anthropology have just completed five publication reports upon their last year’s field work among our western Indians. Dr. Lowie made a special study of the societies and social organiza- tions of the Ute and Shoshone, while Mr. Skinner investigated the same aspects of primitive culture among the Iowa, Kansa and Ponca tribes. These reports will appear in a special volume of the Anthropological Papers now nearing completion, treating the societies and social organizations of the Plains Indians in an exhaustive manner. On April 9, Dr. W. H. R. Rivers of Cam- bridge University, England, visited the de- partment of anthropology of the Museum, having stopped a day in New York on his return from attendance at the Australian meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science and a subsequent visit to several of the South Sea Islands. Dr. Rivers is known among anthropologists throughout the world for his intensive re- searehes into the ethnology of the Torres Straits Islanders and of the Todas of southern India. More recently he investigated vari- ous of the Melanesian groups as director of the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition. He has THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL profoundly stimulated ethnological thought by developing the genealogical method as a means of research in the study of social usages and by directing attention to the im- portance of kinship nomenclature. His latest publications, Kinship and Social Organisation and The History of Melanesian Society are largely devoted to the latter topic and form a landmark in the history of the subject. At the Museum, Dr. Rivers examined with interest the collections in the South Sea hall and dis- cussed the investigations of kinship terminolo- gies of North American and Oceanian peoples. Mr. Russett J. Cotes has presented to the Museum an eighteen-foot female Manta (devilfish or giant ray). This was caught on April 11 in the Gulf of Mexico, some one hundred miles south of Tampa, after a danger- ous twenty-two-minute fight with the giant fish. Mr. Coles was instrumental last year in procuring for the Museum two specimens of Manta, respectively eleven and seven and one- half feet across, but knowing that the species reached a much larger size, he has not rested until a finer specimen was secured. The one just captured is, as far as we are aware, the largest recorded on our Atlantic coast, for while the species is popularly said in books to reach a width of twenty feet, none of these giants has as yet come to hand. A reproduction of this eighteen-foot animal will make a magnificent addition to our exhibit of fishes. In the New York City building at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, to the right of the entrance, is an alcove containing photo- graphic exhibits of the several museums and libraries of New York City. The selected exhibits from the American Museum of Natu- ral History aims to indicate to the general public the institution’s scientific scope, its financial status, and its place in the city as an educational institution. Dr. Rosert H. Lowte will leave early in June for field work among the Kiowa Indians of Oklahoma, the Hopi of Arizona and the Paiute of Nevada. From the Kiowa Dr. Lowie hopes to secure information concerning their military societies; the investigations among the Hopi will cover social organization or clan system; and the work in Nevada is a continuation of that undertaken last year as part of the Museum’s extensive survey of Shoshonean tribes. MUSEUM NOTES Tue American Ethnological Society, which was founded in 1842 by Mr. Albert Gallatin, has adopted a new constitution with a view to incorporating a society for the safeguarding of its growing endowment fund. Tue Museum has recently secured a large collection consisting chiefly of pottery taken from the island of Marajo, Brazil, by Mr. Algot Lange. This pottery was secured on Mr. Lange’s second expedition to South America, the first having been made for the University Museum of Philadelphia. A REPRESENTATIVE collection of Salvador archeology which Dr. Herbert J. Spinden obtained last summer by arrangement with the government of Salvador, has lately ar- rived at the Museum and has been installed in the Mexican hall. The specimens include pottery and stone, and represent a long period of art with several distinct phases. There are many examples of archaic pottery which may date from before the time of Christ, as well as beautiful painted vases of the Maya civiliza- tion and glazed ware of the Aztec period. Proressor C.-E. A. Winstow has been appointed to the newly established Anna M. L. Lauder professorship of public health at the Yale Medical School. He will give up his connection with the New York State Department of Health and the Teachers’ College to take up this work next fall, but will continue to act as curator of public health at the American Museum. At the May meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences Dr. Charles H. Town- send exhibited moving pictures of recent Biological Survey dredging operations in Long Island Sound by the United States Fisheries steamer “Fish Hawk.’ The fauna of the muddy bottom in the middle of the Sound, Dr. Townsend said, is considerably different from that along the margins where oyster beds abound. It includes great num- bers of spider crabs, flounders and whelks. Dr. Charles B. Davenport, director of the Carnegie Station for Experimental Evolution at Cold Spring Harbor, described the fauna of the brackish waters on the north shores of Long Island and showed how different forms which are dependent upon salt water, such as mussels, Littorea and barnacles, manage to 263 live in brackish water if they can get purer salt water at high tide. Professor Raymond C. Osburn read a paper on the “Geographical Distribution of the Bryozoa of the Atlantic Coast of North America.” Nearly three hundred species of Bryozoa are known to inhabit the coastal shelf down to the hundred- fathom line. The species fall for the most part into three groups: (1) cosmopolitan species or those of wide range; (2) northern species often circumpolar, which range southward along the coast; (3) tropical species, which range northward from Florida. Charts indicating the relation of the bryo- zoan distribution to ocean temperatures and currents were exhibited. Dr. RaymMonp C. Osspurn of the New York Aquarium, assistant professor of zoél- ogy in Barnard College, Columbia Univer- sity, has accepted the professorship of biology in the Connecticut College for Women at New London. He will be greatly missed by his colleagues in New York, who hope that he will be able to keep in touch with his scientific interests here. Notice of the death of the distinguished English paleontologist and zodlogist, Richard Lydekker occurs in Nature for April 29. Dr. Lydekker was well known as a high authority upon mammals both living and extinct. His most notable contributions to scientific re- search dealt with the fossil mammals and dinosaurs of India and Argentina, but he is perhaps better known as the author of a number of excellent text-books and treatises of a more popular kind dealing with the liv- ing and extinct mammalia. Among these may be especially mentioned: A Geographic History of Mammals, Mammals Living and Extinct (Flower and Lydekker), Manual of Paleontology (Nicholson and Lydekker), The New Natural History, Deer of All Lands, The Horse and its Relatives, The Ox and its Kin- dred, Game Animals of Africa, Game Animals of India, Mostly Mammals (a collection of essays). He was the author of the Cata- logues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles, Am- phibians and Birds in the British Museum, of numerous articles in the last edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, a frequent con- tributor to Nature, The Field, Knowledge, Science Progress and other English periodicals, to the Proceedings of the Zodlogical Society and other journals of research. 264 Mr. Howarp McCormick has begun work on the canvas for the background of a second Indian habitat group to be placed in the Southwest Indian hall. The group represents Apache Indians engaged in various occupa- tions under a flat-topped shelter of boughs and gives as a background a view of the San Carlos river valley and neighboring moun- tains where these Apache live. Studies for the group were made by Mr. McCormick in Arizona in 1914. THe Museum has recently secured by purchase through the Dodge fund, from Mr. P. A. Bungart, a local collector of Lorain, Ohio, a valuable collection of Dinichthyids from the Devonian shales of Ohio. The collection of thirty-three specimens includes several complete crania and a number of other remains of high scientific value. Mr. F. A. Watson is on the north coast of Santo Domingo making collections for the department of invertebrate zodlogy. The ex- penses of his trip are being covered by Mr. B. Preston Clark of Boston, Massachusetts. Mr. Clarence R. Halter, who is spending May and June in the same region, is collecting reptiles and batrachians for the Museum. Tue sledge used by Admiral Peary on the expedition which reached the North Pole, has been loaned to the Oakland Museum for exhibition during the period of the Panama- Pacific exposition. Tue purchase of the collections made by Mr. Richard Douglas in Matebeleland, South Africa, a few years ago, secures to the Museum a large series of prehistoric stone implements and a considerable series of baskets and other ethnological specimens, as well as small col- lections of reptiles, mammals and birds from the region. Two accessions of interest recently received by the department of anthropology are an Indian-made canoe, weighing thirty-nine pounds and decorated with beads on the bow, the gift of the Hudson Bay Importing Com- pany, and a beautiful feather hammock from Brazil presented by Mr. Charles R. Flint. A PRELIMINARY report on the fishes ob- tained in Porto Rico last summer by Mr. John T. Nichols is published in the American Museum Bulletin. Mr. Nichols lists twenty- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL two species not previously recorded from the island and describes two new species. His work on the fishes of Porto Rico was done in connection with the biological survey of the island made by the New York Academy of Sciences for the insular government. Amone the recent anthropological publi- cations of the Museum is one on Pawnee Indian Societies by James R. Murie, a dis- tinguished Pawnee chief. For several years Mr. Murie has been gathering data from the oldest men of his race and under the immedi- ate supervision of Dr. Clark Wissler, has prepared several manuscripts for publication, of which the present issue is the first. Proressor A. L. Krorser, head of the de- partment of anthropology in the University of California, will spend the next academic year in New York City as a guest of the Museum. He has also volunteered to assist in the Museum field work by spending the summer in the Pueblo of Zufi. Professor Kroeber was formerly connected with this Museum, when he distinguished himself in the investi- gation of American decorative art. Dr. Frank E. Lutz, of the Museum’s de- partment of invertebrate zodlogy, has been appointed a member of the board of editors of the New York State List of Insects. Mr. Charles W. Leng, honorary curator of Coleop- tera of the Museum, is also a member. GENERAL THomMas H. Hupparp, lawyer, veteran of the Civil War and director in many corporations, died at his home in New York City on May 19 after an illness of but a few days. General Hubbard had been a member of the American Museum of Natural History since 1875 and had been somewhat closely associated with it through his interest in Arctic explorations. He was an active memi- ber of the Peary Arctic Club from the date of its first meeting in 1899 and was its presi- dent after the death of Mr. Morris K. Jesup in 1908. It was his financial aid together with that of Mr. Jesup, Mr. Crocker and other members of the Club, which made possible the discovery of the North Pole by Peary. Several Arctic geographical names, such as Hubbard Glacier and Cape Thomas Hubbard, bear witness to Peary’s acknowledgment of General Hubbard’s aid. General Hubbard was also one of the most generous contrib- utors to the Crocker Land expedition. 96° THe American Museum JourNa ma Votume XV OCTOBER, 1915 NuMBER 6 CONTENTS Cover, Kikuyu Boy, British East Africa Photograph by Car! E. Akeley Srcmeement MilseQi Groups... 2... 26 cbs enc cee cece ceetccees Laysan IsLanp Birp Group.— University of Iowa Fur Seats on Kitrovi Rooxery.— American Museum of Natural History, New York Vireinita DEER IN THE ApIRONDACKS.— Brooklyn Institute Museum NEAR THE END OF 4 Tiger Hunt.— Bristol Museum and Art Gallery, England Tyrannosaurus, the Largest Flesh-eating Animal that Ever Lived Barnum Brown With illustrations of the model for a proposed group in the American Museum and of the first mounted skeleton for this group Story of the discovery and excavation of the petrified bones of these gigantic dinosaurs in the Bad Lands of Montana IRENE NEN es ee aan bee JAMES P. CHAPIN Illustrations from photographs by Herbert Lang Reproductions in Duotone of African Photographs................. opposite From the work of Herbert Lang and Carl E. Akeley The Trail of War in Macedonia..................... Davip STARR JORDAN The Penguins of South Georgia............... Ropert CusHMAN Murpuy The story of the ‘‘kings,”’ following the story of the ‘‘Johnnies’’ in the last issue of the JOURNAL Ancient Gold Art in the New World.............. HERBERT J. SPINDEN Collection of 15,000 specimens in gold, stone and pottery excavated from the ruins of a pre- historic city in Costa Rica — Discovery made during the clearing of a great banana planta- tion at Mercedes by Mr. Minor C. Keith Frederic Ward Putnam, 1839-1915...................... CLARK WISSLER Brief review of the work of one of the most eminent of American anthropologists Tc eg oo gicl wie wih o adda a wa aigle wes 6 ee Including illustration of white rhino presented to the American Museum by Mr. John H. Prentice Mary Cyntraia Dickerson, Editor 266 271 281 292 293 301 307 Published monthly from October to May by the American Museum of Natural History, at the Cosmos Press, Cambridge, Mass. Terms: one dollar and a half per year, twenty cents per copy. Entered as second-class matter January 12, 1907, at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., Act of Congress, July 16, 1894. Subscriptions should be addressed to the Amertcan Museum Journat, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the Museum. OOF SEUIOS SIDAOD PUNOAFIIOJ & Spaiq JO suoT]]Iw Jo owoy sy st ‘soyrur oaenbs OM} UBYY SSO] JO VoIe UB YAIM ‘OYTOVg OY Ul puRysy uBsAVTT ‘ooOvdS JOOP JO Joos o1eNdsS pur yy Soy UT 4OOJ ZI PUL SUO] JOOJ VET SI SBAULD OY, ‘“WNesn_ VMOT OY9 JO [VY UO Suryy (91 JO YQUE}-ou0) vuUIeVIOTOAD JO UOTIOg [sdnouy wnasnpyY 7qUuIIay fo sa1ag] VMOI 4O ALISYSAINN S3LVLS SHL—dNOYS ANVISI NVSAV1 19% O00 RO] 4B UdEq CATT qasnur 91079 ZZ8T Ul Inq ‘ato STeOsS OOST WOM OOTY ZOST UL “4UlOd UBTUByN'T pPsBmMoy {SvoyqsoUu Suypyooy , aoqvoyaydure ,, 049 SB UMOUY ‘puvsy [neg 4g *AIDHOOY [AO JO javd B SOpNypouy MOTA OUT, ‘OWYOSeTE Yoopoay Aq OFv savoA oulos poyunoul svos ‘}40dQ Woqry Aq svAuVO Jo Zuyjuyed puv punoi#o10y Jo Zuyopoyy [sdnouy wnasnpy yusvay fo saisag] MYOA MSN ‘AYOLSIH TWHNLVN SO WNASNW NVOINSWV —AYSNOOY IAOLIM LV STIV3S HN 89% svi MOTIOA PUL Pal JO SSODXO 94} SOIVUIUITTO FOIA WoeIOS 1O[OO & puv SduIe] PoT[y-ueso131U JO esN 944 YSNoIgG peureyqo 4YysI} -ABp [eingeu sutees yeyM Aq po yysy st dnois oyy, “Apnyosy, ‘gq ‘WW AQ pojured odvospuy, ‘;[feMyooy “A “yw AQ poeqJuNou pue poq_ooT[OO oSvyod JouTUINS UL STeUjUy [sdnoiyy unasnpy quavay fo sarsag] WNASNW SZLNLILSNI NATHOOUS —'SHMOVGNOYIGV SHL NI YS350 VINIDYIA & 7 ete te + pee one posuNnoUl ‘ssouyAY [BAO Sf vou UOALIP Used sey J024 ‘jedoN ul ‘A 981004) Bupy ‘Aqsofeypy sre Aq ous ‘x [sdnouyy wnosnp yusvey fo saisag] GNVIONS 'AYSTIVS LYV GNV WNSSNW IOLSIY8 —’LNNH Y3SDIL VY JO GN3 3HL DONIYVSN THE PROPOSED TYRANNOSAURUS GROUP FOR THE AMERICAN MUSEUM, AS SHOWN IN A REDUCED MODEL BY MR. ERWIN CHRISTMAN 270 THe AMERICAN Museum Journal VotumME XV OCTOBER, 1915 NUMBER 6 TYRANNOSAURUS, THE LARGEST FLESH-EATING ANIMAL THAT EVER LIVED By Barnum Brown AWN glows along the shore of a 1) lagoon near the sea three mil- lions of years ago in Montana. The landscape is of low relief; sycamores and ginkgo trees mingle with figs, palms and bananas. There are few twittering birds in the tree-tops and no herds of grazing animals to greet the early sun. A huge herbivorous dinosaur T'racho- don, coming on shore for some favorite food has been seized and partly eaten by a giant Tyrannosaurus. Whilst this monster is ravenously consuming the carcass another Tyrannosaurus draws near determined to dispute the prey. The stooping animal hesitates, partly rises and prepares to spring on its oppo- nent. With colossal bodies poised on massive hind legs and steadied by long tails, ponderous heads armed with sharp dagger-like teeth three to five inches long, front limbs exceedingly small but set for a powerful clutch, they are the very embodiment of dynamic animal force. This is the picture conjured by a group of three fossil skeletons in the American Museum which completed will occupy a space fifty-four feet long and twelve feet wide. The erect Tyrannosaurus skeleton now finished measures forty- seven feet in length from tip to tip and eighteen and one-half feet in height. Larger herbivorous dinosaurs have been found in the United States and in Africa in rocks of an earlier age but their carnivorous contemporaries were at least a third smaller than Tyrannosaurus which we can safely state is the largest terrestrial flesh-eater of all ages. A complete skeleton has never been found; even scattered remains are rare; but the Museum’s skeletons fortunately supplement each other in such a way that bones missing in the one have been cast from the other. Only the tip of the tail and the lower part of the front limbs have been modeled from an allied form. The discovery of these rare fossils is of peculiar interest. While hunting deer along the Missouri River some years ago, Dr. W. T. Hornaday, director of the New York Zodlogical Park, dis- covered several large fossil bones. One of these shown to me, I identified as part of a horn of a dinosaur Triceratops; and photographs which Dr. Hornaday had taken of the scene of discovery showed a striking similarity to localities in Wyo- ming where many Cretaceous fossils have been found. The following year, 1902, an expedi- tion was sent to the new locality. Our outfitting point and base of supplies was Miles City, Montana, a point on the railroad one hundred and thirty miles from the “bad lands.” After five long days across measureless undulating prairie, past numerous flocks of sheep 271 igh set hae Bw THE GIANT CARNIVOROUS DINOSAUR TYRANNOSAURUS , The skeleton is forty-seven feet in length, and stands nineteen feet in height from the floor. The gigantic head, sharp teeth and claws all show the carnivorous adaptations and habits of the animal It can safely be said that Tyrannosaurus, which lived three millions of years ago, is the largest , terrestrial flesh-eater of all ages. The skeleton is intended to form part of a group representing two Tyrannosaurs quarreling over the carcass of a Trachodon or duckbilled dinosaur. When the new west wing is built the Tyrannosaur group will be the central exhibit of the Cretaceous dinosaur hall. Owing to lack of space, only one skeleton can be mounted at present and this has to be placed temporarily in the Quaternary hall on the fourth floor 272 THE LARGEST FLESH-EATING DINOSAUR and fewer herds of cattle, we arrived at the little log post-office Jordan. A few miles beyond this point at the head of the small streams tributary to the Missouri River, the prairie abruptly changes to a panorama of wonderful bad lands; a wilderness of variegated sculptured cliffs and domes intersected by deep cafions with scattered pine trees and pockets of junipers; while on the hillsides in the broader valleys, lines of cottonwoods mark the stream courses. The dullness of the denuded earth is relieved by bright-colored clay in bands traceable on the same level for miles. Hard globular sandstones of all sizes are seattered among the layers of sand, and groups of them cluster the slopes of the hills. We established camp on Hell Creek near the old Max Sieber ranch, where the first bones had been discovered. Nearby, the stream has cut into a hill exposing rounded sandstones, many of 273 which have rolled down to the water. Some of the stones contained bones and we traced them up the hillside by broken pieces until the original position of the layer was located. Here in the buff- colored sand half way up the hill we found the first skeleton of Tyranno- saurus lying in the position in which it had been interred and petrified millions of years ago. The skeleton was disarticulated and scattered on the same level and almost every bone was separately enclosed in a bluish sandstone as hard as granite. The loose surface sand was easily re- moved but below the frost line the hard cemented mass was almost unyielding to a pick. The area over which the bones were scattered and the almost vertical slope of the hill necessitated removal of a vast amount of material. With additional help, plows, scrapers and dynamite we attacked the task, carving off slices of the hillside down to SKELETON RECENTLY MOUNTED IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM The successive expeditions under Mr. Barnum Brown in the Cretaceous of Montana and Alberta have secured for the Museum a large series of dinosaur skeletons representing all the principal types of this period. The Tyrannosaurus mount is regarded as the finest piece of work in this line which has yet been accomplished. The articulation and pose are the result of prolonged and thorough studies and criticism, and the mechanical problems have been solved and managed with great skill and a clear appreciation of the artistic and scientific concept which was to be executed. The mounting was done by Mr. Charles Lang under the direction of Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn and the scientific staff of the department of vertebrate paleontology 274 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL the bone layer, where the bones were taken up one by one. Part of a second summer was required to complete taking out this skeleton and the work when finished left an excavation in the hill thirty feet long, twenty feet wide and twenty-five feet deep. Some of the sandstone blocks containing the bones shipped back to the Museum were of huge size; one containing the pelvis weighed 4150 pounds and required four horses to transport it to the railroad. A second skeleton, the one just mounted, was found six years later in the same Montana bad lands on Big Dry Creek. This is considerably more complete than the first one. Tyrannosaurus is a giant reptile dis- tantly related to lizards, crocodiles and birds. Its hind legs are formed like those of birds and the bones are pneu- matic. It was a powerful creature, doubtless swift of movement when occasion demanded speed, and capable of destroying any of the contemporary creatures, a king of the period and monarch of its race. The rear view of the skeleton shows the narrow birdlike construction of the pelvis, and compact rib-basket, the massive proportions of the great hind limbs, which bend forward at the knee as in birds, instead of outward as in crocodiles and lizards. The tail is enlarged out of its due proportion by the perspective, but its sweeping curves are clearly brought out, as well as the slighter curves of backbone and neck, all care- fully studied for the pose adopted. The sudden pause in its forward rush on coming close to its crouching enemy is well suggested, but the attitude could be more clearly seen if the out- lines of the flesh of the body and limbs were restored. SONVT QV SNOFSOVLAYO AHL NI LNO ONIYSHLVAM SNOILSHYONOO JNOLSGNVS Ah ROP Yrs agers ae gh taille Ayn TYRANNOSAURUS QUARRY. HELL CREEK, MONTANA Excavating with team and scraper, to remove a Tyrannosaurus skeleton lying in the position in which it had been interred and petrified millions of years ago PIGI JO UOM;pedxgy unosny YSAIN Y3S0 GIy ‘M3ASHO GNVS 4O HLNOW LV dWVO WOYS AVOYETIVY OL NOILOSJTION ONIINVH Fes ms SLZ SOojita 1OJ [OAO] OUTS OY} TO OTGROdRIy Spueq UT ARID polO[Od-JYSIIq AQ PoAdoroa ST YQIvS peptiuep otf} Jo ssoul[hp ot, ‘sosinod uree1js oY YAIRU spooMU0j}09 JO soul] ‘SAOT[VA Jopvoaq 949 UT SopIsT{TYy oy} Uo oTTyA ‘ssedrunf Jo syoxood pure soo13 ould po10}}ROS TIM suoUR. dosp Aq poJooSIoJUT SOMIOP PUR SYTTO poangdynos pozesoliwa JO ssousopyIM wv ‘onbsoangoid AJOA pue Yoeqossoy uo o[qisseduy ysoupy INNOSSIN S3HL GHYVMOL DNIMOOT SGNV1 GVa SNOFOVLAYO FIGT jo tpodx#y UmMoesny~y uURoPJoury GuO4 V PNISSOYO GHSH ‘VOVNVO ‘VLYSE1V ‘YSAIN H3S0 G3yY ne ~~ i>. (4 S ahd > Ak ts following page] CAUSEWAY THROUGH SWAMPY FOREST NEAR Note the abundance of epiphytic plants on the trees. 280 MEDJE (ITURI DISTRICT) [For birds found in such a forest, see footnote on BIRDS OF THE CONGO NHE Congo offers wonderful op- portunity to the naturalist, and a surely it will be difficult for one who from childhood has been a bird- lover to express the fascination of bird study in central Africa —to tell the charm of knowing the birds of a Congo forest almost as he knew those of the — woods of his boyhood, recognizing them by | their voices, finding their nests, investigating their ways of life, their food and enemies; and finally of culti- ___yating this acquaintance for more than - five years. Tn a country like tropical Africa, of course all serious study must be inti- mately correlated with collecting, for exact knowledge is otherwise impossible. _ The preparation and care of specimens, although apt to be more tedious in such a damp hot climate, are in principle _ much the same as at home; but it is the experiences in collecting, and the infor- ‘mation one cannot fail to gather in the course of such work that prove of the highest value. Much of our success I believe was due to the endeavor to 1 For this unique opportunity I am indebted to the American Museum of Natural History, in whose Congo Expedition I have had the privilege to take part as scientific assistant to Mr. Herbert Lang, and I feel it my duty here to express my sincere admiration of Mr. Lang’s efficient direc- tion of the work and my heartfelt appreciation of his invaluable advice and encouragement throughout our long stay. Footnote: — Most important among the char- acteristic birds of this equatorial forest are the crowned eagle (Spizaétus), the black guinea fowl (Phasidus), wood rails (Himantornis and Cani- rallus), plaintain eaters (Corytheola; Turacus), gray parrots and hornbills, but in addition there are {many smaller eagles and hawks, crested guinea fowls (Guttera), forest doves (Calopelia), fruit pigeons (Vinago), cuckoos, horned and wood owls, beautiful trogons, spine-tailed swifts, barbets, woodpeckers, starlings, black-headed orioles, bulbuls, thrushes and weaver birds. By James P. Chapin ~~ Tilustrations from photographs by Herbert Lang profit by this knowledge as well as to rely whenever possible on the assistance of natives. Negro ornithology is interesting, al- though often far from exact. Names for birds are usually generic, as might be expected. Sometimes one term in- cludes all the members of a family, al- though a common and _ conspicuous species, like the great blue plantain eater or the fish-eagle, has a name of its own. These names have originated frequently in the calls of the birds, as nalurubu (pigeon), nambulukuku (dove), magiigilt (lapwing) and buku (wood- owl). Among the Medje, a_ green- backed cuckoo’s plaintive whistled note is very well imitated in its name, papun- zisodu |literally, “Father is dead, so there!”’]. Others are named from their habits, as the tick-bird that clings to the bodies of buffalos and rhinos is known to the Azande as zeregbe, or buffalo-bird. The birds of Africa are generally conceded to be inferior in song to those of Europe, yet there are some worthy of high praise. Best are the thrushes, three of which (of the genus Cossypha) are also expert mimics, often mocking eagles, hawks, fruit-pigeons and cuckoos from hiding places in dense second- growth. One of their small relatives, an extremely wary denizen of the virgin forest, has a song so sweet that my native helper christened it the “king of music.” On the granite hills of the Sudan border and fond of the most inaccessible rocks there, is another first-rate songster (Thamnolea) of the thrush family. The orioles of course have mellow whistles, as do also a few of the numerous 281 282 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Native climber at a hornbill’s nest thirty- five feet from the ground. He has made the as- cent by means of two stiff ropelike loops encir- cling the tree, one supporting his right thigh, the other the left foot Head of hornbill (Ortholophus cassini), owner of nest shown above A! and varied shrikes. Even the emerald cuckoo utters pleasant whistled notes. This bird is known among Europeans as the most beautiful of Congo birds, although a lover of tall trees, where the jewel-like green of its back and head can hardly be admired. On the other hand, none of the larks we met with had any- thing worthy to be called music, indeed one of them simply beats its wings loudly at intervals (whence its name “clapper-lark’’) while making long flights high in the air. Congo birds are not lacking in bril- The flower- loving sunbirds, somewhat larger than liant and striking plumage. hummers, have gorgeous metallic purple, violet and green hues, often with red and yellow beneath, and sometimes with two long feathers in the tail. Paradise flyeatchers have the two middle feathers of the tail much elongated, and white. Kingfishers, with their glossy blues and greens range in size from one of the largest species in the world down to little red-billed fellows no bigger than warblers, feeding on insects, but dig- ging their burrows in the characteris- tic way. Several of the plantain-eat- dark green -and_ violet, ers, large, surprise one when they: take flight with extensive crimson patches in the wings. Among the many other brightly colored forms are the soft- feathered trogons, the graceful bee- saters and rollers, starlings, orioles, glossy golden VIEW IN THE CONGO FOREST Here tree ferns grow and there is no danger of forest fires, for everything is saturated with moisture, The woodpeckers of this region are all rather small, in spite of the great trees and abundant insect life Not a few feed principally on ants. and is only three inches long. about the bark of trees like nuthatches One of the smallest, known as a ‘‘piculet’’ has soft tail-feathers Some of the weaver birds are insectivorous and two species climb In these forests it is a common thing for the smaller insectivorous birds of many different species to gather in parties, all moving in the same direction as they search for food. Some of the “‘babblers’’ (family Timeliidae) and true thrushes recall the ‘ their dull colors and terrestrial habits. driver ants ‘ant-thrushes"’ of South America by A few of them are in fact attracted by the moving columns of 283 P8S (ope) py) saoysy “Bury Juelyiiiq [Teus pue (p27ad07009) s[MO YS ‘(V92peq7) saqeds uns ‘(Dinuyj04Dg’) S]feil popvoy-snojnd [[VUIs ‘(M72aU0La77) SYyONpP snojna ‘(s2vusoubr7 ) SU10}9Iq po JSOJ0-09TTM JO sJuUNeY OY} Oe SUTvAIyS YONG ‘ofpep_ JO ysod oY} JO YSOM SOLU IMOJ JNO JOAN VABVN OYJ SUISSOIO YnoOSnp oayeu [eurg 4isay¥O4d SHL NI AYYSS YSAIY V S8s spiiq-doysiq pur ayaoq ‘sdo]]01 on]q ‘soAOp o]9.1n9 ‘spaegsnq ‘Tyenb ‘(mpiwny~y) [MOJ BoulNse jeojdAg ‘suyjoouBs se SPlIq MOPIM ‘SpaIq OSNOUT JO SaT[Oo oY} ‘SoIPY PUB SOINQINA ‘snoqeavul oT Spaiq Fuowe ‘(snaszoong) [[IquJloy-punois ogg ‘s109e ‘soAtyeu 043 Aq Yo poding Jaze] SI Inq pve] S,uvUI eB UeYy soyLys ‘syrey ‘soodooy ‘savfiqsra pesurm-juvuued pure ‘ qons 9ouejIoduly ssey Jo AUBUT SAplsoq sdeysod guejioduy jsou sev Surpnyoul “ysozoy ogy JO Feyy WOJy QUoJOYTpP A[Zupyyys sy Vuney oy,L JoysITyY spuvjs 91 [UN SMOIZ ssBis osreo0d OY) (AOQUIOAON 09 AVI) SsyQUOUT Aue OY) Zuyng favVYeYVs GNV NONNG N3SaSML38 GVOY FHL ‘(QOLYSIQ. 9199) AWQuNOD YSN pueB sse4z Ul UOSBeS Aap OIL], MAKERE NATIVE WITH GREAT-CROWNED EAGLE BIRDS OF THE CONGO azure cuckoo- shrikes and flaming bishop-birds. The Congo fur-_ nishes some exam- ples of birds of most remarkable instincts. The honey guide fully merits its fame for attracting men with its chattering ery and_ leading them to beehives in order that it may share in the spoils. -_ 336 marvelous silence which often attends their movements when frightened. After waiting and listening for a time we ventured forth to escort Bibi to her prize, and a prize it proved to be, eleven feet and two inches high at the shoulders, tusks nineteen and a half inches in cir- cumference, and eight feet ten inches long, right and left weighing, respectively one hundred and fifteen, and one hun- dred and twelve pounds. The record elephant for a woman, and with her first, the record pair for a sportsman’s license in British East Africa. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL After making a few hurried measure- ments and photographs, and detailing a guard of four porters to stay with the Bibi will not soon forget that mad race against prize, we started back to camp. time to gain the shelter of camp ere dark- As the last rays of the equatorial sun withdrew from ness overtook us. Kenya’s cold unresponsive summit, and daylight shrank from before the weird shadows and mysterious voices of the tropical forest night, we sighted the cheery fires of the camp. Our dusky followers in a weird chant, announced In elephant country on Mount Kenya, at an elevation of 8000 feet in the heavy forest belt Photo by DeWitt C. Ward MRS. CARL E AKELEY, NEW YORK CITY, 1915 308 the success of the day, telling their com- rades of how Bibi had killed “tembo kubwa.”” There within the glow of the camp fire Bibi held court while with simple childlike enthusiasm, our little army of followers crowded around to offer their congratulations. Next morning we moved camp to a circular, turf-carpeted clearing, near to the fallen elephant, in order that we might care for our prize without a long trek to and from the “’'Tembo as we called it, was the one ‘amp. Cireus”’ bright, cheerful camping place of our whole elephant hunt. Here, while we continued the search for a cow elephant, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Bibi spent many days surrounded by the ever new, ever changing scenes of primi- tive life. The forest now sheltered doz- ens of camps of Wandorobo who had fol- lowed us hither to reap the harvest of the last kill. Every day little bands of na- tives came in from the shambas with offer- ings for the “ Bibi Mzungu,” or to gossip with our followers. Diversion was also afforded by her little “zoo”’ which was stocked by the Wandorobo boys whose In the crude cages built by her boys, the monkeys, an- ’ services she had enlisted. telopes, and hyrax soon learned to know her,-and to tell her stories of their lives in the unexplored depths of the forest. Bibi at ‘“ Tembo Circus’ with a member of her “‘ zoo.’’ Tembo Circus near the spot where the record elephant was shot by Mrs. Akeley, was the camp of the Akeley expedition in 1906. Since that time this camping place has been used by Colonel Roosevelt and by Stewart Edward White and inter- esting mention is made of it in their African writings 338! REPRODUCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHS FROM THE WORK OF THE AUSTRALASIAN-ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION UNDER SIR DOUGLAS MAWSON Selected from the one hundred and fifteen enlargements of Mawson photographs on exhibition at the American Museum. [The captions are quotations from Mawson's The Home of the Blizzard] “THE NUGGETS" BEACH, MACQUARIE LAND Royal penguins from rookeries on the hills come down in long processions each day to fish on the beach Photographs reproduced through the cour lesy of Mr. Lee Keedick of New York City, lecture manager for Sir Douglas Mawson AInj}UIO MIU JY} JO S1a1O[dxa 9y} OF ,, UO PapUBY SBM BIUSIOG Jo aWeY Vind 9} JO YO10} 9Y},, PUL . (eZg1) uontpedxy s9SualjeyD ay) ut padojaaap a19M ULMIBC JO Spoyjoll aL, ‘uoleiojdxa jo siseq ay} A[a}a[dur109 st aDUsINg kep-o], ‘neayeid aot puv suaiovy3 pasojdxaun ay} 12A0 sAausnol aSpajs 10 1a}U90 v ‘UOsMEJ SL[SNOC AIS JopuN aseq Ue ay} Payst|quise seM 219} GNV1 3INSGV ‘AVG HLIVAMNOWWOO NI .veOounv,., dIHSOV1sa AHL - , AIULAIp Woquy Jo Gory) B sUdyeM 1 JaA—oanjoId PIOo9 WY “plod ayiqowijo aSvarw v ul sBiaqaor yoy uozLioY \ aUYU!L ay} UO INO * * * ‘vas Fulzaeay Jo usays [[np ay) ul payoayas yowa * °° aniq Yysthai3 puv jajora poo oju; Surped adind edo (IA poysea ‘ouLeUey[N puv OS!pul YIM pasuy st Ays ay} yNOS oY) UL UMOP seq °° * ‘Plesswia are Ady) YIJOU ay} UT MO] puv ainze ore YITUEZ at ul saovds Suuapim ayy, * * * “sy9or ay) Jo ssauyoyq 3aA]aA ay) ‘mous OY) JO SSOUdITYM aysBYyo ay} * * * aand Ajasuazu! pu jURTT[LIq ‘10]09 Jo PLIOM F SI vonoejuy,, VOILOYVLINYV NI 3N3S9S NOONYSLAY NV ON THE EDGE OF AN ICE RAVINE, ADELIE LAND ‘The difficulties of exploration in cold regions approximate to the limit of human endurance and often enough exceed it.’’ Bridges of soft snow over the crevasses of the glacier may give way, opening up gaping holes into the darkness of chasms below. ‘. . . I seemed ” to stand alone on the wide shores of the world... . AN ICE CLIFF, ADELIE LAND alls of ice came W torted by rock was entir 7 * ‘qSru sepod & jo ssauysrep ay) Ul s}uUsWIaTa paywLINyul * * * O19Z MOTAq SI a1NjeI19dUIa} BY) ‘MOY Ue so]IUI papUNyY v je aoeds ySnoiy} Surueesos payiny st yup ayy, ‘AYS ssaypnojo ev url sautYys uNs ay} aq Avur yt YSnoyIye Al[Np yYSno1y} sawoo yySstpAep yey) asuap OS IJLIP ay} JINIDIg,, _,, AF! JO SJA0ywloosip yuasaid-19A9 9y} 10J 9yesuUIdUIOD JOU PjNod AIDAODSIP [BOISO[OIOI} aU Je }[9J UOTVRIA Jo soe) Auy,, ONV1 3SIWSOQV OkevZZI1E 3HL NI .— oo jsodura) ou) Jo WuIds PLA 9yUI—azT]T ULM JUBIPRA ‘SuLreos puv ‘Supjuls ‘SurSurms ‘Aurpooum }} JO VI I! e114 I ! I 1 oul {904 ‘mou sod sajru AjuaAes pue AVY JO SpulM ul Jostjod MousS OY) YOVEM 0} }YSIS pipue ds @ SBM } ‘spvau ino d9Aoge Surosto | I! I | ! | py {SIS ply I I { | [Pal ‘Sn MOT[OJ p[NOA [ejed MOUS aPUes v A][BUOISYDIO ‘sUIsBYD uado jsvd puv sa8pti 19A0 ‘aol anjq passvaoio ysnoiyy sAousnol Suspays suring ONV1 SIWZGV'LSAN SHL NO 13au14ad MONS ., payeaso auam Aay} YOIYyM J0j asoding ay} pal[y[Ny eavy [jeys Avy} a10zaq awod 0} aw ay} Jo AyUyUl ay} pue ‘yjaiq pey sSuty} asay} sours ysed awn ay} Jo * * * AjUYyUL VYyYI—saNIUYUI jo Jsprul oy} ULSI 9UQ,, ,,"S[NOS ano pajaaLt 94 ‘yoore pjey YoryM , aqeuyepul, ay) sABVMTe SBA JOY} ING ‘9DUAIOS JO SULJa} 0} }1 BONpa1 Oo} padoy pey aM ‘A19}sAW S}1 aqO1d 0} 9UIOD peY 9A, i *purm ay jo daams Aor ay} YJVaUG PaMOLIN !s}YSI] UIOYINOS JY} JO JOURIpPRI JY} UL SNONSN] ‘sivjs Vy} JOpUN 314M POO ‘puR]-Aous AuvP]OS JSBA DUT ,, GQN43 S.GNV1 LV SASITD ADI] SHL YSQNN 3AO1TA-SNLOD INSERT PRINTED BY DE VINNE PRESS, NEW YORK THE STEFANSSON EXPEDITION OF 1013 TO rors By Major General A. W. Greely, United States Army HE history of polar expeditions equals, relatively speaking, that of any other phase of explora- tion in its romantic episodes of unex- pected and thrilling character. The retreat of Dr. Elisha Kent Kane across Melville Bay, the ice-drift of Captain George E. Tyson of eighteen hundred miles, the boat journey of Admiral George T. Melville to the Lena Delta, and the rescue of the shipwrecked American whalers at Point Barrow by Lieutenants D. H. Jarvis and E. P. Bertholf, are marvelous successes of American adventurers which every red- blooded individual reads with rapt at- tention and stirred emotions. It seems surprising that those who control the development of the minds of the rising generation do not supplant trashy and SKETCH MAP TO ILLUSTRATE STEFANSSON'S EXPLORATIONS 1914-1915 \ t} Scale 190 200 Miles —-—- Land fe to C Kellett S isi4* sreseee Winter fou, Be Soy of S Victoria 1. 19/4-15 t—teedes Aoure hp fete lew Land 19/5 semeem Return New land fo & Kellett Jul-Aug |S 2 mua Surveyed by Stefansson Courtesy of the American Geographical Society The new land, in 77° 43’ N. latitude and 115° 43’ W. longitude, was discovered on June 18, 1915. It was explored for three days only and through one hundred miles of coast only, but from an elevation of 2000 feet twenty miles inland, mountains were seen at least fifty miles farther in all directions to the north and east (the land was low to the west). The route traveled as shown on the map is of course generalized and the distances fall far short of the actual distances covered, which were made longer and indirect because of drift due to contrary winds and currents 339 340 debasing fiction by tales which tell of man’s control and courage while facing actual and desperate conditions. To these wonderful victories of peace over the elements of nature, is now added the story of the hazardous sledge- _ journey, the successful endurance, the wonderful resourcefulness and the final discovery of hitherto unknown land by Vilhjélmur Stefansson. The trustees and members of the American Museum of Natural History are especially interested in the success of Stefansson in his polar expedition of 1913-15. Under the auspices of the American Museum, Stefdnsson scientifi- cally explored the Canadian shores of Arctic America, in 1906-07 and 1908-12. The American Museum in conjunction with the National Geographic Society financed at first the present expedition, from which the two societies withdrew in favor of Canada when the Dominion Government expressed its desire to outfit and control the expedition. Three objective points were in view: the discovery of the land predicted by Greely and by Harris to the northwest of Banks Land; the completion of the charting of the unvisited northern coasts of Victoria Island and of Prince Patrick Island; and the geological, anthropo- logical and biological exploration of the coasts east of the Mackenzie River. The first work was to be done with the “Karluk,” the largest ship. She was beset however, off the northeastern coast of Alaska in August 1913, and later, driven by violent gales, she drifted northwest to 73° N. latitude, 164° W. longitude, and thence to the southwest, sinking from ice-pressures January 11, 1914. Fortunately Stefansson was ashore hunting when the “Karluk” began her drift. With his largest ship gone, his force largely diminished and his main supplies lost, he faced conditions which THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL would have seemed hopeless to a man of weaker fibre. His courage never failed nor was his purpose shaken. What he had planned to do by ship and sledge was now to be done by sledge alone, as far as geographical work was concerned. Dr. R. M. Anderson was given his ship for the scientifie work in the Mackenzie region, while Stefans- son bent his energies to his sledge journey, which necessarily was to be northward over the rough ice of that portion of the Arctic Ocean, known as Beaufort Sea. A supporting sledge ac- companied him in March, 1914 to the Continental Shelf, located in about 70° 20’ N. latitude, 140° 30’ W. longitude. On April 7, 1914, Stefansson started north, with Anderson and Storkersen, six dogs, 360 rounds of ammunition and food for about forty days. Such a journey would seem to the ordinary man as certain of failure, but Stefansson well knew the methods of sea-floe life and the possibility of living on game. He was destined to have his courage, skill and determination put to the se- verest tests. Violent gales, enormous pressure ridges, and absence of game were experienced until on April 27 he was forced to alter his course. He was then in 73° N. latitude, 140° W. longi- tude, about two hundred and fifty miles of travel from the Alaskan coast. He was in the middle of Beaufort Sea, which although ice-clad showed the effects of the spring sun by its disin- tegrating floes. He decided to go to the northwest point of Banks Land, about three hundred miles distant. On May 5 his kerosene was gone, and he was barely able for days to melt with lard (carried to oil the boat tarpaulin) enough floe-ice to quench thirst. Ten days later Stefansson saw the first seal, and the nerve of the hunter was shown by his killing it with a brain shot at three hundred yards. On May 24 when THE STEFANSSON EXPEDITION within forty-five miles of Banks Land a violent southeasterly gale, of twelve days duration, sent the party seaward to a point one hundred and five miles from shore. Stefénsson took matters philosophically, as he was on a floe over one hundred feet thick. Devoting ener- gies to hunting the men accumulated two tons of meat against emergencies. It was not until June 26, that they set foot on land sixty miles south of Cape Albert. For ninety-six days they had lived on the moving ice-pack. They summered on Banks Land, killing thirty-nine caribou and storing up supplies against any mischance. Despairing of the arrival of either of their two ships, they started south in September with packs, and found the “Mary Sachs” already in winter quar- ters, although as Stefansson reports “the sea was absolutely clear of ice.””. Neither of his ships obeyed orders and Steféns- son’s safety was the result of his own efforts — the excuse being that they thought he had perished. As Stefansson had been absent seventeen months there were some grounds for such belief. Accidents prevented Stefansson taking the field again effectively until April 5, 1915. Then he was delayed by a south- westerly drift of twenty-four miles in his effort to explore the sea to the north- west of Banks Land, and was forced to turn back from 76° 40’ N. latitude, about seventy-five miles offshore. After chart- ing the unknown parts of the north coast of Prince Patrick Island the party dis- covered in June a new land, whereon they landed. on the nineteenth. As far as seen; the land covers an area of about five thousand square miles, is rugged and mountainous,. and its southern shore trends from west by north to east by south. About one hundred miles of coast were covered during three days of travel. The only point astronomically determined was in 77° 43’ N. latitude, 341 115° 43’ W. longitude. It is interesting to note that this land is but some fifty miles distant from the farthest point reached on Prince Patrick Island by McClintock in 1853. Stefansson considers that the new land is one of considerable extent. It is situated about one hundred miles to the west of the Ringnes Land, discovered by the Sverdrup expedition in 1901. It thus extends some ten degrees of longitude to the westward of that polar archipelago (west of northern Green- land), fringing the great frozen Arctic Ocean, of which the most easterly island is Grinnell Land; the most westerly known is the new land of Stefansson. It is most probable that Stefansson’s Land extends far westward, or north- westward, in the shape of an island with probably a low-lying area of large size whereon are formed the great floe-bergs of which Stefansson saw many in the course of his sledge trip over Beaufort Sea in 1914. It is worthy of note that in all his periods of danger and of distress Stefansson kept up his observations. His soundings are of special value as indications of land and sea distribution. While the Continental Shelf of eastern Alaska is about seventy miles offshore, Stefansson’s soundings prove that it closely fringes the west coast of Banks Land. While this is not conclusive, yet it apparently indicates that the unknown lands lie rather to the northwest of Banks Land and Prince Patrick Island. In any event there is reason soon to expect definite information on this point, as’Stefansson sailed from Herschel Island August 23, and northward from Cape Kellett September 3 to carry on further explorations. Meanwhile the world awaits his further report, with confidence that it will materially reduce the vast area of unknown regions which has hitherto disfigured the charts of the North-polar Circle. ore euloYy IdjeM B OF dOUBIQUO JO SUBEUT.ATUO OY} ‘IoppR] ayy JO do oy} 09 poquIyo sey ee1 OY) 4e LOG [[eUIS OY, “ARTO UT s1oyIOM IdoH JO pols sour eyg ‘osedWION Jo 4re1j10d poos Aparey & ST 9YSIA ay} UO J0}30d OY, ‘“puRs YOM JO SuyaAO0o oy} Aq Qstow qdoy Sujoqd St [Vloyeu yoyseq JOP, *S¥SOUL PUODES PUB ISI OT} JO SodAZ UMOUY-[[OM OY} JO GUO ‘STOO aZIVT YIIM JoHSed & SuP[eUL st 4Joy oY} UO URWIOM OY, “SuNOX “PY WuoYyR Aq oue sounsy ouL “PTUMOOIIT “APT Aq pojqured sea suo] yoos OM4-AQU0J SRAUBD PUNOASYOVq OY, “yooJ XIS-AjJUAM YYQdop Sq ‘}o0J OUO-AJQUAMY YNOQe st dnoaz ou} JO YIPIM OUT, “Tdye A [vot 04} 9@ ABP-0} 9oS YYSTUT oUO 4BY} JI] ATTep 949 JO oUNNOI AreUIpsO OY} UT poseSuo suvipuy tdoy oie oAOYM ‘IdTVAA JO UOMeS payoRjop vw JO Joou ey) ssoroR yno ‘QSeMqINOS UBoLouUly ey} Jo puey, Auuns uodo oy} UT SULAT ‘41 [[Vd PNoYs aM sv .,ASNOY,, JO ‘aSvITIA O[qong A109S-0AY ayy ‘IdjeM JO UOMA0g bunox "Ww muoyopy fo uorwnsadgod ay? YIM YyoImusojQ2W puvmoy fq paubisag WNASNW NVOIYSWV 3HL NI dNOYS IdOH SHL SHOO[ JaAdosqo ou, IN THE HOME OF THE HOPI INDIAN “HUMAN HABITAT GROUP”? CONSTRUCTED IN THE AMERICAN MUSEUM — IT GIVES A FEELING OF THE GREAT OPEN LANDSCAPES WHERE THE HOPI INDIAN LIVES—A SNAPSHOT OF TYPICAL HOPI PEOPLE PURSUING THE By Clark Wissler ROUTINE OF THEIR DAILY LIFE NEW life-size Indian group has just been completed in an annex A to the hall for the Southwest. It presents a scene among the Hopi of Arizona, one of the best known groups of Pueblo Indians. In general plan the construction is similar to the bird habitat groups which have long distinguished the Museum’s exhibits. The original idea as to subject was to select a typical Pueblo village and then to reproduce as far as possible a representative section with the corresponding landscape. In this case the choice of a type is not difficult, for the principal surviving villages, those of Hopi, Zuni, Acoma, Laguna and Isleta, while marked by certain individualities are quite alike. This is particularly true of their outward or objective characteristics for they are laid out on the same general plan and show the same architectural lines. Further, they are in the same kind of country, the somewhat arid, sunny and highly picturesque land of the South- west. The people also, show many similarities in dress and occupation and are to-day living very much as did their prehistoric ancestors. These vil- lages are moreover of respectable anti- quity, for several of them were described by the first Spanish explorers (1539-40) in terms that are recognizable to-day. No doubt. many of the same, houses in Acoma now, were standing when’ first viewed by Coronado, Alvarado and their followers, and no one knows for how many centuries before. Thus the final choice of a site for this group became merely a practical question, the site best adapted to the space and mechanical limitations. To our mind, this was the Hopi village of Walpi. The administrative responsibility for the group was accepted by Dr. Pliny E. Goddard who commissioned the artist, Howard McCormick, to design and exe- cute it with the help of the sculptor, Mahonri M. Young. When the design had been approved by the Museum, Messrs. McCormick and Young went to Walpi where they spent a summer mak- ing the necessary sketches, color studies and figure modeling. The near village in the canvas back- ground is Walpi as seen from the south while beyond in the distance is its neighbor, Sichumovi. It may be noted that the Hopi villages are in three groups because they occupy three separate stretches of elevated land, or mesas. These mesas are designated as the first or eastern, the second or middle, and the third or western mesa. On the first mesa are Walpi, Sichumovi and Hano, Walpi occupying the southern end or point. To the left of Walpi on the canvas appears the second mesa, where the contour is broken by a cafion, through which the lowering rays of the afternoon sun stream.in a striking way. To the right are’ the lowlands in which the Hopi fields are laid out, the artist having indicated the growing corn. In the foreground is an outlying or 343 344 detached portion of Walpi cut off by a small ravine. It is in this small de- tached group of houses that the visitor stands. He looks out across the roof of the first tier of houses just as he would from the doorway of a second tier house, past an angling portion of the same tier across the valley, or arroyo, into Walpi. Immediately before him, as if he were in their midst, are representative Hopi people pursuing the routine of their daily toil. Thus, in the group as a whole, we get a veritable snapshot of Hopi life, precisely what one might see in a glance through a village. It was not designed to force into the composition many phases of life not usually seen in juxta- position, but to present one of the com- monest scenes of prosaic life. It was not our aim to instruct the visitor in details, such as how cloth is made, how houses are built, the whole life history of a clay pot from the grinding of the clay to the firing, and the like — all subjects far better treated in the exhibition cases of the hall — but to give a concrete idea of Hopi life in its native setting. In a way, the production is a human habitat group, analogous to bird and mammal habitat groups. In composition the artists have pro- jected the group as a whole. To this end the objects in the foreground are adjusted to the same perspective lines as the canvas. Had the primary aim been to show a Hopi house, it would have been constructed on its own lines, but since the purpose of this group was to show a cross-section of Hopiland, the unity of the whole was sought in one perspective. This unity of perspective between the foreground and the canvas is designed to carry the eye over from the real objects in the foreground to the canvas in the distance, to the end that one may feel the great open landscape of the Hopi THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Indian’s habitat. In this particular the artists have been successful. The specimens in the Hopi cases adjoining the group and the illustrations in books give a wealth of detail as to the multiplicity of pueblo life, but they cannot in any- way take the place of a visit to Walpi where one may see things in their per- spective and native color. The very highest praise that could be bestowed upon this group was a remark by a visitor, “It is almost as good as a trip to Hopiland.”” This was the ideal of its construction. The success of this group has been sufficient warrant for proceeding with a second one. At the outset it was planned to have three large Southwest- ern groups to which the architecture of the hall readily lends itself. In the center where the Navajo hogan now stands is to be one for the Navajo, show- ing a typical habitation, a family at its daily routine, and the landscape setting; while within the hogan, visible through the open door, a ceremony with its beautiful sand painting. On the left is the Hopi group now in place and on the right the Apache group now under construction. Mr. McCormick has the canvas background mounted and _ al- most entirely painted in. Work upon the foreground and the reproduction of an Apache grass-covered shelter are under way. Mr. Young is now among the Apache in New Mexico modeling the human figures. The general plan of the Apache group is the same as for the Hopi, a dwelling with family group in the foreground and the panorama of the landscape beyond. A definite spot on one of the Apache reservations was chosen for reproduction here so that the finished group will present with fidelity a sample of this tribe’s original habitat. DETAIL OF THE HOPI GROUP The young mother is rocking her baby by moving the primitive cradle with both feet and hands The curtained door is an indication of a new-born infant within. The old man in the distance is spinning and the man in the middle distance weaving. 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Lt 7 / if \ ce Ae , 7 | Wd YO Aggy h* Ve 4) ¥ / h, \ / ' oy, Mio y a eR BL Ar PR cat SVL a Cin Nf / { P| f ; Z 08 f ¥ ros { NTs *| r y vp ea ~ 4 r y ( | > 3 Xs : ti ae ep ae i \ . ST a 4 “ 5s he a v: < 4 Oe aces +r ee A . aly 9 aS rig ‘Sie’ fey | $ Wy, ,7 af > ~? a 4; = Led sh, Ww iP. } “a? \, : x by NLR | & 7 aaa * Y Ts G 7 fate a is a " - f Bit > K . » é ’ vs a a ' 4 rf fi y El ye i é- . f * oie . a ie | - . © f : ee SRL? A SF eh QUAN Mids. “x3 ; fro hd ef Cat de ska Marga Fs \ eer ‘ ) mete i \ Be oe x \ \ EARLIEST REPRESENTATION OF AN AMERICAN LANDSCAPE Brazilian forest scene with red-and-yellow macaws, from the Cantino map of 1502. colored, is preserved in Modena. Harrissi has published a facsimile reprint 348 The original, beautifully — Soe i) BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN fone NATURAL HISTORY By Charles R. Eastman HE following notes concerning the first mention in literature of various American animals have been suggested by the discussion which has been running in Nature during the past twelve-month concerning early ref- erences to the opossum and kangaroo. The article may serve as a sequel also to one on “The Beaver Group” by Dr. F. A. Lucas, in the JourNAL of the American Museum for March, 1913, and to two or three that have appeared in Science and Popular Science Monthly, by Dr. E. W. Gudger, on early Brazilian naturalists. It is surprising how rapidly informa- tion accumulated regarding the natural history of the New World directly after its discovery. Columbus himself, a voluminous writer, is proved by his Journal and letters to have been a keen observer of the strange aspects of nature and man in the regions discovered by him. To the Admiral we owe the first account of the alligator, iguana, hutia, manatee, native dog of the West Indies, and numerous species of birds, trees and plants. The letter of Dr. Chanca, who accompanied Columbus, and those of Vespucci! are also full of interesting natural history details. 1 Vespucci's first letter (1497) was republished in facsimile by Varnhagen in 1893, having for frontispiece a design by Stradanus dating from about 1580, in which various South American animals are represented. Mention occurs in this letter of the iguana, puma and ocelot from the coast of Tampico. Dr. Chanca’s letter has re- cently been translated and edited by Fernandez de Ybarra, in Smithson. Misc. Coll., 1906, and Journ. Amer. Med. Assoc. for same year. Cut at the left above, macaw after pre-Colum- bian Maya codex; at the right, Central American parrot, as shown in Maya codex. As early as 1504 there was published in Venice a little collection? of voyages entitled Libretto de tutta la Navigatione de Re de Spagna, de la Isole et Terreni Novamente Trovati. The matter in this Libretto was taken over into the famous Paesit Novamente Retrovati, a larger col- lection edited by Fracanzio da Montal- boddo, and printed in 1507, ’08, 713 and "19. In the Libretto and also in this second collection are found the first printed description of the opossum. The Oceani Decas (Decade of the Ocean) of Peter Martyr was published in 1511, and this and succeeding Decades are enlivened by interesting digressions on the natural history of the new conti- nent. Here occurs the first mention in literature of the potato and the earliest recognizable description of the tapir. This author’s statement that a live opossum, captured with her litter by the Pinzons in 1500, was exhibited in Gran- ada, Spain, is confirmed by a Latin inscription which accompanies a figure intended to represent this animal in the Waldseemiiller world-map of 1516, and in three succeeding editions of Ptolemy’s Geography. A reproduction of a portion of the map known as 7'abula Terre Nove in the Ptol- emy of 1522 showing this same figure and a Brazilian cannibal scene, is given by Edward Everett Hale in Winsor’s Narra- tive and Critical History of (vol. ii, p. 598). Gesner and Topsell also take their illustrations of the so- America ? Peter Martyr is thought to have been the author of the Latin original, and Angelo Trivi- giano the translator and editor of this pioneer work. 349 Canglla oe C—O 7. oe : 1 om - ia . & Nae ae ee ee On the right, a Brazilian banquet; to the left, an opossum with brood-pouch. This is the earliest known figure of an American marsupial. called Simivulpa, in reality the opossum, from the same source. In later South American cartography, a figure of the tapir, but with long, drooping ears, is often substituted for that which does service for the opossum, and in the Blaeu map of 1605 the latter is introduced into the region that is now known as Argen- tina. In the same map a drawing of the “Su,” originally placed in the region of the La Plata, is shifted to the North American continent, in Nova Francia. The first illustration and description of this fantastic creature, which is in reality merely a caricature of the common opos- sum, is found in the work published by André Thevet in 1558, entitled Singularitéz de la France Antartique. Thevet’s figure is copied by Conrad Gesner in his Historiae Animalium (1620), both in the text and title-page. Gesner, Topsell and Jonston also copy Thevet’s bizarre representation of the three-toed sloth (Bradypus_tridaciylus L.). In connection with the figures that are 350 Pica oe {From Waldseemiiller world-map of 1516] here given of the “Simivulpa”’ and “Su,” (7. e., Didelphis), which are taken from Thevet’s work of 1558, we may quote Topsell’s descriptions of these creatures, as given in the English Gesner (1658): Of the Simivulpa, or Apish Fox. Those which have travelled the Countrey of Payran [Parana], do affirme, that they have seen a four-footed beast, called in Latin, Simivulpa, in Greek, Alopecopithecos, and in German, Fuchssaffe: in the forepart like a Fox, and in the hinder part like an Ape, except that it had mans feet, and ears like a Bat, and underneath the common belly, there was a skin like a bag or scrip, wherein she keepeth, lodgeth, and carryeth her young ones, until they are able to provide for them- selves, without the help of their dam; neither do they come forth of that receptacle, except it be to suck milk, or sport themselves, so that the same under-belly is her best remedy against the furious Hunters, and other raven- ing beasts, to preserve her young ones, for she is incredibly swift, running with that carriage as if she had no burthen. It hath a tail like a Munkey: there was one of them with three young Whelpes taken and brought into a ship, but the Whelps died quickly: the old one living longer was brought to Sivill, and BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY afterward to Granado, where the King of Spain saw it, which soon after by reason of the change of aire and incertainty of diet, did also pine away and die. The _like-things doth Cardan report of a beast called Chiurca, in Hispania Nova, and Stadinius of a Suruvoy in America: but I con- jecture that the former is this Fox-Ape called in Greek, Alopecopithe- cos, and of the Ger- mans Fuschsaffe, the 301 latter the Female Cy- nocephal, which carry- eth her womb wherein lie her young ones with- out her belly.” Of a Wilde Beast in the New-found World called Su. “There is a Region in the New-found World, called Gigantes, and the Inhabitants thereof are called Pan- tagones; now because their Countrey is cold, being far in the South, they clothe themselves with the skins of a Beast called in their own tongue Su, for by reason that this Beast liveth for the most part neer the waters, there- fore they call it by the name of Su, which sig- nifieth water. The true Image thereof as it was taken by Theve- tus, I have here inserted, for it is of a very deformed shape, and monstrous presence, a great ravener and untamable wilde Beast. When the Hunters that desire her skin set upon her, she flyeth very swift, carrying her young ones upon her back, and covering them with her broad tail: now forsomuch as no Dog or Man dareth to approach neer unto her, (because such is the wrath thereof, that ravenous beast. Haut.”” Opossum and family on the march. called by Thevet and others the ‘‘Su,’’ and characterized as a ferocious and [From Thevet's “‘Singularitez,”” 1558] what characteristic of the young sloth. This slender-waisted creature is This amiable-looking creature (three-toed sloth) is called by Thevet **the The human-like expression is not wholly imaginary, being some- (From Thevet, 1558) in the pursuit she killeth all that cometh near her:) the Hunters dig several pits or great holes in the earth, which they cover with boughs, sticks, and earth, so weakly that if the Beast chance at any time to come upon it, she and her young ones fall down into the pit and are taken. This cruel, untamable, impatient, violent, ravening, and bloudy beast, perceiving that her natural strength cannot deliver her from 352 the wit and policy of men her hunters, (for being inclosed, she can never get out again,) the Hunters being at hand to watch her down- fall, and work her overthrow, first of all to save her young ones from taking and taming, she destroyeth them all with her own teeth; for there was never any of them taken alive; and when she seeth the Hunters come about her, she roareth, cryeth, howleth, brayeth, THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Peter Martyr, as already remarked, gives the earliest and at the same time a very satisfactory account of the tapir. The next writer after the “Father of American history,” as this author has been called, to describe the tapir is the bachiller Enciso, whose ‘Suma de Geo- grafia’, was first published at Seville in 1519. In 1526 Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo pub- lished the Sumario, or epit- ome of his comprehensive history, and in chapters twelve and twenty-two of the shorter work are to be found excellent descrip- tionsof the tapir and arma- dillo. Theearliest printed figure of the armadillo is found in the Exoticorum of Clusius or L’ Escluse (1605), in which work are also found figures, based upon a a original observation, of the sloth and manatee. De Laet in his Novus Orbis (1633), and George Marc- grav ' in his justly famous treatise on Brazilian natu- ral history (1648), both copy the figure given by Clusius of the rare three-banded armadillo. 1 There have been published, by Martius and Lichtenstein, Above, the iguana; below, the manatee, or sea-cow. ures are from Oviedo’s History of the Indies, 1535, and are the earliest known representations of these animals and uttereth such a fearfull, noysome and terrible clamor, that the men which watch to kill her, are not thereby a little amazed, but at last being animated, because there can be no resistance, they approach, and with their darts and spears wound her to death, and then take off her skin, and leave the carcass in the earth. And this is all that I finde re- corded of this most savage Beast.” excellent commentaries on the plants and animals of Brazil which were described by George Marcgray and Wilhelm Piso under the editorship of De Laet in 1648, and the same service was performed by Lichtenstein for the Mexican quadrupeds described by Francisco Hernandez in the Latin edition of his Historie Animalium published in 1628. (Abhandl. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1827, pp. 88-127. See also earlier volumes for Marcgrav). On Hernandez and his works, see O. Rich, Books relating to America, pp. 72-74, and Joseph Sabin, Bibliotheca Ameri- cana, Vol. viii, pp. 239-241. The commentary by Martius, the Munich botanist, is found in Ab- handl. k. bayer. Akad., 1853, vol. vii. Both fig- BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY Maregrav, Nieremberg and Jonston also copy Clusius’ somewhat fanciful repre- sentation of the three-toed sloth, called the Ignavus, Ai or Haut, and in Spanish the perillo ligero. The compendium of Oviedo, published ‘in 1526, was followed in 1535 by his larger work, of which a modern reprint exists, entitled Historia general de las Indies. Another work having the same title, by Francisco Lopez Gomara, was first printed in 1553, and passed through several editions. Both these works, excellent in their way, contain much valuable information concerning the aborigines, and animal and plant life of the southern continent and the West Indies. Gomara gives the earliest known figure of the buffalo, or American bison, and Oviedo is the first author to represent the iguana and manatee. Un- der the native designation of “Anta,” two Patagonian animals appear to have been indicated by Gomara. One of them is pretty certainly the guanaco, and the other is conjecturally identified by M. Roulin, in his Mémoire sur le Tapir \ i en 353 (1835), as the guemul or huemul deer. Concerning the guanaco, this creature was first seen by Magellan in 1519, in the vicinity of the straits that bear his name. The earliest mention of this animal, of the rhea, penguin and fur seal as ob- served in Patagonia, occurs in the narra- tive of Antonio Pigafetta,! who accom- panied the famous navigator on his voyage around the world. It was near the Straits of Magellan that the guemul deer was first seen by Captain Wallis. In early accounts this animal was con- fused with a supposed equine species, first scientifically described by Molina under the name of Equus bisulcus, and represented in the Chilean coat-of-arms 1It is there mentioned that the Patagonians, whom the voyagers encountered at Port St. Julian, were clothed with the ‘‘Skinne of a Beast sewed together,’ and that ‘‘This Beast (as it seemed unto us) had a large head, and great eares like unto a Mule, with the body of a Camell, and tayle of a Horse.’’ In the relation of Olivier van Noort’s voyage (1598), it is stated that at Port Desire they ‘‘found Beasts like Stagges and Buffals.”” The first English navigator to take detailed notice of this ruminant appears to have been Wood, in the narrative of his Voyage through the Straights of Magellan (1670). ST Se Pre This gayly caparisoned creature is meant by Aldrovandi (1637) to represent the nine-banded arma- dillo. Enciso described it a century earlier, and Bélon and L’Escluse gave good figures 304 The seal, somewhat conventionalized by Van Brussel, and passing under the guise of ‘‘sea-lion’’ (1799) as of equine shape.! It is interesting to note that the figure of a horse is intro- duced by Sebastian Cabot in the Argen- tine region of his world-map of 1544, but this can scarcely be construed as evidence that native wild horses were seen by that navigator anywhere in South America. This view is, however, maintained by Sefior Anibal Cardoso in a recent memoir in the Anales of the Buenos Aires Mu- seum (vol. xv, 1912) on the origin of Argentine horses. In regard to the elephant-seal, Dr. R. Lydekker is authority for the state- ment that our first definite, if not actual, knowledge of this animal seems to have been derived from a specimen brought to England by Lord Anson in 1744 from the island of Juan Fernandez; and also from the figure and account given in the Voyage Round the World of that great commander, where the species is called “sea-lyon.” It is, however, certain that Dampier in 1684, and Peter Kolben in 1705, also described the same creature (Macrorhynchus leoninus L.). The former writes: 1 The most recent notices of this large mammal, Hippocamelus bisulcus, are those by J. A. Allen, in the Report of the Princeton Patagonian Expedi- tion (1906), and M. Neveu-Lamaire and G. Grandidier, in Les mammiféres des hauts plateaux de l’Amérique du Sud (1911). Lydekker gives a colored plate of the guemul in Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1899. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL The Sea Lion is a large Creature about 12 or 14 foot long. The biggest part of the Body is as big as a Bull: It is shaped like a Seal, but 6 times as big. The Head is like a Lion’s Head; it hath a broad Face with many long Hairs growing a- bout its Lips like a Cat. It hasa great goggle Eye, the Teeth 3 Inches long, about the bigness of a Man’s Thumb....They have no Hair on their Bodies like the Seal; they are of a dun colour, and are all extraordinary fat.”— Voyages, cap. iv. Very important for the west coast of South America is Cieza de Leon’s Cronica del Peru (1553). The Amster- dam edition of this work (1554) contains a fair illustration of the llama, an animal of the existence of which Europeans first became aware as early as 1513, through Balboa’s intercourse with the Aztec chieftain Tumaco. Members of the llama race, of edentates, and many of the more characteristic Central and South American birds, mammals and even tropical vegetation, are represented with considerable fidelity in early six- teenth century cartography of the west- Not a griffin, but a harmless spotted dog, rep- resented in pre-Columbian Maya codices BEGINNINGS OF AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY ern hemisphere. A real service to science, as well as to the study of history and geo- graphy, has been rendered by Dr. E. L. Stevenson, in his facsimile reprints of six- teenth and seventeenth century world maps published under the auspices of the Hispanic Society of America. It will suffice to mention at this point the names of several authors who treated more or less extensively the natural history of the New World during the lat- ter half of the sixteenth century. The figures and descriptions of South Ameri- can animals given by André Thevet in 399 chinchilla may serve as a specimen of Sir Richard’s natural history notes: Amongst others [the Chileans] they have little beastes like unto a squirrell, but that he is gray; his skin is the most delicate soft and curious furre that I have seene, and of much estimation (as is of reason) in the Peru; few of them come into Spaine because it is diffi- cult to be come by; for that the princes and nobles laie waite for them. They call this beast chinchilla, and of them they have great abundance. More important from a scientific standpoint and more trustworthy than any of the minor writers just men- his Singu- tioned are laritéz de the works la France of the two Antarctique Spanish (1558), and chroniclers by Jean de José de A- Lery, in costa and his Voyage Antonio de en Brazil Herrera, (1578), were who wrote freely made toward the use of in a end of the number of sixteenth later com- and_begin- pilations, ning of the one such be- seventeenth ing the His- Barring the feet, which are crow-like, not a bad idea of a Brazilian Century re- loria Na- t*oucan, Rhamphastus. [From Thevet’s ‘‘Singularitez,’’ 1558] spec tively. ture (1635) The Jesuit of Juan E. Nieremberg, a Jesuit pro- fessor at Madrid. Another was a His- tory of the Indies, in Latin, published at Florence in 1588 by the Jesuit Father Giovanni Maffei, who had access to the archives in Lisbon. Many interesting notices are to be found in La Historia del Mondo Nuovo (1565), by the Italian traveler Girolamo Benzoni; also in the collection of voyages and travels pub- lished by Ramusio in 1556 and 1565, and in the “ Observations”’ (1593) of the famous English freebooter, Sir Richard Hawkins. The following extract on the historian de Acosta (1590) would seem to have been the first writer to notice the chinchilla, and he refers particularly, as do also Cieza de Leon and Garcilasso de la Vega, to the bones of fossil mam- mals found in the Campo de los Gigantes (Savanna of Bogota). Similar remains were also noted in Mexico by Francisco Hernandez, whose Historie Animalium (1628) remained for a long time in manuscript before being finally edited and published. [Article to be concluded in December Journal] A GLIMPSE AT THE MARVELOUS ARMOR COLLECTION IN THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART EVOLUTION OF ARMS AND ARMOR By Bashford Dean As is well known there is in progress a considerable agitation of the question of the use of armor in the present European war. Many military experts advocate it, as well as armor experts such as Dr. Bashford Dean, _TFhey have in mind of course the hand to hand conflicts of trench warfare and the similar duel character of the fighting now going on in the Balkans. Dr. Dean considers it fair to believe that suitable armor would save the lives of hundreds of soldiers and that a single soldier properly armored would be the equal of many unarmored soldiers in trench warfare. He advises not only the shield, headpiece and corselet suggested by Sir A. Conan Doyle, but also groin and hip plates to give additional protection from schrapnel and spent balls. Any armor to be efficient against the high explosives of to-day must be of hardened steel, smooth, highly polished and in form as roundly curved as possible. Thus more frequently the bullet will glance off instead of penetrating. Dr. Dean’s article calls atten- tion to the marvelous armor collection recently put on exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City, which gives an opportunity for the study of armor historically, and for a compara- tive study relative to the fitness of armor for practical service at the present time.— Tue Epiror. 66 APPY is the man,” wrote Horace, “who can know the causes of things.”” We may to-day differ as to how the word “happy” is best defined, still we may each and all agree that there is a wholesome satis- faction in being able to apply widely and practically some “causal” principle of nature which we have discovered — often at the cost of labor and suffering. Let us take as an instance the principle which we call evolution. The zoélogists of the past half century have demon- strated the great truth that the beings of to-day have changed to a greater or less degree from their ancestral form and habit; and this “law” has already been the means of revising helpfully many of our ideas, not in biology alone but in various lines of human thought and enterprise, including science, theology and art. Thus in science we may now trace an evolution even of the solar system, in theology we can work out the genesis of a sect, and in art we are given the means of explaining step by _ step the development of an ornament ora style. And it is extraordinary how much Horatian satisfaction we get from being able to explain the causes or origin of things — even of everyday objects and the least of them, such as the position of buttons on our coat sleeve, or the colored lights in an apothecary’s shop. At first sight of course, one may say, how may we justly apply to all of these things the principle which prevails in living creatures. Creatures, says one, change because they vary in nature. Two fishes are never quite alike, nor even two peas in a pod, and in time these variations become more pronounced. for some obscure cause or another, until the descendant in the thousandth genera- tion is quite unlike his forebear. But in living beings the changes are genetic, passed along from father to son. How then may this principle be used to explain the happenings of things which are not kith or kin? Truly this is a question not easy to answer. In certain cases however, the changes are all so clear that the objects have only to be placed in line to show that there has been happening a kind of evolution. When we turn the matter over in our minds we may explain the evolutional side of it all by showing that the things have developed because of real evolutional changes which took place in or were directed by neighboring organized beings. For instance we could certainly describe the evolution of the stomach in the series of backboned animals if we but knew what that organ had produced, secreted or excreted, from the beginning. Why therefore should we be surprised if, when we collect things 357 308 which arise from the age-long operation of brain and hand, we should find that these products are, so to say, genetic, and may be arranged in evolutional se- ries? This is the thought, I believe, which explains why we may group objects in gradational lines which give us con- siderable satisfaction. For everyone dis- likes confusion, and no little confusion can be dissipated by groupings of this kind. If, then, we examine among ancient arms a large collection of shafted weap- ons, with all their curiously outlined hal- berds and pikes, we find that they fall readily into series. If the collection con- tains specimens which date back through- out a number of centuries it becomes quite easy to arrange them in a “ pedi- gree.” In this, scores of kinds of these arms, which bristle at first sight in con- fusing array, can be reduced to half a dozen “types” which are clearly “an- cestral.”” These picture in their earliest forms agricultural implements, such as axe, pruning-hook and scythe, suggesting the times when common soldiers were farmers and fought with whatever they had at hand. In these early times the only real pole-arm (7. e. both for hunting and warfare) was a spear. Out of these simple types (generalized as we would call them in zodélogy) arose advancing series, with new structures ap- pearing, culminating, disappearing, just as they occur in the history of shells or beasts. Note for example the advancing evolution of such a structure as the beak of a halberd. In the beginning it was not a part of the halberd blade; but a separate hook of metal, like the tongue of a buckle, which encircled the wooden handle of this arm. Then, too, in our series we find decadent lines: Thus the spontoons which sergeants carried in our War of Independence (and which our state law declares must still be carried!) were nothing but degenerate survivors THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL of ox-tongue partisans; or the tiny gui- sarmes and dwarfed halberds of the sev- enteenth century were but the crudely made followers of the magnificent and serviceable arms of the preceding cen- tury. In these three cases degeneration was accompanied with reduction in size. In another case however, decadence was expressed in just the opposite way (as sometimes happens in animals) as in the doge’s ceremonial fauchard of 1650-1700, a titanic arm, so large that it could hardly be carried comfortably, let alone be used — even when it was formed of a sheet of metal, instead of being a well- modeled and functional blade. These forms were “gerontic,” as a naturalist would say. It is interesting too, in such a series of forms to see how a structure changed its function and was thereby “stimulated” to great evolutional progress; just as we know that such a condition causes far-reaching effects in animals, as when a protective scale begins to function as a weapon, or a gill-cleft comes to help out the ear. As an example of this, observe the ancient spear with lappets at its base, which originally served to keep a wounded animal (or man) at a safe distance, so that it could not “run up” the spear. When these lappets were found of use for inflicting additional wounds they grew steadily in size (for about two hundred years) and developed all manner of unwholesome hooks and prongs, and in the latest types (feather- staves) could in fact be folded together and concealed within the handle, which thereupon masqueraded as a harmless walking staff, until the owner, swinging his “feather-staff,” shot out again the long sharp points. Another example of change of function appears in the blade of a halberd. This was originally ax- shaped, with cutting margin long, heavy and convex; such a margin then became EVOLUTION OF ARMS AND ARMOR steadily reduced in size during a couple of centuries. About 1500 it became uniformly concave and lost its chopping function. It was then simply a double beak which was used as a pick, or at need served as a grappling hook when lances were to be pulled down or when a wall was to be clambered up. Again, among our arms, highly special- ized forms were common, just as we find 359 everywhere animals which were curiously developed in certain directions, as when their teeth were suited only for a special kind of food. Such forms, we find too, did not long survive, dying out just as our specialized animals do, e. g. when their particular kind of food gives out. As an instance of this we may note the billhooks which were common in Eng- land in the fifteenth century. In their 7800 1800 : } ahs | &, os © KM, 7200 3 ay tS 2 ¥ Z 700 yt , Uv CHA - SPIKE - ——""" ARMORERS MARKS “EPIEUV) 1g00 BLADE BEAK FLANGE SHANK STRAPS BOHMISCHER OHRLGOFFEL (=SPIESS HALBERD HEAD AND ITS PARTS 7200 POLE ARMS THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR COMMONER FORMS DURING THE CENTURIES SAT ORD Of4n OF STAMLENS ROWLAND OER 360 early form they were serviceable heavy axes with a hook-shaped end and a stout prong at the side. From this form were developed shapes which were very long and very narrow —the cutting blade suggesting a surgical knife and the prong at the side becoming a huge needle twenty inches in length. Now it is remarkable that this highly specialized type was used only toward the close of the Wars of the Roses when knights were THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL armed “to the proof” with the most complete and efficient armor which the world has seen. Its plates could no longer be crushed, hence the heavy ax- head of our earlier pole-arm gave place to the long-bladed incurved knife which might be slipped neatly between the plates, say of shoulder, knee or elbow, and inflict a dangerous wound. So too this specialized billhook lost its stout beak or pick, for this could no longer be 1600 ~MORION- CABASSET = (BEVOR). THE PARTS OF A HELMET HELMETS THEIR KINDS AND DEVELOPMENT DURING THE CENTURIES 000 AD. 1000 > < d “CONICAL OR NORMAN CASOQUE EVOLUTION OF ARMS AND ARMOR pounded through the plates of gothic armor, but became long and slender, needle-like in form. By such a point, chain mail could be pierced, that is, because of the length and shape of the weapon it was best equipped mechani- cally to break a single ring in the knight’s collar of chain mail, which otherwise was “proof.” The fact that this type of bill did not long survive is interestingly accounted for by the changes which soon took place in knightly armor, for the collar of mail was subordinated to plate, and the huge elbow and knee pieces of gothic armor, which were easily “caught” by the incurved and inslipping blade, appeared in use only for a few years. If we study progressive changes in helmets, again we see generalized forms in the earliest times. Thus at the very beginning, the helmet was built of many pieces of iron and was a form much easier to make than a casque beaten out of a single piece of metal!—the latter type of headpiece appearing only after armorers’ experiments had stretched through several hundred years. In our present series we see again highly special- ized forms as in the terminal members of the “lines” of war hats (chapel-de-fer), barbutes and fifteenth century heaumes. In the first of these the brim of the hat became so wide that the headpiece could not be kept safely in place; in the second the expense of making it was extreme and it proved troublesome in the neck region; in the third the weight and size became excessive, and it disappeared as speedily as a highly developed variety in jousting went out of style. An advancing line in an evolutional series of helmets is seen in the closed helmet, or armet, which arose from the ‘In all these cases we leave out of account armor and arms of Classical Antiquity: these were, with so much else of early culture, lost from the sight of the Middle Ages. 361 bowl-shaped helmet or salade and gave rise to many kinds of burganets, morions and cabassets. The evolutional fertil- ity of the armet appears to have been based upon several factors, such as the close modeling of the helmet to the head, enabling it to be kept readily in place, coupled with the invention that a separate visor and a separate chinpiece could be made to rotate from single lateral pivots — the latter adjustment of a great advantage since it made the headpiece easy to put on and take off. As a case of % convergence,” or “ parallel- ism”’ in an evolutional series of helmets we may mention the form of closed hel- met called armet-d-rondelle which sug- gests the usual armet but which was not closely kin to it, and did not survive because it lacked convenience in manipu- lation. Thus in order to remove this casque the visor had first to be raised, then the cheek plates had to be separated from a peg at the point of the chin. By the time the wearer, cumbered with his mitten-shaped gauntlets succeeded in detaching the cheek flaps below, he might find that his visor would fall and cause him annoying delay. Another parallel to the closed helmet of the six- teenth century was the basinet in the late fourteenth century. It never led directly to the armet however, and had evident defects in its mechanism which cause it to be ranked as a “terminal” rather than a progressive form. In a series of helmets we have, again, decadent or degenerate forms. Thus in the line of closed helmets the latest examples have lost their tall crests, their modeling, the separate plates in the neck region, even the catch which clamps the chinpiece down (in the place of the last we find merely a strap and a buckle). Also in siege burganets one finds obvious cases of degeneration: crest vanishes, visor and umbrel disappear and _ their 362 ancient pivot is replaced by a simple hinge. These casques are exceedingly heavy and admirably designed to protect the wearer from gunshot at close range. They could be used in the trenches in Flanders even to-day very much as they were used in the days of Marlboro. Their utility in fact is clearly shown in the present revival of armor-wearing. The helmets to be finally noted are nu- merous degenerate and “rudimentary” forms descended from the lobster-tailed burganets of Cromwell’s times. Thus the ear defense in such a headpiece loses its lower portion, which was a part of the neck guard, and later becomes greatly reduced in size; also the neck-covering portion of the back of the casque devel- ops either a great number of strips, or else, merging them all together, becomes a single plate — which finally may. disappear altogether. Such a head- piece had an interesting series of degen- erate successors.— One of them is hat- shaped, another becomes a_ skullcap enclosed within the crown of a felt hat, another persists as a lighter hat lining eel THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL made of a few wide bands of metal, still another assumes the form of a grat- ing made of light strips, and a final one appears as a light hat lining made of a few strips or bars of metal so hinged together that the whole defense can be folded and carried in one’s pocket. It is especially significant in the vari- ous instances noted above that the changes always take place in order of time, just as we find evolutional changes occurring in animals. Thus we are no more apt to meet the highly modified burganets of the seventeenth century among casques of the sixteenth century than we are likely to find fossil mammals in the old red sandstone. On the other hand, we may learn of archaic forms of helmets or halberds persisting for a long time, as we find the pearly nautilus or the gar pike, living to-day, which might well have died out with their kindred ages ago. Thus as an amusing case of sur- vival, we read of knights from Ireland appearing in Queen Elizabeth’s court armed in basinets and chain mail, nearly two centuries behind the English style. TSIMSHIAN STORIES IN CARVED WOOD By Lieutenant George T. Emmons HE Kitksan as well as the other a9 divisions of the Tsimshian pos- ____sess_neither letters nor hiero- glyphics, yet through the plastic and graphic arts they have been enabled to preserve and illustrate their legends, traditions and much of their life history. Carving in wood, bone and stone, weaving in the wool of the mountain goat, in maple and cedar bark and spruce root show a much higher degree of de- velopment than painting. The last has never advanced beyond simple outline with no sense of perspective and with four simple colors, consequently little variation in shade or tone. Cruder and more primitive than either the Tsimshian proper or the Niska, the Kitksan nevertheless follow natural forms with wonderful accuracy, and besides portraying the typical features of their race, they express action in animal figures — born no doubt of that close study of nature upon which the hunter’s life depends. Their art is more realistic than conventional, but as it has been developed slowly through genera- tions a certain amount of usage prevails which is the more noticeable in the hu- man, bear and mythical animal figures. Without discussing the origin of the Kitksan, the fact that their art has been borrowed from the coast cannot be ques- tioned, for the reason that there are found more than two hundred miles inland in the midst of birch and cotton- wood forests, sea animal forms emblem- atic of the family crests that have come to them through intercourse and inter- marriage with the seaward divisions of this people. Besides, all their folk-lore and traditions speak of a migration down the Skeena to salt water, and a further proof is that the contiguous Déné tribes are wholly wanting in any sense of art. Some of the finest specimens of carv- ing are said to have been executed by Tsimshian imported for the purpose, but the average work represents home talent, and while often archaic, is more realistic and original and interesting in the por- trayal of local traditions and the fauna of the country than the finer carving. At the village of the old Kitzegukla on the Skeena River, some thirteen miles below Hazelton, is a very interest- ing heraldic column of the Kish-hasht family. It is rather crude in its execu- tion but it illustrates more than the usual number of stories. The tree is simply barked and brought to a dull point at the top. Below this occurs in order representations of, first, the moun- tain goat painted white and _ black; second, the sun within which is the figure of the moose hunter, Kuke-shan, carrying a small basket; third, the monkey woman Pighish, and at the base the big horned owl (gwuk-gwu-nooks). These stories told in wood go back to the time when men and animals were supposed to be very close to one another; when they intermarried and saw each other under a spell of witchery that made all appear human, except that the ani- mals wore coats of fur which they could at will remove and appear in human form, or put on and become as animals. THE STORY OF THE MOUNTAIN GOAT (These stories were told by John Malo, an old Kitksan at Hazelton, June 20, 1913. They are prosaic but typical native explanation of a totem pole, similar to the many on exhibition in the American Museum) In the early days of life, before the great cold which caused the dispersion of the 363 “Ss Four stories illustrated in carved wood on a heraldic column Kitksan, when the whole tribe lived at Tumla- halm on the upper Skeena River, there was a great hunter, Kit-um-gieldo (man of the outside or wilds). He was chief of the Kon-nah-da clan, whose hunting grounds included Sthe-yordan-lah (steep sides), the precipitous aggregation of jagged mountain peaks that rise directly from the compara- 364 tively level country beyond the mouth of the Buckley River. After the salmon season was over, when the animals had fattened on the abundance of the summer and had taken on their winter coats, he invited the most active hunters of the village to accompany him to the great mountain where the wild goats were abundant, for besides the flesh which was esteemed, the skins were used as bedding, the soft wool was twisted into yarn for weaving blankets, into cord for carrying bags and other household arti- cles, while the leaf fat that had been taken on as a protection against the extreme cold of winter was run into cakes for later use. The goats were hunted with bow, arrow and spear, the hunt- ers lying in wait for them along their rock-worn trails, and many were taken each year and sent down the mountain side to the people who were en- camped awaiting the hunters’ return. Fhen the meat was carried across the river to the village and a great feast was held. *, During one of these expedi- tions a young man put a bag of red paint in his wallet, to color his arrows for good luck, and after he had killed many goats he came across a kid which he caught and after painting its horns red and deco- rating its face in ceremonial design, he let it go. The fol- lowing. spring two strangers dressed in white blankets ar- rived in the village and as was the custom with guests, they were invited to the chief’s house and offered food such as dried salmon, boiled dried goats’ meat and dried berries, but they would not eat anything. They gave all the people an invitation to visit their village, not saying where it was, but offering themselves ‘as guides. -After leaving the house some chil- dren noticed the strangers on their hands and TSIMSHIAN STORIES IN CARVED WOOD knees eating grass like animals, but they did not mention this to the people at the time. The following morning at an early hour the villagers assembled and led by the visi- tors, crossed the river and climbed the moun- tain until they reached what appeared to be a broad leyel expanse where stood a large feast house. This was a delusion, however, they were really on a narrow rock shelf — for the people were under the spell of the mountain. Around the house were platforms of broad planks which overhung steep precipices, and their hosts who appeared as human beings in their white blankets were in reality moun- tain goats. The people were feasted and then the chief, their host, began to dance, singing a strange song of his people: “I am shaking my hoofs over the mountain side,’ and they saw the rock open and close again, which they could not understand. When night came they were given sleeping places on the platforms around the house, the chiefs on the lower ones and the common people on those above. The hosts, however, took their places on the inner sides and placed the guests on the outer edges, except in the case of the hunter who the previous year had caught the kid and painted its horns -red. To him came a young man whose face was decorated in red, who asked him to share his sleeping bench with him, and he alone was placed on the inner side of the platform. In the night when all were sleeping, the goat hosts pushed the sleepers off into space and all were killed except the young hunter who had painted the horns of the kid, who in truth was his host and protector in human form. When he awoke and found his friends gone he was very sad, for he saw that he was on a narrow rock shelf of the mountain side in a place inaccessible to man. But his protector took off his shoes which seemed to be hoofs and putting them on the hunter’s feet he told him that with them he need have no fear, that he could jump from shelf to shelf with perfect safety. Also he told him to take them off when he reached the level ground and put them in a certain place where he could find them. When the young hunter reached the base of the mountain he found the bruised dead bodies of all who had accompanied him to the feast and only those were left who had remained in the village. 365 THE STORY OF THE MOOSE HUNTER The great moose hunter, Kuke-shan (expert in gambling with the sticks) traveled great distances in search of game but after hunting a moose and killing it, he took only the paunch which he filled with blood. This he boiled down into a thick soup which was considered a great luxury. He was continually thirsty because he traveled far and fast and he cautioned his wife always to have water baskets filled when he was expected to return — and these he emptied at once. During one of his trips the wife neglected to go for water, and when he was returning she heard him shouting for water. In her confusion she answered “‘No water!” as she grabbed the baskets and hurried to the spring. Then he was carried up to the Sun and his voice grew fainter and fainter until it was lost in the distance, for he was a child of the Sun and was always thirsty, and he could live on earth only as long as he could find plenty of water. He can be seen in the Sun, but no one must look at him because he may throw down blood from the paunch which he carries, and thus cause hemorrhage and fatal sickness. THE MONKEY WOMAN, PIGHISH Besides having a knowledge of the animals common to the country, the Kitksan held a general belief in mythical beings half human and half animal that lived in the depth of the forest, the inaccessible mountain tops and_ the waters. Such beings had been seen in early days by certain individuals, and in most instances the meetings had been productive of great good fortune. Rep- resentations of these beings had been assumed as crests and their supposed likenesses were displayed on heraldic col- umns, as well as upon ceremonial dress and paraphernalia. Pighish, who was seen first by one of the Kish-hasht clan, was an animal closely asso- ciated with the land otter, although very human in appearance, and spoken of to-day as a monkey woman. The presence of Pighish was indicated by the ery of a child, 366 for she always carried on her back a small being much like herself. Only one without fault could see this miraculous creature, and when the voice called, he was obliged to follow as the sun goes around four times; then he would come to Pighish. He then must take the child, which immediately appeared to be human. The mother then pleaded for her infant and it was returned to her, whereupon she agreed to grant any wish asked. In returning the child, the face of the person had to be turned away as he stepped back, lest Pighish kill him with her long claws. This spirit is identical with the property women of the Haida and the Tlingit of the Coast. AN OLD LEGEND OF THE GREAT HORNED OWL There are many stories about the great horned owl (gwuk-gwu-nooks) but the one mentioned most often is in connection with the theft of children. One of the oldest of these legends, like that of the mountain goat, goes back to the days of Tumla-halm. During the winter season of extreme cold when the great communal houses were untenantable, the people occupied very small log structures — low, shedlike and chinked with moss. In one of these was a family including a little boy who cried continually. He was wrapped up in his rabbit-skin blanket and put to bed, but he would get up and crying go to one and another until the father said “Tf you do not stop the owl will take you.” Finally he went to the grandmother sleeping near the door, and when she pushed him away, the door opened and in truth the owl came in and carried him off. In the morning his family missed him, but they could hear his faint crying, so they searched far and wide but without any success. Then they commenced digging in THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL the ground, and from this incident the col- lection of winter huts below the main village received the name ‘An wurghash”’ (place where they dig). Finally the father took down his bow and quiver and putting some goat’s suet and red ochre in his bag, he set out through the woods. He had gone but a short distance when a grouse flew up from the trail and lit in a tree. Fitting an arrow to the bow the father was about to shoot, when the grouse cried, ‘‘Do not shoot for I will tell you of your lost boy, but first say if you have any goat’s fat and red paint in your wallet and will you paint red on my eyes?” This he did and the grouse said, “How nice I look now! Go right ahead and you will see a big nest of twigs in a great spruce and in it is your boy.” The father reached the tree and climbing up found the boy asleep wrapped in his rabbit-skin blanket. This was the owl’s nest, and the owl had been feed- ing the child on live snakes, frogs and: worms, telling him they were rabbits’ entrails. These ate through the child’s stomach and he finally died and his body was burned. In the fall of the year when the water was low and the barricade and salmon traps bridged the river, the villagers heard someone calling from the opposite shore, and soon they saw the owl which appeared more like an old woman. As she came to the bridge, she sang, ‘‘Was it you that raised the child and took it away?”’ The father told some little boys playing about to pull out some of the foot boards and place dead sticks across so that any weight would break through. After doing this they called to the owl to come over knowing that she would press hard on the foot boards, and as she attempted to cross she broke through and fell into the river. As she floated downstream she came to a camping-place where children were hooking salmon. When they saw her they brought her to shore, but soon being frightened they ran away. Then she called, “Come back my grandchildren and dry me.”’ They built a fire and wiped her feathers dry, when she became very vulgar in speech and they angrily threw her into the river and she was drowned. EXPLORING A SPUR OF THE ANDES By Leo E. Miller HAT lofty spur_of-the Andes jutting out-of the Western Range slightly below altitude 7° is known by the name Paramillo. To explore this section was the object of the expedition’s leaving its base at Medellin on January 14, 1915, with equipment sufficient for about three weeks’ actual field work. The very good trail strikes toward the northwest, ascending the mountain side rapidly, so that four hours after starting we had reached the top of the range. A great cleft forms a natural pass, 8750 feet high, and saves a climb of at least an additional thousand feet. The slope on the other (western) side is more gentle. We were immediately impressed with the barren nature of the country, for with the exception of a few patches of low brush and the clumps of withered grass, no vegetation was to be seen; and an occasional glimpse of the Cauca River far below suggested the picture of a broad yellow ribbon lying upon a brown rocky plain. That night we reached a small town called San Geronimo (elevation 3200 feet). Near the town small patches of ground are irrigated with water brought from mountain brooks and distributed through a network of artificial ditches. In these spots rice, corn and pastur- age grow, although rather scantily on account of the rocky nature of the soil. Next morning we were on the road before six. A few hours later, on crossing the top of a small ridge, we came suddenly upon the town of Sopetrin completely hidden in a fertile little valley filled with palms, mangoes, and other beautiful trees. The cluster of some hundreds of neat white houses with red tile roofs, the well-kept streets, and the multitude of birds fluttering among the deep green foli- age render Sopetrin quite the most attrac- tive town of its size I have seen in tropical America. At noon we reached the Cauca and crossed that sluggish, muddy stream on a well-built suspension bridge probably eight hundred feet long. Gravel banks flank the sides of the river, and bare sandy islands divide its waters. The elevation at this point is approximately two thousand feet. One league beyond the Cauca lies the town of Antioquia, altitude 2600 feet. The valley of the Cauca is here five to ten miles wide, rolling, and supports no vegetation except occasional clumps of mimosas and cacti which rather add to its desert-like appearance. The high ranges of the Western and Central Andes hem it in like huge walls of pink clay and sandstone. We reached Buriticé January 16. Immedi- ately after leaving Antioquia, a mere ledge of a trail begins the ascent of the Coast Range, and while a good deal of anxiety was felt for the safety of the two cargo animals, it was nevertheless a relief to escape from the intol- erable heat of the low country. The altitude of Buriticd is 6200 feet. On account of the jaded condition of the animals, we spent the morning of January 17 at Buriticd. Leaving at noon, we reached a small settlement known as Tabocal, altitude 5400 feet, at five o’clock. We could now no longer see the Cauca, our view having been shut off by a ridge of mountains several thousand feet in height which rises out of the valley between the ridge we were on and the river. A slight change was perceptible in the character of the country; extensive acres covered with low brush dotted the otherwise barren landscape, although far apart; and on the extreme tops of both ranges a thin fringe of green could be distinctly seen. Beyond Tabocal the country is extremely broken, there being frequent rises and de- scents of two thousand feet. Several sepa- rate mountains, not connected with the main ranges, stand here and there like huge monuments, rising from a basal elevation of three thousand feet to eight or nine thousand feet, which naturally magnifies their already tremendous proportions. Late in the afternoon of the eighteenth, we reached an altitude of eight thousand feet, and entered a fine strip of forest, the first we had seen since leaving Medellin. This is the beginning of the forested zone, which exami- nation showed to be at an equal height on both the Central and Coast Ranges, and to continue to the tops, which appear to rise to an altitude of nine thousand feet or more. The night was spent at an Indian hut called La Meseta, altitude 7900 feet just below the forest belt, and situated in the midst of an extensive strip of maize. Peque, the end of the 367 At one time on the way to the Paramillo, camp was made at an altitude of 10,000 feet after a climb of 5000 feet in eight hours. journey by mule, was reached at noon on the nineteenth. After leaving La Meseta the trail goes down abruptly; the town has an altitude of only five thousand feet. Peque boasts of about fifty decaying mud huts, and its popu- lation is mostly of Indian descent, including some pure-blooded Indians. One of the lat- ter, Julian David, received us most cordially and rendered us every possible assistance in securing the porters for the ascent of the Paramillo. Some of the country surrounding Peque once doubtless bore a light forest growth, with heavier forest in the ravines; but by far the greater part is naturally bare or covered with a dense growth of brush. I was told that at the time of the Spanish Invasion, forty thousand Indians inhabited this region; and as the several mountain streams supply an abundance of fresh water and its soil responds fairly well to cultivation, there seems to be no reason why it should not have sup- ported an extensive population. The forest zone, beginning at La Meseta at eight thousand feet, gradually extends its limits downward as we go farther north, until at Peque it reached as low as five thousand feet in the deeper and well-watered: ravines; and as previously reported, at Puerto Val- divia, it reaches the very edge of the Cauca. We secured four half-breed porters to carry the equipment and as there was no trail to the Paramillo, a fifth man was engaged to go in advance and clear an opening with his machete. On ‘the twenty-first we started at six in the morning, following a short trail that led to a 368 After leaving this camp the expedition was without water for two days lonely hut known as El Madeiro. This three hours’ walk took us through country covered with large areas of tall brush, blackberry briars and guavas, with occasional patches of forest, some of which had recently been burnt. Arriving at El Madeiro (eight thousand feet), we plunged into the magnificent forest, going in a due westerly direction. It was our plan to follow along the top of an undulating ridge, which one of the men said was the short- est and easiest route. He knew from experi- ence, having once visited that region some sixteen years before. It was during the course of a revolution; his father was pursued by the opposing forces and fled into the forest, taking his son, then a small boy with him, and even- tually reaching the Paramillo where they spent some time. At first the forest was fairly penetrable, but soon it assumed the character of the well- known San Antonio (above Cali) jungle, being composed of a solid wall of moss, ferns, creepers and epiphytes which burdened every tree-trunk and branch. Many birds, such as wood-hewers, yellow-headed tanagers, par- rots and blue-throated jays were observed, among them a number of species common at. Santa Elena. On account of the long climb, we made camp at three o’clock, at an altitude of ten thousand feet, having ascended five thousand feet in eight hours’ marching. Water was obtained in a ravine over one thousand feet lower down on one side of the ridge, and I may here add that this was the only water we had until reaching the Paramillo, so that we went nearly two whole days without drinking. The second day’s march we had hoped would be over a gentler slope; but it was soon discovered that our ridge was composed of a succession of knolls rising from five hundred to one thousand feet above the mean level, and the forest grew denser constantly. We had to cut practically every foot of the way. In places we actually walked over the top of the masses of vegetation; the branches were a solid tangle of creepers, climbing bamboo, bromelias and mosses, and formed springy aérial bridges. burrow through, and frequently “tunnels” many yards long were cut, through which the carriers crawled on hands and knees. The tops of some of the hills were void of trees, their place being taken by a dense growth of grasslike bamboo, wild oleanders, thick-leaved shrubs, and thickets of a tall, coarse grass with leaves eight feet tall and six inches wide. More often it was easier to Half-breed porters to carry the expedition’s equipment. and clear an opening through the forest with his machete. It was the duty of one to goin advance In some places every foot of the way had to be cut; in others the party actually walked over the tops of the vegetation, a solid tangle of creepers, climbing bamboo, bromelias and mosses, which formed springy aérial bridges 369 \ OLE S19ZvUB} PUB SBOT[A.O} ‘SJOUTUINY ‘saoyoIVOAB pue seBuryoo ‘sojooedey ‘siedee19 Aouoy ‘sayoug — Area AlOUIOIQXO PUB DIBOS DJOM SPJIG ‘SOUIARI 949 UL S901} poQUNgs pue soysng UMOJ3-ssOuUI VIM ‘ssvid YSNoO pue soysng A.Leqoniq ‘souoferresy ‘uOTeI030A OUTBIed [VoIdA) YILM potaAOD oe SApPIS uTeJUNOU oY, ‘sammssy doop pue SOUTARI YIIM Posiods19{Ul ‘3003 OOO'ET JO UOMBAVTO UB SuTyoved ysoysry oy ‘syved pouljour A[dzeys Jo selies & JO posodulod st (VIQUIO[OH ‘eINboNnuUY) oyTureseg oy, SSGNV 3HL AO YNdS ALAOT V EXPLORING A SPUR OF THE ANDES We camped this night at 11,350 feet up. The men eagerly cut down clumps of bromelias hoping to obtain water, but all that the leaves contained were a few drops of a liquid mud, utterly unfit for use. Although we traveled steadily for ten hours, F doubt if we covered more than three miles. A few hours after starting on the morning of January 23, we emerged suddenly from the dark forest. Instead of the tall, overburdened trees, there were extensive areas of bushes, evergreens, stunted pines, and plants with thick, round rubbery leaves, interspersed with clumps of tall rank ferns. Beyond stretched the bleak, wind-swept surface of the Garam. The Paramillo region is composed of a series of sharply inclined peaks, the highest of which attains an elevation of thirteen thousand feet, interspersed with ravines and deep fissures. The surface consists mainly of dark sandstone which in many places has been shattered so that a thin litter of the particles covers the fundamental rock. Occasionally a thin vein of white quartz’ crops out, especially where, as often occurs, the strata stand in a perpen- dicular position. Water;is scarce. We dis- covered but one ‘small, trickling brooklet; but at the bottom of one of. the crevices 371 several potholes were found, each containing several hundred gallons. At night the temperature fell to 28°, and ice formed in our pails half an inch thick; in the morning the ground was white with frost. The vegetation is of a typical paramo char- acter, consisting of low clumps of frailejones, blueberry bushes and tough grass. In the ravines grow thick bushes and stunted trees, all heavily moss-covered. Birds were extremely scarce and, strange to say, exceedingly wary. The typical slaty finch of Santa Isabel and two species of honey creepers were by far the commonest, followed by a small, slaty tapacolo. Then there were white-throated hummers and flycatchers. The finches (including gold- finches), honey creepers, tapacolos, cotingas and flycatchers, seem to belong strictly to the paramo; the hummers, towhees and tanagers it seems come only from the forests below. It is difficult to guess just where this typical paramo bird fauna originated. On all sides excepting a break toward the west, Paramillo is surrounded by ridges, some reaching an elevation of 12,000 feet, the tops of which are covered with dense forest, so that it stands like a mountainous brown island amid the sea of green. MUSEUM NOTES Stnce the last issue of the JourNnat the following persons have become members of the Museum: Patron, Mr. Joun H. PRENTICE; Life members, Mrs. ApriAN HorrMaNn JoLINE, Mrs. JoHn Macer, Dr. J. V. LAUDERDALE and Messrs. GerorGe D. Barron, Russert J. Cores, ALFRED M. Couuns, Lee Garnetr Day, JouHn W. Mercer and R. G. Packarp, JR.; Sustaining member, Mrs. N. M. Ponp; Annual members, Mrs. W. H. Burton, Mrs. E. Brunswick, Mrs. Linuian M. CuHarues, Mrs. K. D. CuHeney, Jr., Mrs. CHARLES Dovatass, Mrs. JosepH Herzia, Mrs. Greorae Leary, Mrs. JosepH Lorwt, Mrs. Wriiiutam Mitcuett, Mrs. C. W. Prerson, Mrs. Horace F. Poor, Mrs. ELEANOR ATKINSON Reap, Mrs. Georce S. Rinc, Mrs. Howarp C. Smits, Misses ConsTANcE Grices and ANNA L. SLATER, Dr. Jos& D. Atronseca, Dr. Grorce H. SEMKEN, Dr. Jutes A. VuILLEUMIER, DR. B. W. Wernsercer and Messrs. JoHN AITKEN, ALBERT B. AsHFORTH, FREDERIC D. Barstow, Henry G. Bartou, Paut Baum- GARTEN, Ricoarp A. CARDEN, ALBERT HrEy- MANN, GEORGE S. Hoyt, Vincent LOESER, M. R. Mayer, Pare ArinswortH MEANs, CarL Scuurz PrerrascH, Henry M. Rav, Max RoseENBERG, CHARLES SALOMON, Francis UpHamM Stearns, 8S. H. Srons, C. J. Srupner, Lampert Suypam. Jr., Herpert Syrett, Harry Tipper and a membership in memoriam to Mr. ANpR& C. CHAMPOLLION. In accordance with resolutions taken by the First Pan-American Scientific Congress, meeting in 1908 at Santiago, Chile, a Second Pan-American Congress will be held in Wash- ington, D. C., in December, 1915, under the auspices of the United States Government. Through the courtesy of the Pan-American Union the offices and sessions of the Congress will be located in the Pan-American building and the Director-General of this organization will act as Secretary-General of the Congress. The purpose of the Congress is to foster the cordial relations existing between Pan-Ameri- can countries and to give a broader acquaint- ance with current progress in education, public health, international law, antiquity of man, conservation of natural resources and 372 all branches of scientific research. At the recent invitation of the Secretary-General, the American Museum appointed as official representatives, Dr. Frank M. Chapman, delegate and Dr. Herbert J. Spinden, alter- nate. Tue one hundred and third meeting of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America will be held in New York City, at the American Museum of Natural History for three days in November begin- ning the fifteenth. On Monday, the first day, a lecture will be given in the auditorium by Dr. Michael Idvorsky Pupin, of Columbia University, on “The Problem of Aérial Transmission,” to be followed by a general reception in the hall of the Age of Man. On Tuesday morning, Tuesday afternoon and Wednesday morning, public scientific sessions will be held in the west assembly hall of the Museum at which various short papers will be read. Among those scheduled are: — “The Nature of Cell Polarity,’ by Prof. Edwin G. Conklin of Princeton University; “Heredity of Stature,” by Dr. Chas. B. Davenport of the Carnegie Institute, Cold Spring Harbor, New York; “Origin of the Gall Midges,”’ by Prof. E. P. Felt of the Geological Hall, Albany; ‘Fossil Caleareous Alge from the Panama Canal Zone,” by Prof. Marshall A. Howe of the New York Botanical Garden; ‘Recent Ex- plorations in the Cactus Deserts of South America,’ by Dr. J. N. Rose of the Smith- sonian Institution; “Can we observe Organic Evolution in Progress?” by Dr. Herbert Spencer Jennings of John Hopkins Univer- sity; ‘A Suggested Explanation of Ortho- genesis in Plants,” by Prof. John M. Coulter of the University of Chicago; ‘‘The Life of Radium,” by Dr. Bertram B. Boltwood of Yale; “The Colorimeter as an Interpreter of Life Processes,’ by Prof. Graham Lusk of the Russell Sage Institute of Pathology; “The Solar Radiation and its Variability,” by Charles G. Abbot of the Smithsonian Astrophysics Observatory; ‘Interference of Light Waves of Slightly Different Length,” by Prof. Carl Barus of Brown University; “The Influence of Certain Minerals on the Development of Schists and Gneisses,”’ by Dr. Charles R. Leith of Wisconsin Univer- sity; ‘Glacial Sculpture of the Mission MUSEUM NOTES Range, Montana,” by Prof. W. M. Davis of Harvard; “Crystallization of Quartz Veins,” by Waldemar Lindgren of the United States Geological Survey. President Henry Fairfield Osborn of the American Museum, will speak on ‘The re- cently mounted skeletons of Tyrannosaurus and Ornithomimus in the American Museum of Natural History.” He will describe the two extremes of carnivorous dinosaur adap- tation which these specimens respectively represent. Dr. Frank M. Chapman, curator of ornithology at the American Museum, will read a paper on “The Distribution of Bird Life in Colombia: a Contribution to a Biological Survey of South America,’ and Mr. C. William Beebe, curator of birds, New York Zodlogical Park, on “The Origin of Flight in Birds.” Stnce Mr. Donald B. Macmillan has not returned from the Arctic in time to present to the members this fall an account of the Crocker Land expedition which he led North in 1913, arrangements have been made to show to members of the Museum on the evening of December 9 the motion pictures secured by Sir Douglas Mawson on the Australasian-Antarctic expedition. A_ brief ‘account of the expedition and a description of the action of the films, will be given by Mr. George H. Sherwood, curator of educa- tion at the American Museum of Natural History. These films give a wonderful pic- ture of the coastal animal life of the Ant- arctic: penguins, seals, sea-elephants, sea- leopards, snow petrels, cormorants, giant petrels and many other little-known species in apparently limitless number. The violent windstorms and blizzards so common in the Antarctic, and the giant icebergs and tower- ing ice cliffs of that region are strikingly shown in the pictures. A RESTORATION of the dodo has been pre- sented to the Museum by Walter Winans, of Surrenden Park, England, and is now on exhi- bition in the bird hall of the second floor. It has been suggested that this bird should prop- erly find a place in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, among the representations of figures of ancient mythology; but although there ap- pertains to the restoration no actual relic of any dodo, it is not a work of imagination only, having been prepared in the taxidermy studio of Rowland Ward in London, from existing 373 paintings of an actual dodo, the skull and legs of the restoration being cast from relies in the British and Oxford museums. The accuracy of the representation of the dodo presented by Mr. Winans is vouched for by Ogilvie Grant of the Zoélogical Society of London. AT a recent meeting of the Executive Com- mittee of the American Museum the new posi- tion of research associate was created on the scientific staff of the institution. Dr. C. R. Eastman was appointed research associate in vertebrate palwontology, and Mr. M. C. D. Crawford, research associate in textiles. Tue Board of Supervisors of the County of Los Angeles has acknowledged the receipt from the American Museum of a gift of casts of Charles R. Knight’s restorations of the imperial mammoth, the northern mammoth and the American mastodon. These casts have been placed in the Museum of History, Science and Art of Los Angeles, associated with the skeletons of these animals found in the La Brea asphalt beds. Tue American Museum has recently pur- chased a fine mastodon skull found on the farm of Mrs. V. Frye at Fulton, Indiana. With it were another incomplete skull, two lower jaws, and a considerable part of a skeleton. Both skulls are of females, dis- tinguished by small size and short and slender tusks. The three fine specimens of Mastodon americanus in the Quaternary hall, the Warren skeleton, the Shawangunk skull and the Ashley skull are all males. The new acquisition enables us to compare male and female skulls in the mastodon as well as in the mammoth, in which there was a similar difference in size of tusks. These tusks, about three feet long and three inches in diameter, are well worn at the tips, and would seem to have been much more useful weapons or tools than the huge tusks of the male mastodon. One can scarcely avoid the conclusion that the massive tusks of the males were chiefly ornamental and of very little service to their owners — detrimental indeed rather than useful in fighting, in digging, or in traveling through woods or brushland. These and various other speci- mens of the mastodon and its Tertiary an- cestors will shortly be arranged in the northwest corner of the Quaternary hall on the fourth floor of the Museum. 374 Ar a meeting of the Section of Biology of the New York Academy of Sciences in the American Museum on October 11, Dr. A. J. Goldfarb, of the College of the City of New York demonstrated his theory of the physio- chemical origin of certain abnormal forms. Dr. Goldfarb showed on the screen his pro- duction of double sea-urchin embryos by placing their eggs in certain chemical solu- tions, which dissolved the fertilization mem- brane and permitted the eggs to adhere to one another. His experiments would indi- cate that metabolic derangements may be the cause of the occurrence of similar abnormal- ities in higher species. He found that the extent of the derangements following partial or complete fusion of eggs was roughly pro- portional to the area of the surfaces brought into contact. In the death of Dr. Charles F. Holder, in Pasadena, California, on October 11, this country loses one of its older marine natural- ists. Born in Lynn, Massachusetts, August 5, 1851, he early evinced an interest in natural history, and in 1871 was appointed assistant curator at the American Museum of Natural History, to assist his father, who had been associated with the Museum since its inception. Dr. Holder in speaking of his work there said a few years ago: “I remember the opening of the Museum distinctly. I had been on the Florida reefs with my father for years, and had a practical knowledge of marine zodlogy which had whetted my appe- tite for science, and the gradual unfolding of the collections was a delight.” Dr. Holder resigned his position in the Museum in 1875 and soon afterward accepted the chair of zoology at Throop College, Pasadena. At the time of his death he was honorary curator of its museum. Dr. Holder was the author of many books and a member of many dis- tinguished scientific societies. Tue annual Autumn show of the Horti- cultural Society of New York was held in the American Museum of Natural History November 4 to 7 inclusive. Chrysanthe- mums were the feature of the exhibition and among them the enormous bush plants shown by Mr. Adolph Lewisohn of Ardsley, New York, made a striking appearance. One of these, a yellow R. F. Felton seventeen feet in diameter and with fifteen hundred blooms, is the largest ever grown. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Mr. Grorae C. Lonauey has presented to the Museum the collections of his last winter’s archeological work on the Island of Jamaica. They: contain two human skulls from lime- stone caves, and a large number of stone celts, potsherds, and bird, fish, and animal bones. This gift has been added to the very large collection previously presented by Mr. Longley, and will be found on exhibition in the South American gallery. Tue collection of fossil mammals, obtained in Alberta by Mr. Barnum Brown, associate curator of vertebrate paleontology at the American Museum, was shipped from Sweet- grass, Montana, on October 27 and is expected to reach New York in November. A Mortort skull, recently purchased by the Museum, has just arrived from Australia. The Morioris are an aboriginal race from the Chatham Islands, and are spoken of as an- cestors of the Maoris. Miss Mary CyntuiA Dickerson, curator of woods and forestry and associate curator of herpetology at the American Museum, attended the celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the opening of Vassar College as the delegate of the Museum. The in- auguration of Henry Noble MacCracken, Ph.D., L. H. D., as President of the College was the occasion for notable addresses by Dr. John Huston Finley, commissioner of education for New York, Dr. George Lyman Kittredge, of Harvard University and Presi- dent Henry Noble MacCracken. The Pag- eant of Athena, composed by students of the College and presented under the direction of Miss Hazel Mackaye in Vassar’s new out-of- door theatre, represented a very high stand- ard of achievement. A series of moving tableaux pictured phases of the development of woman’s intellectual life in the past, “the web of Athena’s weaving,” from Sappho in the sixth century before Christ to Eleva Lucrezia Cornaro of the seventeenth century after Christ, who was elected to the doctorate of the University of Padua. At the close, after the procession across the stage of the several hun- dred actors representing the past, there fol- lowed many hundred Vassar girls of to-day — presaging woman’s intellectual life of thefuture. Proressor C.-E. A. Winstow has taken up his new work as professor of public health MUSEUM NOTES at the Yale Medical School, New Haven, but in his capacity as curator of public health at the American Museum he will be in New York regularly on Tuesdays. Dr. Georce F. Kunz, honorary curator of gems in the American Museum, has been awarded a gold medal at the Panama Pacific Exposition for his collection of publications on gems. Tiffany and Company, with whose firm Dr. Kunz has long been identified as gem expert, have been awarded the grand prize for their collection illustrating the formation of gems under changing mineralogical and geological conditions. The books and mono- graphs by Dr. Kunz occupy one case of the Tiffany exhibit. Mrs. Aprian Horrman JOLINE has re- - eently been elected a life member of the Museum in acknowledgment of her generous contributions to the funds of the Asiatic expedition for the collection of mammals. Major John V. Lauderdale, Surgeon United States Army has also been made a life member in appreciation of his gift to the Museum of a collection of ethnological speci- mens. Messrs. Frank E. Lutz and A. J. Mutcs- LER spent six weeks of the past summer studying and collecting insects and spiders - in Porto Rico. The work was a part of the insular survey being made under the auspices of the New York Academy of Sciences. Considerable territory was covered, especially in the western portion of the island. More than fifteen thousand specimens were ob- tained. On Friday evening, November 19, Dr. G. Clyde Fisher, assistant curator of public education at the American Museum, will lecture to the adult blind of New York City and Brooklyn on “Bird Neighbors and their Homes.” The procedure at this and subse- quent lectures will differ from that at previous lectures, in that small habitat groups of the birds and their nests will be placed in the entrance hall that the blind may handle them and thus have a definite idea of the birds as they are mentioned in the lecture. The doors will be open for the inspection of birds and their nests at 7.45, the lecture following at 8.15. On December 17, Mr. Ernest Harold Baynes will lecture to the blind on animal life. 375 Tue twentieth free exhibition in the art gallery of the Washington Irving high school, Irving Place, New York, consisted of primi- tive American textiles loaned by the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History. Peruvian cloth and weaving implements, and Navajo, Chilkat, Saltillo and Chimayo blankets com- prised the exhibit. A course of lectures open to school chil- dren will be given at the American Museum on Monday afternoons at four o’clock, begin- ning November 1 and lasting through Decem- ber 6; Wednesday afternoons, beginning November 3 and lasting through December 8; and Friday afternoons beginning October 2 up to and including December 10. A people’s course will be given on Tuesday and Saturday evenings in conjunction with the department of education at 8.15 and will continue through December 21. Dr. L. P. Gratacap, curator of mineralogy at the American Museum, has just returned from a recreative trip of two months over Canada. Traveling from east to west, he en- joyed a rapid survey of the plains of Manitoba, Saskatchewan and Alberta, with some exami- nation of the commercial and economic features of Winnipeg, Medicine-Hat, Calgary and Sud- bury, also impressions of the geological devel- opments of the Rockies and the Selkirks. Durtine the past year Mr. Roy C. Andrews has been preparing a monograph on the sei whale (Balenoptera borealis Lesson), a fine skeleton of which he secured in Japan dur- ing the summer of 1910. Although the sei whale has formed the basis of the summer fishery of the Japanese for some fifteen years, it had never reached the attention of a scientific observer and was supposed not to occur in the Pacific. The forthcoming monograph is the result of collaboration with Professor Hermon von W. Schulte of the department of comparative anatomy of the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York City, who has made an elaborate study of the soft anatomy of a sei whale foetus which Mr. Andrews brought from Japan in 1910. This is the first time that the anatomy of any species of large whale has been treated in a monographic form. Tue Garner African Film Company has recently been organized for the purpose of 376 sending Mr. Richard L. Garner to Africa to get motion pictures of the native and animal life of that part of the country which he knows so well. He will make especial effort to secure motion pictures of gorillas and chimpanzees. Mr. Garner is well known to the public as the man who years ago made a study in Africa of the language of the gorilla and chimpanzee. The directors of the new company are Mr. Carl E. Akeley of the Ameri- can Museum, Messrs. Raymond L. Ditmars and H. R. Mitchell of the New York Zodlogical Society and Mr. William C. Glass. Dr. Rosert H. Lowrie, leaving the Museum early in June, visited the Kiowa to ascertain the character of their military societies, and spent the remainder of June and the month of July with the Hopi of Arizona paying particular attention to their clan and family relationships. He attended the meetings of the American Association for the Advance- ment of Science and of the American An- thropological Association at Berkeley during August, and was official delegate at the Panama Pacific Exposition, representing the Borough of Manhattan on Manhattan Day. AMONG important recent additions to the hall of public health in the Museum is a model showing the increased efficiency of the present hospital service at Panama over that of the French period. This model shows a hospital in the French period in care of a Sister of Mercy. Puddles of water were allowed to gather about the ground, and the legs of the beds were placed in cans of water to prevent ants from crawling up. As we now know, yellow fever and malarial fever mosquitoes bred in such accumulations of stagnant water and helped to keep the hospitals well filled. Screens were not used and the ventilation was not of the best. The companion part of the model shows a French hospital, altered to conform to our most modern ideas and knowledge of the relation of insect and disease. A clean, dry cellar, well-kept grounds, screens, increased ventila- tion and the care of trained nurses serve to change an insanitary, disease-breeding build- ing into the acme of sanitation. TurovucH the generosity of Mr. Ogden Mills the Museum library has received a copy of the colored edition of the famous Antiqui- ties of Mexico by Lord Kingsborough. This monumental work in nine folio volumes, published 1831-48, was originally undertaken THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL by Lord Kingsborough in order to test the theory, then prevalent, that the American Indians were the lost tribes of Israel. He made facsimile reproductions of all native manuscripts from Mexico and _ Central America then known, including many famous codices of the Maya and the Mexicans; re- published many valuable government reports and collected all available evidence bearing upon Mexican civilization. The work con- tains one thousand plates, colored by hand from the originals, embracing the remains of Mexican picture-writing, architecture and sculpture, thus giving to the world a record of one of the most wonderful civilizations ever known. There are facsimilies of the ancient paintings and hieroglyphics preserved in the royal libraries of Paris, Berlin, Dresden and Vienna; the Vatican Library; the Borgian Museum at Rome; the library of the Insti- tute at Bologna and the famous Bodleian Library at Oxford. To-day this work, con- taining as it does the only reproductions ever issued of a number of very important native manuscripts, is absolutely indispensable to students of Mexican archeology. Durine the past summer Messrs. Roy W. Miner and Herman O. Mueller of the depart- ment of invertebrate zodlogy of the Muse- um, investigated the marine coastal fauna of Porto Rico, as a part of the biological survey of that island being made by the New York - Academy of Sciences. Headquarters were established at Ensenada on Guanica Harbor through the courtesy of the Guanica Sugar Centrale which furnished many facilities to the expedition. Collecting was carried on in Guanica Harbor and the adjacent portions of the coast, including the outlying coral reefs from Guayanilla Bay westward to Cabo Rojo. This summer’s work together with that of last season completes the survey of the entire western half of the south coast of Porto Rico, besides the work already done at San Juan on the northern coast and Mayaguez on the western coast. Tue classification of the shore fishes col- lected by the Townsend “ Albatross” Expedi- tion to Lower California in 1911 is now near- ing completion. This work has been done by Dr. Raymond C. Osburn of the New York Aquarium assisted by the Museum’s depart- ment of ichthyology. The collection includes sixteen new species besides several others which were very little known. 3)7 _ Tue American Museum Journa VotumME XV DECEMBER, 1915 NuMBER 8 = ae CONTENTS Cover, Azande Warriors in Sham Fight Photographs taken in the Congo by Mr. Herbert Lang Frontispiece, Portrait of Mr. Herbert Lang........................... .. 378 An Explorer's View of the Congo......................... HERBERT Lane 379 An authoritative study of the conditions in the Congo and of the natives in their relation to the Belgian administration Illustrations from photographs of the Congo natives taken during a six-years’ residence among them Reproductions in Duotone of African Photographs.............. opposite 388 Twelve photographs selected from the seven thousand brought from Africa by Mr. Herbert Lang, to give a picture of the life of the Congo negroes Ancient Cities of New Mexico..... Sat, ahs MiG Sues N. C. NEtson 389 Illustrations from photographs of the ruins under process of excavation by Mr. Nelson Explorations in the Southwest by the American Museum..CLark WIssLER 395 Resume of the Museum’s field research in the southwestern United States between 1909 and 1915 Sear town Glass. .. oo 6cc se bla eee cee Herman O. MuELLER 399 A glimpse behind the scenes in the American Museum’s preparation shop The American Museum’s Reptile Groups in Relation to High School Biology. Grorce W. Hunter 405 Hunting Deer in the Adirondacks................ Roy CHapMan ANDREWS 409 Illustrations from still and motion pictures by the Author News from the Crocker Land Expedition.......................... 0005: 415 Quotation from letters from the Arctic Beginnings of American Natural History............ Cuar.LEs R. Eastman 417 Concluded from the November issue of the Journau A Valuable New Bird Book: A Review.............. T. GitBerT PEARSON 423 Penni On wider LOR6S eee. Frank E. Lutz 424 Corythosaurus, the New Duck-billed Dinosaur. W. D. Marruew and Barnum Brown 427 Rn ne. ya weleee os 6 p'oulaw ase 428 Mary Oynrara Dickerson, Editor Published monthly from October to May by the American Museum of Natural History, at the Cosmos Press, Cambridge, Mass. Terms: one dollar and a half per year, twenty cents per copy. Entered as second-class matter January 12, 1907, at the Post-Office at Boston, Mass., Act of Congress, July 16, 1894. Subscriptions should be addressed to the AmericAN Museum JourNat, 77th St. and Central Park West, New York City. The Journal is sent free to all members of the Museum. Photo by DeWitt C. Ward MR. HERBERT LANG, LEADER OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM’S CONGO EXPEDITION; 1909-1915 Tue American Museum JOourRNAL DECEMBER, 1915 NuMBER 8 VoLtuME XV AN EXPLORER’S VIEW OF THE CONGO By Herbert Lang Illustrations from photographs by the Author The history of the Museum’s work in the Congo is well-known to JouRNAL readers.! Mr. Herbert Lang, leader, and Mr. James P. Chapin, assistant, have carried the Congo expedi- tion successfully through more than six years’ work in Central Africa. The expedition was organized in 1909 on a tentative basis of three years’ work and was supported by the contribu- tions of the following men of New York: Messrs. John B. Trevor, Charles Lanier, Cleveland H. Dodge, J. P. Morgan, Jr., William K. Vanderbilt, A. D. Juilliard, Robert W. Goelet and William Rockefeller. An extension of time for the work, in order to complete a zodlogical survey of the unexplored territory, was made possible through the Jesup Fund of the Museum. Mr. Lang and Mr. Chapin have now returned, and the large and splendidly preserved collections with their valuable data, ready for extensive scientific research as well as for the construction of habitat groups for exhibition, have reached America and are safely housed in the Museum buildings. The following article by Mr. Lang on the natives of the Congo, is author- tative in that it is based on a six-years’ intimate acquaintance with natives of many tribes and a six-years’ first-hand knowledge of conditions in the Congo.— Tue Eprror REAT progress in civilization unfortunately often seems to be accompanied by incidents which throw some gloom on the result. At the time of the Belgian occupation of the Congo Basin no other power coveted this particular piece of territory. Practically all of its inhabitants were cannibals, a large portion had been laid waste by Arab slave-traders and by the Mahdists, and the country certainly deserved its reputation of being one of the most unhealthful regions. Other European nations had _ had plenty of opportunity to carry the torch of progress into the swampy regions of darkest Africa, but the possession al- ready by these colonizing powers of really prosperous colonies seems to show that political, financial and commercial advantages were preferred by them to what they probably considered a glori- ous but venturesome task. The Congo was therefore left to the King of the Belgians. Nor would it have been advantageous to continue to abandon its natives to the Arab slavers with their indescribable atrocities; to the Mahdists, who had already left a large and once prosperous section of Africa in a nearly desert condition, and to the horrors of the internecine warfare which is_ the inevitable sequel of cannibalism. It was well that some power should under- take the civilization of the natives even though difficulties and misunderstand- ings might ensue. If there had been (as some critics of the government seem to infer there were) 1 The full story of the aims of the expedition and its start from New York on May 8, 1909, is told in the Journat for October, 1910; various brief articles regarding the work in progress have appeared at intervals between that date and the present. 379 380 vast numbers of noble-minded and well- equipped men available for this task, progress would undoubtedly have been easier; but most men were deterred by the dangers and discomforts, and those offering their services were naturally of an adventurous and independent character. In many cases it proved to be a question as to whether the King of the Belgians could accept the responsi- bilities that naturally were connected with the services of such people, because positions in the Congo in those early periods often meant full autocratic power, with very little immediate con- trol by superior officers. In the greater part of what has been written however, about the Congo and its administration, these initial ‘difficulties are overlooked and more criticism than praise has been bestowed. Men of high distinction and indubitably noble sentiments have en- rolled themselves in the campaign against this administration, in perfect good faith and in the belief that they were rendering a service to humanity. The greatest reproach —the matter which seemed to arouse unlimited criti- cism — was the collecting of rubber by natives in payment of their taxes, and the stories of the horrors connected therewith. There is no doubt at all that the sale of this rubber netted some very handsome financial gains, and cer- tainly honest criticism was much needed at one time in order to correct the methods employed by some of the administrative officers, who were natu- rally anxious to show what they consid- ered high ability in administrating their territories; or to put it correctly in just these faulty cases, in ruling what they considered their own little kingdoms. What was needed however was not a campaign against atrocities, but an honest effort toward improving certain. conditions so as to induce a larger num- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ber of men of a higher type to live in the Congo. These might have devoted themselves actively to civilizing efforts, and by their very presence a change in defective conditions would have been brought about without causing embitter- ment. As a matter of fact, if the well- being and civilization of the natives alone are to be considered as the ultimate object of conquest, there are few portions of Africa which have a higher record for truly remarkable advance than the Belgian Congo itself; but the impetu- osity of the unfortunate campaign of the reformers is responsible for producing a number of laws of such great leniency that the strong and successfully guiding hand is often stayed by inappropriate measures, which positively injure the general welfare of the natives. Some of these laws actually seem systematically to encourage degradation by openly en- couraging idleness, although the negro would be perfectly willing to contribute his share to the progress and elevation of his race, which will probably never be attained except by giving him a fair chance for useful work and by estab- lishing correct compensation. This unsatisfactory legislation indeed, seems to have been the chief result achieved by the agitators, whereas if we consider the Belgian Congo as a whole, with a view to determining what great reforms have benefited the natives, we find that it is to the Belgian govern- ment that they are essentially due. The natives of the Congo like meat, and from all we saw they enjoy a mar- velous digestion. They have been called by opponents of the government “ poor defenseless children.” As a matter of fact there were eleven millions of canni- bals, who in a single day probably killed for mere food purposes more of their un- fortunate fellow-men than the number laid by these critics at the doors of all Ts& SOATPVU OY} BUOUTV JUOUTZUOZUOD JO 09R4S OY) JO PUB UO[BAISTUPUTpPS FUSUTUIGAOS A1OJOVJSTVVS OY} JO OALJSOBIZns sy spy, *“Aanfuy your Jo porvoddesyp peo] o[Fuys B you WOU o4;yM Aq UOISTAdodns [vUOTSBD00 ATWO YIM OFvAojI0d ,sAVp AVY JO VOULASTP & JOAO PoplIVd SpBOT LEZT OY} JO 4No 4eqy 4so107 Uy yonur JO 40vy BV STAT “youve spunod A4x}s Jo peo] v BuyAarvo Avp *& solyur WooIJY OF WO WPVM AouL ° qsod 09 480d wroay spvoy oy} Jo BOMVIAOdsUey JOJ poduUBIIe A[SNOD}INOD s[ByO_JO JUOUTUIOAOL QUB{SISse OAIJVU B JO A[UO OB1VYyo Uy S19ja0d youiq Jo sAvjor Aq ‘ofpviey Jo ysod oy} BuyAvoy siojsod porpuny @ jo uBABIeD MYHOA MIAN OL ASNYHNOPL ONOT YIFSHL ONILYVLS NOILIGSdX3 OSONOO 3HL 4O SNOILOS1100 382 THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Old Mobali man. The hair is allowed to grow long in age; the young men wear it shaven or short the trespassing government officials to- gether. their sold to neighbors to satisfy the hunger even dead were often for meat. Incidentally this horrible The headdress is made of Azande woman. human hair, woven upon a framework of rattan and decorated with cowrie shells practice produced some fairly good results in eugenics, as in many tribes weakened people or crippled children helped to nourish their more sturdy brothers. From the very start the government var and cannibal- reformers; stopped internecine ism; invited professional made traveling through these regions practically safe; established a system of river navigation; drove out slave-traders and Mahdists; introduced an elaborate judiciary system, and built in spite of apparently insurmountable difficulties, a two-hundred-and-forty-mile railroad near the coast belt, which really meant the opening of the Congo to the world at large. For over two years we lived in a dis- trict where, at that time, probably greater quantities of rubber were being collected by the natives than in any other region of the Congo. We often received specimens for our zodélogical collections from these rubber caravans which entered the forest for a week or a fortnight. In fact they considered us rather as friends and thus we had ample opportunity of seeing them at work. Only a few re- marks are necessary to throw light on the general conditions as we observed them. Long ago, when cannibalism was still flourishing, these negroes always left be- tween the localities of the principal tribes large, uninhabited belts in the forest, so that the chance of continued or immedi- ate invasion by their ever-hungry neigh- bors might be slightly reduced. This belt was naturally also the hunting ground, as in such a reservation game was fairly abundant, and not many natives would dare to venture alone into this wilderness. At certain periods how- ever, two or three times a year, the great chiefs would collect their natives and would enter this uninhabited forest-belt, either to gather household necessities AN EXPLORER’S VIEW OF THE CONGO or with the intention of organizing a raid upon the villages beyond. They often formed caravans of several hundred in- dividuals — men, women and children — carrying everything for the necessities of life with them, most of the men of course being armed with spears and arrows. No halfway respectable negro would leave his wife in the village. Even the chief’s more important women would have considered it a disgrace if they had been compelled to stay at home. Naturally the children were only too glad of an outing and no mother would leave her youngster behind. The forest sup- plies these negroes with everything their small plantations are unable to provide: building and household mate- rial; meat to be dried over the fire; the hides of game; plants for medicines; a great many charms; in fact every- thing they cannot find in the neighbor- hood of their villages, where they have usually cut down the forest. Rubber collecting is exactly the same kind of occupation as this other collect- ing, only it excludes all raids. There is not the slightest change, except that the natives add rubber to all the other things they gathered before. The remunera- tion given by the state at the time we entered the Congo was still in trade goods of excellent quality. In 1910 the natives, in spite of delivering this rubber as taxes, received more for it than later in 1914 after the introduction of cur- rency, as the price of this commodity had then dropped in the European market. When we passed through the same region again the natives openly complained that the commercial agents paid even less than the government officials formerly. Before the advent of the government these natives had to work much harder, as a result of the continued destruction Vil- lages were burnt down and plantations brought about by internecine war. A ‘‘Parisienne’’ of the Mangbetu tribe. The head is bound with a fine cord made of raffia, banana fibre or hair, while the natural hair is woven into a frame of rattan fibre. This toilet takes two days to perform destroyed and the men had to rebuild and replant and always to keep them- The concha of the ear is cut Makere woman. out as a tribal mark, and a bone pin is worn through the nasal septum 384 selves fit for fighting. After the pacifi- cation of these regions, which actually contained so many able-bodied men, it was surely better that they should be intelligently organized so that their unemployed energies might serve the progress of civilization, than that they should be left to drunkenness and sloth. In most of the districts there was nothing of value but rubber and ivory, and the natives were put to work to collect some of the rubber. They prefer this work to porterage or road-making, which latter they consider a woman’s occupation. The freedom of trade and the intro- duction of currency could hardly have been brought about more rapidly. In many districts however, the first arrivals THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL representing this freedom of trade were of the most ordinary class of adventurers, who considered the native but an object for their greed. The wisdom of with- holding these people so long was abun- dantly apparent, for only the confidence which the government officers enjoyed among the natives saved the lives of some of them. These natives are rather independent in their decisions and rash in action. ; To-day the country is well policed; the natives are — or at least were before the war — perfectly peaceful, and in our six years among them we never saw a Fortunately the posi- tion of the lower administrative officers has been rendered much more attractive, single atrocity. Pygmies from Nala, in the Uele District. agricultural tribes for vegetables. plaster casts to be made of their faces They live by hunting, and exchange their spoils with the Two hundred of them visited the expedition and many allowed The pieces of iron in the shape of spearheads represent currency and, together with the dog and lumps of crude iron, constitute the man’s offering to the parents for his bride. The chief of the tribe. in public palaver, decides as to the justice of the bargain and now most of the men engaged look upon their more stable position with satisfaction. This alone does away with irresponsible actions and the increased comfort and security tends greatly to minimize the dangers of the dreaded Congo climate. Many of the local dis- turbances in administrating the native population have been due to the tempo- rary illness or general indisposition of European officers, who on this account were unable to show that high degree of patience and firmness which the success- ful handling of these natives requires. The latter express themselves as fairly content, comparing past times with the present. Only one blessing they still covet, “The remedy to avoid ultimate death.”’ They have not the slightest tendency toward philosophic specula- tion, nor are they capable of attaching themselves readily to purely spiritual beliefs. Their happiness or safety de- pends, according to their idea, upon all sorts of conditions or objects which, like a talisman, are supposed to possess powers of preventing mischief or disaster. So imbued are they with these supersti- tions that death, with all of them, is not the final and natural destruction of life but the result of witchcraft. Those the never doubt that their faith is infinitely who know natives well stronger than that of many Christians. Their superstitions are more than a belief. sent stern laws the very cruelty of which These superstitions often repre- frightens them away from wrong-doing. This is the rock of salvation for reform. These kill their fellow-men without what may be called a natives sometimes trial, but it is only a few hundred years since white men killed thousands of their brethren simply because they had a dif- 385 386 ferent faith or conviction, and it is only to-day that they recognize that the defec- tive organization of society is responsible for many criminals. None of the natives indulge any longer in cannibalism; yet those most anxious to help them, and many of the professional reformers, Makere women and children watching a dance. being considered a mark of beauty. “ec speak even now about their “degraded condition,” “shameless manners,” and “behaviour like animals,” perhaps be- cause the warm climate allows them to walk about in just the state that seems, from all accounts, to have been the most satisfactory in Paradise. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL They because they enjoy life according to their are not necessarily degraded own standards, which in essentials do not differ so very widely from those of civil- ized people; nor because they are cap- able of living well on native food with- It is true that they are born and die out silverware or china. in the densest super- stition, but this latter is their religion, their code of morals, their own very rigid set of laws, which binds them together in spite of all savage feeling in true The negroes dis- played a most admira- ble spirit of fellowship, democratic spirit. we saw assisting one in any diffi- culty. They might be hungry themselves but they unselfishly divided cordially another their food, and this so naturally that anyone could see that the con- trary would have con- stituted a breach of the generally accepted standards. The great- est fallacy in judging natives is the common habit of travelers and many residents of bas- ing their judgment about them upon infor- The children’s heads are wrapped to lengthen the occipital region, this elongation The dancing costume of the women consists of a green banana leaf slit into ribbons mation received from workmen, servants or half-civilized negroes. Even the most truthful individuals among these natives generally try to speak from the white man’s point of view, displaying in this great shrewdness, so that any question asked is answered with the desire of pleasing the inquirer. This really ac- L8& [19q USPOOM 841 TIM Fop Auyunty oy jo pre ony Aq S}oU OY} PAVMO} WOALIP puv Poxovs) sp [wUTyUe OY, “punorws oy YOnog OF YsNf sv Os SYOS Aq A[[VONI0A Poysoddns puv JoyjJ0F04 pouoyseys oae ALIwd AO Sou OU, LNONH V WOYS MOVE ‘SSAILVN JYSHVW 388 counts for the many contradictory state- ments as to what would benefit these tribes most and what might be their greatest grievances. The missionary societies in many cases receive special subsidies and are teaching mainly elementary classes in principal centers such as Boma and Stanleyville, some extending facilities for certain branches of industrial train- ing. tion can be introduced only when the facilities of communication lead to a ‘greater centralization of the now widely scattered population. It_is probable that the present war- fare in Central Africa, and especially in the Congo Basin, will prove relatively more disastrous to the black race of these regions than the European war to the different nations engaged therein; in spite of the fact that the belligerents on both sides have given out orders to the native soldiery to direct their princi- pal aim to the destruction of the com- manding white officers, so that it is not remarkable that only very few black men have been killed in the various en- gagements. Neither firearms nor ex- plosives will play havoc among the A really unified system of educa- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL natives, but unfortunately the greater part of the territory in which this war- fare is waged includes the districts most affected by the terrible sleeping-sickness, such as the Uganda, Tanganyika, Kat- anga and Sanga frontiers. Thousands of armed natives will certainly be in- fected before their dispersal at the con- clusion of the war. They will carry this dread disease into nearly every re- gion. Since the tsetse flies, the carriers of the sleeping-sickness germs, are widely distributed they will cause the rapid spread of this plague, for if they have an opportunity to suck the blood of only one infected person they may cause dis- aster by transmitting the disease to others living nearby. Once a region is thor- oughly infected the natives are simply wiped out. This condition is the more hopeless since the usual prophylactic measures are considerably weakened as a result of the war and there is thus prac- tically no hope of checking the scourge; for it needs the most exacting efforts of a well-equipped medical service, which en- tails an enormous expenditure. Most authorities believe that after the conclu- sion of peace there will be no large funds available for the benefit of African colonies. Logo women dancing in thanksgiving for a good harvest REPRODUCTIONS IN DUOTONE OF PHOTOGRAPHS GIVING GLIMPSES OF THE LIFE OF THE NATIVES IN THE CONGO Photographed in Africa between 1909 and Ig15 by Mr. Herbert Lans grap >. > tas bee 7 ) — coe BR Ne Cr ee LOGO HUNTERS OF FARADJE, UELE DISTRICT They use these large bows and arrows for the bigger game pull the string with a twan as antelopes and wild pigs. In war they which startles the foe, causing quickly fitted arrow brings him down him to stop or turn, when a The small bells attached to the bow each ind cate a particularly fine shot; during a hunt the bells are stopped with leaves but at a dance they jingle merrily The man in front is a famous ephant hunter, the most famous in his tribe = } \ puey Jayla uo ‘daap jaaj U9aaIZy SAUITOWOS ‘Jaye BY) PIOAR O} YOO ay} UO Suiouvjeq ‘yods awes ay) ye daap-sapjnoys ISOU[Y BPE O} pasi[go sem Ajnf{ ul YORG Sulwoo ynq ‘ydoI Jo saspli oy!l[wWep ‘Suol ay} Jo auo uo weads sty} passoso Ayied s Suey] “apy Avy uy NOSV43S AYG AHL NI 'SrOVevs YVAN ‘VALV YSAIYN SHL oo Saql) 19yIO puv sieyeyy ‘MeqsuRP{ OY) SAOQYTioU AJaYy) WodJ 9AN}[ND [eLO}BU JO Kea ay} ul yonu paydope puv pause] aavy Aeys s10UM Due ‘peustaeise Ajay Mou ore Ady) d194M ‘IpueyoWoY, a[H1eF a1oOW! ay} OFUL UMOP uepne ou} wooly ABM Jey) Surysnd ‘premyyNos oy) 0} tq : ! t joy | : I S J ta | { pue *SIOLIIEM se snoures ale ,, UIBIN-WreIN ,, 10 ‘apuezy el] sioqgysteu tte uo TBM suryeu Ajpenunuoo o1OM Aanjuao {yuee)oulu ay} jo FTey 4a} P| 894) suuinp VHUVONVIN YVAN ‘SOVTIA S.VOIZNVW NI ..daaO ONIMOHS.. NAWYV3adS SQNVZV MANZIGA, A CHIEF OF THE AZANDE All important Azande chiefs in this region belong to the Avungura, the reigning clan. Most of the Azande believe that after death they will be reincarnated as animals, and the Avungura will then become lions. Manziga is one of the most important native chiefs around Niangara, ruling a large territory. He is unusually intelligent and exhibits much tact and diplomacy in deal- ings with the Belgian administration HEAD WIFE OF CHIEF ABIEMBALI; MAYOGO TRIBE, ITURI DISTRICT Beneath the small, square-topped hat of woven vegetable fiber, she wears a sort of skull-cap adorned with hundreds of dogs’ teeth, mostly canines. The crown of the hat is decorated with the red tail-feathers of the African gray parrot, which bird is often kept in captivity so that the much prized feathers can be pulled out as fast as they grow. The larger hatpin is made entirely of ivory, while the smaller consists of a thin, pointed bone from the forearm of a monkey 3 5%% Sasnoy a4} JO S[[VM ay} UO a}IYM puv youl ‘pai ul pajured susisap ay) Jo Ayuvpnsa1 ayy punossyoeq Ul ION ‘s[eAsajut ye AyUO pasodiayul Sulaq sauo 1a51e| ay) WoIy yeaq a[SUIS & ‘19}U99 ay} UL SWIO}-WO} [[eLUS OM) BY} Aq paonpo.d st astou ay) Jo sO puke sigMUNIp Wadxe Aj[eisadsa ayeut sAoq [[eulg ‘eDvI [IA ay} Ul S9OUNP OJ JUNI] yBaq 0} pasn 10 AouMol v UdAT[Ua 0} Joyo B 1a]Je patswo aie asay |, NLAGONVW SHL AO SNWOL-WOL NS3GQOOM AGNV SNYOH ANOAI \ QOUEP IO JSBIJ JOJ UOWIUINS O} JO ASRI[IA O} ASETI[IA WIJ [VUSIS 0} pasn si} “*Se_puvy Surpraoad [re} pue peay ay) ‘jeuue uv axl] pedeys puv ai} v yo Yun) ay} Wo’ UMaY ‘SuoS yeusis aSiv] v st punosZai0y ay} uy “spsoo yaeq YA punog pu S19}JB.1 94} 0} SuIa}s 11aY4) Aq payouy}e saava] Jey ‘peoig YIM }YS1}-19}eM IpeUL SJOOI ay} puL ‘yseq Jo Sdiys YILM PaaAod aie SasNoy ay) Jo SITE oq]. NONNY YVAN AOVTTIA NLAGONVW V NI 3NSOS DANGA, A PROMINENT MANGBETU CHIEF on The large medal hanging from his neck is the official sign some of his people. and behind are servants him stand two female body de Be His village is shown above Of this he is very proud. of his rank as recognized by the Belgian administration. \ [PARQ DATLU JSOUI pajyudAaid IeM [eqUIzI9}UI Suvadoingy Jo JUBApe JY} 910JOq nq ‘ySa10j dy} YSno1y) speol Jo Sutuado ay} YIM 1943930) ‘Mou paSvainoous Ss! saspuq yons jo Suipjing ay, “sures Aq UaT[OMS SI Ureat]S BY} UBYA JUALINS OY} O} BdUBISISAI JVIIS JO a[qedvo pue soutA Suoss Aq 194}980} punog sajod sapuas AueUl Jo s}sisuod 7] NdVIN YVAN ‘VWIE AHL SSONOV 390INE AAILVN oo sjuaied 194) JO s}rv J9yjO puv oNseWOp oy) Sutures jeloods ynoy A U1v9] ‘Uapies puv oBei[IA ul Addvy pea] uoippiyo osayy, ‘Ajturey Jayjoue oul usyxL) SABMe SI pLyo UBYdJO UB snYyy Suidjay Aq ‘puwe saat] sarje t asuadxa 10 1Oq¥R] A[II1] S@ATOAU! Uaap[Lyo dn SuSuuq pue jnjyuajd st poo “usapliyo Sssayewoy jo esuas ay) Ul ‘ODUOD oy) ul suBYdioO OU aI¥ d10y |, SS9OVTIIA SHL NI AV1d OL YSHLVS ASHL SV NSYQ THOS 3213 1VW 7 ~ a? fi eV a suooulaye ABpUNG UO SUOI}E}S JUIWIUIIAOS Ul UIUIYIOA ATJVU YIM SdzLIOARJ oe puL ‘s}OLISIp poyeredas A[apIM UI UVES aq O} are ‘SUISUIS pu aoII9 ay} apisul Uayeaq sump YIM ‘adj Sunejzos-A][MOJsS ‘V[NOIIO sty} JO saoueq ‘auinsed 10j ul pesinput osye aie Avy} ‘vouvoylusis snoS ai uayo savy saouvp ysnoy J, S3raqveVvsa YVAN ‘NSAWOM 3SQGNVZV AO SONVG INSERT PRINTED BY DE VINNE PRESS, NEW YORK Mexican laborers at work clearing a part of the oldest eastern section of the ruin at San Pedro Viejo. The debris thrown out is a mixture of ashes and lumps of adobe from the fallen walls, in and under which are buried numerous human skeletons; also various implements, pottery, charred maize, and animal bones. View looking northwest ANCIENT CITIES OF NEW MEXICO! By N. C. Nelson ONG before Columbus and his Norse predecessors set foot on American soil there had arisen a peculiar type of town-building people in the southwestern part of the United States. This is a fact which at first strikes the observer as_ paradoxical. To the modern traveler who hastens across New Mexico and Arizona by train or auto, the country seems foreign, being apparently devoid of all the forms of life familiar to him in the East. He sees mostly bare, tawny-colored plains and rockbound mesas, interspersed with black lava-sheets and flying sand.. The beds of nearly all of the tortuous streams winding through the landscape 1 This article was written by Mr. Nelson on November 2, out-of-doors, as he sat on the ruin under process of excavation and watched the men work. It was despatched to New York the day following from Camp Pueblo Pasko, Sante Fé, the expedition’s immediate base of operations in New Mexico. The illustrations in this article and the following are from photographs by Mr. Nelson.— Tue Eprror. are dry and lifeless and he conse- quently deems the whole region a desert waste incapable of supporting human existence. This estimate is only partially correct however, for while the southwest is arid and desert-like it is nevertheless far from infertile. Natural oases exist in this, as in other deserts, and artificial oases can be and have been created and maintained, from early aboriginal days to the present. In this region the ruins indicative of former life number tens of thousands. Not only this but the particular environmental conditions ob- taining here, and which appear so un- favorable, have produced, in a certain sense, the highest type of native American culture that we have within the limits of the United States. In speaking of the Southwest therefore, two outstand- ing factors, viz., aridity and fertility, must always be mentioned in conjunc- tion. These two factors have wrought 389 Excavated rooms in another of the oldest sections of the San Pedro Viejo ruins. the excavations is the ancient cornfield and farther on the Arroyo San Pedro. San Pedro Mountains. View looking east themselves deeply into the life and char- acter of the native people and have largely made them what they are. Town-building in the Southwest had its beginning in the distant past and reached its climax before the arrival of The first native settlers (at least in the northeastern section of the pueblo area) who have left definite traces of themselves, appear to have lived in more or less thickly scattered small houses of one or two rooms. Just what relation these small-house dwellers the white man. bore to later village dwellers is not yet 390 Directly beyond In the distance are the clear, except in so far as their general mode of life appears to have been identi- cal. The question as to what brought about town-building is not easily an- swered. One may be strongly inclined to say that the Indian village (of which there are several types) had its origin in bare economic necessity. This as- sertion cannot however entirely preclude social and defensive considerations, and so, if we are to be on safe ground, we must allow credit to all three factors — eco- nomic, defensive and social. The particular type of pueblo studied during the past three or four years by the Muse- um’s expedition to the Rio Grande valley of New Mexico includes some of the largest an- cient towns known in the Southwest. The ruins vary in size to be sure but several of them contain, or con- tained, from five hun- dred to three thousand five hundred rooms and more. The number of their inhabitants can- not be definitely esti- mated, but judging from the present-day Indian villages, some of which show a popula- tion ranging from one hundred to one thou- sand seven hundred, these ruins must in their day have sheltered even larger groups. These towns-people were not, as in our own modern cities, great masses of unorganized humanity, continually competing for a living at multifa- rious pursuits. They were rather closely or- ganized codperative so- cieties, essentially com- munistic. The Indian’s needs were few but those few Excavated section across a communal building at Pueblo Tunque, showing the full width of six rooms. The walls are of adobe and in good condition, but the rooms do not ordinarily show such regularity in size and arrangement were imperative. In consequence of this gation system, the natural outcome was his activities were limited and corre- codperation. Codperation was similarly spondingly intense. Agriculture was his necessary for purposes of defense against mainstay and good crops generally de- the inroads of less provident neighbors; pended on artificial watering. Under for as there is no reason for supposing such circumstances, one man being un- these permanently settled agriculturists able single-handed to maintain an irri- to have been aggressive warriors, we 268 TINOs SUTYOOT MOTA “SSUTPTINg eqope poesde]joo jo sseur B st Puosoq pu 4YSII oT 04 doVds ONT, ‘SUOT}OOS ySePTO O19 jo 90 UI SUIOOI JO SOlIOS PoIBVAVOXT SNINY OFSIA OYG3d NVS 3HL NI putin . - “ ee i A, a ~ = ae . meet ner oa £68 POPVAVOXO DUO SVM VSOUT FuyIOMO} OY} JO do oY} UO UMA B OTM UOMTpedxe umnesnypyY ol} JO Ssoquiour 10j durpo sv OST@ POAJOS OUO SIT ‘suvrpuy Aq pogqeyUy ooUO OOM [Te puwe AqTROOT OY UT 4STxXo "SOABO YONS Jo sporpun ‘BIN OTUBO[OA 99 Ul OAD PeFIB[US AlTTePYyysy I MAL ypuy Aq 1q J il I b FRAG ‘ H J | I 1} Uy : ILIHOOO*HVAN ‘OFSIA ONFHLOd JO 3SVE JHL LV 3AVO 394 must think that their safety lay in well- organized defense. What more natural therefore, than that they should have codperated in the planning and construc- tion of large houses, capable of sheltering every family or household of the group and especially adapted for defense? Large communal houses are frequently found which must have been two to five or more stories high and which contained several hundred rooms. The majority of the ruined villages contain a series of these large houses, arranged on a quad- rangular plan; this arrangement being also, clearly, an element of defense. In other words the typical village finally evolved in the area under in- vestigation by the Museum is suggestive THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL of our modern apartment-house cities but differed from them in this funda- mental respect; that the Indian built his houses where our streets are and left intervening blocks open, not for the sake of light and air perhaps, but as places for industrial and social activities. That type of village is now practically The guard himself against marauding neigh- extinct. Indian need no longer bors and the government stands ready to help him with his irrigation projects. Schooling has also had its effect on the younger generation. ‘The compact com- munal settlements are breaking up and the Pueblo Indian is returning once more to the life in separate and scattered houses like his ancient forefathers. Excavated room in the San Pedro Viejo ruin, showing two bins and one fireplace — the latter set into the floor; also some of the mealing stones and cooking slabs found in the debris Excavated rooms.at San Pedro Viejo, showing a human burial, also two pottery vessels set into the floor for storage purposes EXPLORATIONS IN THE SOUTHWEST BY THE AMERICAN MUSEUM By Clark Wissler HE Museum began in 1909 a ‘systematic investigation of the native inhabitants in the great romantic area known as the Southwest. Of all localities in the United States this is the richest in archeological re- mains and the most conservative and aboriginal tribes are found within its borders. In the past, enough research had been carried on in the Southwest to make it clear that the magnitude and complexity of the problems to be solved were beyond the limits of the regular resources of the Museum, and that it would be unwise to take up work in that part of the country until substantial outside support could be found. In 1909 Mr. Archer M. Huntington offered to give support to the undertaking. the pology worked out a general plan, in Accordingly, curator of anthro- conformity with which the work has pro- ceeded until now. In the main this plan was to take up the historical problem in the Southwest to determine if possible the relations between the prehistoric and_ historic peoples. It was decided to concentrate the Museum’s energies upon the Upper Rio Grande Valley, because that seemed S05 “oer sates Ped a Excavated rooms in Pueblo Tunque, showing connecting doorways, also a corner bin and a human burial accompanied by two broken pottery vessels Cross-section of an artificial dam at Pueblo San Cristobal. The Tano villages that were not by nature supplied with sufficient water, possessed large reservoirs constructed by throwing a dam across a shallow ravine in order to catch the rain and melting snow 396 Corrugated jar found in the corner of a room in the oldest section of the San Pedro Viejo ruin. Note the solid adobe floor on level with the top of the vessel but dug away except at the rear most likely to have been the chief center of Pueblo culture as we now know it, and because there were to be found there numerous ruins which according to Bandelier, belonged to the immediate ancestors of the living people. The studies of the living races were to in- clude not only the sedentary natives of the Rio Grande Valley, but also the less sedentary people of the same area, in particular the various groups of Apache and the Navajo. It was contemplated that when the historical problem in this particular area had been brought to a fair completion, the work would be extended westward into Arizona so as gradually to unravel the historical puzzle of the Southwest. While this was a very ambitious undertaking, the reports of our several field parties! show that 1 Schedule of Field-Work, 1909-1915: 1909 —Dr. P. E. Goddard first began work among the Apache of Arizona and New Mexico and Dr. H. J. Spinden began his investigation of the Rio Grande Pueblo peoples. Dr. Clark Wissler spent a considerable part of this year and 1910in a general survey of the field to- the end that more systematic detailed plans might be developed. 1910 — Dr. Goddard continued work among the Apache tribes and the Navajo and Dr. Spinden continued the investigation of the Rio Grande pueblos. Miss M. L. Kissell made a special investigation of the textile arts among the Papago and Pima tribes. Excavated room at Pueblo Tunque, showing a small enclosure framed with stone slabs and with- in which a metate is fixed in place for grinding maize 1911 — Dr. Goddard made a special investiga- tion of the Kiowa-Apache; Dr. Spinden con- tinued his work among the Rio Grande pueblos. 1912—- Dr. Wissler made a second general survey of the field especially in connection with the contemplated archeological work by Mr. N. C. Nelson. Mr. Nelson made a general surface survey of the whole Rio Grande Valley from El Paso north, and later in the season began the systematic investigation of pueblos in the Galisteo Basin. This included the thorough excavation of Pueblo Kotyiti, a site whose history was fully known but which had been in ruins for more than two hundred years. Dr. Spinden continued his work among the Rio Grande pueblos. 1913 — Dr. Spinden completed his work among the Rio Grande pueblos. Mr. Nelson continued his archzeological work in the Galisteo Basin. 1914— Dr. Goddard was again investigating the Apache and was accompanied by Mr. Howard McCormick to secure sketches and photographic material for exhibition purposes. Mr. Nelson continued excavations in the Galisteo Basin. 1915 — Professor A. L. Kroeber of the Uni- versity of California volunteered to spend the summer at Zuni Pueblo where he secured a large collection for our exhibition halls and made a special study of Zuni social organization, and in addition gathered data on the ruins in the vicinity 397 398 very substantial progress has been made in the solution of the problem, and that in so far as the Rio Grande Basin is concerned, a definite conclusion has been attained. As the work now stands the ethno- logical survey of the Rio Grande vil- lages (by Dr. Herbert J. Spinden) has been nearly completed. In this work especial attention was given to material culture and art, since these are the two phases of culture that survive and leave their indices in archeological collections. Investigation of the less sedentary peoples (by Dr. Pliny E. Goddard) has from which a chronological or historical classifica- tion of them can be made. Dr. Robert L. Lowie visited the Hopi pueblos to study their social organization and _ relationship systems. The specific problem here is to see whether any im- portant Shoshonean traits of culture still survive among the Hopi, since they are a Shoshone- speaking people. Mr. Nelson again worked in the Galisteo Basin and made surface surveys south- westward to the vicinity of Zuni. In coéperation with the University of Colorado an expedition among the cliff ruins of Southern Colorado was carried on. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL progressed satisfactorily so that we now have fairly complete studies for several divisions of the Apache. It remains for the future to extend the work to the Navajo. The archeological work (by Mr. N. C. Nelson) was begun in 1912 and as far as the northern part of the Rio Grande Valley is concerned is now nearly complete. The net result of this work has been to make clear the chrono- logical relations of the various ruins in the vicinity, which in turn enables us to determine their historic relation to the living peoples. It is planned that the work shall con- tinue more intensively during the next few years than heretofore, since the way is now clear to a chronological classifica- tion of many groups of ruins. Thou- sands of dollars have been contributed to unearth the ancient civilizations of Egypt and the East, while here within our very borders are crumbling ruins of a past that has an intimate national history. relation to our Image of a ‘‘panther,’’ sculptured in volcanic tufa, found lying in the center of a ruined circular shrine on top of Potrero de los Idolos, a short distance west of the Rio Grande and the Tano habitat proper. The shrine is said to be still visited by the Indians of Pueblo Cochiti whose ancestors are supposed to have built the place ANIMALS OF BLOWN GLASS By Herman O. Mueller HE technique of glass-blowing is many sided and allows con- struction of intricate and truth- ful models from life, of animals as well as of plants such as the famed Harvard glass flowers. The invention of the blowpipe at the early date of the first century before Christ, opened up an era for glass-modeling. In the process pre- vious to that time molten glass or “ glass paste” had been molded free-hand over a clay form, which could be easily re- moved after the glass cooled. The blowpipe consists of an iron tube The blast lamp is an essential part of the equipment, but the trained eye and hand of the worker are his most important tools about one and one-half inches long and one and one-fifth inches in diameter, with the aid of which the glass paste is blown to the desired shape. The mechanical tools which the glass-blower uses have always been very simple and relatively unimportant, but the natural instruments — the eye and the hand of the worker — are of the greatest signifi- cance. The most important instrument in glass-blowing is the blast lamp. This is a very simple affair and consists of a brass tube about three-quarters of an inch in diameter and three to four inches long, into which a smaller tube is inserted. The larger tube supplies the gas and the smaller one the air. The relative quantity of gas and air is regu- lated by means of cocks attached to the tubes. A steady air pressure to increase the heat intensity of the flame is created by means of bellows, or still better by a compressed-air pump. In early times an oil lamp was used in this apparatus, and the name “lampen arbeiter’’ was applied to the users to distinguish them from the workers in the glass factories. In some of the European glass-blowing districts the oil lamp is still used for glass-blowing. The gas lamp however is of course far supe- rior. It naturally produces a consider- ably more powerful flame, and _ this makes possible the modeling of much larger objects. Other tools for glass- modeling are forceps of various shapes, scissors, carbon and iron pencils of differ- ent sizes and forms, and files. The forceps are used for handling the separate pieces of glass while being welded; the scissors are used for cutting away the superfluous glass; the carbon and iron 399 400 pencils for widening the openings in glass tubes or finished parts, and the files for cutting glass tubes and rods. No iron molds of any kind are used for preparing glass models in the American Museum, but all parts are shaped free- hand from glass tubes and rods. Colored glass is frequently used for the colored parts, but if the desired tints and shades of glass are not available, plain crystal glass is molded into shape and the colors applied later with the brush or with an air-brush. The process of using glass as a medium for representing animals will be realized Stages illustrating the modeling in glass of the microscopic animal Gonium. These little, single-celled creatures live in colonies of sixteen together, and there may be very many such colonies in a drop of water THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL in some degree if we follow the construc- tion of a glass model —for example, that of a colony of the protozoan Gonium. From a glass tube of about one-half inch diameter, a piece about two inches long is separated by means of the blast lamp, blown in the flame to a cuplike shape and opened out to its whole width at one end. The gas flame is brought into action on the opening and the force of the flame will by itself enlarge the but if the rotated inside the heated area at the top opening; ‘arbon pencil is of the cup this will flange it out more quickly. To imitate the coloring seen in the living Goniwm individual, which seems to shade from a deep green below to a light, almost transparent tint above, hundreds of little green glass particles are welded to the inner surface of the glass cup before it is wid- ened out, until the desired To do this a green-colored glass tints are secured. rod is broken up into small pieces and these are further ground in a mortar to the desired grain. A_ small quantity of these particles is strewn inside the cup which is then rotated in the gas flame until the green parts begin to fuse and ad- here to the wall of the cup. This until the desired intensity of the When the green particles process is repeated color is secured. are applied thickly the color is moreintense; when scat- tered, a lighter tint results. After this the other parts of the animal such as nu- ANIMALS OF BLOWN GLASS cleus, vacuoles and chromatophores, are fashioned separately from small tubes or solid rods of colored glass and fast- ened within the eup. The nucleus is blown from a small green glass tube into a hollow ball about one-quarter inch in diameter. One end is cut open for inserting the nucleolus which has been previously shaped from a green This is of a darker color than the tube used for the the the nucleolus, a short glass stem is attached rod into a little solid bead. nucleus. To solid bead, or by which it is to be supported within the hollow ball. serted into the ball, a little spot of the When the nucleolus is in- shell of this ball is heated and the sup- port of the nucleolus is fused to the wall of this shell. shell is covered with enough hot glass Then the opening of the to close it, and the nucleus is completed. The vacuoles are blown in the same manner as the nucleus, only they are of crystal glass and consist of only one shell. Nucleus and vacuoles have little stems attached to them by which they are fastened in the cup. The supports are placed where they will show least. After all the parts are ready to be inserted in the cup, one after the other, they are held in place by the forceps, a small area of the outer wall of the cup is heated and the supports of the parts are When this is done, the cup is closed by heating the fused to the inner cup wall. glass around the rim opening and draw- ing it together until a rough closing is obtained. The superfluous glass which forms in this manipulation, is pulled ! Radiolaria are tiny, one-celled animals which water and forming with it skeletal structures to protect their soft, jelly-like They are found in both fresh and salt water, particularly the latter, and are usually microscopic, but giants body. among them may attain the size of a pin’s head There may be very many in a single drop of sea and water, especially in the warmer seas exhibit great variety of form they 40] Early stage in the modeling of a simple radio- larian ! away little by little, and the resulting unevenness of the surface is smoothed out by reheating the closed portion and hol- blowing several times through th 402 low handle at the base of the cup. The air blown through the handle expands the heated glass and rounds off the cup. Then two short glass stumps (to which later flagella are to be attached) are the Finally the point at fused _ to top. the lower end where the cup was attached to the original tube, is melted off and a short glass stem to serve later for the concealed = attach- ment is fastened in its place, but a little to one side of the laria harrimani. THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL Model representing a highly magnified specimen of the hydrozoan? Tubu- Welding the fine, threadlike cilia involves great difficulty; a very little careless manipulation will cause the blast lamp to mow down axis. Following this whole areas of them a somewhat larger cup is made and the finished closed cup is inserted into it, the outer cup is in 2 Hydrozoa are stationary, jelly-like animals which attach themselves to fixed or floating ob- jects and feed on the marine organisms which come within reach of their waving tentacles. Many of these creatures are microscopic and many live at- tached to one another in colonies. Many of these latter may be seen in the wharf-pile group at the American Museum Glass model of a jelly fish forming part of the wharf-pile group in the Darwin Hall of the American Museum. The two squids shown in the picture and the colonial hydrozoa attached to the wharf-pile are also fashioned in glass Usually the glass models are made with constant reference to the actual animal under the micro- scope, but in the case of this rare specimen of radiolarian very carefully made drawings, plates and diagrams only were available. A complicated model sometimes takes two or three months to construct Model of another radiolarian, highly magnified. When these minute organisms die their skeletons collect on the sea bottom forming a siliceous ooze. The island of Barbados, an elevation of the sea bottom, consists very largely of this radiolarian ooze and Barbados earth is used by jewellers for grinding and polishing 403 404 its turn closed and rounded off, and to this finally the two whiplike flagelle are attached. These are first drawn out from a glass rod into straight threads about the thickness of a fine needle, and then are curved by passing the glass threads through the flame sev- eral times in different directions. Now the glass stem retained at the lower end of the outside cup for a handle, is cut off short to serve as a concealed sup- port for attachment to the final mount. Models for the other fifteen individuals composing the colony are now con- structed in the same way and arranged on the mount in their proper places — and the model is complete. The model of the radiolarian further illustrates methods of glass-modeling. From a solid glass rod one-quarter inch in diameter, nine smaller rods are fash- ioned each about one-eighth inch in diameter and about four inches long. These are somewhat bent and attached at equal distances to the rim of a per- forated cup previously blown to repre- sent the skeleton of the central capsule. In this way the principal framework of the skeleton is prepared. In order to give it greater stability during the work, slender glass supports are welded tem- porarily to the lower ends of the rods. Then beginning at the central capsule small glass rods are welded horizontally to connect the larger elements of the skeleton, until finally the whole network is completed as shown in the figure of the finished model. Many protozoa are beset with count- less hairs or cilia, and in representing these the welding of such closely set, fine structures on the models involves great difficulty. Even on models represent- THE AMERICAN MUSEUM JOURNAL ing great magnification these cilia are often so fine that a little careless manipu- lation with the blast lamp will cause whole areas of the heated cilia to col-. lapse, mowed down like grass before the mower’s scythe. Although molten glass may be brought into hundreds of different shapes, never- theless the methods of blowing are always practically the same. It is the setting together of the separate parts — however which requires great care and alertness, for when once the parts are wrongly joined they can be corrected only with difficulty or not at all, and it is usually necessary to reconstruct the entire piece from the beginning. In many cases, where several parts are welded together, the finished struc- ture must be thoroughly annealed. This is best done by greatly diminishing the air pressure in the blast lamp, when the glass parts are rotated steadily for some time in the smoke and flame of the weakened jet. This is necessary because in working the glass for a long time, alternately thinner and _ thicker places will occur. These produce an uneven tension and the glass will break if it is not carefully annealed. As mentioned above the methods of glass blowing are very simple. Only skill in the worker is necessary to pro- duce the most diverse shapes from the molten material. In order to attain this skill, years of training for hand and eye are necessary. The calling of the glass-blower so to speak is an inheri- tance from antiquity. The sons grow up to the father’s trade and devote themselves from early youth to the ac- quisition of the all-important feeling and skill. PD eR. f* a * =< ag oe ale +>. “4 ™ Sood dmed S Ww >, * ; si A na . P Qe ST SNe ome a = re es beetle —- aes: > 4 _ a. ff s ‘4 ‘ i tad o, ee a oe < e nam) 3h tala = ah fo. eS Q “pe